american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 1 leveraging technologies to redefine business: technology perspective b. vijaya lakshmi 1 & b. ravi kumar 2 1 department of business management, sri pamavati mahila visvavidyalayam (women’s university)-tirupati,india 2 department of mba-amrita sai institute of science and technology, india correspondence: b. ravi kumar, department of mba amrita sai institute of science and technology, india, email: ravi9949418650@yahoo.com received: september 11, 2018 accepted: september 30, 2018 online published: october 1, 2018 abstract the disruptors in the financial services industry are rewriting the rules, banks used to perform operations traditionally. the financial services industry known for conservative and resistant to change has been challenged by financial technology (fintech) companies that compete by combining digital technology, social media, and big data analytics to replace traditional models with financial products and services enabled by new technology. the present study is an attempt to portray the role of fin techs, challenges etc. keywords: challenges, opportunities, role of fin techs, trends. 1. introduction digital disruption is occurring at every level of the financial services industry. new competitors, new channels, new processes and new consumer expectations are shifting the industry paradigm. banks today are facing rapid and irreversible changes across technology, customer behavior and regulation. the net effect is that the industry’s current shape and operating models are no longer sustainable into the future. the only way to survive in this world of disruption is to stay in sync with these movements and accelerate execution to gain a critical competitive advantage. subsequently, it is imperative for companies to embrace cutting-edge technology if they are to succeed in this fast-paced, agile environment in which every business needs to operate. by 2025, the banking landscape is most likely to include some of today’s popular banking brands in addition to other prominent names. the use of modern day technologies will differentiate successful companies from laggards. fin techs have changed how financial services are structured, provisioned and consumed, but have not successfully established themselves as dominant players. although fin techs have limited success in their approach with in the competitive landscape, they have laid the foundation for future disruption. 2. challenges confronting digital pace there’s been plenty of discussion over digital transformation in the last few years, the challenges of this sort of organizational change have become increasingly evident. digital transformation remains a slippery eel that financial service providers just can’t seem to grab on to. 2.1 legacy technology and infrastructure legacy systems and complex process architectures are limiting banks’ ability to enhance customer experience, impacting their advanced analytics capabilities. in financial services, this often happens because established players are rapidly bringing in new technologies through acquisitions or mergers, creating an architecture that’s a frankenstein project of smaller pieces. it’s not sustainable, and it doesn’t scale well. this is a problem particularly poignant in well-established financial services companies that may have been architecting piecemeal on the backwww.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 2 end for years. building a new, ideal solution from scratch is not a practical option from a fiscal or timeline standpoint. people want to create something new, not pay for problems that are already there. however, it is very necessary for building a robust digital business that will survive long-term. 2.2 supports for change digital transformation is not just about technology, it’s also about business process and organizational changes. organizations that want to be successful with their digital transformations need to start by aligning stakeholders from across all facets of the organization behind the company’s innovation efforts. having the team working off of the same playbook and finding ways to build on technologies being deployed throughout the organization is vital. there are many other challenges currently faced by financial institutions however the in-depth coverage is not the prime focus of this paper. 3. opportunities strategic choices in digital age the digital transformation process of the financial sector involves adapting to the new digital client, reinventing the value proposition (even beyond what is strictly financial) and being able to create new business models based on technologies such as cloud, mobility, big data and analytics. the first major challenge is to keep moving to adopt a true customer centricity strategy that focuses on the customer as the center of all business decisions. there is no alternative since in the digital age the customer has plenty of information at his fingertips and a greater power. this reality requires bank institutions to respond to interaction and service models that the digital customer already has. in this sense, understanding, learning how to interact and meeting the needs of new customers are still key aspects to maintain and ensure competitiveness within the sector. there are four fundamental ways in which digital capabilities can be used by banks to create value. first, digital technologies increase a bank’s connectivity—not just with customers but also with employees and suppliers. this extends from online interactivity and payment solutions to mobile functionality and opportunities to boost bank brands in social media. second, digital draws on big data and advanced analytics to extend and refine decision making. such analytics are being deployed by the most innovative banks in many areas, including sales, product design, pricing and underwriting, and the design of truly amazing customer experiences. a third way that digital creates value is by enabling straight-through processing—that is, automating and digitizing a number of repetitive, finally, digitization is a means of fostering innovation across products and business models. examples of this include social marketing and crowd sourced support, as well as “digitally centered” business models. 4. role of fin techs following years of dominance by large institutions, the industry is undergoing incredible disruption in the form of nimble, tech-savvy startups. well-established financial services companies are increasingly finding themselves confronted with fast-moving fintech disruption. fintech companies are currently very active at trying to disrupt the financial services market. there is a huge funding boom happening in financial services, similar to the one that happened in the 2000s, when the internet was starting to take off and there was a lot of money chasing a lot of different ideas. the digital shift underway in the fintech sector has pushed innovation to a whole new level, across the globe. levering the potential of ai, particularly in the fintech arena, will revolutionize the relationship between humans and machines. and one of the key aspects will be to use cognitive systems to amplify human intelligence. to stay competitive, banks must remain cognizant of numerous implications from within and from outside the financial services industry. in these times of uncertainty, only one thing is certain – change. below are some of the fintech trends that expected to drive future dynamics of the banking ecosystem. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 3 5. trends trend #1: significant investment in digital transformation digital disruption has impacted the financial services industry, and banks are investing heavily in digital transformation. rapid growth in online and mobile banking, as well as empowered customers embracing digital touch points, is further fueling the need for investments in digital transformation 5.1 trend #2: cloud computing banks have been leveraging the cloud to streamline processes, and with a growing confidence in its security, there has been an increase in its uptake. the banking industry has witnessed a huge push toward the cloud, with most banks initiating migration of infrastructure and applications to the cloud. banks generally have been a bit cautious with cloud implementations and tend to stick to implementations in peripheral functions such as erp, hr, and service desks versus core functions (consumer loans, payments, enterprise data) that link to the general ledger, mainly due to risk concerns there is a requirement for banks to have the ability to scale their processing capacity up or down, as per the prevailing market demands trend #3: next-gen chatbots 2017 saw several major banks in india such as hdfc, icici, and yes bank, amongst others, adopting chatbots for supporting customer interactions. currently, these chatbots are said to possess the intelligence of a 2-3-year old. however, as machines do not suffer from physical or learning fatigue, the evolution of a chatbot could be best described as more exponential than linear. so, in 2018, we could expect more chatbots to be deployed with improved quality of interactions, speed of responses, and accuracy in decision-making. trend #4: machine learning banks in 2018 will start adopting new regression models powered by machine learning to deliver better offerings. the brightest data scientists will be involved in this delivery and they will be aided by insights into customer behavior, expectations and responses. these insights will be gained by adopting big data tools and will enable banks to predict customer needs and meet them in a customized manner. trend #5: blockchain several major players have already begun pilot projects to measure the feasibility of adopting blockchain into their ecosystems. niti aayog officials are working on the project named ‘indiachain’, india’s largest blockchain network. it’s aimed to reduce fraud, speed up contract enforcement and increase transparency in banking operations. as blockchain is virtually unhackable due to time stamps that mark a data entry in a distributed ledger, banks will explore options to leverage the power of blockchain to transform backend operations. trend #6: smart workflows with the help of embedded ai aiding the backend operations of banks, they will be able to quickly identify bottlenecks in their operation workflows and bring in significant improvements in process efficiencies. trend #7: automated personalization banks will leverage the power of fintech to personalize the offerings that users see on all their devices. banks will change the appearance of apps based on actual usage. this will make users feel more connected with banks and it will also set the stage for efficient self-service. there will also be advancements in providing pre-filled data to users based on their previous interaction history, preferences and banking habits. trend #8: open banking with initiatives such as unified payments interface (upi) and aadhaar enabled payment system (aeps), banking will become more ‘open’ in 2018. with more apis exposed by banks, the process of carrying out payments and other banking transactions would be greatly quickened as well as simplified. references assessment of disruptive potential in financial services--http://www3.weforum.org/docs/ fintech – challenges and opportunities-https://www.mckinsey.de strategic choices for banks in digital age-https://www.mckinsey.com top 10 fintech trends --https://yourstory.com/2017/11/ retail banking top 10 trends http://www.capgemini.com finserv survey https://www.janeirodigital.com financial trends– https://hcltech.com techvision-2018-tech-trends-report – https://www.accenture.com copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 7 work place related issues in health sector: an empirical study with reference to selected hospitals k. roja 1 , g.d.v.kusuma 2 & b. ravi kumar 3 1 department of mba godavari institute of engineering and technology, india 2 research scholar rayalaseema university, india 3 department of mba amrita sai institute of science and technology, india correspondence: b. ravi kumar, department of mba amrita sai institute of science and technology, india, email: ravi9949418650@yahoo.com received: july 27, 2018 accepted: august 10, 2018 online published: august 7, 2018 abstract the condition of working women in india as well as in the entire world in general is considered to be very distressing. working women in general are subject to discrimination at various levels. the problems and difficulties of working women are multi-dimensional, varying from woman to woman at personal level, and section to section at general level and hence need to be analyzed in depth. there are very serious problems of wages, employment, income and standard of living and sexual harassment among working women. they are not able to get any advantage of social security schemes. due to their ignorance and illiteracy they are not benefited from present welfare schemes. there has indeed been a growing realization that the women workers form an integral part of the process of national development. this has made the government make continuous effort to give women workers a better deal in spheres of work and to recognize their contribution to the socio-economic development of the country. however, what has been done remains a drop in the ocean and the women worker remain exploited and unprotected working hours, conditions of work, wages, types of job and other situation is still not favorable to women workers. women workers have many problems and problems of working women are more serious and server. the present study is an attempt to portray the work related issues in selected hospitals (i.e. gems, kims, rims, gmr). keywords: appearance, hospitals, modern equipment, working hours 1. introduction the statement of the american nurses association for the institute of medicine's committee on work environment for nurses and patient safety reported that the conducive work environment should first enable nurses with decision-making authority and professional autonomy at the point of care delivery and in all areas where decisions related to care delivery are made. second, provide safe and appropriate nurse staffing levels. third, all healthcare facilities and agencies should be required to participate in the collection and external reporting of standardized nursing-sensitive data both to assess the sufficiency of staffing and to quantify the safety and quality of care for consumers and payers. fourth, it is time to actively invest in research around staffing, fatigue, safety, and outcomes. 2. the hospital has modern looking equipment modern hospitals need to address improving the patient experience not as a short term fix but as a long term strategic goal that leads to continued growth. “improving patient satisfaction is a key to future survival,” says irwin press (improving the patient experience in healthcare organizations can lead to higher quality care, more satisfied staff, fewer preventable medical mistakes, fewer malpractice, law suits and an improved financial bottom line. it also can lead to significant competitive growth strategy word of mouth publicity about how a hospital maintains its relationships with patients can either increase visits or send potential patients to another hospital. the manner and environment in which care is delivered, how well a doctor explains the treatment, how a nurse administers medication, the level of noise, all contribute to a patients care experience. thus, to promote change in the www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 8 performance of health care personnel strategies that focus on the environment in which the workers practice must be considered. the main challenge is to continue to maintain or improve the quality of the care provided and maintain, or even expand, the comprehensiveness of health service coverage, while simultaneously introducing changes in care delivery or service mix (michael pfeil 2003) necessitated by reduced budgets (janne d, unham-taylor and joseph z.pinczuk, 2004, john r welch and brain h.kleiner, 1995). table 1. the hospital has modern looking equipment from the above table exhibits about the hospital has modern looking equipment has shown the results of four hospitals are gems, kims, rims, gmr. in the four hospitals strongly disagree are 12.05%, disagree are 15.29%, neutral are 7.05%, agree are 44.70%, strongly agree are 20.88%. in gems the respondents strongly agree are 20%, agree are 41.67%, neutral are 8.33%, disagree are 13.33% and strongly disagree are 16.67%. in kims the respondents strongly agree are 20%, agree with 30%, neutral are 10%, disagree are 18%, and strongly disagree are 22%. in rims the respondents strongly agree are 24%, agree with 56.67%, neutral are 6%, disagree are 10% and strongly disagree are 3.33%. in gmr the respondents strongly agree with 16.25%, agree are 33.75%, neutral 6.25%, disagree are 25% and strongly disagree are 18.75% 3. personnel in the hospitals are neat in appearance "the nursing work environment" iowa nurse reporter states that some of the work related and patients related issues like duration of stay, nursing jobs have been restructured to reduce costs, including substitution of less skilled staff for bedside nurses; more frequent turnover of patients, which increases workload for nurses; high turnover of nursing staff, which results in employees who are less familiar with work processes; shifts longer than 8 hours in both hospitals and nursing homes, both due to then using staff’s desire to increase compensation and have more scheduling flexibility, and as a result of employers mandating overtime; more interruptions and paper work to meet insurance and regulatory requirements, as well as administrative and clinical requirements of health care organizations; an expanding array of treatments, interventions and drug therapies that are being introduced at an ever increasing pace. further, these issues concentrated in terms of work design (what people do) and physical work environments; workforce capacity or how the workforce is deployed; the safety culture of heath care organizations, e.g. amount of vigilance related to detecting and redressing errors; and management practices and leadership. as hospitals face an increasingly complex list of challenges (e.g. aging population, cost pressures, and increasing concerns for patient safety) there is much to be gained by applying the rich knowledge base from the field of operations management to many of these problems. table 2. personnel in hospitals are neat in appearance from the above table exhibits about personnel in hospitals are neat in appearance has shown the results of four hospitals are gems, kims, rims, gmr. in the four hospitals strongly disagree are 12.94%, disagree are 11.76%, neutral are 8.82%, agree are 33.23%, strongly agree are 30.29%. in gems the respondents strongly agree are s. no. opinion public private total gems kims rims gmr f % f % f % f % f % 1. strongly disagree 10 16.67 11 22 5 3.33 15 18.75 41 12.05 2. disagree 8 13.33 9 18 15 10 20 25 52 15.29 3. neutral 5 8.33 5 10 9 6 5 6.25 24 7.05 4. agree 25 41.67 15 30 85 56.6 27 33.75 152 44.70 5. strongly agree 12 20 10 20 36 24 13 16.25 71 20.88 total 60 100 50 100 150 100 80 100 340 100 sl. no. opinion public private total gems kims rims gmr f % f % f % f % f % 1. strongly disagree 10 16.67 07 14 17 11.33 10 12.5 44 12.94 2. disagree 08 13.33 06 12 16 10.67 10 12.5 40 11.96 3. neutral 08 13.33 05 10 11 7.33 06 7.5 30 8.82 4. agree 08 13.33 13 26 69 46 23 28.75 113 33.23 5. strongly agree 26 43.33 19 38 37 24.67 21 26.25 103 30.29 total 60 100 50 100 150 100 80 100 340 100 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 9 43.33%, agree are13.33%, neutral are 13.33%, disagree are 13.3% and strongly disagree are 16.67%. in kims the respondents strongly agree are 38%, agree are 26%, neutral are 10%, disagree are 12%, and strongly disagree are 14%.in rims the respondents strongly agree are 24.67%, agree are 46%, neutral are 7.33%, disagree are 10.67% and strongly disagree are 11.33%. in gmr the respondents strongly agree are 26.25%, agree are 28.75%, neutral 7.5%, disagree are 12.5% and strongly disagree are 12.5%. 4. there is a flexible working hour the employees prefer to work a fixed number of hours in a day /week/ month. this is because the staff would like to spend quality time with their family. however, it is not supported many a time due to heavy work load and shortage of staff. in this situation the staff has to work either over time or longer hours. sometimes the staff does not get a weekly off or weekly holidays. all these issues have an influence on the work life. table 3. there is a flexible working hours from the above table exhibits about there is flexible working hours have shown the results of four hospitals are gems, kims, rims, gmr. in gems the respondents are strongly agree are 26.67%, agree are 30%, neutral are 11.7%, disagree are 28.3% and strongly disagree are 3.3%. in kims the respondents are strongly agree are 44%, agree are 20%, neutral are 10.0%, disagree are 22%, and strongly disagree are 4%. in rims the respondents are strongly agree are 20%, agree are 31.33%, neutral are 11.3%, disagree are 28% and strongly disagree are 2.7%. in gmr the respondents are strongly agree are 40%, agree are 18.75%, neutral 13.8%, disagree are 25% and strongly disagree are 2.5%. 5. the hospitals considers their best at heart organizational learning has been defined as a process of improving organizational actions through better knowledge and understanding. one can say that an organization has learned when it changes its activities in response to new knowledge or insight, typically resulting in improved performance an organization that establishes the environment where the knowledge shared mutually/continued professional development is ensured is called a learning organization. healthcare is one of the most knowledge-intensive industries in any country. so it is essential that work environments support ongoing learning and the continuous development and use of employees’ knowledge. this expands our thinking beyond training programs to consider how skills and knowledge are continuously renewed on the job-what is often called a “learning based work environment: use of skills, knowledge, and abilities; being able to take initiative; and learning new ways to do one’s job better. table 4. the hospital consider their interest best at heart from the above table explicit about the hospital consider their interest best at heart has shown the results of four hospitals are gems, kims, rims, gmr. in the four hospitals strongly disagree are 5.58%, disagree are 12.94%, neutral are 8.82%, agree are 33.23%, strongly agree are 30.29%. in gems the respondents strongly agree are sl. no. opinion public private total gems kims rims gmr f % f % f % f % f % 1. strongly disagree 02 3.3 02 4.0 04 2.7 02 2.5 10 2.94 2. disagree 17 28.3 11 22.0 42 28 20 25 90 26.47 3. neutral 07 11.7 05 10.0 17 11.3 11 13.8 40 11.76 4. agree 18 30 10 20 47 31.33 15 18.75 90 26.47 5. strongly agree 16 26.67 22 44 30 20 32 40 100 29.41 total 60 100 50 100 150 100 80 100 340 100 sl. no. opinion public private total gems kims rims gmr f % f % f % f % f % 1. strongly disagree 0 0 06 12 13 8.67 0 0 19 5.58 2. disagree 10 16.67 08 16 17 11.33 09 11.25 44 12.94 3. neutral 06 10 07 14 10 6.67 05 6.25 28 8.23 4. agree 31 51.67 16 32 75 50 26 32.5 148 43.52 5. strongly agree 12 21.67 13 26 35 23.33 22 27.5 83 24.41 total 60 100 50 100 150 100 80 100 340 100 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 10 21.67%, agree are 51.67%, neutral are 10%, disagree are 16.67% and strongly disagree are nil. in kims the respondents strongly agree are 26%, agreeare32%, neutral are 14%, disagree are 16%, and strongly disagree are 12%. in rims the respondents strongly agree are 23.33 agree are50%, neutral are 6.67%, disagree are 11.33% and strongly disagree are 8.67%. in gmr the respondents strongly agree are 27.5%, agree are 32.5%, neutral are 6.25%, disagree are 11.25% and strongly disagree are nil. 6. when the employee has a problem the hospital shows the sincere interest in solving it in knowledge-based organizations, it is essential for managers to tap into employees’ ideas and provide opportunities for them to contribute to decisions affecting their work lives. involving employees in these ways benefits performance and gives employees a much greater sense of “ownership” about their jobs and the organization’s goals particularly those that concentrate on workplace safety, service improvement, work process improvement, team effectiveness, workplace health promotion, and work-life improvement. table 5. when the employee have a problem the hospital shows a sincere interest in solving it from the above table explicit about the hospital consider their interest best at heart has shown the results of four hospitals are gems, kims, rims, gmr. in the four hospitals strongly disagree are 6.47%, disagree are 26.47%, neutral are 14.70%, agree are 35.29%, strongly agree are 17.64%.in gems the respondents strongly agree are 36.7%, agree are 18.3%, neutral are 15%, disagree are 25% and strongly disagree are 5%. in kims the respondents strongly agree are 38%, agree are16%, neutral are 14%, disagree are 26%, and strongly disagree are 6%. in rims the respondents strongly agree are 35.3%, agree are 18%, neutral are 14%, disagree are 26.7% and strongly disagree are 6%. in gmr the respondents strongly agree are 32.5%, agree are 17.5%, neutral 16.3%, disagree are 27.5% and strongly disagree are 6.3%. 7. the employee have freedom in carrying out their work activities this refers to the number of people reporting to a single manager, supervisor or leader. span of control may be influenced by the degree to which the staff performs similar functions, geographical proximity and the degree to which direction; control and co-ordination are required by staff. it describes the number of ‘layers’ in the hierarchy of an organization and has been the subject of debate among organizational theorists for many years concludes that there is evidence to suggest that span of control influences performance measures that have been found to affect patient outcomes. it also has a moderating effect between leadership and performance, with wider spans of control appearing as detrimental to the relationship between managers and staff. the review argues that there is a need to develop an instrument for measuring span of control. table 6. the employee have freedom in carrying out at work activities from the above table describes about if the employee has freedom in carrying out at work activities has shown the results of four hospitals are gems, kims, rims, gmr. in the four hospitals strongly disagree are 11.76%, disagree are 17.64%, neutral are 5.88%, agree are 38.8%, strongly agree are 25.88%.in gems the respondents sl. no. opinion public private total gems kims rims gmr f % f % f % f % f % 1. strongly disagree 03 05 03 6.0 09 6.0 05 6.3 22 6.47 2. disagree 15 25 13 26 40 26.7 22 27.5 90 26.47 3. neutral 09 15.0 07 14.0 21 14.0 13 16.3 50 14.70 4. agree 22 36.7 19 38.0 53 35.3 26 32.5 120 35.29 5. strongly agree 11 18.3 08 16.0 27 18 14 17.5 60 17.64 total 60 100 50 100 150 100 80 100 340 100 sl. no. opinion public private total gems kims rims gmr f % f % f % f % f % 1. strongly disagree 08 13.3 05 10.0 18 12.0 09 11.3 40 11.76 2. disagree 09 15.0 10 20.0 25 16.7 16 20.0 60 17.64 3. neutral 04 6.7 02 4.0 10 6.7 04 5.0 20 5.88 4. agree 30 50 26 52 55 36.67 21 26.25 132 38.8 5. strongly agree 09 15 7 14 42 28 30 37.5 88 25.88 total 60 100 50 100 150 100 80 100 340 100 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 11 strongly agree are 17%, agree are 50%, neutral are 6.7%, disagree are 15% and strongly disagree are 13.3%. in kims the respondents strongly agree are 14%, agree are 52%, neutral are 4%, disagree are 20%, and strongly disagree are 10%. in rims the respondents strongly agree are 28%, agree are 36.67%, neutral are 6.7%, disagree are 16.7% and strongly disagree are 12%. in gmr the respondents strongly agree are 37.5%, agree are 26.25%, neutral are 5%, disagree are 20% and strongly disagree are 11.3%. 8. does the employee resolve problem in arising their work? the psychosocial work conditions has been defined as psychological work demands, influence and control over work, good contact with and support from supervisor and fellow workers, stimulation from work and opportunities for development. the major psychological conditions which affect the work environment are stress and emotional strain, physical strain, competence, work satisfaction, quality of care etc. the current work load, work distribution, duty scheduling shall create more or less physical strains for the staff. to address all these issues classic and contemporary theories of work motivation, can be taken as support. from social psychological, social cognitive, organizational behavior and nursing literatures, a meta-theoretical model of nurses work motivation can be developed. table 7. does the employee resolve the problem in arising their work? from the above table designs about the employee has to resolve the problem in arising their work has shown the results of four hospitals are gems, kims, rims, gmr. in the four hospitals strongly disagree are 12.94%, disagree are 12.35%, neutral are 8.82%, agree are 44.11%, strongly agree are 21.76%. in gems the respondents are strongly agree are 33.33%, agree are 20%, neutral are 10%, disagree are 11.67% and strongly disagree are 25%.in kims the respondents strongly agree are 20%, agree are 40%, neutral are 10%, disagree are 16%, and strongly disagree are 14%. in rims the respondents strongly agree are 17.33%, agree are 56.67%, neutral are 6%, disagree are 13.33% and strongly disagree are 6.67%. in gmr the respondents strongly agree with 22.5%, agree are 41.25%, neutral 12.5%, disagree are 8.75% and strongly disagree are 15%. references allen d. (2007).what do you do at work? profession building and doing nursing, international nursing review,54, 41-48. ellen g lanser.(2001). a model workplace: creating an effective nursing environment-tips for maximizing nurses’ professional potential. health care executive,16(4). garry gelade and patrick gilbert.(2003).work climate and organizational effectiveness: the application of data envelopment analysis in organizational research.organizational research methods, 6(482), sage publications. graham s lowe. (2006).creating quality work environment: results from the hsaa 2006 work environment survey. the graham lowe group inc. alberta. heather k spence lascbinger, joan almost and donnalene tuer-hodes. (2003). workplace empowerment and magnet hospital characteristics making the link” journal of nursing administration,33(7/8). henna hassan.(2006).nursing staff competence, psychosocial work environment and quality of elderly care: impact of an educational intervention” icn/fnif “the global nursing shortage: priority areas for intervention. international council of nurses, 3, place jean-marteau, 1201 geneva (switzerland). j springett and l.dugdill.(1995).workplace health promotion programmes: towards a framework for evaluation.health education journal,54(88). karin newman and uvanney maylor.(2002).empirical evidence for the nurse satisfaction, quality of care and patient satisfaction chain” ” international journal of healthcare quality assurance, 15(2) , 80-88. sl. no. opinion public private total gems kims rims gmr f % f % f % f % f % 1. strongly disagree 15 25 7 14 10 6.67 12 15 44 12.94 2. disagree 7 11.67 8 16 20 13.33 7 8.75 42 12.35 3. neutral 6 10 5 10 9 6 10 12.5 30 8.82 4. agree 12 20 20 40 85 56.6 33 41.25 150 44.11 5. strongly agree 20 33.33 10 20 26 17.33 18 22.5 74 21.76 total 60 100 50 100 150 100 80 100 340 100 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 12 karol joenks.(2005). inr features.the nursing work environment. iowa nurse reporter. katherine h shaver and linda m lacey. (2003). job and career satisfaction among staff nurses” journal of nursing administration,33 (3). l dugdill and j springett.(1994).evaluation of workplace health promotion: a review. health education journal, 53(337),sage publications. melanie lavoie-tremblay.(2004).creating healthy workplace, a participatory organisational intervention. journal of nursing administration.34(10),469-474. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 2; 2020 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 evaluation of salivary ph changes with probiotic, baking soda and mineral water rinse among individuals with low caries experience lubna farooq baqai dental college, karachi, pakistan e-mail: jlubna85@gmail.com muhammad rashid ahmed baqai medical college, karachi, pakistan e-mail: dr_rashidahmed@hotmail.com muhammad aitmaududdolah khan baqai medical college, karachi, pakistan e-mail: aitmaud@hotmail.com anum mahmood baqai dental college, karachi, pakistan e-mail: dranum@baqai.edu.pk zara khan dr. irfan's institute of clinical orthodontics, pakistan e-mail: zarakhan18@live.com samreen khurram baqai dental college, karachi, pakistan e-mail: sssamreen@hotmail.com mahnoor farzand baqai dental college, karachi, pakistan e-mail: mahnoorfarzand01@gmail.com received: may 01, 2020 accepted: june 1, 2020 online published: june 11, 2020 doi: 10.46281/aijmsr.v6i2.594 url:https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v6i2.594 abstract background: dental caries is a multifactorial disease; it causes decay in tooth and leads to unbearable pain and expensive dental procedures. one of potential risk factor that favor the caries process is acidic ph that a person faces usually after consumption of any food or drinks. various mouth rinses are evaluated to normalize the salivary ph to break the chain of caries pathophysiology. objective: to evaluate the role of probiotic, baking soda and mineral water rinses on ph of saliva. materials and methods: it were a cross sectional study conducted in institute of karachi from -10 january to 25 june 2020. out of 150 participants 60 qualified the inclusion criteria and were explained about the procedure of the study after their agreement they were divided into three groups each group comprised of 20 participants. group 1 was given probiotic mouth rinse; group 2 was given baking soda mouth rinse and in group 3 mineral water rinses were given. they were told to rinse the oral cavity before and after the food consumption and pre and post salivary changes were recorded. mailto:jlubna85@gmail.com mailto:dr_rashidahmed@hotmail.com mailto:aitmaud@hotmail.com https://www.facebook.com/iioco/ mailto:sssamreen@hotmail.com mailto:mahnoorfarzand01@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v6i2.594 copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 2; 2020 2 results: significant (p-value = 0.001) change in salivary ph was observed with baking soda and mineral water rinses however probiotic mouth rinse did not show significant (p-value = 0.22) change. conclusion: rinsing with baking soda and mineral water mouth rinses increased the salivary ph to normal. keywords: dental caries, probiotic, oral hygiene, mineral water, salivary ph. 1. introduction dental caries is a multifactorial and the most prevalent chronic disease in asian region. for dental caries oral hygiene, diet and streptococcus mutans plays an important role for initiation and progression of disease (1)(2). saliva plays an important role in preservation of oral health. salivary components are important in keeping balanced ph, buffering capacity .and proteins that play an important role in maintenance of oral health (3) with the disturbance of salivary ph the the remineralization of tooth surface occurs because of the degree of supersaturation. it has been reported that the demineralization of enamel occurs when environment of oral cavity falls below <5.5 ph (4). to understand this phenomenon strong organic acids such as lactic acid along with other acids helps in promoting acidic environment that causes destruction of the tooth enamel causing dental caries(5). one study reported that plaque, that is exposed by sucrose can decline the ph resulting in acidic environment in oral cavity. proper hygiene in oral cavity and alkaline ph promotes proline-rich proteins, mucins, provide protection to the tooth surface also attract calcium ions and promote remineralization (6)(7). various economical agents have been tried out in combating dental caries. among these, baking soda and probiotics are also being used. the world health organization defined probiotics as living bacteria that are beneficial for human health. these natural microflorae are beneficial and essential for gut wall also maintain or healthy oral environment. various clinical trials have demonstrated that certain gastrointestinal bacteria, have the ability to control the growth of oral microorganisms, including streptococcus mutans (8). probiotic use provides an effective strategy to combat oral disease, including the development of dental caries and periodontal infections (9). baking soda, easily available. economical and safe house hold item being minimal abrasively, and having potent bactericidal property. different microbiological studies proven its bactericidal activity towards oral pathogens (10)(11) baking soda has been shown to be effective in reducing the acidity of oral cavity and reduction in caries lesion by help of remineralization. therefore, its effect on oral remineralization is noteworthy (12) it is suggested by different authors baking soda also helpful in reducing stains and having whitening property (13)(14). the aim if this article is to describe and prove the beneficial role of homemade mouth rinse either by probiotic or by baking soda and to evaluate the salivary ph of both mouth rinses that could be beneficial in long term for remineralization of oral lesions 2. materials and methods the cross-sectional study was done in the institute of karachi, pakistan. after taking ethical clearance from ethical committee 150 dental students were enrolled in the study, before starting the study, informed consent obtained was taken and procedure were explained to each participant. patients having any acute or chronic disease of oral cavity as well as the use of any antibiotics two months that could affect the salivary function or ph, were excluded from the study. the patients having history of any habits like smoking or chewing tobacco were also excluded. by the help of mouth mirror and explorer examined all the subjects. the evaluation of decayed, missing and filled teeth (dmft) were based on the who criteria. dental students of the institution aged range 21–25 years and with dmft < 3 were included in the study. of the 150 voluntary participants, 60 dental students (32 females and 28 males) with a mean age of 23.2 ± 0.71 years were eligible to participate in the study after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria. the participants who fulfilled the inclusion criteria were selected and randomly divided into three groups, with 20 participants in each group. ▪ group a: probiotic group ▪ group b: baking soda group ▪ group c: rinse with mineral water group 2.1 preparation of probiotic mouth rinse probiotic mouth rinse was prepared using commercially available probiotic product. 1 g powder contains lactobacillus acidophilus, lactobacillus rhamnous, bifidobacterium longum. the sachet contents were dissolved in 10 ml of distilled water which was used as a mouth rinse (15). copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 2; 2020 3 2.2 preparation of baking soda mouth rinse rinse solution was prepared by mixing approximately 1g of baking soda in 10ml of distilled water (16). 2.3 salivary ph measurements 2ml volume were collected using navazesh spitting method. after rinse, saliva then spited in a disposable plastic container. saliva was collected in the morning between 9;00 am and 9.30 am to prevent any bias in sample. participants were also informed not to eat or drink anything which can alter the ph of saliva (except water) 1 h before sample collection. gc ph strips were used to check the salivary ph. after dipping for 30 sec the change of colour strip was compared with the code chart given by the manufacturer. group a received probiotic mouth rinse and group b received bakind soda mouth rinse and group c received chlorhexidine mouth rinse which is used as a control group. participants were instructed to swish the 10 ml of mouth rinse for 1 min and salivary ph was recorded at pre and post values measured using gc ph strips. 2.4 statistical analysis data were analyzed using spss version 18. descriptive statistics, such as mean and standard deviation, were calculated. paired t-test was used to compare the ph of saliva in pre and post results. the statistical significance was assessed at p < 0.05. 3. results table 1. 20 participants in different group n= 20 participants in each group group a group b group c mean sd mean sd mean sd pre ph 6.4 ± 0.71 6.2 ± 0.72 6.6 ± 0.70 post ph 6.9 ± 0.75 7.2 ± 0.32 7.0 ± 0.41 p value p < 0.22 p < 0.001 p < 0.001 figure 1. comparison of pre and post results of the group pre ph post ph column1 5.6 5.8 6 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 7.2 group a group b group c comparison of pre and post results of the groups pre ph post ph copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 2; 2020 4 4. discussion oral diseases including dental caries, periodontitis and halitosis usually occur when there is an imbalance between bacterial growth and host immune system (1). to maintain the balance in offer mentioned saliva plays major role in the favor of host and provide a homeostatic environment for oral tissues as well as for normal flora (2). the changes in saliva leads to initiation of disease pathophysiology that ultimately harms the patient (3). in our study three different oral rinses were used to identify the differences in ph of saliva before and after the use of the regimen. however, we do not find significant results with probiotic mouth rinse though the salivary ph was increased to neutral level but it was not statistically significant when compared with baking soda mouth rinse. the mentioned results are similar with the findings of kamalaksharappa et al. in his study he also found the rise in ph after probiotic mouth rinse use in children, however the finding was not statistically significant (4). in another study a different protocol was highlighted in which the research makes the participants to apply the probiotic (in paste form) directly on teeth. the results in initial weeks were not significant nevertheless after 4th application of probiotic on 14th day he found a significant rise in ph of saliva (5). the mentioned study highlighted that the long-term application of probiotic may significantly alter the ph in favor of host besides short term application i.e. rinsing that one can perform in few seconds. study by byju et., al. reveled that continuous use of probiotic decreased the colonies of streptococcus mutans but when the salivary ph was compared the result was in favor of our study he also noticed the non-significant rise in salivary ph (6). koopaie et., al used normal and probiotic cakes in his study to identify the difference in salivary ph and streptococcus mutans count, he reported that there was significant decrease in colonies of smutans besides he also had the same finding regarding salivary ph as ours furthermore, he mentioned that the both cakes i.e. normal and probiotic reduced the ph of saliva for some time after eating (7). regarding baking soda our study found promising results immediately after the rinsing and we observed significant (pvalue = 0.001) beneficial change in salivary ph. the parallel findings were highlighted in a meta-analysis in which it was mentioned that after sugar consumption the baking soda significantly reversed salivary ph to normal(8). in another study acidic drinks (orange juice, sugar syrups) were given to participants and after that ph changes were noted in saliva, the study demonstrated the findings regarding baking soda similar to our study(9). ballal et., al highlighted the effects of using bicarbonated sugar free gums on salivary ph, the researcher found significant increase in ph of saliva in participants who used sugar free bicorbonated chewing gums when compared with the participants who used sugar free chewing gums (10). the role of different mouth rinses (homemade and herbal) has been evaluated by different researchers to provide a better preventive regimen with good safety profile to general public, however no any homemade or herbal product is marketed yet and clinical trial on larger population are required to obtain the good results and to identify the potential side effects of these mouth rinses after long term use. 5. conclusion rinsing with baking soda and mineral water mouth rinses increased the salivary ph to normal. probiotic mouth rinses did not show a significant effect on salivary ph. conflict of interest none references andrade, m. r. t. c., curvelo, j. a. d. r., de moraes, d. c., portela, m., ferreira‐pereira, a., soares, r. m. d. a., & primo, l. g. (2018). salivary ph and colonization by oral candida in children and adolescents submitted to haemodialysis. international journal of paediatric dentistry, 28(5), 533-539. byju, m., mala, k., shetty, n., shenoy, r., & baliga, s. (2019). effficacy of probiotic drink containing lactobacillus casei shirota strain on factors affecting dental caries. indian journal of public health research & development, 10(3), 36-41. ballal, r. k., bhat, s. s., ramdas, s. s., & ballal, s. (2016). effect of chewing bicarbonate-containing sugar-free gum on the salivary ph: an in vivo study. international journal of clinical pediatric dentistry, 9(1), 35. baliga, s., muglikar, s., & kale, r. (2013). salivary ph: a diagnostic biomarker. journal of indian society of periodontology, 17(4), 461. bosma, m. l., milleman, k. r., akwagyiram, i., targett, d., & milleman, j. l. (2018). a randomised controlled trial to evaluate the plaque removal efficacy of sodium bicarbonate dentifrices in a single brushing clinical model. bdj open, 4(1), 1-5. chandel, s., khan, m. a., singh, n., agrawal, a., & khare, v. (2017). the effect of sodium bicarbonate oral rinse on salivary ph and oral microflora: a prospective cohort study. national journal of maxillofacial surgery, 8(2), 106. coqueiro, a. y., bonvini, a., raizel, r., tirapegui, j., & rogero, m. m. (2018). probiotic supplementation in dental caries: is it possible to replace conventional treatment?. nutrire, 43(1), 6. copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 2; 2020 5 ciancio, s. g. (2017). baking soda dentifrices and oral health. the journal of the american dental association, 148(11), s1s3. dehghan, m., tantbirojn, d., kymer‐davis, e., stewart, c. w., zhang, y. h., versluis, a., & garcia‐godoy, f. (2017). neutralizing salivary ph by mouthwashes after an acidic challenge. journal of investigative and clinical dentistry, 8(2), e12198. fernando, s., tadakamadla, s. k., bakr, m., scuffham, p. a., & johnson, n. w. (2019). indicators of risk for dental caries in children: a holistic approach. jdr clinical & translational research, 4(4), 333-341. ferrer, m. d., lópez-lópez, a., nicolescu, t., salavert, a., méndez, i., cuñé, j., ... & mira, a. (2020). a pilot study to assess oral colonization and ph buffering by the probiotic streptococcus dentisani under different dosing regimes. odontology, 108(2), 180-187. hegde, m. n., hegde, n. d., ashok, a., & shetty, s. (2013). evaluation of total antioxidant capacity of saliva and serum in caries-free and caries-active adults: an in-vivo study. indian journal of dental research, 24(2), 164. hegde, m. n., attavar, s. h., shetty, n., hegde, n. d., & hegde, n. n. (2019). saliva as a biomarker for dental caries: a systematic review. journal of conservative dentistry: jcd, 22(1), 2. kamalaksharappa, s. k., rai, r., babaji, p., & pradeep, m. c. (2018). efficacy of probiotic and green tea mouthrinse on salivary ph. journal of indian society of pedodontics and preventive dentistry, 36(3), 279. koopaie, m., fatahzadeh, m., jahangir, s., & bakhtiari, r. (2019). comparison of the effect of regular and probiotic cake (bacillus coagulans) on salivary ph and streptococcus mutans count. dental and medical problems, 56(1), 33-38. maher, r., khan, a., rahimtoola, s., & bratthall, d. (1992). prevalence of mutans streptococci in dental caries in pakistani children. journal-pakistan medical association, 42, 213-213. monea, m., vlad, r., & stoica, a. (2018). analysis of salivary level of alpha-amylase as a risk factor for dental caries. acta medica transilvanica, 23(1). nazir, m. a., alghamdi, l., alkadi, m., albeajan, n., alrashoudi, l., & alhussan, m. (2018). the burden of diabetes, its oral complications and their prevention and management. open access maced j med sci. 2018 aug 20; 6 (8): 1545-1553. petersson, g. h., fure, s., twetman, s., & bratthall, d. (2004). comparing caries risk factors and risk profiles between children and elderly. swedish dental journal, 28(3), 119-128. sabharwal, a., & scannapieco, f. a. (2017). baking soda dentifrice and periodontal health: a review of the literature. the journal of the american dental association, 148(11), s15-s19. taller, s. h. (1993). the effect of baking soda/hydrogen peroxide dentifrice (mentadent) and a 0.12 percent chlorhexidine gluconate mouthrinse (peridex) in reducing gingival bleeding. journal of the new jersey dental association, 64(4), 235. zero, d. t. (2017). evidence for biofilm acid neutralization by baking soda. the journal of the american dental association, 148(11), s10-s14. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 research article published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 a study on approaches for measuring outstanding stress basavaraj kawdi mechanical engineering department bkit bhalki ,india e-mail:bgkawdi@gmail.com vrushabha c m gogte institute of technology belagavi ,india e-mail:vcmolkeri114@gmail.com abstract enduring stresses are one of the key factors in shaping the engineering belongings of parts and structural constituents. this fact plays a momentous role, for example, in fatigue of welded elements. many different procedures and distinctions of means for measuring residual stresses have been advanced to ensemble various specimen geometries and measurement purposes. the several specific methods have grew over several decades and their practical applications have greatly benefited from the development of complementary technologies, notably in material cutting, full-field deformation measurement techniques, numerical methods and computing power. these matching technologies have stimulated advances not only in measurement accuracy and reliability, but also in range of application; much greater detail in residual stresses measurement is now available. the purpose of this review is to classify the different methods and to provide an overview of some of the recent advances in the area of residual stress measurement and act as a summary document to aid technique selection between destructive, semi destructive and nondestructive techniques for residual stresses. for each method scope, physical limitation, advantages and disadvantages are summarized. in the end this paper indicates some promising directions for future developments. keywords: residual stresses, destructive methods, semi critical methods, non-destructive methods. 1. introduction the engineering properties of materials and structural components, notably fatigue life, distortion, dimensional stability, corrosion resistance, and brittle fracture can be considerably influenced by residual stresses. such effects usually bring to considerable expenditure in repairs and restoration of parts, equipment, and structures. accordingly, residual stresses analysis is a compulsory stage in the design of parts and structural elements and in the estimation of their reliability under real service conditions. systematic studies had shown that, for instance, welding residual stresses might lead to a drastic reduction in the fatigue strength of welded elements. in multicycle fatigue (n > 106 cycles), the effect of residual stresses can be comparable to the effect of stress concentration. surprisingly significant are the effect of residual stresses on the fatigue life of welded elements as regards relieving harmful tensile residual stresses and introducing beneficial compressive residual stresses in the weld toe zones. currently, the residual stresses are one of the main factors determining the engineering properties of materials, pats, and welded elements, and should be taken into account during the design and manufacturing of different products. although successful progress has been achieved in the development of techniques for residual stresses management, considerable effort is still required to develop efficient and cost-effective methods of residual stress measurement and analysis as well as technologies for the beneficial redistribution of residual stresses. residual stresses can be defined as the stresses that remain within a material or body after manufacture and material processing in the absence of external forces or thermal gradients. they can also be produced by service loading, leading to inhomogeneous plastic deformation in the part or specimen. residual stresses are generated during most manufacturing processes involving material deformation, heat treatment, machining or processing operations that transform the shape or change the properties of a material. they are originated from a number of sources and can be present in the unprocessed raw material, introduced during manufacturing or arise from in-service loading. classification of residual stress measuring techniques during the past years many different methods for measuring copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 2 the residual stresses in different types of components have been developed. techniques to measure type i (except for techniques such as diffraction, which selectively sample “special” grains, i.e. those correctly oriented for diffraction) residual stresses may be classified as either destructive or semi destructive or non-destructive as shown in figure 1. the destructive and semi destructive techniques are dependent on inferring the original stress from the displacement incurred by completely or partially relieving the stress by removing material. these methods rely on the measurement of deformations due to the release of residual stresses upon removal of material from the specimen. sectioning, contour, hole drilling, ring-core and deep-hole are the principals destructive and semi destructive techniques used to measure residual stresses in structural members. non-destructive methods include x-ray or neutron diffraction, ultrasonic methods and magnetic methods. these techniques usually measure some parameter that is related to the stress. they for the assessment of fatigue-related damage become increasingly important since many structural components, e.g. bridges, aircraft structures or offshore platforms, need to be inspected periodically to prevent major damage or even failure. for inspection in the field or on large constructions, small, mobile and easy to handle devices are essential. additionally, cost minimizing requires short measuring times without timeconsuming preparation of the part prior to the test. figure 1: residual stresses measuring techniques 2. hole-drilling technique the hole-drilling method, which is relatively simple and fast, is one of the most popularly used semi destructive methods of residual stress evaluation which can provide the measurement of residual stress distribution across the thickness in magnitude, direction and sense. it has the advantages of good accuracy and reliability, standardized test procedures, and convenient practical implementation. the damage caused to the specimen is localized to the small, drilled hole, and is often tolerable or repairable. the principle involves introduction of a small hole (of about 1.8 mm diameter and up to about 2.0 mm deep) at the location where residual stresses are to be measured. figure 2: schematic illustrations of the application of hole-drilling methods for residual stress measurement copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 3 the hole-drilling method is, in comparison to other residual stresses measuring techniques, a common, cheap, fast and popular method. it is applicable in general to all groups of materials. firstly, the materials should be isotropic and the elastic parameters should be known. secondly, the analyzed materials should be machine-able, i.e. the boring of the hole should not prejudice the measured strain. the method determines macro residual stresses. most of in-depth evaluation algorithms provide a solution to determine an elastic plane stress state. however, to avoid local yielding because of the stress concentration due to the hole, the maximal magnitude of measured residual stress should not exceed 60-70% of local yield stress. the local resolution of the method is dependent on the equipment used. laterally, the resolution ranges in the area of produced hole diameter. the minimal analyzable depth of the hole does not exceed 0.5 x d0 (hole diameter). 3. deep hole method the deep hole method is a further variant procedure that combines elements of both the hole-drilling and ring-core methods. in the deep-hole method, a hole is first drilled through the thickness of the component. the diameter of the hole is measured accurately and then a core of material around the hole is trepanned out, relaxing the residual stresses in the core. the diameter of the hole is re-measured allowing finally the residual stresses to be calculated from the change in diameter of the hole. the deep-hole method is classified as a semi destructive method of residual stresses measurement since although a hole is left in the component, the diameter of the hole can be quite small and could coincide with a hole that needs to be machined subsequently. the main feature of the method is that it enables the measurement of deep interior stresses. the specimens can be quite large, for example, steel and aluminum castings weighing several tons. sectioning technique sectioning technique is a destructive method that relies on the measurement of deformation due to the release of residual stress upon removal of material from the specimen. it has been used extensively to analyze residual stresses in structural carbon steel, aluminum and stainless steel sections. the sectioning method consists in making a cut on an instrumented plate in order to release the residual stresses that were present on the cutting line. for this, the cutting process used should not introduce plasticity or heat, so that the original residual stress can be measured without the influence of plasticity effects on the cutting planes’ surface. the strains released during the cutting process are generally measured using electrical or mechanical strain gauges. in general, the strips of material released by the sectioning process may exhibit both axial deformation and curvature, corresponding to membrane and bending (through thickness) residual stresses, respectively. 4. contour method the contour method provides higher spatial resolution, while the sectioning technique is easier to apply since almost no calculations are needed. the method has found a number of applications: for example, carbon steel tee-join welded, quenched and impacted thick plates, cold-expanded hole and aluminum alloy forging. it offers improvements over conventional relaxation methods of measuring residual stresses. the theory of the contour method is based on a variation of bueckners elastic superposition principle. the method was first published in detail in 2001, where the contour method was numerically verified by 2d finite element (fe) simulation and experimentally validated on a bent steel beam having a known residual stress distribution. the potential of the contour method was later demonstrated on a 12-pass tig bs4360 steel weld to measure a complex 2d stress variation across the weld section. the result obtained from the contour method was in excellent quantitative agreement with the outcome measured by a completely different technique non-destructive neutron diffraction. a high stress component, over the initial yield stress of the material, was measured in that case. 5. x-ray diffraction method the x-ray method is a non-destructive technique for the measurement of residual stresses on the surface of materials. x-ray diffraction techniques exploit the fact that when a metal is under stress, applied or residual stress, the resulting elastic strains cause the atomic planes in the metallic crystal structure to change their spacings. x-ray diffraction can directly measure this inter-planar atomic spacing; from this quantity, the total stress on the metal can then be obtained. since metals are composed of atoms arranged in a regular threedimensional array to form a crystal, most metal components of practical concern consist of many tiny crystallites (grains), randomly oriented with respect to their crystalline arrangement and fused together to make a bulk solid. when such a polycrystalline metal is placed under stress, elastic strains are produced in the crystal lattice of the individual crystallites. in other words, an externally applied stress or one residual within the material, when bellow the yield strength of the material, is taken up by inter-atomic strains in the crystals by knowing the elastic constants of the material and assuming that stress is proportional to strain, a reasonable assumption for most metals and alloys of practical concern. moreover, in the case of a nanostructured material, it is not easy to use diffraction techniques because of the copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 4 difficulty involved in analyzing the shape of the nanomaterial diffraction peak. it is difficult to pinpoint the peak location or to determine the peak shift in order to study the macroscopic stress due to severe plastic deformation for many materials. for this reason, mechanical methods are the only techniques known for the study of residual stresses in all kinds of surface nanostructured materials without the effect of nanostructure. the speed of measurement depends on a number of factors, including the type of material being examined, the xray source, and the degree of accuracy required. the gauge volume is a trade-off between the need for spatial resolution within the expected strain field and the time available for data collection. with careful selection of the x-ray source and test set-up speed of measurement can be minimized. new detector technology has also greatly reduced the measurement time. 6. neutron diffraction method neutron diffractions method is very similar to the x-ray method as it relies on elastic deformations within a polycrystalline material that cause changes in the spacing of the lattice planes from their stress-free condition. the application of neutron diffraction in solving engineering relevant problems has become widespread over the past two decades. the advantage of the neutron diffraction methods in comparison with the x-ray technique is its lager penetration depth. in fact the x-ray diffraction technique has limits in measuring residual stresses through the thickness of a welded structure. on the other hand, a neutron is able to penetrate a few centimeters into the inside of a material, thus it can be applied widely to evaluate an internal residual stress of materials. it enables the measurement of residual stresses at near-surface depths around 0.2mm down to bulk measurement of up to 100mm in aluminum or 25 mm in steel. 7. conclusion the non-destructive residual stresses measurement methods have the obvious advantage of specimen preservation, and they are particularly useful for production quality control and for measurement of valuable specimens. however, these methods commonly require detailed calibrations on representative specimen material to give required computational data. the diffraction methods such as x-ray and neutron diffraction can be applied for the polycrystalline and fine grained materials as well as metallic or ceramic. however, they cannot be used for large welds because the limited space available on most beam lines or x-ray diffractometers or for nanostructured materials because of the difficulty involved in analyzing the shape of the nanomaterial diffraction peak. the advantage of the neutron diffraction method in comparison with the x-ray technique is its lager penetration depth as x-ray method is limited for the measurement of residual stresses on the surface of materials. however, the relative cost of application of neutron diffraction method, is much higher, mainly because of the equipment cost and it is not recommended to be used for routine process quality control in engineering applications. references anawa em, olabi ag.(2008). control of welding residual stress for dissimilar laser welded materials. journal of materials processing technology,204:22-33. jlu. 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(2013).origin, measurements and evaluation of residual stresses. residual stresses in science and technology, 3-26. olabi ag, hashmi msj.(1996). stress relief procedures for low carbon steel welded components, journal of materials processing technology, 56: 552-562. totten g. (2012).handbook on residual stress. sem, bethel .1:417. isbn: 978-0871707291 trufyakov v, mikheev p, kudryavtsev y. (2009).fatigue strength of welded structures. london: harwood academic, 100. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 3, no. 1; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 a review on design of integrated healthcare model through performance excellence methodologies srideepti ramayanam 1 , g.v.r.k acharayulu 2 & v.m. prasad 3 1 research scholar, sms/jntuh, india 2 professor of management sciences, scm, hyderabad central university, india 3 professor of management, al yamamah university, riyadh, ksa correspondence: srideepti ramayanam, research scholar, sms/jntuh, india, corresponding author, tel: +919160099001, email: srideeptiramayanam@gmail.com received: september 17, 2018 accepted: september 23, 2018 online published: october 11, 2018 abstract cost based care is evolving as a resolution to address increasing healthcare costs, and to address the problem of clinical inefficiencies. ‘cost based care’ therefore is designed to be patient centric. while ‘cost based care’ helps in addressing the challenge of rising costs and making the care more affordable, it comes with its own set of challenges for providers as they are paid for better patient outcomes in an evidence based way. in the regimen of ‘cost based care’ providers are grappling with reduced reimbursements. providers are also required to track wide variety of measures to make the care more evidence based. operations transformation for a healthcare systems means that it makes the processes, efficient, flexible and innovative to suit patient centric treatment models. to achieve this transformation by excluding wastes out of system, make the processes much more efficient, implementation of digital systems across the value chain of the hospital have become the area of focus. shared services alteration is a subclass of administrational transformation. it is has a lot of potential to smoke out costs, making operational processes much more efficient by rationalizing functions, like human resources, pathology, radiology, it and supply chain services at hospitals. administrational transformation aims to flush out costs, bring transformation in revenue cycle, and focus on patient centric treatment modules. by implementing data visualization dashboards across the services would enable transparency and trust for patients. keywords: unaffordable healthcare services, interoperability, technology in healthcare services, data visualization dashboards. 1. introduction costs of healthcare organizations across the globe are escalating faster than the gdp growth making the healthcare unreasonable. healthcare and life sciences organizations are committed to enhancing the lives and well-being of people around the world, while people are hoping to receive excellent service quality tend to prefer private hospitals or even travel across globe for better quality and cost-effective treatments. quality of services has become a pivotal point in the healthcare industries today. hospitals and healthcare systems continue to produce services that vary in quality, leading to inefficient processes and outputs, hence resulting in poor customer satisfaction. healthcare organizations operating in the public sectors are experiencing increasingly low satisfaction from patients regarding the quality of services provided. due to the result, healthcare administrators face the challenge to advance the www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 3, no. 1; 2018 2 quality of services in their organizations. based on the survey performed at different organizations, the outcome reflects that the teams are not able to keep its cost comparable, acceptable and approachable to many patients & are unable to cope up with the denial of claims by the insurance companies. there is a need to re-iterate on improving health outcomes by providing digital technologies & business transformation solutions to achieve patient satisfaction. the proposed integrated model demonstrates building domain knowledge, and expertise in business, process, and management would enable healthcare companies to focus on costs & achieve process efficiencies. 2. literature review a review of 490 articles across ajmc, oxford, ncbi, essential hospitals, pcpcc journal publications has led to discussions with multiple stakeholders across industries. the existing system of health care quality improvement has increased the cost of medical treatment. to balance the quality and cost in the corporate sectors and to make the world class services available to every citizen has become a very challenging task to the present day administrators. the uncovered citizens are unable to avail of these medical facilities and crave for medical help. to achieve patient satisfaction by observing the four elements like patient's readiness, speed, instructions, coordination of arrangements. other elements may include the inadequate treatment, discharge process, limited choice, post-acute care arrangements, transport issues, billing details and responsibility of discharge. to have effective hospital management the capacity planning, reviewing performances and action steps are to be managed appropriately. 3. methodology empirical research was used to determine patients' perceptions and expectations of service quality. moreover, data from different healthcare systems will be gathered to understand the variation in cost & quality of services rendered.  lean six sigma concepts & methodologies will be used to evaluate and improve the processes.  the lean concept of identifying the non-value adding steps are in the entire operations of health care systems that are contributing to additional costs are studied in detail by performing a value stream mapping of each process step that is critical to quality.  dmadv approach of six sigma methodology was used in the present study  finally, the proposed model was created using multi-disciplinary teams 4. findings and discussions fig.1. the outcome of reviewed proposed design of integrated healthcare model through performance excellence methodologies this model (fig.1) has been articulated based on the local survey conducted across healthcare organizations. this model is a comprehensive approach that can lower costs, organise active processes, reduce errors in internal operations, and enhance care coordination. this model designed to results in better revenues, decrease costs and eliminates activities that are not adding value to these systems. the healthcare institutions are progressively making affords to move towards patient-focused care delivery models. as a result, issues like patient engagement, care orchestration, and patient satisfaction are now major focus areas for transformation leaders. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 3, no. 1; 2018 3 this model iterates the use of integrated population statistics, patient interactions, resource utilization, care orchestration and organization performance measurement. in each of this bucket, the healthcare systems need to identify and target the inhabitants, stratify and capture the risk. once we accomplish, the receivers of care need to be engaged; then at each level, the processes need to be validated to remove possible repetitive tasks. by removing these repetitive tasks will then result in coordination with the payers and receivers of care to measure, map and articulate outcomes. once the outcome achieved, these need to be fed back to the population statistics to create a benchmark of performance across the provider's space. a quarterly review of these metrics will result in achieving ‘performance-based care or the integrated care model.' the proposed model would be providing services that include but not limited to:  effective capture of medical history will eventually reduce patient wait times  reduced manual data entry effort would lead to improved staff productivity resulting in reduced risk of inefficiencies  it would allow clinicians to focus on patient care and coordination for reduced length of stay at hospitals  this model would lower the total cost of healthcare as each of the providers would avoid costly point-topoint integrations with referring physician practices  timely and easy access to lab reports and trends ensured that referring physicians continue to drive patient traffic based on clinical condition  instantaneous monitoring of operational metrics at labs enabled continuous improvement in business outcomes  technology offers a unique amalgam of solutions to help the organizations to enhance the patient experience, drive out prices and to improve business agility however, lack of interoperability podium among healthcare systems and limited access to consolidated patient records are significant uphill tasks for moving ahead this model. additionally, the healthcare industry lacks secure and intuitive communication and collaborative or interoperable tools. generally, the clinical staff is overwhelmed by technology rather than focusing on what's essential in patient care. another major contributing factor to this problem is that all these capabilities come at great capital and time investment. these are further decelerating the pace of this change. nevertheless, in order to withstand transformations over time, integrated care models require actions that extend from organizational, functional, professional and service delivery levels up to transformations on system level addressing each area of operational management. for instance, the adoption of multidisciplinary styles goes beyond the organization of providers vs. payers and requires alignment of healthcare policies at the technology and systemlevel. given the performance-based evidence system, it becomes indistinct that establishing integrated care is a multi-layered and long-term process involving high capital investments. 5. conclusion the literature reviewed during the research provides evidence that integrated care models are introduced and implemented as a change management strategy. reviewed literature also show affluence of implemented and evaluated integrated care models that range from individual, disease-specific models and models that embrace entire masses. integrated healthcare delivery is a framework to reinforce people-centered health care providers towards the advancement of a comprehensive delivery mechanism of quality services across the course. the proposed design needs modification according to the multidimensional needs of the receivers of care and the individuals that provide and coordinate multidisciplinary team across of providers/payers space working across settings and levels of care. it should be thoroughly managed to ensure optimal outcomes and the appropriate use of resources based on the best available facts, with continuous feedback mechanisms to improve performance and to hold upstream causes of illness and to promote well-being performance improvement methodologies. healthcare organization’s covenant with the industry challenges, regulatory concerns, safety and comfort of care receivers. these challenges can be addressed by integrating technology into healthcare practice and uniquely position themselves to orchestrate care that is ‘performance-based care or the integrated care model'. there is remarkable consistency in the evidence for some of the key areas of such a strategy. the model further emphasizes the many different generic components described above observed as core components of ‘performance-based care or the integrated care model'. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 3, no. 1; 2018 4 acknowledgements the authors wish to thank the healthcare organizations; its employees and the patients who have contributed to this research and model creation references brett e. trusko, carolyn pexton, jim harrington, praveen gupta. improving healthcare quality and cost with 6σ. publisher: financial times press. robert barry, phd, amy c. murcko, aprn, clifford e. brubaker, phd co. the 6σ book for healthcare:improving outcomes by reducing errorspublisher: american society for quality. donald w. benbow & t. m. kubiak (2 edition (january 7, 2009)). the certified 6σ black belt handbook. publisher: asq quality press; viswadeep katri (2009). benchmark 6σ green belt handbook. publisher benchmark thomas m. cappels (1999). financially focused quality. publisher crc press llc sai kumar (2011). qai 6σ black belt handbook. publisher qai michael l. george (author), david rowlands (author), bill kastle (author) (november 17, 2003). what is lean six sigma. publisher: mcgraw-hill education; 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(1999). “the effects of reengineering: fad or competitive factor?” journal of healthcare management 44 (6): 456 who regional office for europe. health 2020: a european policy framework is supporting action across government and society for health and well-being. copenhagen: who regional office for europe; 2013 singh d, ham c (2006). improving care for people with long-term conditions: a review of uk and international frameworks. health services management centre: birmingham and nhs institute for innovation and improvement; agency for healthcare research and quality. defining the pcmh | pcmh resource center [website] (https://pcmh.ahrq.gov/page/defining-pcmh) shaw s, rosen r, rumbold b (2011). what is integrated care? an overview of integrated care in nhs. nuffield trust; hébert r, durand pj, dubuc n, tourigny a (2003). prisma: a new model of integrated service delivery for the frail older people in canada. int j integr care.; 3(1) kodner dl, spreeuwenberg c (2002). integrated care: meaning, logic, applications, and implications – a discussion paper. int j integr care. nov 14; 2 (4) copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 research article published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 5 endometriosis locations and coexistence with other uterine conditions in a bulgarian sample of patients d. serteva medical faculty department of general and clinical pathology medical university – plovdiv, bulgaria e. poryazova medical faculty department of general and clinical pathology medical university – plovdiv, bulgaria ts. velikova medical faculty department of clinical immunology university hospital lozenetz–sofia, bulgaria e-mail: deniserteva@gmail.com gsm: +359883305922 abstract endometriosis is a non-tumor, estrogen-dependent, chronic gynecological disease, which is characterized by the presence of endometrial glands and stroma outside the endometrium of the uterus. endometriosis affects between 10% and 15% of women in reproductive age. it is often associated with chronic pelvic pain and reproductive difficulties. endometriosis can be classified as ovarian, extra-ovarian or mixed. adenomyosis is considered, by some authors, as a separate variant of endometriosis. it is diagnosed as the presence of ectopic benign endometrial glands and stroma in the myometrium, where the minimal distance from the endometrio-myometrial junction is 2-4 mm. our study includes 224 cases of women with endometriosis with different locations in the myometrium (adenomyosis), in the ovaries, fallopian tubes, soft tissues and appendix as well as in combination with other conditions of the uterine body, such as endometrial carcinoma, leiomyomas, endometrial hyperplasia, polyps and atrophy and cervical cancer. there are cases of coexistence of several conditions in the same patient, and we are trying to find the reason behind this. keywords: endometriosis, localization, adenomyosis, combination with other uterine pathology 1. introduction endometriosis (em) is the second most common reason for surgical procedures in women before menopause after the uterine leiomyomas (overton c., 2007). it usually affects women in reproductive age and is not observed in girls before puberty. the incidence of endometriosis in premenopausal women is 10-15% (giudice lc, 2004). clinically it is manifested as pelvic pain during menstruation, dysmenorrhoea, dyspareunia, infertility, menorrhagia, etc. (eskenazi b, 2001). there are four main theories trying to explain the etiology of endometriosis: embryonal (ectopic foci of mullerian epithelium); transplantational (in retrograde menstruation or surgery there are vital endometrial cells which can colonize the peritoneum, cervix or a cicatrix from an operation); metastatic (during menstruation necessary endometrial elements can enter the lymphovascular spaces of the uterus and ‘metastasize’ to distant sites such as brain, lungs) and metaplastic (under the influence of estrogen, the mullerian epithelium can transform into endometrial. this is how endometriosis in men, who are treated with estrogen therapy, is explained) (karagiozov, 2005) depending on the location of the endometriotic lesions, endometriosis is predominantly found in the ovaries, followed by soft tissue, gastrointestinal and urinary tract (lee hj, 2015). in bulgarian medicine, adenomyosis is also a type of endometriosis, but in the western countries, it is separated as an individual entity, which is represented by copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 6 benign ectopic endometrial glands and stroma in the myometrium ( robboy st, 2008). the endometrio-myometrial junction is eneven, and many times this makes it challenging to determine adenomyosis. that is why, from a practical point of view the minimal distance from the endometrio-myometrial junction to the focus of adenomyosis needs to be 2-4mm or one medium power field ( robboy st, 2008; overton c, 2007). there are studies which try to find an association between the coexistence of several conditions of the uterus and for most of them hyperestrogenism is to be blamed. the presence of adenomyosis in determining the prognosis of endometrial carcinoma remains controversial (seza tetikkurt, 2018). 2. materials and methods our study involves a retrospective analysis of 224 patients diagnosed with em over three years (2016-2018), at university hospitals ‘st. george’ and ‘pulmed,’ plovdiv, bulgaria. all histological specimens were processed and prepared at the morphological center of medical university-plovdiv and the laboratory of the department of clinical pathology at university hospital ‘st. george’. the cases were analyzed according to localization of the endometriotic lesions, age and combinations of endometriosis with other conditions of the uterus. we have used routine staining with hematoxylin/eosin for this phase of our study. 3. results in our study, we have analyzed 224 cases of endometriosis, and we must clarify that this is the total number of patients with endometriosis, including cases with other leading uterine pathology in combination with endometriosis. the patients only with endometriosis were 208 (79.7%). the most common site of endometriosis was in the myometrium (adenomyosis), presented by 157 (75.5%) cases. the second most common localization in our patients was ovarian endometriosis, observed in 50 (24%) cases. there were 10 (5%) cases of endometrial glands and stroma found in soft tissues, mainly in the abdominal wall, after different surgical interventions. we also registered 2 (1%) cases of endometriosis of the fallopian tubes and one (0.5%) case of endometriosis in the appendix. these results are presented in table 1. table 1. number and percentage of patients with endometriosis according to its location location myometrium ovaries fallopian tubes soft tissues appendix number (%) 157 (75.5) 50 (24) 2 (1) 10 (5) 1 (0.5) we also studied the combination of endometriosis with other uterine pathology as endometrial carcinoma (ec), leiomyomas, endometrial polyps, endometrial hyperplasia and atrophy, and cervical cancer. most of our cases had a combination of endometriosis and leiomyomas 134 (59.8%). the next most common combination we established is the one between endometriosis and endometrial hyperplasia 34 (5.2%) cases. the combination of endometriosis with endometrial atrophy was observed in 28 (12.5%) cases, with endometrial polyps in 23 (10.3%) cases, with endometrial carcinomas in 11 (5.8%) cases. we had only one (0.4%) case with em and cervical carcinoma (table 2). table 2. number and percentage of patients with different combinations of endometriosis and other conditions of the uterus. we analyzed our results also according to the average age of our patients in the different groups of combinations. the oldest patients were observed in the cases with combination between em and endometrial atrophy with average age 64.04 years. in second place is the case with em and cervical cancer 64 years. after that follow the cases with em and endometrial carcinoma (ec) 61.14 years, em and endometrial polyps 56.30 years, em and leiomyomas 51.40 years. the youngest group of patients had a combination of em and endometrial hyperplasia 49.27 years. the anova analysis of the average age of patients with different combinations of em and other uterine pathology endometriosis and: ec leiomyoma endometrial polyps endometrial hyperplasia cervical carcinoma endometrial atrophy number of patients 11 134 23 34 1 28 % of patients 5,8 59,8 10,3 15,2 0,4 12,5 average age ± sd 61.14 ± 11.56 51,40 ± 9.32 56,30 ± 10.95 49.27 ± 5,12 64 64,04 ± 10,43 copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 7 established a significant difference (p=0.004). there are significant differences also in the average age of the patients with the following combinations: ec and leiomyomas (p<0.001), ec and endometrial hyperplasia (p=0.001), leiomyomas and endometrial polyps (p=0.005), leiomyomas and endometrial atrophy (p=0.011), endometrial polyps and endometrial hyperplasia (p=0.049) and endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial atrophy (p=0.008). this data is graphically presented in fig. 1. figure 1. differences in the average age of patients according to the combination of diagnoses we observed two or more combinations of the mentioned diseases in 57 (28.1%) patients. 4. discussion depending on the location of the endometriotic lesions, endometriosis is predominantly found in the ovaries, followed by soft tissue, gastrointestinal and urinary tract, according to some authors (lee hj, 2015). in bulgarian medicine, adenomyosis is also a type of endometriosis, but in the western countries, it is separated as an individual entity, which is characterized by the presence of benign ectopic endometrial glands and stroma in the myometrium (robboy st, 2008). the endometrio-myometrial junction is eneven, and many times this makes it challenging to determine adenomyosis. that is why, from a practical point of view the minimal distance from the endometriomyometrial junction to the focus of adenomyosis needs to be 2-4mm or one medium power field or 25% of the thickness of the myometrium (robboy st, 2008; overton c, 2007). some studies have reported an incidence of adenomyosis as high as 21-25% of hysterectomies (parazzini f, 1997 ). an interesting fact to mention is that the depth of adenomyosis does not correlate with the severity of the clinical symptoms. sometimes even very superficial adenomyosis can cause significant menorrhagia (mccausland am, 1996). in our study we also established that most cases are with adenomyosis (157, 75.5%), followed by endometriosis in the ovaries (50, 24%), soft tissues (10, 5%), fallopian tubes (2, 1%) and appendix (1, 0.5%), which is in correspondence with the data from other studies. ovarian cysts, adenomyosis, endometriosis, and leiomyomas are benign diseases, which often affect women in reproductive age. sometimes different combinations between these diseases are found in the same patient. many authors suggest comorbidity of endometriosis and other gynecological conditions, including the ones mentioned above (matalliotaki c, 2017). in our study, we analyzed patients with endometriosis according to the localization of the lesions and also in combination with other conditions such as ec, leiomyomas, endometrial hyperplasia, endometrial polyps, endometrial atrophy, and cervical carcinoma. most of our cases were diagnosed with a combination between em and leiomyomas (134, 59.8%). the connection between these two diseases is not well established, but both of them are often a cause of chronic pain and infertility in women (nezhat c, 2016). leiomyomas of the uterus are benign tumors of the smooth muscle tissue and are observed in 20-25% of women in reproductive age ( wecher m, 2011, cardozo e, 2012, stewart e, 2001). their development is associated with multiple factors, some of the most common being high estrogen levels, hereditary predisposition and negroid race copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 8 (buttram v, 1981). other factors related to the growth of uterine leiomyomas are somatotropin and human placental lactogen ( vollenhoven, 1990, hua yang l, 2013). in a study of nezhat c, 2016, which aims to determine the incidence of combination between symptomatic uterine leiomyomas and em, the results showed that 87.1% of the patients with leiomyomas also had histologically diagnosed endometriosis. leiomyomas can be easily identified with ultrasound and are often treated by surgery. in reproductive age, the methods of choice are hysteroscopic and laparoscopic techniques which can easily miss concomitant endometriosis. this is one of the significant reasons for the ineffective treatment of the symptoms in such patients (huang j, 2010). this data from the available literature confirms our results, where we also report a very high number of patients diagnosed with em and leiomyomas (134, 59.8%). concerning the average age of our patients with em and leiomyomas, a study of day baird d, 2003, reports an incidence of nearly 70% in caucasian women by age 50, which is a very close result to ours (51.40 years). the next most common combinations in our study are between em and endometrial hyperplasia (34, 15.2%) and em and endometrial polyps (23, 10.3%). in a survey by seza tetikkurt, 2018, the percent of patients with a combination of adenomyosis, endometrial hyperplasia and polyps was 30.41%. in our study, we observed similar results of 25.5%. parazzini et al., 2009, establish a significant association between adenomyosis, endometrial hyperplasia, and polyps. the incidence of this combination of conditions is mainly explained by the common risk factors such as elevated estrogen levels, early menarche, no pregnancies, late menopause, estrogen therapy during menopause, polycystic ovarian disease, treatment with tamoxifen, etc. (chisholm a, 2019). in the study of seza tetikkurt, 2018, the women with adenomyosis, combined with endometrial hyperplasia and polyps were mostly aged 41-55 years. our results also fall in that category, as the patients in our study with this combination of conditions are between 48 years and 56 years. concerning the cases of endometriosis and atrophy of the endometrium the average age of these patients is 64.04 years, i.e., postmenopausal. if endometriosis occurs in the postmenopausal period, it is less common, present in small foci and is less active. it has the same immunochemical profile as the disease occurring in premenopausal women and has the potential to reactivate (cumiskey j, 2008). the postmenopausal disease could be enhanced in the presence of higher circulating levels of estrogen especially in the form of phytoestrogens and hormone therapy. phytoestrogens have been known to exert estrogenic effects on the uterus, breast, and pituitary and promote the growth of endometriotic deposits (shah d, 2014). as for the case of endometriosis and cervical cancer in our results, we can conclude that it is a rare and uncommon combination and the two conditions are not related as we could not find any data from the available literature confirming such an association. an impressive group of patients is the one with combination between em and ec. we compared the figo stage of these patients with the figo stage of patients who had only ec, and we found that the patients who had em and ec were diagnosed in a significantly higher figo stage. this association is established by other authors (izmiil n, 2007) as well, who report deep myometrial invasion in 91.3% of patients with ec and adenomyosis, compared to 63.8% of patients only with ec. one of the suggested reasons for the deeper myometrial invasion of ec in combination with adenomyosis is that adenomyosis increases the contact area with the myometrium and facilitates the invasion of the ec (izmiil n, 2007). the average age of the patients with em and ec is 61.14 years, which is similar to the results of other authors (seza tetikkurt, 2018, >55 years) observing this combination of conditions. 5. conclusion endometriosis is a common gynecologic condition occurring most commonly in women in reproductive age. it is associated with infertility and chronic pelvic pain. in conclusion, we can recommend evaluation and screening of patients in their premenopause who are diagnosed with leiomyomas, for endometriosis to provide effective treatment of the symptoms of these patients. our results, as well as those of other authors, prove a high incidence of the coexistence of these two conditions. coexisting conditions, such as leiomyoma, endometriosis, endometrial polyp, endometrial hyperplasia, and endometrial carcinoma, are frequently associated with adenomyosis. the high incidence of these pathological lesions related to adenomyosis suggests the presence of a common underlying disorder, such as hyperestrogenism. although there are several cases of endometrial carcinomas and adenomyosis, the presence of adenomyosis in determining the prognosis of endometrial cancer remains controversial. conflict of interests the authors do not declare any conflict of interests. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 9 references baird, d.d., dunson, d.b., hill, m.c., cousins, d.s., & schectman, j.m. 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vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 research article published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 a literature review on the imidazole muhammed abdel hasan shallal m.sc in chemistry , assist .lecturer ,thiqar government ,iraq abstract this review gives some information about imidazole ring as a ( ligand , complex , antimicrobial , antimalarial , anticancer , uses , applications , linked with active groups such as schiff base , azo group , ..). keywords: uses, applications imidazole ring has five membered ring systems that contain hydrogen binding domain, and electron donor nitrogen system(1-3).the first imidazole was described by fischer (1882), but the nature of the ring system was demonstrated by freud and kuhn (1890)(4-6). imidazole are important because their biological activity among their isomer, particularly the imidazole possessed a broad spectrum of biological activities including antimicrobial (90)antituberculosis(7-11) antioxidant(12-16) antiinflammatory(17-20) anticonvulsants(21-25) antidepressant and anxiolytic(26-31) antihypertensive(32-36) anticancer(37-40) and antifungal activity(41-44). also, studying(45) reported thatmany imidazole derivatives were dissolved in diluted acid , and coupling reaction(46) hours at (0) 0cto give final product . coupling reaction that containing compounds react with and aromatic primary amine to produce imidazoleazo dyes (47).these compounds have wide attention because of their pharmacological activities such as hypertensive copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 2 agents (48),anticholinergic agents (49),antispasmodics(50), anticancer agents(51), oxo-tremorine antagonists (52) and antibacterial agents (53). other paper(54): synthesizedazo dyeslinked with phenol derivative from coupling reaction with different compounds in presence of diluted hydrochloric acid to yield ligands then complexation with some ions : on the other hand , other paper(55) reported that imidazole – mannich derivatives(56)were prepared through reaction of secondary aromatic amine compound with carbonyl compound in presence of strong base, this mixture was stirred for (5) hours to formation many antibacterial compounds : copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 3 while studying(57) usedbiscarboxylic acid and diamine compounds in closure conditions under refluxing for (6) hrs, then basified to give imidazole derivative as antihiv : but in paper(58) reacted the imidazolewith triazole in existence of closure conditions in dmf and stirred for (16 ) hours at room temperature then refluxing for (7 ) hrs to give final product antifungal compounds: on the other hand researcher(59) addedimidazole ring to sulfur and nitrogen compounds to formation compounds involving antitumor activities: copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 4 in new paper60) reported the preparation ofimidazole -azo with sulphone compounds as antimlaria compounds: antmalaria compounds(61)was yield from reaction of imidazole compound with active ring from thiadiazole or oxadiazole ring : but other studying(61) formatted hydrazoimidazole derivatives as antifungal compounds copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 5 paper(62) succeed to format imidazole – imine compounds fromsubstituted compound reacted with different aldehydes under reflux (4) hours. other literature (63) :prepared azomethine –imidazole as analgesic by reaction of aromatic aldehydes with amine imidazole : imidazole derivative was prepared by reaction of benzimidazole(64)with sulfur or disulfide compounds to formation corrosion inhibitors compounds: copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 6 studying(65): prepared polymer (vinyl chloride) dissolved in dry tetrahydrofuran, in reaction with amine under reflux for (7) hours to give final products as a polymers. imidazole in mixed ligands , complex –mixed , which prepared from condensation reaction of di amine compounds with carbonyl compounds(66) : also in other studying , imidazole ligand was prepared from sulphone derivative(67) : copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 7 other imidazole compounds were prepared as drugs in medical fields(68): but in new studies, imidazole compounds were prepared as antitumor in medicinal fields(69-70): and other paper , antibacterial(71-73)sulphonamide compounds were synthesized: copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 8 references 1. y.k. yoon , m. a. ali , a.c wei , t.s. choon , h. osman , k. parange ,a. n.shirazi , " bioorganic & medicinal che 2. rosa m.f. batista , susana p.g. costa , m. mannela m. raposo ; 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"a bedside scoring system ("candida score") for early antifungal treatment in nonneutropenic critically ill patients with candida colonization". crit care med. vol. 34. 2006. pp. 730-737. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 cyclization of multi components reactions and (preparation, investigation, thermal curves) nagham mahmood aljamali 1 , nour abd alrazzak abd allattif 2 & sabreen ali abdalrahman 3 1 department of chemistry, faculty of education for girls, kufa university, iraq 2 department of chemistry, college of science for women, university of babylon, iraq 3 b.sc in chemistry , kufa university , iraq correspondence: dr. nagham mahmood aljamali. department of chemistry, faculty of education for girls, kufa university, iraq. email: dr.nagham_mj@yahoo.com received: august 29, 2018 accepted: september 23, 2018 online published: october 10, 2018 doi: 10.54655/aijmsr.v2n1p1 abstract many cyclic compounds were formatted via multi components reactions and cyclization reaction through many steps with ( various conditions , various starting materials , various components ), in first step , aromatic amine derivative were reacted with ammonium thiocyanate in cyclization reaction to yield 2aminobenzothiazole derivative , which reacted with formaldehyde and benzaldehyde as a multi components reaction ., then the resulting compounds cyclized with ( semicarbazide , ortho-phenyl diamine , ortho-thiol aniline , orthoamino phenol ). investigation of compounds carried out through many techniques ( ft.ir , h.nmr , mass ) – spectra , thermal studies keywords: multi components , cyclization, heterocyclic ,oxadiazole, imidazole, thiazole, oxazole. introduction a heterocyclic compounds are a cyclic compound which have at least two different elements or more as members of its structure. heterocyclic chemistry is the branch of synthetic chemistry dealing with the preparation (1-3) , characterization ,uses (4-6) , applications (7-9) of these compounds that include all of the nucleic acids, drugs, cellulose and many natural and industrial dyes (10-12) . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cyclic_compound https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chemical_element https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organic_chemistry www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 2 fig.(1): heterocycle compounds as a drugs heterocyclic derivatives have a wide range of uses (13-15) and applications (16-19) in pharmaceutical chemistry (2024) ,which involved many (25-28) of the biochemical material essential to biomolecules like vitamins ,nucleic acids, the chemical materials (29-31) that carry the genetic information controlling inheritance, include a long chains of heterocyclic units held together by other types (32-36) of substances . many naturally occurring dyes , pigments, vitamins, and antibiotics are heterocyclic compounds (37-40) . fig.(2): heterocyclic compound as a dye experimental part allcompounds were investigation through : ft-ir spectra (ft-ir 8300 shimadzu) in the range (400-4000) cm -1 askbr discs ., 1h.nmr– spectra in dmso–solvent., mass spectra, thermal studying , solubility test , physical properties : procedures synthesis of compounds {1 , 2 } p-amino benzoic acid (0.1mole) reacted with ammonium thiocyanate (0.1mole) with (7 ml ) of (br2) drop by drop with (5ml ) of glacial acetic acid with rotation for (3hrs) at (10 c˚)according to literatures (21 ,23) ,the resulting compound (0.2 mole) reacted with (0.1 m0le) of formaldehyde with rotation for (4 hrs ) in acid medium (3 ml ) (hcl or h2so4) to give compound{ 1 }.,which dissolved in ( 5 % naoh) solution then reacted with furfural at room temperature and rotation for ( 5 hrs ) , then filtered , dried and re crystallized from ethanol to yield compound { 2 }. https://www.britannica.com/science/nucleic-acid https://www.britannica.com/technology/pigment https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin https://www.britannica.com/science/antibiotic www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 3 scheme.1: synthesis of compounds { 1 , 2} synthesis of compounds{ 35}: compound { 2 }(0.01mole) refluxed with ethanol and (3 ml) (h2so4) for (2 hrs ) to give compound {3} as ester , which (0.1 mole ) refluxed with (0.2 mole ) of 2-aminothiazole for (2 hrs ) in ethanol as a solvent , then filtered , dried and re crystallized from ethanol to yield compound { 4 }., while compound { 2} (0.1 mole ) refluxed with (0.2 mole ) of 2-mercaptothiazole for (3 hrs ) in ethanol as a solvent according to procedures (38, 40) , then filtered , dried and re crystallized from ethanol to yield compound { 5 }. scheme.2: synthesis of compounds { 3 5} www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 4 synthesis of compounds{ 6 , 7 }: diethyl malonate (0.2 mole ) dissolved in base medium then refluxed with (0.1 mole ) of diethylsuccinatewith ethanol for (2 hrs ) to give compound {6} as ester , which (0.1 mole ) refluxed with (0.2 mole ) of semicarbazide for (13 hrs ) in ethanol as a solvent and (3 ml of h2so4 )according to procedures (21, 23) , then filtered , dried and re crystallized from ethanol to yield compound { 7 }. synthesis of compounds{ 8 10 }: compound { 6} (0.1 mole ) refluxed with (0.4mole ) of ortho-phenyl diamine for (7hrs ) with ( 4 n of hcl ) , then filtered , dried and re crystallized from ethanol to yield compound { 8 }., while compound { 6} (0.1 mole) refluxed with (0.4 mole ) of ortho-thiol aniline for (9 hrs ) with ( 4 n of hcl ) , then filtered , dried and re crystallized from ethanol to yield compound { 9 }.,compound { 6} (0.1 mole ) refluxed with (0.4 mole ) of orthohydroxy aniline for (9hrs ) with ( 4 n of hcl ) according to procedures (21, 23) , then filtered , dried and re crystallized from ethanol to yield compound { 10 }., scheme.3: synthesis of compounds { 610} results and discussion our compounds characterized with many spectral methods like (ft.ir ,h.nmr ,mass) spectra and with thermal studies: www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 5 spectral investigation ft.ir spectra of compounds:it appeared many absorption bands appeared at (c=n) endocycle: 1641., (cs) endocycle of benzothiazole : 734 ., (-co-o-) carbonyl of carboxyl group : 1719 ., (nh)amine group :3270 ., (oh) hydroxyl of carboxyl group: 3120 in compound { 1} , while other bands appeared at (c=n) endocycle: 1649., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 728 ., (-co-o-) carbonyl of carboxyl group : 1714 ., (nh)amine group :3276 .,(oh) hydroxyl of carboxyl group: 3135 ., (ch=c ): 3100in compound {2} ., other bands appeared at (c=n) endocycle: 1650., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 717 ., (-co-o-) carbonyl of ester group : 1722 ., (nh)amine group :3262 ., (ch=c ): 3097in compound { 3 }., but compound {4} appeared bands at (c=n) endocycle: 1643., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 729 ., (nh)amine group :3273 ., (ch=c ): 3096 ., (-nhco) amine of amide : 3204 ., (co-n) carbonyl of amide : 1689 ., while compound { 5} gave bands at (c=n) endocycle: 1637., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 711 ., (nh)amine group :3264 ., (ch=c ): 3104 .,(co-s) carbonyl : 1694 ., other bands at (-co-o-) carbonyl of ester group : 1724 .,(-co-ch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1708 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2967 in compound {6} , the spectrum of compound { 7} appeared bands at (-coch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1713 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2985 ., (nh2) amine group: (3245 , 3266 ) .,(c=n) endocycle of oxadiazole: 1663 ., but bands at (-co-ch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1711 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2918 ., (nh) amine : 3210 .,(c=n) endocycle of imidazole: 1656 due to compound {8 } ., while appearance of bands at (-coch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1709 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2923 .,(c=n) endocycle of thiazole: 1642 ., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 753 due to compound { 9} ., the compound {10} gave bands at (-co-ch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1716 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2900 .,(c=n) endocycle of oxazole: 1642 .,all bands abstracted in table (1) . table (1): ft.irdata (cm -1 ) of compounds { 1-10 } compounds other groups { 1 } (c=n) endocycle: 1641., (c-s)endocycle of benzothiazole : 734 ., (-co-o-) carbonyl of carboxyl group : 1719 ., (nh)amine group :3270 ., (oh) hydroxyl of carboxyl group: 3120 . { 2 } (c=n) endocycle: 1649., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 728 ., (-co-o-) carbonyl of carboxyl group : 1714 ., (nh)amine group :3276 ., (oh) hydroxyl of carboxyl group: 3135 ., (ch=c ): 3100 . { 3 } (c=n) endocycle: 1650., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 717 ., (-co-o-) carbonyl of ester group : 1722 ., (nh)amine group :3262 ., (ch=c ): 3097 . {4} (c=n) endocycle: 1643., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 729 ., (nh)amine group :3273 ., (ch=c ): 3096 ., (-nh-co) amine of amide : 3204 ., (co-n) carbonyl of amide : 1689 . {5} (c=n) endocycle: 1637., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 711 ., (nh)amine group :3264 ., (ch=c ): 3104 .,(co-s) carbonyl : 1694 . {6} (-co-o-) carbonyl of ester group : 1724 .,(-co-ch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1708 ., (ch ) aliphatic : 2967 . {7} (-co-ch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1713 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2985 ., (nh2) amine group: (3245 , 3266 ) .,(c=n) endocycle of oxadiazole: 1663 . {8} (-co-ch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1711 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2918 ., (nh) amine : 3210 .,(c=n) endocycle of imidazole: 1656 . {9} (-co-ch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1709 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2923 .,(c=n) endocycle of thiazole: 1642 ., (c-s) endocycle of benzothiazole : 753. {10} (-co-ch2-) carbonyl of ketone : 1716 ., (ch) aliphatic : 2900 .,(c=n) endocycle of oxazole: 1642 . 1 h.nmrspectra of compounds it appeared peaks at ƃ dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (n-ch2-n-) protons : 1.92 ., (nh-): 5.12 ., protons of phenyl ring : (6.84-7.89)., (-cooh)proton of carboxyl group of acid : 13.42 in compound { 1 } ., while it gave signals at(nh-): 5.32 ., protons of phenyl ring : (6.67-7.99)., (-cooh)proton of carboxyl group of acid : 13.26 ., (c=ch) :2.41 in compound { 2 } ., (., (nh-): 5.48 ., protons of phenyl ring : (6.84-7.72)., (-coo-eth)protons of ethyl group :(3.03 , 3.27 ) ., (c=ch) :2.29 in compound { 3} .,(nh-): 5.31 ., protons of phenyl ring and heterocycles: (6.96-7.64)., (-co-nh)proton of amide group :10.03 ., (c=ch) :2.10 in compound {4} ., (nh-): 5.62 ., protons of phenyl ring and heterocycles: (6.75-7.83) ., (c=ch) :2.19 in compound {5} ., (co-ch2www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 6 ch2-co) : (2.00 , 2.09 , 2.25) ., (cooeth ): ( 3.05 – 3.37 ) in compound { 6} .,(co-ch2-ch2-co): (2.08 , 2.11 , 2.19) ., (nh2) : 5.67 in compound { 7} ., (co-ch2-ch2-co) : (2.06 , 2.17 , 2.29) ., (nh) : 5.23 ., protons of phenyl ring : (6.96-7.64) in compound { 8} .,(co-ch2-ch2-co) : (2.13 , 2.18 , 2.21) .,protons of phenyl ring : (6.80-7.52) in compound { 9} ., (co-ch2-ch2-co) : (2.09 , 2.17 , 2.24) .,protons of phenyl ring : (6.98-7.87) in compound { 10} which give (co-ch2-ch2-co) : (2.09 , 2.17 , 2.24) .,protons of phenyl ring : (6.98-7.87). evidences for preparation of our compounds ., and other peaks abstracted in table (2) table (2): h.nmr-data (ƃ ppm) of compounds{ 1 – 10 } compounds other groups { 1 } dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (n-ch2-n-) protons : 1.92 ., (nh-): 5.12 ., protons of phenyl ring : (6.84-7.89)., (-cooh)proton of carboxyl group of acid : 13.42 . { 2 } dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (nh-): 5.32 ., protons of phenyl ring : (6.67-7.99)., (cooh)proton of carboxyl group of acid : 13.26 ., (c=ch) :2.41 . { 3 } dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (nh-): 5.48 ., protons of phenyl ring : (6.84-7.72)., (-cooeth)protons of ethyl group :(3.03 , 3.27 ) ., (c=ch) :2.29 . {4} dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (nh-): 5.31 ., protons of phenyl ring and heterocycles: (6.967.64)., (-co-nh)proton of amide group :10.03 ., (c=ch) :2.10 . {5} dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (nh-): 5.62 ., protons of phenyl ring and heterocycles: (6.757.83) ., (c=ch) :2.19 . {6} dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (co-ch2-ch2-co) : (2.00 , 2.09 , 2.25) ., (cooeth ): ( 3.05 – 3.37 ). {7} dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 .,(co-ch2-ch2-co): (2.08 , 2.11 , 2.19) ., (nh2) : 5.67 . {8} dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (co-ch2-ch2-co) : (2.06 , 2.17 , 2.29) ., (nh) : 5.23 ., protons of phenyl ring : (6.96-7.64). {9} dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (co-ch2-ch2-co) : (2.13 , 2.18 , 2.21) .,protons of phenyl ring : (6.80-7.52). {10} dmso-d6(solvent ): 2.50 ., (co-ch2-ch2-co) : (2.09 , 2.17 , 2.24) .,protons of phenyl ring : (6.98-7.87). the mass spectra of compounds there spectra showed good results for formatted compounds and appeared good evidence for their fragments in figures(3-5): fig(3): mass spectra of compound { 5 } www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 7 fig(4): mass spectra of compound { 8} fig(5): mass spectra of compound{ 10} thermal – curves of compounds the compounds studied through thermal analysis which appeared stability against different temperatures in figures (610) : fig (6) : thermal curve of compound{4} www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 8 fig (7) : thermal curve of compound{5} fig (8) : thermal curve of compound{8} fig (9) : thermal curve of compound{9} www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 9 fig (10): thermal curve of compound{10} solubility of compounds in organic solvents test of the solubility of compounds screened with several organic solvents according to (type of solvent , polarity of solvents , activity of functional groups) in compounds, the results abstracted in table (3). table (3) : behavior of compounds in solvents compounds solvents c2h5oh methanol chloroform acetone benzene toluene ( 1 ) + + ( 2 ) + + ( 3 ) + + ( 4 ) + + ( 5 ) + + ( 6 ) + + ( 7 ) + + ( 8 ) + + ( 9 ) + + ( 10 ) + + physical and chemical properties of compound {1 – 10 } the results in table (4) appeared properties and characterization like: [(rf) of tlctechnique for following the reactions ,type of solvent which was used in tlc – plate , yield from reactions % ], all data are abstracted in table (4): www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 2, no. 1; 2018 10 table(4): some physical and chemical properties for compounds {1 – 10 } compounds yield % rf solvents of (tlc) ( 1:2) ( 1 ) 72 0.4 ethanol : benzene ( 2 ) 70 0.70 ethanol : benzene ( 3 ) 64 0.70 ethanol : benzene ( 4 ) 78 0.70 ethanol : benzene ( 5 ) 74 0.68 ethanol : benzene ( 6 ) 68 0.66 ethanol : benzene ( 7 ) 70 0.70 ethanol : benzene ( 8 ) 74 0.62 ethanol : benzene ( 9 ) 72 068 ethanol : benzene ( 10 ) 76 0.64 ethanol : benzene references 1. jin, j .c.; baoan, s .; zhuo, c .; song, y.,“synthesis, structure, and bioactivity of n0-substituted benzylidene3,4,5-trimethoxybenzo hydrazide and acetyl-2-substituted phenyl-5-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-2,3dihydro-1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives.”, bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters , 2006, 16,5036–504. 2. aatesh, è. ; kocabalkanli, a. ; cesur, n . “synthesis and antimicrobial activity of some 5-aryl-2-[(n,ndisubstitutedthiocarbamoylthio) acylamino]-1,3,4-oxadiazoles” , farmaco ,1998, 53, 541-544. 3. clark,m.s.,(2000).,"the bactericidal activity of gemifloxacin. journal medical microbial,vol.49,andp:841-844. 4. clark, w.g.; 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creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 economic implication of absence of national carrier in the nigeria aviation industry gbadamosi kolawole t. 1 & adekunle emmanuel a. 2 1 department of transport management technology, federal university of technology, nigeria correspondence: adekunle emmanuel a, department of transport management technology, federal university of technology, nigeria. email: emmanuel.adekunle@gmail.com received: july 31, 2018 accepted: august 20, 2018 online published: september 1, 2018 abstract the aim of the study is to access the economic implication of absence of national carrier in the nigeria aviation industry. the airline industry is the key drive of the travel and tourism industry and also a major contributor to many countries’ overall economy through international tourist arrivals and departures. the study estimate the amount of revenue nigeria is losing to capital flights for not having a viable national carrier over the past ten years that is from 2007 to 2016.the estimated amount of revenue loss was examined on airlines offering direct flights on nigeria to london route, in which we have two foreign airlines (british airways and virgin atlantic airline)and a nigeria’s private national carrier which is med-view airline. the class of tickets and services in each class of ticket being offered by the airlines was examined. the study reveals an estimate of total of over $6 billion revenue were being lost to hands of foreign competitors over the past ten years with british airways generating closely to $4 billion, while virgin atlantic generated over $2.3 billion and med-view generated over $133 million in the past ten years. the study also reveals that the higher the passenger carried the higher the revenue and vice versa. however, establishing a national carrier by the federal government is imminent which will express nigeria culture and to better serve passengers especially nigerians. finally, banks and other governmental financial institutions should make available enough funds with longer payback period and little interest for both existing airlines to upgrade their services and new entrants to be able to purchase necessary equipment’s to make them competitive in the market. keywords: economics, aviation, national carrier. 1. introduction transportation can be defined as the movement of goods, services, information and people from one place to another for a purpose, through a particular means at a particular time. transport is an essential part of any society without which there can be no spatial and economic communication. it creates links between economic space and people. transportation moves people and goods from one place to another using a variety of vehicles across different infrastructure systems. it does this using not only technology (namely vehicles, energy, and infrastructure), but also people’s time and effort; producing not only the desired outputs of passenger trips and freight shipments, but also adverse outcomes such as air pollution, noise, congestion, crashes, injuries, and fatalities (levinson, lui, garrison, hickman, danczyk, corbett and dixion, 2014). air transportation is the transportation of passengers and cargo by aircraft and helicopters. it is a transport system that involves the movement or carriage by air of persons or goods using airplanes and helicopters (wie, 2011 cited by ladan 2012). air transport is known for its great comfort and very fast speed. it is ideally suitable for long haul and highly competitive short journeys in areas having difficulties with surface transport. it follows a direct line of flight which is unhindered by physical barriers such as mountain and hills. air transport can facilitate, for example, in the economic development of a region or of a particular industry such as tourism, but there has to be a latent www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 2 demand for the goods and services offered by a region or by an industry. lack of air transport, as with any other input into the economic system, can stymie efficient growth, but equally inappropriateness or excesses in supply are wasteful (ken, 2008). air transportation is an important aspect of economic development. the growth in the aviation sector cannot be matched by any transport units (road, rail and water) due to its unique technical skills and new innovations. this has improved economic and tourist development of the nation. the aviation industry plays an important role in the aspect of work and leisure to people around the globe. the sector helps to promote and improve quality of life, living standards of people within the nation. all this helps to generate economic growth and poverty alleviation by way of providing employment opportunities, increasing revenues from taxes (abraham, saheed, and chinyere, 2015). the employment opportunities would be generated through supply chain transformation from the airports. this makes the industry the gateway to any economy aspiring to develop, enabling globalization, trade facilitation and tourism development. it is very crucial in the promotion of foreign direct investment (fdi) (ladele, 2012).one can therefore say that the industry is crucial to the growth of the economy and national development (abraham et al., 2015). ladele (2012) in her study of fdi, noted that as the emerging economies grow, their demand for air transportation will grow as their citizens becomes more financially empowered with increased disposable income. the airline industry is the key drive of the travel and tourism industry and also a major contributor to many countries’ overall economy through international tourist arrivals and departures. in general, airlines must continuously capture and understand the changing needs of customers and swiftly take action on the changed needs for competitive advantage (buell et al., 2013 cited by jianlinget al., 2014). to address customers’ concerns and changing needs in a cost-effective, efficient, and satisfactory manner, we must look into customers’ entire travel experience, which requires detailing the needs of customers and understanding of the acceptance of offered services, such as the choice of airlines, aircrafts, cabin features, punctuality, etc. (jianlinget al., 2014). deregulation in aviation industry globally, required that an airline as a service provider remains competitive to ensure customer satisfaction as a basic strategy to ensuring patronage and market acceptability. customer satisfaction in airline operations has become critically important and (dennett, ineson, stone, and colgate, 2000 cited by baker, 2013) suggest that as competition created by deregulation has become more intense, service quality in the airline industry has also received more attention. nigeria is the most populous country in africa with over 180 million citizens, which makes her the hub of aviation in west africa sub-region and africa at large, though the nation is without any viable national carrier which is making the country to be loosing a lot of revenue to its foreign counterparts. the most profitable route to nigeria is lagos to london routes with 42 to and fro direct trips from both countries (nigeria and united kingdom) weekly. 2. the statement of research problem air transport services are rendered by authorized carriers for traveling passengers and freight in transit. airlines utilize aircraft of different capacity to undertake these services and sometimes in partnership or alliances with other airlines under code share agreement. airlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full compliments of international services. passengers’ satisfaction has always been a major reason for choice of airline by customer, normally determined by the level of services provided by airlines to their passengers. passengers’ has a wide range of choice in the determination of suitable airline product according to their requirements (archana and subha, 2012). they further argued that research related to service quality and customer satisfaction in the airline industry has been growing in interest because the delivery of high quality service is essential for airlines‟ survival and competitiveness. the inability of nigeria to have and run a successful national carrier left passengers with no choice than to patronize foreign airlines not minding if they are maltreated. in addition, revenues generated by these foreign airlines were being repatriated back to their country making nigeria to be loosing a lot of revenue to their foreign competitors. this study however is to estimate the amount of revenue nigeria is loosing to capital flights for not having a viable national carrier. 3. research methodology this research is a descriptive survey on economic implication of absence of national carrier in the nigeria aviation industry. moreover, only secondary data was employed for this research. the research was conducted on two foreign airlines (british airways and virgin atlantic) and a nigerian airline (med-view airline), all offering direct flights from nigeria to united kingdom. the secondary data gotten for this research is on annual airline passenger volume carried by each of the airlines between the year 2007 to 2016 and this data was obtained from federal airport authority of nigeria (faan). moreover, average airline air fare was gotten the airlines’ websites. the annual passenger volume carried were multiplied by air fare to get an estimate of revenue generated the airlines. both virgin atlantic and med-view airlines conducts scheduled international flights from murtala muhammed international airport, ikeja to heathrow and gatwick airports in the united kingdom while british airways do www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 3 conduct daily scheduled international flights from murtala muhammed international airport, ikeja and nnamdi azikwe international airport, abuja to heathrow airport in united kingdom. med-view airline is the only operating private nigeria’s national carrier offering services to passengers on lagos to london route as at the time this research was conducted. while british airways is the flag carrier and the largest airline in the united kingdom based on fleet size and virgin atlantic airline is a private founded by a british billionaire named sir richard charles nicholas branson. 4. literature review airline industry has always been famous for its continuous struggle: cutting costs, managing fluctuating demand, keeping up with tight quality requirements while trying to maintain superior services and satisfy needs of various customer groups (ekaterina, 2012). airline is essential to global world as without airline transportation, such industries as leisure and tourism would suffer and international business activities would become much harder to conduct (tiernan, rhoades and waguespack, 2008) the global airline industry consists of some 2000 airlines operating 23,000 aircraft, providing service to some 3750 airports (air transport action group 2008). the air transport industry directly generates 5.5 million jobs globally and contributes $408 billion to global gdp (air transport action group, 2008). 4.1 aviation and economic growth filani (1986) cited by abraham et al., (2015), argued that for any economic progress to be achieve in any country, the aviation industry as an integral part of transport must be developed, this is sine-qua-non to development. a study by brueckner (2003) also notes the close connection between airline passengers and regional employment growth, finding that a ten percent increase in passengers in a metro generates a one percent increase in regional employment. brueckner finds, however, that airports and airline service contribute more to knowledge and service based businesses than to industrial manufacturing. adefolalu (1977) cited by abraham et al., (2015), opined that air transportation has introduced the most effective method of overcoming the barrier imposed by physical distances and difficult topography and its speed is far superior to any other mode of transport. according to a report by air transport action group (atag) cited by abraham et al., (2015), aviation plays a vital role in facilitating economic growth, particularly in developing countries. aviation is indispensable for tourism, which is a major engine of economic growth, globally, 51% of international tourists travel by air. connectivity contributes to improved productivity by encouraging investment and innovation; improving business operations and efficiency; and allowing companies to attract high quality employees. the impact of the air transport sector was analyzed by nwaogbe, wokili, omoke and asiegbu (2013) cited by abraham et al., (2015), they reported that the air transport sector has contributed immensely to the economic development of nigeria and the entire globe in two other ways. firstly, through the taxes levied on gross value added i.e. the sum of profits and wages. secondly, through its lump sum investment and its use of higher advanced technology systems for its operations and maintenance. isaac (2013), examined the role of airport infrastructural development on socio-economic development of nigeria. the study utilized a descriptive survey method. the result reveals that, there is a correlation between airport infrastructure development and socio-economic development of the country. the study concludes that, for any proper achievements to be achieve in aviation sector, government must step up its contribution, regulation and due process must be followed in awarding of contract and making decision that relates to the development of aviation. 4.2 airports and air transport development in nigeria there are a total of thirty-eight (38) airports with paved runways and sixteen (16) airports with unpaved runways in nigeria (ladan, 2015). air travel in nigeria commenced during world war ii (1939-1945) when it became necessary to move troops and supplies fast across the country. several air strips were built then which were converted after the war, to civilian use (ileoje, 2003). air transportation in nigeria generates some economic benefits. first, air transport contributes to the provision of employment. about 159,000 indigenes and foreigners are gainfully employed directly or indirectly by the nigeria aviation industry. second, air transport industry is a viable means for generating revenue via personal income and profit taxes. third, it has contributed over 4 per cent to gross domestic product (oxford economics, 2012). the nigerian federal government realizing the role of air transport in the nation’s development made significant attempts to develop the country’s air transport system. the most gigantic was the 1975-1980 airport development programme in which the murtala mohammed airport complex was about n240 million (filani, 1983).the nigerian civil aviation training centres provides a substantial number of trained air personnel. this is in the areas of piloting, maintenance engineers, air traffic controllers, aeronautics teleprompter operators and communications personnel. these personnel were reinforced with those from the nigerian college of aviation technology, zaria (ladan, 2015). www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 4 ileoje, 2003 states that it is estimated that by the year 2003, over four million nigerian fly and use the airports each year. however, private domestic air carries began to win business at the expense of nigeria, airways, the government-owned national airline and it was declared bankrupt in 2004. presently there are five (5) international airports operated by federal airport authority of nigeria (faan) they are, murtal muhammed international airport in lagos, nnamdi azikwe international airport in abuja, mallam aminu kano international airport in kano, port harcourt international airport in port-harcourt, akanu ibiam international airport in enugu and magaret ekpo international airport in calabar (faan, 2017). 4.3 service quality service quality has become an important research topic because of its apparent relationship to costs, profitability, customer satisfaction, customer retention and word of mouth. as for service quality, e.g. american marketing organization defines it in two ways: first, it is an area of study that defines and describes how services are delivered so that the service recipient is satisfied; second, high quality service is a delivery of service that meets and exceeds the expectations of the customers (ekaterina, 2012). parasumaran et al. (1985) state that service quality is defined by the customer evaluation of service outcome and service process as well as a comparison of customer expectations with service performance or rather as the difference of customers' pre-service expectation and post service perception". according to butler and keller (1992), service quality is the central feature of each airline company’s conducting a business and the customers can define it definitely (dariush and peyman, 2011). delivering high quality service is an essential criterion for the survival and growth of airlines in a competitive environment. due to the advent of computer system and internet facilities, airlines attempt to differentiate their services through the use of computerized booking/reservation systems, which were also designed to create customer loyalty and customer relation with their passengers. 4.4 input and output concept/model economic theory clearly establishes the importance of measuring efficiency in the airline industry. the concept of efficiency here is the capability of a unit in utilizing input to produce output. the input resources are expenditure, number of staff, number of agents and station capacity. the output factors are total revenue, group materialization rate and uplift (sallehand jusoh, 2005).the basic step in assessing the performance of the airlines industry is to consider two basic elements: the input and the output factors. input factors are defined as limited amount of resources to produce a maximum amount of output. the output factors are the consequences, outcomes or the products as the result of utilizing limited resources (sallehand jusoh, 2005). atul (2013) have selected the following input and output factors to measure efficiency of an airline. input: number of planes, number of employees, and gallons of fuel consumed. output: revenue passenger miles, number of departures, number of passengers, and available ton-miles. number of departures is selected as an output variable because it indicates the network level of an airline. a higher level of network indicates a higher level of service to customers. however, airlines must input sufficient reasonable resources such as number of planes, number of employees, financial cost and gallons of fuel consumed in relation to available passenger traffic available (kanghwaet al., 2013). fig. 1 excelling in the marketplace through service quality and productivity. source: kanghwaet al., 2013 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 5 the year of manufacturing of aircrafts as an input is of paramount importance because passengers’ value safety as a major reason for choice of airline to fly, service quality will serve as a supervisor to all these inputs to produce a reasonable amount of output such as revenue passenger miles, number of departures, number of passengers, and available ton-miles that will result in optimum passenger satisfaction (kanghwaet al., 2013). 5. analysis of findings 5.1 range of services rendered by the airlines table 1: range of services by the airlines on lagos to london route first class business class economy class average cost (n) british airways    about 371,000 above med-view airline   about 298,000 above virgin atlantic   about 379,000 above source: author’s field work july, 2017. note all the prices were checked two weeks ahead of the due date. the common class of tickets being offered by airlines world-wide are: economy class, business class and first class type of services/tickets. the table above shows the class of tickets/services being offered by the airlines under consideration. only british airways offers economy class, business class and first class type of services/tickets for their passengers while virgin atlantic and med-view airline provides business class and economy class type of services/ticket for their passengers ‘on lagos to london route. however, each class of ticket comes with different fares. for british airways flight from nigeria (los) to london (lhr), the fare starts from about 371,000 naira and above, while for virgin atlantic flights from nigeria (los) to london (lhr), the fare starts from about 379,000 naira and above. finally, for med-view airline flights from nigeria (los) to london (lgw), their fare starts from about 298,000 naira and above however, from the table above, british airways offers more services to passengers on lagos to london route (direct flight) than both virgin atlantic and med-view airline. moreover, med-view airline is the nigeria’s national carrier that offers the lowest air fare on the route with two types of class tickets while virgin atlantic airline offers only two types of class tickets with highest air fare. table 2: available services in relation to class of ticket british airways virgin atlantic med-view airline economy class delicious meals and a full bar service, in-flight entertainment, airport pick-up, first-aid medical services. in-flight services, in-flight entertainment, first-aid medical services. baggage allowance, in-flight services, in-flight entertainment, first-aid medical services. business class seating flexibility, pre-flight services, fast-track services through the airport, more baggage allowance. extra in-flight services, skin care, chauffeur-drive service, fast track service. seating flexibility, more baggage allowance. first class extra in-flight services, extra entertainment, dedicated check-in. source: author’s field work july, 2017 table 2 above shows the available services in each class of ticket the airlines offers their passengers. the airport pick-up service that british airways offers is a game-changing new service for passengers, that allows travelers to check in their luggage remotely from anywhere in london to their destination airport. the service enables british airways passengers to travel completely luggage free, until they reach baggage reclaim at their destination. while both virgin atlantic and med-view airlines offer more improved services to their business class passengers’ than www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 6 their economy class passengers such services are; fast track services, skin care, chauffeur-driven service, more baggage allowance etc. the table 3 below shows the estimate of annual passenger movement and revenue generated by the airlines under consideration in the past ten years on their direct flight from nigeria to london route. the estimated total amount generated by the airlines is closely to $6.2 billion (estimated) in the past 10 years. over the past ten years’, british airways has made closely to $4 billion (estimated) on just nigeria to london route with market share of 59.35% while virgin atlantic has made over $2.3 billion (estimated) on lagos to london route in the past ten years with market share of 38.47%. finally, med-view airline which is a nascent national carrier has made over $133 million (estimated) in the past three years on lagos to london with market share of 2.18%. this gives an impression of loss of involvement and revenue loss of over $6 billion from nigeria due to the absence of national carrier. the airlines under consideration had a steady increase in passenger movement and revenue over the years and encountered downturn in revenue and passenger carriage in 2016due to economy recession in nigeria except of med-view airline that made an increase in both passenger movement and revenue in 2016.over the past ten years, virgin atlantic airline generated their highest revenue in the year 2015 generating $267,176,372.9 and the year 2014 generating $25,640,3682.8 but generated the lowest revenue in the year 2016 generating $190,913,178.2. british airways generated highest revenue on lagos to london route in the year 2015 generating $243,755,022.9 and the year 2014 generating $242,833,600.9 while generated its highest revenue on abuja to london route in the year 2014 generating $166,876,867.6 and the year 2013 generating $165,813,935.8 while generating the lowest revenue on both routes to london in the year 2016 generating $189,617,224.8 on lagos to table 3 average annual passenger revenue by airline operating international flights year virgin atlantic (annual passenger * average ticket fee (n)) british airways (annual passenger * average ticket fee (n)) british airways (annual passenger * average ticket fee (n)) med-view airline (annual passenger * average ticket fee (n)) lagos – london route lagos – london route abuja – london route lagos – london route 2016 153738 * 379000 = 58,266,702,000 155987 * 371000 = 57,871,177,000 83001 * 349200 = 28,983,949,200 128225 * 298,000 = 38,211,050,000 2015 215151 * 379000 = 81,542,229,000 200523 * 371000 = 74,394,033,000 142656* 349200 = 49,154,752,000 8613 * 298,000 = 2,566,674,000 2014 206476 * 379000 = 78,254,404,000 199765* 371000 = 74,112,815,000 145850* 349200 = 50,930,820,000 2013 203902 * 379000 = 77,278,858,000 195647* 371000 = 72,585,037,000 144921* 349200 = 50,606,413,200 2012 188320 * 379000 = 71,373,280,000 180305* 371000 = 66,893,155,000 141943* 349200 =49,566,495,600 2011 196480 * 379000 = 74,465,920,000 174392* 371000 = 64,699,432,000 129443* 349200 =45,201,495,600 2010 192649 * 379000 = 73,013,971,000 168866* 371000 = 62,649,286,000 109663* 349200 = 38,294,319,600 2009 181962 * 379000 = 68,963,598,000 179836* 371000 = 66,719,156,000 120796* 349200 = 42,181,963,200 2008 181404 * 379000 = 68,752,116,000 185716* 371000 = 68,900,636,000 121846* 349200 = 42,548,623,200 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 7 2007 181328 * 379000 =68,721,417,000 176800* 371000 = 65,592,800,000 119600* 349200 = 41,764,320,000 sub total (n) 674,417,527,000 437,233,151,600 total (n) 720,634,495,000 1,111,650,678,600 40,777,724,000 total ($) 2,361,187,729 3,642,367,883 133,609,843 grand total($) 6,137,165,455 percentage volume 38.47% 59.35% 2.18% source: author’s field work january, 2018. * n 305.2= $1 source: cbn official exchange rate, 1/19/2018. london route and generating $94,967,068.15 on abuja to london route in 2016 also. moreover, med-view airline which is a nascent airline started its scheduled international carriage in the year 2015 generated $8,409,809.96 in the same year and generated a whopping amount of $125,200,032.8 in the year 2016, making med-view airline as the only airline that had a bullish revenue in 2016 while the other two airlines had a bearish revenue in the year 2016 and this is as a result of reduced passenger carriage by the two airlines and increased in passenger carriage by medview airline in 2016. the airlines annual passenger traffic volume carriage for the past 10 years was assessed in table 3above where british airways has a good and high passenger movement in nigeria in the past 10 years however, they have low passenger carriage in 2010 while reaching their peak in passenger traffic in 2014 and having a lower passenger traffic movement in the year 2016 maybe due to recession and forex hardship in the nigeria economy. however, virgin atlantic has shown a steady trend in passenger movement to and fro nigeria. the airline has low passenger traffic in the year 2007-2009 but shows an astronomical passenger movement in 2013 while reaching its all-time highest in 2015 also. passenger traffic movement carriage capacity for med-view airline for the past 10years was not available because it is a nascent airline in nigeria. moreover, med-view airline has enjoyed an increase in passenger carriage from its commencement of scheduled international flights in 2014 till date. both british airways and virgin atlantic shows a downward trend in passenger traffic movement in 2016 while only med-view airline shows an upward trend in passenger traffic movement in the year 2016. 6. conclusion and recommendation the aim of this research is to estimate the amount of revenue nigeria is loosing to capital flights for not having a viable national carrier. the study solely focuses on direct flights that are from nigeria to london route, whereby british airways, virgin atlantic airline and med-view airline direct flights were considered. the study shows that types of services/ticket class being rendered by the airlines with their fares, available services in each class of ticket the airlines offers and the amount of revenue generated by the airlines in the past ten years.the research reveals that over $6 billon were being generated by both british airways and virgin atlantic airline over the past ten years and the nigeria’s private national carrier generated over $133 million and both foreign airlines establishing themselves on the route and having over 97% of the market share on the route while the nigeria’s private carrier having 2.18% of the market share. moreover, revenue loss to other international flights was established due to absence of a viable national carrier. the federal government in coordination with the ministry of aviation and other relevant agencies in the aviation industry in nigeria need to establish a viable national carrier to serve nigerians and also encourage new entrants into international flight operations which will help nigeria to drastically reduce revenue loss to various international airline capital flights and this will ensure that nigerians and foreigners are well served with provision of multiple job opportunities in the avaiation industry. moreover, in establishing the national carrier, structures and frameworks need to be put in place to ensure good quality services were being offered to passengers.however, strong financial institutions such as bank of industries and others in nigeria should provide lump sum of loans to corporations that are ready to venture into airline business, and those in existence to finance the purchase of large jumbo jets that are being used in the aviation industry so as to make nigerian airlines more competitive in the market with delivering of quality services to passengers. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 8 references abraham a. a, saheed, s. z and chinyere i (2015) air transportation development and economic growth in nigeria. journal of economics and sustainable development issn 2222-1700. vol.6, no.2. air transport action group. 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(2011). “the impact of expectation and perception on customer satisfaction in airline industry (a case study of mahan air)”. sharif university of technology international campus. ekaterina t. (2012). measuring customer expectations of service quality: case airline industry. logistics master's thesis.department of information and service economy aalto university school of economics. filani, m.o (1983) –air transportation in oguntoyinbo, j.s., areola, o.o., filani m., edsa geography of nigerian development. second edition, heinemann education (nigeria) ltd. ileoje, n.p. (2003)-a new geography of nigeria fifth edition ikeja, lagos: longman nigeriaplc. isaac iortimbiraun (2013).airport development and socio-economic development of nigeria. transcampus journal.jorind 11(1). issn 1596-8308. pp 196-205. jianling w., robin q., yun w. and junyan wu. 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(2012). levinson, d., liu, h., garrison, w., hickman, m., danczyk, a., corbett, m., & dixon, k. (2014). fundamentals of transportation. oxford economics brochure (2012), economic benefits from air transport in nigeria. http://www.oxfordeconomics.com/my-oxford/projects/129034 19 september 2014. salleh m. i and jusoh o (2005). measuring efficiency of stations in an airline network: an application of data envelopment analysis.faculty of business and economy, university pendidikan sultan idris, malaysia. pp 19. tiernan s., rhoades d., and waguespack b, (2008),” airline alliance service quality performance-an analysis of us and eu member airlines”, journal of air transport management, vol. 14(2), 99-102. faan (2017).https://www.faan.gov.ng/international-airports/ copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 9 single-server queue system of shuttle bus performance: federal university of technology akure as case study sidiq okwudili ben department of geography college of education ikere, ekiti, nigeria email: sidiqoben@yahoo.com abstract this study has examined the performance of university transport bus shuttle based on utilization using a single-server queue system which occur if arrival and service rate is poisson distributed (single queue) (m/m/1) queue. in the methodology, singleserver queue system was modelled based on poisson process with the introduction of laplace transform. it is concluded that the performance of university transport bus shuttle is 96.6 percent which indicates a very good performance such that the supply of shuttle bus in futa is capable of meeting the demand. keywords: single-server queue system; shuttle buses; futa 1. introduction the issues arising from transportation has continually subjected to various debates in the urban societies. globally, several attempts have been made to tackle the challenges, although the situation is not getting much better (aderamo, 2012; adanikin, olutaiwo, and obafemi, 2017). managing transport infrastructures is crucial to facilitate accessible, affordable, reliable, safe, and efficient that movement of people and goods, which can be achieved by continous assessment of transport performance indicators. among the various modes of transport, the road transport is highly predominant which offers door-to-door service as in the case of the federal university of technology akure (futa). road transport infrastructure in the university is commonly plied by shuttle buses for the movement of the students, staff, members and non-members of the institution to and from the university on a daily basis. among the noticeable transportation problems in the university are traffic congestion; longer commuting; public transport inadequacy; difficulties for tricycles to have access to routes being plied by shuttle buses, challenge of freight distribution from one end of the university to another end, and other challenges which all impacts the performance of the university transport shuttle. this study concentrates on the performance of university transport bus shuttle with the aim of examining the bus shuttle efficiency based on utilization. adeniran and kanyio (2019) have laid a foundation of model on single-server queue system which this study will absolutely rely on. a similar study was conducted by adanikin, olutaiwo, and obafemi (2017) on the performance study of university of ado ekiti (unad) transit shuttle buses. they adopted traffic volume, speed, density and revenue as main parameters of performance of transport shuttles, and find that the morning peak period (8.00am to 9.00am) has 234 vehicles/hr, evening peak period (2.00pm to 3.00pm) has 284 vehicles/hr, while the off-peak period (11.00am to 12.00pm) has 156 vehicles/hr. also, the average stopping time was 6.55 minutes, average interval between arrivals of motorists was 16.40 seconds, the average queue length was 14.23 people, and the average waiting time at the bus-stop 4.17 minutes. these values were obtained using the queuing theory and shows much commuters time is lost on transit queues. this study focuses on the performance of bus terminal in futa, and does not factor in other parameters such as peak period, traffic volume, traffic speed, density, and others. 2. methodology 2.1 queuing system the concept of queue was first used for the analysis of telephone call traffic in 1913 (copper, 1981; gross and harris, 1985; bastani, 2009). in a system that deals with the rate of arrival and service rate, waiting time is inevitable and it is always copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 10 influenced by queue length. it is therefore crucial to minimize the waiting time to the lowest level in the bus terminal (jain, mohanty and bohm, 2007). this is referred to as queuing system (adeniran and kanyio, 2019). the basic application of queue is shown in figure 1, also the basic quantities are: i. number of customers in queue l (for length); ii. time spent in queue w for (wait) figure1: basic application of queue source: adeniran and kanyio (2019) examples of queue system are: 1. single-server queue system: this is also referred to as single queue, single server. it is simple if arrivals and services are poisson distributed (m/m/1) queue. it has limited number of spots and not difficult. figure 2 depicts single-server queue system. figure 2: single-server queue system source: adeniran and kanyio (2019) 2. multi-server queue system: this is comprises of single queue, many servers (m/m/c) queue. the c is referred to as poisson servers. figure 3 depicts multiple-server queue system. figure 3: multiple-server queue system source: adeniran and kanyio (2019) in single-server queue system, arrival and service processes are poisson such that a. customers arrive at an average rate of λ per unit time; copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 11 b. customers are serviced at an average rate of µ per unit time; c. interarrival and inter-service time are exponential and independent; d. hypothesis of poisson arrivals is reasonable; and e. hypothesis of exponential service times are not so reasonable (adeniran and kanyio, 2019) in order to explain how the queuing system works, there is need to first introduce the poisson process (pp). it has exceptional properties and is a very important process in queuing theory. to simplify the model, we often assume customer arrivals follow a pp. the laplace transform (lt) is also a very powerful tool that was adopted in the analysis (trani, 2011). apart from pp and lt, there is focus on the queue model itself (adeniran and kanyio, 2019). 2.2 modelling of single queue system 2.2.1 laplace transform the laplace transform lx(s) of a nonnegative random variable x with distribution function f(x) is define as: lx(s) = e(e−sx) = ∫ e−sx∞ x=0 f(x)dx ………………… equation 1 it can be noted that lx(0) = e(e−x .0) = e(1) = 1 ………………… equation 2 and l1 x(0) = e((e−sx)1)|s=0 = e(−xe−sx)|s=0 = −e(x) ………………… equation 3 correspondingly, l (k) x (0) = (−1)ke(xk) ………………… equation 4 there are many useful properties of laplace transform. these properties can make calculations easier when dealing with probability. for instance, let x, y, z be three random variables with z = x +y and x, y are independent. then the laplace transform of z can be found as: lz(s) = lx(s) · ly (s) ………………… equation 5 moreover, when z with probability p equals x, with probability 1 − p equals y, then lz(s) = plx(s) + (1 − p)ly (s) ………………… equation 6 laplace transforms of some useful distributions can now be introduced. a. suppose x is a random variable which follows an exponential distribution with rate λ. the laplace transform of x is lx(s) = (λ) λ + s ………………… equation 7 b. suppose x is a random variable which follows an erlang − r distribution with rate λ. then x can be written as: x = x1 + x2 + · · · + xr ………………… equation 8 where xi are i.i.d. exponential with rate λ. therefore, we have lx(s) = lx1(s) · lx2(s)… lxr(s) = ( λ λ + s ) n ………………… equation 9 c. suppose x is a constant real number c, then lx(s) = e(e−sx) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 12 = e(e−sc) = e−sc ………………… equation 10 (culled from adeniran and kanyio, 2019) 2.2.2 basic queuing systems kendall’s notation shall be used to describe a queuing system as denoted by: a/b/m/k/n/d …………………. equation 11 (adan and resing, 2016) where a: distribution of the interarrival times b: distribution of the service times m: number of servers k: capacity of the system, the maximum number of passengers in the system including the one being serviced n: population size of sources of passengers d: service discipline g shall be used to denote general distribution, m used for exponential distribution (m stands for memoryless), d be used for deterministic times (sztrik, 2016). a/b/m is also used to describe a queuing system, where: a stands for distribution of interarrival times, b stands for distribution of service times and m stands for number of servers. hence m/m/1 denotes a system with poisson arrivals, exponentially distributed service times and a single server. m/g/m denotes an mserver system with poisson arrivals and generally distributed service times, and so on. in this section, the basic queuing models (m/m/1 system), which is a system with poisson arrivals, exponentially distributed service times and a single server. the following part is retrieved from queuing systems (adan and resing, 2016). firstly, it is assumed that inter-arrivals follow an exponential distribution with rate λ, and service time follows the exponential distribution with rate µ. further, in the single service model, to avoid queue length instability, it is assume that: according to adanikin, olutaiwo and obafemi (2017), utilization (r) = average arrival rate (λ) average service rate (μ) < 1 …………………….. equation 12 here r is the fraction of time the server is working (called the utility factor) limiting probability pk in the m/m/1 system. the expected queue length l is given by e(l) = ∑ i. pi ∞ i=0 = ∑ i. ri ∞ i=0 (1 − r) = r(1 − r) ∑ i. ri ∞ i=0 = r(1 − r) (∑〖i. ri)i ∞ i=1 〗 = r(1-r) ( 1 1−r )i = r 1−r ..............................equation 13 (adeniran and kanyio, 2019) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 13 3. results and discussions 3.1. traffic survey 3.1.1 stopping time of shuttle bus stopping time refers to the total time duration the shuttle bus spends at the bus stop. the stopping time is made up of: a) the boarding stop time “a”: this is also made up of the time taken to close the door = 15 seconds; time taken by the driver to check the traffic before take-off = 9 seconds; and time taken to park the bus and open the bus for commuters = 7 seconds. a = (15+9+7) = 31 seconds b) the average boarding time per passenger = “b1” = 9 seconds c) number of passengers boarding = n1 = 18 passengers. mathematically, stopping time t = a + b1* n1 stopping time = (31 + (9*18)) = (22+162) = 184 seconds stopping time = 3.07 minutes 3.2 waiting time this is the length of time spent by the passengers at the bus stop before boarding a bus. it is also referred to as delay. the queuing theory is employed in this study. a) average arrival rate (λ) = 204 passengers/hour λ = 204 3600 = 0.057 b) average service rate (μ) = 213 passengers/hour μ = 213 3600 = 0.059 c) average interval between arrival = 1 λ = 1 0.057 = 17.54 seconds d) average interval between service rate = 1 μ = 1 0.059 = 16.95 seconds e) average queue length = 𝜆2 𝜇(𝜇−𝜆) = 0.0572 0.059(0.059−0.057) = = 0.0033 0.00012 = 25.5 passengers f) average waiting time in the queue = λ 𝜇(𝜇−𝜆) = 0.057 0.059(0.059−0.057) = = 0.057 0.00012 = 475 seconds = 7.92 minutes g) average time spent in the system (bus stop) = 1 μ−λ = 1 0.059 − 0.057 = 500 seconds = 8.33 minutes h) efficiency of shuttle bus operation based on bus stop utilization (r) = 𝜆 𝜇 r = 0.057 0.059 = 0.966 it is important to note that the utilization factor is less than 1(r< 1), hence the performance of university transport bus shuttle is 96.6 percent which indicates a very good performance such that the supply of shuttle bus in futa is capable of meeting the demand. 4. conclusion and recommendation this study has carefully explored the quantitative performance of university transport bus shuttle based on utilization using a single-server queue system which occur if arrival and service rate is poisson distributed (single queue) (m/m/1) queue. it is concluded that the performance of university transport bus shuttle is 96.6 percent which indicates a very good performance such that the supply of shuttle bus in futa is capable of meeting the demand. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 14 references adan, i., and resing, j. (2015). queuing systems. department of mathematics and computer science, eindhoven university of technology, netherlands, 2015. adanikin, a., olutaiwo, a., and obafemi, t. (2017). performance study of university of ado ekiti (unad) transit shuttle buses. american journal of traffic and transportation engineering, 2(5): 67-73 doi: 10.11648/j.ajtte.20170205.12. ademoh, n. a., and anosike, e. n. (2014). queuing modelling of air transport passengers of nnamdi azikiwe international airport abuja, nigeria using multi server approach. middle east journal of scientific research 21 (12): 2326-2338, 2014 doi: 10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2014.21.12.21807. adeniran, a. o., and kanyio, o. a. (2019). quantitative model of single-server queue system. indian journal of engineering, 16, 177-183. aderamo, a. j. (2012). urban transportation problems and challenges in nigeria: a planner’s view. prime journals. 2(3), 198203. bastani p. (2009). a queuing model of hospital congestion. msc. thesis submitted to department of mathematics simon fraser university copper, r. b. (1981). introduction to queuing theory, 2nd edition north holland. gross, d., and harris, c. m. (1985). fundamentals of queuing theory, 2nd ed. john wiley & sons: new york. jain, j. l., mohanty, s. g., and bohm, w. (2007). a course on queuing models, statistics: a series of textbooks and monographs, chapman & hall/crc, taylor & francis group. sztrik, j. (2012). basic queuing theory. university of debrecen, faculty of informatics. trani, a., a. (2011). introduction to transportation engineering, introduction to queuing theory. virginia polytechnic institute and state university, us, pp: 2-46. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 16 long term forecasting of international air travel demand in nigeria (2018-2028) adeniran, adetayo olaniyi 1 & kanyio, olufunto adedotun 2 1 department of transport management technology, federal university of technology, akure, nigeria 2 department of transport management technology, federal university of technology, akure, nigeria correspondence: adeniran, adetayo o. department of transport management technology, federal university of technology, p.m.b 704, akure, nigeria. tel: +2347036196773. email: 4tynil@gmail.com received: august 5, 2018 accepted: august 29, 2018 online published: september 10, 2018 abstract this study examines long term forecasting of international air travel demand in nigeria. yearly data from 2001 to 2017 were collected from secondary sources. ordinary least square (ols) regression was used to forecast the ten years (2018 to 2028) demand for international air passenger travel in nigeria. the demand for international air passenger in nigeria from year 2001 to 2017 was compared with the forecast. calculation reveals that the coefficient of determination r2 is 0.815, while the computed reveals that the coefficient of determination r2 is 0.769, this difference can be attributed to approximations to two decimal places for calculated test. the calculated test and computed test reveals that the error term is minimal and the explanation level is high; hence the prediction or forecast is reliable. the forecast for years 2020, 2025 and 2028 are 5,282,453, 6,342,519, and 6,978,559 respectively which are about 48 percent increase, 78 percent increase, and 95 percent increase respectively from demand in year 2017. the forecast of ten years from year 2018 to year 2028 reveals that there will be more increase in the demand for international air passenger travel in nigeria. the implication of this increment is that existing air transport infrastructures should be upgraded, and new infrastructures should be procured and installed; airport and airline operations should be reviewed and strategized such that they will meet the expectations of airline and airport users. other concerned business stakeholders should use this data to plan and invest as there is high tendency for profit making. keywords: ordinary least square (ols) regression, forecasting, international air passenger demand. 1. introduction 1.1 background of the study there will always be demand for movement as the importance of transportation cannot be far-fetched from or beyond the following; economic purpose, social integration and spatial interaction, (adeniran, 2016) without which poverty is inevitable. this connote the axiom of wilfred owen, a renowned transport analyst who states that “immobility perpetuate poverty”. air transportation is a subsystem of transportation, and a system on its own which has other subsystems. the demand for transport is a derived one which is driven by the needs and desires to attain some other final objectives. the derived nature of air transport is attributed to the unique characteristics of air transport which are:  air transport demand is a product that cannot be stored or kept;  the product is usually personalized (consumers feel differently about the product), which is referred to as heterogeneity of product;  there is no replacement for bad product;  it is difficult to test the product before usage;  delivery of product cannot be guaranteed because of unpredictable factors; and www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 17  the product can be produced only in batches and not in individual units (adeniran & ben, 2017; adeniran et al., 2017; john, 2007). air transport operations and business cannot be maximized or sustained unless there is demand for its services. meanwhile the estimation of expected future demands is a key element in planning air transport operations and business. air transport demand is the quantity of air transport service that consumers (mostly air passengers) are willing to buy at an agreed price. economists categorized demand as effective demand and ineffective demand. effective demand in air transport is defined as the quantity of air transport service that consumer (mostly passengers) are willing and able to buy at a given price. while ineffective demand is the willingness to buy but it is not backed up by ability to pay. the type of demand that will be focused in this study is effective international air passenger demand in nigeria and between the periods of year 2001 to year 2017. it is important to note that all levels of managing air transport business requires decision making. decisions are made about what is likely to happen in air transport in the future as it is said that business actions taken today must be based on yesterday’s plan and tomorrow’s expectations which is referred to as expectations, predictions, projections, all referred to as forecasting (terry, 2007). forecasting is needed since every form of decision making and planning activity in international air transport business involves forecasting such as airline planning, airport planning, inventory control, investment cash flows, demand forecasts, corporate planning, budgeting, and others. forecasting is not planning, it is an indispensable part of planning and a management tool for deciding now what the company must do to realize its objectives. the outcome of this study is very essential to airport management, airline management, concessionaires of aeronautical and non-aeronautical services, third-parties, government agencies and ministries, economic regulators, transport policy analysts and planners, and other concerned agencies involved in air transportation. as overforecasting increases the labour/technical cost, administrative cost, having excess air transport supply over air transport demand, and other associated costs, so also does under-forecasting result in the problem of having excess air transport demand over air transport supply. inadequate supply of air transport service result in increased stress for international air passengers who are the direct customer, and under-forecasting will lower employee morale, and challenge the competency of airport and airline managers. 1.2 motivation of the study there are various forecasting techniques such as moving average, exponential smoothing, and others. moving averages, exponential smoothing and decomposition methods tend to be used for short and medium forecasting. long term forecasting is usually less detailed and is normally concerned with forecasting the main trends on a year of year (yoy) basis. hence, any of the techniques of regression analysis could be used depending on the assumptions about linearity or nonlinearity, the number of independent variables, and so on. this study adopts ordinary least square (ols) regression approach, as it is often used for trend forecasting. 1.2 aim and objectives the aim of this paper is to examine the dynamics for evaluating different forecasting methods for international air passenger demand in nigeria. the specific objectives of this study are to:  forecast the demand of international air passenger demand for ten years (2018-2028);  determine the coefficient of determination. 1.3 scope of study the study s limited to international air passenger demand in nigeria. the data is also limited to seventeen (17) years from the period of year 2001 to 2017. 2. literature review 2.1 forecasting forecasting can be defined as attempt to predict the future by using qualitative or quantitative means. it is an integral part of all human activity, but from the business point of view increasing attention is being given to formal forecasting systems which are continually being refined (terry, 2007). every form of decision making and planning activities in business involve forecasting as it is being applied in air transportation. there are two techniques involved in forecasting, they are;  quantitative techniques which involve the use of causal method such as correlation and regression analysis, and time series analysis such as simple exponential smoothing and single moving average.  qualitative techniques which is solely judgmental method such as expert opinion, poll, and sales force opinion. this paper laid emphasis on quantitative techniques. quantitative techniques have varying levels of statistical complexity which are based on analyzing past data of the item to be forecast. a very good example that will be captured in this study is international air passenger traffic (movement). however sophisticated the technique used, www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 18 there is the underlying assumption that the past patterns will provide some guidance to the future. according to terry (2007), the main assumption behind the use of quantitative technique of forecasting is that the longer a period covered by the data, the more likely that the data will be representative of the future. nevertheless, however long a period is covered by past data, any extrapolations or forecasts produced from that data by whatever technique should be treated with caution. in other to forecast quantitatively, the use of time series cannot be overemphasized. 2.2time series analysis time-series or trend analysis is a sophisticated statistical method of forecasting analysis. it is the oldest, and in many cases still the most widely used method of forecasting air transportation demand. it is simply a sequence of values expressed at regular recurring periods of time, and it is possible from these time-series studies to detect regular movements that are likely to recur and thus can be used as a means of predicting future events. forecasting by timeseries or trend extension actually consists of interpreting the historical sequence and applying the interpretation to the immediate future. it assumes that the past rate of growth or change will continue (john, 2007). 2.3ordinary least square (ols) regression the least squares method is a form of mathematical regression analysis that finds the line of best fit for a dataset, providing a visual demonstration of the relationship between the data points. each point of data is representative of the relationship between a known independent variable and an unknown dependent variable. the least squares method provides the overall rationale for the placement of the line of best fit among the data points being studied. the most common application of the least squares method, referred to as linear or ordinary, aims to create a straight line that minimizes the sum of the squares of the errors generated by the results of the associated equations, such as the squared residuals resulting from differences in the observed value and the value anticipated based on the model (investopedia). this method of regression analysis begins with a set of data points to be graphed. an analyst using the least squares method will seek a line of best fit that explains the potential relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. in regression analysis, dependent variables are designated on the vertical y axis and independent variables are designated on the horizontal x-axis. these designations will form the equation for the line of best fit, which is determined from the least squares method (ibid). the line of best fit determined from the least squares method has an equation that tells the story of the relationship between the data points. computer software models are used to determine the line of best fit equation, and these software models include a summary of outputs for analysis. the least squares method can be used for determining the line of best fit in any regression analysis. the coefficients and summary outputs explain the dependence of the variables being tested. in contrast to a linear problem, a non-linear least squares problem has no closed solution and is generally solved by iteration. the earliest description of the least squares method was by carl friedrich gauss in 1795 (ibid). 3. methodology 3.1 research design there are uncertainties in demand of product and services, which can be reduced through forecasting. the study adopts ordinary least square (ols) regression for forecasting the demand of international air passenger in nigeria. data for this analysis are secondary data sourced from federal airport authority of nigeria (faan) (2018), nigerian civil aviation authority (ncaa) (2011), nigerian bureau of statistics (2018), and journal article of adeniran & gbadamosi (2017) covering the periods of seventeen years spanning from the year 2001 to year 2017. 3.2 model specification when specifying the model, mathematical model will be specified before the econometric model. the mathematical model is for regression true line, while the econometric model is for regression observed line. without the mathematical model, there cannot be an econometric model. the difference between the mathematical model (true line) and the econometric model (observed line) is the inclusion of stochastic disturbance term, otherwise known as unexplained variables or error term in the econometric model. the difference between the true line and observed line can be seen on the line graph, and calculated by the coefficient of determination. if the difference of lines otherwise referred to as error term is wide, it will result to a low coefficient of determination. the implication is that the predictions of forecast cannot be reliable. but if the error term is minimal, it will result to a high coefficient of determination. the implication is that the predictions of forecast will be reliable. mathematical model (true line model): y = a + bx................. (equation 1) econometric model (observed line model): y = a + bx + ui................. (equation 2) where www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 19 y = international air passenger demand in nigeria (dependent variable), a = intercept. b = parameter/ slope x = time (independent variable) ui = stochastic disturbance term or unexplained variables or error term which captures other factors influencing international air passenger demand in nigeria. in other to derive the true line, the following equations must be achieved: σy = na + σxb................. (equation 3) σxy = σxa + σx 2 b................. (equation 4) 4. result and discussions 4.1forecasting the demand of international air passenger for ten years (2018-2028) the data were drawn on a time series graph where x, the independent variable representing time, is represented on the horizontal axis of the figure 1 below. it should be noted that unlike a scatter diagram, the points are joined. the ordinary least squares line of best fit became the linear trend when plotted on the graph. table 1: demand for nigeria international air passengers in the past seventeen years years international air passenger demand yr 2001 1,506,878 yr 2002 1,798,063 yr 2003 1,719,533 yr 2004 1,843,154 yr 2005 1,700,252 yr 2006 1,514,656 yr 2007 2,323949 yr 2008 2,557,264 yr 2009 2,619,918 yr 2010 3,217,876 yr 2011 3,586,742 yr 2012 4,440,930 yr 2013 4,600,698 yr 2014 4,654,941 yr 2015 4,233,844 yr 2016 4,260,989 yr 2017 3,575,542 sources: nigerian civil aviation authority (2011); federal airport authority of nigeria (2017); nigeria bureau of statistics (2018); adeniran & gbadamosi (2017). figure 1: time series graph showing international air passenger demand in nigeria from year 2001 to 2017. source: authors’ computation www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 20 table 2: details of regression arithmetic years number of years (x) international air passenger demand (y) xy x 2 yr 2001 1 1,506,878 1,506,878 1 yr 2002 2 1,798,063 3,596,126 4 yr 2003 3 1,719,533 5,158,599 9 yr 2004 4 1,843,154 7,372,616 16 yr 2005 5 1,700,252 8,501,260 25 yr 2006 6 1,514,656 9,087,936 36 yr 2007 7 2,323,949 1,626,7643 49 yr 2008 8 2,557,264 20,458,112 64 yr 2009 9 2,619,918 23,579,262 81 yr 2010 10 3,217,876 32,178,760 100 yr 2011 11 3,586,742 39,454,162 121 yr 2012 12 4,440,930 53,291,160 144 yr 2013 13 4,600,698 59,809,074 169 yr 2014 14 4,654,941 65,169,174 196 yr 2015 15 4,233,844 63,507,660 225 yr 2016 16 4,260,989 68,175,824 256 yr 2017 17 3,575,542 60,784,214 289 total 153 50,155,229 537,898,460 1,785 source: authors’ computation (2018) there are 17 pairs of readings (n = 17) σx = 153 σy = 50,155,229 σxy = 537,898,460 σx 2 = 1,785 all calculations into two decimal places σy = na + σxb................. (equation 3) σxy = σxa + σx 2 b................. (equation 4) to obtain the values of a and b, substitute the readings above into equations 3 and 4, and solve simultaneously. 50,155,229 = 17a + 153b................. (equation 3) 537,898,460 = 153a + 1,785b................. (equation 4) adopting elimination by substitution method; multiply equation (3) by 9 and equation (4) by 1 to produce equations 5 and 6 respectively. 451,397,061 = 153a + 1,377b................. (equation 5) 537,898,460 = 153a + 1,785b................. (equation 6) subtract equation (5) from equation (6) to produce equation (7) 86,501,399 = 408b................. (equation 7) divide equation (7) by 408 to obtain b www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 21 b = 212013.23 substitute b as 212013.23 into equation (3) to form equation (8) 50,155,229 = 17a + 153(212013.23) 50,155,229 = 17a + 32438024.19 50,155,229 – 32,438,024.19 = 17a 17,717,204.81 = 17a................. (equation 8) divide equation (8) by 17 to obtain a a = 1042188.52 regression line as shown in the model specification of equation (1) is y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23x to forecast, x will be replaced by the number of years as shown in table 3 below table 3: determination of international air passenger demand forecast in nigeria years number of years (x) forecast of international air passenger demand in nigeria (y) yr 2001 1 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(1) = 1254202 yr 2002 2 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(2) = 1466215 yr 2003 3 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(3) = 1678228 yr 2004 4 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(4) = 1890241 yr 2005 5 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(5) = 2102255 yr 2006 6 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(6) = 2314268 yr 2007 7 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(7) = 2526281 yr 2008 8 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(8) = 2738294 yr 2009 9 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(9) = 2950308 yr 2010 10 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(10) = 3162321 yr 2011 11 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(11) = 3374334 yr 2012 12 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(12) = 3586347 yr 2013 13 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(13) = 3798361 yr 2014 14 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(14) = 4010374 yr 2015 15 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(15) = 4222387 yr 2016 16 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(16) = 4434400 yr 2017 17 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(17) = 4646413 yr 2018 18 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(18) = 4858427 yr 2019 19 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(19) = 5070440 yr 2020 20 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(20) = 5282453 yr 2021 21 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(21) = 5494466 yr 2022 22 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(22) = 5706480 yr 2023 23 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(23) = 5918493 yr 2024 24 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(24) = 6130506 yr 2025 25 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(25) = 6342519 yr 2026 26 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(26) = 6554533 yr 2027 27 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(27) = 6766546 yr 2028 28 y = 1042188.52 + 212013.23(28) = 6978559 source: authors’ computation (2018) www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 22 figure 3: forecast of international air passenger demand in nigeria from year 2001 to 2028 source: authors’ computation (2018) it is important to note that the demand for international air passenger in nigeria as at year 2001 was 1,506,878 which rose to 1,700,252 which is about 13 percent increase in the year 2005. also, the demand rose from 1,700,252 in the year 2005 to 3,217,876 which is about 90 percent increase in the year 2010. the demand also rose from 3,217,876 in the year 2010 to 4,233,844 and 3,575,542 which are about 32 and 11 percent increase in the years 2015 and 2017 respectively. 4.2 coefficient of determination this is needed to determine the reliability of forecast. the difference between the true line and observed line can be seen on the line graph, and calculated by the coefficient of determination r 2 . if the difference of lines otherwise referred to as error term is wide, it will result to a low coefficient of determination. the implication is that the predictions of forecast cannot be reliable. but if the error term is minimal, it will result to a high coefficient of determination. the implication is that the predictions of forecast will be reliable. to calculate the coefficient of determination, the equation 9 below will be applied. table 4: calculation of coefficient of determination (r 2 ) years number of years (x) international air passenger demand (y) forecast (ye) (ye ῡ) 2 (y ῡ) 2 yr 2001 1 1,506,878 1254202 2.87678e+12 2.08349e+12 yr 2002 2 1,798,063 1466215 2.20253e+12 1.32767e+12 yr 2003 3 1,719,533 1678228 1.61819e+12 1.51481e+12 yr 2004 4 1,843,154 1890241 1.12374e+12 1.22579e+12 yr 2005 5 1,700,252 2102255 7.19194e+11 1.56264e+12 yr 2006 6 1,514,656 2314268 4.04546e+11 2.0611e+12 yr 2007 7 2,323,949 2526281 1.79798e+11 3.92325e+11 yr 2008 8 2,557,264 2738294 44949609695 1.54483e+11 yr 2009 9 2,619,918 2950308 0 1.09157e+11 yr 2010 10 3,217,876 3162321 44949609695 71592854030 yr 2011 11 3,586,742 3374334 1.79798e+11 4.05049e+11 yr 2012 12 4,440,930 3586347 4.04546e+11 2.22196e+12 yr 2013 13 4,600,698 3798361 7.19194e+11 2.72379e+12 yr 2014 14 4,654,941 4010374 1.12374e+12 2.90578e+12 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 23 yr 2015 15 4,233,844 4222387 1.61819e+12 1.64747e+12 yr 2016 16 4,260,989 4434400 2.20253e+12 1.71789e+12 yr 2017 17 3,575,542 4646413 2.87678e+12 3.90918e+11 total σ 50,155,229 1.83394e+13 2.25159e+13 mean 2950307.6 source: authors’ computation r 2 = σ[(ye –ῡ)(ye –ῡ)] σ[(y –ῡ)(y –ῡ)] .................... (equation 9) where: ῡ = σy n ; ῡ = 50,155,229 17 ; ῡ = 2950307.59 ye = forecast (y) σ(ye –ῡ) 2 = 1.83394e+13 σ(y –ῡ) 2 = 2.25159e+13 r 2 = 1.83394e+13 2.25159e+13 ; r 2 = 0.815 figure 3: difference between the true line and the observed line for forecast source: authors’ computation (2018) calculation reveals that the coefficient of determination r 2 is 0.815, while the computed reveals that the coefficient of determination r 2 is 0.769. the difference might be as a result of approximations to two decimal places for calculated test. interpretation for calculated test in the demand for international air passenger travel in nigeria, 81.5 percent of variations of the actual value of demand may be predicted by changes in the actual number of years. in other words, factors other than changes in number of years influences the demand to the extent of (100 – 81.5) percent; 18.5 percent. the level of explanation if 81.5 percent, level of unexplained, or error term, or stochastic disturbance term, that is attributed to other factors is 18.5 percent. this shows that the error term is minimal and the explanation is high, hence the prediction or forecast is reliable. interpretation for computed test in the demand for international air passenger travel in nigeria, 76.9 percent of variations of the actual value of demand may be predicted by changes in the actual number of years. in other words, factors other than changes in number of years influences the demand to the extent of (100 – 76.9) percent; 23.1 percent. the level of explanation www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 24 if 76.9 percent, level of unexplained, or error term, or stochastic disturbance term, that is attributed to other factors is 23.1 percent. this shows that the error term is minimal and the explanation is high, hence the prediction or forecast is reliable. 5. conclusion and recommendation in conclusion, this study examines long term forecasting of international air travel demand in nigeria. yearly data from 2001 to 2017 were collected from secondary sources and used to predict the ten years (2018 to 2028) demand for international air passenger travel in nigeria. the demand for international air passenger in nigeria in year 2001 was 1,506,878 which rose to 1,700,252 which is about 13 percent increase in the year 2005. also, the demand rose from 1,700,252 in the year 2005 to 3,217,876 which is about 90 percent increase in the year 2010. the demand also rose from 3,217,876 in the year 2010 to 4,233,844 and 3,575,542 which are about 32 and 11 percent increase in the years 2015 and 2017 respectively. the forecast for years 2020, 2025 and 2028 are 5,282,453, 6,342,519, and 6,978,559 respectively which are about 48 percent increase, 78 percent increase, and 95 percent increase respectively from year 2017. from the above discussion, there is a tremendous increase in the demand for international air passenger travel in nigeria from year 2001 to year 2017. the forecast of ten years from year 2018 to year 2028 revealed that there will be more increase in the demand for international air passenger travel in nigeria. the implication of this increment is that existing air transport infrastructures should be upgraded, and new infrastructures should be procured and installed; airport and airline operations and management should be reviewed and strategized such that they will meet the expectations of airline and airport users. other concerned stakeholders should use this data to plan and invest in their business. calculation reveals that the coefficient of determination r 2 is 0.815, while the computed reveals that the coefficient of determination r 2 is 0.769. the difference might be as a result of approximations to two decimal places for calculated test. the calculated test and computed test reveals that the error term is minimal and the explanation is high, hence the prediction or forecast is reliable. references adeniran, a. o. (2016). nigerian economic recession: emphasis on sound transport policy. developing country studies. 6: 4854. adeniran, a. o. & ben, s. o. (2017). understanding econometric modeling: domestic air travel in nigeria and implication for planning process. journal of applied research in industrial engineering, 4(4), 240–251. doi: 10.22105/riej.2017.97500.1013 adeniran, a. o & gbadamosi, k. t. (2017). concessioning a strategy for enhancing nigeria’s airport operational efficiency lessons from developed countries. international journal of research in industrial engineering, 6(3), 228–245. doi: 10.22105/riej.2017.97500.1013. adeniran, a. o., adekunle, e. a., & oyedele, o. j. (2017). establishing the concept of research hypothesis through the relationship between demand in nigeria international air passenger traffic and economic variables. international journal of economic behavior and organization, 5(5), 105-113. doi: 10.11648/j.ijebo.20170505.12 investopedia. least square method. retrieved on 22 nd july, 2018, from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/least-squares-method.asp john g. wenseveen (2007). air transportation: a management perspective. ashgate publishing limited, sixth edition. nigerian civil aviation authority (2011). federal airport authority of nigeria (2017). nigeria bureau of statistics (2018). terry, l. (2007). quantitative techniques. sixth edition, 2007. book power/elst. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 research article published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 17 higher serum levels of stromelisyn 2 (mmp10) but not matrilysin (mmp7) in patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease on chroniodialysis tsvetelina velikova 1 , toni velikov 2 & georgi mihailov 3 1 clinical immunology, university hospital lozenetz, kozyak 1 str., 1407 sofia, bulgaria 2 department of emergency edicine, university hospital – tsaritsa joanna, byalo more 8 str, 1527 sofia, bulgaria 3 clinic of chemodialysis, university hospital – tsaritsa joanna – isul, byalo more 8 str, 1527 sofia, bulgaria correspondence: corresponding author: tsvetelina v. velikova, md, phd clinical immunology, university hospital lozenetz, kozyak 1 str., 1407 sofia, bulgaria, mobile: 00359883306049, e-mail: tsvelikova@medfac.musofia.bg to cite this article: velikova, t., velikov, t., & mihailov, g. (2018). higher serum levels of stromelisyn 2 (mmp10) but not matrilysin (mmp7) in patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease on chroniodialysis. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 4(1), 17-21. retrieved from http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr/article/view/196 received: october 13, 2018 accepted: october 30, 2018 online published: november 9, 2018 abstract matrix metalloproteinases (mmps) are endopeptidases with proteolytic activity against components of extracellular matrix, such as collagen and elastin, which are involved in many biological and pathophysiological processes in humans. there is some evidence for mmps` role in nephrogenesis, renal damage, and remodeling, such as mmp-7 (matrilysin) and mmp-10 (stromelysin). however, the implication of mmps in the pathogenetic renal changes in patients with chronic kidney disease (ckd) is poorly understood. therefore, we aimed to measure the serum levels of circulating mmp-7 and mmp-10 in patients at different stages of chronic kidney disease and to analyze the impact of mmp-7 and mmp-10 on the renal disease burden of these patients. in our study, we have evaluated 80 persons – 20 with ckd (ii – iv stage), 20 with end-stage ckd on chronic hemodialysis, and 40 age and sexmatched control subjects: 20 with isolated arterial hypertension and 20 healthy persons. the serum samples were tested for mmp-7 and mmp-10 by performing enzyme immunoassay method. serum levels of both investigated mmps were most increased in end-stage ckd patients on hemodialysis. the concentration of mmp10 was significantly higher in ckd patients on chroniodialysis than healthy persons (p < 0.001), and patients with isolated arterial hypertension (p < 0.001) and patients at different stages of ckd (p = 0.037). to conclude, it is possible that the increased levels of mmp-10 could be associated with poor prognosis and eventually need for dialysis treatment at earlier stages. we hypothesize that ckd is associated with alterations of mmps and that may be related to the severity of atherosclerosis in this clinical setting. keywords: chronic kidney disease, matrix metalloproteinases, mmp-7, matrilysin, mmp-10, stromelysin 2, chroniodialysis, end-stage kidney disease. copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 18 1. introduction matrix metalloproteinases (mmps) are a group of zinc-containing and zinc-dependent endopeptidases which possess the capacity to cleave components of extracellular matrix, mostly type iv collagen and elastin. 1,2 there have been identified 28 different mmps in humans. 3,4 mmps are secreted in a non-active form which requires activation to develop proteolytic activity. several mmps are involved in a range of physiological processes, such as embryogenesis, normal tissue remodeling, wound healing and angiogenesis. 5 in healthy tissue, the activity of mmps is ordinarily low, but the increased expression and activity are observed mainly due to loss of the control mechanisms. specific mmps are described to play a role in some pathological processes such as inflammation, tissue ulceration, cancer, bone turnover, nephritis, and fibrosis. 6,7 cleaving mostly the type iv collagen the main component of vessels and basement membrane, mmps were thought to be involved in the induction, progression, and repair of renal disease. 2 the expression of mmps in the kidney is complex, species dependent but their localization has not been thoroughly characterized. 4 some studies revealed recently that mmp-7 (matrilysin) is expressed in human renal tubular disease and mouse models of acute renal tubular injury and fibrosis 8 whereas mmp-10 (stromelysin 2) is associated with atherosclerotic changes, particularly in patients with chronic kidney disease (ckd). 9 however, the roles of mmps in the pathogenetic changes in the kidney at ckd are poorly understood, partly because there are a limited number of investigations regarding the mmps in the kidney and their role in nephrogenesis, renal damage and renal remodeling 1 . therefore, we aimed to measure the serum levels of circulating mmp-7 and mmp-10 in a cohort of bulgarian patients at different stages of ckd and analyzed the impact of mmps in the renal disease burden of these patients. 2. material and methods 2.1subjects we enrolled 80 persons in our study – 20 with ckd (ii – iv stage) and 20 with end-stage ckd on chronic hemodialysis at mean age 57 ± 16 years (34.7% females), and 40 control subjects 20 with isolated arterial hypertension and 20 healthy persons, all age, and sex-matched. the patients in each group were included after previously considerate inclusion criteria. all patients were informed about the purpose of the experiment and had signed written confirmed consent approved by the ethic committee of the medical university of sofia and the ethic committee of university hospital “tsaritsa joanna – isul,” sofia. 2.2 chroniodialysis regimen the chronic dialysis for patients with end-stage ckd was performed three times a week. the serum samples were obtained after the dialysis cycle and stored at -80°c prior elisa testing. enzyme immunoassays the serum levels of mmp-7 and mmp-10 were measured by elisa (mmp7 human elisa kit, mmp10 human elisa kit, abcam, uk). we strictly followed the manufacturer’s instructions. statistical methods the row data were statistically evaluated by parametric and non-parametric tests using software package for statistical analysis (spss®), ibm 2009, version 19 (2010) and excel (2010). differences were considered significant when the p-value was less than 0.05. 3. results the mean serum levels of mmp-7 and -10 in all investigated groups are displayed in table 1. table 1. mean serum levels of matrix metalloproteinases-7 and 10 in the different study groups mmp-7, ng/ml mmp-10, ng/ml healthy persons 44.01 617.83 patients with arterial hypertension 73.08 832.37 patients with ckd 41.04 871.72 patients with end-stage ckd on chroniodialysis 69.44 2452.35 we found approximately 1.5-fold higher mean serum level of mmp-7 among patients with isolated arterial hypertension and ckd patients on dialysis than those on stages i–iii ckd and then healthy persons (figure 1). ckd patients on chroniodialysis exhibited significantly much higher concentration of mmp-10 than healthy persons (p < 0.001), than patients with isolated arterial hypertension (p < 0.001) and patients at different stages of ckd (p = 0.037) (figure 2). copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 19 figure 1. differences in serum levels of matrix metalloproteinases 7 in the study groups figure 2. differences in serum levels of matrix metalloproteinases 10 in the study groups detected serum levels of mmp-10 were higher compared to the levels of mmp-7 (table 1). the correlation between two parameters did not reach significance (p = 0.081). 4. discussion among different mmps, we have paid particular attention to two of them mmp-7 and mmp-10 which are thought to be involved in ckd pathogenesis. mmp-7 levels were increased in the group of dialysis patients when compared with the other ckd group and healthy persons (figure 1). some studies on animal models of experimental renal tubular injury showed that mmp-7 was expressed in response to injury in the distal nephron. moreover, surendran et al. found a correlation between mmp-7 expression in human kidney diseases and chronic renal tubular damage due to fibrosis where mrna level of matrilysin was increased as renal fibrosis progressed. 8 on that basis, we can speculate that the increased level of mmp-7 may point out the development of fibrosis and could be a potential biomarker for fibrotic complications in ckd. these hypotheses are based on the presumption that serum levels of mmp-7 represent its protein expression 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 healthy persons patients with arterial hypertension patients with chronic kidney disease patients with chronic kidney disease on chroniodialysis n g /m l 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 healthy persons patients with arterial hypertension patients with chronic kidney disease patients with chronic kidney disease on chroniodialysis n g /m l p < 0.001 p = 0.000 p = 0.037 copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 20 in the injured kidneys. however, it is well known that in some circumstances the systemic protein levels do not mirror the local production of specific proteins. the lack of mmp-7 expression in healthy kidneys in humans and mice 8 is in consistent with our findings for a lower level of mmp-7 in the control group of healthy persons. similarly, mmp-7 concentrations were higher in patients from the control group with isolated arterial hypertension than in the healthy persons. however, these observations also did not reach statistical significance. the concentration of mmp-10 was significantly higher in the dialysis ckd patients group than in the other three groups (figure 2). a cross-sectional study of belal et al. 9 with 40 patients of ckd showed that serum level of mmp-10 measured by elisa was at mean concentration of 601 ± 132.12 pg/dl in the control group whereas the mean level in patients on dialysis group was 2306.45 ± 335.247 pg/dl, results which are similar to our findings. they observed the mean level of mmp-10 in patients at earlier stages of ckd 1857.45 ± 387.1 pg/dl which is about 2times higher than our group of ckd patients at ii-iv stages. 9 the difference between all three groups has been statistically significant (p<0.001) whereas in our study the highest level of mmp-10 was measured in ckd on chroniodialysis, and the levels in control groups and a group of early stages of ckd patients were similar. belal et al. 9 also found that atherosclerosis defined by the carotid intima-media thickness was severe in a group on dialysis as well as a significant positive correlation between mmp-10 and carotid intima-media thickness in all groups. coll et al. also showed that among the patients with ckd at different stages atherosclerosis comorbidity correlated with mmp-10 levels. 10 it is well accepted that the underlying cardiovascular disease in patients with even early-staged ckd is one of the causes for increased mortality in these patients than in the general population. 11 mmp-10 has alternative properties – on the one hand, it can contribute to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis by promoting migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells into the vessel wall’s intima which leads to plaque formation. 12 on the other hand, however, mmp-10 contributes also to plaque volume diminishing through degradation of extracellular matrix in the intima. 13 this explains the reduced fibrous content in atherosclerotic plaques. 10 some studies have shown that chronic conditions such as ckd often underlie very severe arterial disease which represents a high risk in patients with ckd with primary importance both for public health and for clinical reasons. 14 moreover, atherosclerosis is 10-20 times more often in patients with ckd, especially in end-stage renal disease. 14 this is in consistent with our findings for the highest level of mmp-10 in ckd patients on chroniodialysis. coll et al. also showed that serum levels of mmp-10 were associated with the severity of atherosclerosis in patients with ckd. 10 it is suggested that at early stages mmps are involved in breakdown of the glomerular basal membrane, whereas at later stages, they contribute to extracellular matrix removing which is associated with scarring and fibrosis. 3 this model could explain the relationship between mmps and proteinuria in many pathological conditions in spite that the role of mmps in atherosclerosis and proteinuria in kidney disease progression is not yet completely elucidated. 3 other studies have also shown that expression and secretion of mmp10 by human endothelial cells could be induced by different inflammatory and prothrombotic stimuli. 14-16 zoccali et al. have considered mmps as markers for angiogenesis before the onset of proteinuria and markers for progression of ckd at late stages 14 . 5. conclusion what causes these results we can only speculate, but it is possible that the increased levels of mmp-10 could be associated with poor prognosis and eventually need for dialysis treatment at earlier stages. we hypothesize that ckd is associated with alterations of mmps and that may be related to the severity of atherosclerosis in this clinical setting. furthermore, the role of mmps in renal diseases, proteinuria and atherosclerosis may lead to the development of new therapeutic approaches for future perspectives. acknowledgment this work was supported by medical university of sofia [grant funding for young investigator №11d/2013, project № 27d/2013]. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest references 1. nagase h, woessner jr jf. matrix metalloproteinases. j biol chem 1999; 274: 21491–21494. 2.ronco p, lelongt b, piedagnel r, chatziantoniou c. matrix metalloproteinases in kidney disease progression and repair: a case of flipping the coin. semin nephrol. 2007; 27: 352-362. 3. dimas g, iliadis f, grekas d. matrix metalloproteinases, atherosclerosis, proteinuria and kidney disease: linkage–based approaches. hippokratia. 2013;17(4):292-297. 4. catania jm, chen g, parrish ar. role of matrix metalloproteinases in renal pathophysiologies. am j physiol renal physiol. 2007; 292: f905-f911. copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 21 5. xue m, thompson pj, clifton-bligh r, fulcher g, gallery ed, jackson c. leucocyte matrix metalloproteinase-9 is evelated and contributes to lemphocyte activation of type i diabetes. int j biochem cell biol. 2005; 37: 2406-2416. 6. brown dl, hibbs ms, kearney m, loushin c, isner jm. identification of 92-kd gelatinase in human coronary atherosclerotic lesions: association of active enzyme synthesis with unstable angina. circulation 1995; 91: 2125–2131. 7. agewall s. matrix metalloproteinases and cardiovascular disease. european heart journal. 2006; 27: 121–122. 8. surendran k, simon tc, liapis h, mcguire zk. matrilysin (mmp-7) expression in renal tubular damage: association with wnt4. kidney international. 2004; 65: 2212–2222. 9.belal, d., m. e. deeb, n. adly, m. mostafa, k. kaffas, and n. mohammed, "the relationship between matrix metalloproteinase-10 (mmp-10) and atherosclerosis in patients with chronic kidney disease". international journal of advanced research (ijar). 2014. 10. coll b, rodrıguez ja, craver l et al. serum levels of matrix metalloproteinase-10 are associated with the severity of atherosclerosis in patients with chronic kidney disease. kidney international. 2010, 78: 1275– 1280. 11.go as, chertow gm, fan d et al. chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. n engl j med 2004; 351: 1296–1305. erratum in: n engl j med 2008; 18: 4. 12. ravn hb, falk e. histopathology of plaque rupture. cardiol clin 1999; 17:263–270. 13.ardans ja, blum a, mangan pr, wientroub s, cannon ro iii, wahl lm. raloxifene-mediated increase in matrix metalloproteinase-1 production by activated monocytes. arterioscler thromb vasc biol 2001; 21: 1265–1268. 14. zoccali c, seck s. what makes plaques vulnerable in ckd?: a fresh look at metalloproteinases. kidney international. 2010; 78: 1206–1208. 15. orbe j, rodrıguez ja, olivier c et al. matrix metalloproteinase-10 (mmp-10) is up-regulated by thrombin in endothelial cells and increased in patients with enhanced thrombin generation. arterioscler thromb vasc biol. 2009; 29: 2109–2116. 16. orbe j, montero i, rodrı ´guez ja et al. independent association of matrix metalloproteinase-10, cardiovascular risk factors and subclinical atherosclerosis. j thromb haemost. 2007; 5: 91–97. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 9 basics of acute postoperative pain alaa ali m. elzohry md 1 & ali m. el foli 2 1 icu and pain relief, south egypt cancer institute, assiut university, egypt 2 pharmacology department, faculty of medicine, al azhar assuit university, egypt correspondence: alaa ali m. elzohry,md., department of anesthesia, icu and pain relief, south egypt cancer institute, assiut university, arab republic of egypt. phone: +20-88-2060010 ،01007356462.email: alaa.zohiry@hotmail.com received: august 1, 2018 accepted: august 28, 2018 online published: september 8, 2018 abstract acute pain is an important fear for most patients and influences their recovery and overall experience. poorly treated, it could lead to undesirable effects and patient dissatisfaction. hence, it is important to understand, assess and treat acute pain effectively. pain management has been transferred from intraoperative into per operative period throughout the emergence of modern anesthesiology. pain management in postoperative period is one of the most essential components of sufficient post-surgical patients care. the objective of this review is to define and demonstrate the risks and different sequelae of acute post operative pain. keywords: general anesthesia-regional anesthesiaacute post operative pain -upper abdominal surgery. 1. introduction ronald melzack said that "by any reasonable code, freedom from pain should be a basic human right, limited only by our knowledge to achieve it". it is the basic duty of all healthcare professionals to relieve pain, and the most important indication for treating pain after surgery is humanitarian. [1] acute pain is an important fear for most patients and influences their recovery and overall experience. poorly treated, it could lead to undesirable effects and patient dissatisfaction. hence, it is important to understand, assess and treat acute pain effectively. [2] pain may be classified according to its presumed etiology; nociceptive pain is due to the stimulation of nociceptors by noxious stimuli and neuropathic pain is the result of dysfunction of the nervous system. pain may also be classified into somatic and visceral pain. an alternative classification is based on duration. [3] acute pain is defined as ‘pain of recent onset and probable limited duration. it usually has an identifiable temporal and causal relationship to injury or disease’. the point at which acute pain becomes chronic has been suggested at about 12 weeks or when the pain is no longer thought to be due to the initial insult. [4] pain associated with any surgery can be divided into somatic pain and visceral pain. therefore, when performing epidural analgesia for abdominal surgeries, both the abdominal wall innervations and the afferent visceral innervations, must be targeted to provide optimal analgesia. the innervations of the abdominal wall has a segmental dermatomal distribution and is supplied by the anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the ventral rami of the seventh to twelfth intercostal nerves (t7-12). [5] 2. pain perception and nociceptive pathways the ability of the somatosensory system to detect noxious and potentially tissue-damaging stimuli is an important protective mechanism that involves multiple interacting peripheral and central mechanisms. the neural processes underlying the encoding and processing of noxious stimuli are defined as ‘nociception’. [6] in addition to these sensory effects, the perception and subjective experience of ’pain’ is multi factorial and will be influenced by psychological and environmental factors in every individual. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 10 acute pain perception begins with activation of specific sensory nerves, termed nociceptors. these are unencapsulated free nerve endings that are present in the skin, deep somatic tissue and viscera. providing the stimulus is suitably intense, high threshold nociceptors will still activate in the absence of actual tissue damage. nociceptors are probably activated by mechanical distortion of the nerve leading to an increase in h+ and k+ concentration. nociceptors can be divided into two main classes; a-delta and c fibers. the main properties of these fibers are summarized in the table (1) below. [7] table (1): classification and properties of neurons. conduction myelination sensation receptors a-delta 10-40 ms-1 yes sharp, immediate high & low threshold abeta > 40 ms-1 yes light touch low threshold c-fibers < 2 ms-1 no dull, aching high threshold multiple tracts and centers exist within the central nervous systems which are responsible for the transmission, modulation and perception of noxious stimuli. it is important to realize that these areas should not be considered as fixed or functioning in isolation. rather, they are subject to change from both descending and ascending pathways and can alter or expand their connections to interact with adjacent nerves. [8] cell bodies of afferent nerves lie in the drg with fibers synapsing in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. the output from the dorsal horn is however dependent on other neuronal input to the synapse. afferent neurons may divide prior to entering the cord and send branches cephalic or caudal in the longitudinal tract of lissauer before synapsing with dorsal horn neurons. the result of this being that a single c-fiber afferent may be responsible for innervating dorsal horn neurons at multiple spinal levels. [9] the gray matter of the spinal cord can be divided into ten physiologically and histological distinct layers known as rexed lamina. laminae 1 to 6 and 10 are the sites that sensory nerves synapse with dorsal horn cells and are important in pain transmission. laminas 7-9 are involved with motor function. [10] figure (1): spinal and supra spinal pathways of pain www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 11 3. physiology of pain the ability of the somatosensory system to detect noxious and potentially tissue-damaging stimuli is an important protective mechanism that involves multiple interacting peripheral and central mechanisms. the detection of noxious stimuli requires activation of peripheral sensory organs (nociceptors) and transduction into action potentials for conduction to the central nervous system. nociceptors are stimulated by chemical, thermal or mechanical damage and trigger the nociceptive impulses. [11] nociceptive primary afferents are widely distributed throughout the body (skin, muscle, joints, viscera, meninges) and comprise both lightly myelinated a-delta fibers (diameter 2-5 mm) and slow-conducting unmyelinated c-fibers (diameter <2 mm). these fibers enter the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and synapse at different sites (aδ at laminae ii and v, c at laminae ii). the substantia gelatinosa (lamina ii) integrates these inputs and second-order neurons form the ascending spinothalamic and spinoreticular pathways on the contralateral side, figure (2). [12] the larger ab fibres conducting “touch” and descending pathways stimulate inhibitory interneurons within the substantia gelatinosa and inhibit c fibre nociceptive inputs. this is the basis of the gate theory of pain. pain may be modified by altering the neural pathway from its origin at the nociceptor to its interpretation within the central nervous system by various agents. psychological factors that influence the experience of pain include the processes of attention, other cognitive processes (e.g. memory/learning, thought processing, beliefs and mood), behavioral responses, and interactions with the person’s environment. [13] figure 2: physiology of pain 4. assessment and measurement of acute pain pain should be assessed within a biopsychosocial model that recognizes that physiological, psychological and environmental factors influence the overall pain experience. the assessment of acute pain should include a thorough general medical history and physical examination, a specific ‘pain history’ and an evaluation of associated functional impairment along with any side effects of treatment. in acute pain management, assessment must be undertaken at appropriately frequent intervals. [14] sometimes associated factors such as hyperalgesia, the stress response (e.g. plasma cortisol concentrations), behavioral responses (e.g. facial expression), functional impairment (e.g. coughing, ambulation) or physiological responses (e.g. changes in heart rate) may provide additional information. [15] the assessment of acute pain should include a thorough general medical history and physical examination, a specific ‘pain history’ and an evaluation of associated functional impairment. in acute pain management, assessment must be undertaken at appropriately frequent intervals. at these times, evaluation of pain intensity, functional impact, and side effects of treatment must be undertaken and recorded using tools and scales that are consistent, valid and reliable. [16] www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 12 the well-known visual analogue scale (vas) and numeric rating scale (nrs) for assessment of pain intensity agree well and are equally sensitive in assessing acute pain after surgery, and they are both superior to a four-point verbal categorical rating scale (vrs). they may be used for worst, least, or average pain over the last 24 h, or during the last week. [17] assessment of pain immediately after surgery can be more difficult and lead to greater inter patient variability in pain scores because of transient anesthetic-related cognitive impairment and decreases in visual acuity. (machata et al, 2009 ). figure 3: commonly used one-dimensional pain intensity scales: the 11-point nrs, the vas from no pain [0] to worst pain imaginable [10] and the four-point categorical verbal rating scale (vrs) 5. adverse physiological and psychological aspects of pain clinically significant injury such as surgeries responses can lead to a range of physiological effects which may lead to adverse clinical effects. patients at greatest risk of adverse outcomes from unrelieved acute pain include very young or elderly patients, those with concurrent medical illnesses and those undergoing major surgery. [18] sustained acute nociceptive input, as occurs after surgery can also have a major influence on psychological function, which may in turn alter pain perception. failure to relieve acute pain may result in increasing anxiety, inability to sleep, demoralization, a feeling of helplessness, loss of control, inability to think and interact with others -in the most extreme situations, where patients can no longer communicate, effectively they have lost their autonomy. [19] aggressive perioperative pain prevention can yield both short-term and long-term benefits as unrelieved pain affects patient recovery, prolongs hospital stays, increases hospital morbidity, and adds to the burden of growing healthcare costs. in total, there are many important reasons for aggressive acute pain management. [20] postoperative pain is considered a form of acute pain secondary to surgical trauma and is associated with an inflammatory reaction and subsequent pathway of afferent neuronal signals. acute postoperative pain is associated with autonomic, endocrine-metabolic, physiological, and behavioral responses summarized in following table (2) [21] table 2: effects of surgery, including local and systemic inflammatory responses and mediated responses local and systemic inflammatory responses mediated responses increase in proinflammatory cytokines, e.g., il-1, il-6, tnf decrease in anti-inflammatory cytokines changes in acute phase protein changes in coagulation/fibrinolysis decrease in other cascade systems increase in catabolic hormones, e.g., cortisol, catecholamines, glucagon decrease in anabolic hormones, e.g. insulin and testosterone increase in pain increase in autonomic reflexes decrease in afferent neural barrage www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 13 table 3: adverse effects of undertreated acute pain cardiovascular tachycardia, hypertension, increased peripheral vascular resistance, increased myocardial oxygen consumption, myocardial ischemia and/or infarction, altered regional blood flow, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism. respiratory reduced lung volumes, atelectasis, decreased cough, sputum retention, infection, hypoxemia. gastrointestinal decreased gastric and bowel motility, constipation, increased risk of bacterial transgression of bowel wall. genitourinary urinary retention neuroendocrine/ metabolic  -increased catabolic hormones: glucagon, growth hormone, vasopressin, aldosterone, renin and angiotensine. -reduced anabolic hormones: insulin, testosterone -catabolic state leading to hyperglycemia, increased protein breakdown negative nitrogen balance leading to impaired wound healing and muscle wasting. musculoskeletal muscle spasm, immobility with increased risk of deep vein thrombosis, muscle wasting leading to prolonged recovery of function. psychological anxiety, fear, helplessness, sleeps deprivation, leading to increased pain. central nervous chronic pain state related to central sensitization. acute surgical pain causes a global sympathetic response capable of increasing heart rate, peripheral vascular resistance, blood pressure, and subsequently cardiac output. this sympathetic cascade can increase the oxygen demand of the myocardium and potentiate myocardial ischemia, especially in patients with preexisting coronary artery disease. [22] acute pain has also been found to decrease limb blood flow by directing blood away from skin and viscera and toward vital organs. this decrease in extremity blood flow may impair wound healing and increase muscle spasm. postoperative pain may also reduce patient mobility, promoting venous stasis. increases in fibrinogen and platelet activation related to surgical trauma will increase blood coagulability. these factors together increase the risk of venous thromboembolism. [23] data suggest that "the use of epidural anesthesia in the perioperative period results in less platelet activation and significantly better fibrinolytic function" thereby resulting in significant protection against thromboembolic complications. this protection also may be related to the systemic effect of local anesthetics, which have been shown to have an antithrombotic effect. [24] perioperative cardiovascular adverse events may result in considerably prolonged postoperative stay. cardiovascular events warranting unanticipated hospital admissions are infrequent. cardiovascular events occur with higher frequency among patients with preexisting cardiovascular diseases (e. g. hypertension, congestive heart failure). increasing age is also associated with higher incidence of cardiovascular conditions among elderly patients. [25] 6. pain management 6.1 non-pharmacological methods of pain relief  preoperative explanation and education  relaxation therapy  hypnosis  cold or heat  splinting of wounds  transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (tens). 6.2 pharmacological and interventional methods of pain relief there are many techniques available for management of postoperative pain including:  intravenous administration of opioids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, alpha-adrenergic drugs;  infiltration of local anesthetics;  nerve blocks;  epidural techniques;  intratechal technique. [26] all of these techniques have benefits and risks (advantage and disadvantage) patient control analgesia (pca) is one of the most common techniques for postoperative pain management. this device is under patient control www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 14 intermittently or continuously, and infuses iv opioids or nonopioids. the use of intravenous opiates is still limited because of side effects such as respiratory depression. [27] pre-emptive analgesia: the administration of analgesia before surgery (preemptively) may be effective in reducing the postoperative pain from surgery by preventing the peripheral and central sensitization caused initially by surgical incision and later by inflammatory injury. there are studies that support the effectiveness of preemptive analgesia. however, other studies concluded that there was a lack of evidence for preemptive treatment with nsald's, intravenous opioids, and ketamine, peripheral local anesthetics, and caudal analgesia. [28] the effectiveness of preemptive analgesia is likely to remain a controversial issue for some time. despite this, the preoperative administration of non opioid analgesia, such as nsalds, ketamine, and local anesthetics, prior to surgical incision is an important component in reducing postoperative pain scores and analgesic requirements in the first 24 hours after discharge. [29] regional anesthesia and analgesia can be used to significantly reduce postoperative pain scores and spare the use of systemic opioids. regional anesthesia can be performed at the neuraxis (epidural and intrathecal), the nerve root (paravertebral), and the peripheral nerve (transversus abdominis plane) level. local anesthetic deposition at these sites will selectively block nerve conduction and result in different analgesic and side effect profiles. [30] 7. conclusion acute postoperative pain is multifactorial with complicated pathophysiology, but careful history and good assessment lead to ideal selection of treatment plane either medications or interventions according to operation performed. interventional methods are favorable due to many reasons; avoiding chronic pain and decreased side effects of systematic medications as opioids. references 1cousins mj, brennan f, carr db. pain relief. a universal human right. pain 2004; 112: 1-4. 2-kumar s, gupta r, kaleem am, et al. mitigation of pain and anaesthetic drugs. oa anaesthetics 2014 jan 18;2(1):2. 3sriwatanakul k, kelvie w, lasagna l. the quantification of pain: an analysis of words used to describe pain and analgesia in clinical trials. clin pharmacol ther 1999; 32(2): 143-48. 4-american society of anesthesiologists task force on acute pain management. practice guidelines for acute pain management the perioperative setting: an updated report by the american society of anesthesiologists task force on acute pain management. anesthesiology 2012; 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31(2): 77-83. 28-retsky m, rogers r, demicheli r, et al. nsaid analgesic ketorolac used perioperatively may suppress early breast cancer relapse: particular relevance to triple negative subgroup. breast cancer res treat 2012; 134: 881–8. 29-mcquay hj, barden j, moore ra. clinically important changes-what’s important and whose change is it anyway? j pain symptom manage 2003; 25(5): 395–396. 30-niraj g and rowbotham j.persistent postoperative pain: where are we now? br j anaesth 2011, 107: 25-29. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 research article published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 10 electro-optical simulation of in ultra-thin photonic crystal amorphous silicon solar cells abdelhak merabti department: exact sciences. école normale supérieure béchar, algeria, bp 417, bechar, algeria e-mail: merabti73@yahoo.com abdelkader bensliman department: exact sciences. école normale supérieure béchar, algeria, bp 417, bechar, algeria e-mail: slimane_kada@yahoo.fr mahmoud habab department: exact sciences. école normale supérieure béchar, algeria, bp 417, bechar, algeria e-mail: hababmahmoud@yahoo.fr abstract hydrogenated amorphous si (a-si:h) is an important solar cell material. the critical problem in the a-si:h-based photovoltaic cell is increasing the conversion efficiency. to overcome the difficulty, higher conversion efficiency demands a longer optical path to increase optical absorption. thus, a light trapping structure is needed to obtain more efficient absorption. in this context, we propose a complete solar cell structure for which a 1d grating is etched into the ultrathin active absorbing layer of a one-dimensional "cp 1d" photonic crystal a-si: h characterized by the optimal parameters: period a = 480 nm, a filling factor ff = 50% and a depth d = 150 nm. this was selected by varying the cp1d parameters to maximize the absorption integrated into the active layer. cp1d is suggested as an intermediate layer in the solar cell concentration system. this study allowed us to model the optical and electrical behavior of a cp1d solar cell. after optimization of the geometrical parameters (period and fill factor ... etc.), we concluded that the cp1d led to greater optical gains than for their unstructured equivalent. the simulation clearly illustrates that the electric field strongly affects the electro-optical characteristics of the devices studied, and that it is clear that 1d pc solar cells as active layer have exhibited a high electric field distribution. we have focused on the net on the effect of the active layer and its beneficial role in the sense of expressing the photovoltaic performance of the devices. keywords: photonic crystal; finite element method (fem); absorption; dimensional; electrooptical. i. introduction with the development of thin-film solar cells, an important step has been taken in reducing costs by reducing the thickness of the active layer. however, the low absorption of light, particularly for wavelengths near the gap of the absorbing material, was quickly identified as the main limitation of these cells. special attention has therefore been given to these optical losses, which are even more critical when considering ultrathin layers whose thicknesses are of the order of a micrometer. to increase the light harvesting efficiency, classical technologies combine the integration of an anti-reflection film (arf),a textured top surface, and a reflector on the backside [1-4]. traditional light trapping schemes, used in photovoltaic cells, are based on geometrical optics. furthermore, the light trapping approaches based on wave optics are capable of surpassing geometrical optics approaches in some cases [5]. in the past years, many wave optics light-trapping techniques have been explored such as plasmonics based designs [6,7], scattering into guided modes by metal nanoparticles [8], grating couplers [9], and pop-tonic crystals (pcs) (in 1d [10], 2d [11] et 3d [12]). mailto:merabti73@yahoo. mailto:%20e-mail:%20hababmahmoud@yahoo.fr copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 11 in this study, we will first describe the best structure of an active layer of a one-dimensional photonic crystal (cp1d) [13]. in a second step, the study of a one-dimensional photonic crystal (cp 1d) te polarization allows better understanding how the electric field and the electrical potential evolve, through the cp 1d. finally, we study the influence of temperature on the electrical properties of a one-dimensional photonic crystal. ii. calculation method the finite element method (fem) is the method of choice for analysis, complex geometries and fast simulations of light interaction with photonic crystal [14]. all light information is contained in electromagnetic fields. the finite element method (fem) performs rigorous simulations of maxwell's equations. this way of solving the maxwell equations makes it possible to calculate the reflectance r, the transmittance t, and therefore the absorption a = 1-rt of a plane wave incident on our structures. due to the modal properties of the pc 1d developed above. after, we will do most calculations at normal incidence. in our study, the finite element method solves the following partial differential equation that derives from maxwell's equations: 𝟏 ∈ (𝒓) 𝜵 × 𝜵 × 𝑬(𝒓) = 𝝎𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝑬(𝒓) ( 𝟏) 𝜵 × ( 𝟏 ∈ (𝒓) 𝜵 × 𝑯(𝒓)) = 𝝎𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝑯(𝒓) (𝟐) where 𝑐 = 1 √𝜖0𝜇0 the speed of light in the vacuum 𝜔 𝑐 = 𝑘0 = 2𝜋/𝜆0 the module of the wave vector in the vacuum 𝐸 electric field and 𝐻 magnetic field 𝜖0 , 𝜇0 𝑒𝑡 ∈ (𝑟) the dielectric permittivity of the vacuum, the magnetic permeability of the vacuum and the relative permittivity are respectively in practice, a calculation frequency, a numerical convergence criterion and a maximum number of iterations are specified. in order to have an optimal accuracy during a frequency sweep, a high main frequency is generally chosen.. iii. proposed structure (cp solar cell) iii.1 cp solar cell structure we introduce the stack of layers constituting our solar cells by justifying the choice of retained materials and the thickness of the layers. the structure consists, from the front face to the rear face of the cell, of a layer of zinc oxide (zno), of the active layer (a-si: h), of a layer of the most currently used is indium oxide doped with tin (in2o3-sno2, ito). because it combines good transparency in the visible range and good electrical conductivity (tco), a layer aluminum (al), and finally a glass optical supports. a grating is then formed in the zinc oxide (zno) layer and in the active layer to form the "photonized" solar cell shown in figure iv.1. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 12 figure 1: structure of the solar cell studied with its main geometrical parameters iii.2 optical indices of different materials we will present here the optical indices that we will use for the numerical study of the cell. the refractive index (n) and the extinction coefficient (k) w ere measured by [15-17] for ito, al, zno and a-si: h (figure iv.2). 𝒂-si(i) (220nm) tm d (240nm) te ito (80nm) al (60nm) glass 𝒂 (480nm) d(150nm) 𝒂-si(n) (20nm) 𝒂-si(p) (10nm) zno(90nm) a b copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 13 figure . 2 optical indices of materials used for simulations numerically a) al, b) ito c) zno and e) a-si:h iii.3 parameters of the one-dimensional photonic crystal solar cells the objective of the one-dimensional photonic crystal solar cells structuration is to be able to work with an ultrafine active layer by taking advantage of the resonances of the photonic crystal to generate additional absorption over the entire useful spectrum. the zno layer has a thickness of 90nm, which ensures efficient lateral transport of charges over several micrometers to the metal contacts, while limiting the parasitic absorption of light in this layer. the thickness of the active layer is only 250nm. to limit the roughness on the surface of the ito and to create a barrier against the diffusion of al in the silicon, we chose a thickness of 80 nm for the backside ito. finally, the al layer is 60 nm thick. this choice is motivated by the need to have a great reflection of the incident light and a small volume [4]. from an optical point of view, the zno layer is an optical spacer. the active layer is the absorbent layer and finally, the ito layer contributes to the reduction of reflection in the rear face thanks to its refractive index. note that opaque electrodes used in devices play a role of mirror. iv. optical modeling of a one-dimensional photonic crystal sollar cells we injected a plane wave at normal incidence and we obtained the absorption by performing an energy balance between the transmitted light power and the power reflected by the cell. we calculated the absorption spectra of the nanostructured cell for the optimal parameters of the proposed structure. by examining the profile of these spectra in te polarization and tm polarization, we distinguish: b e copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 14 figure 3: absorption spectra for the two polarizations (te and tm) corresponding to an unstructured layer the spectra corresponding to the structured solar cell differ greatly from the (unstructured) reference spectrum, and the spectrum pattern depends on the polarization of the light. however, we see in figure iv.3 that the superposition of curves in te and tm polarizations is not perfect beyond 580nm. the absorption increases very rapidly, reaching a first maximum for λ = 420 nm te polarization and λ = 520 nm for tm polarization. it then decreases slightly, returning to a maximum at 730 nm for te. we can explain this behavior by the phenomena of interference related to the waves reflected at the different interfaces of the cell we can obtain a maximum of light intensity for a wavelength that gives rise to constructive interference in the active layer, while destructive interference can degrade the absorption for a layer of different thickness. there is a significant decrease in absorption above 560 nm. we can find the increase in absorption at low wavelengths thanks to the network-induced antireflection effect and the creation of absorption peaks at long wavelengths through the coupling of incident light with cp slow bloch modes thus, the presence of an al layer on the rear face in combination with the optical spacer makes it possible to modulate the coupling force and to create constructive interference (reinforced coupling) or destructive interference (attenuated coupling) in the active layer. we note that the characteristics of the spectra are little modified whatever the thickness of the layer. note, however, that the absorption is slightly degraded from 450 nm to 550 nm. we can assume that in this wavelength range, the electric field is unfavorably redistributed in the active layer with respect to the case where the entire layer is structured. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 15 v. electrical modeling of one-dimensional photonic crystal sollar cells the understanding of electrical phenomena in is essential for the development of a one-dimensional photonic crystal solar cell. the object of this part is to introduce the properties of the electric field and current density in a cp 1d te polarization with cutting line a) width / 2 and b) width / 3. figure 3: cutting line a) width / 2 and b) width / 3 v.1 electric field figures iv-4 and iv-5 show electric field growth versus position. indeed, as seen in the previous part, the electric field is directly proportional to the applied voltage. it is then expected to grow the electric field with increasing position. in addition, we can note that the electric field calculated for the two cutting lines is zero in the glass layer. the electric field increases rapidly as one moves away from the glass layer to reach the maximum value of 130 v / m at the layer a-si: h. it is important to specify that the electric field is not calculated in the metals, since none. we will focus only on the value of the electric field at the active layer and its evolution in the zno layer. simulation thus gives important results such as the importance of the thickness of the layer. it also shows the dependence of the electric field on the shape of the layer. a b copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 16 figure iv -6 also shows the electric field distribution for te polarization. figure 4: electric field in a cp 1d polarization te with cutting line (width / 2) figure 5: electric field in a cp 1d te polarization with cutting line (width / 3) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 17 𝜆 = 350𝑛𝑚 𝜆 = 400𝑛𝑚 𝜆 = 550𝑛𝑚 𝜆 = 700𝑛𝑚 figure 6: electrical field distribution for cp 1d te polarization cell: a) 350nm, b)400nm, c)550nm and d)700nm the maximum and minimum surface area of the electric field specified in table iv.1 table 1 the maximum and the minimum surface of the electric field. te polarization wave length electric field surface max (v/m) electric field surface min (v/m) 𝜆 = 350𝑛𝑚 225.173 0 𝜆 = 400𝑛𝑚 180.077 0 𝜆 = 550𝑛𝑚 162.23 0 𝜆 = 700𝑛𝑚 341.195 0 v.2 current density figures iv-7 and iv-8 show the evolution of the current density with the position. the density profile of the current obtained in the cutting line then has a characteristic gaussian shape. the peak positions of the current densities are a d b c d copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 18 generally well reproduced. on the other hand, significant differences in the current density amplitude exist. a significant increase in current density in the active layer results in a lower rate of carrier recombination. figure iv -9 also shows the current density distribution for te polarization. figure 7 current density of cp 1d polarization te with cutting line (width /2) figure 8: current density of cp 1d polarization te with cutting line (width / 3) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 19 𝜆 = 350𝑛𝑚 𝜆 = 400𝑛𝑚 𝜆 = 550𝑛𝑚 𝜆 = 700𝑛𝑚 figure 9: current density distribution for cp 1d te polarization cell: a) 350nm, b) 400nm, c) 550nm and d) 700nm the maximum and minimum area of the current density specified in table iv. 2 table 2 the maximum and the minimum surface of the current density te polarization wave length current density surface max (a/m2) current density surface min (a/m2) 𝜆 = 350𝑛𝑚 1.408e7 0 𝜆 = 400𝑛𝑚 7.3081e7 0 𝜆 = 550𝑛𝑚 5.43.38e7 0 𝜆 = 700𝑛𝑚 5.1201e7 0 a c d a b c d copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 2; 2019 20 conclusion this study allowed us to model the optical and electrical behavior of a cp1d solar cell. after optimization of the geometrical parameters (period and filling factor ... etc.), we concluded that the cp1d led to greater optical gains than for their unstructured equivalent. the simulation clearly illustrates that the electric field strongly affects the electro-optical characteristics of the devices studied, and that it is clear that the 1d pc solar cells as active layer have exhibited a high electric field distribution. in this part, we have focused on the net on the effect of the active layer and its advantageous role in the sense of expressing the photovoltaic performances of the devices. the points mentioned above tend to show that our approach makes it possible to significantly increase the integrated absorption of the cells and to improve their efficiency. the simulation results also highlight the feasibility of the proposed structures. in perspective, we would like to check other two-dimensional models (2d), three-dimensional (3d) and other types of organic or inorganic solar cells to have a very concrete and quantitative study acknowledgment this work is supported by école normale supérieure béchar références [1] h. ganesha shanbhogue, c. l. nagendra, m. n. annapurna, s. ajith kumar,and g. k. m. thutupalli, “multilayer antireflection coatings for the visible and near-infrared regions,” applied optics 36(25), 6339–6351 (1997). 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[en ligne]. available: http://refractiveindex.info/?shelf=main&book=zno&page=bond-o copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 33 clinical evaluation of the method of active abdominal drainage in general peritonitis rancid shaposhnikov v.i.1 1department of surgical diseases with ophthalmology, otolaryngology, radiology and therapy nights, kuban medical institute, russia correspondence: shaposhnikov v.i., professor of surgical diseases, department of surgical diseases with ophthalmology, otolaryngology, radiology and therapy nights, kuban medical institute, krasnodar, russia, tel: 8 918 344. 64 04, email:shaposhnikov35@mail.ru received: august 11, 2018 accepted: august 31, 2018 online published: september 15, 2018 abstract acute general putrid peritonitis refers to the severe inflammation of the peritoneum. he is constantly accompanied by jendotoksicheskim shock and progressive multiple organ failure. macro and micro blood circulation in tissues and organs of the abdominal cavity portal vein system is blocked from the first minutes the development of pathological process and toxins and nedookislennye metabolic products accumulate in them. for their removal requires efferent methods of treatment, one of which suggests the author of this article. technical and physical techniques against a backdrop of complex drug therapy perpetrated as cleansing and forcible blood vessels promotion portal system. in this way manage to restore homeostasis. for developing this method, he was extradited to ussr patent (no. 1787036, dated march 7, 1991). to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed method of treatment, the author describes the clinical observations. keywords: method, active drainage, putrid, general, peritonitis. 1. introduction almost every sixth patient with acute surgical abdomen disease enters the hospital with symptoms of peritonitis, lethality which averages 20-39%, and severe forms, such as gnilostnoe (calves) inflammation of the peritoneum. it already reaches 80-90% [4.6]. the leading value in an unfavorable outcome of the treatment of the pathological process is given the progressive increase intra-abdominal pressure (ld) [1.4, 8]. it is established that primary remediation does not result in abdominal cavity odnomomentnomu eliminate inflammation of the peritoneum, and inadequate treatment tactics contributes to the progression of ld. eventually develops intra-abdominal hypertension syndrome (siag)-abdominal compartment syndrome (acs) [9.10]. the term was proposed in 1980 year kron [2, 7, 11]. it occurs when the pressure in the abdominal cavity is closed already exceeds the level that ensures the normal blood flow to organs and tissues contained therein. the threshold of this pressure depends on the voltage of the abdomen with stretching of the abdomen, as well as the degree of hypovolemia. typical clinical signs improve ld include: stressful and inflated abdomen, increased peak high pressure, increased cvp, reducing cardiac output, hypoxia, giperkapniju and liguria [1, 3, 8]. enhancement ld leads to the development of multiple organ failure. understanding of all the reasons for the rise of the severity of the disease is extremely important in the question of how to develop appropriate treatment [1.4, 5]. at the present stage of development of medicine general peritonitis treatment remains one of the most difficult problems in emergency abdominal surgery. due to the severity of the violations occurring homeostasis is always difficult to implement its correction. typically, the algorithm of treatment includes drainage of the abdominal cavity. bigger than the inflammatory process of peritoneum, the larger you want this drainage cavity (fig. 1). this is required to ensure that does not remain enclosed cavities. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 34 figure. 1 shows the abdominal cavity drainage in general purulent peritonitis: 1-drainage introduced under right dome aperture 2-liver, 3-4 pelvic cavities beneath the diaphragm dome 5 left-left side channels. in the case of peritoneal dialysis upper tube (1, 2.4) are used to imposing solutions, while the lower (3.5) for removing dializata from the abdominal cavity. however, all these methods are effective only when the ld does not block the micro and macro circulation of blood in the abdominal cavity. if this occurred, or passive outflow of pus, or active (via washing), change the situation. intoxication quickly amplified and patients die. such an outcome is usually observed when general putrid peritonitis. improving the outcome of treatment of acute peritonitis, the authors relate or programmed relaparotomiej, or peritonealnym dialysis [1.3, 6]. however, these techniques do not adjust the portal circulation and multiple organ dysfunctions. with this in mind, we have developed a method of active drainage of the abdominal cavity which can be quickly complemented lavage-dialysis. it turned out to be the same as the known practices in vitro plasma purification on the effectiveness of the blood of toxins and nedookislennyh products. but they only clean inner wednesday the body of toxins, and the proposed method restores blood flow to the portal system that significantly improves the prognosis. 2. the purpose of the study on the basis of 4 clinical observations show therapeutic significance of the method of active drainage of the abdominal cavity. 3. material and methods before applying in clinic treatment method described below general purulent peritonitis, we have conducted experiments on 3 mongrel dogs. it was found that swelling rubber tank, located in the abdomen, does not cause cancer, and does not cause the development of adhesions in it and abscesses. it can be used for peritoneal dialysis as fluid dializirujushhej immerses in all departments of this cavity. active drainage of the abdominal cavity is carried out as follows (fig. 2). after eliminating the source of peritonitis, sanation of abdominal cavity and intestinal intubation, as by the stomach and rectum, impose 4 kontrapertury (both iliac and podrebernyh areas). through these incisions into the abdominal cavity perforated plastic tubular misleading drainages, and next to them 2-e latex containers of variable capacity. the most convenient containers made of latex surgical gloves, skylight which is tightly fixed frame ducts. above the surface of the skin remains only perchatochnoe ring seal and air duct. if you intend to conduct peritoneal lavage-dialysis, then drains and gloves on the sides to seal tissue wounds. this prevents seepage of washing fluid from the abdominal cavity outwards during the procedure. median wound sutured closed. in the house drains are connected to the measuring lines and ducts connected to hepa objomnomu. set parameters for the operation of the respirator: volume one capacity 300 cube. see discharge pressure-280 mm of water, and the reset is 0. the multiplicity of cycles varies from 22 to 28 in 1minutu. preferred synchronization cycles at a frequency of respiratory excursion. in the case of surgery, this is accomplished by synchronizing two volumetric respirators. if you cannot sync with breathing, the multiplicity of standartiziruetsja cycles-cycle 22 per minute. the duration of the procedure using a volumetric respirator depends on strong recovery of intestinal peristalsis. capacity www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 35 of complex configuration, which is the glove to ensure both inflow and squeezing peritoneal exudate through drains, and produce a kind of internal massage of the entire abdominal cavity with passive transfer and the squeezing of the entire gastrointestinal tract. it promotes it gas and fluid that helps restore his peristaltic activity. the most important positive property of this method is also restoring circulation in all tissues and organs of the abdominal cavity. synchronize "intra-abdominal" massage with breathing; breathing creates a positive total pressure that dramatically increases the outflow of exudates on drainage. all these positive developments ensuring restoration of resistant peristalsis of the bowel during the 1-3 days. optionally lavage continues until 5 days or more. this technique has been applied from 4 patients suffering from common gnilostnym (fecal) peritonitis. age they had from 27 to 47 years. of these 3 men and women -1. everyone was open or closed injury of a division of the colon,: first-internal pneumatic rupture of the sigmoid colon, second-shot rektosigmovidnogo her third division-stabbed downward guts, the fourth closed the gap the cecum. the wounds were from 3 cm long and up to 12 cm and circumference ranging from ¼ and up to ¾ diameter. the most extensive was the gap that sigma occurred during the "comic" gas injection through the anus. all patients received via 18-22 hours after the accident in predagonalnom condition. consciousness was sputannoe. skin cianotichnye and cold to the touch. hell was 40-20/20-0 mm hg. pillar, the pulse is thready, belly swollen dramatically, tongue dry and covered with brown fur, urine was absent from patients assumed putrid smell. what they did not cause peritonitis, no doubt. attested and history data. figure. 2 active abdominal drainage scheme, where: 1-frame tube. introduced in the opening rubber container, 2-ring-seal glove, 3-drainage tube held beside the glove in the left side of the abdomen, channel 4-drainage tube held beside the glove over the liver, 5-the same pipe carried out under liver, 6-the same tube held to the spleen, 7-intraperitoneal end tube held in the left side channel 8-same tube introduced into the cavity of the lesser pelvis, 9-frame tube introduced into the gloves, 10-11-tee, connecting both frame tubes with hose breathing respirator. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 36 . after relative stabilization of blood pressure, run relaparatomy. from free affected immediately directed to the operating room. created teams of 2-3 surgeons, anesthesiologist and transfuziologa of abdominal cavity washed over the malodorous muddy effusion. bowel loops were covered with brownish-grey fibrin and brazed among you in one conglomerate. after his separation, discovered the source of the peritonitis. he was eliminated after the first readjustment this cavity. surgical tactics depended on the nature of the damage to the wall of the colon, but all 4 patients was excision of necrotic tissue bowel wall with transverse primary anastomosis. precision joints were used, and after clearance carried out wide anastomosis vapor tube. after performing secondary sanitation of the abdominal cavity with up to 20 liters of solution furazilina (1:5000), was conducted by the excretion of anastomosis of abdominal cavity in the coming predbrjushinnye fabric. to do this, focus jazykoobraznyj ventral incision. the flap turned away. the wound surface was formed by anastomosis, which by abdominal flap of peritoneum educated fled. to anastomozu from the skin using pass-through puncture, summarized control rubber strip. this is done in case suddenly comes failure-to intestinal contents of izlivalos outward, rather than in the free abdomen. then carried out drainage of abdominal cavity using drainage tubes, as well as the introduction of rubber containers, whose forefathers also the methodology described above. operating the victim walked into the intensive care unit and organized internal massage of the abdomen. simultaneously to all patients during the 2-3 days held by the following procedure peritoneal dialysis. the abdominal cavity joined 100-200 ml of fat emulsion is recommended for injecting. then, begin instillation of dializirujushhih solutions. crucial is the alternation of every 4:00 jet and a drip of different fluids with meticulous monitoring of their balance. the lower two levels fall below the drainage bed in measuring container, and the three top align system for intravenous fluids. lavage-dialysis begins with jet into the abdominal cavity through the three upper drainage 200-300 ml 0.25% solution novokaina, while controlled by jet discharge of liquid from the lower drainages. then also jet instiliruetsja mixture furazilina with hydrogen peroxide (300-350 ml furazilina + 100-150 ml 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide), and then 300-500 ml 5% glucose solution or 500-1000 ml kristalloidnogo complex solution. upon termination of the jet dializata income from the abdominal cavity, i.e. the completion of the first cycle of the lavage, drip begins the introduction into the abdominal cavity 1.5% solution of sodium chloride, or more complex salt solution that lasts 4:00. at this time is cleansed of toxins and nedookislennyh homeostasis of metabolic products, i.e. committed dialysis. then everything repeats itself. during the second cycle of this process, 2-3 times daily dializata composition included antibiotics-based antibiograms, as well as 300-500 ml 5% glucose solution and 100-150 ml of fat emulsion. they increases the sorption of toxins from the abdomen (due to increased osmotic perforate capacity) and monitors the progression of the process in the abdominal cavity. 4. the results all these patients safely recovering from an operation. postoperative period 3 have leaked without complications and recovery. 4 have the patient (male 27 years), whose gap cecum occurred simultaneously with multiple fracture of oskolchatym pelvic bones, 5 day, when active abdominal drainage was finished because the bowel motility, restored all of a sudden death. the autopsy showed that a major breakthrough hematoma in his brain ventricles. abdomen was free from adhesions. however, still continued swelling and hyperemia of the peritoneum. failure of sutures anastomosis has not been identified. 5. discussion clinical analysis described how active drainage of abdominal cavity allows restoring homeostasis with the most severe form of putrefactive peritonitis. internal massage of the abdomen organs and tissues, promotes blood into the portal system, which is not observed in all other efferent methods of treatment of this disease. the use of peritoneal lavage-dialysis enhances its detoxification effect. this is clearly evident in the treatment of patients with fecal peritonitis. 6. conclusion the developed method of active drainage of the abdominal cavity is an alternative to all other methods of treatment of the most severe forms of general peritonitis. using it you can implement passive promotion of blood into the portal system, which is extremely important in the prognosis of the disease. combined application of lavagedialysis can significantly improve the results of treatment of general purulent peritonitis due to: (a) strengthening the peritoneum perfusion), b) strengthening abdominal drainage in) quick recovery of motor-evacuation bowel function, g) significant purification from toxins and nedookislennyh homeostasis of metabolic products. references 1. veliev n.a., hasanova d.n., v.f. ismaylov. score severity of peritonitis in intra-abdominal hypertension syndrome dependence and its pathogenetic implications.//materials of all-russia scientific — practical conference with international participation. -spb., 2009.-22-28. 2. gelfand b. r., protsenko d. n., ignatenko o. v., jarosheckij a.i. intra-abdominal hypertension syndrome. scientific review. emergency medicine. -2008. no. 5. -s. 14-17. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 37 3. zhidovinov g.i., maskin s.s., matyukhin v.v., klimovich i. diagnosis and treatment of syndrome of endogenous intoxication in peritonitah of different etiology//materials of all-russia scientific — practical conference with international participation. -spb., 2009.-28-37. 4. erjuhin i.a., shlyapnikov s.a. peritonitis. guide for emergency surgery the abdominal organs. edited by v.s. savelyeva "triada-x», moscow. -2006. -s. 461-495 5. shalkov y.l.. akbarov i.a. peritonitis in light of violations of mezenterialnoj circulation (experimental aspects)////materials of all-russia scientific — practical conference with international participation. -spb., 2009.-28-37. 6. shaposhnikov v.i. treatment of acute peritonitis. publisher stadtgespräch.-2004. 366 s. 7 burch j.m., moore e.e., moore f.a., franciose. the abdominal compartmtnt syndrome. surg. clin. north.am. 1996 aug:76 (4) 833-842. 8 pickardo p.j.,shimany j.s., heiken j.p. tt al. the abdominal compartment symdrome ct findings // ajr. – 1999 –vol 173.-p.575-579. 9. fusco m.a., martin r.s.< chang m.c. eshmaton of intraabdominal pressure by bladder pressure measurement validity and methodology. j. trauma 2001.,feb.50(2), 297-302 10 bradley s.e., bradley g.p. the effect of intra-abdominal pressure on renal function in man // clin. invest. 1947. – 26. 1010-1022 11.kron j.l., harman p.k., nolan s.p. the measurement of intraabdominal pressure as a criterion for abdominal reexploration // ann. surg. 1984. -199 (1). 28-30 the registration form of the surname, name, patronymic name veniamin ivanovich shaposhnikov scientific degree, scientific rank: m.d., professor, academician of rae institution post-night in "kuban medical institute, professor of surgery at the hospital address for 350072 russia, krasnodar correspondence, ul. 40 let pobedy 33/8 kv. 193 mobile. phone 8 918 344. 64 04 e-mail-shaposhnikov35@mail.ru cover letter hereby guarantee that the placement of the scientific article "clinical evaluation of the method active abdominal drainage in general peritonitis rancid» shaposhnikov veniamin ivanovic in the magazine «american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research ‘" does not violate the anyone's copyright. the author indefinitely to the founder of the magazine a non-exclusive right to use scientific articles through the publication of a printed magazine, as well as posting full-text versions of network numbers at the web site of the magazine. the author is responsible for the misuse of scientific article of intellectual property objects, objects of copyright in full in accordance with the current legislation of the russian federation. the article bears no classified information and can be published in the press. the author confirms that sent the article never was published, has not been and will not be sent for publication in other scientific publications. the author agrees to the processing according to art. 6 of the federal law "on personal data" from 27.07.2006 no. 152-fz, of their personal data, namely shaposhnikov veniamin ivanovich, doctor of medical sciences, professor, academician of rae. oncology department with course radiology and radiotherapy non-profit educational private institutions of higher education "kuban medical institute. contact information for the workplace-350020, krasnodar str. budennogo 198, tel. +7 (861) 255-46-07, the official website of the night in "kmi", email info@kubmi.ru. to publish submitted articles in scientific journal also certify that the author agrees with the rules for the preparation of manuscripts for publication, approved by, hosted on the official website of the magazine. academician of rae, md, prof. v.i. shaposhnikov (official seal) www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 38 клиническая оценка метода активного дренирования брюшной полости при общем гнилостном перитоните шапошников в.и.1 1некоммерческое образовательное частное учреждение высшего образования «кубанский медицинский институт»профессор кафедры хирургических заболеваний, проректор по научной работе кореспонденция: некоммерческое образовательное частное учреждение высшего образования «кубанский медицинский институт»профессор кафедры хирургических заболеваний, проректор по научной работе, tel: 8 918 344. 64 04, email:shaposhnikov35@mail.ru получено: 11 август, 2018 прието: 31 август 2018 г. онлайн издание: 15 септември 2018 г. doi: 10.54655/aijmsr.v1n2p33 url: https://doi.org/10.54655/aijmsr.v1n2p33 аннотация. острый общий гнилостный перитонит относится к самой тяжелой форме воспаления брюшины. он постоянно сопровождается эндотоксическим шоком и прогрессирующей полиорганной недостаточностью. макро и микро кровообращение в тканях и органах брюшной полости по системе воротной вены блокируется с первых же минут развития этого патологического процесса и токсины и недоокисленные продукты обмена скапливаются в них. для их удаления требуются эфферентные методы лечения, один из которых предлагает автор этой статьи. техническими и физическими приѐмами на фоне комплексной медикаментозной терапии совершается, как очищение, так и насильственное продвижение крови по сосудам портальной системы. таким способом удается восстановить гомеостаз. за разработку этого метода, ему был выдан патент ссср (№ 1787036 от 7 марта 1991 г.). для подтверждения эффективности, предлагаемого способа лечения, автор описывает клинические наблюдения. ключевые слова: метод, активное дренирование, гнилостный, общий, перитонит 1. вступление почти каждый шестой пациент с острым хирургическим заболеванием органов брюшной полости поступает в лечебное учреждение с явлениями перитонита, летальность при котором в среднем составляет 20-39%, а при тяжелых его формах, к которым относится и гнилостное (каловое) воспаление брюшины. она уже достигает 80-90% [4,6]. ведущее значение в неблагоприятном исходе лечения этого патологического процесса отводится прогрессивному повышению внутрибрюшного давления (вбд) [1,4, 8]. установлено, что первичная санация брюшной полости не приводит к одномоментному устранению воспаления брюшины, а неадекватная тактика его лечения способствует прогрессированию вбд. в итоге развивается синдромом интраабдоминальной гипертензии (сиаг) abdominal compartment syndrome (акс) [9,10]. этот термин предложил kron в 1980 году[2,11,7]. он возникает тогда, когда давление в закрытой брюшной полости уже превышает тот уровень, который обеспечивает нормальное кровоснабжение органов и тканей, содержащихся в ней. порог этого давления зависит и от напряжения живота с растяжением брюшной полости, а также и от степени гиповолемии. к типичным клиническим признакам повышения вбд относят: напряженный и вздутый живот, увеличение пикового инспираторного давления, повышение цвд, снижение сердечного выброса, гипоксию, гиперкапнию и олигурию[1, 3, 8]. повышение вбд приводит к развитию полиорганной недостаточности. понимание всех причин нарастания тяжести заболевания, является исключительно важным в вопросе выработки адекватных способов его лечения [1,4, 5]. на современном этапе развития медицины лечение общего гнойного перитонита остается одной из наиболее сложных проблем неотложной хирургии органов брюшной полости. из-за тяжести развившихся нарушений гомеостаза всегда трудно осуществить его коррекцию. обычно в алгоритм лечения входит дренирование www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 39 брюшной полости. чем объемнее воспалительный процесс брюшины, тем обширнее требуется дренирование этой полости (рис.1). это требуется для того, чтобы не осталось замкнутых полостей. рис. 1 показано дренирование брюшной полости при общем гнойном перитоните: 1 – дренаж введен под правый купол диафрагмы, 2 – под печень, 3 в полость малого таза, 4-под левый купол диафрагмы, 5 – в левый боковой канал. в случае проведения перитонеального диализа верхние трубки (1,2.4) используются для введения растворов, а нижние (3,5) для выведения диализата из брюшной полости. однако все эти методы эффективны только тогда, когда вбд не блокирует микро и макро кровообращение в брюшной полости. если же это наступило, то или пассивный отток гноя, или активный (путем промывания), изменить ситуацию не могут. интоксикация быстро усиливается и пациенты погибают. такой исход, как правило, наблюдается при общем гнилостном перитоните. улучшение исхода лечения острого перитонита авторы связывают или с программированной релапаротомией, или с перитонеальным диализом[1.3,6]. однако, эти методики не корригируют портальное кровообращение, и полиорганная недостаточность нарастает. учитывая это обстоятельство, нами был разработан способ активного дренирования брюшной полости, который при необходимости можно быстро дополнять лаваж –диализом. он оказался тождественен известным методам экстракорпорального очищения плазмы по эффективности крови от токсинов и недоокисленных продуктов обмена. но они только очищают внутреннюю среду организма от токсинов, а предлагаемый метод восстанавливает ток крови по портальной системе, что значительно улучшает прогноз лечения. 2. цель исследования на основании 4 клинических наблюдений показать терапевтическую значимость метода активного дренирования брюшной полости. 3. материал и методы перед применением в клинике, описываемого ниже способа лечения общего гнойного перитонита, нами были проведены опыты на 3 беспородных собаках. было установлено, что раздуваемая резиновая ѐмкость, находящаяся в брюшной полости, не травмирует кишки, и не вызывает развития в ней спаек и абсцессов. она может использоваться и при проведении перитонеального диализа, так как способствует проникновению диализирующей жидкости во все отделы этой полости. активное дренирование брюшной полости осуществлялось следующим образом (рис. 2). после устранения источника перитонита, санации брюшной полости и интубации кишечника, как со стороны желудка, так и прямой кишки, накладывают 4 контрапертуры (в обеих подвздошных и подреберных областях). через эти разрезы в брюшную полость вводят перфорированные трубчатые пластиковые дренажи, а рядом с ними 2-е латексные ѐмкости переменного объѐма. ёмкости наиболее удобно изготавливать из латексных хирургических перчаток, в просвете которых герметично фиксируют каркасные воздуховоды. над поверхностью кожи остаѐтся только www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 40 перчаточное кольцо-уплотнитель и воздуховод. если предполагается проведение перитонеального лаважадиализа, то дренажные трубки и перчатки по бокам герметизируются тканями ран. это предотвращает просачивание промывной жидкости из брюшной полости наружу при проведении процедуры. срединная рана зашивается наглухо. в палате дренажи соединяются с мерными ѐмкостями, а воздуховоды подсоединяются к объѐмному респиратору. заданные параметры работы респиратора: объѐм на одну ѐмкость 300 куб. см, давление на нагнетании – 280мм водного ст., а на сбросе – 0. кратность циклов варьирует от 22 до 28 в 1минуту. предпочтительна синхронизация циклов с частотой дыхательных экскурсий. в случае проведения ивл, это достигается синхронизацией работы двух объѐмных респираторов. при невозможности синхронизации с дыхательными экскурсиями, кратность циклов стандартизируется – 22 цикла в минуту. длительность процедуры с использованием объѐмного респиратора зависит от стойкого восстановления перистальтики кишечника. ёмкость сложной конфигурации, которой является перчатка, позволяет обеспечить, как приток и выдавливание перитонеального экссудата через дренажные трубки, так и производить своеобразный внутренний массаж всей брюшной полости с пассивным перемещением и сдавлением всего желудочно-кишечного тракта. это способствует продвижению в нем газа и жидкости, что способствует восстановлению его перистальтической активности. важнейшим положительным свойством этого метода является также и восстановление микроциркуляции во всех органах и тканях брюшной полости. синхронизация «внутрибрюшного массажа» с дыхательными экскурсиями, на вдохе создает положительное суммарное давление, которое резко повышает отток экссудата по дренажам. все эти положительные явления обеспечивает восстановление стойкой перистальтики кишечника в течение 1-3 суток. при необходимости лаваж продолжается до 5 суток и более. эта методика была применена у 4 пациентов, страдающих общим гнилостным (каловым) перитонитом. возраст у них был от 27 до 47 лет. из них мужчин было 3, а женщин -1. у всех было открытое или закрытое повреждение того или иного отдела ободочной кишки, при этом: у первого внутренний пневматический разрыв сигмовидной кишки, у второго – огнестрельное ранение ректосигмовидного еѐ отдела, у третьего – ножевое ранение нисходящей кишки, у четвертого – закрытый разрыв слепой кишки. раны были по протяженности от 3см и до 12 см, а по окружности – от ¼ и до ¾ диаметра. наиболее обширным был разрыв сигмы, который произошѐл во время «шуточного» нагнетания газа через анальное отверстие. все больные поступили через 1822 часа с момента происшествия в предагональном состоянии. сознание было спутанное. кожные покровы цианотичные и холодные на ощупь. ад было 40-20 / 20-0 мм рт. столба, пульс – нитевидный, живот резко вздут, язык сухой и покрыт коричневым налѐтом, моча отсутствовала от больных исходил гнилостный запах. то, что у них перитонит, не вызывало никаких сомнений. об этом свидетельствовали и данные анамнеза. рис. 2 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 41 схема активного дренирования брюшной полости, где: 1каркасная трубка. введенная в просвет резиновой ѐмкости, 2кольцо-уплотнитель перчатки, 3дренажная трубка, проведенная рядом с перчаткой в левый боковой канал брюшной полости, 4дренажная трубка, проведенная рядом с перчаткой над печень, 5 – такая же трубка, проведенная под печень, 6 – такая же трубка, проведенная к селезѐнке, 7 – внутрибрюшной конец трубки, проведенной в левый боковой канал, 8такая же трубка, введенная в полость малого таза, 9 – каркасная трубка, введенная в полость перчатки, 10-11 – тройник, соединяющий обе каркасные трубки, со шлангом дыхательного респиратора. пострадавшие сразу направлялись в операционную. создавались бригады врачей из 2-3 хирургов, анестезиолога и трансфузиолога после относительной стабилизации артериального давления, выполнялась релапаротомия. из свободной брюшной полости изливался зловонный мутный выпот. петли кишечника были покрыты коричнево-серым фибрином и спаяны между собою в один конгломерат. после его разделения, обнаружен источник перитонита. он был ликвидирован после первичной санации этой полости. хирургическая тактика зависела от характера повреждения стенки ободочной кишки, но у всех 4 пациентов произведено иссечение некротических тканей стенки кишки с наложением поперечных первичных анастомозов. были использованы прецизионные швы, а через просвет анастомоза проводилась широкая газоотводная трубка. после выполнения вторичной санации брюшной полости с использованием до 20 литров раствора фурацилина (1:5000), осуществляли выведение анастомоза из брюшной полости в ближайшие предбрюшинные ткани. для этого делался языкообразный разрез брюшины. лоскут отворачивался. на образованную раневую поверхность укладывался анастомоз, который со стороны брюшной полости прикрывался образованным лоскутом брюшины. к анастомозу со стороны кожи, при помощи сквозного прокола, подводили контрольную резиновую полоску. это делали на случай, если вдруг наступит недостаточность швов – чтобы кишечное содержимое изливалось наружу, а не в свободную брюшную полость. после этого осуществляли дренирование брюшной полости при помощи дренажных трубок , а также введение резиновых раздуваемых емкостей, по методике, описанной выше. из операционной пострадавший поступал в реанимационное отделение и организовывался внутренний массаж брюшной полости. одновременно всем пациентам в течение 2-3 дней проводился перитонеальный диализ по следующей методике. в брюшную полость вливалось 100-200 мл жировой эмульсии, рекомендованной для парентерального введения. затем, начиналась инстилляция диализирующих растворов. принципиально важным является чередование через каждые 4 часа струйного и капельного введения различных жидкостей, с педантичным контролем за их балансом. нижние два дренажа опускаются ниже уровня кровати в мерные ѐмкости, а к трем верхним присоединяются системы для внутривенного введения растворов. лаваждиализ начинается со струйного введения в брюшную полость через три верхних дренажа 200-300 мл 0,25% раствора новокаина, при этом контролируется струйное вытекание жидкости из нижних дренажей. затем также струйно инстилируется смесь фурацилина с перекисью водорода (300-350 мл фурацилина + 100-150 мл 3% раствора перекиси водорода), а затем 300-500 мл 5% раствора глюкозы или 500-1000 мл сложного кристаллоидного раствора. по прекращении струйного поступления диализата из брюшной полости, то есть завершения первого цикла лаважа, начинается капельное введение в брюшную полость 1,5% раствора поваренной соли или более сложного солевого раствора, которое длится 4 часа. в это время происходит очищение гомеостаза от токсинов и недоокисленных продуктов обмена, то есть совершается диализ. затем все повторяется. во время второго цикла этого процесса, 2-3 раза в сутки в состав диализата включаются антибиотики с учетом данных антибиотикограммы, а также 300-500 мл 5% раствора глюкозы и 100-150 мл жировой эмульсии. они усиливает сорбцию токсинов из брюшной полости (благодаря увеличению осмотической ѐмкости перфузата) и контролирует прогрессирование адгезивного процесса в брюшной полости. 4. результаты все эти пациенты благополучно перенесли операцию. послеоперационное течение у 3 протекало без осложнений и наступило выздоровление. у 4 пациента (мужчина 27 лет), у которого разрыв слепой кишки произошел одновременно с множественным оскольчатым переломом костей таза, на 5 сутки, когда активное дренирование брюшной полости было закончено, так как восстановилась перистальтика кишечника, внезапно наступила смерть. аутопсия показала, что произошел прорыв гематомы головного мозга в его желудочки. брюшная полость была свободна от спаек. однако ещѐ сохранялись отечность и гиперемия брюшины. недостаточности швов анастомоза не выявлено. 5. обсуждение клинический анализ, описанного способа активного дренирования брюшной полости позволяет восстановить гомеостаз при наиболее тяжелой гнилостной форме перитонита. внутренний массаж органов и тканей брюшной полости, способствует продвижению крови в портальной системе, что не наблюдается при www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 42 всех других эфферентных методах лечения этого заболевания. использование же перитонеального лаважадиализа усиливает его дезинтоксикационный эффект. это отчетливо проявилось при лечении больных с запущенным каловым перитонитом. 6. заключение разработанный метод активного дренирования брюшной полости является альтернативой всем другим способам лечения наиболее тяжелых форм общего перитонита. при помощи его можно осуществлять пассивное продвижение крови в портальной системе, что является исключительно важным в прогнозе заболевания. сочетанное же применение лаважа-диализа позволяет значительно улучшить результаты лечения общего гнойного перитонита, за счет: а) усиления перфузии брюшины, б) усиления дренирования брюшной полости, в) быстрого восстановления моторно-эвакуаторной функции кишечника, г) значительного очищения гомеостаза от токсинов и недоокисленных продуктов обмена. препратки 1.велиев н.а., гасанова д.н., исмайлов в.ф.. оценка тяжести перитонита в зависимости от синдрома интраабдоминальной гипертензии и его патогенетических последствий.// материалы всероссийской научно-практической конференции с международным участием. – спб., 2009. с.22-28. 2.гельфанд б. р., проценко д. н., игнатенко о. в., ярошецкий а.и. синдром интраабдоминальной гипертензии. научный обзор. // медицина неотложных состояний. – 2008. № 5. –с. 14-17. 3.жидовинов г.и., маскин с.с.,матюхин в.в., климович и.н. диагностика и лечение синдрома эндогенной интоксикации при перитонитах различной этиологии // материалы всероссийской научно-практической конференции с международным участием. –спб., 2009.с28-37. 4.ерюхин и.а. , шляпников с.а. перитонит. // руководство по неотложной хирургии органов брюшной полости. под редакцией в.с. савельева «триада – х», москва. – 2006. с. 461-495 5.шальков ю.л.. акперов и.а. перитонит в свете нарушений мезентериальной циркуляции (экспериментальные аспекты) //// материалы всероссийской научно-практической конференции с международным участием. –спб., 2009.с28-37. 6.шапошников в.и. лечение острого перитонита. издательство stadtgespräch.2004. 366 с. 7. burch j.m., moore e.e., moore f.a., franciose. the abdominal compartmtnt syndrome. surg. clin. north.am. 1996 aug:76 (4) 833-842. 8 .pickardo p.j.,shimany j.s., heiken j.p. tt al. the abdominal compartment symdrome ct findings // ajr. – 1999 –vol 173.-p.575-579. 9. fusco m.a., martin r.s.< chang m.c. eshmaton of intraabdominal pressure by bladder pressure measurement validity and methodology. j. trauma 2001.,feb.50(2), 297-302 10. bradley s.e., bradley g.p. the effect of intra-abdominal pressure on renal function in man // clin. invest. 1947. – 26. 1010-1022 11.kron j.l., harman p.k., nolan s.p. the measurement of intraabdominal pressure as a criterion for abdominal reexploration // ann. surg. 1984. -199 (1). 28-30. регистрационная форма фамилия, имя, отчество шапошников вениамин иванович ученая степень, ученое звание: д.м.н., профессор, академик рае учреждение, должность ночу во «кубанский медицинский институт», профессор кафедры госпитальной хирургии адрес для переписки 350072,россия, краснодар, ул. 40 лет победы 33/8 кв. 193 мобил. телефон 8 918 344. 64 04 e-mail shaposhnikov35@mail.r copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 research article published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 12 perception of librarians towards use of social media for information service delivery: a conceptual paper asabe pera awurdi department of library and information faculty of social and management science library bauchi, campus bauchi state university gadau, bauchi, nigeria e-mail: asabepera@gmail.com tel: +234 7015321266 abstract this study conceptualizes how librarians perceive social media in library and information service delivery. the study consults and review previous research on the use of social media to provide service delivery by librarians by librarians. social media encourages librarians to create new knowledge, ideas, and services and share it across their community of users. service delivery is the primary function of any university library. due to the difficult nature of traditional library services, libraries now embrace and adopt some social media tools for service delivery. this research highlighted the opportunities offer by social media to improve service delivery, the study also discuss the categorization of social media, types of social media, applicability of social media, challenges face by librarians when using social media and strategies on incorporating social media when using service delivery. based on the conceptual review carried out, majority of studies reveals that librarians use social media and ict in information service library and the most use form of social media is the facebook, whatapps and twitter, but, however, they do encounter obstacles in terms when using the social media. the study concludes that librarians actually use social media for library information service delivery, but yet there is a lot of challenges for proper use of social media in library and information delivery. therefore, the study recommends that university libraries should incorporate more social media to provide effective services to their clients and adequate finance should be provided regularly by the university management to improve the use of social media in information service delivery and finally librarians should render more proactive and more quality social media services to meet the information needs of clients keywords: social media, information service delivery, librarians, information 1.introduction the development of information and communication technologies (icts), particularly the internet has become pervasive that today libraries are using social media to make their services more popular and user-friendly. the concept of a library as a physical place where one can visit to get information is rapidly changing to a social cyberspace where users access information, communicate and contribute to existing body of knowledge. the social media has gradually crept into the library profession which has become a growing tool that is being used to communicate with more potential library users; extending and offering better services to users. in view of this, tise, (2009) stated that the social media is a new model of online services that encourages an increased flow of information from the library to users and from users back to the library. the evolution of the internet and world wide web (www) has transformed the whole globe and presents a new way of communication. the limitless connectivity and potential to create an open social order and system of interaction and collaboration have been made possible only because of the development in information and communication technologies (parveen, 2011). therefore, social media is viewed as a platform for serving patrons in a more specialized, interactive and value added way. ezeani & eke (2011) stated that the most applicable technology for library services is the social media tools where librarians can interact with their users to study their needs and give a feedback; photo sharing, and where archival pictures can be posted to users or uploaded on the library website. social media encourages librarians to create new knowledge, ideas, and services and share it across their community of users. as such, users are therefore exposed to an ever greater variety of knowledge, and improved information service delivery. furthermore, librarians would gain advice and expertises on issues that arise in their professional work as a result of their interaction on social media (gruber, 2008).libraries by their orientation are service providers; the satisfaction of the clientele has always been their objectives and goals. thus, the library provides various types of resources and services in order to meet up with the needs of its users. nevertheless, these mailto:asabepera@gmail.com copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 13 resources are selected, acquired, organized and stored for the purpose of meeting up with its user’s information needs. academic libraries are one of those numerous types of libraries that exist in the information world. in view of this, edoka (2000) defined academic libraries as “libraries that are found in most institutions of higher learning such as polytechnics, colleges of education and universities”. he maintained that librarians are in charge of higher learning institutions’ libraries; they perform and render different kinds of services to its users still in the old traditional way. however, with advancement in technology, librarians are now turning to social media for information service delivery of their clientele and also to meet up their professional needs and demands. therefore, social media according to ezeah, asogwu and edogor (2013), referred to modern interactive communication channels through which people connect to one another, share ideas, experiences, pictures, messages and information of common interest. on their part, gupta, gautham & khare, (2014) refers to it as means of connecting members of various internet communities. son the basis of the above, social media offers boundless opportunities that are highly valued for their ability to connect libraries with users who may be unaware of their existence. thus, providing specialized information service delivery. mathews, (2008) suggested that librarians can create services that are more responsive and attuned to the changing needs of users. in the same vein sadeh, (2007) argued that making social media presence remains pertinent and fundamental to meet users’ expectations particularly the younger ones. therefore, to effectively deploy these social media for information service delivery, librarians must be to embrace it. meanwhile, bradley & mcdonald (2011) stated that there are barriers that prevent the use of social media such as perceptions of social media as a triviality, security issues or lack of understanding of social media. hence, the objective of this study is perception of librarians towards use of social media for service delivery. the concept is important today, for instance, internet live statistics presents that over 3 trillion of people globally are using the internet out of which about 74% are engaged in social media tools (internet live statistic, 2015). hence, this study explored the perceptions of librarians on using social media to promote library service delivery to both existing and potential users (students and lecturers). on the basis of this, this study would pay attention to find out what challenges librarians face when using social media in service delivery, discuss the categorization of social media, talk on the types of social media, discuss the applicability of social media in library service delivery, talk on the merits and demerits of social media and possible strategies on incorporating social media in library service. 2. literature review 2.1 the concept of social media chitumbo, (2015) defined social media as online tools whose principle aim is to offer social interactions and exchange of items/products between and or among people with common interests. according to him social media presents an opportunity to librarians to use them and render service and meet the demand of users as it is popular among students and the young generation. it is a fact that developments in the area of icts brought about the existence of social media which has gradually become an indispensable tool for librarians in the area of information service delivery. the use of social media has affected the operations and information service delivery of libraries, as it provides librarians with innovative and effective ways of interaction and collaboration with their users (ayodele, 2009). the concept enjoys attentions of researcher one of them is denis, (2018) who posit that social media is a tool used for transmitting the idea or thought or information between one to another and understanding through the interaction; in other words, it is the act of sharing or exchanging information, ideas or feelings. meanwhile, in the field of library and information science, social media can actually help to promote the services of library and information centers to develop the proficiency about technology of professionals and other side like users. in addition, akporhonor & olise (2015) define social media as a tools that librarians can use for library services in order to maintain their relevance in this century. they added that social media are new media for effective promotion of library and information services. furthermore, olufunke, a.o. (2017) sees it as a medium that connect libraries to their patrons outside the physical buildings and build relationships with them. due to its advantages, observations show that globally, many university libraries have embraced the use of social media in their library services. social media is highly valuable for its ability to connect libraries with users; they are also vital tools which help the librarians to generate, disseminate, exchange and share information as well as to gather knowledge. social media also has the capacity of improving librarians’ professional skills in order to compete and work effectively in a rapid changing environment (onuoha, 2013). with the potentials embodied in social media for effective information service delivery, different types of social media exist, notably among them are facebook, twitter, linkedin, blogs, myspace, youtube, and flickr are available to the librarians for information service delivery. on their part, ezeani & igwesi (2012) identified six types of social media available to nigeria information professionals “facebook, myspace, blogs, wikis, linkedin, twitter, youtube, and flickr”. they argue that they copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 14 are used for outreach, marketing of library collection, transfer and dissemination of information to users. however, alyson (2012) added that “facebook and twitter are capable and are important tools for information dissemination, while blogs and youtube are used to share information. on this note, the use of social media such as facebook, twitter, blogs, wikis, rss feeds, youtube, etc. in the delivery of library and information services has become necessary for the survival of university libraries. as a result of this, university libraries are incorporating new technologies such as social media in order to remain relevant in their universities and to meet the information needs of their patrons. for instance, facebook is used for communication between librarians and their patrons. library patrons can communicate with librarians for enquiries. they also receive information on their enquiries. facebook is used for sharing of information and marketing library services. social media enable communication among libraries and their users thereby serving as an opportunity for information dissemination and the marketing of new services. social media are used for marketing of library products and services, announce news and for fund raising. instant messaging is used to enhance reference service delivery processes. social media are platforms that enable communication among libraries and their users thereby serving as an opportunity for information dissemination. they are used as tools by librarians and other information professionals to reach their patrons irrespective of their locations. they are platforms to share information, promote and market new services. many organisations are applying social media to improve their services and interact with their clients. on the other hand, service delivery is the primary function of any university library. the cumbersome nature and the inadequacies of traditional library services have prompted university libraries to adopt social media in library service delivery. however, one of the challenges facing library services in university libraries in nigeria is the unwillingness of the librarians to incorporate ict in terms of knowledge and skills to implement the modern library services (ojedokun &ayoka, 2015). many library staff in academic institutions still relies only on the manual ways of rendering library services and do not bother acquiring competencies to incorporate the fast-growing technological trends in the profession. 3. categorization of social media tools white, mary gormandy (2014) stated that categories of social media includes but not limited to the following:  social connections: keeping in touch with friends and family members is one of the greatest benefits of social networking. facebook, twitter, google + and myspace are some of the most widely-used websites for building social connections online.  multimedia sharing: social networking platform makes it easy to share video and managing digital photography content online. some of the most popular sites for multimedia sharing are youtube, flickr and picasa.  professional: professional social networks are designed to provide opportunities for career-related growth. professionals here connect, while others are focused on specific occupations or interests. a few examples of professional social networks are linkedin, classroom  informational: informational communities are made up of people seeking answers to everyday problems. for example, when you are thinking about starting a home improvement project or want to learn how to go green at home, you may perform a web search and discover countless blogs, websites, and forums filled with people who are looking for the same kind of information. a few examples include: super green, hgtv discussion forums, hgtv message boards, do-it-yourself community.  educational: educational networks are where many students go in order to collaborate with other students on academic projects, to conduct research for school, or to interact with professors and teachers via blogs and classroom forums. examples of such educational social networks are student room, the math, forum and epals ,school blog.  hobbies: one of the most popular reasons many people use the internet is to conduct research on their favorite projects or topics of interest related to personal hobbies. when people find a website based on their favorite hobby, they discover a whole community of people from around the world who share the same passion for those interests. examples of hobby-focused social networking sites include, oh my bloom, my place at scrapbook.com and sport shouting  academic: academic researchers who want to share their research and review results achieved by colleagues may find academic-specific social networking to be quite valuable. examples of online communities for academics include academia.edu and connotea collaborative research. moreover, kaplan & haenlein (2010), adds to the categorization of social media to include: collaborative project (for example, wikipedia), blogs and micro blogs (for example, twitter), social news networking sites (for example, digg and leakernet), content communities (for example, youtube and daily motion), social copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 15 networking sites (for example, facebook), virtual game-worlds (for example, world of warcraft), and virtual social worlds (for example, second life). 4. merits and demerits of social media people from all walks of life, regardless of their skin colour, education, social status, and nationality, use social media, gradually the benefits of using social media is spreading. today, social media have improved the way people and industries transact, communicate and create relationships with colleagues, peers and or prospective clients. on this note, the following are merits and demerits of social media. merits of social media  worldwide connectivity  commonality of interest  real-time information sharing  free advertising  increased news cycle speed  demerits of social media  face to face connections are endangered  cyber bullying and crimes against children  risks of fraud or identity theft  time waster  corporate invasion of privacy  negative health consequences  diminishing privacy 5. types of social media social media are platform that connect people who share interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections.  profile-based sns: profile-based services are primarily organized around members' profile pages. bebo, facebook and myspace, are all good examples of this. users often include third party content in order to enhance their profiles, or as a way of including information from other web services and sns.  content-based sns: in these services, the user's profile remains an important way of organizing connections, but plays a secondary role to the posting of content. content-based communities include flickr, shelfari, and youtube.com.  white-label sns: most sns offer some group-building functionality, which allows users to form their own mini-communities within sites. platforms such as ning and people aggregator broadbandmechanics.com.  multi-user virtual environments: sites such as second life, an online virtual world, allow users to interact with each other’s avatars – a virtual representation of the site member.  mobile sns: many social network sites such as myspace, myubo and twitter offer mobile phone versions of their services that allowing members to interact with their networks via their phones. increasingly, too, there are mobile–led and mobile-only based communities allows users to share and view video over mobile networks.  micro-blogging/ presence updates: micro-blogging services such as twitter and jaiku allow you to publish short (140 characters, including spaces) messages publicly or within contact groups.  people search: people search is another important web development. there are various kinds of social and people search, but sites like wink generate results by searching across the public profiles of multiple social network sites allows search by name, interest, location and other information published in profiles and allowing the creation of web-based "dossiers" on individuals. other types of social media include rss feed, wiki, twitter, instant messaging, slideshare, blogs, whatapps, myspace, podcast,linkdeln, reseachgate and so on. 6. applicability of social media in library service delivery user approach towards library is changing gradually; it wants most practical and speedily information in elearning age. but retrieve quick and easy information to user is a big challenge to library professional. social media helps library professional to share information with users in the easiest way for digital library environment. the possible implication of social media can be successful by conducting maximum research and experiment on social networking from different point of view on library. social media tools were helpful in promoting library service delivery. there is an urgent need for libraries to adopt the new social media tools in their services as a strategy to copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 16 embrace change while promoting a participatory role for library users in knowledge creation. some of the applicability of social media in library and information include, understanding and articulating the nature of social media, creating webpage and content, establishing friendly user interface over the network, creating online database management, evaluating and applying information, and assisting users with skill acquisition, searching and navigating the web, creating social network space, teaching, and providing quality online library services, performing reference desk (vrd) through the use of wikipedia 7. challenges librarians face when using social media to provide services? according to olufunke, (2017) librarians are face with enormous challenges but most common one are:  inadequate ict facilities in the library  poor internet access  lack of finance  epileptic poor supply  lack of management support  lack of corporation among staff  lack of ict skills  lack of awareness of social media tools  lack of personal knowledge  poor maintenance of e-library these are some of the challenges that hinder proper implementation of social media in library service delivery, however great commitment of all stakeholders should be put in place to overcome the challenges. 8. possible strategies on incorporating social media in library service delivery according to chitumbo, (2015) the following are some of the possible strategies to incorporate social media in to library service delivery.  libraries can create social links such as facebook page, fan-pages and library blogs onto the library website. such platforms would allow interaction between library and users and among users. they can also be used as marketing tools for library resources and services, while students would be able to access and share concerns and experiences on library services with peers.  library can create accounts for all students on social media platforms to ensure easy and equal participation among users on the available network. by creating accounts for students they will comfortably use their mobile gadgets to access library services via social links.  libraries should create a position for social media librarian who should be responsible for all activities on social media.  establish an social media policy to guide the use of social media on the institutional network 9. conclusion based on the conceptual review carried out, majority of studies on social media and use of ict in library and information science agrees that nigerian librarians actually use social media for effective service delivery and the most use form of social media is the facebook, whatapps and twitter, but, however, they do encounter obstacles in terms of poor communication of the network, conducive environment, poor network, lack of maintenance of elibrary, inadequate computers to serve all the library user and inability of the library users to adapt to changing social media role in library service delivery as some of them resist the use of social media for research and prefer the old traditional method. the study also understood from the previous studies that facebook is most use, but users normally browse for socialization rather than academic purpose. however, this study conclude that librarians actually use social media for library information service delivery, but yet a lot of challenges for proper use of social media in library and information delivery exists, hence the need to address those challenges, therefore, the study recommends that university libraries should incorporate more social media to provide effective services to their clients and adequate finance should be provided regularly by the university management to improve the use of social media in information service delivery and finally librarians should render more proactive and more quality social media services to meet the information needs of clients. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 1; 2019 17 references alyson, t. (2012) "welsh libraries and social media: a survey", ariadne issue 68 (http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue68/tyler) retrieved on 06/05 2013. ayodele, a. j. (2009) library and social networking: a new tool in information management. first dlis biennial international conference, october 14-16, 2009. bradley, a., & mcdonald, m. (2011).the social organization. boston, massachusetts:harvard business review press. chitumbom, e.m.m. (2015) social media tools for academic library services. international journal of humanities and social science invention (4) 9, 33-40 denis, w. (2013) use of social networking sites in library and information centres . integral university, lucknow edoka, b. e. (2000) introduction to library science, onitsha: palma publishing and links company limited. ezeani, c. n., & eke, h. n. (2011) transformation of web 2.0 into lib 2.0 for driving access to knowledge by academic libraries in nigeria. in the 48th national conference and annual general meeting of the nigerian library association theme: knowledge management for national development. ibadan: hebn publishers. ezeani, c. n. and igwesi, u., (2012) "using social media for dynamic library service delivery: the nigeria experience" library philosophy and practice (e-journal). paper 814.(http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/8) gruber, a. (2008) wired professional development: new librarians connect through the web. college & undergraduate libraries, 14(4). gupta,r.k. gautam, j.n and khare, v.p. (2014) annals of library and information studies. (61) 8, 320-331 mathews, b. (2008) twitter and the library: thoughts on the syndicated lifestyle. journal of web librarianship 2(4). internet live stats. 2015. internet users. last accessed 29.08.15 from: http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users/ kaplan, a. & haenlein, m. (2010) users of the world, unite: the challenges and opportunities of social media. business horizons, (53) 1, 67-75 onuoha, u. d. (2013) librarians’ use of `social media for professional development in nigeria. information management and information business review 5(3) olufunke, a.o. (2017) ict skills, social media use and service delivery by librarians in federal universities in south-west, nigeria. published msc, thesis, department of information resources management, school of management. babcock university ilishan-remo ogun state nigeria parveen, n. (2011) ‘’use of social networking site (facebook) in making awareness among the library and information science professional of university of u.p: a case study’’. international journal of digital library services.vol.1, issue 1. sadeh, t. (2007) time for a change: new approaches for a new generation of library users.new library world, 108(7/8). tise, e. r. (2009) acceptance speech delivered at the 75th ifla congress in milan 2009. white, mary gormandy (2014). what types of social networks exist? available on : http://socialnetworking.lovetoknow.com/what_types_of_social_networks_exist (retrieved on : 14.02.2015) copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3a%2f%2fwww.ariadne.ac.uk%2fissue68%2ftyler&sa=d&sntz=1&usg=afqjcngetknjapf2uzppiupuzv7khwblaq http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3a%2f%2fdigitalcommons.unl.edu%2flibphilprac%2f8&sa=d&sntz=1&usg=afqjcng8zghj73il1nlhtgxjlhleta2uxw copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 research article published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 1 assessment of passengers’ satisfaction of public transport system in akure-owo axis, nigeria olorunfemi, samuel oluwaseyi 1 & adeniran, adetayo olaniyi 1 1 department of transport management technology , federal university of technology akure, nigeria correspondence: olorunfemi, samuel oluwaseyi, department of transport management technology , federal university of technology akure, nigeria. email: soolorunfemi@futa.edu.ng to cite this article: samuel oluwaseyi, o., & adetayo olaniyi, a. (2018). assessment of passengers’ satisfaction of public transport system in akure-owo axis, nigeria. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 4(1), 1-16. retrieved from http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr/article/view/142 received: september 19, 2018 accepted: september 30, 2018 online published: october 14, 2018 abstract this study assesses passengers’ satisfaction of public transport system in akure-owo axis, nigeria. it was necessitated by the poor nature of transport system which has created impediments to the smooth movement of people, goods and services in some of urban centres in nigeria. meanwhile, the importance of public transport in cities of many developing countries lies in the fundamental fact that accessibility and mobility are essential for economic growth and also for effective and efficient movement of goods and services. twelve bus services were identified. the study was conducted using questionnaires and field observation to collect the required data at the terminals (i.e. akure and owo park). one hundred and twelve (112) questionnaires were administered to the passengers across the two terminals. descriptive tool such as weighted mean and standard deviation were employed. also, gap analysis was used to achieve descriptive statistics. findings revealed that passengers were not satisfied with the competence of drivers, condition of vehicle, overloading and over-speeding, attitude of drivers, driver’s compliance with road safety rules and order, and the cost charge per trip. based on the dissatisfactions, recommendations were suggested. keywords: assessment, passengers’ satisfaction, service quality, public transport system. 1. introduction transport is important for the survival of modern society and without it there would be no life in the city (onokala, 2001).transport needs of major cities in nigeria now present significant challenges for policy makers as unpredictable shifts in population dynamics in response to the need for employment, housing, and sustenance continues (nwachukwu, 2014). the expansion of the cities in nigeria, coupled with increasing urban population, copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 2 results in greater demand for transport provision. this demand has, however, not always been met, and efforts to provide adequate transport infrastructural facilities are ad hoc, uncoordinated, and poor (nwachukwu, 2014). as an important service in urban centres, transport enables people, firms and other organizations to carry out their activities at sites selected for these purposes in separate locations in the cities (nwachukwu, 2005). transport provides a crucial understanding and operation of many other systems at many different scales and is an embodiment of the complex relationships between social and political activities, and other levels of economic development (hoyle and smith, 1992; nwachukwu, 2005). public transportation has undoubtedly play a vital role in commuting passengers to work or to places that they desire, and more importantly, to reduce traffic congestion (rohanaet al., 2012). public transportation by definition connotes the act or the means of conveying large number of people “en masse” as opposed to conveyance in individual vehicles carrying very few people at a time. in other words, public transport or mass transit is a system in which a greater number of people are moved at a time along principal corridors (ogbazi, 1992, nwachukwu, 2005). it is also referred to as mass transit which comprises mainly of the rail system, light rail system, tram ways and monorails, bus system and where possible water transportation (nwachukwu, 2005). today, experiences show a need for greater variety of public transport modes, but buses are choice of a majority of the communities and are the only means of mobility that can be afforded by the poor in developing countries of the world. the choice of any or a combination of the public transportation systems enumerated above could be influenced by population and area/size of the city, their transportation demand and characteristics and land use pattern. the bus system is the transportation system that uses buses that may have a range of passenger capacities and performance characteristics, and may operate on fixed routes with fixed schedules, or may be flexibly routed. bus systems have the capability of extending transport services to greater proportions of urban residents who do not have private cars and cannot afford frequent taxi fares (andeleeb et al., 2007; nwachukwu, 2014). they have the potential of being used as policy tools to reduce the number of cars on urban roads and thus reduce traffic chaos in cities. despite the vital role that buses are able to play in any urban area, their services in nigerian cities are often insufficient to meet demand, and the services provided suffer from low output (ali and onokala, 2009). creation of modern cities has been facilitated and influenced greatly by urban transportation. public’s travel demands have increased, leading to complexity in the provision of extra ability to handle and control the situation effectively. the condition has amplified road congestion, thus condensing urban mobility to critical points in many cities in the world (githui etal, n.d). this predicates on the public transportation scene in many of the cities that is characterized by overcrowding and the use of already overused and rickety vehicles imported from other parts of the world, persistent traffic congestion due to continuous deteriorating condition of roads that inadvertently slow down traffic, increasing vehicular and pedestrian accidents and their associated increase in the cost of human capital growth and loss of man-hours for several weeks (adeniji, 2000; oyesiku 2002; badejo, 2008; oyesiku et al.n,d). meanwhile, according to the global rating of transportation negativities in major cities of the world, the adverse effects of road traffic congestion was rated at 54.5%, while ineffectual public transportation system, air and noise pollution were rated 54.8% and 59.4% respectively (oyesiku et al. n.d). this shows that road traffic congestion is copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 3 expected to be worst at 61.3% than public transportation and air pollution in the nearest future (auclaire, 2000; oyesiku et al. n.d). improved economic status coupled with rapid urbanization insert intense and unbearable demands in almost all cities in the world in the provision of social services such as transportation water, education etc. today there are more vehicles making more trips over longer distances, most urban transport systems are at their point of dissemination and there is latent total dysfunction. the trend is worrisome and calls for an incorporated approach in the search of solutions which include effective and efficient management of available infrastructure, controlled urban planning and growth management, and promotion of public transportation modes (zegras et al., 1999). public transport service is part of the basic infrastructure and essential in the development of a country (amsori et al., 2013). however, among the major goals of all actors involved in the public transport business is the formation of a wellorganized transit system, within which citizens can find a sufficient level of mobility and satisfy their important need for the efficient movement under safe and comfortable conditions. this overall principle entails many significant quality characteristics of the public transport system, such as safety, on-time performance, accessibility, efficiency, information provision etc (oyesiku,n.d). edvardsson (1998) opined that customers’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction depends on the usage of the information that the business can dig out from its customers. one way is through complaints. he found that the driver plays a significant role on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the customer, and that because the driver, usually, does not know the customers’ needs and expectations and in many cases it is something that leaves the driver indifferent. moreover, friendliness of the personnel especially bus driver behaviour in relation to service frequency has an impact on customer satisfaction. friendliness behaviour of the bus driver can satisfy customers by developing better communication and knowledge of its customer’s needs (disney, 1998). as far as frequency is concerned, frequent services increase satisfaction and urban transportation patronage. to this end, this research tend to assess the passengers’ satisfactions of public transport in akure-owo axis, nigeria and emphasizes will be placed on mini public bus transport which is the major dominant means of transport along the axis. however, the objectives of the study are to identify the social-economic profile of the public bus drivers along the axis; examine the heterogeneity or homogeneity of passengers’ perception towards bus services; and asses the level of passenger satisfaction and quality of public bus transport service along the route. 2. literature search public transport was professed as unpleasant and public transport users expressed more negative attitude toward their daily commute. the negative attitudes were revealed to be related to stress as well as boredom caused by delays and waiting time at the bus stop. (nwaogbe et al., 2013). dominance of motor vehicles in land transportation has resulted in a lot of serious environmental and social problems such as traffic congestion, air pollution, noise and climate change (cox, 2010; sik et al, 2012). this highlights the importance of private transport use’s reduction and public transport use’s enhancement. to respond these signs, “public transport systems need to become more market oriented and competitive, as they tend to be viewed as service product” (lai and chen, 2010). jenny (2013) suggests that, in order to achieve accessibility in a sustainable way, it is necessary to have a good and frequently used public copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 4 transport system. he also noted that public transport, together with pedestrians and cyclists are prerequisites for transportation in a larger city. for effective movement of passengers with public transport, understanding the behavioral intention of public transport passenger is important, because favorable behavioral intention lead to customer loyalty which plays crucial role for success and survival of the service firm (wen et al., 2005; lai and chen, 2010; siket al., 2012). for public transport operators, understanding passengers’ behavioral intentions after experiencing the public transit services is also important, since it can help them “design effective strategies to meet passengers’ needs, and thus retain existing passengers’ as well as attract new ones from other modes” (lai and chen, 2010). jenny (2013) noted that actions to increase the use of public transport can be divided into four categories; quality, knowledge, properties and social attitudes of the public transport system; also a sustainable transportation system is depending on a high quality public transport system with reasonable pricing. a modern transport system which provides high quality of services has been a contemporary issue in transport modeling literature (cullinane, 2002; ali, 2010; randheer et al., 2011, aidoo et al., 2013). according to ali (2010), transport is important for the survival of the modern society. an effective and efficient transport system can significantly contribute to human development in a wider perspective (aidoo et al., 2013). however, it has also been argued that provision of public transport services in a large number of cities in the developing world often does little to meet the travel needs of the population, particularly residents of low income areas (wright, 2004; lorita, 2011). the road-based public transport in developing world cities is characterized by many informal and formal vans, mini-buses, and full-sized buses (wright, 2004), and the services rendered are generally poor and often regarded as inadequate. standards of safety, security, comfort, convenience, regularity, punctuality (where schedules apply), reliability, and speed are not encouraging and low incomes also lead to problems of affordability of prices (behrens et al, 2004; iles, 2005; wright, 2004; lorita,2011). according to iles (2005), there is also general public dissatisfaction in many developing countries with the quality of public transport services. meanwhile, lorita (2011) quoting wright (2004) identified the following paucities in the present services that the public transport customers or passengers usually complain about and this are; inconvenience in terms of location of stations and frequency of services; failure to service key origins and destinations; fear of crime at stations and within public transport vehicles; lack of safety in terms of driver ability and roadworthiness of public transport vehicles; service is much slower than private vehicles, especially when public transport vehicles make frequent stops; overloading of vehicles makes ride uncomfortable; poor-quality or non-existent infrastructure (e.g., lack of shelters, unclean vehicles, etc.); lack of organized system structure and accompanying maps and information make the systems difficult to use; and low status of public transit services. kwakye et al., (1997); sohail, (2005) and lorita, (2011) revealed that in most developing world cities, the urban poor rely or depend deeply on public transport for accessibility and mobility and where there is a lack of accessible, adequate, affordable, safe, reliable public transport; there is a negative impact on the poor’s livelihoods (i.e., a considerable limit on their livelihood strategies) and therefore on their household incomes (booth et al., 2000; palmer et al., 1997; sohail, 2005; gannon and liu, 1997). despite the vital role that buses play in any urban areas, their services are frequently insufficient to meet demand and the services that are provided mostly suffer from low copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 5 output (ali, 2010). in many parts of the world, individuals tend to use their private vehicles due to lack of satisfaction they derive from the services of public transport. for instance, the findings of cullinane (1992) in an attitudinal survey in uk showed that 41% of private car users would reduce their car usage if public transport became frequently available and reliable. again, cullinane (2002) used attitudinal survey based on sampled university students in hong kong and found that good public transport can deter car ownership, with 65% of the respondents in the survey stating their unlikelihood of buying a car in the next five years. improvement in transport system can have a positive effect on land development (deng and nelson, 2010). the authors further describe that high quality of public transport system can greatly improve the accessibility of its catchment area by shortening time. margareta and markus (2009) emphasized that in many countries of the world, major investments are being made in public transport systems to make them more competitive vis-à-vis other means of transport. however, an increase in supply (qualitatively or quantitatively) will not automatically lead to a corresponding increase in demand and satisfaction (fujiiand, 2003). to make sure that investment really attracts both the existing and the potential customers envisaged, knowledge of satisfaction and service performance should provide policymakers and operational managers in public transport with valuable information (nathanail, 2007). satisfaction is “a cumulative idea that is affected by market expectations and performance perceptions in any given period, and is also affected by past satisfaction from period to period” (johnson et al., 1995; siket al., 2012). customer satisfaction lies in the disconfirmation of customer expectation pattern, whereas a positive disconfirmation leads to customer satisfaction and negative satisfaction leads to customer dissatisfaction (oliver, 1980; tse and wilton, 1988; yi, 1990; jamali, 2005; ismail et al., 2006; sik et al., 2012). furthermore, it “pertains to a holistic evaluation after a service delivery experience, and acts as a consequence of satisfaction with individual attributes (i.e. service quality)” (lai and chen, 2010). in services industry, since satisfaction brings a lot of benefits to organizations, it has been widely identified as a key intermediary objective (ranaweera and prabhu, 2003). one of its benefits is that satisfaction is generally seen as the main driver of customers’ favorable behavioral intentions (ranaweera and prabhu, 2003; clemes, et al., 2008; lai and chen, 2010). customers’ favorable behavioral responses, such as repurchase and positive word of mouth, will be obtained by the organization if the customers were satisfied (cronin and taylor, 1992; fornell, 1992; swanson and kelly, 2001; wen et al., 2005; clemes et al., 2008). however, to increase public transport use, the service should be designed and performed in a way that accommodates the levels of service required by customers or passengers for their satisfaction (beirão and cabral 2007; margareta and markus 2009). there seems to be knowledge of how customers/passenger sees public transport. in the literature, aspects such as reliability, frequency, travel time and fare level (hensher et al., 2003, tyrinopoulos and aifadopoulou 2008), comfort and cleanliness (eboli and mazzulla 2007, swanson et al., 1997), network coverage/distance to stop (erikssonet al., 2009, tyrinopoulos and antoniou 2008), and safety issues (smith and clarke 2000, fellesson and friman 2008) are all known to be important factors in customer evaluations of public transport service quality. eboli and mazzula (2007) also comment that an improvement in the supplied service quality can attract further users. randheer et al. (2011) argues that in the current scenario of globalization, public transport service needs pensive copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 6 sensitivity towards the quality of service offered. transportation system can be a reliable indicator of economic development. it works as a factor that stimulates economic growth by providing employment, improving the effectiveness and efficiency of other businesses and also contributing to national investment and development (aidoo et al., 2013). in corroborating the above, dube et al. (2011), opines that public transport plays a social role in the urban environment: it improves access to work places and service infrastructure and at the same time, reduces travel expenses. both public authorities and transport operators are convoluted in policy formulation and implementation in relation to transport services. since public authorities and transport operators have different goals, regulation plays an important role, especially, failing competition (gatta and marcucci, 2007; aidoo et al., 2013). 2.1 urban transportation challenges there are a number of related urban transportation problems in the cities (okoko, 2006). with the spread of commercial activities and the growing size of cities, it was no longer possible for many city dwellers to live within walking distance of work (protibha, 2010). urban transportation has become increasingly important as our cities continue to grow and the development has transformed into many problems within the cities. however, these problems appear to be more acute and more serious in towns and cities of the developing countries because of their low level of technological development (okoko 2006). according to protibha, (2010), cities are locations having a high level of accumulation and concentration of economic activities and complex spatial structures that are supported by transport systems. the most important transport problems are often related to urban areas, when transport systems for a variety of reasons cannot satisfy the numerous requirements of urban mobility. obot et al. (2009) quoting dyckman,(1972) reveals that the problem of urban transportation first became manifested in the first century ad when the roman municipal government in an attempt to decongest its street, restricted vehicular traffic to night hours, and rome was then the only “big city” in the western world. okoko (2006), and protibha (2010) identifies different types of urban transportation problems, among which are; traffic congestion and parking difficulties, loss of public space, poor level of traffic management facilities and traffic signs and signals coupled with the poor and deplorable state of most of the urban road. aworemi et al. (2009) quoting hook, (1995), asserts that traffic congestion is a condition on networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased queuing. when traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the traffic stream, congestion is incurred. as demand approaches the capacity of a road (or of the intersections along the road), extreme traffic congestion sets in. when vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic jam (aworemi et al., 2009). traffic research still cannot fully predict under which conditions a “traffic jam” (as opposed to heavy, but smoothly flowing traffic) may suddenly occur (tti, 2009). it has been found that individual incidents may cause ripple effects (a cascading failure) which then spread out and create a sustained traffic jam when, otherwise, normal flow might have continued for some time longer. traffic congestion is not primarily a problem, but rather the solution to our basic mobility problem, which implies that, too many people want to move at the same time each day. for instance, efficient operation of both the economy and school systems require that people work, go to school and even run errands about the same hours so that they can interact with each other. the same problem exists in every major metropolitan area in the world. peak-hour traffic copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 7 congestion in almost all large and growing metropolitan regions around the world cannot be over emphasized. in fact, it is almost certain that the situation will get worse these days mainly because of the rising population and wealth. this will be true no matter what public and private policies are adopted to combat congestion. although, traffic congestion is inevitable, there are ways to slow the rate at which it is intensified. several tactics could do that effectively, but nothing can eliminate peak hour traffic congestion from large metropolitan regions around the world. only serious economic recessions, which are hardly desirable, can even forestall an increase (aworemi et al., 2009). however, onokerhoraye (2007), opines that inadequate of land for motor vehicle transportation in nigeria have resulted into haphazard parking of heavy-duty vehicles along the few major roads in the urban centers. similarly, smaller vehicles are parked on the sidewalks (road side) and pedestrians crossing. there are many cases in which petrol filling stations are converted to passenger motor parks, all these constitute to transportation problem in nigeria which often time results to on-street parking. travel demand is a derived demand and the urban activities do cause and generate travel needs (githui et al., n.d). universally, there is great contribution of service sectors which are urban centric thus improvement of transportation infrastructure in urban areas takes precedence (yelda, 2008). transportation in urban areas is a critical and major concern in almost all mega cities in the world. due to the rapid and uncontrolled urban and vehicle growth, there has been a noticeable impact either positively or negatively to the economic development of different nations of the world. transportation systems i.e. air, water and land are classified among the major contributors of pollution to the environment leading to the global climate change. this is greatly credited to the fact that they consume high levels of energy thus emitting considerable amount of pollutants and particulate matters to the atmosphere (githui et al., n.d). more so, environmental and social effects related to the urban transportation are increasingly being seen as a total menace to the entirety sustainability of the world climate. increased use of automobile causes traffic jam, air pollution and accidents and generate threats of global warming. meanwhile, richard (2005) elaborates based on the researches carried out in several cities of the world, most commuters express their level of dissatisfaction with the quality of services provided or supplied. this is highly attributed to the rapid urban population growth resulting in raise in demand which various transport systems are unable to meet efficiently and effectively, which therefore affect the level of passenger satisfaction 3. study area the akure-owo express way is a major road connecting the western and northern parts of the country and thus a very busy federal road (adeyemo and omosuyi, 2012). according to fgnrsdt (2010), the road is one of the categories of road constructed from benin to ilesha in 1965 as surface dressed and in 1978 it was converted to asphaltic concrete and had its last major intervention from owo to akure in 1998. the owo – akure section of the road commences from ikare junction in owo and terminates at akure. this section of the road has experienced major rehabilitation recently thus clarifying the good condition of the road. although, according to the report of fgnrsdt (2010), it was discovered that culverts, drains and bridges are experiencing various levels of siltation and scouring and will require various types of repairs and maintenance including painting, cleaning of bridge bearings, joints and weep holes. the distance from akure to owo covers 51 kilometer. the major towns along the copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 8 axis include: iluabo, ogbese, uso and emure. the major parks identified in the axis are beinin-ado park in akure and post office park in owo. the map below shows the akure-owo in its national setting. figure1: map of areas in akure showing akure-owo road source: modified from eke, oyinloye and olamiju (2017) 4. research methodology this research is descriptive in nature simply because the statistical data types are ordinal and nominal in nature. data were sourced using primary and secondary sources. the populations under study are the passengers of public transport (mini buses) along akure-owo axis in ondo state, nigeria. a well-structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data from passengers who travelled within the axis on daily basis. in order to determine the sample size for the study, the daily record of movement were sourced from national union of road transport workers (nurtw), coordinating akure-owo axis. based on the record, at least fourteen (14) mini buses operate to and fro along the axis and each has a carrying capacity fourteen (14) passengers. the numbers of the mini buses operate on daily basis were multiplied by the number of passengers, which amounted to one hundred and twelve (112). however, purposive and random sampling methods were used during the course of the study. purposive sampling method was needed to ensure that only the passengers who are traveling between akure-owo were surveyed. the random technique was adopted to ensure that individual respondents (passengers) have equal rights to be sampled for the purpose of the study. the data collected for the study were analyzed using gap analysis. copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 9 gap analysis was used to compare the expectations and perceptions of quality services. according to thomas et al. (2014), the assumption of gap analysis is that when the expected service (es) is greater than the perceived service (ps), quality will be perceived as being less and less than satisfactory, the greater the difference between es and ps is. when expected service (es) is equal to the perceived service, the quality is satisfactory, also when expected service (es) is less than the perceived service es < ps, quality will be more and more satisfactory as the difference between ps and es grows. in order to analyze this study, weighted mean values of expected service (es) was compared with the weighted mean values of perceived service ps, and gap analysis was conducted based on the weighted mean values. also, the importance of standard deviation in a perception study like this cannot be overemphasized. standard deviation provides information about the spread of a variable’s value, and it is essential to determine the heterogeneity or homogeneity of respondents in the questionnaire survey (fadare and adeniran, 2018). in order to establish the heterogeneity or homogeneity perception of respondents, interval or range was determined as shown below; interval = maximum count – minimum count number of range interval = 5 – 1 5 interval = 0.8. each interval is equal to 0.8 for each different variable, the level of satisfaction that respondents ranked will be between the intervals which is translated as follows: rating range translation a. 4.20 – 5.00: passenger is strongly satisfied. b. 3.40 – 4.19: passenger is satisfied. c. 2.60 – 3.39: passenger is neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. d. 1.80 – 2.59: passenger is dissatisfied. e. 1.00 – 1.79 passenger is highly dissatisfied. also, a. 4.20 – 5.00: service is excellent. b. 3.40 – 4.19: service is very good. c. 2.60 – 3.39: service is good. d. 1.80 – 2.59: service is fair. e. 1.00 – 1.79: service is poor. the justification for standard deviation of 0.8 is that if the standard deviation in the study is less than 0.8, the perception of respondent is homogenous in nature, but if the standard deviation in the study is more than 0.8, the perception of respondent is not heterogeneous in nature (fadare and adeniran, 2018). 5. results and discussions of findings 5.1 social-economic characteristics of passengers the information in table 5 revealed the socio economic characteristic of the passengers sampled for the study. the variables considered include sex, marital status, age, educational status. the sex of the passengers revealed that copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 10 66.1% were male and 33.9% were female. this shows that majority of the passengers moving along akure-owo are male. this may be to the fact, according to (oyesiku and odufuwa, (n.d) that the activities of women in terms of mobility or travel vary differently along gender lines. there are observable gender differentiations in travel behaviour in the space which can be traced to numerous factors that range from age, income level, societal perception, time, distance, family size, etc (olorunfemi et al., 2014) .the marital status indicated that 27.7% were single, 48.2% were married, 17.9% were divorce and 6.3% were widowed. the analysis above shows that majority of the passengers were married. this implies that married people make more trips in the area than other marital status class. this could be to the fact that married people need to move around in searching for one opportunity or the other for the purpose of meeting their daily need and to provide for their household. investigation into the age status of the passengers shows that that 27.7% of them fall within the age bracket of 20-30 years, 44.6% were within 30-40 years, 18.8% were between ages of 40-50 years and 8.9% were above 50 years. from all indication, majority of the passenger fall within the age bracket of 30-40 years. this implies that these age bracket greatly influence the quest for a living. it is an active working age bracket capable of coping with the complex challenges of the human environment (ayuba et al., 2009). the educational status of the passenger revealed that majority of them (44.6%) possessed higher institution certificate. this implies the passengers were knowledgeable enough to provide information on level of satisfaction drive from patronizing public transport along akure-owo axis. meanwhile, majority (54.5%) of them opined that cheaper in price compare to other vehicle along the axis propels them to patronize public transport in the area (see fig.2c). the occupational status shows that majority (40.2%) of the passengers along akure-owo road were traders and followed by students (22.3%) and professional/artisan (22.3%) respectively. table 1: socio-economic profile of respondents social –economic characteristics frequency percent sex female 38 33.9 male 74 66.1 total 112 100 marital status single 31 27.7 married 54 48.2 divorce 20 17.9 widowed 7 6.3 total 112 100.0 age status 20-30 31 27.7 30-40 50 44.6 40 -50 21 18.8 50 and above 10 8.9 ` total 122 100.0 education status no formal education 10 8.9 primary school 31 27.7 secondary school 21 18.8 tertiary above 40-50 50 44.6 copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 11 total 112 100.0 occupation status student 25 22.3 trader 45 40.2 professional/artisan 25 22.3 civil servant 17 15.2 total 112 100.0 source: authors field work (2018) 5.2 regularity of travel, cost of transportation and reason for the choice of public transport along akureowo road the regularity of passengers travel or movement along akure-owo road indicated that 13.4% of the passengers do not traveled regularly, 35.7% travelled on occasional basis while 50.9% of them traveled along the route regularly. these imply that majority of the passengers along the axis travel regularly and as such have the in-depth knowledge of the road. however, majority them (54.5%) claimed that the cost of travel range between ₦500-₦600. fig. 2: regularity of passenger travel fig.2b: cost of transportation source: authors field work, (2018) fig. 2c: reason for patronize public transport source: authors field work, (2018) 5.3 heterogeneity or homogeneity of passengers’ perception towards public bus services the heterogeneity and homogeneity of passengers’ perception towards bus services can be determined from the interpretation of standard deviation. standard deviation is among the tools for determining the measures of 13.4% 35.7% 50.9% not regular occational ly regularlly 8.9% 77.7 % 13.4% 400-500 500-600 600-700 5.4 % 40.2% 54.5% fast safe cheaper in price compare to other vehicle copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 12 dispersion which provides information about the spread of a variable’s value. it is in the view of adeniran (2017) that if standard deviation is more than the interval, the perception of all respondents towards a particular service is dissimilar or heterogeneous. in the same vein, if standard deviation is less than the interval, the perception of all respondents towards a particular service is similar or homogenous. the perception of passengers towards the public bus services was analyzed and depicted in table 2 below. table 2: descriptive analysis for service quality (expected service) and passenger satisfaction (perceived service) service indicators n mean of es std. deviation of es mean of ps std. deviation of ps safety 112 3.0536 .75742 3.0804 .79376 comfortability 112 2.8125 1.15104 2.9643 1.10632 available of seat 112 2.9821 1.17006 3.0982 1.12274 time delay at bus stop 112 2.1429 1.19953 2.4911 1.24478 relationship with drivers 112 2.5982 1.26249 2.6696 1.27617 competence of drivers 112 2.7768 1.45013 2.7679 1.37534 condition of vehicle 112 2.8214 1.54928 2.8125 1.41122 reliability 112 2.9286 1.63693 3.1429 1.67578 overloading and over-speeding 112 3.3304 1.60735 3.2768 1.62309 drivers altitude 112 3.2143 1.65180 3.1696 1.61015 compliance with road safety rule and order 112 3.2143 1.59633 3.0625 1.56701 cost charge per trip 112 3.0982 1.63277 3.0179 1.57676 valid n (listwise) 112 source: authors field work, 2017 from the descriptive analysis depicted in table 2 above, standard deviation values for both service quality and passenger satisfaction is greater than 0.8 for all services except safety which is less than 0.8. the implication of standard deviation more than 0.8 is that passengers felt dissimilar or heterogeneous about the services offered which is one of the unique characteristics of transport as a derived demand. the implication for standard deviation of safety less than 0.8 is that passengers felt similar about safety and this might be attributed to the fact that safety of passengers is considered essential when compared with all other services. the passengers view is similar with the condition of safety service. 5.4 level of passenger satisfaction and quality of public bus transport service along the route the level of passenger satisfaction and quality of bus transport service along the route was analyzed and depicted in table 3 below. table 3: gap analysis of passenger satisfaction and service quality service indicators mean of es mean of ps gap analysis (es-ps) decision safety 3.0536 3.0804 0.0268 satisfied comfortability 2.8125 2.9643 0.1518 satisfied available of seat 2.9821 3.0982 0.1161 satisfied time delay at bus stop 2.1429 2.4911 0.3482 satisfied relationship with drivers 2.5982 2.6696 0.0714 satisfied copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 13 competence of drivers 2.7768 2.7679 -0.0089 dissatisfied condition of vehicle 2.8214 2.8125 -0.0089 dissatisfied reliability 2.9286 3.1429 0.2143 satisfied overloading and over speeding 3.3304 3.2768 -0.0536 dissatisfied drivers altitude 3.2143 3.1696 -0.0447 dissatisfied compliance with road safety rule and order 3.2143 3.0625 -0.1518 dissatisfied cost charge per trip 3.0982 3.0179 -0.0803 dissatisfied valid n (listwise) authors field work (2017) from the gap analysis depicted in table 2 above, passengers were not satisfied with the competence of drivers, condition of vehicle, overloading and over-speeding, attitude of drivers, driver’s compliance with road safety rules and order, and the cost charge per trip. 5.5 methods of improving public transport table 4 blow shows the passengers opinion on how public transport operation along akure-owo axis can be improved upon. the analysis revealed that 49.1% of the passengers suggested training of driver, 19.6% of them agreed on compliance with road safety rules and orders, 17.9% opined regular maintenance of vehicle and others (13.4%) suggest reduction in the cost of transportation and good drivers-passengers relationship. from the analysis, it is indicated that majority of the passengers opined that training of drivers will improve public transport in the study area. corroborating the above, olorunfemi (2013) noted that if drivers of public transport are well sensitized and educated about traffic rule, it will go a long way in reducing accident occurrences on the road. table 4: methods of improving public transport s/n ways of improving public transport frequency percentage 1 regular maintenance of vehicle 20 17.9 2 training of drivers 55 49.1 3 compliance with road safety rules and orders 22 19.6 4 others 15 13.4 total 112 100 source: authors field work, 2017 6. conclusion and policy implications this study has carefully assessed the passengers satisfaction of public transport system in akure-owo axis, nigeria and findings revealed price of public bus is cheaper compare to other vehicle and majority of the passengers agreed that training of the drivers, follow by compliance with road safety rules and order will improve public transport system in the study area. findings also indicated that passengers along akureowo axis did not satisfied with the following service indicators: competence of drivers, condition of vehicle, reliability, overloading and over speeding, drivers’ altitude, compliance with road safety rules and order, cost charge per trip. to solve the issues, national union of road transport workers (nurtw) and other transport unions should partner with the federal road safety corps (frsc) and educational institutions that are major in transport management and planning to conduct periodic training, test and seminal for public bus drivers. this will enhance their performance, reliability and improve drivers’ altitude on how to relate properly with passengers while engaging copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 14 in their day-to-day activities. frsc should regulate and check the conditions of public bus before it is being allowed to be used for public use, most especially for the movement passengers. this will reduce unnecessary delay that may arise as a result of breaking down of vehicle while on transit. similar to the above, there is need to strengthen the activities of frsc to regulate the loading and speeding of public buses. this will reduce the number of accident occurrences on the highway. to ensure that our road is free from accident, frsc should ensure that drivers’ compliance with road safety rules and orders. it should be noted that in some cases, some frsc officials do take bribes from drivers that contravene the safety rules. in order to checkmate this, the citizens (passengers) should be empowered through whistle blowing approach by reporting such incidents to the head of operations and anti-corruption agencies. this will further bring sanity to road transport sector and lead to accident free society. the public and private stakeholders including transport research institute should come together and device a scientific method through which transport cost per trip can be charged. this will end the constant inflation of transport cost commonly introduce by transport unions in the country. references adeniji, k. 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(2000). crime and public transport. in: tonry, m. ed. sohail, m. (2005). sustaining livelihoods by improving urban public transport, wedc, loughborough university, loughborough swanson, j., ampt, l., and jones, p. (1997). measuring bus passenger preferences. traffic engineering and control 38: 330–336. swanson, s. r., kelly, s. w. (2001). service recovery attributions and word-of-mouth intentions, european journal of marketing, 35 (2001): 194-211 texas transport institute (2009). components of the congestion problem. urban area totals. retrieved on july 15, 2018.from www texas transport institute .com thomas, k. o., dickson, o. m., suleman, d., ricky, y. n. (2014). service quality and customer satisfaction of public transport on cape coast-accra route, ghana .developing country studies, 4 (18): 142-149. traffic engineering and control 38 (2001): 330–336. tyrinopoulos, y., and c. antoniou. (2008). public transit user satisfaction: variability and policy implications. transport policy 15 (2008): 260-272. wen, c. h.; lawrence, w. l.; cheng, h. l. (2005). structural equation modeling to determine passenger loyalty toward intercity bus services, journal of the transportation research board, no.1927: 249-255. wright, l. (2004). bus rapid transit – sustainable transport: a source book for policy-makers in developing cities, module 3b, eschborn, germany. yedla s (2008).urban transportation infrastructure, integrating strategies for local and global issues (the first asia-pacific mayors’ forum on environmentally sustainable urban infrastructure development), ulsan city, republic of korea: indira gandhi institute of development research (igidr), mumbai, india, 2123 april 2008. zegras, g., and christopher, m. (1999). experiences and issues in urban transport infrastructure concessions, hanoi, vietnam: world bank-reference, no 8. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 bandwidth enhancement by corner truncation in rectangular patch antenna m. ramkumar prabhu 1 , a.rajalingam 2 & j.latha 2 1 apollo engineering college, chennai, india 2 shinas college of technology, sultanate of oman correspondence: m.ramkumar, apollo engineering college, chennai, india, email: ramkumarprabhu.m@gmail.com received: july 6, 2018 accepted: july 10, 2018 online published: july 17, 2018 abstract a method of improving operating bandwidth of a microstrip patch antenna by simply improving the structural shape, without affecting the size of an antenna is proposed in this paper. simple calculations proved that rectangular microstrip patch antenna of bandwidth 845.1 mhz can be efficiently transformed into microstrip patch antenna having bandwidth 9147.4 mhz . two different approaches have been proposed and compared for better results. keywords: patch antenna, bandwidth improvement, rmsa(rectangular microstrip patch antenna) ,uwb(ultrawide band) ,truncation. 1. introduction the recent progress in uwb wireless communications have remarkably increased the demand of wideband antenna with smaller dimensions than conventionally possible(h.n. kritikos et al., 1990).the antenna size with respect to the wavelength is the parameter that will have influence on the radiation characteristics, gain and efficiency. conventional microstrip antenna has limitation of narrow bandwidth, low gain and size of λ/2 (h.n. kritikos et al., 1990 werner, d. h et al., 2003). there are several techniques reported in the open literature to improve the bandwidth of the microstrip patch antenna such as insertion of air gap, stacking, ground coupling etc. the coupling effect is possible by changing the feed type and proper values of its parameters[jiechen ding, et al., 2007].cpw feed offers better resonant characteristics and impedance bandwidth (j. liang et al., 2004 j. liang,et.al,2005). use of metal flared array is very inefficient way to obtain wideband(rick w. kindt et al., 2010). use of mathematically designed fractal structures is also a favorite method acquainted worldwide to obtain multiple bands and overlapping multiple bands will result in bandwidth improvement (min ding et. al. 2007). all methods of improving bandwidth mentioned above needs some kind of extra space by increasing size, or increase fabrication complexity as in case of fractals. furthermore understanding of fractals involves complex mathematics. keeping all above things in mind, this paper provides a simple but very efficient way to improve bandwidth. 3 types of antennas are considered; type a is simple rectangular microstrip patch antenna with narrow bandwidth. type b-straight edge cut rsma with slight improvement in bandwidth and type ccircular edge cut rsma with more bandwidth improvement. all the results are obtained using ansofthfss v.11 2. simple rsma design 2.1 type a basic rectangular microstrip patch antenna) basic rectangular microstrip patch antenna consists of simple coplanar microstrip patch antenna with no any modifications in patch or ground shape. hereafter termed as simple rmsa. design and dimensions are described in brief in next section. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 2 2.2 structure of simple rmsa figure 1. structure of basic rectangular microstrip patch antenna (type a) cpw fed rmsa i.e. rectangular microstrip patch antenna is designed in hfss on generally available fr4 substrate of size 38mm x 43mm x 1.53mm and having dielectric constant of 4.4 and loss tangent (tan δ)=0.02. as shown in figure 1 both sides of actual radiating copper patch are chosen to be 18.4mm and structure is known to be coplanar as both ground and patch are on same plane. thickness of the copper material is assumed 0.1mm which negligible in comparison with 1.53mm thickness of fr4 substrate material. as the structure is monopole, length of patch and ground are same. dimensions of ground are 18.4mm x 16.9mm x 0.1mm. feed width is 3.1mm fixed. gap between feed and ground is optimized to 0.55mm and gap between patch and ground is 0.5mm. figure 2. return loss vs. frequency for simple rmsa (type a) figure 3.vswr vs. frequency for simple rmsa (type a) www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 3 2.3 simulation results the structure is designed and simulated over hfss v11. figure 02 and 03 shows simulation results. the operating band of any antenna is described by return loss less than -10 db or vswr less than 2. return loss of -10db indicates that, 90% of the power fed to antenna is accepted and only 10% is reflected at the feed. thus return loss<-10db is universally accepted convention to decide operating band of an antenna. in figure 02 and 03, m1 is lower end operating frequency and m2 is higher end operating frequency, marking the -10db crossing line. as can be seen from following figures, simple rectangular microstrip patch antenna covers bandwidth of 835.1 mhz, starting from 3.0526 ghz to 3.8877ghz. 3. bandwidth increment by cutting corner edges bandwidth of operation of antenna is depend upon different parameters like size of an antenna, thickness and dielectric constant of substrate material used, proper impedance matching of connector and antenna etc. apart from these parameters, structure (m.ramkumar prabhu et al.,2017) of an radiating patch and ground also plays important role in deciding the bandwidth. cutting corners of rmsa will induce more discontinuity in the flow of wave and increasing reflections will ultimately results in improved bandwidth. 3.1 type b-straight edge cut structure keeping all parameters of design of simple rmsa constant, design is modified by cutting the corners of rectangular patch by straight edges. as shown in figure 04, antenna is of dimension (38.0mm x 43.0mm x 1.53mm) with patch (18.4mm x 18.4mm x 0.1mm) i.e. same as type a. corners of the radiating patch are truncated with variable length called ‘cut’. this truncation is varied from 3.00mm to 7.00mm length with step size of 2.00mm and simulated in software. 3.2 simulation results figures 05 and 06 shows simulation result of modified rmsa with straight edge cut. three different graphs are combined showing variation in results for truncated length i.e. cut equal to 3mm, 5mm and 7mm successively increasing by 2mm. from the figures 05 and 06 it can be observed that bandwidth of operation of antenna increases as cut length increase. due to physical limitations of radiating patch dimensions this truncation length can’t be further increased. the results observed from simulation of modified rmsa with straight edge cut are summarized in table 01. fl and fh indicate lower cut off and upper cut off frequency of the corresponding operating band in ghz. as cut length increases from no cut to cut length of 7.00mm, bandwidth is increase from 835.1 mhz to 5070.2 mhz. figure 4. structure of modified rmsa with straight edge cut(type b) figure 5. return loss vs. frequency for modified rmsa with straight edge cut www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 4 figure 6.vswr vs. frequency for modified rmsa with straight edge cut 4. type c-circular edge cut 4.1 type ccircular edge cut structure it is observed in previous section that, increase in discontinuity increases bandwidth of operation of an antenna. truncation made with circular edges instead of straight edge will add more discontinuity. this can be achieved by intersecting circle of radius-‘rad’ with radiating patch. all the dimensions of rmsa are kept constant as in previous design. black portion in figure 7 shows radiating metal patch, while light gray portion is removed from the design. figure 7. structure of modified rmsa with circular edge cut(type c) 4.2 simulation results figures 08 and 09 shows simulation result of modified rmsa with circular edge cut. five different graphs are combined showing variation in results for truncation circle radius i.e. rad equal to 13mm, 12mm, 11mm, 10mm and 9.2mm successively decreasing by 1mm. from the figures 08 and 09 it can be observed that bandwidth of operation of antenna increases as radius of intersecting circle decreases. in other words, bandwidth is inversely proportional to rad. benefit of using circular edge cut over straight edge cut can be observed. from rad=11 two different bands of operation can be seen, one at lower frequency and other at higher frequency side of frequency axis which was not the case in straight edge cut. at radius of 9.2mm total uwb band is covered by the structure. table 02 summarizes results observed by variation in radius of truncating circle. two distinct conclusions can be drawn from table 02. first with increase in truncating length i.e. decrease in rad from 13 mm to 9.2mm, operating bandwidth increases from 835.1 mhz to 8947.4ghz covering entire uwb band of operation. second conclusion drawn is related with the fact that two distinct operating bands are observed at lower and higher end of frequency www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 5 band at rad=11mm and rad=10mm. these two distinct bands come close to merge into each other and cover entire band starting from 3.0526 ghz to 12.00ghz. thus percent increase of 972% is observed in type c-antenna. figure 8. return loss vs. frequency for modified rmsa with circular edge cu figure 09: vswr vs. frequency for modified rmsa with circular edge cut figure 9. vswr vs. frequency for modified rmsa with circular edge cut table 2. comparison of bandwidth of modified rmsa with circular edge cut (type c) rad(mm) fl (ghz) fh (ghz) bandwidth(mhz) 13.00 2.9632 3.7982 835.10 12.00 3.0228 3.8877 864.90 11.00 3.0526 4.0965 1043.90 7.7649 11.9702 4205.30 10.00 3.0228 4.6632 1640.40 6.0649 12.0000 5935.10 9.20 3.0526 12.0000 8947.40 5. conclusion above simulated results and their comparison provides a brief idea of how narrow band simple rsma can be transformed to ultra wide band modified rsma without changing its physical dimension. circular edge truncation proves to be more efficient than straight edge truncation. smoothening of corner of rectangle increases reflection and current at the boundary of patch. this lingering of current or wave must have improved bandwidth of antenna. truncation of rsma with circle of radius 9.2 mm leads to required uwb operation of antenna. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 6 references h.n. kritikos and d. l. jaggard(1990).on fractal electrodynamics-recent advances in electromagnetic theory, springer-verlag, new york,183-224. werner, d. h. and ganguly s.,(2003).an overview of fractal antenna engineering research, ieee-antenna and propagation magazine, 45(1),38-57. j. liang, c. chiau, x. chen and j. yu. (2004).study of a circular disc monopole antennas for ultra wideband applications, international symposium on antennas and propagation, 17-21 j. liang,et.al .(2005).cpw-fed circular disc monopole antenna for uwb application, ieee international workshop on antenna and technology:small antennas and novel meta materials, marina mandarin, singapore, march 7–9, 505–508. rick w. kindt and william r. pickles, ultrawideband all-metal flared-notch array radiator,(2010).ieee trans. on antennas and propagation, 58(11).50-56. jiechen ding,zhili lin,zhinong ying.(2007).a compact ultra wideband slot antenna with multiple notch frequency bands, microwave and optical technology letters,49(12). min ding et. al. (2007).design of a cpw-fed ultra wideband crown circular fractal antenna. motl,173-176. m.ramkumar prabhu et al. (2017).rectangular patch antenna to operate in flame retardant 4 using coaxial feeding technique in international journal of electronics engineering research. 9(3), 399-407 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 4 optimizing animal productivity under heat stress conditions using conventional and recent technologies alsaied alnaimy mostafa habeeb 1 1 biological applications department, radioisotopes applications division, nuclear research center, egyptian atomic energy authority, inshas, cairo, egypt. correspondence: prof. dr. alsaied alnaimy mostafa habeeb, biological applications department, radioisotopes applications division, nuclear research center, egyptian atomic energy authority, inshas, cairo, egypt. email: dr_alnaimy@yahoo.com, tel: 00201283912177 received: september 12, 2018 accepted: september 30, 2018 online published: october 2, 2018 abstract when the animals exposed to the high environmental temperature most of the physiological and biochemical parameters are disturbances. the heat-induced changes in each of thermoregulatory parameters as well as water, protein turnover or balances and hormonal levels may be used for evaluation the animal's adaptability to hot climate. detection of such phenomena in the animals could be achieved by different indices. most of indices which may be used for detecting the heat adaptability in animals are reviewed in this article paper. keywords: animal productivity, heat stress conditions, conventional and recent technologies. introduction heat is the major constraint on animal's productivity in sub-tropical arid zone regions. growth, milk production and reproductive performance in both male and female animals are impaired as a result of the drastic changes in biological functions caused by heat stress (habeeb et al., 1989, 1992, 1993 and 1997). the average milk yield and growth of the european cattle are adversely affected reaching in some cases, one-half when transferred to tropical and subtropical countries (kamal, 1982 kamal, et al., 1989 and marai and habeeb, 1998). the most adaptable animals to such conditions are those which manifest the least deviations in their traits when introduced to such conditions. however, there are individual differences in these changes between breeds and within bread. the difference in the response of such animals under hot climatic conditions is due to their difference in heat adaptability measured by heat tolerance which is the ability of the animal to express its inherited production potential during its life-time when raised under the hot conditions (kamal, 1982). the heat tolerance indices may be used for selection the heat tolerance animals within or between breeds. heat adaptability indices for predicting the productive animals under hot conditions are based on production level, water balance, protein balance, thermal response and heat induced changes in hormonal levels (habeeb, et al., 2007 and 2008). in tropical and subtropical countries, animal breeders raising european breeds select the animals which maintain high body weight gain or high fertility under hot climate. however, using the production level as an indication of adaptability is a rather time-consuming, since it takes 15-16 months to measure the mature body weight and 30 months or more to estimate the fertility and milk efficiency of doe. besides, culling of such expensive animals because of their failure to hold their high level of production is a big loss of money. moreover, body weight gain of heat stressed animals is a misleading index of heat adaptability, since it may be due to the increase in water retention and not to the increase in body protein and www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 5 fat (kamal and johnson, 1971). in other words, a unit of body weight gain in one animal may be due to the increase in body water at the expense of body tissue loss, while in the other, may be due to the increase in body solids. therefore, it is erroneous to consider the first animal as adapted to heat as the second animal, though both had similar apparent body weight gain. it is concluded that using the production level in estimating the heat adaptability in farm animals is impracticable but using some techniques in estimating the heat tolerance in farm animals is easily, quickly and more available as shown in this article paper. providing with suitable housing, feeding, disease and parasite control and heat stress alleviation practices, together with amelioration of the environment, can help heat stressed animals to express their genetic potentials in tropical and sub-tropical areas. this is in addition to carrying out properly routines managerial practices at the suitable times. alleviation of heat stressed animals can be applied by physical, physiological and nutritional techniques. in tropical and sub-tropical countries, climatic heat is the major constraint on animal productivity. growth, milk production and reproduction arc impaired as a result to the drastic changes in biological functions caused by heat stress (habeeb et al., 1992 and marai et al., 1995 & 1997). the decreases in growth and milk yield of the european cattle may reach one-half when introduced to tropical or sub-tropical environment (habeeb et al., 2000& 2008 &2009). generally, good management should aim to well-being, comfort and maintaining high productive and reproductive efficiency of the animals. under hot climate conditions, the major objective is to facilitate overcoming heat stress, although such criteria is sometimes difficult because its occasional high costs, altogether with that most countries in which it occurs have severe financial constraints. the managemental practices concerned in hot climate, which will be the subject of the present article involve modification of the environment, reducing the animal's heat production and increasing its heat loss. buffalo's reaction to hot climate the heat stressful conditions induce a vast array of biological changes including disturbances in protein, energy and mineral metabolism, which depress (with about 50%) productivity of temperate breeds introduced to a tropical or sub-tropical environment (kamal 1975; habeeb, et al., 1992 and marai, et al., 1995).to overcome such unfavorable conditions, it is needed to ameliorate such environment and select more adaptable livestock. selection of desirable stock of hot climates should be for animals physiologically equipped to withstand heat and drought. this could be achieved by selection according to the morphological characteristics that could assist to adapt to hot climate and/or according to the actual ability to maintain expression of the inherited potentials that is estimated by change in either thermal, water or nitrogen balance, after testing the animals under hot climatic conditions. among the climatic components that may impose stress on animals are temperature, humidity, air movement and radiation, of which the temperature is the most important. in tropical and subtropical conditions, animals are faced with many problems that relate to hot climate, particularly heat stress, poor quality postures, diseases and parasites, of which heat stress is the most important. in such conditions, animals are exposed to direct and indirect solar radiation (estimated by about 4200 kj/h /square meter of body surface, in egypt), increase in metabolic heat production and difficulty in heat loss. the disturbance in protein metabolism occurred as a result of the depression in appetite and consequently less feed intake as well as the decrease secretion of anabolic hormones, especially thyroxin under hyperthermal conditions, may be responsible for the decrease in blood serum proteins in buffalo calves under shs and hs. the depression in protein biosynthesis in heat stressed calves may also lead to the pronounced increases in concentrations of the end products of proteins catabolism, i.e. serum urea-n and creatinine (habeeb et al., 1992). a. physiological and biochemical changes: under hot climate conditions, normal thermoregulatory reactions, i.e. respiration, sweating and rectal temperature are increased causing disturbances in the metabolism of water (increase water intake and body water content), protein, energy and minerals (negative nitrogen, energy and mineral balances). these disturbances also occur in enzymatic reactions e.g. an increase in transaminase enzymes activities and in hormonal secretion where insulin, t4, t3 and aldosterone decrease and cortisol increases. such disturbances lead to depression in some of the blood metabolites, i.e. glucose, total protein, total lipids, cholesterol, etc. the final result of these changes is impairment of appetite, feed intake, feed efficiency, food utilization, growth milk yield and reproduction (habeeb et al., 1992). among the most important non-genetic factors affecting both quantity and quality of milk in dairy animals are lactation number, season of calving and stage of lactation. these factors may alter the animal responses to high environmental heat. milk hormones depend mainly on a continuous supply of hormones from the blood to the mammary glands. this transportation of the hormones may be affected by exposure of animals to high ambient temperature. most of pituitary, thyroid and adrenal hormones in both plasma and milk were affected by heat exposure (habeeb et al., 1992). habeeb et al (2000) studied the effect of lactation number and ambient temperature on t3 and cortisol levels in milk and blood and milk composition of lactating water buffaloes. the data showed that milk yield and t3 either in milk or in blood besides milk fat, protein and lactose were significantly lower in july (37.1°c) than in february (17.5°c) while the opposite trend was noted www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 6 for cortisol levels either in milk or in blood. the same authors showed that averages of weekly milk yield in buffaloes exposed to 37.1°c during july month were significantly lower than those obtained from buffaloes exposed to 17.5°c during february month in all lactation numbers. from the overall mean of the 6 lactations, it was found that exposure of animals to high environmental temperature caused a depression in milk yield by 16.6%. habeeb et al (2000) found that t3 concentrations in both plasma and milk and their ratio in buffalo were significantly affected due to increase of ambient temperature from 17.5° to37.1°c. the overall mean of the 6 lactations showed that plasma t3 decreased by 17.2%. however, this change was inconstant in all lactations. in the 6th and the 1st lactations which characterized by the lowest milk yield, the percentages of decline were highest and reached 20.9 and 22.5%, respectively. while at the 3rd and the 4th lactations which were characterized by the highest milk yield, the plasma t3 was not affected due to increase of ambient temperature. habeeb et al (2000) found that plasma t3 values either under 17.5 or 37.1°c was higher at the 1st lactation and exhibited a marked reduction with increasing milk yield until the 4th lactation followed by a rapid increase reaching the highest values in the 6th lactation. it seemed that distribution curves of plasma t3 as affected by lactation number had an opposite trend of milk yield curves. a negative correlation between t3 level in blood and milk yield was found in buffaloes. the decline in plasma t3 in the 3rd and the 4th lactation number may be due to higher utilization of plasma t3 which supply the accelerated process of milk synthesis. milk t3 concentration declined significantly due to exposure of animals to high ambient temperature in hot summer as compared to mild winter season. the lowest values were in the milk of the 4th or the 3rd lactation and the highest values were in the milk of the 6th and the 1st lactations. these changes through 6 lactations, in general, were comparable to the alterations of plasma t3 (habeeb et al., 2000). the authors reported that the decline in t3 content in secreted milk as a result of increasing ambient temperature could be related to a reduction in the same hormone content in plasma. plasma t3/milk t3 ratio decreased significantly due to increase of ambient temperature. this indicates that the decline in plasma t3 was more than in milk t3. in addition, t3 was higher in plasma (56 times) than in milk at all temperature conditions and at all lactation numbers (habeeb et al., 2000). habeeb et al (2000) found that cortisol hormone levels increased significantly either in' plasma or in milk in all lactation number due to increase in ambient temperature from 17.5°c to 37.1°c. the overall mean of plasma cortisol values of the 6 lactations were 9.07 and 12.53 ng/ml during february and july, respectively. the corresponding values for milk cortisol were 1.53 and 2.51 ng/ml. the percentage of increase in cortisol due to heat exposure was higher in milk (64%) than in plasma (38%). therefore, plasma/milk ratio decreased significantly as ambient temperature increased. the same authors added that plasma cortisol varied in parallel to the changes in milk yield along the 6 lactation numbers. the highest and lowest values were at the 3rd and the 6th lactations, respectively. therefore, it is reasonable to suppose that with increasing milk yield, the increased concentrations of plasma cortisol were associated with the increased demand of the mammary glands for cortisol for milk synthesis. cortisol was higher in plasma (2 to 10 times) than in milk at all both temperature degrees and lactation numbers. habeeb et al (1992) reported that cortisol level did not consistently increase when animals were exposed to moderate heat. acute heat will significantly increase cortisol whereas prolonged heat is accompanied by slight declines in plasma level of cortisol. plasma cortisol increased significantly in each of acute, chronic and prolonged heat. this contradiction in response of cortisol levels to change in ambient temperature may be attributed to the difference between animals in their heat tolerance. in addition, physiological state, production level, type of production, heat exposure period and blood sampling time also may be affect cortisol levels. habeeb et al (2000) decided that the decline in t3 and the increase in cortisol in the heat stressed buffaloes during july month may be responsible for tire decline in milk components under such conditions. the relatively high total solids (fat, protein and lactose) percentage observed during february can be ascribed to the fact that those animals faced the favorable conditions of the mild winter season in egypt. habeeb et al (2000) showed that the buffaloes produced milk of a better quality in winter (at february) than that attained under summer conditions (at july). the higher ambient temperature of july month caused a significant decrease in milk total solids, butter fat, protein and lactose contents. habeeb et al. (2007) showed that the stressful conditions induced significantly increases in heat shock proteins as well as urea-n and creatinine concentrations and significantly decreases in the levels of thyroxin and testosterone hormones as well as total protein concentration. the severe heat stress and heat stress conditions induced significantly decreases in the average daily body weight gain of buffalo calves when compared to either thermoneutral or mild climatic conditions. the same authors found that the percentage changes, due to stressful condition, in daily body weight gain were highly significantly correlated with the percentage change in each of heat shock proteins, thyroxin and testosterone and concluded that heat shock proteins or thyroxin or testosterone may be used, any one, as heat tolerance index to predict the heat adaptability of buffalo calves to reared in upper egypt like toshka area. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 7 according to world health organization, world meteorological organization and the united nations environmental program, global warming would be a greater frequency and greater duration of exposure to hotter temperatures, especially during the summer months. typical hyperthermia sometimes occurs during severe heat in summer and as a result of hard expose to sun throughout the world. in animals and humans, some physiological and biochemical adaptations could occur to protect essential cell functions against heat stress and to permit a rapid recovery from moderate hypothermic damage (hales, et al., 1996 and mcmicael et al, 1996 ). high ambient temperature during summer stimulates the peripheral thermal receptors to transmit suppressive nerve impulses to the appetite centre in the hypothalamus causing a decrease in feed consumption to minimize thermal load on animals. thus, less substrate become available for hormone synthesis and heat production. exposure to severe heat also suppresses the production of hormone releasing factors from the hypothalamic centers causing a decrease in pituitary hormonal secretion and consequently lowers the secretion of the thyroid hormones. the shortage of energy, substrates and t3 hormone may be responsible for the depression in milk yield and composition. in addition, high level of cortisol which was observed in the buffaloes exposed to high ambient temperature may be associated with the depression in quantity and quality of milk. from the economical point of view, it is concluded that due to exposure of 6 buffaloes to egyptian summer heat conditions, the weakly milk production decreased by 51.4 kg and 11 kg total solids loss in their milk. this means that their production benefits decreased weekly by about 100.0 egyptian pounds according to the price of 1996 (habeeb et al., 2000). b. thermoregulation in buffaloes: animals maintain their heat balance through vasomotor control by regulating the amount of blood flowing through the cutaneous vessels by either vasodilatation or vasoconstriction. vasodilatation stimulates the pilomotor centre to flatten the hair cover to allow better heat dissipation through conduction, convection and radiation (sensible means). in addition, some heat is lost by evaporation through the lungs and also from the surface of the body as a result of diffusion of water through the skin as insensible perspiration (marai and habeeb, 1997). when ambient temperature increases, the amounts of water lost by insensible perspiration are increases slightly until active sweating starts. the circulation of blood transfers heat from the core to periphery. excess heat is dissipated by evaporation of sweat as a protective mechanism of the body against overheating. at the same time, respiration rate or panting increases and becomes shallower to permit an efficient ventilation of the upper respiratory tract, without undue overventialation of the lungs themselves (shafei and abdelghany, 1978). when the animal cannot sustain homoeothermic, it reduces the heat production using internal physiological means to help in re-establishment of the thermal balance. feed consumption and thermogenic hormone secretion decrease to lower the basal metabolism resulting in a decline in productivity. if all these physiological mechanisms fail to balance the excessive heat load, the body temperature rises and the animal enters the acute phase of heat stress that normally occurs within a few days of the animal encountering the high temperature and is accompanied with a rapid decline in productivity. if these systems still fail to stop the elevation in body temperature, the animal succumbs with heat stroke and dies (habeeb et al., 1992). c.adaptation to hot climate: when exposing the animals to less severe hot conditions following more severe one or two intermittent heat stress between day and night and/or between seasons an acclimation to such renditions takes place and better productivity eventually stabilizes at a level greater than that observed before, but lower than the normal level. some of these changes occur, rather rapidly (days), whereas others may require a longer period (weeks). when more favorable climatic changes occur, the performance is improved and a compensatory response occurs quite often resulting in a return to productive levels above the normal ones (ames and ray, 1983). adaptation or the complex of processes by which an animal adapts itself to the hot environment (in which it has to live) depends upon either increasing heat loss, reducing heat production by decreasing the body's metabolic rate and/or increasing tolerance of its tissues to more fluctuating and high body temperatures by varying the body temperature, varying the tolerance to concentrations of salt in drinking water and decreasing water turnover by concentration of waste products in the urine in order to conserve body water, and to conserve nitrogen by recycling urea to adapt to lack of forage in the dry season. yousef (1985) indicated that the physiological adaptations in the large part are due to changes in hormonal activity, particularly the decrease in thyro-adrenal activity. however, some physiological adaptations vary between species, between breeds within species and between individuals within breeds (forming the basis for the development of a new adapted breed). natural selection for physiologically adaptive features with some assistance by man helped in manifestation such adaptations. changes in the behavior of livestock are important in assisting adaptation. in the tropical environment, livestock become more sluggish in their movements, thus reducing muscular heat production, besides that poultry hold their wings slightly separated when standing and adopt an extended position when lying down. temperate type cattle seek shade more often during the day and graze at night and all livestock drink and use more water, under the same conditions. intermittent heat stress www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 8 helps adaptation than more moderate continuous one, although it is difficult for the temperate breeds to adapt themselves to environments where the mean annual temperature is above 18°c (65°f). generally, the heat tolerant animals are those which manifest the last changes in most of the physiological functions when subjected to hot climate, and the good management is that aims to facilitate adaptation selection for adaptation of animals in hot climates selection of desirable stock for the tropics or sub-tropics should be for animals physiologically equipped to withstand heat and drought, this could be achieved by selection according to morphological characteristic that can assist to adapt to hot climate and/or according to physiological parameters such as the actual response or adaptability to hot climate after testing the animals under the hot climate conditions. 1. selection based on the morphological characteristics: the morphological characteristics preferred to the hot climate breeds should include large skin area in relation to live weight, shielded eyes, pigmented skin and eyelids (to lessen susceptibility to eye cancer) and short sleek light colored hair. the ability of animals to shed their coats early in spring, to walk long distances, to adjust to low water intake, high intake of salts either in drinking water or in forages, to poor quality food and to harsh treatment and to resist ticks (animals with long or woolly coats pick up a larger number of larval ticks than animals with short sleek coats) and other pests, must be involved. with such information in mind, the breeds carrying bos indicus blood could be classified for different cattle areas in tropical and subtropical regions as follows: brahman for the extreme and very severe hot wet ticky regions. santa gertrudis for ticky fairly severe hot wet and mixed (hot wet and hot dry) regions. africans for ticky hot dry regions. regarding the european breeds (bos taurus), those with permanent short coats can be used in fairly hot rather humid regions and those with heavy coat, but shed early and decisively in the spring can be used in regions that are fairly hot and humid in summer. however, the spread of breeds to new areas may often be either a matter of chance or just trial and error, owing to the great complexity of the environment and the unexplained idiosynerasis of breed in respect to things like terrain. 2selection based on physiological parameters: proper and more accurate selection could be based on the ability of the animals to maintain expression of their inherited functional potential during their life-time when raised under the hot conditions (which is the typical definition of adaptability or heat tolerance). the relative changes in production, thermal, water and/or nitrogen balances of the animals in the conditions under which they have to live could be used in estimating parameters for detection of their adaptability. such measurements are estimated following testing the animals in hot climates as shown below. parameters based on changes in thermal balance: 1. iberia heat tolerance (iht; rhoad, 1944): the test is carried out by keeping the animal in a cattle chute exposed to direct sunlight on a bright calm summer climate for three consecutive days with ambient temperature in shade between 29 and 35°c. the averages of daily rectal temperatures (rt) and respiration rates (rr) measured at 10.00 and 15.00h are calculated. the iht is estimated by the following equation: iht = 100 10 (rt 101) where 101 = the average normal °f of rectal temperature in cattle. if two groups show the same coefficient, the one which has lower rr is considered higher in heat tolerance. lee and phillips (1948) made an improvement in iht test by using a heat chamber to obtain standard conditions of temperature and humidity at which the animals are exposed for 6h. bonsma (1955) opposed that between breeds there are significant differences in the standard temperature of the body fixed by rhoad as 101°f and indicated that iht is valuable in selection within breed for heat tolerance. 2benezra index (bi; benezra, 1954): the test is carried out by using rt and rr as shown in the following equation: bi = rt/38.3+rr/23 the values obtained above or below 2 represent lower or higher respectively, heat adaptability than normal. 3. mcdowell et al. (1955) used rt and rr response during 6h hot room test in estimating the relative response in cattle. the trapezoidal mean rt or rr during a 6h period (tm) = (0.5 t 0 + t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 + t5 + 0.5 t6) / 6 where t1, t2, t3, t4 and t5 =rt or rr recorded after 1, 2, 3.... etc, h. of exposure. 4. bianca (1963) used the average final rt as heat tolerance coefficient (htc) as follows: htc = 100 18 (tr-38.3) where tr = (average rt at comfort + average rt at hot temperature)/ 2. in this index, the decrease in the final rt is accompanied with the increase in heat adaptability. brown et al. (1969) indicated that the rate of rt rise is definitely related to heat sensitivity, and multiple measurements could be used as a test for heat sensitivity of individual animals. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 9 parameters based on productive responses: 1milk yield, magnitude of rectal temperature and feed energy intake: milk yield (m), magnitude of rt and feed energy intake (f) could be used as an index for productive adaptability (pa) according to johnson et al. (1988) as follows: pa = % increase in rt (% decrease in m + % decrease in f). negative heat adaptability indicates heat sensitivity and is shown when percentage increase in rt is 2.4 or more and percentage decrease in m is 28 or more, while positive heat adaptability indicates heat tolerance and is shown when percentage increase in rt is 1.2 or less and percentage decrease in m are 8 or less. the pa index is more accurate estimation for the relative level of production potential in adverse hot climates and can provide a scientific basis for the establishment of improved strains for adverse climatic zones. 2daily body weight gain (dbwg): habeeb et al. (2007) showed that the stressful condition of severe heat stress (shs) and heat stress (hs) induced significant reduction in dbwg of buffalo calves by 22.6 and 16.5%, respectively. the authors observed that there were individual variations in the amount of dbwg which decreased due to exposure of the calves to shs or hs and consequently the percentage heat induced change differs from calf to another. consequently, the heat adaptability (100heat induced %) ranged between 83.9 and 31.4. therefore, the first calf is the best calf while the second calf is the worst one. in this respect, habeeb et al. (1992) and kamal and habeeb (1999) reported that the heat tolerant animals are those which exhibit the lesser changes in most of the physiological functions when subjected to hot climate. according to kamal and habeeb (1999) it can be concluded that first animal was more heat tolerant than second animal or the first animal is the most heat stressed calf because it lost more than 2/3 growth rate when reared under stressful conditions whereas the second calf is tolerated the heat better as it lost less than 1/6 of growth rate only. habeeb et al. (2009) showed that the stressful condition of hot climatic conditions induced significant reduction in dbwg by 25.5%. habeeb et al. (2007) found that exposed the buffalo calves to heat stress conditions of 36.0 and 32.0 ºc induced significant reduction in dbwg by 22.6 and 16.5%, respectively, when compared to mild climate conditions (18.0 ºc). there are individual variations in the amount of dbwg which decreased due to exposure the calves to stressful conditions of summer season. the percentage decrease values ranged between 3.2 to 48.4. consequently the heat adaptability (100dbwg decrease %) differs from calf to another, so the percentage heat induced change in calf was 96.8 while in another calf was 51.6. this indicates that first animal growing under stressful conditions more than second one which showed more response to high temperature exposure. the authors concluded that the first calf was best while the second calf was worst one in the heat adaptability coefficient. parameters based on changes in water balance: 1total body water: habeeb (1981) used the percentage increase in total body water (tbw) due to heat exposure as index for htc as follows: htc 100 [(tbw2-tbw1) x 100 /tbw1 where tbw1 = tbw under comfort and tbw2 = tbw under hot conditions. the most heat tolerance animals are those with the highest values. kamal (1982) and kamal and habeeb (1999) found a significant positive correlation between this index and the percentage increase in body weight gain during hot summer climate. 2. total evaporative rate: yeck and kibler (1958) used the ratio of total evaporative rate (ter) as index for htc as follows: htc = ter at 26.7°c: ter at 10°c. the most tolerant animal is that shows the highest ratio, since evaporative is considered the sole mean of dissipating body heat at high ambient temperatures. 3water turnover rate (water input or water intake): kamal et al. (1978) used the percentage increase in water turnover rate (wtr) in estimating htc as follows: htc = 100 [(wtr2 – wtr1) x 100 / wtr1] where wtr1= wtr under comfort and wtr2 = wtr under hot conditions. wtr= total body water (tritiated water space) x (0.693/ t½ x 24 h of day). the t½ (biological half-life time of tritiated water, 3 toh or 3 hoh) = the time needed in days, to remove half total exchangeable body water pool and 0.693 = the tritiated water exponential disappearance rate constant. the most heat tolerant animals are those with the highest values, and that index has proved to be more accurate in determination of adaptability of animals than total vaporization. 4. biological half-life time of tritiated water (t½): abdel-samee (1982) used the percentage decrease in biological half-life time (t½) of tritiated water space ( 3 hoh) due to hot conditions as an htc index because t½ in animals depends on wtr, i.e. wtr increases and t½ decreases as the ambient temperature increases. htc = 100 [(t½1 t½2) x 100 / t½1]. where t½1 of 3 hoh under comfort and t½2 of 3 hoh under hot conditions. parameters based on changes in protein balance 1. nitrogen retention (nr): kamal et al. (1962) used the percentage decrease in nitrogen retention [nr = (n intake x digestion coefficient) n excretion] as htc index as follows: www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 10 htc = 100 – [(nr1 nr2) x 100 / nr1] where nr1and nr2 are nitrogen retention under comfort and hot conditions, respectively. the most heat tolerant animals are those with the highest values. 2. lean mass: kamal and johnson (1970) used the loss in lean mass estimated by the loss in the amount of radioactivity naturally occurring in 40 k in the body as a simple index for heat adaptability. the amount of 40 k is counted for few minutes in the whole body counter before and after 3 days of heat exposure. from the 40 k loss, the amount of lean mass loss can be known. htrc = 100 [body 40 k under comfort body 40 k under high temperature) x 100 / body 40 k under comfort]. the animal which loses less lean mass at high ambient temperature is considered as a heat tolerant. 3. total body solids (live body weight total body water): kamal and johnson (1971) used the loss in total body solids (tbs) that include lean body mass and body fat as heat tolerance index. total body water is determined before and after three days of heat exposure and each value is subtracted from the corresponding live body weight to obtain tbs under comfort and under hot climate. htc = 100 [(tbs at comfort tbs at high temperature) x 100 / tbs at comfort]. the most heat tolerance animals are those with the highest values. 4. tbw/ tbs ratio: tbw is determined before and after heat exposure and total body solids was determined by subtracting total body water from the corresponding live body weight to obtain tbs at tn and hs climates. tbw was divided by tbs under each of mild and hot conditions and the heat induced changes in tbw, l / tbs, kg was considered as heat tolerance index. this heat tolerance was found had significantly negative correlated with body weight gain (dbwg) in farm animals as follows: dbwg = 920.4 – 252.2 x tbw, l / kg tbs [r = 0.8925, p < 0.002](kamal and habeeb, 1999 and habeeb et al., 2001). 5. protein catabolism: el-fouly and kamal (1979) used urea entry rate (urea pool size x l4 c-urea exponential disappearance rate) in blood as indication for protein catabolism in heat-stressed animals and as index for heat adaptability, since these values increase with different percentages in heat-stressed animals. kamal (1976) used 15n-urea as an indication to protein catabolism instead of hazardous urea. such method is quicker and more accurate than nitrogen retention method. parameters based on changes in blood volume and red blood cells volume: shebaita and kamal (1973) showed differences in heat tolerance between species and breeds due to differences in changes in blood volume and red blood cells volume in hot climate using radioactive sodium cremate. parameters based on changes in dna bases: habeeb et al. (2009) used the heat induced changes in cyclic guanosine mmonophosphate (cgmp) as heat tolerance index. the authors showed that heat-induced significant decrease in cgmp in plasma of animals as a function of heat stress. the averages cgmp concentrations during comfortable and hot climatic conditions were 100.8 and 76.8 fmol / ml, respectively. the result showed that increase the ambient temperature from 24 to 36 o c is followed by significantly increasing levels of the cgmp in plasma of calves by 23.34%. the percentage heat induced decrease differs from calf to another and ranged between 9.1 to 55.0. consequently, the heat adaptability varied between 90.9 which is the best calf and 45.0 which is the worst one. the heat adaptability index using cgmp had a highly significant positive correlation with dbwg and it can be concluded that cgmp is a good index for heat tolerance in growing animals. habeeb et al. (2009) found that the highest value in the heat induced change in cgmp was observed in the animal which hade the lowest daily body weight gain. parameters based on changes in protein fractions: 1. heat induced changes in total proteins: habeeb et al. (2007) found that plasma total proteins values were 7.33 and 7.71 mg/dl in buffalo calves exposed to shs (36oc) and hs (32oc) conditions and 8.32 and 8.50 g/dl when the calves exposed to comfortable conditions, respectively. the heat induced changes due to stressful conditions of shs and hs as compared with comfortable conditions were 14.3 and 9.50%, respectively. habeeb et al., (1992) clarified that the disturbance in protein metabolism occurred as a result of the depression in appetite and consequently less feed intake as well as the decrease secretion of anabolic hormones, especially thyroxin under hyperthermal conditions, may be responsible for the decrease in blood serum proteins in buffalo calves under shs and hs. habeeb et al. (2007) reported that plasma total proteins in buffalo calves decreased significantly during summer season of egypt and the percentage decrease were 14.3 and 9.50 due to exposure the calves to 36 and 32 ºc, respectively, as compared to 18 ºc. the same authors found that the correlation total proteins and each of dbwg and hsp70 was not significant. habeeb et al. (2007) reported that globulin values were 4.48 and 3.77 mg/dl in bovine calves exposed to comfortable and hot climates, respectively. the average heat induced decrease in the globulin due to stressful conditions was 15.85%. the percentage decrease values ranged between 1.81% and 36.78% and the percentage heat adaptability www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 11 values ranged between 98.19% and 63.22, respectively. the percentage heat adaptability using globulin values had positive significant correlations with the percentage changes in each of dbwg. 2. heat induced changes in heat shock proteins (hsp): habeeb et al. (2007) showed that the stressful conditions of 36.0 and 32.0 ºc during summer season of egypt induced significantly increases in hsp70 concentration in the plasma of buffalo calves and the percentage increase was highly significantly correlated with the percentage change in dbwg (0.971). habeeb et al. (2007) showed that heat-induced heat shock (hsp70) protein expression in plasma as a function of heat stress. the authors showed that increase in the ambient temperature is followed by significantly increasing levels of the hsp70 in serum of buffalo calves. when considered mild climate as comfortable condition, the heat induced significantly increase in hsp70 by 494, 210% due to exposure of the calves to shs and hs, respectively. the percentage heat induced change also differs from calf to another. consequently, the heat adaptability (1000heat induced %) may be used as the heat adaptability index or a god index for heat tolerance of growing buffalo calves. the heat-induced hsp70 protein expression in plasma as a function of heat stress was studied also by habeeb et al. (2009). the predominant hsp70 protein band migrating under comfortable climatic condition is compared to that those under hot climatic condition in bovine baladi animals. the results showed that increase the ambient temperature from 24 to 36٥c is followed by significantly increasing levels of the hsp70 in plasma of bovine baladi calves by 17.5% with differs from calf to another. the percentage increase was 3.35 % in calf while it was 58.29% in another calf and consequently, the heat adaptability was 96.65% in the first calf and was 41.71 in the another one, i.e. the first calf is the best while the second is the worst one. the heat adaptability index using hsp70 was parallel with that obtained by daily body weight gain (dbwg) and had a highly significant positive correlation with dbwg (0.797) and it can be used hsp70 as good index for heat tolerance in growing animals. habeeb et al. (2009) showed that heat-induced hsp90 protein expression in plasma as a function of heat stress. the predominant hsp90 protein band migrating under comfortable climatic condition is compared to that those under hot climatic condition in animals. the results indicated that the increase the ambient temperature from 24 to 36٥c is followed by significantly increasing levels of the hsp90 in plasma of calves by 19.62%. the percentage heat induced increase was 1.34% in calf while it was 50.82% in another calf and consequently, the heat adaptability was 98.66% in the first calf and was 49.18 in another calf. the heat adaptability index using hsp90 had a highly significant positive correlation with dbwg (0.867) and may be using hsp90 is a good index for heat tolerance in growing calves. parameters based on changes in hormonal level: 1. heat induced changes in thyroid hormones: habeeb et al. (2007) showed that the stressful condition of shs and hs induced significantly decreases in t4 levels by 30.8 and 18.2 %, respectively. the percentage heat induced changes were 25.0 and 70.0 and consequently, the heat adaptability was 75.0 in the first calf (the best calf) and was 30.0 in the worst calf. the lower levels of t4 in the heat stressed calves may be associated with the decreased animal heat production under hot conditions in order to maintain homeostasis (habeeb et al., 1992). the heat-induced changes in both t3 and cortisol hormones were significantly correlated with daily body weight gain (dbwg) in heat-stressed animals (habeeb et al., 2001). the two equations as follows: dbwg = 997.8 – 12.5 x ng / dl decrease in t3 [r = 0.881, p< 0.003] dbwg = 978.5 – 88.3 x ng/ ml increase in cortisol [r = 0.7945, p < 0.01]. therefore, habeeb et al. (2001) used the heat induced changes in each of the two hormones as heat adaptability index for predicting the growth rate of animals under heat stress conditions. the highest values in the heat induced changes in each of t3 (ng/dl) and cortisol (ng/ml) were observed in the animals which have the lowest daily body weight gain. 2. heat induced changes in testosterone hormone: habeeb et al. (2007) reported that the stressful condition of shs and hs induced significantly decrease in testosterone levels by 33.1 and 21.5 %, respectively. the percentages heat induced changes were 10.0 and 93.3 and consequently, the heat adaptability percentages were 90.0 and 6.7. the lower levels of testosterone in the heat stressed calves may be associated with the decrease of gonadotropin releasing hormone secretion from the pituitary gland of heat stressed animals (habeeb et al., 1992). management of livestock in hot climates: optimal climatic conditions for cattle, buffaloes, sheep goats, pigs, rabbits and poultry would be something like an air temperature of 13 to 20°c, a wind velocity of 5 to 18 km/hr, relative humidity of 55 to 65% and a moderate level of sunshine. however, these factors are interrelated. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 12 in view to breeds of animals suitable for the tropics or sub-tropics, some areas or countries are favored with their own indigenous breeds, where there is stability in the sense that the stock survive and reproduce despite the climatic rigours, but with, generally, a low level of production other areas have had to rely entirely or partially on introduction of higher productive tropical or temperate type breeds, that can be raised as purebreds or crossed with the native stock. in the latter case, deliberate measures must be taken to select and breed animals specially fitted for each difficult region as mentioned by habeeb et al. (1997). in addition, the possibility of a breed to fit in a certain region can be evaluated by constructing climographs (wright 1946 and 1954) using climate data collected from both the original and new environments by plotting the mean monthly air temperature against the mean monthly relative humidity. similarity of position, shape and area of the two patterns so formed after joining the twelve points, indicates such possibility. however, disease and parasite criteria, the feed situation, prices of inputs and products and the market situation also, have to be considered, in this respect. the selected breed for a certain region should manifest the least changes in most of the physiological functions and consequently in die productive and reproductive traits, under the new environment. in addition, when importation of the breed into a new environment is contemplated, a large number of animals of the same breed but from different areas or countries must be included, to give more chance as much as possible genotypes for reaction with the environment. the sires selected should be of high productivity and imported from different herds or countries to avoid inbreeding that occurs inevitably in the small populations. in addition, each sire should be used for mating a group of unrelated females for one year, and then shifted rotationally to the other groups for the same reason. such practice could be carried out up to the three generations at least, before the use of each sire or it's off springs with its original group. transport of that breed from its original homeland should be carried out during the mild weather of the year in the new locality, i.e. during winter, in order that the animals can habituate gradually with the onset of summer hot climate. it is also preferred to locate that breed in areas with the mildest climate in the new country and to arrange achieving parturitions of the animals during the mild climate season of the year to avoid summer sanitary problems for the youngest. with regard to housing, shade is the simplest and a relatively inexpensive tool for combating heat. a shed should be placed on a top of a hill if possible, open on all sides and with wire or cable fences, the roof should be 3.5 to 4.0 meters high with its long dimension east-west to prevent exposure to high sun radiation. the roof slopes should be south north to avoid vertical sun heat. the roof can be made of a 10 to 15 centimeters layer of hay held in place by wire above and below that realizes insulating and cool effects (marai et al., 1992 and yousef et al., 1996 & 1997). such roof do not permit penetration of heat from the sun through to radiate into the animals, as well as, little radiant heat from the animals is reflected back from its underside. in addition, hot air under the shade can rise up through the loose hay. if solid insulating material or wood shade roofs are used, the top should be painted white or shiny to reflect as much heat as possible, and the underside should be dull and dark to avoid reflecting animal heat it receives. the pens should be constructed of wire or cables to offer less resistance to air movement. the adequate surface area from shade per animal is 3.7 5.6 square meters for cattle and 1.86 2.79 square meters for sheep and hogs to be kept loose in the shed. vegetation should surround the pens. shade trees (with falling leaves during winter) should be scattered around and within the yards of the sheds, and such sheds should be scattered in the pasture or range. if livestock owners are compelled to build for housing their animals, they have to use insulating materials for the outer walls with adequate ventilation openings and the roofs should erect 60 centimeter more than the outer walls to protect the walls from direct sun heat. this is in addition to application of all that mentioned in establishing the sheds. regarding feeds and feeding, proper requirements should be offered to animals all the year round. protein content often averages 2-4 percent in deceptively lush-looking grown in there areas. such forage is usually mature and dry out with a high stem: leaf ratio (due to falling of the leaves while drying).digestion of highly lignified fibrous feeds increases the heat output and heat load at a time the animal is already under considerable heat stress. animals efficient in feed conversion have more ability to withstand heat stress effects, since they produce less heat while digestion of such feeds. arranging feeding with minimum lignified feeds and / or containing ingredients with low fiber-high energy content produces less metabolic heat is beneficial in such areas (beede and collier, 1986). as a general rule, feeds should be administered during the coolest periods of the day, i.e. at early morning, late in the evening or by night, under hot climate conditions. in extremely hot days, it is preferred to keep the animals in the sheds. with regard to drinking water, ample fresh cool water must be found within each shed. the water troughs and the animals while watering should be shaded by a suitable shelter from the direct sun heat, and the water pipes should be placed at 20 25 centimeters depth from the ground surface to keep the water cool in the hot climate. internal and external parasites, fungi and disease vectors that prevail in high ambient temperatures and humidities require rotational treatments for prevention and adequate facilities for treatments when the animals are infested. this is in addition to application of the known sanitary measures. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 13 the low degree of technical skill in livestock rising is another problem in such regions. regular training of those who are concerned on the proper methods for animal husbandry will help in overcoming such disadvantage. the specialized institutions spread in the country side, may play the major role in this respect. methods for alleviation the heat stress conditions on animals: environmental amelioration practices arc usually applied to highly intensive enterprises, of which products bring in sufficient return to warrant the expenses, e.g. dairying, feed-lot production or poultry keeping. some of the management^ practices to ameliorate the environment and reduce the animal's heat production, are shown above. below, arc some techniques that can be used to help the animal in dissipating the heat load and to correct the negative effects caused by heat stress. such techniques arc classified to physical, physiological and nutritional techniques as follows. a. physical techniques: 1. air movement: increasing air movement promotes evaporation, makes cooling by perspiration more effective and helps removal heat dissipated by animals in the form of radiation, conduction and convection. it can carry away moisture in the form of vapor. it also helps in cooling of the surroundings (bam walls and roofs, fences, earth ... etc) which in turn helps keeping the animals cooler. 2. air conditioning: the air condition technique improves each of growth and milk yield and its composition of heat stressed animals. however, it has not, practically, been established as an economically feasible tool in hot weather because of the high costs of electrical power supply (kamal et al., 1972). the techniques 1 and 2 arc considered as methods of modification of the environment as well. 3sprinkling (spraying). the importance of sprinkling in dissipating heat load is due to the high thermal capacity of water (1 cal / gm /°c) and its high heat of evaporation (580 cal/gm). sprinkling the animal with water would help in dissipating heat from the skin of the animal through conduction and then evaporation of the water layers coating it (kamal et al., 1989 and marai et al., 1995 & 1997). 4. drinking cool water: the beneficial effect of drinking cool water in reduction of the heat load is due to the heat dissipated by conduction as a result to the difference between the drinking cool water and urine temperatures. moreover, the increase in body water due to the increase in water intake under hot climate helps dissipation of heat by increasing evaporative heat loss through sweating and respiration and by conduction (habeeb et al., 1994 and marai et al., 1997). 5clipping: significant reduction in skin and rectal temperatures and respiratory rates has been shown by clipping animals (bianca, 1959). in range and housed conditions, shorn animals show an increase in growth rate. however, the direct exposure of their clipped skins to solar radiation may hurt the skin. in such case, suitable covering for the skin can be obtained by partial clipping of the coats of the animals. b. physiological techniques: 1diaphoretics administration: these compounds are used to increase sweat production for increasing the evaporative cooling of the heat stressed animals (kamal et al., 1972 and marai et al., 1995). however, such treatments cause significant increases in each of rectal temperature and respiration rate. 2diuretics administration: these compounds are used to increase water excretion to increase the heat loss by excreting water in urine with the same body temperature and then followed by drinking water which is also of lower temperature than that of the body (daader et al., 1989). 3goitrogens administration: these compounds block thyroidal iodine uptake and consequently depress thyroid gland activity. it depresses the secretion of t4 in the heat stressed animals to decrease heat production. however, this technique is not favored under heat stress conditions, since the treated animals under such conditions may be affected seriously due to their need to more energy for greater muscular activity for the high respiratory activity, o2 consumption and energy metabolism (el-fouly, 1969 and kamal et al., 1972). 4. hormonal substances administration: administration or injection of hormones can be used as a technique for alleviation of heat load on animal since secretion of most of the hormones is depressed under heat stress conditions. however, injection of 74 for this purpose was found to be associated with the increase of body temperature of the animals (marai et al., 1994). similarly, insulin injection in the udder was found to show the same effect, besides it increases milk production. injection by bst also minimized the negative effects of moderately high environmental temperatures on milk yield by increasing heat loss and minimizing the endogenous heat production and related physiological functions without any significant increase in rectal temperature and respirator v rates (mohammed and johnson, 1985). however, such techniques require some specific precautions and arc expensive at the same time. c. nutritional techniques: supplementing of heat stressed animals with protein, fat and/or mineral resources, is required to correct their negative balances, since heat stress induces a significant decrease in the dry matter intake and a significant increase in protein and lipids catabolism and decrease in live body weight, in addition to increase in excretion of urine and sweat containing minerals. supplementation with ingredients that include crude protein or npn (like urea) can be used to correct the negative www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 14 nitrogen balance (habeeb et al., 1989 and marai et al., 1997). palm oil can be used to increase the gross energy intake and consequently increase the performance. mineral resources supplementation corrects minerals negative balances (el-masry et al., 1989). references aboulnaga, a. i., kamal, t.h., el-masry, k.a. and marai, i.f.m. 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(1989). milk production of heat stressed friesian cows and its improvement in the subtropics. international symposium. on the constraints and possibilities of ruminant production in the dry subtropics, cairo, egypt, eaap publication no.38 pp: 156-158. kamal, t.h. ; s.i. mostafa ; a.a.m. habeeb ; k.m. elmasry ; a.m. abdel-samee ; a.i. aboulnaga ; f.a. kassab and a.m. abdel-hamid (1988). development of a new heat tolerance index for selecting productive goats for the tropics. in: isotope aided studies on livestock productivity in mediterranean and north african countries. international atomic energy agency, vienna, pp: 8593. kamal, t.h. (1976). indices for heat adaptability of domestic animals. in: the effect of weather and climate on animals, edited by h.d. johnson, swets and zeitlinger, amsterdam, 1, 470-475. kamal, t.h. 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(1985). effect of growth hormone on milk yield and related physiological functions of holstein cows exposed to heat stress. j. of dairy science, 68: 1123-1133. rhoad, a.o. (1944). the iberia heat tolerance test for cattle. tropical agriculture, 21, 162-164. shafie, m.m. and abdelghany, m. (1978). structure of respiratory system of sheep as related to heat tolerance. acta anatomica, 100, 441-460. shebaita, m.k. and kamal, t.h. (1973). in vivo body composition in ruminants. 1. blood volume in friesians and water buffaloes. alexandria journal of agricultural research, 21, 339-350. wright, n.c. (1946). report on the development of cattle breeding and milk production in ceylon. eastern no. 179, london, h.m.s.o. wright, n.c. (1954). the ecology of domesticated animals. in progress in the physiology of farm animals. vol. 1, edited by j. hammond. butterworth, london. yeck, r.g. and kibler, h.h. 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(1997). body weight gain and some physiological changes in friesian calves protected with wood or reinforced concrete sheds during hot summer season of egypt. egyptian j. animal production, 34: 89-101. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 10 association between excessive use of mobile phone and insomnia among pakistani teenagers cross sectional study lubna farooq mphil, assistant professor baqai medical university, karachi, pakistan email: jlubna85@gmail.com akhtar ali mphil, lecturer ziauudin medical university, karachi, pakistan email: drakhtarali45@gmail.com sehrish mahmood mbbs, lecturer baqai medical university, karachi, pakistan email: dr.sehrishmahmood88@gmail.com mahnoor farzand bds, lecturer baqai medical university, karachi, pakistan email: mahnoorfarzand01@gmail.com hina masood mbbs, lecturer baqai medical university, karachi, pakistan sumreen mujahid mphil, lecturer baqai medical university, karachi, pakistan email: drsumreenfawaz@gmail.com abstract introduction: in the era of modern technology mobile phones have becoming popular, especially in teenagers. besides of its uses there are various undesirable psychological and physical impact on heath. aims and objectives: the purpose of this study was to access the link among excessive use of smart phone and there sleep pattern among pakistani adolescents. materials and methods: a detailed cross sectional study was performed on a total of 500 medical graduates range between 18 and 24 years who were using mobile phone atleast a year. self-designed questionnaire is given to them having details of their frequency and pattern of using smart phone. sleep quality was analyzed by using pittsburg sleep quality index .chi square test was also perform to check the link between frequency of mobile phone and quality of sleep.p value < 0.005 were considered as significant. result: out of 500 participants, the frequency of mobile phone usage was more in males 70% as compare to females30%. their age varied from 21to 24 with mean age of 20 ± 1.9 years. most of students use mobile phone in night 188 (38%)and 202 (40%) participants using mobile phone unlimited. 366 (73%) students mentioned that they start using mobile phone at intermediate level and claimed that no surveillance of the mobile phone being done by the parents . students who were using unlimited mobile phone reported that they take more than 1 hour to sleep that showed a significant (p-value <0.001) correlation between more mobile phone use and time taken to sleep. conclusion: the results of our study conclude that excessive mobile phone usage leads to sleep disturbances and poor quality of sleep. that may implement negative effects on student’s mental and physical health along with this it can also affect the students’ educational performance and daily life activities. keywords: mobile phone; psychological health; sleep quality, nomophobia, blue light mailto:drakhtarali45@gmail.com mailto:dr.sehrishmahmood88@gmail.com mailto:mahnoorfarzand01@gmail.com mailto:drsumreenfawaz@gmail.com copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 11 1. introduction sleep is altered state of consciousness that constitutes almost one-third of the hours in a human’s lifetime. during sleep, connection between brain and body practically motor activities are suspended. sleep is a keystone of adolescent normal development and growth therefore it is thought that ideally students should aim for at least nine hours of sleep in night in order to perform actively, both physically and mentally. sleep deficiency may lead to various psychological and physical disorders such as deprive energy, mood swings, inability to concentrate and learn. it has been also associated with increase in obesity (gupta et al.,2016) (munezawa, t et al.,2011) (varshney, a. m. et al.,2017) (van den bulck, j.2007) in this era of advanced technologies mobile phones are became an essential tool for human beings especially in younger population. previously these were used only for communication but now advancement in technology has lead mobile phones to be used as mini computers. people generally young population feels that life without cellphone is incomplete, dull and drab. although significance and benefits of mobile phone cannot be dined but at the same time, their excessive use may implement undesirable effects on health and education. according to a survey, the frequency of mobile phone users has increased from 12.4 million to 7 billion from year 1990 to 2014 globally (saeb, s. et al.,2015) (asselbergs, j. et al.,2016) from year 2000 – 2015 frequency of internet usage is also increased globally 7-fold from 6.5% to 43 % (parasuraman, s. et al., 2017). according to global mobile market data, mobile phone subscribers has been increased to 3 million in 2018. india is ranked on second number after us for the usuage of mobile phone (. majumder, s.et al.,2019) .in today’s life that is surrounded by modern technologies, anxiety and stress are has affliction with daily activities. “after constant mobile phone use the fear, anxiety and nervousness of mobile loss or getting mobile less is termed as nomophobia,” number of studies conducted in parts of the world have reported that teenagers are concerned with the idea of losing their mobile phones (ali, s. et al.,2014) (prasad, m. et al.,2017) (dongre, a. s. et al.,2017).continuous usuage of mobile phone affects people life both physically and mentally. excessive use of mobile phones is associated with impaired concentration, headache, dizziness, fatigue, dry eyes, computer vision syndrome, stress, sleep disturbances, weakness of thumb and wrist, neck pain and rigidity, increased frequency of tactile hallucinations and nomophobia etc (gonzález-cabrera, j. et al.,2017).using the social media can change the sleep duration. the aim of this study is to evaluate the pattern of mobile phone usage among students of a medical university of pakistan and to assess effects of mobile phones use on their psychological health in the form of sleep quality. 2. material and methods a cross sectional study conducted in baqai medical university from april 2019 to september 2019. total 500 students from all classes (i.e. 1st to final year) were recruited for the study. both male and female students having age between 17 to 24 years were given equal opportunity for participation. participants who are using mobile phone for more than 2 years were included for the study. students with the history of sleep disorders, metabolic disorders and drug and alcoholic use were excluded from the study. a self-administrated questionnaire form was designed according to literature survey. students were informed about the objectives of the study. verbal and written informed consent was taken from each participant. the questionnaire was having two parts the first part was consisted on the questions regarding demographic data including age, gender, bmi score, academic year, frequency of mobile phone use, at which age they started using mobile phone and at which time they are using more mobile phone, second part assessed the sleep quality with help of pittsburg sleep quality index. in the 2nd part of questionnaire questions were asked regarding the sleep quality and it was calculated by using pittsburg sleep quality index (buysse et., al 1989). the study was approved by institutional ethical committee of baqai university. 3. results out of 500 participants, the frequency of mobile phone usage was more in males 350 (70%) when compare to females 150 (30%). their age varied from 21to 24 with mean age of 20 ± 1.9 years. the students reported that most of the time they use mobile phone in night 188 (38%). according to 202 (40%) participants the total hours of mobile phone usage (hours /day) were unlimited. 366 (73%) students mentioned that they start using mobile phone at intermediate level and claimed that no surveillance of the parents being done as shown in table 2. students stated multiple reasons for use of mobile phone, the highlighted one was surfing social media. the reasons for using mobile phone by the participants in the study group are given in the table-3. table 1. demographic details of the study applicants gender n (%) 500 male 350 (70%) female 150 (30%) age copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 12 18-20yrs 127 (25.4%) 21-24yrs 373 (75%) table 2.analysis of mobile phone usage time of mobile phone use morning afternoon evening night 144 (29%) 33 (6.6%) 135 (27%) 188 (38%) total hours mobile phone use (hrs/day) >1-2 hrs >3-4 hrs 5-10 hrs 40-60 mins unlimited 54 (2.8%) 65 (13%) 122 (24.4%) 57 (11.4%) 202 (40%) at which class they start using mobile at matric level at intermediate level at university level before matric 58 (11.6%) 203 (40.6%) 195 (39%) 4 (0.8%) surveillance of mobile phone by parents yes no 134 (26.8%) 366 (73.2%) who bears the expenditure of mobile phone parents siblings themself others 284 (56.8%) 125 (25%) 87 (17.4%) 4 (0.8%) purpose of use of mobile study social media 133 (26.6%) 367 (37.4%) places where mobile phone mostly use home public places class eating driving 206 (41.2%) 45 (9%) 178 (35%) 33 (6.6%) 71 (14.2%) insomnia yes no 376 (75.2%) 124 (24.8%) table 3. sleep routine of participants time to go bed 10am-12am 12am-3am 3am-5am 12 (2.4%) 256 (51.2%) 127 (25.5%) time taken to fall a sleep 30mins >1hr >2hrs 98 (19.6%) 47 (9.4%) 355 (71%) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 13 time to get up in the morning 5am -7am 7am-9am 9am-11am 159 (31) 202 (40) 139 (28) wake at middle of night yes not 356 (71.2) 244 (49 ) sleep quality very good fairly good very bad 165 (33%) 289 (57) 56 (11.2%) episodes of disorientation/confusion yes no 345 (69) 155 (31) bad dreaming yes no 377 (75) 123 (25) cough/ snore loudly yes no 155 (31) 345 (69) restlessness during sleep yes no 405 (81) 95 (19) students who were using unlimited mobile phone reported that they take more than 1 hour to sleep that showed a significant (pvalue <0.001) correlation between more mobile phone use and time taken to sleep. the sleep quality in these participants who were using unlimited mobile was not good (p <0.001) and they fell restless during the sleep and episodes of disorientation were more in these participants as shown in table 2. table 4 .association among mobile phone users and effect on sleep quality frequency of mobile phone use unlimited use half an hour more than 1 hour` sleepless whole night p value time take to sleep 98 (19.6%) 355 (71%) 47 (9.4%) 0.001 time taking to go to bed 10am-12am 12 (2.4%) 12am-3am 256 (51.2%) 3am-5am 127 (25.5%) 0.001 sleep quality very good 165 (33%) fairly good 289 (57) very bad 56 (11.2%) 0.001 4. discussions mobile phone is undeniable in present time, majority of mobile phone users particularly in asia are youngers and teenagers (chen, w. et al.,2005). in our study the frequency of mobile phone use was more in males as compare to females. according to measuring the information society report the fraction of male mobile users are greater than the women in most countries including pakistan (hilbert, m.2011). the night time was highlighted by our students for use of mobile phone that was parallel to the findings of van den bulck j. who reported that almost more than half of young population check their mobile phones after they have gone to bed(van den bulck, j. 2003) (eggermont, s. et al., 2006) in our study most of the students were taking more than 2 hours to fall sleep. use of mobile phones particularly in night have serious effect on eye sight it is documented that it can damage the central vision, blue light emitted from mobile can disturbed the production of melatonin hormone which regulate the sleep cycle not only this but mobile phone use also lead to a variety of copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 14 health problems including heart disease, cancers, weight gain, depression and anxiety (repacholi, m. h. 2001) (irmak, m. k. et al.,2002) (gamble, a. l. et al.,2014). in our study majority of the students used their cell phones and social media for sharing of thoughts with their friends and families. it was reported in a study that medical students use social media accounts (facebook, whatsapp, and twitter) to overcome the stress produced by pressure of studies and exams (ali, a. & shaheen, s. et al.,2019). besides its use as contacting device, mobile phones now are featured with documents, alarm, calendars, stop-watch, etc. these multifunction features of mobile phones cause an increase in mobile phone value, leading the users to perceive it as a must-have gadget (khan, a. s. n. 2009) (yang, j. 2013). in our study, 41.2% of students mentioned that they use mobile phones at home which may be due to constant communication with friends. mobile phones are thought to be a worrying part in educational institutes, and 35% of students in this study declared that they use mobile phones in class rooms where they exchange text messages with friends rather than concentrating on lecture. the present study showed that excessively long hours of mobile phone use was associated with insomnia, particularly in students using mobile phones for more than 10 hours per day compared with those using mobile phones for less than 1 h per day. this study suggested that overuse of mobile could be a indicator of a higher risk of insomnia. 5. conclusion it is conclude that the mobile phone is now becoming essential part and allotment of the life among teenagers. excessive mobile usage is associated with the poor sleep quality and sleep disturbances. too much mobile phone usage cause adverse effect on psychological and physical heath. 6. limitations participants were only medical students recruited from single medical university. 7. suggestions there is need to conduct such kind of studies on big sample size without age and occupational limit. conflict of interest: there was no any 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(2013). mobile assisted language learning: review of the recent applications of emerging mobile technologies. english language teaching, 6(7), 19-25. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 15 mitigate bank risk: some review hasan zaman independent researcher abstract its goal and intent is to examine the structure of capital adequacy, whether or not regulatory regulation is complied with and how shocks from financial and economic stress can be absorbed by the bank's prescription. keywords: mitigate, bank risk. in 2004, in view of some of the problems not covered by basel i, the basel committee on banking supervision submitted a revised framework commonly known as the basel ii agreement. three pillars remain in basel 2.capital adequacy is the first pillar. pillar 1's core goal is to capitalize credit institutions well. banks have 10% of total risk-weighted assets to maintain the minimum capital requirement (mcr). capital banks are more than 10%and capitalized banks are also considered.8% indicated undercapitalized and 5% undercapitalized substantially. column 2 is the firm examination by national authorities of the adequacy of capital and prudential supervision. pillar 3 is an active application of market discipline to promote reliable financial information. credit risk, market risks, and operational risk is addressed in basel 2.in these three areas of risk, the bank must reassure the capital adequacy of each exposure. it has a distinctive islamic financial system that must be properly addressed when formulating the islamic financial organizations' capital guidelines. leverage cannot be produced significantly in this system, which played an important part in the recent financial crisis. islamic financial products should be linked to real business activities such as trade, manufacturing etc. these articles cannot be underpinned by another financial contract because shariah restricts debt trading and unreasonable speculation. as islamic financial products are asset-based, they are frequently more likely to pose market risk (probability of loss of lower market prices).they also have certain other unique risks such as displaced trade risks (commercial force to pay returns that exceed the rate that has been earned on its assets financed by mudaraba depositors). references alam, i., islam, k. a., & al-amin, d. m. 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2021 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 analysis of health-seeking behavior of tuberculosis patients in nigeria oluwadamisi tayo-ladega ceo his marvellous grace support foundation, nigeria ph.d. student bangor university, uk taye mohammed abdullahi master student department of chemical pathology university of ibadan, nigeria abstract among several forms of infectious diseases, tuberculosis (tb) cannot be exempted. even though the treatment of tb is free in nigeria, the costs incurred by most patients do not reveal the significance of free treatment, and this affects the behavioral pattern of tb patients as a result of the numerous visits of patients to the hospital during the treatment of tb which may or may not yield their expected result. the objective of this study is to examine the behavior of tb patients towards seeking help for their health conditions. the study focused on kwara and kebbi states, nigeria. the findings revealed that most of the tuberculosis patients were more likely to search for treatment and seek medical advice from secondary health facilities, and they sought treatment first at the out-patient services. the out-patient services are among the secondary health facilities. it is therefore recommended that there is a need for health stakeholders (private and public) to ensure primary health coverage for all patients to prevent the exclusion of certain persons from treatment. this is referred to as inclusiveness. keywords: tuberculosis (tb), tb patients, health seeking, behavior. jel classification codes: a19, b10, b25, c10, c53. introduction nigeria is highly burdened with numerous infectious diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (hiv), tuberculosis (tb), and multi-drug-resistant tb (mdr-tb), (who, 2019) and was globally ranked as fourth among the twenty-two countries in the world with the high rate of tb disease. who (2017) even though the treatment of tb is free in nigeria, the costs incurred by most patients do not reveal the significance of free treatment. this is because of the numerous visits of patients to the hospital during the treatment of tb. the economic costs could be a significant factor militating against the effective utilization of tb patients’ ability to manage tb towards accessing anti-tuberculosis treatment. various studies carried out on the costs of treating tuberculosis have established the direct https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 1; 2021 2 expenses taken care of by patients from transportation, medical charges, and food costs during the process of seeking care solutions (who, 2015). the strategies for controlling tuberculosis entails two major workings, these are:  case finding which can either be active or passive; and  case holding the active case finding attempts to screen populations at large or to focus on specific populations. it is not generally adopted as the passive case finding. the passive case finding attempt to screen only those that come to the health facilities for diagnosis (murray, 1994). effective control of tuberculosis requires case finding at a tender stage of illness, both for the proper management of the patient and to reduce the transmission of the disease. it also helps to develop drug resistance, and not more than lesser financial costs are required for the patient. it is pertinent to note that majority of the tb patients are poor, hence if additional money is requested for diagnosis, case finding may eventually militate against case holding. this compromising state implies that the ability of the tb patient to wait in treatment may be compromised. several persons with symptoms of tuberculosis will first come within reach of a private doctor (pathania, almeida, & kochi, 1997). the process of varied and multiple help-seeking may be referred to as ‘shopping’ for diagnosis; thereafter, treatment of tb begins. nair, george, and chacko (1997) revealed that poor patients often end up in public health services, simply because they often find it difficult to pay for long-lasting care in the private health provider. the process of moving from one provider to another often causes delays in the tb diagnosis and the commencement of treatment, and thus involves considerable costs for patients. shopping is the aftermath that is influenced by the need of patients to explore substitutes to health service providers, most especially when the indications persist. another influencing factor is the lack of public trust in the public health services. the constraint associated with finance is another factor that requires patients to shift from high-priced providers to those that are pricefavorable. in the same study, kemp et al. discovered that tb patients spend about us$13 which corresponds to about 18 days’ wages of patients. it is pertinent to note that in the process of treating tb, other indirect costs such as man-hour loss and manpower loss at work could be higher. umar et al. (2004) conducted another study in nigeria revealed that tb patients tried to find treatment at an average of three different facilities before their diagnosis. the study exposed the expenses incurred by tb patients particularly on consultation and transportation (viney, islam, hoa, morishita, & lönnroth, 2019) ukwaja et al. revealed that many families with tb patients usually fall in the category of ‘poverty medical trap’ because of the costs of treatment which is direct (wingfield, boccia, tovar, gavino, zevallos, & montoya, 2014). their study also found that tb patients do encounter indirect costs such as job losses because of tb. in china, long et al. observed the crucial obstruction instituted by health care providers in the course of continual investigations and follow-up. in the study that was carried out in the ministry of health in uganda, the loss of income was estimated at us$333.30. in the study by umar et al. (2004), the time value for the hours spent seeking treatment for hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients were estimated to be us$517.98 and us$79.13 respectively. the study of (wingfield et al., 2014) on mdr-tb patients in ethiopia found that patients repeatedly take responsibility for financing their costs of health care. to manage and handle this scenario, many patients have been identified to further weaken their strategies by https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 1; 2021 3 selling and/or leasing their assets, in addition to the receipt of vouchers to cater for some fundamental costs such as food, shelter, and transportation (ministry of health, 2017; wingfield, et al., 2014; sari et al., 2019). even as it has been recognized that patients accessing anti-tuberculosis treatment are burdened with both costs (direct and indirect costs), and the effects are yet to be adequately considered. this study examines the behavior of tb patients towards seeking help for their health conditions. this study is crucial because of the cost challenges incurred by tb patients and their households in nigeria. it is a form of the social impact of tb and is referred to as the effect of tb on patients’ employment status, marital status, and educational status including the well-being of their children and their sexual relationships. method the study area is nigeria; it is made up of 36 states including the federal capital territory (fct), abuja. all the states and fct are subdivided into six geo zones, from which two geo zones were drawn: the north-central and north-west kwara and the kano states were then randomly selected from each of the two zones. from each senatorial district in the states under study consideration, three local government areas (lgas) were randomly selected. from the local government areas, two dots centers were purposefully selected. the dots have a low case-load and a high case load respectively. from the dots centers, qualified respondents were identified and selected for inclusion in the study. table 1 below shows the requisite number of study locations and respondents in each study state. from the fundamental units of analysis in this study, tb patients were systematically identified from the tb registers in the facilities of the study area in the lgas. the criteria for being eligible were tb patients in the first and second category aged 15-65 years who were enrolled on treatment during the process of data administration. in nigeria, standard antituberculosis treatment is given a duration of 6 months, the sampled respondents of tb patients enrolled in treatment between january and june 2019. probability proportion size (pps) was used to determine the number of respondents from each state. table 1. study areas and sample size respondents states lgas dots centers category category total kwara 3 6 57 4 61 kebbi 3 6 114 9 123 total 6 12 171 13 184 lgas: local government areas based on three local government areas (lgas) in the two states under consideration a total number of one hundred and eighty-four (184) respondents were included in the study. these are the number of tb patients that took part in the survey. to select the number of respondents which is required for the study from the sampling frames, patients were drawn from the facility register in the lgas, and this category of respondents from each patients’ category were drawn with the use of systematic random sampling as shown in table 1. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 1; 2021 4 primary data were extracted from eligible respondents through face-to-face interviews at a single point, and responses were obtained through the use of a standardized and an adapted questionnaire. tuberculosis control officers in the states and external agents assisted in the data collection process. the world health organization (who), kncv tuberculosis foundation (kncv), and the japan anti-tuberculosis association (jata) developed a tool for estimating patients’ costs. this tool was adapted for the study. direct costs to tb patients before and during diagnosis of tuberculosis, indirect costs to tb patients before and during diagnosis of tuberculosis, patient and health system delays, direct costs to tb patient costs during treatment of tuberculosis, indirect costs during treatment of tuberculosis, guardian costs, additional health costs including other infectious diseases that may arise as a result of tuberculosis, income and affordability of tuberculosis and health care, willingness and ability to pay for tuberculosis treatment, health insurance, productivity, coping costs, gender/social costs of tb, total costs of tb to patients, and socio-economic variables are the indices that are measured with the tool. data entry was achieved with the statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 21 to describe code relevant variables and analyze. primary data was employed to achieve descriptive statistics for all variables. this entails percentages and frequencies for categorical variables, and mean and standard deviation for continuous variables. the financial calculations were presented in naira (₦). results demographic characteristics of respondents from the survey that was targeted at one hundred and eighty-four (184) tuberculosis patients, demographic characteristics of respondents were shown in table 2. the majority of the tb patients were male representing 56.5 percent and are between the age of 20 and 49 years (67.4%). more of the respondents were male representing 56.5 percent resided in the rural areas (44%), while 31 percent of the entire respondents reside in the urban areas, and 19 percent resided in urban slums. regarding the education qualification, the majority of the patients had secondary education representing 46.7 percent, while 25.5 percent of the respondents were illiterate (had no formal education), and a little above a quarter of the patients (18.5%) were graduates. the majority of the patients representing 52.7 percent were engaged in the informal nature of employment; only 14.1 percent had formal employment, 11.4 percent were involved in housework and 7.1 percent were students. the income level of participants per month indicated that a little below half (37%) were not earning income, 50.7 percent had earnings less than ₦100,000 per month, while others (22.3%) earned more than ₦100,000) per month. table 2. demographic characteristics of respondents indices frequencies percentages gender male female 104 80 56.5 43.5 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 1; 2021 5 age (years) 15-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 and above 12 42 48 34 23 25 6.52 22.8 26.1 18.5 12.5 13.6 residence urban area urban slum area rural area others 57 35 81 11 31 19 44 6 education qualification illiterate (no education) primary secondary tertiary 47 17 86 34 25.5 9.3 46.7 18.5 nature of employment formal informal house labor student others 26 97 21 13 27 14.1 52.7 11.4 7.1 14.7 income (monthly ₦) <₦25,000 ₦26,000 ₦50,000 ₦51,000₦100,000 >₦100,000 no income 20 24 31 41 68 10.9 13 16.8 22.3 37 ethnic group yoruba hausa igbo others 41 63 58 22 22.3 34.2 31.5 12 mean of individuals in tb household urban urban slum rural 57 41 86 31 22.3 46.7 source: author’s survey health-seeking behavior of tuberculosis patients the major issue concerning the management of tuberculosis is the delay encountered in seeking and obtaining treatment after the inception of symptom, because this can result in an increase in https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 1; 2021 6 the level of infection of the patient and result in more protracted and severe illness which will also result in extra costs. it is pertinent to note that there were delays in the report of tuberculosis among tb patients when in quest of better treatment. the mean time before tb patients could seek treatment is between the ranges of 20 days; this is for cough with blood. the mean time to seek for treatment of tuberculosis that has a cough without blood symptoms ranges from 38 days. for the delay that was observed among tb patients before the commencement of treatment, a total mean delay of up to 15 days was observed in the study. from the study, it was revealed that 46 percent of respondents (tuberculosis patients) thought that was more likely to search for treatment and seek medical advice from secondary health facilities, while 15 percent and 17 percent of respondents believed that they were more likely to seek treatment from private hospitals or clinics and primary health care providers respectively. also, about 10 percent of respondents were that they were more likely to search for treatment and seek medical advice from herbalists; also about 10 percent of respondents were that they were more likely to search for treatment and seek medical advice from pharmacy/ patent medicine vendors (pmvs). furthermore, the study found that 50 percent of respondents sought treatment first at the out-patient services, while about 13 percent and 11 percent of respondents sought treatment first at the private hospitals and at the pharmacy respectively. from the study, the respondents that clicked visiting non-government-owned facilities rooted their basis of the decision on the facts that they believe in the health facilities and the health facilities is nearby. conclusion infectious diseases often pose a significant burden on persons and their households, which results into economic, social, and physical instability. among several forms of infectious diseases, tuberculosis (tb) cannot be exempted. even though the treatment of tb is free in nigeria, the costs incurred by most patients do not reveal the significance of free treatment, and this affects the behavioral pattern of tb patients as a result of the numerous visits of patients to the hospital during the treatment of tb which may or may not yield their expected result. the objective of this study is to examine the behavior of tb patients towards seeking help for their health conditions. the findings revealed that most of the tuberculosis patients were more likely to search for treatment and seek medical advice from secondary health facilities, and they sought treatment first at the out-patient services. the out-patient services are among the secondary health facilities. it is therefore recommended that there is a need for primary health stakeholders (private and public) to ensure health coverage for all patients to prevent the exclusion of certain persons from treatment. acknowledgments the authors acknowledged the support of buty global research network for providing a platform to network and share ideas among other scholars. authors contributed equally to the study. special thanks to mr. adeniran, adetayo for technical guide in manuscript preparation. references ministry of health (uganda). (2017). direct and indirect costs due to tuberculosis and proportion of tuberculosis-affected households experiencing catastrophic costs due to tb in uganda. uganda: ministry of health. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 1; 2021 7 murray, c. j. l. (1994). issues in operational, social, and economic research on tuberculosis. in: tuberculosis: pathogenesis, protection, and control (ed. br bloom) american society for microbiology, washington, dc, 583–622. sarin, r., vohra, v., singla, n., thomas, b., krishnan, r., and muniyandi, m. (2019). identifying costs contributing to catastrophic expenditure among tb patients registered under rntcp in delhi metro city in india. indian j tuberc., 66, 150–7. nair, d. m., george, a., & chacko, k. t. (1997). tuberculosis in bombay: new insights from poor urban patients. health policy and planning, 12(1), 77-85. pathania, v., almeida, j., & kochi, a. (1997). tb patients and private for-profit health care providers in india (no. who/tb/97.223). world health organization. umar, a., boland, c. r., terdiman, j. p., syngal, s., chapelle, a. d. l., rüschoff, j., ... & srivastava, s. (2004). revised bethesda guidelines for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (lynch syndrome) and microsatellite instability. journal of the national cancer institute, 96(4), 261-268. viney, k., islam, t., hoa, n. b., morishita, f., and lönnroth, k. (2019). the financial burden of tuberculosis for patients in the western-pacific region. trop med infect dis., 4(2), 94. wingfield, t., boccia, d., tovar, m., gavino, a., zevallos, k., & montoya, r. (2014). defining catastrophic costs and comparing their importance for adverse tuberculosis outcome with multi-drug resistance: a prospective cohort study, peru. plos med. 11:e1001675. world health organization (2019). global tuberculosis report 2019. geneva: who press. world health organization (2017. tuberculosis patient cost surveys: a handbook. geneva: who press. world health organization (2015). the end tb strategy. geneva: who press. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 6, no. 1; 2020 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 epidemiological and morphological characteristics of urothelial bladder cancer in a bulgarian and a french sample of patients milena gulinac medical faculty department of general and clinical pathology medical university-plovdiv, bulgaria e-mail: mgulinac@hotmail.com dorian dikov grand hospital de l’este francilien, jossigny, france medical faculty, department of general and clinical pathology medical university-plovdiv, bulgaria ts. velikova medical faculty department of clinical immunology university hospital lozenetz-sofia, bulgaria abstract bladder carcinoma (bc) is one of the most common malignancies of the urinary system in developed countries, and it is also characterized by a high number of recurrences and progression rates despite multimodal treatment. bc is a biological and clinically heterogeneous tumor with a great propensity of divergent differentiation. around the world, bladder cancer is responsible for 549.000 new cases и 200.000 deaths each year. in bulgaria, bladder carcinoma is the 18th most common neoplasia. our results on 105 proven bladder carcinoma cases confirmed that this tumor arises at 70 years at average (60-90 years), it affects men predominantly and there was no difference regarding the nationality of patients. in conclusion, it remains a diagnostic challenge. keywords: bladder cancer, urothelial carcinoma, urinary tract. 1. introduction urothelial bladder cancer is a common disease that takes the 9 th rank in worldwide cancer incidence (ploeg et al., 2009). the incidence of bladder cancer is three times greater in males than in females (hartge et al., 1990). these differences in gender prevalence explained largely by differences in exposure to certain risk factors. in the developed country, the major risk factor is smoking (aydin et al., 2017; battista di pierro et al., 2012; gilbert et al., 2004). in western countries, smoking is responsible for around 50% of urothelial bladder cancer in males and 35% in females (ploeg et al., 2009). on the other hand, in countries where the infection caused by schistosoma haematobium is endemic, like egypt, primary squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder is the dominant histological type. the third most important risk factor for bladder cancer development is occupational exposure, as chronic exposure to arsenic. carcinoma of the bladder is a 7th most common malignant disease in men and 17th in women. the majority of bladder cancer is composed of urothelial carcinoma (90%), where the remaining less common types include primary bladder’s adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and neuroendocrine carcinomas (small cell carcinoma) (carneiro et al., 2015). urothelial carcinoma of the bladder is usually admixed with other morphologically recognizable differentiations (beltran et al., 2017). in recent years, the spectrum of microscopic forms of urothelial carcinoma has been expanded to include several histological variants. most of them are described in the world health organization (who2016) book (moch et al., 2016). the recognition of histological variants in urothelial neoplasia is essential for a pathologist and oncologist because different https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=hartge%20p%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=2213906 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=gilbert%20d%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15203798 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=carneiro%20ba%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=25498841 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=moch%20h%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=26935559 copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 1; 2020 2 histology subtypes of urothelial cancer of the bladder may be associated with different clinical outcomes and have a different therapeutic approach. 2. materials and methods we examined 105 cases of urothelial carcinoma from tissue database of university hospital “st. george “plovdiv, bulgaria and grand hospital de l’este francilien, jossigny, france, and reviewed the period from 2016 to 2020. all analyzed patients in this study have been diagnosed with invasive or non-invasive high-grade (hg) and low-grade (lg) urothelial carcinomas of the bladder. histological analysis of the tissues was performed using automatic tissue processor „diapath en iso 9001:2000“ and 4-5 μm formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue sections underwent routine staining with hematoxylin-eosin (he) and hematoxylin-eosin-safran (hes) to determine the presence of individual histological features. statistical analysis was performed with the software package for statistical analysis (spss®, 92 ibm 2009, version 19) using descriptive statistics and dispersion analysis (anova). we considered the results for significant if p<0.05. 3. results the analyzed 105 patients in our study were diagnosed with proven urothelial carcinoma. still, we must clarify that we included a few cases of urothelial carcinoma of renal pelvis and ureter. the patients only with urothelial carcinoma of bladder were 95.2%. nevertheless, all analyzed patients were characterized and separated by two features: 1) by localization and 2) by age and gender. the most common site of urothelial carcinoma was in the bladder, presented by 100 (95.2%) cases. second by frequency urothelial carcinoma was in the distal part of the ureter, observed in 3(2.9%) cases. the least of the urothelial carcinoma included in our study were 3(1.9%) cases in the renal pelvis. these results are presented in table 1. table 1. number and percentage of patients with urothelial carcinoma according to its location bladder renal pelvis ureter total number of patients 100 2 3 105 percentages of patients 95.2 1.9 2.9 100 although we analyzed our result according to the average age, the mean age of our patients was 70±10.98 years, as the youngest patient was 42 years old, while the oldest was 93 years old. because of that heterogeneity of the age, we separated all patients in our study into six decades, as it is shown in figure 2. the majority of our patients fit in the 60-89 years of age. figure 2. the number and % of patients with urothelial carcinoma according to age divided into decades in regards to the age and nationality of our patients with urothelial carcinoma of the bladder, we did not find a significant difference between them. the median age of the patients from bulgaria was 70.14 ±11.16 years, and from france was 69.62 ±10.09 years, p=0.873. this is graphically presented in figure 3 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 1; 2020 3 figure 3. differences in the average age of patients according to the nationality we have obtained the following results according to the gender of the patients form cohort comprised of 105 patients with urothelial carcinoma: 72.4% (76/105) were males, and 27.6% (29/105) were females. the data are graphically presented in figue 4. figure 4. distribution of patients according to the gender 72% 28% men women р=0.873 copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 1; 2020 4 figure 5. distribution of the patients according to their nationality figures 4 and 5 show the distribution of urothelial carcinoma of bladder by gender, in bulgarian and french samples of patients with a significant difference between male and female, for both countries. in essence, 65/92 (70.7%) for bulgarian patients and 11/13 (84.6%) for france were males, and 27/92 (29.3%) in bulgaria and 2/13 (15.4%) in france were females. descriptive statistical methods showed no significant differences in patient’s samples for both countries, p=0.292. 4. discussion bladder carcinoma still presents a diagnostic challenge, and it remains the 7th most common malignant disease and the 2nd most common neoplasia of the excretory system right after prostatic carcinoma. it is also characterized by a high tendency for recurrence, necessitating expensive life-long clinical surveillance with repeated surgical interventions. even in highly developed countries where standards of medical care and treatment are high, outcomes remain unchanged from 20 years ago. urothelial carcinoma of the bladder is a significant public health problem in south europe (especially in greece, spain, and italy) and the most common cause for the lethal outcome of malignancies in males, and in lebanon in females (bray et al., 2018). this study demonstrated that the urothelial carcinoma of the bladder is a high-risk tumor. moreover, among men, this is the most commonly diagnosed malignancy in bulgaria and france, which is in correspondence with the data from other studies. according to literature, bulgaria is the only country where males had a significant increase in both incidence and mortality (wong et al. ,2018). in our study, we also established the ratio between man and women was 3.2:1, and the average age of the patients with urothelial carcinoma of the bladder is 70.14 years on average, which is similar to the results of almost all published studies (horstmann et al., 2008; gandomani et al., 2017). 5. conclusion this study demonstrated that bladder carcinoma is not a “simple” pathology but a common and aggressive malignant disease. it remains a diagnostic challenge. as we described in the interdiction, many factors affect its epidemiology. still, most of them might be controlled with all common forces for one purpose only – reduces its incidence and mortality. conflict of interests the authors state no conflict of interest. references aydin, a. m., woldu, s. l., hutchinson, r. c., boegemann, m., bagrodia, a., lotan, y., ... & krabbe, l. m. (2017). spotlight on atezolizumab and its potential in the treatment of advanced urothelial bladder cancer. oncotargets and therapy, 10, 1487. beltran la. cheng i, raspollini mr, marques rc, scarpelli m, gasparrini s, montironi r. (2017). variants of bladder cancer: the pathologist's point of view. european urology supplements, 16(12), 210–222. bulgaria france 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% male female https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=horstmann%20m%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19108811 copyright © cc-by-nc 2020, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 1; 2020 5 battista di pierro, g., gulia, c., cristini, c., fraietta, g., marini, l., grande, p., ... & piergentili, r. (2012). bladder cancer: a simple model becomes complex. current genomics, 13(5), 395-415. bray, f., ferlay, j., soerjomataram, i., siegel, r. l., torre, l. a., & jemal, a. (2018). global cancer statistics 2018: globocan estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. ca: a cancer journal for clinicians, 68(6), 394-424. carneiro, b. a., meeks, j. j., kuzel, t. m., scaranti, m., abdulkadir, s. a., & giles, f. j. (2015). emerging therapeutic targets in bladder cancer. cancer treatment reviews, 41(2), 170-178. gandomani, h. s., tarazoj, a. a., siri, f. h., karimi rozveh, a., hosseini, s., borujeni, n. n., ... & salehiniya, h. (2017). essentials of bladder cancer worldwide: incidence, mortality rate and risk factors. biomedical research and therapy, 4(9), 1638-55. gilbert, d. g., mcclernon, f. j., rabinovich, n. e., sugai, c., plath, l. c., asgaard, g., ... & botros, n. (2004). effects of quitting smoking on eeg activation and attention last for more than 31 days and are more severe with stress, dependence, drd2 a1 allele, and depressive traits. nicotine & tobacco research, 6(2), 249-267. hartge, p., harvey, e. b., linehan, w. m., silverman, d. t., sullivan, j. w., hoover, r. n., & fraumeni, j. f. (1990). unexplained excess risk of bladder cancer in men. jnci: journal of the national cancer institute, 82(20), 16361640. horstmann, m., witthuhn, r., falk, m., & stenzl, a. (2008). gender-specific differences in bladder cancer: a retrospective analysis. gender medicine, 5(4), 385-394. moch, h., cubilla, a. l., humphrey, p. a., reuter, v. e., & ulbright, t. m. (2016). the 2016 who classification of tumours of the urinary system and male genital organs—part a: renal, penile, and testicular tumours. european urology, 70(1), 93-105. ploeg, m., aben, k. k., & kiemeney, l. a. (2009). the present and future burden of urinary bladder cancer in the world. world journal of urology, 27(3), 289-293. wong, m. c., fung, f. d., leung, c., cheung, w. w., goggins, w. b., & ng, c. f. (2018). the global epidemiology of bladder cancer: a joinpoint regression analysis of its incidence and mortality trends and projection. scientific reports, 8(1), 1-12. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 25 artificial intelligence in aircraft docking: the fear of reducing ground marshalling jobs to robots and way-out adeniran, adetayo olaniyi 1 , kanyio, olufunto adedotun 2 1 department of transport management technology, federal university of technology, akure, nigeria 2 department of transport management technology, federal university of technology, akure, nigeria correspondence: adeniran, adetayo o. department of transport management technology, federal university of technology, p.m.b 704, akure, nigeria. tel: +2347036196773. email: 4tynil@gmail.com received: august 7, 2018 accepted: august 30, 2018 online published: september 13, 2018 abstract this study gaudily examines the impact of artificial intelligence on aircraft docking, and technophobia that may arise on the part of ground marshallers. ground marshallers are ground personnel that signal or communicate visually to pilots when docking the aircraft in an airport. artificial intelligence is an expert system which can be incorporated in different areas, such as finance, transportation, aviation, and tele-communications. attitude theory and technology acceptance model (tam) were used to establish the acceptance of artificial intelligence. it should be noted that expert systems make decisions which requires human level of expertise. in order to reduce the fear that technology will replace the jobs of human in the field of air transportation particularly with aircraft docking, it is crucial for airport personnel to embrace the upcoming revolution by developing themselves as regard artificial intelligence; universities should prepare the transport students to face the upcoming reality. also various organizations should put in place necessary resources needed to be part of this revolution which will be fully achieved in the fourth indus-trial revolution and the fifth industrial revolution. keywords: artificial i̇ntelligence, ground marshalling, air transportation. 1. introduction digital devices are becoming increasingly ubiquitous and interconnected. their evolution to intelligent parts of a digital ecosystem creates novel applications with so far unresolved security and safety issues (leandros, ali, ying, isabel, & helge, 2016). a particular example is an aircraft. as aircraft evolve from a simple-complex means of transportation to smart entities with new sensing and communication capabilities, they become active members of a smart air transport system. the internet of aircrafts (ioa) which is a term borrowed from internet of things (iot) for this study consists of aircrafts that communicate with each other and with installations that allow ease of landing and takeoff through v2v (vehicle-to-vehicle), vehicle-to-infrastructure and installations and vehicle-to-airmen interactions, which enables both the collection and the real-time sharing of critical information about the condition of aircraft, air route, weather, ground movement, and others. in the era of digitization, the importance of artificial intelligence (ai) cannot be over emphasized. according to andrei & andrew (2013), artificial intelligence is the science concerned with the creation of machine intelligence which is able to perform tasks heretofore only performed by people. it refers to machines that respond to stimulation consistent with traditional responses from human capacity for contemplation, judgment and intention. much of this machine intelligence is symbolic. artificial intelligence deviated from the juggernaut of computer research in the early 50s by exploring how computers can be used for more than just numeric processing. it incorporates critical reasoning and judgment into response decisions. they also noted that artificial intelligence is www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 26 being incorporated in a variety of different areas, such as finance, transportation, aviation, and telecommunications. it should be noted that expert systems make decisions which normally require human level of expertise. a very good example of digital device that has some form of artificial intelligence used in the airport is aircraft docking system. a docking system (visual docking guidance system (vdgs)) is a computerized device developed with the aid of information communication technology (ict), which guides the aircraft from taxiway to the gate position and vice versa. it enables wide-body aircraft to park at the correct position on the parking bays without the assistance of a ground marshaller. ground crews (ground marshaller) are trained personnel employed to aid the pilot in guiding the aircraft into the dock (adeniran, 2014). there is a growing notion that our society is entering a “robot society” which seems to be an unstoppable and fundamental shift in advanced economies that will transform the nature of work and opportunity within society (van & kool, 2015). there is also an impression that the advent of robot is an apparition threatening the economic security not just of the working poor but also the middle class across mature societies (kelly, 2016). there has been revelation of the variety of robot applications in our daily life, but at the same time underlined the potentials, limits and problems that require further understanding (new york times). in addition to the public interest, an increasing number of policy reports and scientific articles are being issued on these topics, indicating the rise of robots at work and in daily life of modern societies in the nearest future. over the next 15 years, 2 to 3 million americans who drive truckers, bus drivers and cabbies will be replaced by self-driving vehicles, according to a december 2016 white house report on the ascent of artificial intelligence (ai). also, an estimate by the university of oxford and citi bank, predicts that 77 percent of chinese jobs are at risk of automation over roughly the same period. in the same vein, millions of people around the world would lose their jobs under these scenarios, potentially sparking mass social unrest and upheaval (david, 2017). it is important to relate these happenings to air transportation particularly aircraft docking. will this change be applicable to ground marshallers? with the increasing volume of passenger enplanement worldwide coupled with high safety consciousness in air transportation, it is therefore needed to increase the level of technological development. it has become essential to develop and code artificial intelligence systems in air transportation that will work side-by-side human and ensure efficient air transportation with emphasis on efficient aircraft management on the apron during landing and takeoff in the airport. furthermore, firms have discovered that machine learning, and artificial intelligence will improve accuracy, productivity, and efficiency of operations but a disadvantage by replacing human. during the global recession, many businesses were forced to downsize their workforce for budgetary reasons. they had to find ways to maintain operations through leaner workforces. the united states bureau of labor statistics (bls) compiles future employment projections; the agency predicts that 15.6 million new positions will be created between 2012 and 2022. this amounts to the growth of about 0.5 percent per year in the labor force. hence, technology can be seen to boost productivity and improve efficiency, but do so by reducing the number of employees needed to generate the same or even higher levels of production and efficiency. this study gaudily examines the impact of artificial intelligence on aircraft docking and technophobia that may arise on the part of ground marshallers and other related fields. 2. literature review 2.1. overview of robots in the world predictions that automation will make humans redundant have been made before now, however, going back to the industrial revolution, when textile workers, most famously the luddites, protested that machines and steam engines would destroy their livelihoods. as computers began to appear in offices and robots on factory floors, former president of the united states, john f. kennedy declared that the major domestic challenge of the 1960s was to maintain full employment at a time when automation is replacing men. in the year 1964, a group of nobel prizewinners, known as the ad hoc committee on the triple revolution, sent president lyndon johnson a memo alerting him to the danger of a revolution triggered by the combination of the www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 27 computer and the automated self-regulating machine. this, they said, was leading to a new era of production which requires progressively less human labour and threatened to divide society into a skilled elite and an unskilled underclass. the advent of personal computers in the 1980s provoked further hand-wringing over potential job losses (economist newspaper, 2016). the dissemination of robots worldwide shows high relevance of this technology in manufacturing. the introduction rate of advanced robots in manufacturing is still much higher than that of service robots in other branches. however, the expected trend is towards a significant increase in these markets. most industrial robots (ir) are introduced in the automotive industry, which is the sector with the highest density of robots worldwide. the average global robot density is about 66 industrial robots installed per 10,000 employees in the manufacturing industry (international federation of robotics (ifr), 2015). yet mechanization has always been a feature of modern economies. for example, while american steel output remained roughly even between 1962 and 2005, the industry shed about 75 percent of its workforce, or 400,000 employees, according to a 2015 paper in the american economic review. since 1990, the united states has lost 30 percent (5.5 million) of its manufacturing jobs while manufacturing output has grown 148 percent, according to data from the federal reserve bank of st. louis. the high rate of automation in the automotive industry compared to all other sectors is demonstrated by comparison of the number of industrial robots in operation per 10,000 employees in the automotive industry and in all other industries. in international comparison, japan has the highest robot density in the automotive industry. in 2013, more than 1.5 thousand industrial robots were installed per 10,000 employees in the japanese automotive industry, while in the other manufacturing sectors the density was 214 robots per 10,000 employees. considering the automotive sector, this rate is followed by germany with 1.2 thousand robots, the united states and the republic of korea with 1.1 thousand units each (ifr, 2015). the international federation of robotics (ifr) states that from 2015 to 2017, robot installations are estimated to increase by 12% on average per year (cagr): about 6% in the americas as well as in europe, and about 16% in asia/australia. the trend towards automation continues to increase the volume of robot installations. also, the strong increase in the number of robots is expected to continue, especially in the asian market, as shown in figures 1 and 2 respectively: figure 1. estimated worldwide annual supply of industrial robots by industries (2012–2014). source: (ifr, 2015) www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 28 figure 2. estimated operation stock of industrial robots 2013–2014 and forecast for 2015–2018 source: (ifr, 2015) 2.2. theoretical framework 2.2.1. attitude theory attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through experience exerting a directive or dynamic influences upon individual's response to all objects or situations with which it is associated (allport, 1935). attitudes are inclinations and feelings, prejudices or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears and convictions about any specific topic (spacey & attwell, 1998). this study theoretically focused on establishing the conception of ground marshallers to artificial intelligence. attitudes represent the conceptual value of these technologies in the minds of the ground marshallers, not the values of the technologies themselves. positive attitudes are fundamental in implementing new technologies (spacey, goulding & murry, 2004; fine, 1994; fine, 1986). it was discovered that there is a correlation between attitude toward technology and number of hours spent using a computer (matheison, 1991; taylor & todd, 1995). 2.2.2. technology acceptance model (tam) technology acceptance model (tam) has gained attention and confirmation in a wide array of areas and applications to understand end-user’s intention to use new technology and systems (venkatesh, morris, davis, & davis, 2003). although tam has not been widely applied to examine adoption and acceptance of information technology (it), tam has been found to provide consistently superior explanations or predictions of behavior (taylor & todd, 1995; morris et al., 2003). this may be as a result of various factors that influence technology adoption, type of technology and users and the context (chan & auster, 2003). many existing studies in the context of technology acceptance have shown that individual’s attitude directly and significantly influences behavioral intention to use a particular technological application (gribbins, shaw, & gebauer, 2003; george, 2002). studies conducted are not directly related to artificial intelligence but they are indirectly linked to artificial intelligence because of the term technology involved. tam has received much attention from researchers and practitioners as a parsimonious yet powerful model for explaining and predicting usage intention and acceptance behavior. this can be a useful model to assessing the acceptance of artificial intelligence. 2.2.3. related issues and solution the introduction of robots in manufacturing has been identified as a major trend in the modernization of industry (europ; moniz, 2016; oecd, 2015). however, the training and skills requirements for operating these machines are much higher compared to conventional tasks. this can lead to shifts in employment. thus, the percentage of jobs at risk of being replaced by machines is difficult to estimate and other criteria have to be taken into account. the organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd) report on the future of productivity by mcgowan et al. states that, labor productivity initially grew rapidly following 1950, reflecting significant scope for catch-up and the rebuilding of war-ravaged capital stocks. productivity growth decelerated from the early 1970s, but convergence continued in many economies. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 29 from the mid-1990s, productivity growth accelerated in the united states, largely reflecting the large productivity gains associated with rapid diffusion in ict (oecd, 2015). after that, growth slowed down because of the financial crisis in many economies after 2008. labor productivity in a numb er of oecd countries had already slowed down before (during the 2000–2007 period). according to the oecd report, the productivity slowdown may partly reflect the pull-back in the pace of kbc (knowledge-based capital) accumulation observed in many oecd economies during the early 2000s. one factor pointed out is the decline in business start-up rates, as observed in many oecd countries even before the crisis. another important factor is the increasing competition, which impedes the access of small businesses to more advanced technologies. emphasis is also laid on the fact that increases in the complexity of technologies over time may have also increased the amount and sophistication of complementary investments required for technological adoption. in the year 2016, oecd conducted another study through a policy think tank run by thirty-five (35) rich countries, they took a different approach that looks at all the tasks that workers do; taking account of the heterogeneity of workplace tasks within occupations already strongly reduces the predicted share of jobs that are at a high risk of automation. they found that only 9 percent of jobs face high risk of automation in the u.s. across all thirty-five (35) oecd member states, they found a range of 6 to 12 percent facing this high risk of automation. based on this, it can therefore be said that air transport industry will be faced with high risk because of the complexity and global nature of the system. david (2017) noted that the technical revolution in the late 20thcentury moved workers from factories to new service-industry jobs. frey and osborne argued that this time is different. new advances in artificial intelligence and mobile robotics mean machines are increasingly able to learn and perform non-routine tasks, such as driving a truck and docking an aircraft. job losses will outpace the so called capitalization effect, whereby new technologies that save time actually create jobs and speed up development. without the capitalization effect, unemployment rates will reach never before seen levels. the only jobs that remain will require workers to address challenges that cannot be addressed by algorithms. a good and common example in most developed and developing countries in the world is atms. instead of killing jobs, the number of banking jobs in the world has increased advantageously since they were introduced. this is so and realistic because the atm allowed banks to operate branch offices at lower cost; this prompted them to open many more branches. machines are besting humans in more and more tasks through technology; fewer americans make more stuff in less time. but today economists debate not whether machines are changing the workplace and making us more efficient they certainly are but whether the result is a net loss of jobs. as we look ahead to a world populated by smart machines that can learn ever more complex tasks, economists agree that retraining people will be required and as the case may be with global free trade any big economic shift creates both winners and losers. 2.2.4 advantages of robots over human hardee’s ceo in the white house listed the advantages of robots as:  they are easier to manage than people;  they are always polite;  they always up-sell;  they never take a vacation;  they never show up late;  there never a slip-and-fall; and  there is no age, sex, or race discrimination case. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 2018 30 3. conclusion and recommendation 3.1. future perspectives regarding robots in aircraft marshalling robots is presumed in air transportation to be the most common transportation mode which embraces the use of automated systems with emphasis on aircraft ground marshalling technical applications. due to some unforeseen technical issues, robot is expected to be a machine that is capable of providing technical or skilled help to the ground marshallers. this will enhance human-robot interaction in aircraft ground marshalling. based on this, the airport organization and ground marshallers must seek for new qualification needed, technical competences, and organizational competences which will facilitate human-robot interaction with regard to competences in communication and decision processes in aircraft ground marshalling and overall airport organization. in the future, the development of robotics will be autonomous in nature such that their roles will be highly significant in the society. it is expected that the technical challenges associated with robots will be resolved based on continual development of artificial intelligence technology. issues associated with full acceptance of robots by human will be solved through human-robots collaboration such that human will be the driver of robots. 3.2. conclusion technophobia in air transportation particularly in aircraft docking can be reduced when there is proper orientation regarding the application of technology and the roles of human in air transportation. as stated in the (economist newspaper, 2016), it should be noted that new jobs will be created in the field of ai itself whereby robots may need remote operators to cope with emergencies, and manhandle packages. this is highly necessary in air transportation because of the huge risk involved, hence the lives of human cannot be solely left in the control of robot. it is also connected to the fact that no matter how advanced artificial intelligence becomes, some tasks in the air transportation industry will be better done by humans, because of the social nature of human. the major lesson to be deduced is that technology increases productivity output and efficiency of service delivery which in turn creates a greater demand for workers to perform more complex tasks that computers cannot handle. it should be noted that workers who may have been replaced by machines may not have had suitable training to take the more complicated jobs. it is therefore crucial for human to embrace the upcoming change by developing themselves as regard artificial intelligence so as not to be displaced. universities should prepare the students to face the upcoming reality. also various organizations should put in place necessary resources needed to train their staff. 3.3. recommendation in order to be economically relevant, one must be conscious of work rapid transformation in the global economy which is attributed to scientific and technological knowledge. the airport organization should train and retrain airport employees on information technology (it) in disseminating various tasks given. airport organization should developed and adopt automation processes to improve their operational efficiency such that they will be better placed to focus on human involvement in technology processes with trending. the more robots are introduced in work environments, the more human interaction with those systems becomes crucial. thus, a management strategy for human involvement in the aircraft ground marshalling becomes vital for developing and implementing the air transport policy. the policy context and content regarding aircraft docking will result to the policy consequences of efficiency, safety, reliability of aircraft docking and reduce turn-around time of aircraft on air-side. robots helps human anticipate problems or deal with difficulties as they come up, as there is growing applicability of artificial intelligence in many industries. it is being used to take the place of humans in such difficult areas and resolving complex tasks. in air transportation, aircraft ground marshallers should be involved in decision making, programming, applying standard procedures and practices, and developing basic maintenance tasks, or carrying out standard procedures of surveillance and basic operations. they should therefore have fundamental and higher training on artificial intelligence. universities should prepare the students to face the upcoming reality. also various organizations should put in place necessary resources needed to train their staff. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 2; 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(2021). digital marketing 5-generation technology and its acceptance behavior. international journal of marketing research innovation, 5(1), 46-59. https://doi.org/10.46281/ijmri.v5i1.1500 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.46281/ijfb.v8i1.1495 https://doi.org/10.46545/aijser.v4i1.213 copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 research article published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 22 a literature review on the separation of chemical compounds nemah sahib mohammed husien 1 , rajaa abd alameer gafel 2 & noor dia jaffer 3 1,2,3 department of chemistry, college of education for girls ,kufa univ, iraq correspondence: nemah sahib mohammed husien, department of chemistry, college of education for girls ,kufa univ, iraq to cite this article: husien, n. s. m., gafel, r. a. a., & jaffer, n. d. (2018). a literature review on the separation of chemical compounds. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 4(1), 22-31. retrieved from https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr/article/view/225 received: december 13, 2018 accepted: december 20, 2018 online published: december 27, 2018 abstract this literature involved explanation about separation organic components in mixture such as(chromatography ,extraction ,filtration, centrifuge…) , principles of separation , methods of separation ,types of separation , purification of separated compounds , conditions of separation , physical and chemical properties of mixture. keywords: separation, chemical, compounds. introduction the separation of chemical compounds depend on differences in physical properties , differences in melting or boiling point , structures of compounds , purity of compounds and classes of chemical compounds. all chemical compounds of biochemical interest occur naturally as components of complex mixtures from which they can be isolated only with considerable difficulty. types of separation 1separation by chromatography various separation methods are based on chromatography, that is, separation of the compounds in a mixture through differences in the way they become distributed between different phases. liquid-solid chromatography was developed for the separation of substances which is colored ,for this it is named name chromatography, which stems from the greek word (( chroma )) meaning color and ((graphy)) because the method was used for the separation and isolation found in aromatic plants., which described in 1906 by tswett. this is a chemical method used for the isolation of mixtures into its parts ,purification of components and also to test the purity of components. the chromatography technique depends on the difference in the rates of the components in a mixture move in a porous medium which named stationary phase but moving phase is solvent or gas for this reason this technique contain from two phases (( a stationary phase of large surface area and second is a moving phase which is allowed to move over stationary phase )) . the stationary phase is either a solid or a liquid but the moving phase may be a liquid or a gas. chromatography depending on the nature of the stationary phase and the mobile phase, it is constant for a given substance (component) under a given set of conditions. therefore, it is possible to identify the different compounds through estimation their values.in an extraction, the sample is one phase and we extract the analyte or the interferent into a second phase. we can isolate and separate the components and interferents by continuously passing one sample-free phase, named the mobile phase, over a second sample-free phase that remains fixed or stationary. the sample is injected through the mobile phase and the sample’s components partition themselves between the stationary phase and the mobile phase. those components with larger partition coefficients are more likely to move into the stationary phase, taking a longer time to pass through the copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 23 system. this is the basis of all chromatographic separations. chromatography gives both a separation of components and interferents, and a means for performing a qualitative or quantitative analysis for the analytic. the most common phase pairs used in chromatography are a mobile liquid phase in contact with a solid phase. the liquid phase can be a pure liquid, such as water or an organic solvent, or it can be a solution, such as methyl alcohol, sodium chloride in water, or hexane in toluene. the solid phase can be a continuous material such as paper, or a fine-grained solid such as silica, powdered charcoal, or alumina. the fine-grained solid can also be applied to a supporting material, such as paper, plastic, or glass, to form a coat of continuous material. alternatively, gas/liquid phase systems can consist of an inert gas, such as nitrogen or helium, in conjunction with a high-boiling point liquid polymer coated on the surface of a fine-grained inert material, such as firebrick. this system is called gas-liquid phase chromatography (glpc), or simply gas chromatography (gc). in each system, both phases play a role in the separation by offering a physical or chemical characteristic that will result in differential distribution of the components of the analytical mixture being separated. liquid-liquid phase systems are similar to gas-liquid phase systems in that one of the liquid phases is bound to an inert surface and remains stationary 2-adsorption chromatography adsorption chromatography partitions components of a mixture by means of their different adsorption characteristics onto the surface of a solid phase and their different solubilities in a liquid phase. adsorption phenomena are primarily based on intermolecular interactions between the chemical components on the surface of the solid and the individual components of the mixture. they include van der waals forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonds. silica is a useful adsorption medium because of the ability of its silyl oh groups to hydrogen bond or form dipole-dipole interactions with molecules in the mixture. these forces compete with similar intermolecular interactions between the liquid phase and the components of the mixture to produce the differential distribution of the components. this process causes separation to occur as the liquid phase passes over the solid phase. 3-separation by extraction this method is used for the separation of an organic compound (solid or liquid) from its aqueous solution by shaking with a suitable solvent (e.g. ether, benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride etc.) in a separating funnel. the selected solvent should be immiscible with water but should dissolve the organic compound to an appreciable extent. copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 24 it is important to note that extraction is more efficient (i.e., more complete) when a given volume of the extracting solvent is used in several installments. in this technique, two liquids that do not dissolve very well in each other (immiscible liquids) can be separated by taking advantage of their unequal density. a mixture of oil and water, for example, can be separated by this technique 3-separation by centrifuge: a centrifuge technique is used to isolation and separation small amounts of a heterogeneous mixture ( for biocomponents). test tubes containing the mixture are spun around very fast so that the solid gets flung to the bottom. the mixtures are spun horizontally in balanced containers, and the rotation sets up centripetal forces causing the mixture’s components to separate according to their densities. separating blood a centrifuge is used to separate blood plasma from blood cells. as the test tubes spin, the heavier blood cells sink to the bottom. centrifuges are useful in laboratories and on an industrial scale for separating solids from suspension in liquids. for example, in the food industry, a centrifuge is used to separate cream from milk or yeast from fermented malt. usually when the heaviest particles have settled to the bottom, the top liquid is decanted or poured off the to separate the liquid layer from the bottom layer. 4separation by filtration this is a more common method of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid. an example of such a mixture is sand and water. filtration is used in water treatment plants, where water from rivers is filtered to remove solid particles filtration is any of various mechanical, physical or biological operations that separate solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass. the fluid that passes through is called the filtrate. in physical filters oversize solids in the fluid are retained and in biological filters particulates are trapped and ingested and metabolites are retained and removed. however, the separation is not complete; solids will be contaminated with some fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size, filter thickness and biological activity). filtration occurs both in nature and in engineered systems; there are biological, geological, and industrial forms. for example, in animals (including humans), renal filtration removes wastes from the blood, and in water treatment and sewage treatment, undesirable constituents are removed by absorption into a biological film grown on or in the filter medium, as in slow sand filtration. depending on the application, either one or both of the components may be isolated, and it is very important in chemistry for the separation of materials of different chemical composition. a solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the other. by dissolving the mixture in the chosen solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through the filter, while the other will be retained. this is one of the most important techniques used by chemists to purify compounds; it is important and widely used as one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. it may be simultaneously combined with other unit operations to process the feed stream, as in the bio filter, which is a combined filter and biological digestion device. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/liquid https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gas https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nature https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/engineering https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/biology https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/geology https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/industry https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/animal https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/renal_physiology#filtration https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/metabolic_waste https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/blood https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water_treatment https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sewage_treatment https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/slow_sand_filter https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/solvent https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chemical_engineering https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/biofilter copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 25 there are many different methods of filtration; all aim to attain the separation of substances. separation is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter. the substance that is to pass through the filter must be a fluid, i.e. a liquid or gas. techniques of filtration vary depending on the location of the targeted material, i.e. whether it is dissolved in the fluid phase or suspended as a solid. hot filtration, solution contained in the erlenmeyer flask is heated on a hot plate in order to prevent recrystallization of solids in the flask itself. there are many filtration methods depend on the desired outcome namely, hot, cold and vacuum filtration. some of the major purposes of getting the desired outcome are, for the removal of impurities from a mixture or, for the isolation of solids from a mixture. aseparation by hot filtration: this separation method is used to separate and isolate solids components from a hot solution to prevent crystal formation in the filtration funnel and other apparatuses which comes in contact with the solution. as a result, the apparatus and the solution used are heated in order to prevent the rapid decrease in temperature which in turn, would lead to the crystallization of the solids in the funnel and hinder the filtration process. one of the most important measures to prevent the formation of crystals in the funnel and to undergo effective hot filtration is the use stemless filtration funnel. because the absence of stem in the filter funnel, there is a decrease in the surface area of contact between the solution and the stem of the filter funnel, hence preventing re-crystallization of solid in the funnel, adversely affecting filtration process. bseparation by cold filtration : method is the use of ice bath in order to rapidly cool down the solution to be crystallized rather than leaving it out to cool it down slowly in the room temperature. this technique results give the formation of crystals(very small) as opposed to getting large crystals by cooling the solution down at room temperature. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/separation_of_mixtures https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fluid https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/liquid https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/gas https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/suction_filtration copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 26 4microwave assisted extraction (mae) microwave energy to facilitate partition of component from the sample matrix into the solvent .its radiation interacts with dipoles of polar and polarizable materials give heating near the surface of the materials and heat is transferred through conduction. dipole rotation of the samples induced by microwave electromagnetic disrupts hydrogen bonding; enhancing the migration of dissolved ions and promotes solvent penetration into the matrix. in non-polar solvents, poor heating occurs as the energy is transferred by dielectric absorption only .microwave-assisted extractions have replaced soxhlet extractions in some applications. the process is the same as that described earlier for a microwave digestion. after placing the sample and the solvent in a sealed digestion vessel, a microwave oven is used to heat the mixture. using a sealed digestion vessel allows the extraction to take place at a higher temperature and pressure, reducing the amount of time needed for a quantitative extraction. in a soxhlet extraction the temperature is limited through the boiling point of solvent at atmospheric pressure. when acetone is the solvent, for example, a soxhlet extraction is limited to 56 o c, but a microwave extraction can reach 150 o c. two other continuous extractions deserve mention. volatile organic compounds (vocs) can be quantitatively removed from liquid samples by a liquid–gas extraction. the purge gas removes the vocs, which are swept to a primary trap where they collect on a solid absorbent. a second trap provides a means for checking to see if the primary trap’s capacity is exceeded. when the extraction is complete, the vocs are removed from the primary trap by rapidly heating the tube while flushing with he. this technique is known as a purge-and-trap. because the analyte’s recovery may not be reproducible, an internal standard is necessary for quantitative work. 5continuous extractions the extraction by this method of a solid sample is carried out through a soxhlet extractor . the extracting solvent is placed in the lower reservoir and heated to its boiling point. solvent in the vapor phase moves upwards through the tube on the far right side of the apparatus, reaching the condenser where it condenses back to the liquid state. the solvent then passes through the sample, which is held in a porous cellulose filter thimble, collecting in the upper reservoir. when the solvent in the upper reservoir reaches the return tube’s upper bend, the solvent and extracted component are siphoned back to the lower reservoir. over time the component concentration in the lower reservoir increases. https://chem.libretexts.org/textbook_maps/analytical_chemistry/book%3a_analytical_chemistry_2.0_(harvey)/07%3a_collecting_and_preparing_samples/7.3%3a_implementing_the_sampling_plan#bringing_solid_samples_into_solution https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/12597/figure7.25.jpg?revision=1 copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 27 7-separation by precipitation precipitation is separation method occurs in two steps: first the tracer is separated through coprecipitation with a carrier, after that it is isolated or separated from the carrier (hermann and suttle, 1961). use of carriers that can be easily separated from the tracer is helpful, for this reason, coprecipitation through inclusion is not generally used. coprecipitation through surface adsorption on unspecific carriers which is the most common using . https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/12596/figure7.24.jpg?revision=1 copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 28 8-separation by centrifuge( bio samples ) separation by centrifuge use to separation of bio samples like blood and contents of blood , plasma ,… through rotation of samples in centrifuge. the components of a suspension can separate by centrifugation. the dispersed particles and fractions of a suspension should be put in a special tube and placed into the rotor of the centrifuge. then the tubes is subjected to centrifugal force, generated by the rotation of the centrifuge. copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 29 separation of blood components , blood contain of two types of cells: red blood cells ((rbc erythrocytes) and white blood cells (wbc leucocytes )). erythrocytes are the blood cells which distribute oxygen from the lungs to all the organism, but the leucocytes are responsible for attacking any infectious cells, sustaining the optimal performance of immune system. principles of separation a mixture of organic compounds may be in the solid or liquid form or may include a solid contents or suspended in a liquid. if a solid contents or a liquid contents are present it is usually unwise to expect separation to be accomplished by filtration because the liquid phase almost certainly contains some dissolved solid and traces of the liquid component may be difficult to remove from the solid compound. the methods of isolating pure samples of the components from a mixture may be either physical or chemical. the chemical method consists of fractional distillation and is applicable only if there is a wide difference between the boiling points of the two compounds and provided that an azeo-trope is not formed. the chemical method of separating two chemical compounds depends on their differing solubility in water, ether, dilute base or acid. copyright © cc-by-nc 2018, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 4, no. 1; 2018 30 mixed melting point the component, whose purity is to be tested, is mixed with a pure sample of the same compound. the melting point of the mixture is determined. if the melting point of the mixture is sharp and comes out to be the same as that of pure compound, it is sure that the compound under test is pure. on the other hand, if the melting point of the mixture is less than the melting point of the pure compound, the compound in question is not pure. a large number of methods are available for the separation of substances. the choice of method depends on the nature of components in samples ((solid or liquid)) and the type of impurities present in it. purification of compounds after separation the separation and isolation of compounds in mixtures to give the pure components is of great practical importance in chemistry. many synthetic reactions give mixtures of products and it is necessary for you to have a reasonably clear idea of how mixtures of compounds can be separated. almost all compounds of biochemical interest occur naturally as components of very complex mixtures from which they can be separated only with considerable difficulty. the classical criteria for determining the purity of organic compounds are correct elemental compositions and sharpness of melting point or constancy of boiling point. important though these analytical and physical criteria are, they can be misleading or even useless. for instance, the analytical criterion is of no help with possible mixtures of isomers because these mixtures have the same elemental composition references john d. robert and marjorie c. caserio, (1977).," basic principles of organic chemistry, second edition. w. a. benjamin, inc. , menlo park, ca., isbn 0-8053-8329-8 . r. j. fessenden, j. s. fessenden, p. feist, ., (1980 )., "organic laboratory techniques", brooks/cole publishing company, third edition, chapters . 3 and 2 . criddle w.j., ellis g.p. 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mekaoui, n. distribution ratio, distribution constant and partition coefficient. countercurrent chromatography retention of benzoic acid. j. chromatogr. a 2011, 1218, 6024–6030 . conway, w.d. countercurrent chromatography: apparatus, theory and applications; wiley-vch: weinheim, germany, 1990. mandava, n.b.; ito, y. countercurrent chromatography: theory and practice, chromatographic science series; m. dekker: new york, ny, usa, 1985; volume 44. berthod, a. comments on “countercurrent motion in countercurrent chromatography”. j. chromatogr. a 2014, 1372, 260–261. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 13 output commercialization as three-way traffic for sugarcane farming households in kwara state of nigeria sadiq, m.s 1 ; singh, i.p 2 ; lawal, m 3 ; yisa, p.b 4 1 department of agricultural economics, fut, minna, nigeria 2 department of agricultural economics, skrau, bikaner, india 3 department of pure and applied chemistry ,university of science and technology. aliereo kebbi state, nigeria 4 department of agricultural education, federal college of education, katsina, nigeria correspondence: sadiq, mohammed sanusi, department of agricultural economics, skrau, bikaner, india. e-mail: sadiqsanusi30@gmail.com received: july 29, 2018 accepted: august 8, 2018 online published: august 18, 2018 abstract the study empirically determined the factors that influenced household sugarcane output commercialization in kwara state of nigeria using undated data elicited via structured questionnaires complemented with interview schedule from 105 active sugarcane farmers chosen through multi-stage sampling design during the 2017 production season. the collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. the empirical findings showed poor extension services, inadequate credit facilities, failure of the farmers to utilize their social capital, lack of scientific storage facilities and health-related issues to be the major factors that affected sugarcane output commercialization the studied area. therefore, the study recommended that the farmers in the studied area should be advised to pool their social capital together in order to become economically viable thereby maximizing the pecuniary economic advantages of sugarcane value chain in the studied area. keywords: commercialization; sugarcane output; farmers; kwara state; nigeria. 1. introduction agriculture commercialization involves a transition from subsistence-oriented to increasingly market-oriented patterns of production and input use. the economists have long advocated cash crop production as part of a broader strategy of comparative advantage. according to timmer (1997) and pingali (1997) as reported by egbetokun (2014), the underlying basis is that markets allow households to increase their income by producing goods which turn-in the highest returns to land and labour, and then use the cash to buy household consumption items, rather than be constrained to produce all the various goods that the household needs to consume. small-scale agriculture commercialization is an indispensable pathway towards economic growth and development for most developing countries depending on the agrarian sector. therefore, output commercialization, especially for the smallholder farmers is three-way traffic as it minimizes poverty, double farmers’ income and enhances the growth of the economy. however, having a glance from a larger perspective, smallholder commercialization could be seen as the strength of the linkage between farm households and markets at a given point in time. without the ability to sell, irregular bumper harvests dampen farm prices, undermining the income of small farmers who manage to produce the surplus, thus leading to convergent cobweb cycle of low-price due to glut followed by scarcity. it is obvious that subsistence agriculture in the long-run may not be a viable activity to ensure sustainable household food security and welfare. kurosaki (2003) reported that smallholder commercialization typically leads to an www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 14 increased diversity of marketed commodities at a national level and increased specialization at regional and farm levels. moreover, commercialization has a linking power between input and output sides of a market. demand for modern technologies promotes the input side of production and facilitates the development and advancement of technological innovations. in turn, the use of modern technologies can result in increased output due to high yield entering the markets. smallholder agriculture remains the major engine of rural growth and livelihood improvement in the studied area. meeting the challenges of eliminating food insecurity and improving rural incomes in the studied area will require transformation and transition out of the semi-subsistence, low-input, low-productivity farming systems that currently characterized most of the rural economies in the studied area. lacunas in the literature still exist particularly on the comprehensive and concurrent conceptualization of the drivers of output commercialization at the household level. therefore, this research intends to close these gaps particularly by the comprehensive conceptualization of the drivers of output commercialization at household level in the wake of promotion of collective action initiatives targeted towards poverty alleviation especially in the rural areas were agriculture is the driver of the economy. the specific objectives of this study were to describe the socio-economic profile of the farmers in the studied area; determine the factors influencing output commercialization in the studied area; and, determine the constraints affecting sugarcane production in the studied area. 2. research methodology the kwara state of nigeria lies between longitudes 4 0 20 ’ and 4 0 25 ’ east of the greenwich meridian and latitudes 8 0 30 ’ and 8 0 50 ’ north of the equator. the population of the state is approximately 2.3 million and has a landmass of approximately 36,825 square kilometres with varying physical features like hills, lowland, rivers etc. its vegetation is derived savannah with two distinct wet and dry seasons, with mean annual precipitation and monthly temperature of 1000-1500mm and 25 0 c-34 0 c, respectively (anonymous, 2010). the major occupation of the inhabitants is agricultural activities complemented by trade, artisanal, ayurvedic medicine etc. the present research used undated data elicited through structured questionnaire complemented with interview schedule from 105 active sugarcane farmers during the 2017 production selected via multi-stage sampling design. in the first stage, one agricultural zone, namely zone b was purposively selected due to its comparative advantage in the production of sugarcane. in the second stage, the two lgas viz. edu and patigi which made-up the selected agricultural zone were automatically selected as both have the comparative advantage in the production of sugarcane. because of the limited number of villages producing sugarcane in the selected lgas all the villages were considered. therefore, a total of seven villages: five (5) villages from edu lga and two (2) from patigi lga were the areas of coverage. in the last stage, fifteen sugarcane farmers from each of the selected villages were randomly selected: seventy-five (75) and thirty (30) active farmers from edu and patigi lgas respectively. thus, a total of 105 active farmers made-up the sample size for the study. for reliability test of the questionnaire, the questionnaire was pre-tested in a pilot survey made up of 15 farmers from the sampling population and the estimated cronbach alpha value was 0.86, indicating high reliability and consistency of the questionnaire. with the aid of trained enumerators, ex-post data of 2017 sugarcane cropping season were collected in the year 2018. the collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. objective i was achieved using descriptive statistic; objective ii was achieved using gini coefficient index in conjunction with lorenz curve; objective iii was achieved using censored regression (tobit regression); and, kendal coefficient of concordance (kcc) and exploratory factor analysis were used to achieve objective iv. 2.1 model specification 2.1.1 gini coefficient index: the gini index is defined as a ratio of the areas on the lorenz curve. as shown by sadiq et al. (2017a), the formula is specified as follows: g = a/0.5 = 2a=1-2b ………………….........................…….. (1) 2.1.2 censored model: following sadiq et al. (2018), the original tobit model developed by james tobin a nobel laureate economist (tobin, 1958) is given below: yi* = 𝛼 + 𝑋𝛽 +𝜀i ..................................................................... (2) where yi* is an observable variable. now yi = 0 if yi*  0 = yi* if yi* > 0 yi*=𝛼+x1β1+x2β2+x3β3+x4β4+x5β5+x6β6 + ……+ xnβn+𝜀i ................. (3) where: yi* = censored latent observation (hci) for i th household hcii = household commercial index for i th household www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 15 x1 = age (year) x2 = marital status (married =1, otherwise = 0) x3 = educational level (formal = 1, otherwise = 0) x4 = household size (number) x5 = land ownership (yes =1, otherwise = 0) x6 = farming experience (year) x7 = farm size (hectare) x8 = non-farm activity (yes =1, no = 0) x9 = co-operative membership (yes =1, no = 0) x10 = access to credit (yes =1, no = 0) x11 = extension contact (yes = 1, no = 0) x12 = sickness (number) x13 = security threat (yes = 1, otherwise = 0) x14 = income (n) x15 = unit price of output (kg) x16 = yield (kg) 𝛼 = intercept β1-n = coefficients 𝜀i = error term the most common approach used in measuring the degree of commercialization at the household level has been the proportion of sales from the total value of agricultural production (von braun, 1994). this is actually the revealed marketing decision of a household, particularly for commodities that are potentially used for sale and home consumption (randolph, 1992). the hci is conceptualized in this study as a ratio of the gross value of marketed sugarcane output to the gross value of produced sugarcane per household per cropping season and it is given as: 𝑯𝑪𝑰𝒊 = [ 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑒 ] × 100 …………….. (4) 2.1.3 kendall’s coefficient of concordance (w): kendall’s coefficient of concordance (w) uses the χ 2 statistic for testing. if the test statistic w is 1, then all the survey respondents have been unanimous and each respondent has assigned the same order to the list of subjects or situations. if w is 0, then there is no overall trend of agreement between the respondents and their responses may be regarded as essentially random. intermediate values of w indicate a greater or lesser degree of agreement among the various respondents. following sadiq et al.(2017b), kendall’s coefficient of concordance developed by kendall and smith (1939) and wallis (1939) is given below: w 12𝑆 𝑘2𝑛 (𝑛2 −1) – 𝑘𝑇 ………………………........................................ (5) where; s = sum over all subjects k = number of respondents ranking the attributes or objects n = number of attributes or objects that are evaluated by respondents t = tie-correction factor t = ∑ (tk 3 -tk) …………………………………………….. (6) ‘tk’ is the number of tied ranks in each (k) of g groups of ties. the sum is computed over all groups of ties found in all m variables of the data table. t is 0 when there are no tied values. the chi 2 ( 2 ) statistic is given as follow: 2 = k (n -1) w …………………………………………. (7) where; k = number of respondents n = number of objects or attributes being ranked w = kendall’s coefficient of concordance (kcc) 2.1.4 friedman’s chi-square statistic the friedman’s chi-square statistic proposed by friedman (1937) was developed primarily to test the hypothesis that the ratings assigned to subjects under investigation come from the same statistical population. this is an indirect way of evaluating the extent of agreement among raters. due to its close mathematical relationship with kendall’s www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 16 coefficient of concordance (w) it is used in studies of inter-judge reliability. the friedman’s chi-square statistic is given below: 2 r = k (n-1) w …………………………………………………… (8) where;  2 r = friedman’s chi 2 statistic k = number of respondents n = number of objects or attributes being ranked w = kendall’s coefficient of concordance (kcc) 3. results and discussion 3.1 socio-economic profile of the farming population presented in table 1 are the socio-economic profiles of the sugarcane farming population in the studied area. the results showed the sugarcane farming population to have an effective labour force which will enhance production as indicated by the mean and standard deviation values of 44.09 years and 8.63 respectively. the mean and standard deviation values of 13 persons and 4.47 respectively, depict a large household under the control of the farming household head. the implication is that large household mostly composed of able-bodied people is an asset as the farmer will have access to free farm labour supply which if properly utilized would increase the farm production. in addition, a large farm family will have access to a stream of income, thus boosting the aggregate income base of the farming household. however, large household mostly made-up of weak people or dependants such as children and old people would drain farmers income due to high expenditure on food and non-food items which is required for keeping the body and soul together. the results showed sugarcane farming to be mainly male affairs in the studied which may be due to tedious nature associated with the cultivation of the crop. the non-participation of women at the primary production level may be attributed to cultural and religious beliefs in the studied area which limits women to domestic house choir and agricultural marketing. the results depicted a responsible social setting in the studied area as the majority of the respondents were married. marriage is an asset as married farmers stand the chance of benefiting from the twin advantage of economic and social capitals. furthermore, the findings showed a literate farming population as majority possessed one form of formal education or the other. though, farmers who exceeded secondary educational level dominated sugarcane farming in the study area. the ability of a farmer to read and write will encourage him to source for innovative information on production and potential market for input demand and output supply, thus enhancing production of sugarcane in the studied area. the results showed sugarcane cultivation in the studied to be carried-out mostly on small-scale (1.76±0.81) which may be attributed to pressure on the use of land for various agricultural purposes coupled with capital paucity, thus limiting farmers from exploring the commercial potential of sugarcane production owing to the establishment of bua sugar company in the studied area. the results showed the majority of the farmers to have adequate years of experience in sugarcane production in the studied area (5.58±3.39, thus making them to be efficient managers in the allocation of their farm resources. the low productivity level of sugarcane production observed in the studied area is attributed to the sole cultivation of local variety which may be due to poor extension contact, the poor relative advantage of improved and hybrid varieties during the studied period. also observed was that majority of the farmers were not into enterprise diversification, thus making them liable to food insecurity in any situation when risk or uncertainty arises. most of the respondents had no extension contact during the studied period, thus indicating that most of the farmers had no access to any innovative technologies on sugarcane production during the last cropping season. a similar scenario of abysmal extension contact in the same studied area was observed for rice production (sadiq et al., 2018). the findings showed that majority of the sugarcane farmers were not members of social organization and have no access to credit facilities during the studied period, thus indicating inability of the farmers to benefit from pecuniary advantages such as bulk discount for input purchase and bargaining power for co-operative marketing; and inability to procure adequate inputs for sugarcane production during the studied period respectively. most of the farmers reported a moderate number of family members been sick during the last production season, thus affecting their income base as they have to contend with the expenditure of securing medication for the sick family members. in addition, they firmly stated that their farm labour efficiency and their attention towards farming have been distorted during the illness period/moment. however, the farming environment during the production period had relative peace devoid of crises such as herdsmen/farmers and communal conflicts. though, a pocket of minor communal conflict occurred during the production period in the studied area. the results showed that most of the farmers possessed title of ownership i.e. owned the land which they used for sugarcane cultivation, with the land been acquired by inheritance. the implication is that lands acquired by this means mostly do not permit commercial www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 17 production being subject to fragmentation and dispute, as any member of the household who attained adulthood would ask for his own share or piece of land. table 1b: socio-economic profile of sugarcane farmers variables frequency percentage inheritance 67 63.8 borrow 8 7.6 communal 27 25.7 rent 3 2.9 total 105 100 [𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟔𝟕∗∗∗] source: field survey, 2018 3.2 income distribution of sugarcane farmers in the studied area the estimated gini coefficient value indicated a fair equality in the distribution of sugarcane farmers in the studied area (table 2). in addition, the graphical representation of the income distribution showed the lorenz curve not to be farther from the line of equality (figure 1). therefore, it can be inferred that the sugarcane farmers in the studied area belong to the low-income category as earlier revealed that majority of the farmers were smallholder farmers. table 2: annual income distribution of sugarcane farmers item coefficient gini coefficient index 0.301282 estimate of population value 0.304179 source: field survey, 2018 3.3 determinants of sugarcane output commercialization level a perusal of table 3 showed the censored regression to be the best fit for the specified equation and the predictor variables are different from zero as indicated by the significance of the chi 2 value at 1% degree of freedom. in 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 figure 1: income distribution of sugarcane farmers in kwara state of nigeria income lorenz curve www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 18 addition, the multicollinearity test showed no presence of collinearity between the predictor variables as evidenced by the variance inflation factors (vif) of the explanatory variables which were less than the benchmark of 10.0. however, the residual is not normally distributed as shown by the chi 2 test statistic which is different from zero at 10% degree of freedom. though, non-normality in the distribution of error term is not considered a serious problem as data in their natural form in most cases are not normally distributed. thus, these results are valid for prediction. the results showed that commercialization in the production of sugarcane in the studied area is been influenced by output unit price, farm size, yield, household size, farm experience, mode of farm ownership, extension contact, cooperative membership, access to credit and sickness as shown by the significance of their respective estimated parameter coefficients at less than 10% risk level. furthermore, the decomposition detail showed output unit price, farm size, household size, mode of farm ownership and access to credit to increase output commercialization while the hosts of the remaining significant variables decrease output commercialization in the studied area. the positive significance of the estimated coefficient of output unit price with commercialization means that an increase in the unit price would encourage the farmers to increase the commercialization of sugarcane production in the studied area. this result conforms with a prior expectation stipulated by the theory of supply which showed that price is directly related to output supply. therefore, the marginal and elasticity implications of a unit increase in the output price would increase sugarcane commercialization by negligible marginal value and 0.03% respectively. the direct relationship of farm size with commercialization level implies that an increase in farm size would increase the commercialization level of sugarcane output in the studied area. the implication of an increase in the hectare allocated to sugarcane production would increase farmers’ marketable surplus, thus increasing farmers’ marketed output. however, an increase in marketable surplus can only guarantee an increase in output commercialization in the absence of glut as prices in the future time will likely be remunerative, thus increase in the output marketed. but in the situation of a downward fluctuation in the price of output, the large and average farmers’ marketable surplus would be greater than marketed surplus i.e. they will retain most of their output till in the future time when the price become remunerative. it is worth to note that it is only small-scale farmers that mostly engaged in force sell due to pressing cash requirements as against the large and average farmers who resort to distress sale only in rare cases. the marginal and elasticity implication of an additional hectare would make farmers to increase sugarcane output commercialization level by 0.002 and 0.007% respectively. the direct relationship of household size coefficient with output commercialization showed that farmers with large household size would increase their marketed output in order to meet its household consumption needs. in addition, a large household composed of able-bodied people will provide the farming household with free labour which will enable the farmer to produce more output/ marketable surplus, thus increase in the marketed output of the farming household. the marginal and elasticity implication of a unit increase in the family size of the farm family would increase output commercialization level by 0.0004 and 0.005% respectively. the positive significance of the credit coefficient implies that farmers with access to credit facility would engage in output commercialization, as credit being a catalyst will give them access to procure required quantity of farm inputs at the right time. in addition, it will enable them to carry out marketing function involved in sugarcane marketing without much hindrance. therefore, the marginal and elasticity of farmers with access to credit would increase sugarcane output commercialization by 0.018 and 0.015% respectively. the positive significance of the title of farm ownership showed that farmers who owned their farmland will participate more in commercial production. the farmers who owned their land can take to commercial sugarcane production with no restriction to the use of land, thereby increasing their output commercialization, as when compared to the lease or communal land which will limit full potential utilization of the land resource, thus affecting household output commercialization level. the marginal and elasticity implication of farmers who possessed the title of land ownership would increase sugarcane output commercialization by 0.004 and 0.0026% respectively. the inverse relationship of yield with household sugarcane output commercialization level showed how apprehension of market glut as a result of excess supply which mostly dampens the market price would affect household sugarcane output commercialization level. lack of scientific storage facilities and poor technical knowhow on sugarcane processing at local farm level will make it difficult for the local farmers to defer the sales of this bulky crop, making them resort to force sale or distress sale during the bumper period, thus affecting output commercialization due to slim stream of income caused by downward price fluctuation. the marginal and elasticity implication of a unit increase in the yield level of sugarcane would decrease sugarcane output commercialization level by negligible value and 0.0076% respectively. the negative relationship of experience with output commercialization showed how farmers’ complacency and conservatism in price prediction in a dynamic market affect their efficiency in the marketing of sugarcane output commercialization in the studied area. therefore, the marginal and elasticity implication of a unit increase in the farming experience will decrease farmers’ output commercialization level by 0.001 and 0.00589% respectively. the www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 19 negative coefficient of extension contact implies that farmers with no extension contact would be less involved in output commercialization as when compared to their counterpart who stand to benefit from innovative production and marketing techniques introduced to them. also, farmers who are not member of co-operative association will be less involve in output commercialization as they stand not to benefit from pecuniary economic advantages such as bargaining power in the marketing of their outputs as when compared to those who belong to social organization whereby bulk marketing is adopted in the sale of their products, thus having bargaining power in the sales of their output. therefore, the marginal and elasticity implications of farmers with no extension contact and not a member of co-operative association would decrease their household output commercialization level by 0.008 and 0.0013%; and, 0.017 and 0.0015% respectively. the negative significance of sickness implies that in the situation of any member of the family being sick would have an adverse effect on the production capital base of a farmer as much will be expended in seeking for medication, thus reducing household output commercialization level. the marginal and elasticity implication of a household member being sick will decrease output commercialization level by 0.003 and 0.0089% respectively. the positive relationship of security threat coefficient though non-significant, showed that farming environment devoid of security threats such as farmers/herders clash and communal conflicts will encourage farmers to produce more sugarcane, thus increasing output commercialization level in the studied area. however, the non-significant of this variable indicate the presence of relative peace in the farming environment of the studied area. furthermore, the inverse relationship of income despite non-significant indicates how an increase in income will increase farmers expenditure level by marrying more wives, purchase of materialistic asset i.e. capital consumption instead of reinvestment in the farm production, thus affecting household output commercialization level. the educational level coefficient was non-significant owing to the effect of diffusion across the strata of the farming population in the studied area. the non-significant of the age coefficient is due to the fact that most of the farmers were in their youthful age which is economically viable with regard to labour force. however, the inverse relationship of the age coefficient showed that when farmer advance in age he will focus on farm family food security rather than having the temptation for a higher level of output commercialization in order to satisfy his materialistic needs. also, the non-significant of marital status is as a result of the majority of the farmers been married in the studied area. though, the positive sign of the marital status implies that married farmers will participate more in output commercialization in order to meet up with their family expenditure: food and non-food expenditure. the nonsignificant of the estimated coefficient of non-farm activity is an indication that much is not earned by the farmers from the non-farm activity. however, the positive effect of the estimated coefficient implies that the farmers with diversified income will participate more in output commercialization as they have better food security coping strategy. table 3: output commercialization determinants variable coefficient t-stat elasticity vif constant 0.9673(0.0126) 76.45*** age −0.00014(0.00010) 1.327 ns -0.00659 1.816 marital status 0.00011(0.00347) 0.032 ns 0.00072 1.360 education 0.00049(0.00168) 0.297 ns 0.00033 1.411 household size 0.00039(0.00018) 2.215** 0.00506 1.479 land ownership 0.004008(0.0015) 2.647*** 0.00261 1.222 farming experience −0.00104(0.00026) 3.851*** -0.00586 1.905 farm size 0.0021(0.00056) 3.762*** 0.007417 1.909 non-farm activity 0.00166(0.0035) 0.483 ns 0.00022 2.750 co-operative mem. −0.01697(0.00596) 2.848*** -0.00154 6.646 access to credit 0.01750(0.00561) 3.120*** 0.00150 5.665 extension contact −0.00829(0.00228) 3.629*** -0.00129 2.153 sickness −0.00292(0.00071) 4.107*** -0.00888 1.344 security threat 0.00197(0.00357) 0.554 ns 0.00015 1.821 income −8.55e-11(3.02e-10) 0.282 ns -0.00013 1.149 unit price of output 5.971e-5(2.349e-5) 2.542** 0.029468 1.064 yield −1.299e-6(7.268e-7) 1.787* -0.007630 1.215 chi 2 (𝝌2 ) 121.37 [2.9e-18]*** normality test (𝝌2 ) 35.76 [1.71e-8]*** source: field survey, 2018 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 20 *, **, *** and ns means significance at 10%, 5%, 1% and non-significant respectively note: ( ): values in parenthesis are standard error; [ ] values in square brackets are probability levels 3.4 factors affecting sugarcane production in the studied area a cursory review of the results revealed the major problems affecting sugarcane production in the studied area to be poor transportation network, high cost of agro-inputs, inadequate extension contact, land tenure problem and high cost of hired labour as indicated by their respective mean values which were greater than the mean benchmark of 3.50 (table 4). however, the remaining identified problems were considered minor problems constraining sugarcane production in the studied area as their respective mean values were below the mean benchmark. furthermore, the grand mean value of 3.43 been less than the likert scale benchmark mean value of 3.50 implies that the farmers have a negative perception about the identified constraints affecting sugarcane production in the studied area. in addition, the perception index showed that approximately 57.09% concurred that these were the problems affecting them in sugarcane production in the studied area. the kendall’s coefficient of concordance value of 0.101 implies poor agreement among the sugarcane farmers with respect to the ranking. in addition, the significance of the friedman’s test value means that the attributes assigned to the constraints by the farmers come from the statistical population. therefore, policymakers need not comply with this ranking in addressing the identified problems as they are at liberty to start with any of the pressing problems affecting sugarcane production in the studied area. to reduce the number of research variables and find the common factors affecting sugarcane production in the studied area, 13 identified constraints were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis. the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) test which measures the degree of inter-correlation among the variables and the appropriateness of factor analysis (hair et al.2010) has a calibration value of 0.712. following kaiser and rice (1974), the calibrated msa is “middling”, implying that the variables are inter-correlated and appropriate for factor analysis. mansourfar (2006) stated that for items to be suitable for factor analysis, the kmo value for sampling adequacy must be between 0.80 and 1. therefore following gindi et al.(2016) who reported kmo value of 0.735 which fall under “middling”, the present study adjudged the kmo value of 0.712 for sampling adequacy to be satisfactory. also, bartlett's test rejected the hypothesis that the correlation matrix was an identity matrix (at the level of 0.01), indicating a significant relationship between the variables. the result of the latent criterion showed that the 13 variables subjected to the factor analysis should be extracted to form four dimensions. these four dimensions explained 53.07% of the variation in the data i.e. the factors that meet the cut-off criterion with eigen-values greater than 1 and generally considered satisfactory in social sciences (hair et al.1998; 2006 as reported by sadiq et al., 2017b). according to nunnaly (1978), for the reliability test, a cronbach’s alpha score of 0.70 or above is considered to show proof of internal consistency. however, churchill (1979) suggested a cut-off point of 0.60 or higher which is lower than what nunnaly (1978) posited. therefore, in line with churchill (1979), the cronbach’s alpha values for the four extracted factors were appropriate for the exploratory research as their respective values were above the suggested cut-off point. the behaviour of individual items in relation to others within the same factor provides confirmation of content validity because the highest factor loading is central to the domains assessed by these factors (francis et al., 2000). the extracted factors and their respective factor loadings exclude those whose absolute loading value is less than 0.40. the four extracted factors which account for 55.68% of constraints variance were classified as social and biological constraint, institutional constraint, capital constraint and marketing constraint. the first factor christened “social and biological constraint” with an eigen-value of 3.53 and loaded with five items accounted for 27.12% of constraint variance. the items loaded on this factor showed farmers concern on social and biological factors affecting sugarcane production, thus the need for social capital and strategy for control ravaging effect of pest and diseases in order to enhance sugarcane production in the studied area. the second factor christened “institutional constraint” with an eigen value of 1.37, loaded on three items, explained 10.58% of the constraint variance. the items on this factor showed farmers concern on ineffectiveness and poor implementation of existing government policies and call for harmonization, strengthening, monitoring and re-evaluation of policies to ensure efficiency in the sugarcane value chain in the studied area. the third factor christened “capital constraint’ with an eigen value of 1.21, loaded with four items, explained 9.34% of the constraint variance. the items on this factor indicate farmers concern about poor infrastructural facilities and call for adequate provision of good road network, sufficient and appropriate marketing facilities in order to enhance market efficiency in the studied area. the fourth factor labeled “market constraint” with an eigen-value of 1.12, loaded with one item, explained 8.64% of constraint variance. the item loaded on this factor showed farmers concern on poor market outlet for their products, and thus, the need for an efficient market which will yield remunerative price. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 21 4. conclusion and recommendation from the empirical finding, it can be concluded that sugarcane production in the studied area is gender bias; extension services and credit facilities during the study period were very poor, thus resulting in a low yield in the studied area. in addition, farmers in the studied area failed to utilize their social capital to ease themselves from the vicious cycle of poverty. furthermore, it was observed that household sugarcane output commercialization is been affected by farmer’s conservatism attitude, poor extension contact, failure to take advantage of their social capital strength, lack of scientific storage facilities and ill-health of the member of the farming household. the major constraints militating against sugarcane production in the studied area were the poor road network, inadequate extension services, the high cost of operating capital and problem of land acquisition. therefore, the followings interventions were recommended to ensure the balance between domestic supply and demand for sugarcane products in the studied area:  farmers should be enjoined to put their social capital together in order to empower themselves via pecuniary advantages since most of them have no economic power.  government and non-governmental organizations should wax stronger by ensuring that credit facilities reached the target group by relaxing some unnecessary bureaucracy or administrative procedures associated with agricultural credit. in addition, credit administrators should devise another credit security measures other than the collateral requirement as most of these farmers have no economic power.  the farmers in the studied area should be advised to adopt farmer to farmer extension approach since there is no sign for now in the provision of adequate government extension personals in the studied area.  there is the need for gender sensitization as women in africa are the most affected by poverty as they are left to meet up with most of the family needs especially in the polygamous home.  since health is wealth, the farmers need to be given proper orientation on how to put in place the basic precautions to maintain a healthy household. references churchill, g.a.(1979).a paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. journal of marketing research, 16(1):64-73 egbetokun, o.a., bolarin, t.o., sulaiman, a.y., omobowale, a.o.(2014).determinants of output commercialization among crop farming households in south western nigeria. american journal of food science and nutrition research, 1(4):23-27 francis, l., katz, y. and jones, s.(2000).the reliability and validity of the hebrew version of the computer attitude scale. computer education, 35(2):149-59. friedman, m.(1937).the use of ranks to avoid the assumption of normality implicit in the analysis of variance. journal of american statistical association, 32(200):675 gindi, a.a., abdullah, a.m., ismail, m.m. and nawi, n.m.(2016).factors influencing consumer’s retail formats choice for fresh fruits purchase in klang valley malaysia. international journal of agricultural research, sustainability, and food sufficiency (ijarsfs), 3(3):52-61 hair j.f. bush, r.p. and ortinau, d.j.(2006).marketing research: within a changing information environment (3 rd ed.). new york, usa: mcgraw-hill/irwin hair, j.f., anderson, r.e., tatham, r.l. and black, w.c.(1998).multivariate data analysis. 5 th edition, prentice hall, upper saddle river, nj. hair,j.f., black, w.c., babin, b.j. and anderson, r.e.(2010).multivariate data analysis. upper saddle river, nj: pearson prentice hall kaiser, h.r. and rice, j.(1974).little jiffy mark iv. educational and psychological measurement, 34(1): 111-117 kendall, m.g. and smith, b.b.(1939).on the method of paired comparisons. biometrica, 31(3:4):324-345 kendall, m.g. and smith, b.b.(1939).the problem of m ranking. the annals of mathematical statistics, 10(3):275-287 kurosaki, t.(2003).specialization and diversification in agricultural transformation: the case of west punjab, 1903-92. american journal of agricultural economics, 85(2):372-386. mansourfar, k.(2006).advanced statistical methods: using applied software. university of tehran press. nunnaly, j.c.(1978).psychometric theory, 2nd ed., mcgraw hill, new york. pingali, p.(1997).from subsistence to commercial production system: the transformation of asian agriculture. american journal of agricultural economics, 79(2):628-634 randolph, t.f.(1992).the impact of agricultural commercialization on child nutrition. a case study of smallholder household in malawi. been ph.d dissertation submitted to cornell university, ithaca, new york, usa. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 22 sadiq, m s., singh, i.p., grema, i.j., usman, b.i. and yusuf, a.o.(2017).modelling profit efficiency of small scale groundnut farms in niger state, nigeria: stochastic profit frontier approach. journal of agriculture and agricultural technology, vol. 7(1):1423 sadiq, m.s., singh, i.p., isah, m.a., greima, i.j. and umar, s.m.(2017b).strategy of minimizing the cost of cultivation vis-à-vis boosting farm income of small-holder maize farmers in niger state of nigeria using efficiency measurement system (ems). indian journal of economics and development, 17(2a):722-728 sadiq, m.s., singh, i.p., singh, n.k. and yakubu, g.m.(2018).improving economic efficiency and tfp of lowland paddy rice farmers in kwara state of nigeria. journal of agricultural sciences, 13(2):110129 timmer, c.p.(1997).farmers and markets: the political economy of new paradigms. american journal of agricultural economics, 79(2):621-627. tobin, j.(1958).estimation relationship for limited dependent variables. econometrica, 26:24-36 von braun, j.(1995).agricultural commercialization: impacts on income and nutrition and implication for policy. food policy, 20(3):187-202 wallis, w.a.(1939).the correlation ratio for ranked data. journal of the american statistical association, 3(207):533-538 appendices table 1a: socio-economic profile of the sugarcane farmers variables frequency percentage variables frequency percentage age marginal 7 6.7 20-29 5 4.8 small 53 50.5 30-39 24 22.9 medium 42 40.0 40-49 44 41.9 large 3 2.9 50-59 28 26.7 total 105 100 [𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟏∗∗∗]  60 4 3.8 seed variety total 105 (𝟒𝟒. 𝟎𝟗 ± 𝟖. 𝟔) 100 [𝟓𝟑. 𝟗𝟏∗∗∗] local variety 105 100 household size improved variety 4-6 2 1.9 total 105 100 7-9 13 12.4 extension contact  10 90 85.7 yes 14 13.3 total 105 (𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟑 ± 𝟒. 𝟒𝟖) 100 [𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟑𝟕∗∗∗] no 91 86.7 experience total 105 100 [𝟓𝟔. 𝟒𝟔∗∗∗]  3 28 26.7 social participation 4-6 41 39.0 yes 9 8.6 7-9 26 24.8 no 96 91.4  10 10 9.5 total 105 100 [𝟕𝟐. 𝟎𝟖∗∗∗] total 105 (𝟓. 𝟓𝟖 ± 𝟑. 𝟑𝟗) 100 [𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟒∗∗∗] credit access gender yes 9 8.6 male 105 100 no 96 91.4 female total 105 100 [𝟕𝟐. 𝟎𝟖∗∗∗] total 105 100 [𝟓𝟏. 𝟗𝟕∗∗∗] non-farm activity marital status yes 12 11.4 www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 23 married 100 4.8 no 93 88.6 single 5 95.2 total 105 100 [𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟖∗∗∗] total 105 100 [𝟖𝟓. 𝟗𝟓∗∗∗] sickness education 1-2 38 36.2 illiterate 21 20.0 3-4 60 57.1 quranic 14 13.3  5 7 6.7 primary 7 6.7 total 105 100 [𝟒𝟎. 𝟓𝟏∗∗∗] 36 34.3 25.7 security threat tertiary 36 34.3 yes 7 6.7 total 105 100 [𝟐𝟒. 𝟎𝟗∗∗∗] no 98 93.3 farm size total 105 100 [𝟕𝟖. 𝟖𝟔∗∗∗] source: field survey, 2018 note: *** ns; are 1% risk level and non-significant; while values in ( ); [ ] are mean and standard error; and, chi 2 respectively table 4: constraints affecting sugarcane farmers in the studied area constraints mean social & biological constraint institutional constraint capital constraint market constraint communal/herdsmen conflict 2.63 (4.88) 0.716 weak co-operative support 3.26 (6.78) 0.658 land tenure problem 3.68 (7.79) 0.607 pest and diseases 3.35 (6.49) 0.525 inadequate credit facility 3.30 (6.22) 0.523 price fluctuation 3.10 (6.13) 0.747 poor implantation of govt. policy 2.74 (5.45) 0.698 inadequate extension services 3.76 (8.26) 0.550 poor road network 4.33 (8.65) 0.801 high transportation cost 3.37 (6.60) 0.567 high cost of hired labour 3.67 (7.60) 0.482 high cost of agro-input 3.86 (8.28) 0.476 poor output market 3.48 (6.86) 0.867 kendall’s coefficient (kcc) 0.101 kcc chi 2 (𝝌2 ) 126.83*** friedman’s chi 2 (𝝌2 ) 126.83*** eigen-value 3.526 1.375 1.214 1.123 % of variance 27.123 10.580 9.338 8.641 cronbach’s alpha 0.666 0.658 0.675 kaiser-meyer-olkin test 0.712 bartlett’s test of sphericity (𝝌2 ) 263.637*** source: field survey, 2018 value in parenthesis is mean rank www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 24 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 delving into blood transfusions data through data mining: a study of maizbhandari shah emdadia blood donors group to select volunteer blood donors efficiently syed irfanul hoque managing trustee of darul irfan research institute (diri) and nayeb sajjadah nasheen of maizbhandar darbar sharif, fatikchari, chattogram, bangladesh e-mail: tasauf.darulirfan@gmail.com md. minhazul abedin student of department of computer science and telecommunication engineering, noakhali science and technology university, bangladesh associate member of diri, chattogram, bangladesh e-mail: tasauf.darulirfan@gmail.com mohammad sohel chowdhury student of department of computer science and telecommunication engineering, noakhali science and technology university, bangladesh associate member of diri, chattogram, bangladesh e-mail: tasauf.darulirfan@gmail.com abstract the demand for blood transfusion is rising gradually. therefore, volunteer blood donors are needed to save the lives of patients. there are lot of volunteer donors in every society. but, the main problem people face is finding such donors at the right time. to locate potential blood donors, we collected data from the maizbhandari shah emdadia blood donors’ group, which consists of 700 active volunteer blood donors. this study aims to choose potential volunteer donors efficiently at the emergency time from the maizbhandari shah emdadia blood donors’ group based on their past data. we have developed two models, namely descriptive and predictive models, using data mining techniques. the descriptive model analyzes data patterns and explores the donors’ behaviour. a data mining clustering algorithm was used to develop the descriptive model. the underlying factors of donors' intention to donate blood were identified and evaluated using this descriptive model. these factors were then utilized to develop the predictive model, which in turn assists to predict whether a donor will donate blood or not during an emergency. the findings of these two models will assist the clinical experts in locating potential volunteer blood donors within the shortest period and thus save valuable lives. keywords: data mining, maizbhandar blood donation, clustering, classification, prediction model. introduction blood donation is the best goodwill of a person. it plays a significant role in saving lives. every day, we see a massive demand for blood all across the world. the need for blood is increasing as a result of https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 2 surgical treatment for various diseases (gulinac, 2020; serteva, 2019), accidents, delivery cases, kidney diseases (velikova et al., 2018), thalassemia, anemia, and extreme health issues such as organ transplants, leukemia, and bone marrow cancer. all of these urgent scenarios result in sudden high blood loss, necessitating an emergency blood supply, which if not provided can result in death. each year, 118.4 million units of blood are collected worldwide, according to the world health organization (who). nearly half of them are gathered in high-income countries. blood donation rates in high-income countries, upper-middle-income countries, lower-middle-income countries, and lowincome countries are 31.5, 15.9, 6.8, and 5.0 donations per 1000 people, respectively. especially, southeast asia faces significant difficulties in the shortage of blood. (“blood safety and availability,” 2020) there are three types of blood donors: volunteer, family/friends of the patient, and paid donors. according to the who, 79 countries get over 90% of their blood supply from unpaid volunteers. over half of the blood supply in 56 countries comes from family/replacement or paid donors (“blood safety and availability,” 2020). these findings show that many high-income countries meet their blood demand through volunteer donors. since there is a shortage of blood in developing countries (world health organization, 2010), volunteer blood donation is the best option to reduce this shortage. again, bangladesh, one of the developing countries, receives just 31% of its blood from volunteers. this figure is quite low when compared to other south-east asian countries like thailand, india, and sri lanka, where the figure can reach as high as 95 percent (“bangladesh is still to meet the demand of safe blood supply,” 2017). to increase volunteer donors, the bangladesh government set a target to guarantee 100% blood collection through voluntary donations by 2022 (al-masum molla, 2017). hence, there are many public or private organizations working together to reduce the shortage of blood. hazrat maulana shah sufi syed emdadul hoque maizbhandari (m.j.a) formed one of the organizations, the "maizbhandari shah emdadia blood donors’ group," to serve humanity by donating blood in particular and required situations. the members of this organization encourage and organize themselves and their siblings or relatives in various professions to prepare and maintain a list of blood donors, including blood group identification, address, and mobile number, which is working as a data centre. later, blood recipients can easily collect blood by collecting information about blood donors from the data centre. problem statement generally, there is a shortage of blood in bangladesh. according to the directorate general of health services (dghs), bangladesh requires 1-1.2 million bags of blood each year. however, in 2018, 7,73,383 bags of blood were donated (tithila, 2019). to reduce this shortage voluntary blood donation may be the best option. lately, there is significant increase of 2.37 million voluntary unpaid donors from 2013 to 2018 across south-east asia (“blood safety and availability,” 2020). although the number of donors is increasing, there is still a problem finding willing donors at the emergency time in the shortest period. the study of sahariar hasan jiisun et al. (2019) showed that about 48% of blood seekers in bangladesh require 19-24 hours to manage each bag of blood. this time gap can cause the loss of life of a patient. an efficient selection of the most probable donors from a group of donors is required to reduce this time gap. therefore, we have decided to conduct our research on the maizbhandari shah emdadia blood donors’ group’s data to solve this issue. objectives the objectives are as follows:  to efficiently select potential volunteer blood donors from a group when patients require blood in emergency time.  to minimize the time gap between demand and supply of blood donation. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 3 research questions this paper has tried to answer the following questions:  how to select the most probable volunteer donor at the emergency time from a group?  how to minimize the time gap between demand and supply of blood donation? literature review data mining in blood donation data mining is a method of extracting information from huge volumes of data. the goal of data mining is to find out valuable and relevant information. data mining is utilized in a variety of applications, including financial analysis (lakshmi & kumar, 2018), education, ai systems (adetayo olaniyi & olufunto adedotun, 2018), and medical healthcare. because of developments in medical informatics and information technology, the blood donor information system has rapidly risen in size. the growing demand for high-quality blood donations requires maximizing the potential of stored data, not just clinical data, to enhance blood donor behavior. the blood donation sector could benefit significantly from data mining. it can be a useful tool for examining data collected by blood donation organizations via their information systems. (bhardwaj, 2012). agarwal et al. (2019) suggested a blood transfusion system using various data mining algorithms such as random forest, decision tree, and logistic regression. they found that the random forest algorithm shows the highest efficiency in predicting whether a person will donate blood or not, based on the past data of donation. hence, they used the random forest algorithm to develop a model for predicting the nature of a donor. kirci et al. (2020) tried to estimate if a possible donor will provide blood donation again using logistic regression and naive bayes data mining algorithms. they compared these two algorithms and found that the logistic regression outperformed the naive bayes classifier. alkahtani et al. (2019) had been collected data over two years (2017-2018) from the saudi blood bank. they applied random forest, support vector classifier (svc), and logistic regression algorithms on the collected data for classifying blood donors as a return and non-return donors. in addition, a time series analysis was applied to explore the seasonal variations in blood donation. the result showed that the blood donation rate drops in june and september due to two religious periods: fasting and hajj. another study (alajrami, 2019) was conducted for predicting whether a person is going to donate blood or not using an artificial neural network. they got the highest prediction accuracy (99.31%) than previous studies in the uci machine learning repository (yeh et al., 2009) blood transfusion dataset. ashoori et al. (2013) used the clustering method to identify blood donors’ behaviour. after analyzing donors’ behaviour they found that most donors were men and had o positive blood group. web-based blood donation system recently, web-based blood donation management systems have become very popular. a web-based blood donation management system allows anyone who wants to donate blood to help others in need. it also allows hospitals to keep track of and preserve information for anyone who wants to contact them and provides a centralized blood bank database (hashim, 2014). fahad et al. (2019) developed a web application for android mobiles. this application links all the donors and provides a list of blood banks in any particular area. in emergency blood needs, patients can rapidly search for blood banks or hospitals that match a specific or related blood group and contact them via the app. dutta et al. (2018) designed an integrated blood donation camp management system to manage end to end blood management process. in this paper, a particular emphasis is placed on the localized blood donation campaign management, in which campaign activities are arranged according to https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 4 the donor's preferences for time, place, date, etc. the number of donors expected for a scheduled campaign can be estimated using donor registration data. materials and methods figure 1. the proposed method this study has followed the data mining standard approach. the overall process is shown in figure 1. this section describes them individually. data collection blood donors' data was legally collected from a small voluntary organization named “maizbhandari shah emdadia blood donors’ group”. the dataset included 8 independent variables such as id, people of different ages, blood types, genders, last donation date, first donation date, donation count, and city in bangladesh. by analyzing all independent variables, the dataset includes one dependent variable class to find the most probable donor. if a person will donate blood, then he/she will be classified as 1 otherwise 0. table 1 shows the dataset attribute descriptions. maizbhandari shah emdadia blood donors’ group consists of 700 voluntary blood donors. members of this group are typically residents of bangladesh's chattogram city and surrounding areas. the organization has 700 donors' phone numbers and addresses in its database. we contacted 100 donors for this study through physically, phone calls, or social media and gathered data based on the independent variables listed in table 1. so, the sample size is 100 people, while the population is 700. table 1. attributes of the collected dataset variable type independent/ dependent description id numeric independent donor id blood type categorical independent the blood type: a+, a-, b+, b , ab+, ab-, o+, o gender categorical independent male(m), female(f) age numeric independent donor age https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 5 donation count numeric independent number of donations first donation date date independent date of the first donation last donation date date independent date of the last donation city categorical independent donor present address class binary dependent 1, if a person will donate blood else 0 data preprocessing feature engineering and, data normalization techniques are used in data preprocessing. feature engineering takes the original data and adds new attributes that can help modeling. in our dataset, we included two new attributes: 'difference between first and last blood donation dates' and 'days since the last donation.' the city variable has been omitted because all of the samples were taken from chattogram inhabitants. we obtained the following variables as a result of feature engineering: id, blood type, gender, age, donation count, class, and  difference between first and last blood donation dates: the time interval between a donor's first and last blood donation.  days since the last donation: the time interval between the current date and the donor's last blood donation. the current date refers to the period during which the research is ongoing. descriptive model the descriptive model investigates the behavior of donors by analyzing data patterns. we used descriptive statistics and the two-step clustering method to develop the descriptive model. the two-step clustering approach is divided into two steps, the first of which is the pre-clustering of all records. the pre-clusters are sequentially combined in the second stage using a hierarchical agglomerative cluster technique. this approach automatically selects the number of clusters. the whole process was analyzed via software ibm spss statistics for windows, version 25.0. predictive model the predictive model predicts whether a donor will donate blood or not during an emergency time by analyzing their past data. this study analyzed the independent variables of previously collected data and divided the blood donors into two categories, most likely (1) and unlikely (0). after that, a training set (80%) and a testing set (the remaining 20%) were created from the gathered data. the data patterns were taught to the model using the training set. the testing set was used for model evaluation. logistic regression, j48 decision tree, and random forest data mining algorithms are utilized to construct three predictive models. the best prediction model is then determined by comparing these models. all of these methods have been carried out with the tool weka, version 3.8 (hall, 2009). results this section illustrates the outcomes of the two models that were developed in this research. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 6 findings of the descriptive model figure 2. the percentage of donors’ blood group descriptive statistics analysis: the highest percentage of blood groups in our samples is o +ve, as shown in figure 2. all the positive blood groups are most common. negative blood groups are rare, especially ab-ve. that blood group donor was not found in our samples. the age of blood donors ranges from 18 to 56 years old in our dataset. donors are an average of 29.22 years old. this explores the fact that the vast majority of donors in our samples are young, making them the most probable donors. the minimum and maximum donation amounts are 0 and 50, respectively. 6.79 is the average number of donations. this shows that the majority of donors in our samples are repetitive, implying that they are the most probable donors. figure 3 shows the donation intervals of blood donors. the left one in figure 3 shows the difference in years between the last and first donation, with the x-axis scaled to years from days. the majority of donors, as seen on the left histogram, are between the ages of 0 and 5. 4.2 years is the average. this proves that our dataset has experienced donors who have been donating blood for an average of 4.2 years. the difference between the current date and the last donation is shown in figure 3's right histogram. the average is 1.2 years in this scenario. this indicates that the vast majority of the donors have given blood recently, i.e. they are the most recent donors. figure 3. blood donors’ time interval of donation: (a) the time interval between a donor's first and last blood donation (left). (b) the time interval between the current date and the donor's last blood donation (right). https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 7 cluster analysis: as previously stated, we employed a two-step clustering algorithm to group the samples in order to get diverse behaviour donors based on the three independent variables: donor’s age, gender, and number of donations. the results of the clustering algorithm reveal that the study dataset is segmented into three clusters:  cluster 1 has 30 samples of blood donors with an average age of 38.33 years, an average blood donation of 13.87, and all of them are men. this suggests that donors in cluster 1 have the most experience and are the most repeated.  cluster 2 has 64 samples of blood donors with an average age of 25.25 years, an average blood donation of 3.91, and all of them are men. this investigates the fact that donors in cluster 2 have less experience and are less repeated than cluster 1.  cluster 3 contains six blood donors, all of them are women and have an average age of 26 years and a blood donation of 2.17. the fact that donors in cluster 3 have the least experience and are the least repeated than clusters 1 and 2 is investigated. after analyzing three clusters, it becomes evident that men donate significantly more blood than women. hence, men are most probable to blood donation. figure 4 depicts cluster results, with clusters 1, 2, and 3 labeled as most experienced and most repeated, less experienced and less repeated, and least experienced and least repeated donors, respectively. figure 4. cluster analysis of blood donors findings of the predictive model after evaluating the descriptive model's findings, we classified the samples into donors with the highest probability of blood donation and donors with no possibility of blood donation using the following rules:  if the number of donations of any donor is less than two then he or she was not recognized as a possible blood donor.  if the value of the variable 'days since last donation' is fewer than 56 days, he or she was not identified as a possible blood donor. since a donor has to wait at least 56 days for donations of whole blood (“eligibility requirements,” n.d.). https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 8  if a donor's time since their last donation exceeds five years, he or she was not identified as a possible blood donor. table 2. evaluation results of predictive models apart from these three criteria, the remainder were chosen as the most probable blood donors. according to these rules, we found that out of 100 samples there were 73 individuals that were most likely to donate blood and that there were 27 who were unlikely. these samples were then distributed as 80% train set and 20% test set. with this train data, three models were trained with three data mining algorithms to categorize the donor by looking at its characteristics. after training, the performance of the models is checked with 20% unseen data or test data. it was checked whether the models will be able to accurately classify new blood donors into the most likely or unlikely donors. table 2 shows the results. the prediction performance of the models was examined through precision, recall, f1 score, accuracy, and matthews correlation coefficient (mcc) metrics. in table 2 we can see that the random forest model gives us 100% accurate results, i.e. it can predict 100% accurately whether a donor will donate blood or not. the reason for giving 100% correct results is that our sample size is small. if the sample size is larger, the accuracy will be further reduced. since the random forest model achieves 100% accuracy across all four metrics, we choose random forest to be our preferred predictive model from the above three models. discussion when a patient needs emergency blood, finding the right blood donor in a short amount of time might be difficult. using data mining approaches, this research article demonstrates how to locate the most potential blood donors from a group in a short amount of time. in this study, we found that men donate significantly more blood than women. blood donation rates are substantially greater among experienced blood donors or those who have donated blood for a long time. so, we have developed a predictive model by identifying experienced and repeated blood donors. this model can automatically predict the most potential blood donors from a blood donor group in less time which would take more time to do manually. this helps to minimize the time required to find the right donor. by contacting these potential blood donors, the patient can get his/her desired blood in a shorter period of time, and thus the time gap between blood demand and supply is also minimized. however, we have faced several limitations while doing this research. the biggest problem is the lack of data. we couldn't reach the number of donors that we intended to contact. the major obstacle to data collection is time and budget. another problem is that during the covid-19 pandemic the possible blood donors may not be available at the emergency time due to lockdown. this case can also happen in terms of any natural calamities. performance metric random forest j48 decision tree logistic regression precision 100% 96% 85% recall 100% 95% 85% f1 score 100% 95% 85% accuracy 100% 95% 85% mcc 100% 89% 63% https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 9 the following actions can be recommended to improve bangladesh's or other developing countries' present blood donation scenario:  encourage individuals to donate blood, particularly women, through social awareness programs, seminars, blood donation campaigns, and social media. every year, the maizbhandari shah emdadia blood donors’ group organizes a number of blood donation campaigns and social awareness activities to achieve this goal.  collect and maintain a large database of blood donors and seekers.  create a web-based blood donation application that incorporates data mining, machine learning, and artificial intelligence technology for effective data management. references adetayo olaniyi, a., & olufunto adedotun, k. 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(2020, june). analyzing blood donation probabilities and number of possible donors. 2020 international congress on human-computer interaction, optimization and robotic applications (hora), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/hora49412.2020.9152872 lakshmi, b. v., & kumar, b. r. (2018). leveraging technologies to redefine business: technology perspective. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 1(3), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v1i3.187 sahariar hasan jiisun, m., akter rupa, r., hussain chowdhury, m., mushrofa, h., & hoque, m. r. (2019). blood donation systems in bangladesh: problems and remedy. international journal of business and management, 14(8), 145. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v14n8p145 serteva, d., poryazova, e., & velikova, t. (2019). endometriosis locations and coexistence with other uterine conditions in a bulgarian sample of patients. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 5(2), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v5i2.255 tithila, k. k. (2019, june 14). donate blood, save life. retrieved june 18, 2021, from https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/event/2019/06/15/donate-blood-save-life velikova, t., velikov, t., & mihailov, g. (2018). higher serum levels of stromelisyn 2 (mmp10) but not matrilysin (mmp7) in patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease on chroniodialysis. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 4(1), 17–21. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v4i1.196 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 10, no. 1; 2021 11 world health organization. (2010). towards 100% voluntary blood donation: a global framework for action. yeh, i. c., yang, k. j., & ting, t. m. (2009). knowledge discovery on rfm model using bernoulli sequence. expert systems with applications, 36(3), 5866–5871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2008.07.018 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 significance of road infrastructure on economic sustainability sidiq okwudili ben department of geography college of education ikere, ekiti, nigeria e-mail: sidiqoben@yahoo.com abstract this study buttressed on the theories explaining the significance of road infrastructure on economic sustainability. road infrastructure is essential for banishing hunger, alleviating poverty, and improving the quality of human life. road transport is a means of transport that offers door-to-door transport which is suitable for the delivery of finished goods to consumers. road infrastructure has the potentials of transforming subsistence farming into a commercial and dynamic farming system which unlock the potentials embedded in rural areas. understanding the conditions in which more or new road infrastructure does indeed foster economic growth is crucial for efficient management of road infrastructural project. neoclassical growth theory, endogenous growth theory, growth pole, and growth centre theory were discussed. this paper concludes that public investment should not be constrained by accounting methods that impede a focus on economic returns, and road pricing strategy should be adopted in nigeria because of its benefits of spreading demand for road transport, minimizing congestion and overcrowding, improving reliability and delivering benefits to the wider economy. keywords: road, infrastructure, economy, sustainability. 1. introduction transport was derived from two latin words “trans” which mean across and “portare” which mean carry (adeniran, 2016). it is an act, process, or instance of moving people and goods through a means of conveyance from one location to another. it is also a system for carrying passengers, raw materials and goods from one place to another often through power driven machines. transportation modes are an essential component of transport systems since they are the means by which mobility is supported. mobility is often understood as short-term decisions of travel choices (papacostas and prevedouros, 2000) such as frequency of travel for various purposes, mode, and destination, routes, cost and time of trips. mobility should also be viewed as being related to long-term decisions such as shelter and job types of locations, vehicle ownership and its usage for accessing the city. mobility or accessing the city is crucial for everyone in the city. it is more crucial for poor people as it is linked with the possibilities of escaping poverty and deprivation. geographers consider a wide range of modes that may be grouped into three broad categories based on the medium they exploit: land, water and air. each mode has its own requirements and features, and is adapted to serve the specific demands of freight and passenger traffic. this study focused on road transport mode (rodrigue, claude, and brian, 2006). in the same vein, road transport has become the dominant land transport system today. automobiles, buses and trucks require a road bed. such infrastructures are moderately expensive to provide, but there is a wide divergence of costs, from a gravel road to a multi-lane urban expressway. because vehicles have the means to climb moderate slopes, physical obstacles are less important than for some other land modes. most roads are provided as a public good by governments, while the vast majority of vehicles are owned privately. the capital costs, therefore, are shared, and do not fall as heavily on one source as is the case for other modes. all road transport modes have limited abilities to achieve scale economies. this is due to the size constraints imposed by governments and also by the technical and economic limits of the power sources. the importance of infrastructure in the development of any society cannot be overemphasized, this connotes the axiom of dr. rao who states that “the link between infrastructure and economic development is not a once and for all affair. it is a continuous process; and progress in development has to be preceded, accompanied, and followed by progress in infrastructure, if we are to fulfil our declared objectives of generating a self accelerating process of economic development.” copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 2 it is important to note that the need for greater road infrastructure investment is clear; equally important is the need to sustainably manage such investments. the nigerian government’s success in road infrastructure provision will be measured not by the quantum of funds invested, but on how road infrastructure contributes to the achievement of nigeria’s economic, social and environmental objectives. importantly, road infrastructure investment should be considered as a means to an end, not an end in itself; this is in line with transport as it has been established by transport economists that it is a means to an end, and not an end itself, hence it is said to be a derived demand.road infrastructure is a form of transport infrastructure; hence, it is a means to an end. as many forms of infrastructure can take, as diverse are its potential effects on economic growth. even for the same type of infrastructure e.g., a road, the economic effect may be very different depending on the setting. a new road infrastructure fully equipped with road fittings and installations may be very beneficial if it is located where it will be highly economical most especially when constructed in industrial and commercial areas, or if it removes a bottleneck, or it may be of little economic value in case it constitutes an unnecessary capacity expansion. as a result, more infrastructures may not necessarily help, while a lack of adequate infrastructure may constitute a barrier to economic growth. understanding under which conditions more or a new infrastructure does indeed foster economic growth is therefore an important issue. barro (1990) is of the view from a theoretical point that one of the main questions concerning the relationship between infrastructure and economic growth is whether infrastructure raises growth in a transitory way, as the inclusion of infrastructure in a neoclassical growth model would predict, or whether it spurs growth on a permanent basis in the spirit of the endogenous growth theory. again, this may depend on the specific circumstances and differ across infrastructure types transportation may primarily bring transitory benefits. challenges in infrastructure provision are not unique to a particular country. uncertainty and scarcity of available funds for road infrastructural investment, and competing priorities present challenges togovernments infrastructure planning and delivery. sustainability requires that future generations are not compromised by the investment decisions of current generations. managing the road infrastructure through appropriate pricing, funding and prioritisation frameworks is crucial to accrue benefits in developing key social and economic structure of the country. from empirical point of view, the analysis of the effect of road infrastructure on economic growth is characterized by a number of difficulties. above all, establishing causality between the road infrastructure in place and economic growth emerges as the major challenge. investments in road infrastructure may foster economic growth. at the same time, however, growth can also create demand for additional or new types of road infrastructure and render existing infrastructures and installations obsolete. due to this two-way interdependency between infrastructure provision and economic growth, econometric analyses of infrastructure investments may be subject to endogeneity biases. this study stressed on how to sustain road infrastructure projects in nigeria. 2. conceptual framework 2.1 transport system according to adeniran (2016), transport industry is a system that ensures successful movement of passengers, cargoes and mails from one point to another point through various modes such as air, water, road, rail, pipeline, and cable. the industry is not a homogenous body of its own but it is made up of different interacting sub-system working interrelated to ensure the performance of its objectives. each mode has its various sub-systems or components. the sub-systems are;  the way: this is the route where vehicle plies. it can be natural (for water way and air way) or artificial (for paved road ways, railway, and cable);  the vehicle: this is the carrying capacity for different transport modes such as motor car for road, aircraft for air, ship for water, pipe or tube for pipeline and each has different sizes and classes;  the terminal: this is a point where there is an access to specialized way. it is used for interchange, fragmentation and consolidation of traffic for onward movement. examples are bus-stop, airport, seaport, depot, railway and station); and  the motive power: this is the propeller that moves the entire vehicle e.g. the engine, tires, fuel and others. for an effective road transport system, it must comprise the road way which includes infrastructures and fittings, the motor vehicle which is the carrying capacity on the road, the bus terminal, and the motive power for vehicle. apart from the road infrastructure, there is need for management of road transport operations. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 3 2.2 effects of road transport investment on economic development road transport investment here mainly refers to the road infrastructure investment. the construction and operation of road infrastructure has an important impact on economic development. many economists have been engaged in this field, and have pointed out that there are two types of effects of road transport infrastructure on economic development:  forward-induced effects of road construction on economic growth and  road construction follow-up ripple effects on economic growth. 2.2.1 forward-induced effects of road construction on economic growth the effect of economic activity affecting economic output of forward-induced effects is seen in building road transport infrastructure to boosts economic development. road construction projects affect economic development. road transport infrastructure must produce demand of factors of production, thereby increasing the investment of factor markets, and prosperity factor market will stimulate the consumer market investment, so construction of road transport infrastructure will stimulate much investment. 2.2.2 road construction follow-up ripple effects on economic growth the road construction has follow-up ripple effects on economic growth is the direct and indirect contributions of road transport infrastructure built on economic development once in operation. the direct contributions include lowering transportation costs, providing door-to-door services, improving accessibility and safety. according to peng (2012), new infrastructure put into operation is able to alleviate the transport pressure to reduce the crowded road ways, transportation time and transportation costs. new transport modes make the existing transportation network more dense and smooth, thereby increasing the accessibility and safety, resulting to high relative speed of vehicles, and flexibility of route choice. the indirect contributions of operational road way infrastructure are improved investment environments, optimized industrial structure, accelerated urbanization process and formation of economic traffic belt. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 4 according to peng (2012), the role of transportation to promote economic growth is mainly reflected in two aspects as detailed below: a. investment multiplier effect and associated industry effect transport infrastructure investment would produce new elements of demand, pulling related industrial development to promote economic growth. b. direct economic effect after the infrastructure is built and put into operation, it could alleviate the pressure of transport, reduce congestion, save transport time, reduce transportation costs and increase transportation income. blum (1982), biehl (1986), and aschauer (1989) pointed out the level of infrastructure could help explain the productivity growth rate difference between countries. aschauer (1990) made a comparison between japan and the united states. transport infrastructure investment in japan accounts for 5.1% of the total investment in the facilities of public investment, resulting in 3.1% productivity growth per year; while in the united states, only 0.3% of public facilities investment is used in transport infrastructure with an average annual 0.6% productivity growth. emmanuel (1995) indicated the crop yielded 0.26% more due to the increase in the density of paved roads and rural road network in some developing countries. 3. theoretical framework 3.1 theories of economic development this section reviews two mainstream theories in economic development, namely, neoclassical growth theory and endogenous growth theory. the implications of these theories for economic development, impact of road transport infrastructure on the industrial structure, the connection of transport to the distribution of productive forces, the strength of transport infrastructure on economic ties, and the importance of transportation on urbanization process were also discussed. 3.1.1 neoclassical growth theory neoclassical theory, rooted in neoclassical equilibrium economics, explains growth in terms of the availability and the use of productive factor inputs. the theory was initially developed by solow (1956) and it argues that development proceeds as firms and households make increasingly more efficient use of their labour, capital and natural resources. neoclassical theory assumes diminishing returns to investment. it argues that provided there are no major barriers to the operation of market forces, in an integrated national space economy there are strong pressures leading to the general convergence of incomes over time. disparities are unlikely to be persistent, since such inequalities will set in motion self correcting movements in prices, wages, capital, and labour, which impart a strong tendency toward convergence. two of the earliest and most influential statements of copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 5 this view are borts and stein's (1964) classic study of development in the united states (us) and williamson's (1965) analysis of the evolution of income differences in advanced industrial countries. over the past decade, empirical work by economists on cross-national and cross-convergence has proliferated. barro and martin (1992; 1995) on us states, the japanese prefectures, the european regions and canada provinces are probably the most cited ones. they tested for absolute convergence of per capita incomes across those regions and found the speed at which regions of different countries converge to their respective national means is about 2 percent per annum. although it showed evidence of long-term convergence, the slow rate is much less than would be expected from a standard neoclassical view of the growth process (martin and sunley, 1998). moreover, another problem is that they assumed the underlying convergence-generating process is identical across space, when in reality it is likely that the rate of convergence will vary from region to region (quah, 1993; canova and marcet, 1995). furthermore, the approach fails to take into account how different regions relate to one another, whereas the growth trend of a region may actually depend crucially on the growth trajectories of others (quah, 1993). the study by armstrong (1995) and quah (1996) demonstrated that spill over effects of labour, capital, technology and other influences on growth are geographically localised. all these cast doubts on the validity of neoclassical growth theory and its assumption of diminishing return to investment is questioned. 3.1.2 endogenous growth theory there is a progressive dissatisfaction with neoclassical growth theory, this give rise to endogenous growth theory. instead of assuming factors, in particular technological change and human capital, as exogenous by neoclassical growth theory, endogenous growth theory treats them as endogenous to the growth process (martin and sunley, 1998). endogenous growth theory has its origin in cumulative causation theories linked to weber (1909), isard (1956), myrdal (1957) and hirschman (1958). there are several main types of endogenous growth theory (martin and sunley, 1998). one focuses on the returns to capital investment, another on learning-by-doing and the improvements in knowledge, skills, and human capital that workers accrue as a result of being employed. another variant is called schumpeterian and is based on the temporary monopoly rents which companies gain from innovations, which in turn drive the growth process. in all three cases some of the increasing returns gendered in human capital and through innovations may be geographically defined (sunley, 2000). according to endogenous growth theory, there are no necessary reasons why growth and incomes should converge, even over the long run (martin and sunley, 1998). to the contrary, divergence is more likely. the models of growth advanced by writers such as perroux (1950), myrdal (1957), and kaldor (1970) predict that incomes will tend to diverge, because market forces, if left to their own devices, are spatially dis-equilibrating. economies of scale and agglomeration lead to the cumulative concentration of capital, labour, and output in certain regions at the expense of others. development is highly path dependent; temporary conditions and shocks, as well as historical “accidents”, may have permanent effects as pattern of specialisation, of economic success or economic backwardness, become “locked in” through external and self reinforcing effects. various countervailing forces (congestion diseconomies, “trickle-down” effects, and governmental fiscal transfers) may keep divergence in check, but are considered unlikely to be sufficient to promote convergence (martin and sunley, 1998). economies of agglomeration play an important role in the process of cumulative causation. the advantages of agglomeration are summarised by amin (2000) as follows.  it reduces transaction and transport costs.  there are economies deriving from specialisation, both by the locality in a given product, and by its firms in a particular task.  the specialisation of an area is more likely to continuously 'stimulate spin-off and new entrepreneurship. in their seminal book, dicken and lloyd (1990) argued that an important basis of agglomeration economies is the connections or linkages between economic activities within a relatively restricted geographic area. in the final analysis, any firm is but one part of a complex chain of production held together by direct or indirect linkages between a series of firms. through such linkages, external economies are transmitted to the individual production unit via its network of interconnections with other elements in a system. in addition, other economies may be derived by association. moreover, complementary or similar industries, by recruiting and training a labour force, for instance, provide a localised cluster of particular labour skills. these skill pools add to the attractiveness of such areas for particular specialised industries (dicken and lloyd, 1990). porter's (1990,1998) study of cluster moves the theory of economies of agglomeration one step forward. according to porter, cluster is defined as “geographic concentrations of interconnected companies, specialised suppliers, service providers, firms in related copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 6 industries, and associated institutions (for example, universities, standards agencies and trade associations) in particular fields that compete but also cooperate” (porter, 1998). rather than focusing on the need to build industries with linkageto many other industries, porter (1998) argued what is important is to encourage the development of fields with the strongest linkage to or spill over with each cluster. 3.2 implications of economic theories on economic development it is important for policy makers to adopt appropriate strategy based on their own circumstances. neoclassical theory suggests investing on infrastructure and this is the strategy that has been adopted by regions. but it appears that infrastructure investment is only a necessary but not sufficient condition for regions to achieve sustainable economic development. endogenous growth theory focuses on increasing returns and positive externalities. the major source of increasing returns comes from economies of agglomeration. the result of the operation of a circular and cumulative process of economic development is that the geographic pattern of development is uneven. such unevenness is structured in a particular manner into two major components: a dominant core and a subdominant periphery (dicken and lloyd, 1990). it is obvious that some economic activities exert a more powerful effect on development in an economic system than others. therefore, for the development of a periphery region, it is critical to find a growth pole, which consists of a cluster of expanding industries that are spatially concentrated and set off a chain reaction of minor expansions in the surrounding hinterland (haggett, 1975). policy makers should also bear in mind that industrial development is not synonymous with growth (markusen, 1985). as sheppard (2000) puts it in the search of increasing competitive advantages firms have more options and powers than regions. firms can relocate their activities and staff to a new place which suits their strategic purposes, while regions cannot move (sheppard, 2000). markusen (1985) also warned that incentives and enticements to firms in the form of free land, tax abatements, or capital subsidies may not be linked to job creation. these types of aid may increase the corporate mobility or accelerate their movement through the profit cycle, with adverse longer-term consequences for the economies. above all it suggests that aiding firms no longer guarantees aiding workers because boosting the profitability of a company is not necessarily linked to job creation in any particular sector, in any particular location. furthermore, regions on the one hand, endeavour to seek the propulsive sectors that could act as growth poles for the region. on the other hand, they need to remain vigilant about the potential harm that oligopolists could cause to the economy in the longer run. to qualify as a propulsive industry or firm, dicken and lloyd (1990) argued that there are four requirements.  the industry or firm should be relatively large if it is to generate sufficient direct and indirect effects.  it should be relatively fast-growing.  it should have a high linkage with other industries or firms in order for the effect of its growth to be transmitted.  it should be innovative. air transport might be an economic sector to fulfil this role. a development based on natural or human-made attractions offers the road transport sector comparative advantages over other economic sectors. as a derived demand and a means to an end, road transport attracts large income from demand outside the region but is still dependent on strong local linkages. moreover, the sector is largely combined with small, medium, and large sized enterprises with their roots in the local economy. the contributions of other sector are also crucial for the viability of road transport sector. hence, it has the ability to exert a propulsive force on economic growth. 3.3 growth pole and growth centre theory in the 1950s, french economist, f. peoux proposed a growth pole theory with the joint efforts of the french economist jr boudeville. the concept of the growth pole is extended to the significance of the geospatial city, town or other geographic units such as the first propulsion unit, and underdeveloped areas. the basic content of the growth pole theory are:  the development of one or several of the leading industrial sectors with economic and technological links with other economic production will be driven by the corresponding development of other sectors. that means the development will be often affected by other sectors compared with its own development.  the results of the above development for the region are production greater than their own needs. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 7  the growth pole extends to all directions in the surrounding area: the “polarization”, which is gathering process, is an increase of its very strong economic and technological strength and favourable conditions.  diffusion tends to be the dominant process of the growth pole theory. on one hand, the proliferation of material and energy output and space develops itself, so it grows pole scale, increasing strength; on the other hand, the formation of the new growth pole will promote the progress of diffusion. growth axis theory is a direct combination of transport and economic development. werner sombart, in the 1960’s, stressed that the construction of transportation routes will guide and promote the role of economic activity. the theory is that connecting the centre of the city's major transportation routes (rail, road) will form a new and favourable location, convenient movement of population, and reduce transportation costs, thereby reducing the cost of production. the new traffic arteries of industrial zones will attract labour, form the favourable investment environment, and gather the corresponding industry, resulting in new industrial zones and residential areas. an axis of transportation as a “spindle” will gradually form an industrial zone, and transportation routes act as the foundation of the formation of the axis of development. territorial control plans in the federal republic of germany, according to the growth axis theory, improved traffic conditions, adjusting the size of investment and population in one region to guide the construction of industrial zone. in the end, it achieved good results. 3.4 road transport infrastructure on the industrial structure industrial structure is the ratio between the primary industry, secondary industry and tertiary industry. optimization of industrial structure is to achieve a rational allocation of the proportional relationship between the different industries, and to seek the industry to upgrade. developed road transportation systems may eliminate the geographical limits between the different regions to accelerate the formation of common market in the region. the principle of survival of the fittest competition in the market economy can change the mode of economic growth, optimizing the structural relationship of different industries. as a result, the economy would develop to the direction of integration. the higher the degree of the economic integration is, the larger the scale of the industry will be formed, which would further enhance the transport routes to cover an area to promote the development of tertiary industry and high-tech industries (peng, 2012). 3.5 connection of transport infrastructure to the distribution of productive forces improvement of transportation conditions closely connects production with consumption, eliminating the contradiction between supply and demand. the place to produce could be farther away from the place to consume. the agricultural production base is generally located in thesuburbs; more processing plants are gathered in marginal urban areas. if there is no convenient and efficient transportation network to support, the raw materials and products would not be timely delivered to the destination. as a result, the production base of agricultural products and processing plants would not spread to the outskirts of the city (peng, 2012). 3.6 the strength of transport infrastructure on economic ties an important prerequisite for economic development is the rapid movement of personnel and resources. if the process flow of personnel and resources is restricted, the production, consumption, exchange and distribution of all parts will have been varying affected. transportation is the basic condition of movement of people and goods, and can promote the flow of resources. the other functions with regard to strengthening of economic ties are: 1. it achieve the optimal allocation of resources in the market competition mechanism, 2. it helps break the restrictions of economic development, 3. it helps to create access to resources in the broader social environment and gain a larger market space for development. a well developed transport networks are good opportunity for industrial scale and upgrading industrial structure (peng, 2012). 3.7 the importance of transportation on urbanization process urbanization is the process of socio-economic changes. it includes the scale of the urban population expanding, urban land extending to the suburbs, the number of cities increasing and urban social, economic, technological changes entering the villages in the process. from the definition of urbanization, the process requires a large number of staff and capital flows. the agricultural population converting to non-agricultural population means the agricultural population flows to the cities, while urban land extending to the suburbs shows that the capital injection in suburbs is needed to exploit available land. these processes are inseparable from transportation systems. without advanced transport networks backing up, the resources between copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 8 towns and cities centres could not be a rational flow, and resources could not be fully utilized, so the process of urbanization would be severely affected (peng, 2012). 4. conclusion and recommendation the following are areas to support the sustainability of road infrastructure projects in nigeria:  public investment should not be constrained by accounting methods which impede focus on economic returns. in this case, fiscal targets should be useful as a strategic management tool that will incorporate the value of public sector assets rather than concentrating solely on public sector debt. however, there is no distinction between extra borrowing to finance consumption and borrowing to finance investment in new roads or in repairing the condition of existing road infrastructures. the failure to use proper public accounting methods makes public investment such as road maintenance will look artificially expensive and hampers good decision-making. it is like judging a firm solely on the profit and loss account while ignoring the balance sheet (novella, miguel, and jennifer, 2013).  road pricing is an idea whose time has come, and it involves no major technological impediments to a system that would manage congestion, be fairer and improve incentives for building and maintenance. to the extent that there are political impediments with moving to comprehensive road pricing, these can be overcome in the longer term. a new regulator should administer the system following a regulatory asset base model, an approach that has proved to be successful in other areas of infrastructure. by creating dedicated revenue streams, this would help to provide a longterm solution to the problem of road investment, maintenance and finance. road pricing could be made attractive to the electorate by accompanying its introduction with a cut in fuel duty as a large component of the tax is currently rationalised by the need to limit congestion. in some circumstances, federal roads could be auctioned off and shadow tolls introduced in the section of the road network. road pricing strategy is potentially a more efficient solution to combating road congestion and could increase the productivity of transport users in terms of time and space utility. it is also a strategy to enforce policy on the articulated vehicles, trucks, and tankers to restrict their movement to a particular time and location, as they are not meant to ply all road networks. references adeniran, a. o. (2016), “impacts of the fourth industrial revolution on transportation in the developing nations”, international educational scientific research journal, 2(11), 56-60. amin, a. (2000), “industrial districts” in: sheppard, e. and barnes, t. j. companion to economic geography, ma: blackwell. barro, r. j., & sala, i., & martin, x. (1992), “regional growth and migration: a us and japan comparison”, journal of the japanese and international economies, december. barro, r. j., & sala, i., martin, x. (1995), “economic growth”, new york: mcgraw hill. baumol, w. j., panzar, j. c., & willig, r. d. (1982), “contestable markets and the theory of industrial structure”, new york: harcourt brace jovanovich. button, k., & stough, r. (2000), “air transport networks: theory and policy implications”, northampton,ma: edward, elgar. canova, f., & marcet, a. (1995), “the poor stay poor: non-convergence across countries and regions”, discussion paper 1265, london:centre for economic policy research. crafts, n. (2009), “transport infrastructure in investment: implications for growth and productivity”, oxford review of economic policy, 25(3): 327-343. dicken, p., & lloyd, p. (1990), “location in space: theoretical perspectives in economic geography” , new-york: harper collins publishers. hirschman, a. (1958), “the strategy of economic development”, new haven, ct: yale university press. isard,w. (1956), “location and space economy”, cambridge, ma: mit press. kaldor, n. (1970), “the case for regional policies”, scottish journal of political economy, nov. 337-348. martin, r. & sunley, p. (1998), “slow convergence? the new endogenous growth theory and regional development”, economic geography, 74(3), 201227. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 4; 2019 9 myrdal, g. (1957), “economic theory and under-developed regions”, london: duckworth. novella, b., miguel, c., & jennifer, k. (2013), “infrastructure and growth. centre for economic performance”, economic and social research council, pp. 1-45 papacostas, c. s., & prevedouros, p. d. (2000), “transportation engineering and planning” (3rd edition). [online]. prentice hall. perroux, f. (1950), “economic space: theory and applications”, quarterly journal of economics, 64, 89-104. porter, m. e. (1998), “on competition”, a harvard business review book, boston: ma: harvard business school. quah, d. (1993), “empirical cross section dynamics in economic growth”, european economic review, 37,427-443. quah, d. (1996), “regional convergence clusters across europe”, discussion paper 1286, london: centre fore economic policy research. rodrigue, j. p., claude, c., & brian, s. (2006), “geography of transport systems”, first published 2006 by routledge. sheppard, e. (2000), “competition in space and between places”, in: sheppard, e. and barnes, t. j. companion to economic geography, ma: blackwell. solow, r., m., (1956), “a contribution of the theory of economic growth”, quarterly journal of economics, 70, 65-94. sunley, p. (2000), “urban and regional growth”, in: sheppard, e. and barnes, t. j. companion to economic geography, ma: blackwell. weber, a. (1909), “theory of the location of industries, chicago”,: university of chicago press. williamson, j. g. (1965), “regional inequalities and the process of national development”, economic development and cultural change, 13,1-84. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 cultural dimensions of environmental problems: a critical overview of solid waste generation and management in nigeria ajani oludele albert senior lecturer department of sociology and anthropology obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria e-mail: deleajani@gmail.com fakunle sunday olutayo online instructor and phd student department of sociology and anthropology centre for distance learning obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria e-mail: sunnyfak@gmail.com abstract several studies have presented solid waste generation and management in urban centres as an engineering and technological concern. these studies neglected culture as the basic determinants of all happenings in human society; hence, the cultural facets of solid waste generation and management were rendered insignificant. as culture provides the context within which all human activities take place, culture was envisaged in this paper as a driving force for public perception, decision making and participation in solid waste generation and management in urban centres. therefore, this study adopted both meta-analysis and meta-synthesis to pinpoint and discuss some theoretical key cultural factors and social practices influencing municipal solid waste generation and management. it identified trends and relationship between findings from the available empirical and theoretical studies. this paper discovered in the available relevant literature that cultural factors such as customs, belief and attitude of the urbanites that promoted their preference for food packaged with non-biodegradable material and the ways they conducted social practices resulted in solid waste generation. lastly, methods and the cost of solid waste disposal, individualism and nonchalant attitude of people were found as the factors militating against proper management of solid wastes. keywords: social practices, solid waste, urbanites, belief, perception. introduction generating solid waste as an integral part of human survival and development is inevitable in human world (ohaka, ozor, & ohaka, 2013; longe, longe, & ukpebor, 2009; seadon, 2006). for instance, food is among the basic needs for the survival of human beings and among the major development that is evident in food production, in urban centres in particular, is packaged https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 2 products. aschemann and hamm (2010), noted that many urban dwellers have preference for and are familiar with the canned, frozen, and prepackaged foods in most western-style supermarkets that are common in larger cities. human desire for convenience and easy-toprepare foods sustains demand for production of fast-food and packaged products that in turn add to solid waste generated in the contemporary era (kozup, creyer, & burton, 2003). in human world, improper management of solid waste is among the reasons often cited for the prevalence of disease (ajibuah, 2013). environmental hazards and health risks associated with improper solid waste management are generated as indiscriminate disposal of refuse is unrestrained and this poses threats to public health in general (who, 2008). in solid waste generation, sizeable number of studies have significantly focused on environmental, economic, technical, institutional and political factors (bilitewski, 2008; anastas & zimmerman, 2003; cheremisinoff, 2003) while few in-depth studies were carried out to explore cultural factor (dessein et al., 2015; duxbury, cullen, & pascual, 2012). as culture provides the context or stage setting within which all human activities take place, the influence of culture is felt on a host of societal functions including generating of wastes (purcell & magette, 2010). the significance of culture suggests that many social activities and societal circumstances are linked to cultural considerations and thereby emphasizing the role of culture in solid waste generation. in many developing countries, the deplorable condition of urban waste management poses a challenge to public health with more adverse effect in low-income residential areas (mccoy, hall, & ridge, 2012). this effect has made environment the prime concern of scholars, non-governmental organisations (ngos) government and international organisations. the current growing interest in promoting public health at the grass-roots level lends credence to this study. however, the current study reviewed relevant literature to pinpoint and discuss some key cultural factors and social practices influencing urban solid waste generation and management in nigeria. theoretical framework this study explored theory of social constructionism of berger and thomas (1966) based on the capability of the tenets of the theory to present explanations on urban culture and as it influences solid waste generating and management through social activities of urban residents. social constructionism seeks to explain the influence of urban culture on waste generation and management in human society on the basis of social framing. the theory holds that process of solid waste generation in human world can be understood without recourse to the divine. this assumption indicates that a supreme being or nature is not responsible for solid waste generation in society but people generate waste as they endeavour to construct their social life. as the theory explains, people devise culture of generating solid waste through social construct; however, not always deliberately. social constructionism asserts that parts of urban culture that induce generating waste are socially constructed. discussion of relevant literature solid waste and society generating solid waste is among the human habits. literature has indicated that waste is a dynamic concept that has to do with time, location, perception and situation; hence, what is regarded as a waste might not be so in other instances (iyanda & olaniyi, 2014; blitstein & evans, 2006; lawal, 2004). for instance, suttibak and nitivattananon (2008) conceived waste as the item, material or substance that an individual consider useless at a given time and place. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 3 according to nadarajah and yamamoto (2007), wastes refer to “substances or objects, which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law”. the definition of waste depends on the type or category of waste under consideration. some of the dominant types of waste according to nkwoada, alisa, and duru (2013), include municipal waste, solid waste, hazardous waste and, electronic waste. nadarajah and yamamoto (2007) pinpointed the unwanted materials from domestic, commercial, institutional, community and industrial sources as the main form solid waste commonly found in urban centres of most developing countries. moreover, according to kofoworola (2007), differentiating between excreta and solid waste becomes difficult as solid waste mixes with excreta to the extent of being potentially hazardous to human health in many instances. also, tunmise (2014) presented solid waste as the materials produced by households or through commercial, institutional and industrial activities that are of no value the initial user while walling, walston, warren, warsley, and wilhelm (2004), succinctly viewed solid waste as any material that people decide to dispose of. these definition indicates that that solid waste includes all items that people no longer have any use for and people either intend to get rid of or have already discarded. culture and urban culture the convergence of scholars’ ideas of culture is that culture represents the total way of life that encompasses socially inherited characteristics of human societies, such as symbols, language, beliefs, customs, values and norms. adeboye (2001) and adogu et al. (2015), highlighted examples of cultural practices, these include a broad range of activities, such as religious and spiritual practices, art, medical treatment, diet and interpersonal relationships. hosagrahar (2009) defined cultural practices as “the norms in behaviour and standards that developed in ethnic groups and communities”. aderemi and falade (2012) noted that cultural practices cover many aspects of daily life and influence behaviours of individuals and entire societies. afangideh, joseph, and atu (2012) conceptualized urban culture as the specific pattern of attitudes of the people, customs, beliefs, and overall atmosphere and sense of connection of people in urban centres. moreover, hosagrahar (2009) posited urban culture as a set of beliefs, practices, customs and behaviours that are found to be common among the majority of people living in a certain urban centre. these definitions indicated that urban culture shape the way that urban dwellers live and influence their choices, ideologies and personalities in a certain way. park (1984) noted that different types of subcultures often emerge in the urban centres. also, flanagan (1993) added that within an urban centre, multiple cultures develop, interact, and tend to create social change. however, adeyemo and gboyesola (2013) maintained that a particular pattern of culture tends to dominate an urban centre and this dominant culture is evident in the temperament, overall vibe, mood and setting, openness of the people to change and the types of change that they are aiming for. hosagrahar (2015) therefore depicted urban culture as the distinctive social and cultural patterns that develop in urban centres including the physical structures and the social activities in the centres. urban culture, solid waste generation and management migration and solid waste generation according to kofoworola (2007), during the course of the twentieth century, industrialization and urbanization affected the lives of people in the world in general and the third world in particular. industrialization and urbanization depict a complicated process of change and this https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 4 process has unfolded in a variety of ways across different countries (hosagrahar, 2015). as the developing countries, including nigeria, began to adopt industrialization, they began to experience rapid transformation from agricultural societies to industrial societies (lawal, (2004). the change in these developing countries resulted in the migration of people from rural areas to urban areas with a hope to find jobs, have access to infrastructure and facilities that concentrate in the urban centres (who, 2008). therefore, leaving the rural area for urban centres in search for a greener pasture has become a part of culture of people in urban centres in nigeria (ajibuah & terdoo, 2013). according to aderemi and falade (2012), culture of leaving rural areas for urban centres significantly contributes to rapid increase in informal construction of low-income residential areas and slums in many urban centres as population of people is on the increase. these slums add to the challenge of urban solid waste management as the physical constraints of dense and low-income settlement, the inadequacies of other infrastructure services such as roads, drains and sanitary facilities often exacerbate waste management problems. modebe and ezeama (2011) added that the access of collection vehicles or push carts may be difficult where roads and footpaths are unpaved. as urbanization and economic development increases in many developing countries, certain culture has begun to emerge (kirchberg & kagan, 2013). afangideh et al. (2012) observed that many urban centres in the contemporary period experience a constantly evolving and dynamic urban culture as high levels of migration, expansion of city boundaries and changing cultural preferences continue to occur on daily basis. with the influx of migrants, urban centres in nigeria have grown to resemble many western urban centres (adeyemo & gboyesola, 2013). for instance, aderemi and falade (2012) reported lagos to be a massive, overcrowded city filled with traffic jams, movie theaters, department stores, restaurants, and supermarkets. they also, found that the influx of people into the urban area has put a strain on many services including waste management service. however, the increase in the number of people to the cities resulted in the increase in waste generation in cities. increase in urbanization generates corresponding increase in the amount of urban solid waste (jacobs and price, 2003). as migrants from rural area settle in urban centres, an increase in the number of urban residents is inevitable and this results in the increase product consumption and waste generation (babatunde et al., 2013). in recent decades, unprecedented urban growth the world experienced generated an increase in urban population and solid waste produced (bilitewski, 2008). iyanda and olaniyi (2014) identified household rubbish, sewage sludge, wastes from manufacturing activities, packaging items, discarded cars, old televisions, garden waste, old paint containers as among the common solid waste in urban centres in developing country. nadarajah and yamamoto (2007) identified the immediate effect of urbanization on waste management as increase in resources required to manage waste generated; mainly storage and disposal. moreover, increase in volume of solid waste generated and mismanaged poses a challenge to urban solid waste management with more adverse effect in low-income residential areas (mccoy et al., 2012). culture, gender and solid waste management cultural practices vary widely around the world and from one ethnic group to another. cultural practices cover many aspects of daily life and influence behaviors of individuals and entire societies (hosagrahar, 2009). in every society, participation in cultural practices involve both gender; however, a specific gender tends to be attached to or involved in a certain cultural https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 5 practice in a certain cultural context (hutchison, gottdiener, & ryan, 2014; ojua & omono, 2012). for instance, izugbara and umoh (2004) purposively employed more women (67 per cent) than men (33 per cent) in a study on solid waste management in lagos. the selection was because the study considered that women tended to be more actively involved in solid waste disposal and management than men according to the cultural context of the people. solid waste management solid waste management refers to the collection, transportation, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials (wagner & arnold, 2008). waste management practices differ from one society to another as there exist different levels of technology, income, nature and forms of the waste and as culture differs from culture (ibid.). urban solid waste management is considered as one of the environmental challenges confronting urban areas in developing countries (lawal, 2004) and nigeria is no exception. studies have disclosed that solid waste generated in urban centres is on the increase while social relations in terms of solid waste management are transformed (modebe & ezeama, 2011). for instance, in a comparative study, okalebo, opata, & mwasi (2014) noted that a conventional western-industrialized culture is assumed when applying recycling as a process of waste management while incineration and indiscriminate waste disposal methods characterize developing society. these assertions indicate that cultural differences and social activities form the basis of a potential limitation or driving force that influence public participation in waste generation and management. examining the role of the public in waste management, studies have suggested that method of community involvement varies from one community to another depending on socioeconomic, political and cultural contexts as communities are heterogeneous (sassen, 2000). also, in the literature, some key factors determining community participation in improving sustainable public health in general, and solid waste management in particular, are identified. the factors include health-related experience in the community, socio-economic status, cultural activities, awareness, education, training, social supports, public policy, access services and basic needs to improve public health, marginalization (femi & helen, 2013). moreover, these studies suggested that the role of the public and the challenges they are likely to confront in promoting public health services vary from one community to another as there are cultural differences. environmental sustainability has drawn the attention of scholars towards public involvement in waste generation and management, while adeboye (2001) emphasized the influence of cultural factors in the sustainability. urban culture and use of non-biodegradable material household in the nigerian rural areas largely utilize biodegradable materials, as many houses are made of wood and bamboo and topped with a roof made of fronds from raffia palms (onwuejeogu, 1975). moreover, onwuejeogu (op. cit.) described houses in some rural areas tend to be made of a bamboo frame held together with vines and mud and covered with banana leaves. he further explained that houses in rural areas are very airy to allow heat and the smoke from cooking fires to escape easily. on the other hand, literature has indicated that urban culture has influenced large aspects of social life of many urban dwellers. urban culture has prompted a large number of urban dwellers to largely utilize non-biodegradable materials (adeyemo & gboyesola, 2013). for instance, longe et al. (2009) reported that household in urban centres of nigeria mainly utilize non-biodegradable materials, as many houses are made of glass material, https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 6 aluminum and topped with a roof made of iron sheets. these materials in most instances unless recycled add to solid waste in urban centres. moreover, in traditional nigerian community in the past, drinks were consumed mainly in calabash and meals were served in leaves (onwuejeogu, 1975); therefore, solid wastes generated in through this form were not threats to community as they were largely biodegradable. according to izugbara and umoh (2004), while rural dwellers in nigeria tend to stick more with traditional foods and preparation techniques, eating habits of nigerian urban dwellers have been transformed in many ways. nigeria experiences rapid population growth as number of young and urbanized consumers is on the increase (kofoworola, 2007). increase in number of this class of people continues to be a major driving force for packaged foods over the period. ohaka et al. (2013) also noted that human daily activities in their cultural context give rise to a large variety of different wastes arising from different sources. as culture influences activities of people, aschemann and hamm (2010) opined that waste is related to the way people behave in the context of the consumer society. moreover, the reality that human needs are infinitudes and means of satisfying them are intricate lends credence to the complexity of nature solid waste generation (banga, 2013). also, as there is an increase in the formal working culture and women in such employment (aderemi & falade, 2012), the desire for convenience and easy-to-prepare foods sustains demand for as well as production of fast-food and packaged products which in turn adds to solid waste generated in the contemporary era. loureiro, mccluskey and mittelhammer (2001) and robinson, borzekowski, matheson and kraemer (2007) added that many urban dwellers have preference for and are familiar with the canned, frozen, and prepackaged foods found in most western-style supermarkets as foreign restaurants also are common in larger cities. calabash for drinking were replaced with glass and plastic bottles and canisters. therefore, many materials that are used to package the fast-food in urban centres are non-biodegradable and this is to preserve the content and quality of the food (adeyemo and gboyesola, 2013); however, the material add to the amount of solid waste generated in urban centres. studies on interaction have examined the effects of food package information and marketing on consumer beliefs, preferences, choices and some aspect of their culture (nkwoada et al., 2013; longe et al., 2009). these most of studies adopted an experimental design in which some element of package labeling is manipulated. these studies found that nutrition-related claims, food packages and product branding, promotions, and other product information are used to entice the individuals preference for canned and packaged food. also studies found that marketing activities, advertising and the shift in emphasis towards smaller packaging units also significantly influenced the preference of people some aspect of their culture (oyeniyi, 2011). however, adeboye (2001) maintained that supermarkets and restaurants often are too expensive for the average nigerian; thus, only the wealthy can afford to eat there like westerners. ayodeji (2012) opined that accessing package food and canned drinks has ceased to remain an exclusive preserve of the aristocratic class is no longer a status symbol or a prerogative of only the rich and affluent. moreover, aderemi and falade (2012) found that most urban nigerians tend to combine traditional cuisine with a little of western-style foods and conveniences. food in nigeria is traditionally eaten by hand (onwuejeogu, 1975). however, with the growing influence of western culture in urban centre, in particular, forks and spoons are becoming more common, even in remote villages. most of these utensils are recyclable; however, they add to the quantity of solid waste generated in urban centres. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 7 social practices and solid waste generation culture of most of the communities in nigeria embraces social practices, rituals and festive events that are habitual activities that structure the lives of communities and groups (ojua & omono, 2012). benjamin, emmanuel and gideon (2015) further explained that many social events in each community are shared by and relevant to majority of the members of the community. these social practices vary from small gatherings to large-scale social celebrations and commemorations. these scholars adduced the significance of these social practices as reaffirming the identity of those who practise them as a group or a society and, whether performed in public or private, are closely linked to important events. communities in nigeria are rich in social practices such as wedding ceremonies, family meetings, funerals, economic, religious and leisure activities (onwuejeogu, 1975). these social practices in most cases require serving meals. adeniran (2005) emphasized that food plays a central role in the social practices of virtually all ethnic groups in nigeria and most of the ceremonies in nigeria would not be complete without participants sharing in a meal. according to him, nigerian traditional culture considers inviting guests and not sharing a meal when they visit rude. he added that the culture considered inviting visitors to a special event such as a marriage, naming, graduation or a burial ceremony without serving meal undignified. generating solid wastes is common in the practice of food customs at ceremonial occasions, in particular, when non-biodegradable material is used as the food container. prior to the past century, communities in nigeria were mainly agrarian (egharevba, amengialue, edobor, & omoigberale, 2013); hence, solid wastes generated in the industries were largely biodegradable. however, with the advent of colonialism, industrialization and globalisation in the country, as petroleum production and industry began to boom, concentration on the new industries at the expense of agriculture took place and this compounded the challenges faced in solid waste generation and management (enete, 2010). existing literature have pinpointed the significance of public participation and awareness to enhance environmental quality. ayodeji (2012) posited that public awareness of the healthrelated challenges and communicable diseases resulted from improper management of solid waste enhanced participation of the public in environmental sanitation in particular and promoting public health in general. prevention is better than cure; hence, imbibing culture that enhances reduction of solid waste generation helps and serves as the beginning of solid waste management. several studies suggested reduction of the quantity of solid waste as a way to maintain environmental sanitation and solid waste management (ajibuah & terdoo, 2013; cheremisinoff, 2003; ohakwe, nnorom, & iwunze, 2011). moreover, babatunde et al. (2013) found that majority of the respondents under his study were interested in reduction of the quantity of the household solid waste generated. however, other studies found that majority of people in most developing countries were yet to devise ways to reduce the household solid waste generated (walling, et al. 2004). femi and helen (2013) also added that the cost involved in the process of reduction was found amounted to inability to actualize the quantity reduction. modebe and ezeama (2011) found that there are several approaches to waste management in southeastern nigeria. the study revealed that solid waste in study location is managed through economic instruments, landfills, incineration or open burning, recycling or reuse. moreover, on solid waste management in nigeria, literature indicated that burning of solid refuse as a method of solid waste disposal is cultural and common in the country (ulaeto, nnorom, alisa, & ewuzie, 2015; lawal, 2004). ajibuah & terdoo (2013) considered the https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 8 awareness of people on environmental implication of burning refuse, the study indicated that majority of residents in urban centres of southwestern nigeria were aware of the implication and yet cited burning as the cheapest means of solid waste management known and cultural to them. enhancing solid waste management in developing countries has prompted conducting studies on recycling process in nigeria. for instance, in a study on awareness of the people about recycling of some solid waste such as nylon, plastic, iron and aluminum materials, kofoworola (2007) found that majority of educated people in urban centres are aware of the recycling process while larger percentage of people with low level of education are not aware. the unfamiliarity of urbanites in nigeria with the process lends credence to assertion of tunmise (2014) that perpetual enlightenment on recycling process, in particular in urban areas, is low. moreover, kofoworola (op. cit) found that majority of residents in urban centres in nigeria were not practicing the recycling process in spite of claiming being aware of the process. moreover, he maintained that being aware of recycling process does not automatically translate to practicing the process as he found that majority of the people in northern nigeria were not involved in the recycling process. tunmise (2014) added that people considered recycling of some cheap solid waste as time wasting and this factor constituted a challenge militating against practicing recycling process the country. as literature indicated that practicing recycling as a process of solid waste management is low in the country, the current review concluded that recycling method is not part of indigenous culture in nigeria. factors militating against proper management of solid wastes on solid waste management, studies indicated that members of communities in urban centres develop the idea of formulate a residential law to facilitate management and proper disposal of solid waste among themselves (skumatz, 2008). also, studies have suggested making laws to inhibit people from indiscriminate disposal of solid waste and if possible, to adopt concept of zero waste and pay-as-you-throw (young, ni, & fan, 2010; bilitewski, 2008). however, achor and nwafor (2014) have maintained that the efficacy of law, in particular on waste management depends on its applicability, the cost involved and the context of the culture in which the law exists. another factor that scholars have found militating against proper management of solid waste is the cost required as the solid waste user charge (izugbara & umoh, 2004; lawal, 2004). moreover, studies adduced cooperation and social cohesion among people as another important factor to achieve sustainable environmental sanitation management. for instance, bilitewski (2008) suggested that people in urban centres through social association tend to make and enforce the law to promote environmental sanitation in their environment. on the potential factors that influenced the perception of people concerning solid waste management, studies have established that socio-economic factors such as education and level of income significantly affect peoples perception about waste management (tunmise, 2014; abasiekong, 2010). ohakwe et al. (2011) cited nonchalant attitude and poor understanding of people towards proper solid waste management as among the significant factors that pose threats to achieving sustainable environmental sanitation and enhancement of public health. hence, these scholars advocate orientation on proper management of the solid waste generated among people. adeolu, enesi, and adeolu (2014) suggested provision of materials to facilitate sustainable management of solid waste in urban centres as they identified absence of public waste bins in some urban areas as among the reasons for poor waste management. also, adeyemo and gboyesola, (2013) adduced availability of trucks, public bins and designed dumpsite facilitates proper disposal of waste and keeping the environment clean. lasker and weiss (2003) pinpointed the community as https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 8, no. 1; 2021 9 the most important stakeholder in waste management activities, and therefore community must actively participate in the solutions by modifying peoples cultural patterns. for example, they recommended exerting discipline in separating waste, using containers in a beneficial way, and exercising environmentally friendly purchasing habits. conclusion the current theoretical study concluded that solid waste generation and management in urban centres is not confined to being within the purview of engineering and technological concern. studies have established that the cultural facets of solid waste generation and management are significant as culture constitutes the basic determinants of all happenings in human society. therefore, it is hereby suggested that incorporating culture in the studies of solid waste management in human world is important to achieve the sustainable environmental maintenance. references abasiekong, e. m. 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(2010). working towards a zero waste environment in taiwan. waste management & research: journal of the international solid wastes an public cleansing association, iswa, 28(3), 236-44. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 impact factor: 5.8 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business 17 impact of environmental pollution on healthy and productivity of farm animals habeeb, a. a. m. 1 , a. a. el-tarabany 1 , a. e. gad 1 & m. a. a. atta 1 1 biological applications department, radioisotopes applications division, nuclear research center, atomic energy authority, p.o. 13729, inshas, cairo, egypt. correspondence: prof. dr. alsaied alnaimy mostafa habeeb, biological applications department, radioisotopes applications division, nuclear research center, egyptian atomic energy authority, inshas, cairo, egypt. email: dr_alnaimy@yahoo.com, tel: 00201283912177 received: september 19, 2018 accepted: september 30, 2018 online published: october 5, 2018 abstract pollution may be defined as addition of undesirable material into the environment as a result of human activities. pollution may be of the following types: air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, thermal pollution, radiation pollution and noise pollution. the impact of different pollution as a general on healthy of farm animals are cancer, neurobehavioral disorders, cardiovascular problems, reduced energy levels, premature death, asthma, asthma exacerbations, headaches and dizziness, irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat, reduced lung functioning, respiratory symptoms, respiratory disease, disruption of endocrine and reproductive and immune systems. exposure to environmental pollutants affected reproductive functions and in particular, produced adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes, fertility, and fetal health. exposures to ambient levels of pollutants are associated with low birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, prematurity, neonatal death, and decreased fertility and decrease of sperm quality in males and indicated also that female fertility was also disturbed. the most common disorder of male fertility is the insufficient production of normal sperm, with good mobility in the somniferous tubules. polluted drinking water by chemicals produced waterborne diseases like, typhoid, liver and kidney damage. in this paper the effects of various environmental factors on healthy, function of animal, fertility and reproductive efficiency are reported. keywords: pollution, animal, fertility, production, reproduction. introduction pollution of the environment and contamination of animal tissues and organs is serious problem in most countries. the basic law for environmental pollution control defines environmental pollution as any activity by corporations or individuals which compromises the health and/or environment of other persons in a localized area where the causal link is clearly established [1]. pollution may be defined as addition of undesirable material into the environment as a result of human activities. the agents which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants. a pollutant may be defined as a physical, chemical or biological substance unintentionally released into the environment which is directly or indirectly harmful to humans and other living organisms [2]. human activities directly or indirectly affect the environment adversely. there are a few examples which show how human activities pollute the environment. a stone crusher adds a lot of suspended particulate matter and noise into the atmosphere. automobiles emit from their tail pipes oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and a complex mixture of unburnt hydrocarbons and black soot which pollute the atmosphere. domestic sewage and run off from agricultural fields laden with pesticides and fertilizers pollute water [3]. effluents from tanneries contain many harmful chemicals and emit foul smell. developmental activities such as construction, transportation and manufacturing not only deplete the natural resources but also produce large amount of wastes that www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 18 leads to pollution of air, water, soil, global warming and acid rains. untreated or improperly treated waste is a major cause of pollution of rivers and environmental degradation causing ill health and loss of crop productivity [4]. farm animal's healthy and performance can be affected by exposure to a wide variety of agents, including particulate air pollution, dioxins, poly-chlorinated biphenyls, phyto-estrogens such as iso-flavones, heavy metals; chlorination disinfection by-products in water, organic solvents, poly-aromatic hydrocarbons, substances emitted from landfill sites and caffeine [5]. in this review paper, the effects of various environmental factors on healthy and productive and reproductive performance are reported. review of literature environmental pollution: categories of pollution: there are seven categories of pollution as presented in table (1). types of pollution: pollution may be of the following types: air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, thermal pollution, radiation pollution and noise pollution i. air pollution air pollution is a result of industrial and certain domestic activity. an ever increasing use of fossil fuels in power plants, industries, transportation, mining, construction of buildings, stone quarries had led to air pollution. air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance including noise and radioactive radiation in the atmosphere in such concentration that may be directly and indirectly injurious to humans or other living organisms, plants, property or interferes with the normal environmental processes [6]. defining air pollution is not simple. one could claim that air pollution started when humans began burning fuels. in other words, all manmade (anthropogenic) emissions into the air can be called air pollution, because they alter the chemical composition of the natural atmosphere. the increase in the global concentrations of greenhouse gases co2, ch4, and n2o, can be called air pollution using this approach, even though the concentrations have not found to be toxic for humans and the ecosystem. one can refine this approach and only consider anthropogenic emissions of harmful chemicals as air pollution. however, this refined approach has some drawbacks. firstly, one has to define what “harmful” means. harmful could mean an adverse effect on the health of living things, an adverse effect on anthropogenic or natural non-living structures, or a reduction in the air’s visibility. in addition, a chemical that does not cause any short-term harmful effects may accumulate in the atmosphere and create a long-term harmful effect [7]. air pollution is a result of industrial and certain domestic activity. an ever increasing use of fossil fuels in power plants, industries, transportation, mining, construction of buildings, stone quarries had led to air pollution. air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance including noise and radioactive radiation in the atmosphere in such concentration that may be directly and indirectly injurious to humans or other living organisms, plants, property or interferes with the normal environmental processes. air pollutants are of two types: (1) suspended particulate matter, and (2) gaseous pollutants as general, polluted air contains one, or more, hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant that creates a hazard to general health [8]. however, the main pollutants found in the air we breathe include, particulate matter, lead, ground-level ozone, heavy metals, sulphur dioxide, benzene, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. air pollution in cities causes a shorter lifespan for city dwellers [9]. classifications of air pollutants: criteria pollutants: as listed above, there are 6 principal, or criteria pollutants regulated by [8] and most countries in the world: 1total suspended particulate matter, with additional subcategories of particles smaller than 10 μm in diameter and particles smaller than 2.5 μm in diameter. inhalation of enough pm over time increases the risk of chronic respiratory disease. 2sulfur dioxide (so2). this compound is colorless, but has a suffocating, pungent odor. the primary source of so2 is the combustion of sulfur-containing fuels (e.g., oil and coal). exposure to so2 can cause the irritation of lung tissues and can damage health and materials. 3nitrogen oxides (no and no2). no2 is a reddish-brown gas with a sharp odor. the primary source of this gas is vehicle traffic and it plays a role in the formation of troposphere ozone. large concentrations can reduce visibility and increase the risk of acute and chronic respiratory disease. 4carbon monoxide (co). this odorless, colorless gas is formed from the incomplete combustion of fuels. thus, the largest source of co today is motor vehicles. inhalation of co reduces the amount of oxygen in the bloodstream and high concentrations can lead to headaches, dizziness, unconsciousness, and death. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 19 5ozone (o3). troposphere (low-level) ozone is a secondary pollutant formed when sunlight causes photochemical reactions involving nox and vocs. automobiles are the largest source of vocs necessary for these reactions. ozone concentrations tend to peak in the afternoon, and can cause eye irritation, aggravation of respiratory diseases, and damage to plants and animals [8]. 6lead: the largest source of lead (pb) in the atmosphere has been from leaded gasoline combustion, but with the gradual elimination worldwide of lead in gasoline, air pb levels have decreased considerably. other airborne sources include combustion of solid waste, coal, and oils, emissions from iron and steel production and lead smelters, and tobacco smoke. exposure to pb can affect the blood, kidneys, and nervous, immune, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems. these pollutants are presented in table (2). ambient air pollution: the largest source of lead in the atmosphere has been from leaded gasoline combustion, but with the gradual elimination worldwide of lead in gasoline, air lead levels have decreased considerably. other airborne sources include combustion of solid waste, coal, and oils, emissions from iron and steel production and lead smelters, and tobacco smoke. exposure to lead can affect the blood, kidneys, and nervous, immune, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems [10] [11]. in addition, human populations and animals are often exposed to the airborne pollutants in plumes from incinerators. the incineration of chemical and other waste may release polychlorinated hydrocarbons, some of which have estrogenic properties. toxic pollutants: for normal healthy growth most living organisms require some heavy metals in small but critical concentrations as micronutrients or essential trace elements and excess concentrations, though, cause toxic symptoms. these heavy metals are essential for animals and whose deficiency causes disease under normal living conditions including cu, mn, fe and zn. most of the micronutrients owe their essentiality to being constituents of enzymes and other important proteins involved in key metabolic pathways. a deficient supply of the micronutrient will result hence in a shortage of the enzymes which lead to metabolite dysfunction causing disease [12]. some heavy metals have no known essential biochemical function are called non-essential elements and are sometimes incorrectly referred to as toxic elements. these elements, which include as, cd, hg, pb, pu, sb, tl and u cause toxicity at concentrations which exceed the tolerance of the organism but do not cause deficiency disorders at low concentrations such as micronutrients [12]. some of heavy metal are dangerous to health or to the environment (e.g. mercury, cadmium, lead, chromium), some may cause corrosion (e.g., lead), some are harmful in other ways (e.g. arsenic may pollute catalysts) [13]. from another point of view, within the european community, the eleven elements of highest concern are arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, mercury, manganese, nickel, lead, tin, and thallium, the emissions of which are regulated in waste incinerators. some of these elements are actually necessary for humans in minute amounts (cobalt, copper, chromium, manganese, nickel) while others are carcinogenic or toxic, affecting, among others, the central nervous system (manganese, mercury, lead, arsenic), the kidneys or liver (mercury, lead, cadmium, copper) or skin, bones, or teeth (nickel, cadmium, copper, chromium) [14]. hazardous air pollutants, also called toxic air pollutants or air toxics, are those pollutants that cause or may cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth defects. the us-epa is required to control 188 hazardous air pollutants. examples of toxic air pollutants include benzene, which is found in gasoline; perchlorethlyene, which is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities; and methylene chloride, which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by a number of industries [15] [16]. radioactive pollutants: radioactivity is an air pollutant that is both geogenic and anthropogenic. geogenic radioactivity are results from the presence of radionuclides, which originate either from radioactive minerals in the earth’s crust or from the interaction of cosmic radiation with atmospheric gases. anthropogenic radioactive emissions originate from nuclear reactors, the atomic energy industry (mining and processing of reactor fuel), nuclear weapon explosions, and plants that reprocess spent reactor fuel. since coal contains small quantities of uranium and thorium, these radioactive elements can be emitted into the atmosphere from coal-fired power plants and other sources [17]. indoor pollutants: when a building is not properly ventilated, pollutants can accumulate and reach concentrations greater than those typically found outside. this problem has received media attention as sick building syndrome. environmental of the main contributors to indoor pollution are co, no, and so2, which can be emitted from furnaces and stoves. cleaning or remodeling a house is an activity that can contribute to elevated concentrations of harmful chemicals such as vocs emitted from household cleaners, paint, and varnishes [18]. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 20 impact of air pollution on animal healthy and performance air pollution on health, generally, results are cancer [8], neurobehavioral disorders [19], cardiovascular problems [8], reduced energy levels [20], premature death [8], asthma [21], asthma exacerbations [22], headaches and dizziness, irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat, reduced lung functioning, respiratory symptoms [20], respiratory disease [8], disruption of endocrine [20] and reproductive and immune systems [8] [23]. high air pollution levels have been linked to infant mortality [24]. air pollutants can also indirectly affect human health through acid rain, by polluting drinking water and entering the food chain, and through global warming and associated climate change and sea level rise [25]. in female: in recent years, numerous studies showed that exposure to environmental air pollutants affected reproductive functions and in particular, produced adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes, fertility, and fetal health. epidemiological studies demonstrated that exposure to ambient levels of air pollutants are associated with low birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, prematurity, neonatal death, and decreased fertility. experimental animal data supported these findings and indicated that female fertility was also disturbed. although there are various mechanisms of action suggested to show the manner in which air pollutants alter pregnancy and the reproductive systems in both genders, further studies are needed to correlate causal relationships. this information would serve to better understand the underlying physiologic changes in the reproductive system induced by exposure to air pollutants and possibly establish a link between the dose and response of individual or mixture of air pollutants [26] [27]. in ovaries, cadmium causes decrease of relative volume of growing follicles and significant increase of the number of atretic follicles. the most frequent ultra-structural alterations observed were undulation of external nuclear membrane, dilatation of perinuclear cistern and endoplasmic reticulum. in a single nickel and nickel–zinc administration experiment on the structure and function of rabbit ovary fine follicular structures were analyzed. various alterations in the relative volume and follicular antrum formation were found [28]. in male: few documented studies have explored the link between exposure to potentially toxic substances and the emergence of health problems. effectively, several studies showed that there was a catastrophic decrease of sperm quality. the infertility, in many cases, 95% of research budgets are allocated to the studies for substances with estrogenic effects, 5% of the credit for substances with androgenic effects. the most common disorder of male fertility is the insufficient production of normal sperm, with good mobility in the somniferous tubules. normal male sperm: number of sperm cells upper to 20 millions/ml of sperm. at least 15 % of these must be normally formed and 50 % of them to have a good mobility. if these values are not reached, the ability of man to procreate is reduced [29] [30]. in male, the proper maturation of sperm cells is the key of the fertility. besides the environmental pollution, the causes of abnormalities of the sperm cells maturation are multiple includes consequence of mumps contracted during puberty, presence of varicose veins in the scrotum (varicocele), hormonal disorders, testes located high (cryptorchidism), operated tumors, stress, hereditary predisposition may also be involved. the semen characteristics including concentration, morphology or mobility, are associated with the likelihood of pregnancy and also the characteristics of the sperm nucleus such as the integrity of sperm dna or the rate of sperm aneuploidy [31]. in testes, the administration of selected environmental contaminants (hg, pb, co, cd, ni) resulted in undulation of basal membrane, dilatation of blood vessels in interstitium and occurrence of empty spaces in germinal epithelium. decreased relative volume of germinal epithelium, increased relative volume of interstitium and increased apoptosis occurrence suggest damaged interstitium and revealed occurrence of oedema as the most significant change. in vitro studies, hg and cu showed dose as well as time–dependent decrease of spermatozoa motility and cell membrane integrity changes [32] [33] [34] [35]. ii. water pollution water pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems. water pollution is caused by a variety of human activities such as industrial, agricultural and domestic. agricultural runoff laden with excess fertilizers and pesticides, industrial effluents with toxic substances and sewage water with human and animal wastes pollute our water thoroughly. natural sources of pollution of water are soil erosion, leaching of minerals from rocks and decaying of organic matter. rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, estuaries and ground water sources may be polluted by point or non-point sources. when pollutants are discharged from a specific location such as a drain pipe carrying industrial effluents discharged directly into water body it represents point source pollution. in contrast non-point sources include discharge of pollutants from diffused sources or from a larger area such as runoff from agricultural fields, grazing lands, construction sites, abandoned mines and pits, roads and streets [8]. sources of water pollution: water pollution is the major source of water born diseases and other health problems. sediments brought by runoff water from agricultural fields and discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage http://natural-medicine.labosp.com/health_problems/female_infertility.category.php http://natural-medicine.labosp.com/health_problems/andropause.category.php http://natural-medicine.labosp.com/health_problems/andropause.category.php http://natural-medicine.labosp.com/health_problems/indoor_pollution.category.php http://natural-medicine.labosp.com/health_problems/varicose_veins.category.php http://natural-medicine.labosp.com/health_problems/vulvitis.category.php http://natural-medicine.labosp.com/health_problems/anguish.category.php www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 21 and industrial effluents, disposal of fly ash or solid waste into or close to a water body cause severe problems of water pollution. increased turbidity of water because of sediments reduces penetration of light in water that reduces photosynthesis by aquatic plants. pollution due to pesticides and inorganic chemicals: pesticides like ddt and others used in agriculture may contaminate water bodies.. metals like lead, zinc, arsenic; copper, mercury and cadmium in industrial waste waters adversely affect humans and other animals. consumption of such arsenic polluted water leads to accumulation of arsenic in the body parts like blood, nails and hairs causing skin lesions, rough skin, dry and thickening of skin and ultimately skin cancer. pollution of water bodies by mercury causes minamata disease in humans and dropsy in fishes. lead causes displexia, cadmium poisoning causes itai – itai disease etc. oil pollution of sea occurs from leakage from ships, oil tankers, rigs and pipelines. accidents of oil tankers spill large quantity of oil in seas which kills marine birds and adversely affects other marine life and beaches [8]. thermal pollution: power plantsthermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use lot of water (about 30 % of all abstracted water) for cooling purposes and the used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams or oceans. the waste heat from the boilers and heating processes increases the temperature of the cooling water. discharge of hot water may increase the temperature of the receiving water by 10 to 15 °c above the ambient water temperature. this is thermal pollution. increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in water which adversely affects aquatic life. due to thermal pollution biological diversity is reduced. one of the best methods of reducing thermal pollution is to store the hot water in cooling ponds, allow the water to cool before releasing into any receiving water body [8]. ground water pollution: lot of people around the world depends on ground water for drinking, domestic, industrial and agricultural uses. generally groundwater is a clean source of water. however, human activities such as improper sewage disposal, dumping of farm yard manures and agricultural chemicals, industrial effluents are causing pollution of ground water [34]. impact of water pollution on animal performance polluted drinking water by chemicals produced waterborne diseases like, typhoid, liver and kidney damage, alzheimer’s disease, hormonal problems that can disorder development and reproductive processes, cancer, heart disease, damage to the nervous system, damage to the dna and even death, meanwhile, polluted beach water contaminated people like stomach aches, encephalitis, hepatitis, diarrhoea, vomiting, gastroenteritis, respiratory infections, ear ache, pink eye and rashes. loss of wild life is directly related to pollution and according to water pollution effects on animals i) nutrient polluted water causes overgrowth of toxic algae eaten by other aquatic animals, and may cause death. ii) chemical contamination can cause declines in frog biodiversity and tadpole mass iii) oil pollution can increase susceptibility to disease and affect reproductive processes and negatively affect development of marine organisms and it can also a source of gastrointestinal irritation, damage to the nervous system, liver and kidney damage iv). mercury in water can cause reduced reproduction, slower growth and development, abnormal behavior and death v) persistent organic pollutants may cause declines, deformities and death of fish life and fish from polluted water and vegetable/ crops produced or washed from polluted water could also make impact on human and animal health. more sodium chloride (ordinary salt) in water may kill animals [34]. iii. soil pollution addition of substances which adversely affect the quality of soil or its fertility is known as soil pollution. generally polluted water also pollutes soil. solid waste is a mixture of plastics, cloth, glass, metal and organic matter, sewage, sewage sludge, building debris, generated from households, commercial and industries establishments add to soil pollution. fly ash, iron and steel slag, medical and industrial wastes disposed on land are important sources of soil pollution. in addition, fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural use which reach soil as run-off and land filling by municipal waste are growing cause of soil pollution. acid rain and dry deposition of pollutants on land surface also contribute to soil pollution. sources of soil pollution 1-plastic bags: plastic bags made from low density polyethylene (ldpe), is virtually indestructible, create colossal environmental hazard. the discarded bags block drains and sewage systems. leftover food, vegetable waste etc. on which cows and dogs feed may die due to the choking by plastic bags. plastic is non biodegradable and burning of plastic in garbage dumps release highly toxic and poisonous gases like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, phosgene, dioxine and other poisonous chlorinated compounds. 2-industrial sources: it includes fly ash, chemical residues, metallic and nuclear wastes. large number of industrial chemicals, dyes, acids, etc. find their way into the soil and is known to create many health hazards including cancer. 3-agricultural sources: agricultural chemicals especially fertilizers and pesticides pollute the soil. fertilizers in the runoff water from these fields can cause eutrophication in water bodies. pesticides are highly toxic chemicals which affect humans and other animals adversely causing respiratory problems, cancer and death. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 22 iv. radiation pollution sources and hazards: radiation pollution is the increase in over the natural background radiation. there are many sources of radiation pollution such as nuclear wastes from nuclear power plants, mining and processing of nuclear material etc. the worse case of nuclear pollution was the cherndoyl disaster in russia occurred in 1986 but the effects still longer today. radiation: radiation is a form of energy travelling through space. the radiation emanating from the decay of radioactive nuclides is a major source of radiation pollution. radiations can be categorized into two groups namely the non-ionizing radiations and the ionizing radiations. non-ionizing radiations: non-ionizing radiations are constituted by the electromagnetic waves at the longer wavelength of the spectrum ranging from near infra-red rays to radio waves. these waves have energies enough to excite the atoms and molecules of the medium through which they pass, causing them to vibrate faster but not strong enough to ionize them. in a microwave oven the radiation causes water molecules in the cooking medium to vibrate faster and thus raising its temperature. ionizing radiations: ionizing radiations cause ionization of atoms and molecules of the medium through which they pass. electromagnetic radiations such as short wavelength ultra violet radiations (uv), x-rays and gamma rays and energetic particles produced in nuclear processes, electrically charged particles like alpha and beta particles produced in radioactive decay and neutrons produced in nuclear fission, are highly damaging to living organisms. electrically charged particles produced in the nuclear processes can have sufficient energy to knock electrons out of the atoms or molecules of the medium, thereby producing ions. the ions produced in water molecules, for example, can induce reactions that can break bonds in proteins and other important molecules. an example of this would be when a gamma ray passes through a cell, the water molecules near the dna might be ionized and the ions might react with the dna causing it to break. they can also cause chemical changes by breaking the chemical bonds, which can damage living tissues. the ionizing radiations cause damage to biological systems and are, therefore, pollutants. radiation damage: the biological damage resulting from ionizing radiations is generally termed as radiation damage. large amounts of radiation can kill cells that can dramatically affect the exposed organism as well as possibly its offspring. affected cells can mutate and result in cancer. a large enough dose of radiation can kill the organism. radiation damage can be divided into two types: (a) somatic damage (also called radiation sickness) and (b) genetic damage. somatic damage refers to damage to cells that are not associated with reproduction. effects of somatic radiation damage include reddening of the skin, loss of hair, ulceration, fibrosis of the lungs, the formation of holes in tissue, a reduction of white blood cells, and the induction of cataract in the eyes. this damage can also result in cancer and death. genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated with reproduction. this damage can subsequently cause genetic damage from gene mutation resulting in abnormalities. genetic damages are passed on to next generation. radiation effects and radiation doses: the biological damage caused by the radiation is determined by the intensity of radiation and duration of the exposure. it depends on the amount of energy deposited by the radiation in the biological system. in studying the effects of radiation exposure in humans, it is important to realize that the biological damage caused by a particle depends not only on the total energy deposited but also on the rate of energy loss per unit distance traversed by the particle (or linear energy transfer). for example, alpha particles do much more damage per unit energy deposited than do electrons. a traditional unit of human-equivalent dose is the rem, which stands for radiation equivalent in man. at low doses, such as what we receive every day from background radiation (< 1 m rem), the cells repair the damage rapidly. at higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells might environmental. conclusion the impact of different pollution as a general on healthy of farm animals are cancer, neurobehavioral disorders, cardiovascular problems, reduced energy levels, premature death, asthma, asthma exacerbations, 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(1993). the effect of copper from industrial emissions on the seminiferous epithelium in rams. reprod. dom. anim., 28, 2, 108. appendixes table 1: categories of pollution source: based on the basic law for environmental pollution control. category major causes major symptoms atmospheric pollution smoke, dust, exhaust fumes, toxic substances such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide asthma, bronchitis water pollution polluted waste water, waste fluids such as petroleum, sludge, household sewage, sewage discharge, general waste, agricultural chemicals soil pollution arsenic, heavy metals, especially, in agricultural chemicals noxious odors, poisoning noise factories, construction work, road traffic, trains and aircraft, late-night commercial operations, advertising headaches, insomnia, depression, hearing loss vibration factories, construction work, road traffic, trains and aircraft dizziness, discomfort, homes damage ground subsidence up swelling of groundwater, gravel quarrying, coal mining structural damage to buildings noxious odors exhaust fumes, river contamination, sanitation facilities, accumulated sewage livestock farms headaches, discomfort http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=mohallem%20sv%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15820725 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=de%20ara%c3%bajo%20lobo%20dj%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15820725 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=pesquero%20cr%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15820725 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=assun%c3%a7%c3%a3o%20jv%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15820725 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=de%20andre%20pa%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15820725 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=saldiva%20ph%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15820725 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=dolhnikoff%20m%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15820725 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=dolhnikoff%20m%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=15820725 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20336577 http://www.tropical-rainforest-animals.com/%20pollution-effects.%20html www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 3; 2018 25 table 2: gaseous air pollutants contemporary environmental issues (http://www.envirocomp.org/). copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) pollutant source harmful effect suspended, particulate matter (spm), construction, activities, particles suspended and lead thermal power plants, lead interferes with the development, automobiles poor visibility, breathing problems metalurgical processes of red blood diseases and cancer, smoge (skoke & fog) formation leads in the air, (flush, dust, to poor visibility and aggravates sulphur compounds (so2 and h2s) power plants and refineries, volcanic eruptions respiratory problems in humans, loss of chlorophyll in plants (chlorosis) carbon compound (co and co2) automobile exhaust, burning of wood and coal respiratory problems, greenhouse effect hydrocarbons (benzene, ethylene) automobiles, petroleum industries respiratory problem, cancer causing properties nitrogen compound (no and n2o) motor vehicle exhaust, atmospheric reaction irritation in eyes and lungs, low productivity in plants fibers (cotton, wool) textiles and carpet weaving industries lung disorders http://www.envirocomp.org/ copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research; vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 1 airside capacity utilization in a nigerian airport: a case study of murtala muhammed international airport stephens, m. s department of transport management technologyn federal university of technology akure, nigeria e-mail: msstephens@futa.edu.ng ayo agunbiade o.t department of transport management technology federal university of technology akure, nigeria e-mail: ayofisayo90@gmail.com abstract airport capacity generally refers to the ability of an airport to handle a given volume of traffic (demand) and should be assess to ensure they are adequate for lay down standards. this study was based on the assessment of airside capacity utilization at an international airport; the runway is the focus of this study. capacities are very important and this dictates the level of patronage made by airlines at the airport. murtala mohammed international airport (mmia) as a case study was examined; the domestic and international traffic flow well assessed on a daily basis, over a period of sixteen (16) years, to determine the traffic intensity of the airport was obtained from federal aviation authority of nigeria (faan) and nigerian airspace management agencies (nama). this experimental research involved the estimation of the traffic flow, installed capacity of the runway, the intensity of traffic on hourly, daily, monthly bases. the model adopted for the research was queue theory. findings show that the domestic wing generates more traffic flow than international wing of the runway. the through put at the runways shows that the runway is adequately utilized to accommodate existing traffic, expansion in the form of construction will not be necessary. keywords: runway, arrivals, departures, traffic, intensity. 1. introduction aviation operation over the years has been on the increase over time with various flights emanating from different part of the country for different purposes. mike (2008) stated that over 22,000 turbine-powered airliners are in service worldwide. flight can be boarded for a number of reasons, some of which are business, recreational, educational, occupation, medical, relief efforts etc. for these diverse purposes there arises the need for flight planning. flight planning is the process of producing a schedule of activities and paths describing a proposed aircraft flight for the aircraft being booked for various purposes. air traffic service uses the complemented flight plan and available capacity for separation of aircraft in air traffic management (simpson, bashroum and carr, 1965). capacity generally refers to the ability of an airport to handle a given volume of traffic (demand). there are two commonly used definitions of airfield capacity: “throughput” and “practical” capacity. the through put definition of the capacity is the rate at which aircraft can be handled while practical capacity is the number of operations (takeoffs and landings) that can be accommodated with no more than a given amount of delay. the capacity of an airport is a bit complex, several elements of the airport facility have to be examined, namely the airside and landside. the physical characteristics and layout of runways, taxiways and apron are basic determinants of the ability to accommodate various types of aircraft and the rate at which they can be handled. also important is the equipment (lighting, navigation aids, radar and the likes) installed on the airfield as a whole or a particular segments. due to constraints of limitation of time and other resources this study is limited to the airside components, with more concentration on the runways as the capacity of the airport to consider. mailto:msstephens@futa.edu.ng copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 2 antonio (2003) reveals that there are several factors affecting runway capacity such as runway configuration (number of runways in use, location of runway exits etc.), aircraft mix (percent of aircraft in various wake vortex categories), weather conditions (visibility, wind direction and speed), airport equipage (atc equipment) and operating procedures (noise considerations, special approach and departure procedures). the rules and procedures of air traffic control, intended primarily to assure safety of flight, are basic determinants of airfield capacity and delay. the rule governing aircraft separation, runway occupancy, spacing of arrivals and departures, and the use of parallel or converging runways can have an overall effect on throughput or can induce delays between successive operations. when the traffic demand for an airport approaches or exceeds its capability, the result is delay. when traffic occurs in bunches or peaks, there may be delays even when the number of aircraft using the airport is less than the capacity for that peak time period. some amount of delay arises every time two aircraft are scheduled to use a runway at the same time. the probability of simultaneous arrivals increases rapidly with traffic density, so that average delay per aircraft increases exponentially well before traffic levels reach capacity levels. there are other factors instituting delay apart from simultaneous arrivals in airline operations. for instance, demand(through put) to available capacity of an airport might result in delay if not balanced. from 2005 to 2007, the nigeria aviation industry experienced some growth, which resulted in a passenger movement increase by 21 per cent in 2008, cargo movement increased by 74.6 per cent and aircraft movement improved by 2.3 percent (olalerin, 2009). due to the large traffic volumes, high frequencies and traffic intensity at hub stations flight operations at these hubs becomes very dangerous and more tasking as airport capacity cannot increase immediately to meet the change in demand. a problem of flight operations, planning and handing calls for serious concern and this research attempted to studied the arrival and departure of aircraft and their characteristics, to know the throughput per day/the traffic intensity for peak and off peak period were the gaps addressed to understand the flight planning procedure and handing of aircrafts in the airport of study. in summary, the research have provided an accurate overview of the literature related to aircraft flight scheduling and capacity utilization by building upon the sections addressing this topic in the literature reviews by antonio (2003) which reviewed the airport runway capacity and the methodology deployed in the research was time space analysis, finding shows that the separation capacity of the airport depends on the configuration used. jianfeng (2012), carried out a research on analysis of gate-waiting delays at major us airports and identified that 30% of the arriving aircraft are delayed at the gate, waiting delays are rare events, gate-waiting delays are usually different among major carriers due to different scheduling strategies and functional origins of gate-waiting delay included compressed arrivals, extended gate occupancy times, reduced number of gates, and inflexible queuing disciplines (across carriers and within one carrier), jianfeng 2012was majorly on conditions of us airport and its recommendation. these research conducted a field based qualitative research and quantitative research on the assessment of the airside capacity utilization at the airport at murtala muhammed airport. the aim of the article is to assess airside capacity utilization in the murtala muhammed international airport, lagos, nigeria. to achieve this aim, the following objectives are to assess airsides capacity utilization; and to evaluate the aircraft traffic intensity of the runways. 2. theoretical framework analytical model is easier and faster to execute, is good for preliminary airport/ airspace planning and the generally less accurate but appropriate. examples of analytical model are:  time-space analysis  queuing models 2.1 time space analysis time space analysis is a simple technique to assess runway and airspace capacity if the headway between aircraft is known. it is a method to ascertain the time complexity and space complexity of an algorithm. time complexity is a measurement of how much computational time an algorithm uses as its input size changes. analyzing algorithms in this way provides an indicator as to how quickly the runtime increases, how it does so in relation to the input and weather the algorithm is costly for small/large inputs (trani, 2013). 2.2 the basic queuing process the basic process assumed by most queuing models is the following. customers (passengers) requiring service are generated over time by an input source. these passengers enter the queuing system and join a queue. at certain times, a member of the queue is selected for service by some rule known as the queue discipline. the required service is then performed for the customer by the service mechanism, after which the customer leaves the queuing system. input source (calling population), one characteristic of the input source is its size. the size is the total number of customers that might require service from time to time, i.e., the total number of distinct potential customers. this population from which arrivals come is referred to as the calling population. the copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 3 size may be assumed to be either infinite or finite (so that the input source also is said to be either unlimited or limited). because the calculations are far easier for the infinite case, this assumption often is made even when the actual size is some relatively large finite number; and it should be taken to be the implicit assumption for any queuing model that does not state otherwise(fredick, 2001). 2.3 airport system airports activities are diversified and descends from nature of airports’ operations, which involve both airside and landside services. in addition, non-aeronautical commercial businesses including revenues from retail activities and license allotment to external operators supplying ship, restaurant, duty-free, car parking services, etc. are assuming growing importance. this gives rise to the strategic opportunity for an airport to focus on traditional airside activities or to enter commercial activities, which are not traditionally considered as core business (oumet al., 2004). the basic functions of an airport are to provide access for aircraft to the national airspace, to permit easy interchange between aircraft and to facilitate the consolidation of traffic. to effectively deliver these functions, an airport must have several basic infrastructure elements present such as runway, taxiways, aprons (airside infrastructure) and airport ground resources for passengers or cargo. the ground resource elements as well as airside infrastructure capacity dictate the airport’s air traffic capacity. 2.4 concept of airport capacity and capacity utilization infrastructure capacity development is necessary in determining the operational efficiency of an airport. caves et al. (1984) and ccsf (2003) opines that capacity can conceptualize based on the area or field of study. capacity according to trb (2004) refers to the ability of an airport to handle a given volume or magnitude of traffic (demand) within a specific period of time. it was further emphasized that, operational capacity is generally expressed by the maximum number of units or demand that can be accommodated at an airport during given period of time and under given conditions. 3. research method this study relies on secondary data sourced from the federal airport authority of nigeria (faan), nigeria airspace management agency (nama) and nigeria civil aviation authority (ncaa).the data obtained were records of flights over a period of sixteen (16) years. to address the first objective, the installed airside capacity, and the hourly and daily traffic movements were examined. daily traffic flow for two months and report of flight delay for a month were obtained. queue theory was deployed for the second objective which estimates the traffic intensity of the runway. queue theory is the process whereby customer enters a system and service is being rendered. for this research the customer in passenger’s aircraft and cargo aircraft, the input source is the gate, the queue discipline is mostly first to come first serve, last in last out and emergency and the size is the total number of the aircraft per day for a period of 2 months.  arrival rate =𝜆  service rate = 𝜇  utilization rate =𝜆/c𝜇 4. results and findings 4.1 assessment of airside capacity utilization the elements of airside capacity are the runway, taxiways, aprons, gates and hydrant pump. for this research runway is the point of consideration. the runway capacity was assessed in-line with daily throughput of both domestic and international runway. mmia formerly west african airways corporation in 1947, later lagos international airport, the airport consist of international and domestic terminal, initially uses the same runway until it was separated. the runway is the major capacity being assessed in the study. there are two runways at the airport, one for the international and domestic flight. the runway orientation for international flight is 18right-36left and the runway for local flight is 18l-36r.there are two major flows of aircraft traffic; the inbound and the outbound traffic. the dimension of each domestic and international runway is 2743 x 45m and 3900 x 60m respectively. they both have asphalt concrete. the critical designed aircraft, the runway and the apron can accommodate at a time is b747 concord. for the installed runway capacity, the runway is designed to accommodate 1 aircraft in 7 minutes. copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 4 figure 1:mmia runway source: jeppesen, 2013 figure 2: arrivals and departures of domestic and international flights for 01/11/17 source: author’s compilation, 2018 from figure 2 the operation started around 5am to 11pm but traffic is more intense with a traffic flow of 16 flights per hour. the highest throughput is between (7, 16,18) hours with (16,15,16) throughput respectively, the throughput is higher than the installed capacity of the runway. for international flights, in figure 2, the operation started around 1am to 11pm but traffic is more intense with a traffic flow of 7 flights per hour. the highest throughput is between 14 and 17 hours with 7 through-put respectively, the throughput is lower than the installed capacity of the runway. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 arrivals and depts of domestic flights 01/11/2017 arrivals and departures international 12/11/17 copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 5 figure 3: arrivals and departure of international flight 2001-2017 source: author’s compilation, 2018 from figure 3, the trend depicts that, the rate of arrival of international flight increased from 2000 to 2010, reduced in 2011 to 2012 by certain percent, and later improved in 2013 by certain percent, and there has been decline since 2015 till 2017by certain percent. the reduction in flight might be attributed to various factors such has financial constraints, lack of satisfaction in service provided, for domestic flights the incessant delay experienced by passenger and a number of other factors which have made passenger opt for other modes of transport, but the fact remains that the capacity is utilized hourly, daily, monthly and annually. airside capacities can be categorized into three categories based on capabilities:  analyses of the runway component  analyses of the runway and apron components  analyses of the terminal airspace. the flow follows fsfc except in situation of special scenarios of emergency or government movement. the aircraft movement follows the fcfs model. figure 3 establishes the fact that the domestic and international runways are utilized but rate of utilization differs from each other. from figure 2, the throughput for domestic flow is higher than international flow. which confirms that the aircraft utilization of domestic is higher than international, therefore the capacity at the domestic wing requires more attention in terms of planning, upgrading, repair and other necessary maintenances required. the rate of utilization occurs more in the day than in the night. the runway is designed to accommodate 1 aircraft in 7 minutes. on the domestic wing of the airport, the number of aircraft arrival and departure are more than installed capacity therefore, the airport is operating within its capacity that is, it is moderately serving demand. in figure 2, on the 7th hour 16 aircraft landed and departed within an hour. 4.2 evaluation of air traffic intensity queues at airport operate on a fifo strategy, the capacity of an airport is influenced by the capacity of the runway. for simplicity, the following assumptions are made koopman (1972) and bookbinder (1986). during peak periods on a single runway, controllers will alternate between landing and takeoffs to increase throughput. in contrast during off peak periods, they will assign to landing a non-preemptive priority over takeoffs. these assumptions enable a clearer cut difference between the heavy and light traffic behavior of the runway operations, another reason to conduct a separate analysis between the peak and off-peak periods. during peak periods, the terminal area’s control zone is heavily crowded with landing and takeoff aircrafts. during the peak period the aircraft handled are more than those handled during the off peak period. the time between arrivals is shorter for peak period. arrival has been known to follow a poisson process while the service time follows a general distribution. the aircraft requesting service will be referred to as a customer while the gates is the server. during off peak period the customers follow normal arrangement. time between arrival=second flight first flight. from this formula we were able to deduce the time between arrivals of aircraft as they arrive at the airport. 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 traffic flow (international flight) international arrival international departure copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 6 from appendix, aircraft beyond 1hour interval of arrival flight is just 3 that is, 6% of the whole distribution. the time between arrivals are usually (2, 4, 5, 14, 40) minutes interval. there is an average of 87 arrivals and 81 departures on daily bases, at the domestic airport of mma. figure 4: intensity of arrival for domestic and international flight source: authors’ compilation, 2018 the peak period from figure 4 states that for arriving aircraft is between 10 am to 7 pm, while the off peak is between 8pm to 9am. 4.3 time between arrival and departure of international flight time between arrival = actual time of arrival for second flight (ata2) actual time of arrival for first flight (ata1) from this formula, deduction was made on the time between arrivals of aircraft as they arrive at the airport. aircraft beyond 1hour interval of arrival flight is just 3 that is, 6% of the whole distribution. the time between arrivals are usually (2, 4, 5, 36, 1:57) minutes interval. there is an average of 49 arrivals and 46 departures on daily bases at the international airport of mmia. from figure 4, the peak period for arriving aircraft is between 4am to 10pm, while the off peak is between 11 pm to 3 am. the traffic for 4am, 11am, 1pm and 5pm are specifically higher than other parts of the day. table 4 result of queue theory calculation for domestic airport (mma) 1/12/17 1/12/17 dec,2017 (domestic) december, 2017 (international) 1 total time between arrival 14:40 1:10 2 total service time 914:52:00 3:56 2:46 3 total number of aircraft 88 2085 1470 4 arrival rate, 𝜆=number of planes served/total time between arrival 144.00 1029888:00 8467200:00 5 service rate(at the airport), 𝜇=number of planes served/total service time 2.31 305475:15 19:22 6 traffic intensity=𝜆/c𝜇 (c=10) 6.23 3:37 27:66 source: authors’ compilation, 2018 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324 intensity of arrival(domestic) intensity of arrival (international) copyright © cc-by-nc 2019, cribfb | aijmsr www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 5, no. 3; 2019 7 for dec. 1, 2017 as shown in table 4, the average time between arrivals is 14 hours 40 minutes on daily bases, with the total service time being 914 hours 52 minutes. on this particular day the total number of aircraft is 88, with most of their arrivals in the morning, aircraft arrival beyond 12am in the mid-day will result in the aircraft departure on the following day. the arrival rate is 144, the service rate is 2.31 and the overall traffic intensity is 6.23. for december 2017, the average time between arrival for domestic flight is 1hour, 10minutes on a daily bases, with the service time being 3 hours, 56 minutes, which happened on december, 2017. the total number of aircraft is 2085 with most of their arrivals in the morning; aircraft arrival beyond 12am in the mid-day will result in the aircraft departure on the following day. the arrival rate is 1029888:00, the service rate is 305475:15 and the overall traffic intensity is 3:37. for december, 2017, the average time between arrival of international flight is 6 minutes on a daily bases, with the service time being 2hours 46minutes. the total number of aircraft is 1470, with most of their arrivals in the morning; aircraft arrival beyond 12 pm in the mid-day will result in the aircraft departure on the following day. the arrival rate is 8467200:00, the service rate is 19:22 and the overall traffic intensity is 27:66. the intensity of domestic traffic is higher than that of international flight. the arrival rate is the total number of aircraft per time between arrivals. the arrival rate for domestic flight is higher than international flight. 5. conclusion the rate of arrivals and departures of aircrafts per hour affect the capacity utilization rate of the runway. adequate allowance needs to put into consideration to accommodate changes in subsequent time of arrival and departure, which might affect the turnaround process and scheduling of flight planning. the intensity of arrivals and departures varies with from the domestic to the international runway. the rate of utilization differs as the domestic wing accommodates more traffic than the international. it is evident that delay is highly experienced by passengers who utilized the aircraft. airports staff admits that the capacity of the airport is moderately meeting demand. it was observed that most aircraft follows a regular schedule which is submitted every six months. this disruption will result in crew, fleet and maintenance schedule. the aircraft traffic intensity at the airport shows the level of utilization of the airport, during the peak period the time between arrivals for mm2 is lower than that of mm1. the traffic intensity of mm2 is 6.23 and for mm1 1.06. queue theory was used to analyze the traffic intensity with runway as the service points. the capacity of the airside has been assessed and it has come to the notice that these capacity are adequately utilized i.e. not underutilized or over utilized but delay actually occur due to disruption in the operation of the aircraft. it is therefore recommended that the construction of new capacity in murtala muhammed international airport (mma1) is not advisable as the major cause of disruption is operational, as it is not the lack of capacities e.g. the runway, gates and hydrant pump. the research recommends that there is a great increase in the global patronage and available disposal of wealth which has made the demand for transport to keep raising, therefore the available airport capacities already in place must be adequately utilized to remain acceptable for the allocated resources to attract more. these capacities depend on schedule, but one disruption or the other arises to alter the schedule and might lead to complains from the passenger and lack of reliability on the airline providing the services. schedules should be structured in a way to accommodate other form ofdisruptions. airline should intimate their passenger with reasons for delay. the airside capacity should be constantly maintained by contacting ncaa/faan to liaise necessary agency to replace fuel hydrants and other capacities, if the old ones will cost a lot of money to be fixed and the supply points should be connected to the airports. the representative of faan management to ensure that action is expedited on the upgrade the runway 18l/36r (mmia).for further studies, the period of assessment can be increased from 2months to a year and all the airport capacity can be assessed. references mike, h. 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(2001). introduction to operations research. new york: mcgraw-hill higher education. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 islamic microfinance as a tool for women empowerment and sustainable economic development goals in bangladesh md. shahbub alam assistant professor dept. of accounting and information systems islamic university, bangladesh e-mail: shahbub.ais07@gmail.com md. kamal uddin dept. of accounting and information systems islamic university, bangladesh md. jafor ali ph.d fellow universiti of selangor, shah alam, malaysia md. nazmul huda dept. of accounting and information systems islamic university, bangladesh abul bashar bhuiyan associate professor faculty of business and accountancy universiti of selangor, shah alam, malaysia received: march 02, 2021 accepted: may 21, 2021 online published: may 27, 2022 doi: 10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1734 url: https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1734 abstract bangladesh is now playing a role model in conventional microfinancing programs in the whole world. though the financial sectors of this country cover both conventional and islamic modes. there exist some limitations of conventional microfinancing operating by ngos. the islamic microfinancing programs are not enhanced in comparing conventional microfinancing due to a lack of proper policy formulation. most people are practicing muslims and want to avoid interest. the islamic financial institutions have emphasized women's empowerment through shariah-based microfinancing and achieving sustainable economic development. the main objective of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of islamic microfinance for empowering women and achieving sdgs in bangladesh. the methodology of this study is based on secondary data including existing relevant literature and annual reports of different financial institutions. the findings of this study show that islamic microfinance institutions perform a significant https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 2 role in empowering women as well as attaining sdgs and have a broader scope to flourish more by applying their various investment modes. this study will help to promote shariah-based microfinancing in the future and transmit microfinance systems to other countries of the world. this paper also tries to recommend some strategies and policy options to promote shariah-based microfinancing to reduce the challenges to ensuring women's empowerment and attaining sdgs. keywords: islamic microfinance, women empowerment, sdgs, bangladesh. introduction the blooming of microfinance as a formal and an informal source of finance to help the poor have gained considerable recognition worldwide. there exists a relationship between microfinance and poverty reduction, economic growth as well as gender inequality (aninze et al., 2018).the development microfinance in bangladesh occured more than the decades ago. its origin can be traced back to 1976, when muhammad yunus set up the grameen bank, as experiment, on the outskirts of chittagong university campus in the village of jobra, bangladesh. since then several microfinance institutions came up and have succeeded in reaching the poorest of the poor but most of microfinance instituitions are now in mission drift for the fulfillment of their vision. these included the provision of collateral free loans to poor people, especially in rural areas, at high interest rates that are repayable in frequent installments(khan & rahaman, 2007). microfinance is one of the powerful tools for the poor to fight against poverty in bangladesh. since nearly last three decades the microfinancing institutions have been providing millions of microcredit loans to the poor and have reduced poverty but not such a rate as required (baten, 2009). the experience of poverty programs of ngos reveals that they have, in general, been successful in serving the moderate poor but failed in reaching the extreme poor mainly due to higher rate of interest and operational cost, lack of customized products and reluctance of religious people to participate in interest based programs (nabi et al., 2017). islamic microfinance programs have been working as an instrument for empowering women and fight against poverty. women are specifically targeted by islamic microfinance under the rural development scheme espicially islami bank bangladesh limited (ibbl), which provides interest-free-loans and many other benefits to the women groups involved (hassan et al., 2017). sustainable development can be defined as the state of the world which can be attained by combining local and global effort to meet the needs of human being with the activities that will ensure the safety of the society and environment of future generation (kates et al., 2005). islamic microfinance instruments has been working to achieve the sustainable development goals (sdgs) and have a broader scope to attain sdgs through their various investment modes (rashid et al., 2018) in the most of the muslim country poverty is considered as a main obstacle for economic develoment. the half of the total population in bangladesh is women it is not possible the ensure economic development without the involvent of women in development works. muslim women remain the least empowered part of society. so there is no option without empowering women for ensuring sustainable econmic development of the country. the un has announced 17 goals to be achieved in 2030 to ensure sustainable devolopment. every country in the worlds are now trying to achieve sdgs within specified time period and using different types of tools. bangladesh is planning and using numerous tools for achieving these goals. it is well known to every one that the islamic microfinance tools contributed a lot to attain mdgs successfully. the main aim of the islamic microfinance is to ensure the equity and justice in wealth distribution and remove hunger, suppression of poverty, increasing employment opportuinty which areconsistent with the motto of sdgs. as a muslim country, many islamic financial institutions are working in bangladesh and helping ensure sound economy. this study tries to to investigate the effectiveness of islamic micro finance for empowering women and achieving sdgs in bangladesh. objectives of the study the main aims of the study is to investigate the effectiveness of islamic microfinance for empoweing women and achieving sdgs in bangladesh. http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 3 other broad objectives included in the study are:  to elucidate on the concepts and models of islamic microfinance  to identify the islamic microfinance instruments through which islamic financial institutions are empowering women and contributing to achieving sdgs  to examine challenges faced by islamic microfinance in bangladesh  to put forward policy options to build a strong islamic micro finance market in bangladesh and transmit shariah based microfinance systems to other countries of the world. literature review khan and noreen (2012) states that women empowerment is economically significant issues in any developing countries. microfinance strengths women decision making by participation in economic activities. the study investigated the socio-economic development of women through micro credit. the study results that microfinance has positive effect on women empowerment but not up to the expected level. rashid et al. (2018) conducted study on exploring the islamic microfinance instruments in achieving the sustainable development goals (sdgs) in bangladesh. financial institutions are playing vital role to the attainment of sdgs through the orientation of variety of microfinance products. the study results that islamic microfinance has strong impact on ensuring economic development, achieving social and environmental sustainability. the study concludes that islamic microfinance institutions are wholeheartedly trying to improving the socioeconomic condition of the rural which are related to sdgs. lamichhane (2020) mentioned in a study that microfinance services are considered as the prime access or entry point towards the empowerment of women. the study finds a positive relationship between microfinance and women empowerment. microfinance has a profound impact on women’s selfworthiness, decision making power, economic status, community activities and self-help group programs. ananda (2011) argued that microfinance in the developing world is emerging as an effective instrument for alleviating poverty, empowering women and sustainable development. he also states that the economic benefits derived from microfinance is sustainable. loro (2013) highlights in her paper that microcredit loans significantly enhanced rural poor women’s self-esteem and self-worth which empowering them. this not only impact on gaining women higher status in society but also developing bangladeshi economy by the inclusion of more people and business into the economy. according to mohamed and fauziyyah (2020), islamic microfinance is an effective tool of poverty alleviation and improvement of social well-being as well as the economic development of poor, especially in the muslim society. the study reveals that islamic microfinance would be the impactful measures for a developing country through innovative products in achieving sustainable economic development goals. according to aninze et al. (2018), micro finance provisions helps women participants to eliminate their social and cultural barriers in developing countries. akhter (2018) points out that in the case of microfinance, institutions mostly targets the poor women participants. he also mentioned that provision of financial resources and its effective utilization along with group-based works can strengthen women’s economic status and roles in developing countries. akhter and cheng (2020) analyzed the use of microcredit as a tool to bridge the gap between the accessibility of microfinance among poor rural women and sustainable socio-economic development, providing innovation to the concept of sustainability of empowerment. the empirical analysis finds that there is a significant impact of microfinance on increasing women participation in the overall decision-making process, in legal awareness, independent movements, and mobility, as well as enhancing living standards to encourage sustainable women empowerment. rahayu (2020) opines in similar way and concluded the paper with stating the financial self-sustainable paradigm triggers the practice of islamic microfinance in a country. nisser and ayedh (2017) examined the significance of microfinance role to the empowerment of women and their socio-economic development. the paper shows that there is a strong relationship between microfinance and women empowerment. microfinance institutions should introduce diversified products to the inclusion of women in microfinance program which is very important for extending women empowerment and sustainable development of a country. debnath et al. (2019) examined the http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 4 determinants of microfinance accessibility by rural women households and its effect on women empowerment in bangladesh. the study reveals that the users of microcredit have a greater control over savings, household decision making and legal awareness. usman and tasmin (2016a) investigated the conceptual framework on the relevance of islamic microfinance in achieving the sustainable development goals (sdgs) of a country. the paper finds that islamic microfinance contributes significantly to the development of human capabilities towards knowledge and skills, empowerment, self-reliance and social status of rural women. islamic microfinance led to the empowerment of women that assure their economic life effectively. islam (2020) investigated the role of islamic microfinance to the women empowerment in rural bangladesh. islamic microfinance services (imfs) led to rural family’s occupational transformation from agriculture to retail business. the study focused on three dimensions of empowerment viz. economic empowerment, sociocultural empowerment and familial empowerment. imfs impacts on all three dimensions out of which economic and socioeconomic empowerment positively contributed toward overall women’s empowerment whereas familial empowerment negatively on overall empowerment. uddin and barai (2016) in her research paper studied the role of islamic microcredit to the enhancement of borrowers’ income in bangladesh under the rural development scheme of islamic banks. the paper explored that islamic microfinance instrument helps poor people releasing poverty through rising of income. uddin et al. (2020) analyzed the islamic microfinance instruments in attaining sustainable development goals (sdgs) in bangladesh. islamic microfinance brought the socio-economic changes of rural women by alleviating poverty, ending hunger for food, ensuring good health, clean drinking water, sanitation & gender equality and empowering women that all lead to the attainment of sdgs. methodology of the study the required information and data has been collected from secondary sources to derive the objectives of the study. the secondary source contains scholarly articles, reports of regulatory authority, research organizations, donor, government agencies on islamic microfinance and islamic banks in bangladesh. descriptive analytical method has been used in the paper. this study covers different islamic microfinacing institutions of banagladesh. concepts and models of islamic microfinance islamic microfinance there exists multidimensional poverty in a country and it requires different strategies to tackle it. the central focus of this strategy was to enable the poor people to generate income, build assets or attain an educational level necessary to get out of poverty. but it is very difficult to provide loan to the poor men because they are incapable of own collateral security, and possessing a lower human capacity (gifr, 2012). islamic microfinance refers to financial services delivered among low income or destitute people based on islamic shariah. the conventional microfinance is operated based on interest which is prohibited in islam. islamic microfinance is offered as an alternative among religious poor people for poverty alleviation by employing both charity and profit based unique models. islamic microfinance operates its programs following the principles of islamic shariah which includes prohibition of interest, risk sharing, and avoidance of gharar or ambiguity and ensuring falah (welfare) for all member of the society (nabi et al., 2017). islamic micro-finance has evolved to provide financial mediation for producing factors of production, goods and services through profit and loss, leasing and sale with emphasis on ethical and moral values in business. there is evidence to suggest that islamic micro-finance has a comprehensive approach towards human empowerment, leading to human development in muslim societies (usman & tasmin, 2016b). gifr (2012) has reported that islamic micro-finance products can be divided into three classes such as micro-credit, micro-equity and charity. the micro-credit entails the usage of business asset based on loan or lease that eases the lack of capital in the face of a business opportunity. micro-equity establishes a business relationship between provider of capital and the entrepreneur who manages the http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 5 business. under micro-equity, factors of production are brought together while profit or loss is shared in line with agreed upon formulae. the charity type of islamic micro-fi nance serves as a source of additional empowerment in the form of safety nets and for sustainability motives. islamic microfinance structures figure1. islamic microfinance structures; source: gifr (2012) islamic microfinance model islamic microfinance has inclusive models to incorporate moderate poor and extreme poor. islamic microfinance models can be divided into charity and profit based model as shown in figure 2. charity based model based on zakat, sadaqa, waqaf and qard hasana serves for extreme poor and marginal poor just above poverty line. profit based model based on qard hasana and commercial funds serves for low income poor. models of islamic microfinance figure 2. models of islamic microfinance; source:obaidullah, (2008) and iqbal, (2015) islamic microfinance tools through which islamic financial institutions are empowering women and contributing to achieving sdgs charity based mode of islamic microfinance zakat: it is the third of the five basic pillars of islamic faith. zakat is a compulsory levy imposed on the muslims so as to transfer a portion of wealth from the rich members of the muslim society to distribute the same among the poor. it is th right of the poor on the assets of rich muslim brothers. thus, zakat works as a tool for the distribution of wealth and a sustainable source of funding of charity based microfinance to empower poor women and promote sdgs. sadaqa: it means voluntarily donations made by muslims to remove hardship of the poor people. prophet muhammad (sm) urge muslims to give charity to the needy peoples in the society. funds collected as sadaqa may be a viable source of funding of charity based microfinance. waqf: the word waqf in islamic legal terminology is defined as protecting an asset in order to refrain the microcredit • intrest free loan • murabaha • lease • salam micro equity • murabaha • musharaka charity • zakat • sadaka • waqf charity based model • microfinance based on zakat, sadaqa and waqaf for extreme poor • microfinance based on zakat, waqf and qard hasana for poor above poverty line profit based model • microfinance based onqard hasana for low income poor • microfinance based oncommercial fund for low income poor http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 6 usage, and will be utilized and benefited for the purpose of charity.there are different types of waqf in muslim societies which may be a viable source of funding of charity based microfinance. qard hasana: quard means loan without interest and hasana means beautiful. quard-e-hasana implies beautiful loan on good faith or beneficial loan. here the lolan holder only pays pricipal in reaonable time and need not top pay anything exta compensation for the fund. this facilities may be most viable way to for empowering women and attaining sdgs. wadia: these deposits or savings accounts may be used to encourage the microfinance client to save even smaller amounts as they are allowed to withdraw whenever they want, and there is no risk of loss. this small fund may be ultilized for empowering women and attaining sdgs. mudaraba: the microfinance clients can open mudaraba savings account with mfi to save surplus funds. under this mode, the client is exposed to investment risks and shares the profit with the institution on a pre-determined ratio. this mode helps both paties in sustianable economic benefits. profit based mode islamic microfinance mudarabah (silent partnership): this is a collaboration deal business enterprise between two parties. one party provide capital and called rabb al-mal (the owner of capital). another party, manages the organization using his expertise in using capital is called mudarib. every party shared benefit predetermined agreed ratio. actually most of the commercial islamic institutions use this for for empowering women and attaining different sdgs targets. musharakah (partnership): it is a mutual relationship involving two or more parties; both stakeholders give funding in the project. in this agreement if any profit aises then distributed an anagreed ratio and if any loss occurs then distributed on the basis of propotion of capital.the investment in this may play significant role in cearting employment opportunity basically women empowerment as well as fulfill th sdgs targets. murabaha: contractual buying and selling at a mark-up profit is called murabaha. in this case, the client requests the mfi to purchase certain goods and mfi purchases as per requirement of the client. the client receives the goods on payment of the price which includes mark-up profit as per contract. medium and large enterprsises get advantages from this imf mode. muajjal : “bai-muajjal” means sale for which payment is made at a future fixed date or within a fixed period. actually, it is a sale on credit. it is a contract between a buyer and a seller under which the seller sells certain specifi c goods (permissible under shariah and law of the country) to the buyer at an agreed fixed price payable at a certain fixed future date in lump sum or within a fixed period by fixed installments. this mode of financing helps the small and poor businessmen inperforming sound business environment. salam: salam means advance purchase. it is a mode of business mainly used in agriculture under which the buyer pays the price of the goods in advance on the condition that the goods would be supplied or delivered at a particular future time. the seller supplies the goods within the fixed time. though this mode is most expected for empowerment of women but the application is not a satisfactory level. istisna: istisna is a contract executed between a buyer and a seller under which the seller pledges to manufacture and supply certain goods according to specification of the buyer. http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 7 ijarah (leasing): this is lesase conntract occured by the mutual consent between the two or more parties. whereby an islamic bank buys and rentals a customer for a rental payment a real estates such as machinery, truck, residence, furniture, construction, and other equipment. ijarah waiqtina (lease to purchase): this arrangement is like ijara. the distinction between the two is that the consumer is obligated to buy the property at the close of the leasing term in the event of ijara waiqtina. the entire ownership is returned to the user at the completion of the contract, and the maintenance costs payable to date are included. qard al-hasan: it is a loan free of charge, either for social services or for short-term financial needs. within this case, the creditor shall only recover without any increase in the balance of the loan. though it is not considered as a investment scheme but this financing helps to the people who are poor. takaful: takaful, a risk management tool is one of the most important products for clients of mfi institutions who are generally unable to plan or save for unexpected or uncertain events in the future. takaful, ideally, is a non-profi t mode where all the participants provide joint guarantees. takaful fund contributing in difficult times like death, sickness, crop or business loss, etc effectiveness of islamic microfinance as a tool women empowerment and sustainable economic development women empowerment in islam empowerment is commonly defined as an increase in citizens' capacity to make policy decisions in an environment in which they have historically been deprived of such potential (hassan & saleem, 2017; nurasyiah et al., 2018). the word 'empowering women' is perhaps the most contentious topic in the field of development. empowerment of women is recognized as key in developed countries to sustained economic development and poverty reduction (ulfi, 2018). there is always raises a voice on gender inequality in developed and developing countries. it is assumed that the gender inequality is more acute in muslim societies. the muslim women are deprived in working at home or outside, education, and attaining assets from family. but real situation is different islam gives equal opportunity women sometimes gives more than men. our prophet muhammad (pbah) urge that women are not to perform only home-based activities, they may busy and stood with their men in jihad, and they treat the injured. at the time of muhammad (pbah), the first wife of muhammad (pbah), hazrat khadija, was an esteemed businesswoman. those rights and responsibilities that the muslim woman had that time most women do not enjoy now. therefore, it is clear that true islamic principles always support women in helping their families and supporting welfare. in this relation, the holy quran devotes women as a whole surah to islam, granted a very special role. it also says that muslim women are responsible for the same moral values as men. in particular, islam respects the images of strong women such as khadijah, bibi maryam, and aisha. it is observed that women are maintaining important roles in islamic countries, where the campaigns for women's rights are seen as one of the most important social movements in favor of justice and rights. the impact of islamic microfinance on women's empowerment it is found that women microcredit has a major influence in empowering women. by providing working facilities, women might have the chance to start their small enterprises close to or outside their homes within the microfinance system, thereby not having to leave their children alone at home. islamic microfinance has an important influence on economic inclusion, access to schooling, access to health care, women's rights and empowerment (ulfi, 2018). according to nurasyiah et al. (2018) islamic microfinance has no significant impact on women’s economic empowerment. islamic microfinance schemes are also very much directed towards assisting corporate resources and women's moral growth. http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 8 females from poor backgrounds, especially those who became a study respondent, have a deficiency, expressed in the degree of trust and still faintness of mental and bravery. it takes some time to build this character, though members (women) are not too long to join in the islamic microfinance program. despite, as islam is the second largest religious in the world and unfortunately the researches estimated that more than 650 million muslims living under poverty line. therefore, for the governments and as well as for the community’s leaders it should be in their first duties to fight with this important issue and build and develop stable islamic microfinance organizations to help poor and involved every economic unit in economic development (safiullah,2021). in bangladesh the islamic microfinance institutions works moderately in empowering women. as a muslim country people are want to avoid interest and want to get profit sharing mode of financing. the islami bank bangladesh limited is pioneer in islamic microfinance in this country and performing the activities through rural development service scheme (rds) and urban development service scheme (upds). this institution shows a positive result on empowering women in this country. some other mfa are also performing a significant role in empowering women. sustainable economic development the tasks for economic and social development must be set taking into account its sustainability and correspondence to environmental imperative in all countries and applied on both macroand micro-levels (аvtorhanov et al., 2018). sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while simultaneously sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend(wikipedia). sustainable development can be defined as development that meets the present needs as well as ensuring future needs without considerating the abililty of the future gerneration. the contributions of islamic microfinance in achieving sdgs the major portion of investable fund invested on the basis on weight of the products. the study observes in an islamic finance sector-wise investment are highest in micro, small and medium enterprises. as most of the people in this country living below in poverty line so these investment covers a large portion of the total population. the contribution of islamic microfinance in achieving sdgs are summarized as under: poverty reduction and end hunger (sdg 1 and sdg 2) bangladesh is making progress in reducing poverty rate and has a chance of overcoming the extreme poverty by 2030 (world bank, 2016). the islamic microfinance funds are spent on different types of education, training and health care programs in bangladesh. basically. islamic banks serve the deprived and retarded segments of people who live below extreme poverty through their micro-financing (mamun et al., 2017). the islamic financial institutions accumulated the fund of zakat, waqf and sadaqah and distributed to the real poor in the country that plays a significant role eradication of poverty and hunger. good health and quality education (sdg 3 and sdg 4) islamic microfinance provides education and medicare facilities to the down-trodden people. besides many charitable hospitals such as ahsania charitable cancer hospital, islami bank foundation are also giving medical treatment with low costs to the poorer section of the society all over the country. the vulnerability of the poor is reduced and their socioeconomic status improved with the better health condition and the education level of their children (bhuiyan et al., 2011). the islamic foundation works with twenty nine missions including treating patients, providing literacy training to illiterate people and supplying person with interest-free microcredit loans is working overall districts in bangladesh. clean water, sanitation energy, consumption and production (sdg 6, sdg 7 and sdg 12) islamic microcredit helps to improve the livelihood of both rural and urban poor especially the health, http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organizing_principle https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human_development_(economics) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human_development_(economics) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/natural_resource https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/natural_resource https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ecosystem_services https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 9 sanitation, education status by providing investment facilities. it also extends the investment facilities providing hand tube-wells keeping in view the needs of safe drinking water and rural housing facilities of the rural dwellers. bangladesh is an agricultural country so islamic microfinance investment can help the farmers empowerment. gender equality and empowering women and girls (sdg 5) islam gives the equal rights in the women and islamic financial institution works for the empowering women by providing various shariah based microcredit investment. sustainable economic growth and employment opportunity (sdg 8) the imf has shown the power and success in achieving the accelerated economic growth of their microcredit with reaching the rural poor people. besides, it enhances employment opportunity (mahmood & mohd rosli, 2013; shirazi, 2012). the islamic microfinance institutions deployed their fund in development that helps to achieve the goal of sdg-8. infrastructure and human safety (sdg 9 and 11) islamic microfinance empowerment has been regarded as an important tool for improving the household's quality of life regarding better and bigger houses and healthy conditions (bin mohamad, 2013; usman & tasmin, 2016a). peace, justice and global partnership for sustainable development (sdg 12) zakat and waqf regulated by separate ordinances are not capable of solving social problem. imfs such as the "urban poor development scheme (upds)" of ibbl established to develop welfare oriented banking system and to ensure equity and justice in the field of all economic activities is also trying to reduce the level of crime & violence through the development of ethical and religious values through its microfinance (dhaoui, 2015). islamic microfinance increase human morale to maintain peace, justice in society as well as creating international brotherhood. combating climate change, ocean resources, managing land and forest (sdg 13, sdg14 and sdg 15) with increasing the global awareness, the microfinance institutions are considering the environmental, social and governance (esg) issues during their decision-making process (caplan, 2013). the microfinance institutions deployed their fund in environment friendly project like agriculture, forestation and bio diversified sectors. challenges and potentials of islamic microfinance in bangladesh challenges of islamic microfinance in bangladesh islamic microfinance in bangladesh did not grow like conventional microfinance due to lack of visionary leadership, negative attitudes public, lack of motivation from top management, lack of directions and guidelines from regulatory authorities, lack of proper application of investment mechanism, inadequate funds, lack of proper use of zakat and waqf funds, want of dedicated trained professionals and compromising in shariah rulings. the key challenges that islamic microfinance industry faces include: (i)absence of proper guidelines for islamic microfinance from microcredit regulatory authority; (ii) absence of sufficient islamic microfinance institutions; (iii) paucity of well-trained expert human resources; (iv) lack of motivation from management; (v) absence of self-oriented supportive guidelines from central bank of bangladesh; (vi) absences proper application of investment mechanism and, (vii) compromising in shariah rulings. http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 10 potentials of islamic microfinance in bangladesh though islamic microfinance bears samll portion of total microfinace. there are huge opportunity to flourish islamic micrifinace in bangladesh. the following factors may be explained for bright prospects and significance of islamic microfinance in bangladesh.  majority of the people in this country belongs to muslim religion. so bring the muslim religious people under the umbrella of islamic microfinance scheme.  the success of islamic banking in bangladesh is repuated all over the world. so imf can take this chance to be role model microfinancing.  there are huge liquidity in islamic financial institutions in bangladesh. these excess liquidity may be used for islamic microfinacing.  the islamic microfinance programs of ibbl(rds & upds) are already proved the success in this arena. so imf get advantages from this miletone.  bangladesh has a great experience of conventional microfinance. so this may be crucial in expanding islamic microfi nance.  the proper management of zakat and waquf fund may enhance the islamic micofinance  attracting foreign funds may enhnace the operations of islamic microfinace in banladesh  performing work in good faith, the ruling of islam may improve relationship between muslim and non-muslim. this may improve the imf opertaions. policy appliance and conclusion it is imperative to adopt following policy options to promote islamic microfi nance industry in bangladesh: (i) issue of guidelines on islamic microfinance institutions by micro credit regulatory authority (mra) covering all operating aspects including capital adequacy, risk management, auditing and monitoring, and global financial reporting standards. (ii) allowing a good number of islamic microfinance institutions (imfis) by mra. (iii) adopt programs to develop devoted and skilled human resources and promote more efforts to train islamic mfi manager and staffs. (iv) improve the motivation and morale of the management for enhancing imf. (v) implementation of self-oriented supportive guidelines from central bank of bangladesh. (vi) application shariah based diversified investment instruments of flourshing islamic microcredit. (vii) application of modern technology to reduce operational cost and expand network in remote areas towards promoting imf. (viii) undertaking proper steps for credit, liquidity and market risk management for ensuring sustainability of islamic microfinanc (ix)arranging dialogue with conventional microfinance institutions to introduce islamic microfinance for promoting imf among hardcore poor people. (x) must follow the shariah rulings in microfinancing because shariah is called the main arms for islamic financial institutions. there are some limitations of conventional microfinacing but conventional microfinancing more or less successful in women empowerment. the participation in the microfinance programmes helps to empowering women and contribute socio economic development. at the same time islamic microfinance program act as a viable tool in promoting women empowerment and combating poverty through its inclusive and innovative models based on zakat, sadaka, waqf and commercial funds to cater the demand of all categories of poor. islamic microfinance is working to achieve the targets of sustainable development goals. the study finds that the islamic microfinance touches all 17 goals of sdgs in the economy of bangladesh. finally islamic microfinance institutions are wholeheartedly working to improve the socioeconomic condition of the especially women empowerment and attaining people the goals of sustainable development. author contributions conceptualization: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan data curation: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, md. nazmul huda, abul bashar bhuiyan formal analysis: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, md. jafor ali, abul bashar bhuiyan funding acquisition: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 13, no. 1; 2022 11 investigation: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan methodology: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan project administration: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan resources: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan software: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan supervision: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan validation: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan visualization: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan writing – original draft: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan writing – review & editing: md. shahbub alam, md. kamal uddin, abul bashar bhuiyan conflict of interest statement the authors declares that they have no competing interests. acknowledgement all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. references aninze, f., el-gohary, h., & hussain, j. 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(2018). empowering women through islamic microfinance: experience of bmt beringharjo. jebi (jurnal ekonomi dan bisnis islam), 3(1), 89. https://doi.org/10.15548/jebi.v3i1.147 copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) http://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr https://doi.org/10.37227/jibm-2020-64 https://doi.org/10.15548/jebi.v3i1.147 american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 3; 2020 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 comparison of in vitro activity of colistin with ceftolozane/tazobactam against multi drug resistant pseudomonas aeruginosa “a last line treatment against mdr” k. m. anwarul islam associate professor the millennium university, bangladesh muhammad aitmaud uddolah khan assistant professor baqai medical university, pakistan sarah azhar senior lecturer baqai medical university, pakistan muhammad rashid ahmed professor baqai medical university, pakistan sumreen khurram lecturer baqai medical university, pakistan hina masood lecturer baqai medical university, pakistan lubna farooq assistant professor baqai medical university, pakistan abstract objectives to evaluate and compare in vitro activity of ceftolazane / tazobactum and colistin against multi drug resistant (mdr) strains of pseudomonas aeruginosa. methodology after ethical approval this in vitro cross-sectional study was conducted from october 2017 to april 2018. routine samples of pus, wound swabs, blood, tracheal aspirates and urine were collected and received from the in-patient and out-patient clinics. all the samples were submitted for culture and sensitivity testing at the microbiology laboratory of ziauddin university hospital, https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 3; 2020 2 north nazimabad campus. all the samples were processed according to the provided microbiological procedures, clsi guidelines 2018. results forty sample from the out-patient clinics represented pre-dominance of multi drug resistant strains of pseudomonas aeruginosa (which was found to be 41.2%). on culture and sensitivity testing, it was observed that 60% of the mdr strains of p. aeruginosa were susceptible to ceftolazane / tazobactum which was markedly comparable to the susceptibility shown by colistin (99%).statistically, p value was highly significant and was found to be 0.0001. conclusion colistin showed superior activity as compared to ceftolazane / tazobactum against mdr isolates of p. aeruginosa. thus, colistin has proven to be a possible and important alternative against mdr isolates of p. aeruginosa, but due to its narrow therapeutic window and toxicity profile this drug can be used only when there is no working alternative, or the infection is severely debilitating. keywords: gram-negative infection, p. aeruginosa, resistant. introduction antibacterial drug are the main therapeutic agents in medicine to treat broad spectrum diseases caused by bacterial infections. in modern science, antibiotic development is one of the milestones. millions of lives all over the world are saved daily because of the use of antibiotic agents. but there is an important threat round the globe – the emergence of resistance against antibacterial agents (ventola, 2015). irrational and over the counter use of antibiotics result in emergence of resistant isolates of bacteria which do not respond to drug therapy (buke et al., 2005). antibacterial drug resistance threatens this milestone and has become a significant risk to health of mankind. antibacterial resistance is now a major clinical concern round the globe and is a major public health problem of the current century (levy, 2002). p. aeruginosa is a very ubiquitous microorganism, present in many natural and artificial environments (haley, colmer-hamood, & hamood, 2012). p. aeruginosa has a unique grape like odour of aminoacetophenone on culture media / agar (cox, & parker, 1979). it colonizes naturally on skin, in nasal mucosa, throat and also in fecal samples. p. aeruginosa is a nosocomial pathogen. it is also an opportunistic organism and causes life threatening infections in immune-compromised individuals (kielhofner, atmar, hamill, & musher, 1992). according to the data provided by the center for the diseases control and prevention (cdc), p. aeruginosa can cause a wide variety of infections and is also one of the most common infectious agents for nosocomial pneumonia (cross et al., 1983), urinary tract infections, ophthalmitis, otitis, surgical wound infections and bacteremia (trautmann, halder, hoegel, royer, & haller, 2008).) another study revealed that p. aeruginosa is also a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients of cystic fibrosis (kerem, corey, gold, & levison, 1990). colistin is a polymyxin b antibiotic, which was used as a therapeutic agent for gram negative organisms. (evans, feola, & rapp, 1999) due to severe nephrotoxicity and https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 3; 2020 3 neurotoxicity after the therapeutic use of colistin, its use was diminished (wolinsky & hines, 1962). currently due to severe resistance shown by bacteria, colistin (polymiyxin b) has reemerged as a last line treatment modality for multi drug resistant isolates of p. aeruginosa, acinetobacter baumannii and klebseilla pneumonia. according to our knowledge, in pakistan no current data is available for usage of 5th generation cephalosporin comparison with colistin. antibiotic resistance, an emerging problem and a clinical concern to treat uropathogenic p.aeruginosa, it is now a high time to look for more specific and sensitive antibacterial agents to treat resistant infections. the aim of this study is to ascertain the prevalence of p. aeruginosa, in the population of karachi. another aim is to determine and compare the sensitivity of ceftolozane / tazobactum, a novel 5th generation cephalosporin. with the sensitivity of colistin – as it is the last line defense option against multi drug resistant (mdr) strains of p. aeruginosa. materials and methods this was a quasi experimental investigation and samples were gathered utilizing nonprobability strategy. study was directed from october 2017 to april 2018 at ziauddin university hospital, karachi. samples were gathered from the inpatient wards and outpatient clinics, subsequently submitted to microbiology lab of ziauddin university hospital, north nazimabad campus, karachi, for culture and sensitivity. routine samples were taken including pus discharge, wound swabs, blood, tracheal aspirates and urine. samples were treated as per microbiological procedures clsi guidelines 2018. after an informed and written consent detailed data of the patients and organisms was recorded on a different survey form. all non-lactose fermenting growths on macconkey's agar were collected and stained with gram stain and biochemical tests (motility, pigment presentation, citrate, catalase and oxidase tests) were run. data was scrutinized by utilizing statistical package for social sciences (spss) vesion 21. descriptive investigations for numerical variables have been referenced as mean with standard deviation. frequencies and percentages were determined for susceptibility of antibacterial drugs and mdr strains of p. aeruginosa from different clinical samples. zones of inhibition were deciphered according to clsi guidelines 2018. chi square test was applied to gauge the relationship among sensitivity and resistance patterns of antimicrobial medications. a p-value< 0.05 was considered as factually critical. results a sum of 176 strains of pseudomonas was segregated out of which 97 were mdr p. aeruginosa. the pre-dominant bulk of mdr p. aeruginosa segregates were acquired from outpatient division, 40 isolates (41.2%) and least were gathered from gynecology ward, 3 isolates (4.1%) as appeared in table 2. it was discovered that 60.0% of the mdr p. aeruginosa strains were found susceptible to ceftolozane / tazobactum but when contrasted with colistin the sensitivity came out to be 99%. p value was discovered to be statistically significant (p value = 0.0001) as appeared in table 3. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 3; 2020 4 table 1. gender wise frequency of mdr p. aeruginosa gender mdr 97(55 %) non mdr 79 (45%) p value male 45 (46 %) 40 (50.6 %) 0.59 female 52 (54 %) 37 (46.8 %) table 2. percentage of mdr isolates in different departments department mdr non mdr p value gynecology ward 3 (4.1) 0 (0.0) 0.29 intensive care unit 16 ( 16.5) 17 (21.5) surgical ward 26(27.1) 30 (38.0) outpatient department 40(41.2) 24(30.4) medicine ward 11(11.3) 8(10.1) table 3. comparison of susceptibility results of colistin and c/t by disc diffusion method antibiotics susceptible n (%) resistant n (%) p value colistin ceftolozane/tazobactam 99(99%) 58 (60.0%) 1 (1%) 39 (40%) 0.0001 discussion in immune-compromised patients, diseases such as pneumonia, bacteremia, urinary tract infections, infections of skin and other soft tissues are usually linked with a notorious / harmful gram negative, aerobic rod-shaped bacillus called pseudomonas aeruginosa (el baze et al., 1991). clinical isolates of p.aeruginosa show resistance to a lot of classes of antibiotic drugs and have left clinicians with a few choices of course of therapy for infectious diseases (kalantar, 2012; rossolini, & mantengoli, 2005) research studies conducted in different areas/countries of the world also support/exhibit increased prevalence rate of mdr p.aeruginosa. a research performed in india in 2017, at a tertiary care setup demonstrated 85% prevalence rate of p. aeruginosa (yuliandra, 2017). another study conducted in egypt showed highest incidence of p.aeruginosa at the burns unit as well as in icu (mahmoud, zahran, hindawi, labib, & galal, 2013). another high frequency was also noted in egypt (56%) (farooq, memon, ismail, & sadiq, 2019). in texas a research was conducted in 2010, that revealed a bulk of involvement of mdr p. aeruginosa from gynecology / obstetrics unit (4.1%), medicine ward (11.3%), icu (16.5%) and from surgical ward (26.8%). another study was conducted and found to support the role of p. aeruginosa in 10 icu’s in france that helped in identifying individual and environmental icu risk factors that aid in acquiring p. aeruginosa infections (venier et al., 2014) https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 3; 2020 5 in this study multi-drug resistant strains of p. aeruginosa were found predominantly in the female population and the result was 64%, in comparison to the male population in which the result was 46%. the results are similar to a research conducted in nepal, which revealed mdr p. aeruginosa strains were (64%) higher in females while (31%) lower in males (kattel, 2012). another study on uti also supported higher incidence of infection by p. aeruginosa in female population as compared to male population. women aged between 20-40 years show incidence ranging from 25 30% in contrast to older women aged 60 years or more who showed an incidence ranging from 4 43% (mittal, aggarwal, sharma, chhibber, & harjai, 2009). in 2013, a cross sectional study was done in a teaching hospital of ethiopia from january to may and urine samples were collected from 73 patients who were catheterized and developed urinary tract infections. out of those 73 patients, p. aeruginosa was found in urine samples of 36 patients (49.32%) who were catheterized, out of which 17 were males (23.29%) and 19 were females (26.03%). after antibiotic sensitivity testing, all clinical isolates of p. aeruginosa were susceptible to norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. susceptibility to gentamicin was also noted and was found to be 86.12% (bekele, tesfaye, sewunet, & waktola, 2015). geographical variation and duration of study may also act as an influencing factor that is associated with the difference in gender prevalence. in our study, it was found that mdr strains of p. aeruginosa are 99%susceptible to colistin (polymyxin b). another research conducted in pakistan also supported our study and demonstrated that colistin (polymyxin b) is the most sensitive antibacterial option among the antibiotic regimen options (gill, 2011). polymyxin b antibacterial drug, also called colistin is used as a therapeutic agent against gram negative bacilli. all over the world and in our country polymyxin b, is a sensitive antibacterial therapeutic agent but due to its narrow therapeutic index and noteworthy side effects, the empirical use of this medicine is very finite (landersdorfer, & nation, 2015). colistin was found to have a better in vitro function (98%) which is significantly comparable to tazobactum / ceftalozane (60%) when diffuse disc method of antibiotic sensitivity was applied. increased resistance of bacterial to antibiotic drugs, side effects and toxicities, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic uses, clinical findings and combination therapy in relation to colistin (polymyxin b) has been reviewed (pfaller, shortridge, sader, flamm, & castanheira, 2017). current methods to utilize colistin with other antibacterial drugs can be fruitful for increased antibacterial / antibiotic efficacy. in 21st century, it can be predicted that against multidrug resistant gram-negative bacillus colistin will be the last line of defense among all antibacterial therapeutic agents (biswas, brunel, dubus, reynaud-gaubert, & rolain, 2012). as ceftolazane / tazobactum is not a drug a choice in our set up, still 40% resistance was demonstrated in the results. this can be due to cross resistance that is if the patient is resistant to one group of cephalosporin then cross resistance may develop to newer agents of cephalosporins. conclusion resistance of pseudomonas aeruginosa against antibiotic agents is amplified over a past few years. previously colistin was considered a last resort therapy for various multi drug resistant bacteria in clinical set up. fortunately, ceftolozane / tazobactum a comparatively newer antibiotic, the therapeutic use of ceftolozane / tazobactum should be reserved only for severe https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 3; 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(2017). antibacterial resistance pattern of pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from clinical samples at a general hospital in... copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 analyzing the use of different social media marketing techniques applied by dark tourism spots to attract the attention of dark tourists: a study on different social media marketing techniques of bangabandhu memorial museum in dhaka mijanur rahman molla master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: mijanmkt53@gmail.com fahima sultana lima master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science & technology university gopalgonj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: fahimasultana980@gmail.com sk. md. hassan tareq master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science & technology university gopalgonj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: tareqmkt17@gmail.com received: december 02, 2021 accepted: december 27, 2021 online published: january 21, 2022 doi: 10.46281/aijmsr.v12i1.1556 url: https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v12i1.1556 abstract nowadays, people rely on social media for advertisements, news, information tourist places promotion, especially on facebook. for this reason, bangabandhu memorial museum uses social media marketing techniques to attract tourist attention. social media marketing can increase tourists and share different information types important for any tourist place. at present, people make a tour by knowing about the site through social media. so, the researcher insists that social media marketing techniques are more effective for bangabandhu memorial museum. this paper has five steps: the first steps of this project mailto:mijanmkt53@gmail.com mailto:fahimasultana980@gmail.com mailto:tareqmkt17@gmail.com https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 2 paper have introduction, methodology and literature review. the second step has formatted the conceptual framework. the third steps of this project have some objectives that identified by the researcher that which used for attracting dark tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum, analyzing the uses of social media marketing for attracting dark tourists which collected from questionnaire survey that was operated by a huge number of executive & employee of bangabandhu memorial museum and face-to-face interview with the tourists. and the fourth steps show the significant findings of the research paper. the last steps of the project paper are recommending some guidelines for bangabandhu memorial museum and further research. by this research, researchers identify the uses of facebook marketing for attracting dark tourists by bangabandhu memorial museum. because nowadays, people are more familiar with facebook and have more potential to promote dark tourism spots through social media. if bangabandhu memorial museum properly uses facebook marketing, they can increase tourists. so, promoting these dark tourism spots on facebook is the most popular social media platform technique. so, facebook media can increase dark tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum. keywords: dark tourism, tourists, social media, bangladesh. jel classification codes: m31. introduction people travel to different tourist spots to enjoy the pleasures of tourism. tourism is the name of feeling for tourists. people are exploring, looking for their traditionalism, every so often, to have the flavor of nature once more. it has become an exciting occasion and revels in forests, hills, and rivers. dark tourism (dt) is an entirely different subject of tourism sector which is not only a ghost or horror stories, and it is historically related to mourning, death and tragedy. ‘dark” means “black” and “black” means grief that’s why called dark tourism. there are some tourists spots in bangladesh which are portion of dark tourism. the father of our nation “sheikh mujibur rahman” is located at dhanmandi32.this is a mournful part of our history and turn out to be a part of dark tourism. “honorable prime minister sheikh hasina” formed a memorial on april 11, 1994 and handed it over the trust. “bangabandhu memorial museum “was inaugurated on 14th august with a collection of some memorabilia. bangabandhu memorial trust end up handed the house to become museum on 6 september 1994 and commemorate the mournful chapter. experts at memorial use a various social media marketing to inform tragic history (al-masud, 2015). social media marketing (smm) techniques play a significant role in the tourism industry. it’s help people to know about the product or place through social media. facebook, twitter, instagram etc. social media marketing techniques (smm) are a prevalent phase in modern age. social media easily attract the attention of people. so, to know about the dark history and attract the attention of tourists to visit dark spots (nguyen & wang, 2011). bangabandhu memorial museum should use different social media marketing techniques because people live in the modern age and internet-based community (hossain & asheq, 2019; akhter et al., 2020a; akhter et al., 2020b; jahan et al., 2020; hossain & asheq, 2020). they get and search all types of information through social media marketing (asheq et al., 2021; asheq & hossain, 2019; kumar et al., 2019; al amin et al., 2020; akhter et al., 2021). so people have already more interacted with virtual communication and information system. social media marketing such as facebook, twitter, instagram, linked-in, youtube, email marketing and other social media marketing is used in every business sector ( li et al., 2021). so, knowing about the dark tourism sector like bangabandhu memorial museum makes this business profitable to follow social media marketing techniques (smmt). therefore, social media techniques (smt) are more effective for https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 3 bangabandhu memorial museum for promoting their places and attracting people and influencing them to visit. people from everywhere worldwide have been interested in locations related to death and tragedy for a while. dark tourism spots have attracted tourist attention by all means comparatively distant past by tragic past or bowery past. for this why, the primary perception of dark tourism (dt) is turning into more incredible famous amongst demanding customers. dark tourism (dt) is an action of touring and touring places, fascinates and display that get actual or fall off demise struggling or the turbulent as the primary term or things (stone, 2005). deaths, failures, or atrocities in touristic shape are becoming more pervasive in the modern traveller economy. dark tourism (dt) has deeply engaged the mainstream and is an in-vogue topic of media attention. as bangladesh economy is growing day by day (tu et al., 2021; hossain, asheq & arifuzzaman, 2019; rahaman et al., 2020; ara et al., 2015; ali et al., 2021; ali et al., 2020; baqir et al., 2020; batool et al., 2021; islam & bhuiyan 2021; islam & barghouthi, 2017; islam & miajee, 2018; islam, 2016a; islam, 2016b; islam, 2016c; islam et al., 2015; hossain et al., 2017; islam, 2015; islam & barghouthi, 2017; islam et al., 2021; sharif & karim, 2017; karim et al., 2021), hence dark tourism via social media marketing is very important to study. significance of the research this project paper is more important for tourism authorities to know the significance of different social media marketing techniques. dark tourism (dt) is an exceptional part of the tourism industry that plays a significant introduction in giving facts or knowledge and fetching the mournful past to the present. here the researcher conducts her research and her topic named as “analyzing the uses of different social media marketing techniques applied by dark tourism spots to attract the attention of dark tourists: a study on various social media marketing techniques of bangabandhu memorial museum in dhaka. this study could assist the tourism designers, planners and managers to determine the ability of dark tourism (dt) markets improvements outline goals and put in force conductive social media marketing (facebook, instagram, twitter) techniques used. nowadays, we know that social media marketing is essential for gathering information and is more valuable to attract tourists in dark tourism spots easily. the researcher finds out uses of different social media marketing techniques in bangabandhu memorial museum. and also give some guidelines for dark tourism promoter to uses social. media to attract the tourists. this project is more efficient for supporters to make more tourists by using social media marketing and boost people to know about bangabandhu memorial museum dark and mournful past. literature review the premise of this study is based around the research of joachim (2013) published in 2013. joachim (2013) researched dark tourism and examined the objection to promoting dark tourism (dt). he defined dark tourism (dt) as not a very new phenomenon and promoted dark tourism in the tourism market. (joachim, 2013). he found out the main idea of dark tourism spots and investigated the challenges of promoting tourism. the researchers will be analyzing the uses of different social media marketing techniques to attract the attention of dark tourists: a study on social media marketing techniques of bangabandhu memorial museum in dhaka. also provided some guidelines and recommendations for promoter to use social media marketing techniques to attract dark tourists. the researcher ensure that such study has not been done yet in bangladesh. the short-term motion of humans to locations out of their ordinary areas of job and domicile the actions take up a period their stay in those locations and simplify made looking after their requirements (mathieson & wall, 1982). defined by shaw and williams (1994), “tourism involves all types of visit that includes remain thewy one night or day but few than one year far away from the domicile. tourism is an act and deed to travel different locations with the motive to find some relaxation. (spillane, 1982) https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 4 people visit historically suffering, mourning and tragic death sites which is known as dark tourism. according to niemela (2010), “dark tourism (dt) is an individual sort of tourism industry that doesn’t solicit to everyone nevertheless play a significant role in bringing past to present and delivering information”. it is also a mixture of history, heritage, tragedy and tourism. death and disaster sites present tragic death (foley & lennon,1996). dark tourism (dt) is named as black tourism or gloom to tourism that isn’t a recent matter or subjects in tourism business involving tragic history, death and disaster sites (foley & lennon,1996). foley & lennon (1996) defined their book about dark tourism (dt) that have occurred recent times which force the visitor to question modernity. according to (stone & sharpley, 2008).) dark tourism (dt) is the type of visits and travel to sites, fascination, and display which have true death, mourning, or suffering as a main incident. dark tourism also related with the black chapter in our history. the survival of the dark tourism industry depends heavily on the existence of a tourism culture that allows locals to engage in travel enthusiastically. in our country, this dark tourism culture is still missing. because most of the tourism is made by ecotourism but some mournful incident of our country is what helps the possible dark tourism sites. for promoting dark tourism, government should take some initiatives for growing tourism industry as far. while the value of dark tourism has been extensively recognized, significant research and fact on the present situation of dark tourism is still uninterested. this is the main obstacle of dark tourism and many countries show dark tourism as optional to interesting the tourism industry. dark tourism is looked on as like low revenue producing to the national economy if likened to ecotourism as the size of dark tourists. this is because of the scarcity of knowledge about dark tourism spots in our country. to promote dark tourism main scarcity is scarcity of resources, financial and cultural obstacles. dark tourism industry would be an autonomous industry. despite the apparent impact of technology on the proliferation and delivery of dark tourism services, humans remain an important aspect of the successful delivery of dark tourism services. contracting with the mournful past is a rugged part if mournful chapter of real people are engaged as well as not all people take out that incident about cruelty should be said to the tourists for knowing about grievous past. for telling grievous past is increasing number of tourists. so intense the dark tourism site authority should follow new technological strategy (strange & kempa, 2003). at noted earlier, social media (sm) is a very popular for sharing image, information and video via virtual communities and networks. according to poynter (2010) defined that social media (sm) is very popular platform that are difficult to identify nevertheless simple to acknowledge and this primary components of the social media is the media that the internet and its blessings are getting used to move away from media that become essentially a one-to-many version towards a many to many. the term of social media does not refer the different technologies allow people to communicate. it refers to variety of media that people use to communicate online in a social way (scott, 2010). social media platform like facebook, twitter, instagram youtube are used for all kinds of business. in accordance with karimi and naghibi (2015) “social media adverting and marketing (smm) includes utilization of online social media marketing tools like twitter, facebook and linked in for reaching customer in creative ways. defined by orabi (2020), “social media marketing (smm) terms refers to the utilization on social media and social networks to marketing a business and products”. according to buffer,” social media marketing have some key point to spread business such as strategy, planning and publishing, listening, reporting and advertising. social media marketing allows consumer to seek information for any time. nowadays, social media marketing also use in tourism industry for knowing the tourists about the places. social media marketing (smm) are being utilized by all and even companies and start using social media marketing (smm) advertising and promoting their business or company. social media marketing (smm) use in business is easier and effective. the effective use of social media marketing (smm) may have the potential help the tourism business. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 5 nowadays, social media advertising and marketing strategies play a significant role to attract customer easily. at present, it could additionally be applied for promoting of darkish tourism spots and additionally relate to the darkish travelers attract through online in a effective way so that build up a close manner in order that with travelers and enlarging experiences by their level. social media advertising and marketing concept of blogs and connected online forums and keep an eye on how such digital platforms can cherish and promote information for sharing and research aid of dark tourism. if any organization using facebook for social marketing strategy than they can be successful. twitter, instagram, email etc. marketing media used in social media strategy. in modern age, facebook is one of the most popular media for any kind of business and social networking. instagram advertising is another technique to sharing image. linked in is another business focused techniques. youtube is another popular social media for sharing video and information about different sites. so, the uses of different social media marketing techniques applied by dark tourism spots to attract the attention of dark tourism is effective. as noted earlier, most of the business using social media marketing techniques to their business. tourism is also a business organization. so, social media gives a lot of benefit for organization that applies it as a marketing technique. that type of marketing is cheaper than traditional marketing strategy. social media helps organization to build awareness easily because other organization cannot do easily than social media. methodology the purpose of the research indicates that the researcher’s project paper is both exploratory and descriptive research. this is exploratory when the data was collected through in-depth interviews and it is descriptive when the data is analyzed through a structured questionnaire. the main purpose of this report is to explore the uses of the different social media marketing techniques applied by dark tourism spot bangabandhu memorial museum to attract the attention of dark tourists. this study had both qualitative and quantitative approaches since it was found most suitable to the researchers purpose for the first objective of the study researcher used observational research as a qualitative analysis tool to identify the uses of different social media marketing techniques applied by bangabandhu memorial museum dark tourism spot in dhaka for the second objective of the study. the researcher uses quantitative analysis where a statistical package of social science version 16 was used to analyze the uses of different social media marketing techniques applied by bangabandhu memorial museum dark tourism spot in dhaka. lastly, the researcher recommended some specific guidelines for bangabandhu memorial museum dark tourism spot in dhaka. both secondary and primary data were necessary for the fulfilment of the research project. secondary data was collected from various published documents in related books, journals, newspaper, magazines and websites. for getting primary data, respective respondents were interviewed personally to collect the necessary data through a structured questionnaire. non -probability convenience sampling techniques have been used for the sampling purpose. in this study, the researchers distributed this questionnaire to marketing experts and employees of the dark tourism spot bangabandhu memorial museum in dhaka. the sample size is 200, and the target respondents are the marketing expert and employees of dark tourism spot bangabandhu memorial museum in dhaka. the research used likert scaling technique as sample scaling where 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=neutral, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree and open-ended question. to analyze data found through questionnaires, the researcher applied frequency analysis. research objectives ▪ to analyze the uses of different social media marketing techniques applied by bangabandhu memorial museum by dark tourism spot to attract the attention of dark tourists. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 6 result analysis table 1. gender status of respondents name frequency percent female 44 44% male 56 56% total 100 100% the above gender status table shows that male are of 56%(n=56) from total respondents 56% (n=56) and female are of 44% from total respondents. figure 1. pie chart of gender status of respondents table 2. frequency and percent of executive for using social media marketing techniques frequency percent “strongly agree” 20 20% “agree” 45 45% “neutral” 28 28% “disagree” 7 7% “strongly disagree” 0 0% total 100 100% the above desk shows that 20% (n=20) of the respondents strongly agree, strongly 45% (n=45), neutral 28% and 7% disagree that bangabandhu memorial museum uses social media marketing techniques very well. however, because social media marketing can easily attract consumer attention, bangabandhu memorial museum uses this technique very well 65% of respondents agreed with this statement. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 7 figure 2. pie chart of bangabandhu memorial museum uses social media techniques table 3. frequency table of executives and employee of social media marketing is very useful for dark tourism frequency percent “strongly agree” 28 28% “agree” 59 59% “neutral” 9 9% “disagree” 4 4% “strongly disagree” 0 0% total 100 100% above the frequency table shows that 28% (n=28) strongly agree, 59%(n=59) agree that social media marketing is very useful for promoting dark tourists because social media marketing techniques easily attract tourists attention. though 59% agreed with this statement, bangabandhu memorial museum should use social media marketing properly. figure 3. pie chart of social media marketing is very useful for promoting dark tourism 20% 45% 28% 7% 1 2 3 4 28% 59% 9% 4% 1 2 3 4 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 8 table 4. frequency of executives and employee of social media marketing is profitable and effective frequency percent “strongly agree” 24 24% “agree” 53 53% “neutral” 19 19% “disagree” 2 2% “strongly disagree” 2 2% total 100 100% above this table frequency shows that 24% (n=24) of the respondents strongly agreed and 53% (n=53) of the respondents agreed that social media marketing is profitable and effective for bangabandhu memorial museum because it helps increase tourists. this information proved that social media marketing is profitable for bangabandhu memorial museum. figure 4. pie chart of social media marketing is profitable for memorial museum table 5. frequency table of executives and employee of social media marketing can easily attract dark tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum frequency percent “strongly agree” 26 26% “agree” 52 52% “neutral” 18 18% “disagree” 4 4% “strongly disagree” 0 0% total 100 100% 26% (n=26) respondents strongly agreed and also 52% (n=52) of the respondents agreed with this statement from this given frequency table that social media marketing techniques can easily attract dark tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum. this is evidence that social media marketing can easily attract dark tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum. 24% 53% 19% 2% 2% 1 2 3 4 5 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 9 figure 5. pie chart of social media marketing can easily attract dark tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum. table 6. frequency table of executives and employee of bangabandhu memorial museum for using social media advertisements frequency percent “strongly agree” 14 14% “agree” 59 59% “neutral” 17 17% “disagree” 9 9% “strongly disagree” 1 1% total 100 100% above this frequency table shows that 14% (n=14) respondents strongly agreed and also 59% (n=59) of the respondents agreed that social media advertisements are used more frequently by bangabandhu memorial museum. by the information of this table, this is the evidence that social media can increase tourists. figure 6. pie chart of social media marketing are used more frequently by bangabandhu memorial museum for online tourists. 26% 52% 18% 4% 1 2 3 4 14% 59% 17% 9%1% 1 2 3 4 5 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 10 table 7. frequency of executives and employee of bangabandhu memorial museum needed proper planning for using social media frequency percent “strongly agree” 39 39% “agree” 46 46% “neutral” 12 12% “disagree” 3 3% “strongly disagree” 0 0% total 100 100% this frequency table above shows that 39% (n=39) respondents strongly agreed & also 46% (n=46) respondents agreed that bangabandhu memorial museum needed a proper planning for using social media techniques because it can be able to retain more tourists. this table is the evidence that bangabandhu memorial museum need proper planning for attracting tourists’ attention for dark tourism sites. figure 7. pie chart of bangabandhu memorial museum proper planning for using social media technique table 8. frequency table of executives and employee of bangabandhu memorial museum maintains facebook pages. frequency percent “strongly agree” 16 16% “agree” 50 50% “neutral” 26 26% “disagree” 6 6% “strongly disagree” 2 2% total 100 100% over this frequency desk shows 16% (n=16) strongly agreed respondents and also 50% (n=50) respondents are agreed that bangabandhu memorial museum maintains facebook pages because it 39% 46% 12% 3% 1 2 3 4 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 11 provides information about mournful history. by the information of this table, bangabandhu memorial museum maintains facebook pages. figure 8. pie chart of bangabandhu memorial museum maintains facebook page on social media table 9. frequency table of executives and employee of bangabandhu memorial museum frequency percent “strongly agree” 41 41% “agree” 45 45% “neutral” 12 12% “disagree” 2 2% “strongly disagree” 0 0% total 100 100% this frequency desk shows that respondents of the statement 41% (n=41) strongly agreed and respondents agreed which percentage is 45%(n=45) that facebook marketing is a very effective social media platform for dark tourism sites cause facebook easily grab customers attention. so, giving table proved that facebook marketing is very effective social media platform. figure 9. pie chart of facebook marketing is very effective social media platform for dark tourism 16% 50% 26% 6% 2% 1 2 3 4 5 41% 45% 12% 2% 1 2 3 4 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 12 table 10. frequency table of executives and employee of useful of facebook on bangabandhu memorial museum frequency percent “strongly agree” 37 37% “agree” 42 42% “neutral” 13 13% “disagree” 8 8% “strongly disagree” 0 0% total 100 100% above the frequency shows as 37% (n=37) respondents of the table strongly agreed and also 42% (n=42) of the respondents agreed that facebook is more useful than any other marketing techniques in bangabandhu memorial museum. this frequency table proves that facebook is more useful than any other social media marketing technique. figure 10. pie chart of facebook is more useful than any other social media marketing techniques in bangabandhu memorial museum. table 11. frequency table of executives of there is a big opportunity to promote dark tourists frequency percent “strongly agree” 27 27% “agree” 51 51% “neutral” 16 16% “disagree” 5 5% “strongly disagree” 1 1% total 100 100% the frequency chart shows that 27% (n=27) respondents strongly agreed of the table and also 51% (n=51) respondents agreed with the statement that there is a big opportunity to promote dark spot because it is related with our nations mournful past and all over the world people uses social media. so, it proved that uses of social media techniques can increase tourists. 37% 42% 13% 8% 1 2 3 4 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 13 figure 11. pie chart to promote dark spots through facebook table 12. frequency table of executives of facebook is very popular marketing for promoting bangabandhu memorial museum frequency percent “strongly agree” 30 30% “agree” 56 56% “neutral” 13 13% “disagree” 1 1% “strongly disagree” 0 0% total 100 100% above this frequency table suggests that 30% (n=30) of the respondents strongly agreed and also 56% (n=56) of the respondents agreed that facebook is very popular social media marketing techniques for promoting dark spots because it can attract tourists attention. so, it can be said that facebook marketing is very popular marketing techniques for promoting bangabandhu memorial museum. figure 12. pie chart of facebook is very popular social media marketing techniques for promoting bangabandhu memorial museum 27% 51% 16% 5% 1% 1 2 3 4 5 30% 56% 13% 1% 1 2 3 4 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 14 table 13. frequency of executives and employee of facebook marketing gives us greater control over dark tourists frequency percent “strongly agree” 8 8% “agree” 54 54% “neutral” 26 26% “disagree” 11 11% “strongly disagree” 1 1% total 100 100% this frequency desk shows that 8% (n=8) respondents strongly agreed and also 54% (n=54) of the respondents agreed that facebook marketing gives us greater control over dark tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum because it can grasp tourist attention than other social media. so, above this statement, this is the evidence that facebook marketing gives us greater control over dark tourist. figure 13. pie chart of facebook marketing gives us greater control over dark tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum table 14. frequency of executives and employee of bangabandhu memorial museum frequency percent “strongly agree” 0 0% “agree” 0 0% “neutral” 0 0% “disagree” 73 73% “strongly disagree” 27 27% total 100 100% this frequency table show that 73% (n=73) of the respondent strongly disagreed and 27% (n=27) disagree with those statement because facebook marketing are not used by bangabandhu memorial museum for business purpose. by the information of this table, this is the evidence that facebook marketing are not used for business purpose, it used for knowing people about mournful history. 8% 54% 26% 11% 1% 1 2 3 4 5 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 15 figure 14. pie chart of facebook marketing are used by bangabandhu memorial museum for business purpose table 15. frequency of executives and employee of bangabandhu memorial museum frequency percent “strongly agree” 37 37% “agree” 51 51% “neutral” 9 9% “disagree” 3 3% “strongly disagree” 0% total 100 100% above the frequency table shows that 37% (n=37) respondents strongly agreed and 51% (n=51) agreed that facebook is a very popular social media marketing platform to inform people about bangabandhu memorial museum. so. it can be proved that facebook can more attract people than any other social media. figure 15. pie chart of facebook is very popular media platform to inform people about bangabandhu memorial museum 73% 27% 4 5 37% 51% 9% 3% 1 2 3 4 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 16 table 16. frequency table of executives and employee of bangabandhu memorial museum provide information and image on social media frequency percent “strongly agree” 18 18% “agree” 64 64% “neutral” 1 10% “disagree” 7 7% “strongly disagree” 1 1% total 100 100% above this table of frequency shows that 18% (n=18) respondents strongly agree, 64% agree, 10% neutral, disagree 7% and 1% strongly disagree that bangabandhu memorial museum provide information and image in social media through facebook. whereas 82% respondents agreed with this statement. so, it can be said that facebook is able to attract attention and provide information properly. figure 16. pie chart of bangabandhu memorial museum provide information and image through social media after the face-to-face interview with the dark tourists, the researcher got the following information from them: yes, all the respondents know about social media marketing techniques. specially student of school, college and university, they know about the importance and beneficial of social media techniques. they also believe that social media techniques like facebook, instagram, twitter, linked in, snapchat are very popular media for publishing information and connect with people. because in the technological and modern era people cannot think anything without social media. they believe that social media techniques especially facebook marketing is more popular and many businesses, company and organization maintains social media pages for knowing about their products and organizational information. they also said that they get more information and past history from social media and by using social media platforms, any organization achieves their goals. so, they are aware of using social media marketing techniques for any kinds of fulfilling their need. maximum respondents didn’t know about dark tourism. there are very few people who knows about dark tourism. only university student and some others people know about dark tourism. the respondent knows about bangabandhu memorial museum mournful past but they didn’t know about the word dark tourism. i told them dark tourism is industry that represents a black chapter in history. the “father of the nation” bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman’s whole family was tragically killed and 18% 64% 10% 7% 1% 1 2 3 4 5 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 17 it remains as a black chapter in history that is why it has been named dark tourism. most of the tourists said that they didn’t know about dark tourism but when i told them about dark tourism, they knew it. in short, it can be said that very few people know about dark spots. so, we should take initiative to know it. maximum respondents answer is “no” but some respondents answer is “yes”. maximum people know about bangabandhu memorial museum but they didn’t know about the uses of social media marketing techniques on bangabandhu memorial museum. they know about museum and social media marketing techniques but didn’t know about the uses. but university student and job holders they know about the social media techniques uses by bangabandhu memorial museum and their facebook pages. but some people was happy for using social media techniques in bangabandhu memorial museum. tourist answer was “no” and some respondents answer was “yes”. they went bangabandhu memorial museum for visiting bangabandhu house and saw bangabandhu bloody panjabi, glass, using furniture and others. some tourists said that they knew facebook page but never visit memorial museum by influenced it. but some university student said that they are interested to visit memorial museum by seeing social media pages. so, they are influenced by social media for visiting bangabandhu memorial museum. if bangabandhu memorial museum do make more marketing and advertising about their uses of social media marketing tourists will be more attracted, especially student and school student will be more attracted to it. when i asked the respondents that, will the uses of social media marketing techniques help the next generation to know about bangabandhu memorial museum? their answer was “yes” because next generation’s all task will be technology based. nowadays, people are more used to social media and they are dependent on social media for their everyday life. for this reason, they believe that social media marketing will help the next generation to know about social media marketing. many people went bangabandhu memorial museum for knowing their children about the mournful past of the father of our nation. when i asked whether the respondents get reliable information on facebook about bangabandhu memorial museum, 15% respondents answered “yes” but 80% answered that they didn’t get reliable information from facebook. but they also told that they got more information about bangabandhu memorial museum from google. they normally knew information about the bangabandhu memorial museum and i told them about facebook pages of bangabandhu memorial museum, they were interested about it. maximum respondents answer was “yes”, they knew about dark tourism from facebook. dark tourism is a tourism sector which represent the dark spot through different media. nowadays, dark spot start promoting business by social media. these promoting aims to make people know people about tragedy of our nation and a tragedy image of the places that will entice short time tour arrival or stable steps to personal alike. organization is beginning to use facebook for uploading information and images as they try to draw visitors. now virtually dark spot, area, or region considers place branding. countries branding to rise appeal to tourists is also a grow phenomenon. today tourists are dependent on facebook for tour. so, they said that they knew about dark tourism from facebook media. most of respondent answer was “yes”, social media impact their decisions to visit bangabandhu memorial museum. normally tourist spots attract people because social media retain respondents’ attention. when respondents saw about bangabandhu memorial museum in social media, they felt they want to visit this place. people normally visit bangabandhu memorial museum for seeing the house of father of nation but at present after social media promoting, they impact their decision to visit bangabandhu memorial museum. respondents said that they never share their friends about the uses of facebook marketing in bangabandhu memorial museum but some respondents said that they went memorial with some friends to see bangabandhu house at dhanmandi-32. they also said that they discussed about bangabandhu tragic death and it’s a black history for our nation. but, they said that uses of facebook marketing in https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 18 bangabandhu memorial museum is very effective to know about the past new generation. maximum respondents respond was “yes”, though they visited before but after knowing facebook marketing, it attracted their attention to visit bangabandhu memorial museum at dhanmondi-32. some respondents answer was no, because they visited bangabandhu memorial museum before. people normally visit memorial museum to see the bangabandhu house. according to respondent opinion use of facebook in bangabandhu memorial museum is able to increase tourists. the influence of facebook on tourists a time taking into a tour, respondents were asked for to agreement of degree with some representation: the first statement is that facebook shared videos and photos of tourists place to attract them for visiting. another positive facebook comment also influence their decision to visit bangabandhu memorial museum. by this statement, we can say that facebook can influence tourist decisions when considering a trip and also can able to increase tourists. some respondents answered “yes”, and some answered “no”. tourists go visiting tourists’ spots as an enjoyable moment to spend time. most of the respondents had before experience with bangabandhu memorial museum. after seeing photos and videos from facebook, they were more attracted to the museum. social media are more popular sites for influencing tourists to visit and make interested. but some respondents said that they were curious about bangabandhu memorial museum before because it was connected with the tragic past of the father of our nation. they also said that after some years people will be interested in visiting bangabandhu memorial museum being influenced by social media. facebook marketing attracted their attention to visit bangabandhu memorial museum at dhanmondi-32. sharing photos and videos on facebook attract tourists for visiting bangabandhu memorial museum. facebook is viral media of social media techniques for promoting a business because it quickly catches tourist attraction. i asked them a direct question whether they have been manifested to visit tour related terms, which is generated by bangabandhu memorial museum. so, respondents 75% answered was yes, and the rest of the answer was no. but in future, facebook marketing will be the most popular promotional tool for attracting customers. discussion in the modern age, social media marketing techniques, “specially” facebook marketing, is the more popular social media techniques for promoting the tourism industry and play a significant role. therefore, the research paper tried to identify and analyze the use of different social media marketing techniques applied by dark tourism spots to attract the attention of dark tourists: a study on various social media marketing techniques of bangabandhu memorial museum and also tried to recommend some guidelines for bangabandhu memorial museum authority regards the proper utilization of social media marketing techniques. the study's first objective was to analyze the uses of different social media marketing techniques applied by the bangabandhu memorial museum to attract dark tourists. whereas observational research method, the researcher found that bangabandhu memorial museum uses facebook marketing to attract dark tourists among social media marketing techniques. nowadays, facebook is the most popular social media that shares photos, videos, and information so that tourists easily attract and influence travel. facebook also raises the power of individuals by approving people to communicate whatsoever they want to share on social media. facebook is the most popular social media among social media marketing techniques, and its also able to grab consumers attention among different social groups. facebook marketing and tourism business are connected because with the help of facebook, people know about the destinations place. hence, people have little knowledge about dark tourism, and facebook media plays a vital role in promoting dark tourism. people know about bangabandhu memorial museum, but attracting and influencing facebook marketing is essential. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 19 therefore, facebook marketing is applied by bangabandhu memorial museum to attract dark tourists. first, the benefits of social media techniques on the bangabandhu memorial museum are excellent because they can grasp people attraction. most of the employee and executive opinion is that social media marketing is used by bangabandhu memorial museum. second, for the cause of attracting people, bangabandhu memorial museum uses social media for promoting its place and increase tourists. so, it can be said that social media marketing is beneficial for promoting dark tourism places; bangabandhu memorial museum. thirdly, it can be said that social media marketing, i.e. facebook marketing is effective for bangabandhu memorial museum because facebook provides the chance to share information and photos for attracting tourists to the bangabandhu memorial museum. forth, social media marketing techniques, especially facebook, can easily attract dark tourists to bangabandhu memorial museum. fifth, according to findings, researchers get that social media marketing techniques are frequently used by bangabandhu memorial museum to attract and influence decisions. sixth, bangabandhu memorial museum needs proper planning for using social media techniques because the memorial museum does not provide information and do not take initiatives to share more photos and videos and maintain only facebook marketing, among many other social media techniques. so, the bangabandhu memorial should do proper planning about social media techniques for attracting dark tourists. seventh, according to finding researcher, bangabandhu memorial museum maintains facebook pages to promote bangabandhu memorial museum. according to research findings, eight proved that facebook marketing is a very effective social media platform for dark tourism sites like bangabandhu memorial museum. because all classes of people use facebook than any other social media. so, it can be said that facebook marketing is more effective for bangabandhu memorial museum. nine, facebook is more used than any social media marketing technique in bangabandhu memorial museum. ten, according to research findings, researchers get a result that promoting bangabandhu memorial museum through facebook is more effective. it is a great opportunity to promote tourist spots through social media. eleventh, in modern era facebook is very popular media for promoting any kind of business, organization and place. because facebook provide information with photos that are attracting people. so, facebook is a very popular medium for promoting bangabandhu memorial museum is another finding and a very popular social media platform for informing people about bangabandhu memorial museum. twelve, facebook marketing gives us greater control over dark tourism for bangabandhu memorial museum. thirteen, facebook marketing are not used by bangabandhu memorial museum for business purpose. fourteen, facebook is a very popular social media platform to inform people about bangabandhu memorial museum. lastly, by analyzing data, bangabandhu memorial museum provides information and image on social media. according to the frequency and research findings, it can be said that bangabandhu memorial museum uses facebook marketing among social media marketing techniques and it’s able to attract the attention of dark tourist. finally, findings suggest that social media platform plays an important role and guides travellers to find spots in bangabandhu memorial museum visit and things something does at the tourists' sites. conclusion & recommendation according to findings, it can be narrated that social media marketing techniques, especially facebook marketing, can attract the attention of dark tourists of bangabandhu memorial museum. social media marketing techniques are more effective for promoting bangabandhu memorial museum. there is an ample opportunity for promoting bangabandhu memorial museum for attracting dark tourist. bangabandhu memorial museum is a tourism spots where a tragedy for our nation occurs. social media marketing can able to know next generation about the mournful past. from the study, it can be said that https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 20 most people use social media marketing for these reasons and social media marketing techniques can attract tourists for bangabandhu memorial museum. the recommendations for bangabandhu memorial museum marketing executives who should be seen as a consultation use various social media marketing techniques. not only facebook marketing but also instagram, email, linked in, snapchat for grab people attention for visiting bangabandhu memorial museum. ▪ bangabandhu memorial museum should do more advertising and share more photos on facebook about their place. ▪ bangabandhu memorial museum should be more conscious about promoting their places. ▪ not only facebook but also other social media marketing techniques should be used by bangabandhu memorial museum to attract dark tourists. ▪ bangabandhu memorial museum should organize a proper planning and others way which normally attract consumer further visiting this place. ▪ marketing executive should give more information about the mournful past of “the father of our nation”. presents a lot of information about uses of different social media marketing techniques for attracting tourist on bangabandhu memorial museum. the research topic acted by this projects study is a foremost consideration. in order to findings of a research, the researchers suggest for further research or study. this research paper could be better though if directed enough time. the researcher gives some following suggestions or recommend for further research or study: ▪ researchers recommend that future researchers explore the conclusion on a larger random sample collecting to be aware of more proper result about the uses of social media marketing techniques on bangabandhu memorial museum. ▪ researcher conducted observational research to investigate, but future researchers should investigate whether bangabandhu memorial museum actually uses social media marketing techniques. ▪ to visit tourist place so that they can get more accurate information. nowadays, the world has turned into digital world and social media marketing in particular world specially tourist destinations or places marketing has become essentials. this study served up that recommendation that bangabandhu memorial museum not only creates awareness of people to consider social media marketing but also gives proper training about how to utilize social media marketing techniques properly. bangabandhu memorial museum make them comprehend potentiality in social media where they integrated these new marketing techniques in the places marketing process. author contributions conceptualization: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima data curation: fahima sultana lima, sk. md. hassan tareq formal analysis: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima, sk. md. hassan tareq funding acquisition: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima, sk. md. hassan tareq investigation: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima, sk. md. hassan tareq methodology: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima project administration: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima resources: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima, sk. md. hassan tareq software: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima, sk. md. hassan tareq supervision: validation: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima visualization: mijanur rahman molla, fahima sultana lima, sk. md. hassan tareq https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 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(2021). graduate students’ behavioral intention of toward social entrepreneurship: role of social vision, innovativeness, social proactiveness, and risk taking. sustainability, 13(11), 6386. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/14984/niemela_titta.pdf https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:424450/fulltext02 american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 11, no. 1; 2021 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 irrigation decisions and use of groundwater in bangladesh: perspectives on some evolving crisis afroza chowdhury senior scientific officer agricultural economics division bangladesh rice research institute, (brri), bangladesh e-mail: afroza_muna@yahoo.com received: september 29, 2021 accepted: october 07, 2021 online published: october 23, 2021 doi: 10.46281/aijmsr.v11i1.1400 url: https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v11i1.1400 abstract groundwater is one of the vital rechargeable natural capitals, which serves as the main water source around the globe. in bangladesh, about 79% of the cultivated area relies on groundwater irrigation. the perspective piece is intended to scrutinize the irrigation decisions and groundwater use in bangladesh from published sources. the paper points that the reason behind the excessive groundwater mining is imbedded in the heavy dependence of bangladesh on irrigated dry season rice to feed its huge populaces. bangladesh has obtained rice self-sufficiency by foregoing environmental costs. the farming communities as a whole rarely adopted water-saving modern technologies and keep paddy fields abundantly irrigated as the marginal cost of irrigation is near zero. the irrigation water price is commonly pre-negotiated on the basis of per unit area for the whole crop season without considering the volume of water. the perspective suggests that the ignorance about the importance of groundwater and the consequent over-extraction cannot be stopped without thorough policy reforms. bangladesh should move toward institutionalizing irrigation, design a participatory framework involving all the stakeholders in a water management network and piloting efficient water models across the country. keywords: dry season, environmental externalities, rice, volumetric payment, water pricing. introduction groundwater is one of the vital rechargeable natural capitals available beneath the surface of the earth, which serves as the main water source for the household, industrial, and farming practices around the globe (fitts, 2002; nampak et al., 2014; neshat et al., 2013). it provides half of the irrigation water and meets around 97% of the freshwater needs worldwide (jakeman et al., 2016). the rapid growing dependency frequently causes excess withdrawal of groundwater and puts immense pressure on it (arubalaji et al., 2019). furthermore, groundwater depletion has reached a critical level, mostly in the tropic and subtropic areas, due to population pressure, changed climate and unplanned irrigation (ahmed et al., 2021). in bangladesh, about 79% of the cultivated area relies on groundwater for irrigating crop fields (qureshi et al., 2014). the drought-prone northwest part of bangladesh is solely dependent on agriculture, and 95% of its water demand is met by groundwater (mojid et al., 2019). groundwater in bangladesh https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 11, no. 1; 2021 2 faces comprehensive withdrawal in the dry (rabi) season for varied reasons and recharges naturally with monsoon rain and floodwater in the wet (kharif) season (neumann et al., 2009). similarly, prolonged droughts are experienced, especially in the northwestern part of bangladesh in the dry season due to low precipitation and high temperature, which consequently reduce the streamflow and hamper the production of dry season rabi crops significantly (alamgir et al., 2015). moreover, frequent and severe droughts have become a common phenomenon in recent years, which urges for changes in agricultural decision makings particularly in crop selection and water management (zimmermann et al., 2010). unlike wise the needful, an unplanned over-dependency on continued farming practice, along with unscientific decision making on water usage, is endangering these scarce water resources in those areas (animgyampo et al., 2019; campisi-pinto et al., 2012). rice, groundwater mining and forgone environmental costs the reason behind this excessive groundwater mining is imbedded in the heavy dependence of bangladesh on rice to feed 165 million of its populaces. expansion of irrigated plowing based on groundwater harvesting has enabled the country to intensify rice production through crop planting in multiple seasons along with the adoption of hybrids and high-yielding rice varieties (shew et al., 2019). in the last three decades, a quick increase in the area of the dry season irrigated rice (boro rice) has contributed significantly to wiping hunger and attaining self-sufficiency in rice cultivation (hossain, 2009; bell et al., 2015; mainuddin et al., 2014). the contribution of the boro season is around 52% of the total annual rice production in bangladesh. increased utilization of shallow tube-wells (stws) for extracting groundwater from the depth of 15 to 30 meter was the actual driver behind the expansion of irrigated dry season boro paddy area (hossain, 2009). rice self-sufficiency in bangladesh is obtained by foregoing environmental costs, hence, paved a major challenge to reduce the costs while keeping the pace of rice productivity uninterrupted (basak et al., 2016; uddin & dhar, 2018). this tendency of sacrificing environmental cost is somewhat patronized by the policymakers and occupied strongly at the root-level by the farming communities as well. the boro rice is a water-fascinated crop, and it is tough to reduce the water use in dry season irrigation practice without sacrificing rice yield, particularly when stakeholders are ignorant of the future threats. moreover, bangladeshi farmers apply on an average 38% excess water than the actual requirement (hossain et al. 2021). water-saving modern technologies are rarely adopted by the community as a whole despite being economical and yield maximizing (alauddin et al., 2020; hossain et al., 2016). irrigation decisions and water pricing in reality, never does the pricing of irrigation water in bangladesh give any economic incentive to use less water or adopt water-saving technologies. hence traditionally, farmers keep paddy fields abundantly irrigated regardless of the crop stages, and water requirement only for mental satisfaction or soothing eyes as the marginal cost of irrigation is near zero. the irrigation system is a private domain, but the aquifers and natural water bodies in bangladesh are open access, and water is commonly considered as public property or natural gift available free of charge or any pricing (pandey et al., 2020). there are mainly three types of private payment systems for irrigation water between the irrigators and farmers in bangladesh (rahman, 2016). in all the types of payment contract, water is provided for the whole crop season on the basis of per unit area without considering the volume of water (krupnik et al., 2015). the irrigation water market in bangladesh is more concerned about agronomic risks, additional cost of weeding and the risk of delayed irrigation due to possible power cut, diesel crisis or pumps being out of order, rather than the environmental externalities (mottaleb et al., 2019). it led the price of irrigation https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 11, no. 1; 2021 3 being negotiated prior to the crop season and allows farmers to keep the field flooded profligately instead of reducing water use by alternative wetting and drying practice (pandey et al., 2020). impacts of irrigation decisions it is evident from examining the present scenario that the groundwater table is falling as the volume of water recharge is less than the withdrawal in some places. consequently, the maximum groundwater level surpasses the suction limit of 8 meter for three months every year (dey et al., 2013; hossain et al., 2021; hodgson et al., 2014). regretfully, shallow aquifers being unsustainable means access to water resource for daily use, including the availability of safe drinking water, and a basic human need denied (kirby et al., 2013). on the other hand, the positive groundwater balance can be obtained even in the drought-prone districts simply by irrigating judicially. a calculation on the basis of the actual requirement of irrigation water by hossain et al. (2021) showed how decision making by the community as a whole may convert the water scarcity into a positive water balance. according to the researchers, an observed long-term average annual groundwater shortage of 0.2 billion cubic meters (bcm) could have been diverted to recharge of 0.55 bcm. hence, the perspective says, changes in irrigation decisions can bring the ultimate solution, and the blame from the agriculture sector for destroying the environment can possibly be revoked as well. but the ignorance about the importance of groundwater and the consequent over-extraction cannot be stopped without thorough policy reforms. otherwise, in the face of climatic vulnerabilities, if such unmindful depletion of groundwater continues regardless of the constant fall of water level, the agrarian economy may get threatened to lose sustainability (ahmad et al., 2014). the way forward it is high time to call for mapping spatio-temporal groundwater potential zone incorporating macroclimatic aspects for portraying the magnitude of future droughts (rahmati et al., 2016). the latest progress in the arena of geospatial techniques has brought newer dimensions and abled managing big data with great accuracy (sharma et al., 2018). the researchers, lately, are using a decent number of approaches under multi-criteria decision-making techniques and machine learning (arabameri et al., 2020). the region and season-wise assessment of water resources would help mitigate drought through revising crop selection accordingly. bangladesh should move toward institutionalizing the irrigation for increasing water use efficiency. persuading the farming community toward optimal water use decisions and proper crop planning is a must. utilizing rainwater and surface water can reduce groundwater mining and increase the volume of recharged water as well. awareness programs and robust policy reform is mandatory. the farmers who use water-saving technologies can be incentivized, for instance, by freeing their land development tax. the breeders should pay heed to introducing less water requiring rice varieties. lastly, the foremost challenge for the government is to design a participatory framework involving all the stakeholders in a volumetric payment-based water management network and piloting efficient water models across the country. references ahmad, m.-u.d., kirby, m., islam, m. s., hossain, m. j., & islam, m. m. 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(2018). comparative evaluation of gis-based landslide susceptibility mapping using statistical and heuristic approach for dharamshala region of kangra valley, india. geoenvironmental disasters, 5(1), 4. shew, a. m., durand-morat, a., putman, b., nalley, l. l., & ghosh, a. (2019). rice intensification in bangladesh improves economic and environmental welfare. environmental science & policy, 95, 46-57. uddin, m. t., & dhar, a. r. (2018). government input support on aus rice production in bangladesh: impact on farmers’ food security and poverty situation. agriculture & food security, 7(1), 1-15. zimmermann, m., glombitza, k. f., & rothenberger, b. (2010). disaster risk reduction programme for bangladesh. the swiss agency for development and cooperation (sdc), directorate of humanitarian aid and sha: bern, switzerland. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051510 american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 2; 2021 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 factors militating against public health financing in nigeria: an empirical review oluwadamisi tayo-ladega ceo his marvellous grace support foundation, nigeria phd student bangor university, uk e-mail: tayodamisi@gmail.com taye mohammed abdullahi master student department of chemical pathology, university of ibadan, nigeria k. m. anwarul islam associate professor department of business administration the millennium university, dhaka, bangladesh e-mail: ai419bankingdu@gmail.com abstract an effective and quality health care service is one of the fundamental visions of every government to its citizenry because it is only the healthy people that can be governed and will value developmental projects. citizens having access to quality health services translate to significant development in modern society. therefore, the provision of adequate funds for the sector is essential. however, the nigeria health care sector is currently confronted with colossal issues that should be surmounted to enhance effective and quality health care delivery to the citizens. this study is rooted in the evidence of appropriate works of literature in the financing of public health care service in nigeria. from the extant works of the literature surveyed, it was revealed that public health care services in nigeria are financed by revenue that is accrued from public tax, funding from donors, health insurance, and direct payments made by individuals. furthermore, public health service is mostly financed by direct payments made by individuals with the government. the most perturbing issues combating public health care financing are direct payments made by individuals, poor government funding, health care policy defects in implementation, and corruption scandals. on this note, the study recommended an effective and robust government funding of public health, implementation of sound health care policies, efficient monitoring of public funds utilization, and discouraging foreign medical trips. keywords: health finance, challenges, financing, nigeria. jel classification codes: a19, b10, b25, c10, c53. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 2; 2021 2 introduction healthcare financing indicates the ways by which healthcare expenditures are a sponsor or pay for. the right and stick connection between the healthcare sectors and the development of the economy of a country solely depends on the availability of funds and finance on the healthcare sector to accomplish improved level in healthcare status and growth of the economy (agbatogun & taiwo, 2010). however, having the right connection between the healthcare sector and the development of the economy, the healthcare sector in nigeria has faced many challenges that have reverse positive impacts on healthcare delivery in the country. different scholarly researches revealed that there are three origins at which healthcare sectors obtain their financial status; these include the general public, private individuals and donors (onwujekwe et al., 2009). therefore, there are different comparisons in different countries in which these funds are obtained from different origin to raise the healthcare status of the country (ichoku & fonta, 2009). the healthcare sector in nigeria is funded via tax revenues, out of pocket payments, health insurance (local and societal based insurance), individual finance, and subsidies (abiiro & mcintyre, 2012; lawanson et al., 2013; olakunde, 2012). moreover, different strategies put in place to funds the country healthcare systems is directly proportional to the quality health status of any individual in the country (carrin et al., 2007). the different implementations countries used to respond to sufficient and universal healthcare coverage through the healthcare finance for proper healthcare delivery for the citizenry is very important if the country wants to accomplish its national healthcare and universal healthcare coverage objective of health for all (carrin et al., 2007; drouin, 2008). the ability to finance the healthcare system through the money generated, allocated, and organized for healthcare delivery will have a great influence on health equity, healthcare accessibility, positive healthcare outcome, healthcare efficiency and will reduce the prevalence of diseases among people in the country (drechsler & jütting, 2005). the healthcare finance and expenditure in nigeria have reduced drastically, even in comparison with different countries in africa (alsan et al., 2006). therefore, this indicates that accomplishing beautiful healthcare delivery and finance is becoming more of a burden for nigeria healthcare system to bear due to low technical and institutional ability, low economic development, corruption, and government priorities (adinma & adinma, 2010). these factors pose challenges, burden and affect the smooth flow and effective balance of healthcare delivery and finance in nigeria. other factors that influence the healthcare finance system and its efficiency include poor healthcare management, insufficient healthcare equipment, low funding/finance, low healthcare equity, lack of developmental sustainable plans for the finance of the healthcare sectors, low education, low healthcare delivery, insufficient supervision of the healthcare providers in ensuring there is constant healthcare service delivery etc. the financing of the healthcare service become a huge concern in nigeria as the healthcare delivery and services face many challenges as people have low acceptance and belief in the out-of-pocket expenditure by the government (ogunbekun, 1999). this result in too many people seeking quality healthcare delivery in the private own sectors which lead to damaging the progress of the public healthcare system made in nigeria. people are moving out of the public healthcare system because there is low finance, insufficient medical equipment, insufficient medical professionals, low healthcare delivery etc., which in turn affect people lives negatively (olaniyan, 1995). therefore, the increase in people finding quality health in the private sectors from their out-of-pocket expenditure, in turn, increase the burden of disease on people with https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 2; 2021 3 poverty who can't withstand the payment of the healthcare delivery in the private own healthcare institution. this study is conducted as an attempt to reveal the factors militating against health care financing in nigeria, as it is essential to provide adequate healthcare financing for improving the healthcare service of the people living in poverty, and also improving funding in the healthcare sectors so that the shape of the healthcare institution in nigeria will be accessible by all and quality. literature review healthcare finance is the general collection of money or funds from different origins such as (individuals, privates, donors, and governments) by identifying the need to divide the finance to people with low healthcare delivery to improve their health status and also using the funds to pay for their healthcare services to the providers of the healthcare response. the attributes of financing the healthcare system in nigeria is to ensure there is the availability of money to mitigate healthcare delivery, making sure their effective demand and purchase of cost-effective interventions, outreach exact healthcare finances to providers and ensure that all individuals have access to effective health services (bakare & olubukun, 2011). the healthcare system of nigeria has poorly financed and managed for many years back. for instance, the household healthcare expenditure in direct relation to the total healthcare expenditure is 64.5% in 1998 and 2002 (soyibo, 2005). the instance explained that the challenges facing the healthcare finance and expenditure on the household healthcare delivery are on a high level. therefore, there is a need to examine and ensure that there is free healthcare service through funds from the governments that will ensure that there is effective, fair and quality healthcare delivery for people in the country (the federal republic of nigeria, 2004). the low healthcare financing has influenced the healthcare delivery in nigeria and as of 2008, nigeria healthcare indicators show that there were 630 maternal deaths from 100,000 births and also there is under five year’s old death rate of 124 deaths from 1000. though nigeria has a reduction of 38% in infant mortality rate to 78 deaths per 1,000 births in 2012, nigeria remains a huge burden on child and maternal deaths because of low healthcare finance (obansa & orimisan, 2013). major approach to finance the healthcare system in nigeria is from government, comprising of the three tiers of the government (federal, state, and local government), using public revenue from taxes, health care insurance, private sectors, and international health organizations (soyibo, 2005). nigeria has created many policies and plans that will have a positive influence on the healthcare sector and how its effectiveness will help the financial aspect (uzochukwu, 2013). these planned policies serve as a route to which the government implement actions and effectively allocate and fund the healthcare sectors. the nigerian policies and plans for responding to the health care financing include; the national health policy, health financing policy, national health bill and the national strategic health development plan (national health plan) (uzochukwu, 2013). the national assembly passed the national health into the bill on march 22, 2014. the aim of the national health policy is to improve the healthcare system of nigeria so that it will provide great, sufficient, quality, accessible, equitable, and affordable health services that will increase the status health of nigerians. the bill is the basis of the growth of a national health financing policy, by which the people in nigeria obtain accessible, sustainable, affordable, equitable and efficient health care delivery (federal republic of nigeria frn, 2006). https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 2; 2021 4 the status of the government expenditures and finance in the nigeria health sector for some years back indicates low priority from the government, before the democratic government assume power in 1999, the annual government expenditures and finance on health in nigeria was $533.6 million in 1980 after which it nose-dived, reaching a trough of $58.8 million in 1987. by 1999, there is an increase in health expenditure, reaching a peak in 2002 at $524.4 million and since then there has been a drastic reduction in the healthcare finance status of people in nigeria (herfon, 2006, central bank of nigeria cbn, 2006). empirical review the simplified path that will ensure more quality health is through the provision of good healthcare finance that will support people that cannot afford quality health and use good healthcare services. this path will ensure that there is good provision of good healthcare delivery, lowering risk in the healthcare sectors and however, any unforeseen risk can be covered by the healthcare finance thereby reduce different mortality cases due to negligence of individual inability to pay for healthcare services (carrin et al., 2007). the objective of financing the healthcare sector as reported from research studies is to provide sufficient equity and accessibility to healthcare sectors without making any healthcare services payments and this can be achieved when there are full funds provided for the people in the country through their social health insurance or health budgets (carrin & james, 2004; kutzin, 2007). the central bank of nigeria revealed that the nigeria federal government funds on the healthcare sector improve from us$141 million in 1998 to equate of us$228 million in 2003 (cbn, 2005). the funds provided for the healthcare sectors by the federal government decrease between 1998 and 2000; though improve in the following years, moving high to about 3.2% in 2003. most of the finance of the federal government's healthcare sectors quotation is on the teaching and specialized hospitals and other federal owned medical centres (cbn, 2005). the state government finance on the healthcare sectors is at the range of about 6.3%, which have used to improve the quality of health being of people living in their states and increase healthcare daily delivery. the state government on the healthcare finance focus on the role of the state in improves healthcare services and state hospitals. in 2003, the available outcome indicates that the financial status of healthcare is us$300 million or us$2.45 per capita (central bank of nigeria, 2005). therefore, the local government healthcare finance and healthcare delivery depend on the personnel interest of the local government chairman and the available funds from donors and individuals to increase the healthcare services and delivery in the local area (central bank of nigeria, 2008). low healthcare finance has improvised more poverty and hard economy into the lives of people in nigeria as many cannot afford the payments for quality healthcare delivery. a study examined the healthcare expenditures of the household of a sample number of 19,159 (palmer et al., 2004). it was found that the minimum annual per capita finance of citizen of healthcare service is 2,999 naira, this finance from the household take a portion of 8.7% of the total finance the household spend on the healthcare delivery (palmer et al., 2004). the finance of the household includes the money for out care patients, healthcare facilities, medications, and treatments, which indicate the burden the healthcare delivery is on individuals due to the low budget and low finance of the healthcare sector in the country. the level of corruption has affected the provision of financing the healthcare sectors and supply of quality healthcare delivery, this influence corruption has increased many effects such as low funds of healthcare sectors, mismanaged of allocated funds, inequality in treatment, fake https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 2; 2021 5 drugs and treatments, selling of free drugs etc (aregbeyen, 2001; lowell, 2010). there was a report about how the former minister of health in nigeria was sack in 2008 over mismanaged and informal share of funds (300 million nairas) that belong to the healthcare sectors. this instance shows the level of corruption which have become cankerworm, and this continues to block any great development in the country (soyiboet al., 2009). nigeria healthcare sectors lost close to £225 billion due to a high level of corruption and mismanagement (chike, 2006). the level of corruption in nigeria existence has influenced a lot of effects that have blocked the development and growth of people lives, which is the main interest to many professionals in the healthcare sectors as the level of corruption have to affect achieving universal health coverage which continues affecting the healthcare delivery and improving quality health lifestyle of nigerians. the level of corruption has affects the reproducibility of healthcare services as there is lower funds incurred on the healthcare sectors as many people in power have been mismanaging the funds and putting low consideration on the healthcare sectors as many prefer to take their healthcare service abroad (health reform foundation, 2006). in the study of imoughele & ismaila (2013), it was revealed that the significant property of healthcare sector depends on the finance status of spend in nigeria and the other factors that affect the public healthcare finance. bakare & sanmi (2011) recommended that quality education, good healthcare sectors, skills healthcare training, and financing the healthcare sector and services will increase the capacity of human lives that might have an effect on the development of the country economic. babatude (2012) identified that provision of finance to the healthcare sector enhance the quality of the healthcare delivery which improve the medical professionals working style and improve the tax payments of the government, resulting to great fiscal status in the country. this improvement wills results to quality economic growth and development. agbatogun & taiwo (2010) examined the healthcare expenditure and its determinants factors in nigeria. the study emphasized on the need for attention and consideration to improve the healthcare sector in order to achieve sustainable economic growth and development, and revealed that the main determinants factor of the health care sector in terms of allocation, budget and finance is the gross domestic products, while the rate of literacy and growth rate of the population have no contributing importance to the healthcare expenditure determinant in nigeria. saad & kalakech (2009) conducted similar study in the on the economy of nigeria and how it directly affect the healthcare sectors during 1970-2003 by adopting co-integration analysis for the research. bokhari et al. (2007) investigate the financing status of the healthcare sectors in nigeria. the study identified that the government show low consideration on financing the healthcare sector, which indicate how the healthcare status does not really matters to them. it was discovered in the study that the expectancy life and rate of literacy in nigeria are influenced by the healthcare sector and good financial status of the health care sector on the lives of individuals in nigeria. alabi (2010) identified that nigeria government have less than 1% of gdp allocated to healthcare provision and service, and almost 2% of nigeria government oil revenue was allocated to healthcare sector in nigeria between 1981 and 2006. this shows how low the nigeria government finance and consider the healthcare sector in the country thereby triggering many health effects among people in the country without proper healthcare delivery implemented. idowu et al. (2018) identified that the financing status of the healthcare sector have a huge impact on the public health status in nigeria. the ability to finance the healthcare sector https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 2; 2021 6 greatly have an importance influence on the mortality and morbidity cases in nigeria as good finance will reduce those impacts because little healthcare delivery were been offered by the medical professionals as there is little or no finance to care and save lives. therefore, the study recommend that nigeria government should increase their finance allocation to the healthcare sector for better and quality health to be put in place. in the studies of umoru & omolara (2013); nkpoyen et al. (2014), the usage of healthcare facilities was focused as it is affected by the low economic growth and low access to the healthcare equipments and facilities, and high medical care. the effects are due to the low finance for the healthcare delivery of the public in nigeria. yaqub et al. (2012) identified investigate the potency of financing the healthcare sector and the state of the healthcare sector in nigeria. the findings revealed that there is low finance in the healthcare sector, and it is result to the high level of infant mortalities rate in nigeria. conclusion and recommendations an effective and quality health care service is one of the fundamental visions of every government to its citizenry because it is only the healthy people that can be governed and will value developmental projects. citizens having access to quality health services translate to significant development in modern society. therefore, the provision of adequate funds for the sector is essential. the nigeria government adopt various strategies to finance healthcare sectors, but there are minimal development and growth in financing the healthcare sectors which remains a challenge in accomplishing quality healthcare delivery in nigeria. the nigeria health care sector is currently confronted with colossal issues that should be surmounted to enhance effective and quality health care delivery to the citizens. this study is rooted in the evidence of appropriate works of literature in the financing of public health care service in nigeria. from the extant literature surveyed, it was revealed that public health care services in nigeria are financed by revenue that is accrued from public tax, funding from donors, health insurance, and direct payments made by individuals. furthermore, public health service is mostly financed by direct payments made by individuals with the government. the most perturbing issues combating public health care financing are direct payments made by individuals, poor government funding, health care policy defects in implementation, and corruption scandals. on this note, the study recommended an effective and robust government funding of public health, implementation of sound health care policies, efficient monitoring of public funds utilization, and discouraging foreign medical trips. other recommendations for the financing of healthcare sectors in nigeria are: 1) reformation of the people expenditure concerning their known priorities, pricing policies and funding the communities by allotting them with their exact healthcare finance that can improve their healthcare services. 2) there is a need for the government to finance and increase more access of people to primary healthcare because that is the public engage with mostly due to it is near to them. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 7, no. 2; 2021 7 3) it requires improving the salary of the medical professionals, providing them with good performance bonus and other quality programs that will improve their skills as professionals. these will efficiently improve the quality of healthcare delivery in the country. 4) there is a need for the healthcare sector to examine their impacts, not on the hospitals and equipment provided but by the changes brought in to respond and contain the burden of disease and mortality. 5) there should be clean leadership, well-strategized and future plan in the healthcare sector and delivery in nigeria. 6) there should be the provision of adequate finance and partnership that will mitigate the quality of healthcare services and delivery in nigeria. 7) there is a need for efficient monitoring and evaluation of impacts made by the healthcare services, trace of how the healthcare professionals use the available resources and reformation of healthcare policies. references abiiro, g.a., & mcintyre, d. 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(2012). public health expenditure and health outcome in nigeria: the impact of governance. european scientific journal, 8(13), 189201. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 published by centre for research on islamic banking & finance and business, usa 31 hybrid quantum computing apocalypse robert skopec 1 1 de dubnik, researcher-analyst, slovakia correspondence: robert skopec, dubnik, slovakia, researcher-analyst, e-mail: zxcbnvm7@gmail.com received: july 30, 2018 accepted: august 10, 2018 online published: august 22, 2018 abstract chinese scientists won a major victory, by proving that the majorana fermions – a particle we’ve found tantalizing hints for years – genuinely exists. this discovery has huge implications for quantum computing, and it might change the world. don lincoln, a senior physicist at fermi lab, does research using the large hadrons collider. he is the author of “the large hadrons collider: the extraordinary story of the higgs boson and other stuff that will blow your mind”, and produces a series of science education videos. to the question: why is there (in our universe) something including cancer, rather than nothing? he is giving the simplest scientific answer: we shouldn’t exist at all. keywords: hybrid, quantum, computing, apocalypse, multiverse. 1. multiverse theory and dark energy each universe in a multiverse contains different levels of dark energy, according to the dominant theory. a hypothetical multiverse seems less likely after modeling by researchers in australia and the uk threw one of its key assumptions into doubt. the multiverse concept suggests that our universe is but one of many. it finds support among some of the world’s most accomplished physicists, including brian greene, max tegmark, neil degrasse tyson and the late stephen hawking. one of the prime attractions of the idea is that it potentially accounts for an anomaly in calculations for dark energy. the mysterious force is thought to be responsible for the accelerating expansion of our own universe. current theories, predict there should be rather more of it around than there appears to be. this throws up another set of problems: if the amount of dark energy around was as much as equations require – and that is many trillions of times the level that seems to exist – the universe would expand so rapidly that stars and planets would not form – and life, thus would not be possible. the multiverse idea to an extent accounts for and accommodates this oddly small – but life permitting – dark energy quotient. it permits a curiously self-serving explanation: there are a vast number of universes all with differing amounts of dark energy. we exist inone that has an amount low enough to permit stars and so on to form, and thus life to exist. so far, so anthropic. but now a group of astronomers, including luke barnes from the university of sydney in australia and jaime salcido from durham university in the uk, has published two papers in the journal monthly notices of the royal astronomical society that show the dark energy and star formation balance isn’t quite as fine as previous estimates have suggested. the team created simulations of the universe using the supercomputer architecture contained within the evolution and assembly of galaxies and their environments (eagle) project. this is a uk-based collaboration that models some 10,000 galaxies over a distance of 300 million-light years, and compares the results with actual observations from the hubble telescope and other observatories. the simulations allowed the researchers to adjust the amount of dark energy in the universe and watch what happened. the results were a surprise. the research revealed that the amount of dark energy could be increased www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 32 a couple of hundred times – or reduced equally drastically – without substantially affecting anything else. for many physicists, the unexplained but seemingly special amount of dark energy in our universe is frustrating puzzle. above simulations show that even if there was much more dark energy or even very little in the universe then it would only have a minimal effect on star and planet formation. this implies that life could potentially exist in many multiverse universes. the multiverse was previously thought to explain the observed value of dark energy as a lottery – we have a lucky ticket and live in the universe that forms beautiful galaxies which permit life as we know it. cited works show that our ticket seems a little too lucky. it’s more special than it needs to be for life. this is a problem for the multiverse, a puzzle remains. it is a puzzle that goes right to the heart of the matter: if the dark energy assumptions are flawed, does a multiverse even exist ? the formation of stars in a universe is a hybrid battle between the attraction of gravity, and the repulsion of dark energy. so why such a paltry amount of dark energy in our universe ? probably, we should be looking for a new law of physics to explain this strange property of our universe, and the multiverse theory. 2. why the universe shouldn’t exist at all? don lincoln, a senior physicist at fermilab, does research using the large hadron collider. he is the author of “the large hadron collider: the extraordinary story of the higgs boson and other stuff that will blow your mind”, and produces a series of science education videos. to the question: why is there (in our universe) something including cancer, rather than nothing ? he is giving the simplest scientific answer: we shouldn’t exist at all. give some scientists 65 pounds of rare isotope of germanium, cool it to temperatures cold enough to liquefy air, and place their equipment nearly a mile underground in an abandoned gold mine, and you’ll have the beginnings of an answer. their project is called the majorana demonstrator and it is located at the sanford underground research facility, near lead, south dakota. to grasp why science has trouble explaining why matter exists – and to understand the scientific achievement of majorana – we must first know a few simple things. first, our universe is made exclusively of matter, all people, the earth, even distant galaxies. all of it is matter. our best theory for explaining the behavior of the matter and energy of the universe contradicts the realities that we observe in the universe all around us. this theory, called the standard model, says that the matter of the universe should be accompanied by an identical amount of antimatter, which, as its name suggests, is a substance antagonistic to matter. combine equal amounts of matter and antimatter and it will convert into energy. and the street goes both ways: enough energy can convert into matter and antimatter (since antimatter’s discovery in 1931). modern cosmology says the universe began in an unimaginable big bang – an explosion of energy. in this theory, equal amounts of matter and antimatter should have resulted in cancer. so how our universe made exclusively of matter ? however, we don’t know the process whereby the asymmetry in the laws of the universe arose. one possible explanation revolves around a class of subatomic particles called leptons. the most well-known of the leptons is the familiar electron, found around atoms. a less known lepton is called the neutrino. neutrinos are emitted in a particular kind of nuclear radiation, called beta decay. it occurs when a neutron in an atom decays into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino. neutrinos are fascinating particles. they interact extremely weakly, a steady barrage of neutrinos from the nuclear reactions in the sun pass through the entire earth essentially without interacting. still a mystery to scientists is whether there is a difference between neutrino matter and neutrino antimatter. while we know that both exists, we don’t know if they are different subatomic particles or if they are the same thing. we don’t know which kind of twins the neutrino matter/antimatter pair are. if neutrinos are their own antimatter particle, it would be an enormous clue in the mistery of missing antimatter and proliferation of matter in cancer. the way they do that is to look first for a very rare form of beta decay, called double beta decay. that’s when two neutrons in the nucleus of an atom simultaneously decay. if neutrinos are their own antiparticle, an even rarer thing can occur called hybrid neutrinoless double beta decay (the term: robert skopec). in this process, the neutrinos are absorbed before they get outside of the nucleus. in this case no neutrinos are emitted. the observation of a single, unambiguous neutrinoless double beta decay would show that matter and antimatter neutrinos were the same. www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 33 if indeed neutrinoless double beta decay exists, it’s very hard to detect and it’s important that scientists can discriminate between the many types of radioactive decay that mimic that of a neutrino. this requires the design and construction of very precise detectors. so that’s what the majorana demonstrator scientists achieved. once and for all, it can answer the question of whether matter and antimatter neutrinos are hybrid: the same or different. with that information in hand, it might be possible to understand why our universe is made of matter leading to cancer too. (lincoln, 2018) 3. hybrid majorana fermion change the world chinese scientists won a major victory, by proving that the majorana fermion – a particle we’ve found tantalizing hints of for years – genuinely exists. this discovery has huge implications for quantum computing of cancer, and it might change the world. a majorana fermion is weird even by the standards of quantum physics. the majorana fermion doesn’t have a charge, which allows the mystery of cancer to be hybrid: matter and anti-matter at the same time ! the fact that it doesn’t have a charge, and also happens to be the exact reverse of itself at the same time. quantum computers of cancer, are like a huge pile of dimmer switches. you can set these dimmers much, much faster than you can flip on this light switches, because the dimmers are all wired to each others, immediately as tumors. these dimmers, e. i. quantum bits, are what’s called entangled in cancer. if you change one quantum bit, the others it’s entangled with change with it, even if they’re a million miles away from each other. that’s where majorana fermions as metastasis come in due to their hybrid: no-charge nature. (seitz, 2018) 4. results the neurological basis of synesthesia could help explain one skill that many creative people share facility for using metaphor to make links between seemingly unrelated domains. metaphor involves making links between seemingly unrelated conceptual realms, while this is not just a coincidence. cancer coincidences is at a deeper level a manifestation of hybrid quantum entanglement entropy. (lin et al., 2014) mutation of the angular gyrus make possible for synesthesia to provide excess communication among different brain maps. involved in cross-modal synthesis the brain regions where information from touch, hearing and vision flow together are enabling the construction of high-level perceptions. the angular gyrus is disproportionately larger in humans than in apes and monkeys – evolved originally for cross-modal associations. probably later became coopted for more abstract functions such as metaphors. (ramachandran and hubbard, 2001) the common abstract property is extracted somewhere in the vicinity of the tpo, probably in the angular gyrus. it is extracting the abstraction of the common denominator (“ratio”) from a set of strikingly dissimilar entities. when the ability to engage in cross-modal proliferation of metastasis emerged, it is opening the way for more complex types of abstraction – e. i. for geniality of thinking. (skopec ii., 2018) 4.1 hybrid fourth dimension of alternate reality we can try to picture a fourth dimension. veer left for a second dimension, and then jump up for a third dimension. then dive into a fourth dimension, in a direction we don’t have a word for because our minds can’t grasp even the idea of it. that’s a fourth dimension of space, about which two new studies yield some clues. scientific experiments can’t grasp a fourth dimension any better than we can. but if scientists can design them very carefully, their studies can produce shadows of a sort, which suggest a fourth dimension really is there lurking just beyond our grasp. two such physics experiments have done just that, according to two papers published in the journal nature. the research was conducted mostly by independent teams tackling similar big questions with very different little questions, although one co-author was involved on both projects. researchers used two different approaches to dance around the idea of a fourth dimension. they looked for a specific type of theorized fingerprint that is two-dimensional and therefore within our capabilities instead, as gismodo has reported. in both cases, the experiments demonstrated phenomena that actually require just two dimensions, nice and mundane. the tools required to get those phenomena to manifest were anything but mundane. one experiment relied on lasers to trap individual atoms of a highly reactive element called rubidium in a square, like a cat carefully sitting between taped lines. the other experiment used a box and seeing how the effects rippled throughout the box. studies let scientists explore fourth dimension theories in new ways. the physicists on both these projects aren’t just looking for a nice brainteaser, of course. they want to stretch our knowledge and technology as far as www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 34 possible. even if we can’t actually experience a fourth dimension ourselves, they think reaching for the fringes of it could offer valuable lessons that we can implement right here in the 3-d world we live in. maybe we can come up with new physics in the higher dimension and then design devices that take advantage of the higher-dimensioned hybrid physics in lower dimensions. (rechtsman et al., 2018) 4.2 hybrid nonlinear deviation term neurobiological correlates of value have been described in orbitofrontal (conscience), cingulated cortex (critical intellectuals) and the basal ganglia, areas of the brain traditionally associated with reward-seeking behavior. some neurons in orbitofrontal cortex represent value independently from evidence, choice and action. anterior cingulate cortex is thought to represent negative (critical, non-linear) value. (gold & shadlen, 2007) there is much evidence that a number of brain regions are sensitive to expected reward (or “utility”). the most well established are dopaminergic regions such as the striatum and midbrain structures. the common ratio pattern can be reconciled by the plausible assumption that people apply nonlinear decision weights  p to objective probabilities p , so that the ratio    01.0/02.0  is much smaller than    5.0/1  . neural responses to probabilities resembling the smoothly increasing function which typically fit behavior well. paulus and franck (2006) focused on between subjects measures and showed that activity in anterior cingulate correlated with degree of nonlinearity across subjects. we can make the assumption that neural activity is approximately a linear function of the behaviorally derived utility function. the glm model separates the weighting function into two components: (1) component that is linear in p and (2) the component that is the nonlinear deviation term (ndt)     ppp ii   ,, . specifically, we are looking for a prospect-theoretic expected value function that is nonlinear in p ; that is          xupxupxup   ,, . we assume the function  x is power function px , where the value of p is taken from the individual behavioral estimate, and     ppp ii   ,, , where the mean group  =0.771 is used. if the expected utility (eu) null hypothesis is an accurate approximation of valuation of risky choices, there should be no reward-related brain regions that respond to the deviation term    xup  , . if the nonlinear weighting hypothesis is an accurate approximation, there should be reward-related brain regions that respond equally strongly to the linear component  xup  and to the nonlinear component    xup  , . we can test whether cross-subject variation in the inflection of nonlinear weighting inferred from choices is consistent with cross-subject differences in neural activity caused by cancer. more highly nonlinear functions will be approximated by a combination of the linear term p and the nonlinear term     ppp ii   ,, that puts more weight on the nonlinear term. a linear-weighting subject, will put no weight on nonlinear deviation     ppp ii   ,, of tumors. denote the true weighting function for subject i by  ip  , , and the deviation from linear weighting by     ppp ii   ,, . a brain region that represents  ip  , will be significantly correlated with both  ip , and p . that is, the linear term p and nonlinear deviation term with a higher weight on the nonlinear deviation term. (hsu et al., 2009) brain regions that are governing the cancer significantly correlated with the nonlinear term include the anterior cingulated cortex (acc), the striatum, motor cortex, and cerebellum. our intuition is that brain activity during valuation of risks is more likely to correspond to cognitive components of prospectmasking in cancer, than to eu, and it will be easier to construct an adaptationist account of how evolution would have shaped brains to follow prospect-masking in cancer rather than eu. the prospect-masking follows from psychophysics of proliferation, while eu from normative logic. (hsu et al., 2009) the increased specialization required today for professional credentials makes the broad thinking of that characterizes geniuses harder to develop. i agree that the ritual culture of academia may also hamper genius. as philosopher of science thomas kuhn has pointed out, highly creative work (without precedent) does not fit existing formalistic academic paradigms tend to be dismissed the counter-selection leading to cancer. (skopec www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 35 iii., 2015) many great scientists have related how their most original ideas were repeatedly rejected by their peers and caused cancer. 4.3 dichotomous correlations of cancer hybrid adaptation one prevalent description of translational medicine, first introduced by the institute of medicine's clinical research roundtable, highlights two roadblocks (i.e., distinct areas in need of improvement): the first translational block (t1) prevents basic research findings from being tested in a clinical setting; the second translational block (t2) prevents proven interventions from becoming standard practice. an important role in the processes of adaptation and masking in humans is playing also the immune system. the innate immune system functions as an interpreter of tissue damage and provides a first line of defense, also translates the information to other repair and defense systems in the body by stimulating angiogenesis, wound repair, and activating adaptive immunity. it is appropriate to consider autophagy a means for programmed cell survival balancing and counter-regulating apoptosis. autophagy seems to have a dichotomous role in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. two other attributes play a similarly paradox role. the first involves major reprogramming of cellular energy metabolism in order to support continuous cell growth and proliferation replacing the metabolic program that operates in most normal tissues. the second involves active evasion by cancer cells from attack and elimination by immune cells. this capability highlights the dichotomous correlations of an immune system that both antagonizes and enhances tumor development and progression. evidence began to accumulate in the late 1990s confirming that the infiltration of neoplastic tissues by cells of the immune system serves counter-intuitively to promote tumor progression. (skopec iii., 2015) 4.4 the bipolar nature of cancer: hybrid, two faced new main law of nature the quantum entanglement is a basis of twofaced reality in which we are living our lives. from this reality are outgoing also the science and healthcare too. altough metastasis is important for systemic correlations expansion (as in tumors), it is a highly dichotomous process, with millions of cells being required to disseminate to allow for the selection of cells-correlates aggressive enough to survive the metastatic cascade. to quantify the dynamics of metastasis of correlations development, we need look at the coincidences of metastases in terms of co-occurrence at every point of time. to quantify co-occurrence we can use the  -correlation between dichotomous variables defined as:   )()()()()()( )()()()( tmtntmtntmtm tmtmtctn jxixji jiijx   where )(tcij is the number of co-occurrence at time t. than i and j represent particular site of metastasis, x represents the primary correlations type. the pair-wise correlations (coincidences) between metastasis network links for every primary correlations types and lead to the correlation coefficient matrix. the dichotomous correlations of the adaptation may be caused also by the quantum entanglement relative entropy as a measure of distinguishability between two quantum states in the same hilbert space. the relative entropy of two density matrices 0p and 1p is defined as )log()log()( 011101 pptrpptrpps  . when 0p and 1p are reduced density matrices on a spatial domain d for two states of a quantum field theory (qft), implies that )( 01 pps increases with the size of d. than )log()log( 0011 pptrpptrsee  is the change in entanglement entropy across d as one goes between the states. when the states under comparison are close, the positivity is saturated to leading order: 0)( mod01  eeshpps . (skopec ii., 2018) the problem of conventional adaptation may be given by a definition of static, deterministic world. the proliferative correlations lead to the resonances between the degrees of freedom. when we increase the value of energy, we increase the regions where randomness prevails. for some critical value of energy, chaos appears: over time we observe the exponential divergence of neighboring trajectories. for fully developed chaos, the cloud of points generated by a trajectory leads to diffusion. (prigogine, 1997) here we must as first formulate a new main natural law: the hybrid quantum entanglement entropy (hqee). (skopec iii., www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 36 2015) through above resonances the qee is causing a metastasis of correlations, antagonistically intertwining (coincidences) all types of potentially conflicting interests in cancer. 4.5 secret particles in quantum theory physicists have done the seemingly impossible: found a way to track mysterious quantum particles even when those particles aren’t being observed. in classical physics, an object occupies only one state of being at a time, something could be either alive or dead, but not both simultaneously. but quantum physics, which seeks to explain how life works at the subatomic level, isn’t so intuitive. quantum physics differs from classical physics in that under quantum theory, objects can exists as both waves and particles, occupying both states at the same time. they only exist as either one or the another after they’ve been measured. researchers from the university of cambridge have shown that the movements of those particles actually can be tracked without measuring them first – by observing the way the particles interact with their surrounding environments. a paper describing the work was published in the scientific journal physics review a. think of schrὅdinger’s cat, the standard paradox for illustrating this particular aspect of quantum theory. premise of schrὅdinger’s cat, commonly referred to as the wave function, has been used more as a mathematical tool than a representation of actual quantum particles, first author david arvidsson-shukur, a ph.d. student at cambridge’s cavendish laboratory, said in the statement. that’s why they took on the challenge of creating a way to track the secret movements of quantum particles. when any particle interacts wit its environment, it leaves a tag. those tags result in information being encoded into particles. d. arvidsson-shukur and his colleagues theorized a way that physicists could map how quantum particles tag their environments without their having to look directly at the particles. researchers are able to explore the forbidden domain of quantum mechanics: pinning down the path of quantum particles when no one is observing them. another hypothetical scenario used by some scientists to illustrate quantum particles is called counterfactual communication. in counterfactual communication, information can be shared between two people, without any particles actually travelling in the space between them. this concept is akin to telepathy. it’s called counterfactual because the traditional facts would hold that particles would have to move between alice and bob in order for a message from one to the other. to measure this phenomenon of counterfactual communication, we need a way to pin down where the particles between alice and bob are when we’re not looking. above tagging method can do just this. the researchers believe their new technique could help quantum physicist follow the movements of particles they’re experimenting on throughout the whole process – even if they don’t actually measure them until the very end. (medrano, 2017) 4.6 hybrid quantum computing apocalypse in the ancient world, they used cubits as an important data unit, but the new data unit of the future is the qubit – the quantum bits that will change computing. quantum bits are the basic units of information in quantum computing, a new type of computer in which particles like electrons or photons can be utilize to process information with both sides (polarizations) acting as a positive or negative, alternatively or at the same time. according to experts, quantum computers will be able to create breakthroughs in many of the most complicated data processing problems, leading to the development of new medicines, building molecular structures and doing analysis going far beyond the capabilities of today’s binary computers. the elements of quantum computing have been around for decades, but it’s only in the past few years that a commercial computer that could be called quantum has been built by a company called d-wave. announced in january 2018, the d-wave 2000q can solve larger problems than was previously possible, with faster performance, providing a big step toward production of applications in optimization, cybersecurity, machine learning and sampling. ibm announced that it had gone even further – and that it expected and it would be able to commercialize quantum computing with a 50-qubit processor prototype, as well as provide online access to 20-qubit processors. that was followed by microsoft announcement of a new quantum computing programming language and stable topological qubit technology that can be used to scale up the number of qubits. taking advantage of the physical spin of quantum elements, a quantum computer will be able to process simultaneously the same data in different ways (hybrid), enabling it to make projections and analyses much more quickly and efficiently than now is possible. there are significant physical issues that must be worked out, such as the fact that quantum computers can only operate at cryogenic temperatures (at 250 times www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 37 colder than deep space) – but intel, working with netherlands firm qutech, is convinced that it is just a matter of time before the full power of quantum computing is unleashed. their quantum research has progressed to the point where partner qutech is simulating quantum algorithm workloads, and intel is fabricating new qubit test chips on a regular basis in their leading-edge manufacturing facilities. intel labs expertise in fabrication, control electronics and architecture sets us apart and will serve us well as venture into new computing paradigms, from neuromorphic to quantum computing. the difficulty in achieving a cold enough environment for a quantum computer to operate is the main reason they are still experimental, and can only process a few qubits at a time – but the system is so powerful that even these early quantum computers are shaking up the world of data processing. on the one hand, quantum computers are going to be a boon for cybersecurity, capable of processing algorithms at a speed unapproachable by any other system. by looking at problems from all directions – simultaneously (hybrid) – a quantum computer could discover anomalies that no other system would notice, and project to thousands of scenarios where an anomaly could turn into a security risk. like with a top-performing supercomputer programmed to play chess, a quantumbased cybersecurity system could see the moves an anomaly could make later on – and quash it on the spot. the national security agency, too, has sounded the alarm on the risks to cybersecurity in the quantum computing age. quantum computing will definitely be applied anywhere where we’re using machine learning, cloud computing, data analysis. in security that means intrusion detection, looking for patterns in the data, and more sophisticated forms of parallel (hybrid) computing. but the computing power that gives cyber-defenders super-tools to detect attacks can be misused as well. scientists at mit and the university of innsbruck were able to build a quantum computer with just five qubits, demonstrating the ability of future quantum computers to break the rsa encryption scheme. that ability to process the zeros and ones at the same time means that no formula based on a mathematical scheme is safe. the mit/innsbruck team is not the only one to have developed cybersecurity-breaking schemes, even on these early machines, the problem is significant enough that representatives of nist, toshiba, amazon, cisco, microsoft, intel and some of the top academics in the cybersecurity and mathematics worlds met in toronto for the yearly workshop on quantum-safe cryptography last year. the nsa’s commercial national security algorithm suite and quantum computing faq says that many experts predict a quantum computer capable of effectively breaking public key cryptography within a short time. according to many experts, the nsa is far too conservative in its prediction, many experts believe that the timeline is more like a decade and a half, while others believe that it could happen even sooner. and given the leaps of progress that are being made on almost a daily process, a commercially viable quantum computer offering cloud services could happen even more quickly, the d-wave 2000q is called that because it can process2,000 qubits. that kind of power in the hands of hackers makes possible all sorts of scams that don’t even exist yet. forward-looking hackers could begin storing encrypted information now, awaiting the day that fast, cryptography-breaking quantum computing-based algorithms are developed. it’s certain that the threats to privacy and information security will only multiply in the coming decades. in fact, why wait ? hackers are very well-funded today, and it certainly wouldn’t be beyond their financial abilities to buy a quantum computer and begin selling encryption-busting services right now. it’s likely that not all the cryptography-breaking algorithms will work on all data, at least for now. this is a threat-in-formation – but chances are that at least some of them will, cyber-criminals could utilize the cryptography-breaking capabilities of quantum computers, and perhaps sell those services to hackers via the dark web. the solution lies in the development of quantum-safe cryptography, consisting of information theoretically secure schemes, hash-based cryptography, code-based cryptography and exotic-sounding technologies like lattice-based cryptography, multivariate cryptography (like the unbalanced oil and vinegar scheme), and even supersingular elliptic curve isogeny cryptography. these, and other post-quantum cryptography schemes, will have to involve algorithms that are resistant to cryptographic attacks from both (hybrid) classical and quantum computers, according to the nsa. it’s certain that the threats to privacy and information security will only multiply in the coming decades and that data encryption will proceed with new technological advances. (dolev, 2018) www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 1, no. 1; 2018 38 acknowledgments the author gratefully acknowledge the assistance of dr. marta ballova, ing. konrad balla, livuska ballova and ing. jozef balla. references bartels m: newsweek, jan. 5, 2018 darimont ct, fox ch, bryan hm, reimchen te (2015) the unique ecology of human predators. science 349: 858 doi: 10.1126/science.aac4249 dolev sch (2018) the quantum computing appocalypse is imminent. techchrunch, 6.1.2018 gibbons d general proof and method of sustained state management in autonomous systems. personal communications, 2018, 5 pp. gold ji and shadlen mn (2007) the neural basis of decision making. annu rev neurosci 30: 535-74 hsu m, kraibich i, zhao c, and camerer cf (2009) neural response to reward anticipation under risk is nonlinear in probabilities. the journal of neuroscience 29(7): 2231-2237 kourtidis a, ngok sp, anastasiadis pz (2015) distinct e-cadherin-based complexes regulate cell behavior through mirna processing or src and p120 catenin activity. nature cell biology 17: 1145-1157 doi:10.1038/ncb3227 lin j, marcolli m, ooguri h, and stoica b (2014) tomography from entanglement. arxiv:submit/1131065 [hep-th] 5 dec 2014 d.lincoln,2018:https://edition.cnn.com/2018/03/31/opinions/matter-antimatter-neutrinos-opinionlincoln/index.html mayo clinic. 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(2016) translational biomedicine and dichotomous correlations of masking. translational biomedicine vol. 7, no. 1: 47. university of california – berkeley. “recording a thought’s fleeting trip through the brain: electrodes on brain surface provide best view yet of prefrontal cortex coordinating response to stimuli.” science daily, 17 january .(2018).www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/01/180117114924.htm copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://www.yahoo.com/news/majorana-fermion-going-change-world-185818775.html american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 13(1) (2022), 21-27 21 multidisciplinary scientific research aijmsr vol 13 no 1 (2022) p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 available online at https://www.cribfb.com journal homepage: https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/ aijmsr published by cribfb, usa influencing factors of bank employees' motivation and its impact on employees' performance a.r.s. ibn ali (a)1 a s m ahsanul haque (b) shamsun nahar (c) (a) graduate school of economics, osaka university, toyonaka, japan; e-mail: saifalihsbc@gmail.com (b) brac business school, brac university, 66 mohakhali, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: asm.ahsan@gmail.com (c) international relations, dhaka university, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: shamsunnahar2009@gmail.com a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received: 28th september 2022 accepted: 13th november 2022 online publication: 24th november 2022 keywords: motivation, bank, employees, performance, empowerment, job security jel classification codes: m120, m150 a b s t r a c t in this globalization era, banking institutions are facing competition in the marketplace. the demands of the customers are changing immensely day by day. integration and globalization have become closer and closer to every firm in the competitive market. the main purpose of this study is to determine the motivational factors of bank employees that are related to employees' performance in the working place. the study was qualitative and was conducted using different sources to find out the motivational factors and their impact on employee performance. the researchers focus on the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of the employees. for this study, data have been collected from previous studies and different sources like the abdc database, scopus database, emerald database, abs database, springer database, and previous banking profiles. the study showed that employee empowerment, job security, emotional intelligence, attractive compensation package, and training and development have a positive and significant impact on creating motivation among the employees, which creates better performance in work. based on the findings of this study, the organization should provide another attractive motivational factor and change hr policies and procedures to create employee motivation. recommendations were also made for improvement in a certain area, creating motivation for better performance of bank employees in bangladesh. © 2022 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). introduction nowadays, banking organizations are immensely competitive due to the growing number of businesses in the fierce market. bank companies face tough competition during their business in the marketplace, where the customers are the main source of doing business effectively and efficiently. on the other hand, employees are the big assets of every organization. however, with these assets, the company could produce more and more goods and services to achieve its goals and fulfill the customers' demands (rahaman, 2016a). therefore, all employees are heart as like the capital of the organization. furthermore, in this competitive era, the organization should become vigilant about the motivation of the workers, which assists in creating inspiration among them. sporadically the employees are considered as only the workers in the organization who do not get their other facilities with salaries; ultimately, there is a lack of motivation among the employees. likewise, motivation creates inspiration for the workers to work within their specified time which will bring happiness to employees and employers in the organization (rahaman,2020b; faisal-e-alam et al., 2022; khan et al., 2022; mia et al., 2022; rubi et al., 2022; zayed et al., 2022a; zayed et al., 2022b). motivation is a crucial factor for employees which helps to give lucrative services to respected customers in the marketplace, and it is supposed to achieve the organization's long-term objectives. motivation is regarded as a source of employee engagement in the workplace and better organizational performance. furthermore, employee performance is considered the paramount issue of the well-being of every organization, and this performance depends on the motivation of the employees in the workplace. every organization has a vision, mission, objectives, and goals, and all of these are related to one another; where the main target is to reach the vision, and if the organization wants to go its long-term destination, it first they have to ensure the mission, objective and goals and 1corresponding author: orcid id: 0000-0002-9277-1771 © 2022 by the authors. hosting by cribfb. peer review under responsibility of cribfb, usa. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1835 to cite this article: ali, a. i., haque, a. s. m. a., & nahar, s. (2022). influencing factors of bank employees’ motivation and its impact on employees’ performance. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 13(1), 21-27. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1835 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1835 https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1835 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9277-1771 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4455-5879 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5701-5439 ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 13(1) (2022), 21-27 22 employees are the main focal issue to obtain that dream for a long-term period. in previous studies, mainstream research has mentioned the motivational factors of employees in different organizations, especially in the banking sectors in bangladesh (rahaman et al., 2021a). therefore, golzadeh (2010), in a study on "factors affecting employee motivation in organizations," stated that human beings, whether in industrial or business organizations, are seen as important for attaining organizational goals. another study also explained that attractive salaries and compensation package creates motivation among employees (rahaman, 2021; naveen et al., 2020; nahar et al., 2021; rahman et al., 2021a; rahman et al., 2021b; shahriar, 2021a; shahriar, 2021b; zayed et al., 2021a; and zayed et al., 2021b; ahmed et al., 2022; al-quraan et al., 2022). there needs to be more investigation on influencing motivation in employee performance in the recent competitive era in the market. the organizational manager should be prudent in finding out employees' motivational factors, which create a healthier performance for the employee. therefore, the bank institutions' overall success depends on employee motivation and work performance. henceforth, the main objective of this study is to find out the determinants of motivation of bank employees, which help to create a performance of employees and the organization. objectives of the study this study explored the influencing factors of bank employees' motivation and its impact on employee performance. the main goal of this research is to explain the motivational factors of bank employees and their impact on their performance in the working environment. literature review motivation is regarded as the source of job satisfaction that inspires the financial and non-financial sector employees in the marketplace. the main goal of this study is to explore some motivational factors which assist in creating inspiration among bank employees and their better performance. motivational factors are related to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation that assist in inaugurating better performance among employees. low job motivation creates turnover, absenteeism, and unwillingness in the workplace. another study also recommends that motivation is a major element of labor potential that employees are knowledgeable in their workplaces which significantly relates to employee productivity (rahaman, 2016a). on the other hand, latham (2012) also stated that motivation is the method that focuses on individual strength, path, and determination of efforts toward accomplishing goals and objectives. according to gazi and rahaman (2021), satisfaction comes from more motivation among the employees; as a result, an organization can easily achieve the target in a specified time. some factors are highly essential for creating motivation: employee empowerment employee empowerment is a crucial factor in employee motivation. it is also regarded as the intrinsic factor; it refers to giving power to employees who create motivation to enhance their workplace performance (yuan et al., 2022; rahaman & taru, 2020). also, employee empowerment is considered the authority power of employees, which assists in creating job satisfaction and employee performance in productivity). moreover, it is a process to give employees power, authority, obligation, liberty, and resources to solve problems and make profitable decisions. besides, employee empowerment is defined as the intrinsic motivation the employer assigns employees to create job satisfaction (islam et al., 2022). additionally, autonomy and empowerment are other ingredients of motivation that assist in creating efficiency, employee effectiveness, and innovation which also serves as a booster to employee fulfillment, work motivation, and trust in every organization, either financial or non-financial sector (akhter et al., 2022a; ali et al., 2020a; ali et al., 2020b; chowdhury et al., 2020; f. chowdhury et al., 2021; s. chowdhury et al., 2021; iqbal et al., 2021; kader et al., 2019; kader et al., 2021a; kader et al., 2021b; kabir et al., 2021). job security job security is regarded as an indispensable factor in the motivation of employees in the organization, which create morality and flexibility in their work (ali et al., 2022). in addition, vu et al. (2019) state that job security enhances encouragement among employees, which helps to enrich employees' performance and organizational performance. job security is defined as giving certainty in a job with attractive facilities in their presence which has become one of the most crucial factors driving employee motivation and performance. therefore, the most desire of every employee is to keep their jobs for as long as they wish. moreover, in this view, job security is a determinant factor and a key element that influences an employee's decision on whether to join an organization or not that brings happiness among the employers (rahaman, 2020a; karim et al., 2014). training and development training and development are significant determinants of employees' motivation in the working environment, which helps to develop knowledge, skills, and abilities in their work (asheq et al., 2021). however, training means learning from the trainer that assists in buildup strength among the workers, and they can easily learn what they unknown. therefore, training is the essential ingredient of employees that ensures motivation of employees and motivation able enriches the performance of the employees. besides, training and development are essential for all organizations to achieve their goals, mission, and vision for staying in the market (ali et al., 2022). many scholars have been done in this area to understand the importance of training and development. the study found that training and development have a positive relationship with motivation because the performance of every employee depends on satisfaction level, which assists in developing performance in the working place (rahaman, 2020b). on the other hand, gazi et al. (2021) focused and analyzed that employee training & ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 13(1) (2022), 21-27 23 development is one of the essential parts of human resources management with the identification of organizational needs, techniques, and procedures from different industrial perspectives (prajapat et al., 2022; akhter et al., 2022b). emotional intelligence emotional intelligence is considered the employees' self-perceived ability or behavior, which is a significant part of the organization. on the other hand, emotional intelligence means controlling emotions by self and other groups in the organization (chen et al., 2022). besides, emotional intelligence is an ability that directly affects job satisfaction and job activity. however, emotional intelligence combines skills and the ability to regulate and understand emotions properly. therefore, emotional intelligence helps to encourage a person to recognize, produce, express, understand, and evaluate themselves to companion their thoughts, emotions, and actions to incredulous environmental anxieties and compressions (rahaman, 2021). moreover, emotional intelligence is an essential factor that acts as an initiative to accomplish a target and actualize the organization's potential objective (rahaman et al., 2021b). from the previous studies, emotional intelligence is the most significant factor of motivation that provides skills, knowledge, abilities, and capabilities to achieve organizational goals and objectives in a specified time (rahaman et al., 2022a). nevertheless, eq is derived from social intelligence, where societal people are needed to make better judgments and decisions. it also helps to monitor people's feelings and the feelings of others that create performance among employees (rahaman et al., 2021c). attractive compensation an attractive compensation package is a crucial factor of employee motivation which brings happiness among the employees that assist in creating better performance in the organization's productivity. according to du and cole (2011), financial incentives are rewards that employees receive in consideration of their contribution to the organization. compensation is defined as the monetary and non-monetary benefits the employer gives employees to exchange their work in the workplace (rahaman et al., 2022b). other compensation like basic salary, incentives, promotion, bonuses, canteen facilities, working holidays, entertainment facilities, flexible work time, awards and rewards, etc. are engaged in the compensation package where this package has a relationship with motivation and work performance of employees (latif & karim, 2019). according to ekundayo (2018), motivation is a condition that influences behavior arousal, direction, and maintenance. human needs must be satisfied, which can cause motivational forces arousal. employee performance employee performance is regarded as the better knowledge, skills, and abilities of their work which directly impacts good work (ali et al., 2022). on the other hand, employees want to enrich their position through their outstanding performance in the organization to achieve the targeted goals of that institution. on top of that, it is possible when they get an attractive compensation package from the owner of an organization. from the previous studies, it can be noted that there is a positive relationship been motivation and employee performance. besides, there is a significant relationship between motivational factors and employee performance in their work in an organization (rahaman & uddin, 2022). the previous study also recommended that the employees' performance depends on their motivation which comes from the management that assists in creating inspiration, morality, punctuality, and a good performer in the organization. universities aim to impart knowledge through research, teaching, and other community services. performance is not just based on the function of academics but also on the importance of ability and motivation (rahaman et al., 2020a). however, employee performance is not only for the betterment of the employee, but also it lights the organizational performance where an organization can achieve their target within their specified time. conceptual framework motivation is the ingredient factor of employees' morality, strength, job security, job satisfaction, job enrichment, and so on. the performance of any organization, especially banking institutions, depends on employee performance at first, so employees' knowledge, skills, and abilities are essential for making an organization's good reputation. the conceptual model of influencing motivation of employee performance is given here based on the previous extensive literature review. figure 1. influencing factors of motivation and employee performance ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 13(1) (2022), 21-27 24 materials and methods this study is qualitative and exploratory. the data have been collected from published banking-related articles and various sources: the abdc database, scopus database, research gate, google scholar, springer, emerald, and abs. discussions and results motivation is the unindustrialized source to create attraction of every employee in the workplace that helps to discover new performance in the workplace. from the above discussion, the customers are the main figure of every company, and the organization is always conscious of their satisfaction because organizational success depends on customers' demands. this customer satisfaction depends on the employees' services. so the bank manager should ensure motivation at first to the employees that will help to give close attention to their work performance. the study established that motivation positively impacts staff performance in an organization and also helps to reduce or minimize inefficiency in an organization. previous studies show that employee empowerment, emotional intelligence, attractive compensation package, training and development, and job security are the ingredient factors of motivation directly related to employee performance. henceforth, the management of banking organizations needs to put adequate measures in place to enhance motivation as it helps to induce employees and increase the organization's productivity. conclusions motivation means to inspire people to do their work which assists in enriching the performance of employees. organizational and employee performance are essential for achieving goals within a specified time. moreover, motivating employees is an important factor in employee performance in the workplace, which develops their abilities to produce goods and services per the customers' demand. so the organization should know what factors are related to the motivation and performance of the employees, and the management should emphasize these factors to influence the employees to their work. these factors help businesses stay in the competitive market to reach their destination. organizations will benefit from an enhanced understanding of factors that create attention and awareness to create a performance. whatever the human resource management department of banking organizations should become conscious about necessary to create motivation among the employees. on top of them, the effectiveness of every organization is related to employee performance, and employee performance comes from various motivational factors in every organization. author contributions: conceptualization, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h. and s.n.; methodology, a.r.s.i.a.; software, n/a.; validation, a.r.s.i.a.; formal analysis, a.r.s.i.a.; investigation, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h. and s.n.; resources, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h. and s.n.; data curation, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h. and s.n.; writing – original draft preparation, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h. and s.n.; writing – review & editing, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h. and s.n.; visualization, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h. and s.n.; supervision, a.r.s.i.a.; project administration, a.r.s.i.a.; funding acquisition, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h., and s.n. authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. institutional review board statement: ethical review and approval were waived for this study because the research does not deal with vulnerable groups or sensitive issues. funding: the authors received no direct funding for this research. acknowledgment: not applicable. informed consent statement: informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. data availability statement: the data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. the data are not publicly available due to restrictions. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references akhter, a., islam, k. m. a., karim, m. m., & latif, w. 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2022 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 25 analyzing the uses of different types of digital marketing tools of bank: a study on a commercial bank ltd bani amin molla master of business administration department of marketing bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: mamunbaniamin@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3437-0013 mijanur rahman molla master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: mijanmkt53@gmail.com syed akib hoque master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: houqueakib766@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8387-3373 autoshi ray master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: atoshiroy1@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6014-5995 md. medul mia master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: medulmia067@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3437-1163 mailto:mijanmkt53@gmail.com mailto:houqueakib766@gmail.com mailto:atoshiroy1@gmail.com mailto:medulmia067@gmail.com https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 26 received: february 02, 2021 accepted: march 27, 2021 online published: april 02, 2022 doi: 10.46281/aijmsr.v12i1.1674 url: https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v12i1.1674 abstract nowadays, business activities are drastically changing their services through using technology. moreover, the banking activities are performed in a digitalized way where the customers get better services through online services. digital marketing is the medium of the internet, mobile devices, social media, search engines, and other electronic devices to reach consumers. through using digital technology banks perform billions of transactions to reach the customers in this current competitive market and it helps them to make it easier and shorter and more comfortable. the main objective of the study is to analyze the uses of different types of digital marketing tools of of a private commercial bank limited. this study was quantitative and exploratory in nature. a non-probability convenience sampling method has been used in this study and the employees and experts of private commercial bank limited were the population. primary data have been used where the primary data were collected from respective respondents through survey questionnaire. the sample size was 100 and five-point likert scale has been used where (‘1=strongly agree’ and ‘5= strongly disagree’) in this study. the findings of the research suggests that using digital marketing tools are more effective than any other traditional marketing tools in the bank. keywords: digital marketing, bank, employees. jel classification codes: m38. introduction nowadays, digital marketing is the essential platform to stay in the competitive market. recently the banking companies are using their different digital market in tools to reach the bank customers where customers’ are the lifeblood as like the as the capital of any business organization. digital marketing plays a crucial role in providing better services to customers. digital marketing is the process of using different digital marketing tools to attract customers to full fill their satisfaction level (karim et al., 2020). marketing is the technique to connect between banks and customers. no bank can expect success without putting substantial investment in its marketing efforts. recently, the success of businesses depends on digital marketing tools in the digital world (asheq et al., 2022). banks nowadays are coming up with amazing and attractive ways to attract their customer and retain their customer base thereby gaining new customers. in recent days, banks are paying the attention to building long-term relationships with their customers. basically, digital marketing uses social media, email, online advertisement, blogs, and other online channels as a part of an overall marketing strategy that helps to engage current customers of the market (baltes, 2015). digital marketing tools help banks what kind of services should provide to the customers of the market. in what way do customers their services and to find the expectation and feedback (ali et al., 2021; ali et al., 2020; alhassan et al., 2021; ali & dahana, 2021). digital marketing is the medium of using the internet, digital technology, and digital media to deliver goods and services to the customers over the internet. its main goals are to reach the customers and achieve the organization's goal (al amin et al., 2021; akhter, karim & islam, 2021; akhter et al., 2020a). digital marketing tools help the company and banking institutions to find out their target customer. in this modern age, people are more connected to the internet. people do all kinds of tasks by using the internet and digital technology. there is no chance to succeed in online business and banking without the use of digital marketing tools (yadav et al., 2018). https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 27 digital marketing tools effectively engage their customer with digital technology (akhter et al., 2020b; ara et al., 2015). digital marketing tools help to reach these customers. nowadays bank institutions should use digital marketing tools to provide attractive services to the targeted customers in the competitive market. literature review digital marketing is the form of communication and interaction between organizations and their customer through the digital channel (internet, email, and others) and digital technologies (kotler et al. (2009). on the other hand, digital marketing is the process of accomplishing marketing activities through using digital tools like social media, facebook, youtube, online advertisement, blogs, etc. (kumar et al., 2019). besides, digital marketing strategy enables an organization to expand communication, online services, retain targeted current customers and members of the bank (baltes, 2015). however, digital marketing tools are that’s tools that help companies to develop and promote their products and services by using digital technology (chaffey and ellis-chadwick, 2019). furthermore, digital marketing is considered as the digital tools like the internet, mobile devices, social media, search engines, and other channels to reach consumers which help to approach new ways of understanding how customers behave compared to traditional marketing (rahaman et al., 2020; miklosik et al., 2019; islam & bhuiyan, 2021; islam & barghouthi, 2017; islam & miajee, 2018; islam, 2016a; islam, 2016b; islam, 2016c; islam, alam & alamin, 2015; islam, 2015; islam et al., 2014; islam & barghouthi, 2017; rahaman et al., 2021; rahaman et al., 2022). digital marketing is one of the crucial marketing processes that expand the detail of the products which creates intention among the customers to purchase the product through the online transaction (karm et al. 2014). nowadays, a large portion of people is busy on their social network, which helps to increase the necessity of marketing in a social media channel. according to mahalaxmi et al. (2016) the term e-marketing rather than digital marketing and characterized that it is the use of both web and intuitive innovations to create a connection amongst firms and its clients of the digital market. henceforth, by utilizing client information, it is possible to anticipate future offers that need to be sent to their existing customers for keeping the clients alive and tied up with the organization (khan and islam, 2017). digital marketing tools help banker to reach their target customer and gain more profit from their business (clagett, 1995). moreover, digital marketing tools help the bank to look after their customer behavior by using digital marketing tools where anyone from anywhere can get the services from the bank (sharma et al., 2020). in this present age, people are more active on digital platforms where people want to do all activities by using digital technology and bank are also the user of digital technology by using digital marketing tools. bank easily can reach their ultimate customer. in this way, digital marketing tools create new potential marketing value for the banking sector (orwenyo, 2014). therefore, customers also get great services from the bank that is good for both and the digital marketing tools help the bank to run long-run relationships with their customers and both are beneficial (wonder, 1981). methodology for this study purpose, the non-probability convenience sampling method has been used because the population is unknown. this research is quantitative and exploratory in nature. the targeted population of the study was the employees and experts of a private commercial bank limited. data were collected using structured survey questionnaires from experts and employees of the bank. in this study, the questionnaires were two parts namely where the first part consisted of demographic information and the second part was the survey questionnaire. the sample size was 100 and a five-point likert scale has been used where (‘1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=neutral, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree) in the study. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 28 results & discussion table 1: response regarding the gender status of respondents frequency percent female 31 31.0 male 69 69.0 total 100 100.0 the above table shows that 69% (n=69) respondents are male, and the rest of the 31% (n=31) are female. this is the result of gender status respondents in this study. table 2: the frequency of south bangla agriculture and commerce bank ltd using digital marketing tools in a very effective way. frequency percent strongly agree 31 31.0 agree 69 69.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that more than 31% strongly agreed (n=31) and more than 69% agreed (n=69) that south bangla agriculture and commerce bank ltd uses digital marketing tools in a very effective way. table 3: frequency of using digital marketing tools are profitable for south bangla frequency percent strongly agree 45 45.0 agree 55 55.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that more than 45% strongly agreed (n=45) and more than 55% agreed (n= 55) that using digital marketing tools is profitable for south bangla agriculture and commerce bank ltd. table 4: frequency by using digital marketing tools south bangla agriculture and commerce bank ltd can reach their potential customers. frequency percent strongly agree 21 21.0 agree 74 74.0 disagree 5 5.0 total 100 100.0 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 29 the table above indicates that more than 21% of respondents strongly agreed (n=21) and more than 74% agreed (n=74) and 5% of respondents disagree (n=5) that by using digital marketing tools south bangla agriculture and commerce bank ltd can reach their potential customers. table 5: frequency of using digital marketing tools is the better way for creating new customer frequency percent strongly agree 27 27.0 agree 70 70.0 disagree 3 3.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that 27% of respondents strongly agreed (n=27) and more than 70% of respondents agreed (n=70) and 3% of respondents disagree (n=3) that using digital marketing tools is the better way for creating a new customer. table 6: frequency of social media marketing is a very effective way to communicate the customers of a private commercial bank ltd frequency percent strongly agree 23 23.0 agree 65 65.0 disagree 10 10.0 strongly disagree 2 2.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicate that more than 23% of respondents strongly agreed (n=23) and more than 65% agreed (n=65) and 10% respondents disagreed (n=10) and 2% of respondents strongly disagreed (n=2) that social media marketing is a very effective way to communicate the customer of a private commercial bank ltd table 7: frequency of a private commercial bank ltd keeps web page running on internet frequency percent strongly agree 34 34.0 agree 61 61.0 disagree 4 4.0 strongly disagree 1 1.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that 34% of respondents strongly agreed (n=34) and more than 61% of respondents agreed (n=61) and minimum number of respondents 4% disagreed (n=4) and 1% strongly disagreed with that bank ltd keeps web page running on the internet. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 30 table 8: frequency of a bank ltd provides information quickly through the use of digital marketing tools frequency percent strongly agree 17 17.0 agree 77 77.0 disagree 6 6.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that more than 17% of respondents strongly agreed (n=17) and more than 77% agreed (n=77) and minimum number of respondents 6% disagreed (n=6) with that a bank ltd provides information quickly through the use of digital marketing tools table 9: frequency of in case of advertising, the uses of digital marketing tools are cheaper than other marketing tools of a bank ltd. frequency percent strongly agree 10 10.0 agree 35 35.0 disagree 47 47.0 strongly disagree 8 8.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that more than 10% of respondents strongly agreed (n=10) and more than 35% respondents agreed (n=35) but the maximum number of respondents more than 47% disagreed (n=47) and more than 8% strongly disagreed with that in case of advertising, the uses of digital marketing tools are cheaper than other marketing tools of a bank ltd. table 10: frequency of a bank ltd keeps facebook running on social networking site frequency percent strongly agree 48 48.0 agree 44 44.0 neutral 1 1.0 disagree 5 5.0 strongly disagree 2 2.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that more than 48% of respondents strongly agreed (n=48) and more than 44% agreed (n=44) but a minimum number of respondents kept silent and more than 5% respondents disagreed and 2 % (n=2) strongly disagreed with that a private bank ltd keeps facebook running on social networking site. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 31 table 11: frequency of social media marketing is a very effective tool for promoting a private commercial bank ltd frequency percent strongly agree 18 18.0 agree 78 78.0 disagree 2 2.0 strongly disagree 2 2.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that more than 18% of respondents strongly agreed (n=18) and more than 78% of respondents agreed (n=78) but a minimum number of respondents 2% strongly disagreed (n=2) with that social media marketing is a very effective tool for promoting a private commercial bank ltd table 12: frequency of in case of using digital marketing tools, a private commercial bank ltd provides better services frequency percent strongly agree 19 19.0 agree 70 70.0 disagree 11 11.0 total 100 100.0 the table above indicates that more than 19% of respondents strongly agreed (n=19) and more than 70% of respondents agreed (n=70) but the minimum number of respondents 11% disagreed (n=11) with that in case of using digital marketing tools a private commercial bank ltd provides better services. the uses of digital marketing tools play a vital role in the banking sector. the south bangla agriculture and commerce bank ltd uses digital marketing tools in a very effective way. it has become the order of the day to use digital marketing tools. the uses of digital marketing tools are better than other traditional marketing tools. based on the finding of the report it can be said that the uses of digital marketing tools in the banking sector have a positive impact and influence the customer to choose more suitable banks for them. according to the findings use of different types of digital marketing tools can attract customers more than other traditional marketing tools because most customers or people are engaged on the internet. the educated people are engaged strongly on the different types of websites and portals. people believed that the use of digital marketing tools can help them in touch with the bank. uses of digital marketing tools can be more useful to get more reliable information from the banking website. social media marketing helps them more to provide information about their bank's new schemes and benefits to their customer. social media programs help the bank to reach its target in a certain time. the uses of digital marketing tools help the bank and customers to save time and cost. at the present age use of digital marketing tools can help the bank to reach their ultimate target as well as their goal. building good communication with the customer and making the easy of success depends on the proper uses of digital marketing tools. after going through the whole research process author recommends that the bank should train up their executive on proper uses of digital marketing tools on their banking site which would https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 32 help the bank to be more successful. also, the bank should provide their advertisement on social networking sites because most people engaged on social media. another is the bank should make their programs on social networking sites and make them easy to access to reach many potential customers. with the proper utilization of digital marketing tools, the bank would be able to reach its ultimate goal and success within in short time. the proper utilization of digital marketing tools can save their cost and time than other traditional marketing tools conclusion according to the finding, it can be said that the uses of different types of digital marketing tools attract customer attention more easily than other marketing tools. with the proper utilization of digital marketing tools, the bank executive can do their work in a short time and customers get more reliable information. the proper uses of different types of digital marketing tools help the digital banking system more than other traditional marketing tools. the uses of different types of digital marketing tools help the banks to gain more customers and provide the services as peruses of different types of digital marketing tools has brought drastic change on the banking sector. in a digital age, the proper use of different types of digital marketing tools is the blessing of success. it can easily attract the customer’s attention, and make the potential to an actual customer and help the bank to succeed in their working field. the use of different types of digital marketing tools in the banking sector is the blessing of the digital world (akhter et al. 2022a; akhter et al., 2022b; kader et al., 2019; kader et al., 2021; kabir et al., 2021). author contributions conceptualization: bani amin molla, mijanur rahman molla formal analysis: bani amin molla, syed akib hoque, autoshi ray, md. medul mia funding acquisition: bani amin molla, mijanur rahman molla, syed akib hoque, autoshi ray, md. medul mia investigation: bani amin molla, mijanur rahman molla methodology: bani amin molla, mijanur rahman molla, syed akib hoque, autoshi ray, md. medul mia project administration: syed akib hoque, autoshi ray, md. medul mia resources: bani amin molla, mijanur rahman molla, autoshi ray, md. medul mia software: bani amin molla, autoshi ray, md. medul mia supervision: bani amin molla, mijanur rahman molla, syed akib hoque, autoshi ray, md. medul mia validation: bani amin molla visualization: syed akib hoque, autoshi ray, md. medul mia writing – original draft: bani amin molla, mijanur rahman molla, writing – review & editing: bani amin molla, mijanur rahman molla, syed akib hoque, autoshi ray, md. medul mia conflict of interest statement the authors declare that they have no competing interests. acknowledgement all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 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(2018). the influence of social media marketing activities on customer loyalty: a study of e-commerce industry. benchmarking: an international journal. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 37 analyzing the uses of societal marketing concept of bank: a study on a private bank navid jun nu rain master of business administration department of marketing bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: navidjunnurain@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7403-6442 dipu roy bachelor of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: dipuroymkt@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3291-7783 mijanur rahman molla master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: mijanmkt53@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3737-3180 abdullah al mamun master of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: abdullahalmamun.mkt.84@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3437-1163 md. azizul islam nayeem bachelor of business administration department of marketing faculty of business studies bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman science and technology university gopalganj-8100, bangladesh e-mail: 18mkt047nayeem@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3237-6486 received: february 22, 2021 accepted: march 28, 2021 online published: april 12, 2022 doi: 10.46281/aijmsr.v12i1.1685 url: https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v12i1.1685 mailto:dipuroymkt@gmail.com mailto:mijanmkt53@gmail.com mailto:abdullahalmamun.mkt.84@gmail.com mailto:18mkt047nayeem@gmail.com https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 38 abstract in the era of globalization, every company is changing their marketing policy due to gradually increasing competitors in the existing market where social marketing is changing and maintaining the behavior of people a society. nowadays social marketing is not a new concept in bangladesh, especially in the banking sector. the main objective of this study is to analyze the uses of the societal marketing concept of a private bank limited. in this study, the quantitative and qualitative method is followed by the authors. to identify the social marketing concept qualitative and quantitative method is used in this study. a nonprobability convenience sampling method has been used for the study purpose. in this study, the targeted population was executives and customers of a private bank limited, jhumjhumpur branch, jashore. both primary and secondary data have been used in this study where primary data was collected from the survey questionnaire and the secondary was collected from different journals, newspapers, books, websites of banks, etc. for the study purpose, 100 sample sizes were taken and the researchers have used the five-point likert scale technique as sample scaling where 5=strongly disagree, 4=disagree, 3=neutral, 2=agree, 1=strongly agree. from the study, the authors suggested that the use of societal marketing is profitable for the marketer because it can easily grasp customers’ attention. keywords: social marketing, customers, planning, behaviors. jel classification codes: m33, m40. introduction recently, every company is changing their marketing policy due to progressively increasing competitors in the existing market where social marketing is changing and maintaining the behavior of people a society (akther et al., 2022; akther et al., 2021; karim et al., 2020; karim et al., 2014). at present banks are encounter with some challenges of adapting effectively to the changing environment in the context of globalization. as per consumer movement, government regulations and their structured view according the economic importance of societal marketing are not yet so much spread in the banking sector in bangladesh. they all are know that societal marketing have some economic value. banks can provide help to fulfill the social and environmental objectives by launching their societal marketing concept as a strategy for investment into their organizations strategy, management tools and operations. societal marketing concept is now a days a common phenomenon in bangladesh and especially for the banking sector (al amin et al., 2021; akhter, karim & islam, 2021; akhter et al., 2020a; akhter et al., 2021a). almost all the bank of bangladesh are using it as their own strategy and their own financial position (akhter et al., 2020b; akhter et al., 2021b; ara et al., 2015; rahaman et al., 2021). the societal marketing concept evolved from older csr concepts and sustainable development and was implemented by several companies to improve their public image through customer and social welfare activities. the banks provide different types of product and services by using societal marketing concept to its counter parts like, general banking services or finance or investing that results transaction of currency. to do this, they also need capital, assets and other resources. these elements of business results, changes in their capital, assets and other factors which effects directly in the bank’s performance (rahaman et al., 2020; islam & barghouthi, 2017a; islam & miajee, 2018a; islam & miajee, 2018b; islam, 2016a; islam, 2016b; islam, 2016c; islam, alam & al-amin, 2015; islam, 2015; islam et al., 2014; islam & barghouthi, 2017b; islam et al., 2021; rahaman et al., 2021; rahaman et al., 2022). at present, competition is higher in the market for every type of organization. that’s why this research paper is helpful for banks to know the important of the uses of societal marketing in their organizations. so, if any banks want to maximize their profit they have to follow some unique and crucial strategy into their organization. that’s why the banks should understand about the societal marketing concept. in this study the researcher identify the uses of societal https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 39 marketing concept of bank and also gives some recommendation or guidelines for banks to use societal marketing concept as their marketing strategy. so, finally we can say that this research paper is more important for the banks to maximize their profit by serving the society. literature review social marketing is focused on enabling, encouraging and supporting behavioural changes among target audiences (karim & mahmud, 2018; akther et al., 2022a; akther et al., 2020a; rahaman et al., 2020). on the other hand, social marketing as a distinct discipline aims to promote behaviors which can benefit individuals as well as the overall society (lefebvre, 2011; rahaman et al., 2021; rahaman et al., 2022). besides, social marketing can be applied to different situations and audiences to influence change in behavioral patterns, in other words, social marketing can be applied wherever there is a target audience and a behavior which should be changed/influenced including but not limited to the reduction of drunk driving, convincing people to use public transportation, increase family planning in developing nations, urging people to use insecticide treated nets to prevent the spread of malaria in african nations etc. ( frantz et al., 2016; rahaman et al., 2021). furthermore, social marketing lies its audience orientation or how it attempts to target what people want and the reasons for their actions/habits. social marketing takes an audience centered approach instead of an organization centered approach to systematically view a specific issue (alamo et al., 2015). therefore, hence, social marketing can be defined as harnessing the market forces to change behavior for public good on a massive scale (peattie & peattie, 2009; rahaman et al., 2021). according to laasch and conaway (2014), researching the concept of social marketing in the 1950s, mass media channels including television and radio can prove to be an effective means of promoting social ideals. the main objective of social marketing therefore is not to merely change attitudes or enhance awareness of a particular problem, but to empower and motivate people to fully adopt the desired behavior as a part of their daily lives (opel et al., 2009; rahaman et al., 2021). moreover, social marketers have described this preoccupation with the social consequences of marketing as ‘critical social marketing’ (gordon et al., 2010), with the introduction of a critical dimension ensuring an understanding of both the good and the bad that marketing can bring to society (hastings & saren, 2003). however, in a very real sense, social marketing is as much about community, relational and value dimensions, as well as economic relationships of a society-wide network (peñaloza & venkatesh, 2006). henceforth, based upon a customer focus that considers the self-interested perspective of a target segment, social marketing has to successfully manage a multitude of varied, individualised target audiences. communications and interactions are extensive and vital to the proper function of the relations (coviello et al., 1997). consequently, social marketing puts the behavioural changing individual at the centre of the process and orchestrates a society wide network of relationships and partnerships to achieve such goals, extensive research, evidence based information and evaluation in decision making (domegan, 2008). methodology in this study, both primary and secondary data have been collected where primary data were collected from the structured survey questionnaire and secondary data have been collected from different, journals, books, websites, company report etc. for the study purpose a non-probabilty convenience sampling method has been used because the population is unknown. this research is quantitative and qualitative in nature. the employees and customers of a private bank limited, jumjumpur branch are the targeted population in this study. the structured survey questionnaire were two parts, first is demographic information and second is questionnaire. the sample size was 200 while five-point likert scale has been used where (‘1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=neutral, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree) in the study. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 40 results & discussion table 1: response regarding the gender status of respondents frequency percent female 60 30 male 140 70 total 200 100.0 the above table shows that 60 % (n=60) respondents are male, and the rest of the 30% (n=) are female. this is the result of gender status respondents in this study. table 2: societal marketing is beneficial for private bank in bangladesh frequency percent strongly agree 40 20 agree 110 55 neutral 30 15 disagree 10 5 strongly disagree 10 5 total 200 100.0 this table above shows that 55% (n=110) of the respondents agreed that using societal marketing make more beneficial than other marketing strategy because it can grasp customer attention than other marketing strategy. table 3: societal marketing can increase customers of private bank limited frequency percent strongly agree 120 60 agree 30 15 neutral 20 10 disagree 30 15 strongly disagree 0 0 total 200 100.0 this table above shows that 60% (n=120) of the respondents strongly agreed that using societal marketing increase customers than other marketing strategy because it can grasp customer attention than other marketing strategy. by the information of this table, this is the evidence that using societal marketing expand customers in private bank limited. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 41 table 4: societal marketing concept is more convenient than other marketing concept frequency percent strongly agree 60 30 agree 110 55 neutral 20 10 disagree 10 5 strongly disagree 0 0 total 200 100.0 this table above shows that 55% (n=110) of the respondents agreed that using societal marketing make is more convenient than other marketing strategy because it can grasp customer attention than other marketing strategy. by the information of this table, this is the evidence that using societal marketing make convenient than others marketing. table 5: most of the organization in our country nowadays use societal marketing frequency percent strongly agree 80 40 agree 100 50 neutral 10 5 disagree 10 5 strongly disagree 0 0 total 200 100.0 this table above shows that 50 % (n=100) of the respondents agreed that societal marketing is used most of the private banks in bangladesh. by the information of this table, majority of the respondents agreed private banks should use societal marketing. table 6: every private bank has budget for social marketing frequency percent strongly agree 60 30 agree 90 45 neutral 30 15 disagree 20 10 strongly disagree 0 0 total 200 100.0 this table above shows that 45% (n=90) of the respondents agreed that private bank limited have budget for societal marketing. by the information of this table, this is the evidence that have budget for societal marketing in very private banking limited. table 7: societal marketing can change the economic situation in the society. frequency percent strongly agree 60 30 agree 90 45 https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 42 neutral 20 10 disagree 30 15 strongly disagree 0 0 total 200 100.0 this table above shows that 45 % (n=90) of the respondents agreed that using societal marketing can change the economic situation in the society to enhance business than other marketing strategy. by the information of this table, this is the evidence that using societal marketing can change the economic situation at present, societal marketing has come to play a more important role. the paper tried to identify and analyze the uses of societal marketing concept of a private bank limited and also tried to recommend some guidelines for marketers who uses societal marketing strategy. the objective of the study was to identify the uses of societal marketing concept of a private bank limited. though observational research method the researcher found that societal marketing of bangladesh is totally new and some multinational, government, nongovernment company use societal marketing. in the past societal marketing were not used in bangladesh but nowadays the uses of societal marketing is increased day by day. some company uses societal marketing intentionally and also some company uses societal marketing unintentionally. but it is clear to say that societal marketing is used as a new marketing strategy in a private bank limited. the uses of societal marketing is fairly available in bank. first, it can said that the uses of societal marketing is profitable for the marketer because it can easily grasp customer’s attention. most of the employee and executives express their opinion that societal marketing is profitable for the business. second, for the cause of grasping attention of customer quickly, it can increase sale of the company by using societal marketing. so it is clear that societal marketing increase sales. thirdly, according to the findings societal marketing is beneficial because societal marketing can increase sale but that must be beneficial for the company and it could be done within very low cost. lastly, bangladeshi banks are pleasant who used to societal marketing in business because societal marketing in business is profitable. according to the major findings of this project paper unconventional and surprising activities of societal marketing to attract customer’s attention as a surprising or unconventional advertising in banks works well and become profitable. which banks product are mostly used for societal marketing are known to the stakeholders. most of the customer didn’t know how the banks uses societal marketing with them to promote or position their products. this report helps the customer and also the employees to understand the societal marketing concept or strategy. the recommendations for marketing executives should be seen as advice to marketing firms that use societal marketing strategy and want to make banks products sold by using societal marketing and want to attract the attention of their customers. banking executive https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 2022 43 have to make such surprising marketing contents that attract the customer’s attention. besides, banker should avoid illegal way of marketing. they should add some interesting and legal features and finally, to avoid the contents which are restricted banker should use contents that people perceive interesting or surprising (alhassan et al., 2021; al amin et al., 2020; gazi et al., 2021; hossain et al., 2021; al asheq et al., 2022). conclusion banking executive have to make such surprising marketing contents that attract the customer’s attention. banker should avoid illegal way of marketing. they should add some interesting and legal features. to avoid the contents which are restricted banker should use contents that people perceive interesting or surprising. societal marketing user should be more creative and carry a deep knowledge about marketing and societal marketing. banking executives should try to avoid showing societal marketing on shopping area. rather they should use those on working area. banker should use form of creative societal marketing which is rare in our country. it can attract customer’s attention as a new form. banker should not use bad contents in societal marketing as those become really frustrating for customers. they should to avoid it when designing their marketing program. the major finding of the report is to analyze the uses of societal marketing concept of a private bank limited. the findings of the research also suggested that uses of societal marketing concept of a private bank limited in bangladesh that societal marketing is already used in bangladesh. it have a lot of benefits and societal marketing can easily grasp customer attention with in low cost also very quickly than other marketing strategy. author contributions conceptualization: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, mijanur rahman molla formal analysis: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, abdullah al mamun, md. azizul islam nayeem funding acquisition: navid jun nu rain, abdullah al mamun, md. azizul islam nayeem investigation: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, md. azizul islam nayeem methodology: navid jun nu rain, abdullah al mamun, md. azizul islam nayeem project administration: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, md. azizul islam nayeem resources: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, mijanur rahman molla, abdullah al mamun, md. azizul islam nayeem software: navid jun nu rain, abdullah al mamun, md. azizul islam nayeem supervision: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, mijanur rahman molla, abdullah al mamun, md. azizul islam nayeem validation: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, mijanur rahman molla, abdullah al mamun, md. azizul islam nayeem visualization: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, md. azizul islam nayeem writing – navid jun nu rain, dipu roy, mijanur rahman molla writing – review & editing: navid jun nu rain, dipu roy conflict of interest statement the authors declare that they have no competing interests. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 12, no. 1; 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(2022). the effect of promotion and job training on job satisfaction of employees: an empirical study of the sme sector in bangladesh. the journal of asian finance, economics and business, 9(2), 255-260. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 13(1) (2022), 14-20 14 multidisciplinary scientific research aijmsr vol 13 no 1 (2022) p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 available online at https://www.cribfb.com journal homepage: https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/ aijmsr published by cribfb, usa csr and organizational performance: a theoretical model a.r.s. ibn ali (a)1 md jowel rana (b) shamsun nahar (c) n hosna ara tesha (d) imtiaz md shihab jabir (e) (a) graduate school of economics, osaka university, toyonaka, japan; e-mail: saifalihsbc@gmail.com (b) dept. of eee, bangladesh university of business and technology (bubt), dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: joweljhe@yahoo.com (c) international relations, dhaka university, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: shamsunnahar2009@gmail.com (d) dept. of law, university of barisal, kornokathi, barisal, bangladesh; e-mail: hosnaaratesha2001@gmail.com (e) dept. of economics, international university of business agriculture and technology, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: imsjabir@gmail.com a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received: 1st august 2022 accepted: 23rd september 2022 online publication: 28th september 2022 keywords: corporate social responsibility performance, commitment customers, employees, commitment reputation jel classification codes: l25, m14, l32 a b s t r a c t nowadays, the market is very competitive due to rapid digitalization and globalization where the sustainability of every business depends on organizational performance. the better performance of the company relies on corporate social responsibility which helps to create goodwill in the fierce market. corporate social responsibility is a crucial issue for every organization to develop the performance that assists to stay in the aggressive market. basically, organizational performance depends on the reputation of the organization which moderates the relationship between customers, community, and employees’ in organizational performance. the main objective of this study is to reveal the contributions of corporate social responsibility’s dimension on organizational performance. data have been collected from different sources like the scopus database, google scholar, research gate, abdc, emerald, etc. the major dimensions of csr are community, customers, employees, organizational commitment, and reputation which have significant and positive impacts on organizational performance. for this study purpose, the dimensions of csr are adopted from the previous extensive literature review. in this study, the conceptual model has been proposed based on the previous literature. this study could help to corporate managers to maintain organizational performance through corporate social responsibility (csr). © 2022 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). introduction in the era of globalization, every company has to play a significant role to stay in the competitive market to continue its business activities. so, the company needs to be responsible for all its actions socially and ethically. it is necessary to check the effect of the organization on social welfare and the environment. society is the crucial stakeholder of every business organization where the company’s profit basically depends on societal well-being. maximization of profit is not the main concern of corporate social responsibility but it needs to focus welfare of the stakeholders including employees, customers, suppliers, management, and the community (yuan et al., 2022). nowadays business organizations and corporations are more highly interactive with societal activities for increasing welfare among the people of society. henceforth corporate social responsibility is a vital part of every business where csr is not only to beat the business competitor but also provide help to grow the business in the society. so, by focusing on financial success and community growth, the company can increase its performance rapidly as compared to its competitors. in recent years the concept of corporate social responsibility (csr) has appeared as a direct response to the increased awareness of the people of environmental and societal issues. corporate social responsibility gives equal concern to social and environmental issues due to their business operations (rahaman et al., 2022). according to du et al. (2011), a number of national and international bodies have committed to maintaining corporate social responsibility for the well-being of environmental and societal people because they are essential stakeholders of the business sectors. although csr is a potential driver of a company's organizational performance, previous 1corresponding author: orcid id: 0000-0002-9277-1771 © 2022 by the authors. hosting by cribfb. peer review under responsibility of cribfb, usa. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1799 to cite this article: ali, a. i., rana, m. j., nahar, s., tesha, n. h. a., & jabir, i. m. s. (2022). csr and organizational performance: a theoretical model. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 13(1), 14-20. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1799 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1799 https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v13i1.1799 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9277-1771 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1662-5633 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5701-5439 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8811-2044 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7359-3703 ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 13(1) (2022), 1-7 15 studies have shown conflicting results concerning the relationship between corporate social responsibility and organizational performance (allouche & laroche, 2005). on the other hand, the previous studies also discover that there is a positive relationship between corporate social responsibility and organizational performance (abu bakar & ameer, 2011; van beurden & gössling, 2008). therefore, over the year researchers have found that corporate social responsibility (csr) has a positive relationship with organizational performance (jin & drozdenko, 2010; lopez-arceiz, rivera-torres, 2018; petrenko et al., 2016). the strength of every organization basically depends on organizational performance which is able to achieve the target of that organization. so every organization should focus on the well-being of the environment and societal people. the essential resources of an organization are the employees, customers, suppliers, investors, etc. that are related to society. corporate social responsibility brings happiness to the customers of society which plays a vital role in halting the challenging market (ali, 2021). in the era of globalization, the (ahmed et al., 2022; ali et al., 2020, 2021; chowdhury et al, 2020; chowdhury et al., 2021; faisal-e-alam et al., 2022) firms are very conscious about their reputation in the market which directly depend on the corporate social and environmental responsibilities. environmental. although, the previous studies have investigated the meaningful association between corporate social responsibility and organizational performance. previous studies have identified the relationship between corporate social responsibility and organizational performance (farooq et al., 2014; rahaman, 2020a). therefore, the performance of the organization deals the challenging job in the market, so organizational performance is essential to reach the (chowdhury et al, 2020; chowdhury et al., 2021) destination of that organization. based on the previous extensive literature it can be said that there was a dearth of necessary dimensions of corporate social responsibility which directly impact organizational performance (ali and dahan, 2021). henceforth, the company should determine the influencing dimensions of corporate social responsibility on organizational performance (chen et al., 2022). so, the present study seeks contributions of corporate social responsibility to organizational performance. objectives of the study although corporate social responsibility is a potential driver of a company's organizational performance. so the main objective of this study is to provide the importance of csr for the enhancement of the performance of the organizations. literature review community community is regarded as the norms, values, principles, place, religion, identity and customs which help to maintain duties and responsibilities of corporate social responsibility for the well-being of the society (rahaman, 2020b). therefore, such activities are agricultural activities, general community issues, education, rural development, job training, support for health, environmental care, conservation, poverty eradication, child care, sport, and unemployment. actually, social activities draw the attention of the stakeholders through providing social activities in favor of creating corporate reputation for organizational performance (harjoto & jo, 2011). on the one hand, corporate social responsibilities are absorbed for developing the economy, organizational performance, and environmental activities that help to achieve the goals of that organization (garvin et al., 2009). furthermore, such corporate social responsibility programs assist create well-being of the organization and the society (rahman et al., 2020). employees employees are regarded as the lifeblood of any organization where without them the companies cannot run their activities for achieving objectives impulsively (akhter et al., 2021). henceforth, csr is a valuable strategic resource for creating a relationship with the societal people (esen, 2013; fatma et al., 2015). generally, corporate social responsibility is related, to internal and external stakeholders in a company where the internal stakeholders are including employees of that organization which influence organizational performance (rahaman et al., 2021). besides, the employees are considered as the big assets of every organization that helps create reputation and organizational performance (agan et al., 2016; choi & yu, 2014). employees are internal stakeholders and often seek recognition within the firm that helps to consist organizational performance (kumar et al., 2019). however, past studies explain that there is positive and significant relationship between employees and the organizational performance (islam et al., 2022; rahaman et al., 2022b). customers customers are a significant factor that assists to improve the performance of every company, so csr must be engaged with this valuable factor for achieving the long-term goals of that organization (akhter et al., 2022). besides, some studies have been conducted on the relationship between csr and customer satisfaction (mamoon et al., 2021). therefore, corporate social responsibility provides various attractive benefits for the customers that help to enrich the positive performance of the organizations (rahaman, 2016a). moreover, the customers are the essential source of the organizational performances where the performances depend on the attractive services with reasonable prices of the goods and services (tobiassen, 2014). however, from the past study it is said the organizational performance is related to proper services to the customers (karim & mahmud, 2018). corporate reputations corporate reputation is considered the intangible asset of the organization that includes brand recognition, company’s services, goodwill, business methodologies, etc. which create intention among the stakeholders to improve the organizational performance (ali et al., 2022). besides, the companies can expand their reputation through providing valuable ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 13(1) (2022), 1-7 16 services including financial soundness quality product and services, super management services etc. which has the positive relationship with organizational performance (rahaman et al., 2022a). therefore, the stakeholders basically carry out their business based on the reputation of corporate social responsibility of that company which helps to sustain them in the competitive marketplace (saeidi & saaeidi, (2015). on the other hand, corporate reputation has a positive relationship with the performance of the organization (roberts & dowling, 2002). henceforth, the corporate social practices bring reputation and there is a significant relationship with organizational performance (rahaman et al., 2021a; yoon, et al., 2006). commitment employee commitment increases organizational performance where as corporate social responsibility plays the most important role in stay commitment of the employees to the organization. besides, csr attracts motivated potential employees and improves the commitment level of existing employees (greening & turban, 2000). on the other hand, brammer et al. (2007) also investigated that csr increased employee organizational commitment which assists to improve performance (brammer et al., 2007). therefore, corporate social responsibility can carry out the attractive commitment of the employees to the well-being of the organization and society (dawkins, 2004). conceptual model based on the extensive previous literature the model is proposed here (figure 1). figure 1. conceptual framework moderating contribution of corporate reputation corporate reputation is a paramount issue that is essential for every organization which helps to deliver positive business results over time (chen et al., 2022a). on the other hand, it also has a relationship with stakeholders’ faith in organizational performance (rahaman et al., 2021b). moreover, corporate reputation basically depends on the sound services to the various stakeholders of the company (gazi et al., 2021). furthermore, the organization practices social responsibility through providing social services which assist to stay in the market with a reputation and the corporate reputation brings organizational performance (rahaman, 2016). the corporate reputation moderates the relationship between customers and organizational performances. however, the highly reputed organization maintain their corporate social responsibility as the social welfare activities. henceforth, the corporate reputation plays important role to maintain organizational performance in the market place. past study also describes that trhe corporate reputation moderates between the community and organizational performance (gazi et al., 2021a). furthermore, commitment is another factor where there is a positive and significant relationship between corporate reputation and organizational performance (rahaman & taru, 2020). the conceptual model 2 is given below based on the past studies figure 2. conceptual framework ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 13(1) (2022), 1-7 17 methods and materials in this study, purpose data have been collected from various sources like the scopus database, google scholar, research gate, abdc, emerald, etc. discussion and results corporate social responsibility is the emerging source of improving the performance of every organization that is considered the management concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and interactions with their stakeholders. recently the business market is very competitive and organizations have to stay competing with one another where csr plays a significant role to carry out the performance. this study revealed that the community, customers, employees, organizational commitment are the significant factors for improving performance. on the other hand, the corporate reputation also moderates the (kader et al., 2021; kabir et al., 2021; mia et al., 2022; rubi et al., 2022; rahman et al., 2021; shahriar et al., 2021) relationship between customers to organizational performance, employees to organizational performance, commitment to performance and the employees to performance. therefore, the corporate social responsibility plays significant role to create organization performance. conclusions the organizational performance helps to stay in the competitive market for long-time for doing the business and this performance depends on the firm’s corporate social responsibility. from this study can be said that the customers, commitment, reputation, employees are the (rahman et al., 2021) significant factors to improve organizational performance. the performance of the business is the crucial ingredient that assist to compete one another in the competitive market. from the extensive literature review it can be assumed that the organizational performance depends on the dimension of the corporate social responsibility. this study could help to the management of every company to maintain their policies, rules and regulations, csr process and investment regarding organizational performance. author contributions: conceptualization, a.r.s. i.a., m.j.r. s.n., n.h.a.t. and i.m.s.j.; methodology, a.r.s.; software, n/a.; validation, a.r.s. i.a., m.j.r. and i.m.s.j.; formal analysis, a.r.s. i.a., m.j.r. s.n., n.h.a.t. and i.m.s.j.; investigation, a.r.s. i.a., m.j.r. s.n., n.h.a.t. and i.m.s.j.; resources, a.r.s. i.a., n.h.a.t. and i.m.s.j.; data curation, a.r.s., s.n., n.h.a.t. and i.m.s.j.; writing – original draft preparation, a.r.s. i.a., m.j.r. s.n., n.h.a.t. and i.m.s.j.; writing – review & editing, a.r.s. i.a., m.j.r. s.n..; visualization, a.r.s. i.a., m.j.r.; supervision, a.r.s. project administration, a.r.s.; funding acquisition, a.r.s. i.a., m.j.r. s.n., n.h.a.t. and i.m.s.j. authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. institutional review board statement: ethical review and approval were waived for this study, due to that the research does not deal with vulnerable groups or sensitive issues. funding: the authors received no direct funding for this research. informed consent statement: informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. data availability statement: the data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. the data are not publicly available due to restrictions. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references abu bakar, a. s., & ameer, r. 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2020 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 postgraduate students information seeking behaviour in the faculty of management sciences, bayero university, kano, nigeria rabiu nurudeen mohammed rank: librarian ii bauchi state university, gadau. p.m.b.65 gadau, nigeria e-mail: nurudeenr4@gmail.com abstract the study examines postgraduate student’s information seeking behavior in the faculty of management sciences, bayero university, kano, nigeria. information play critical role in human daily activities such as school life, work, marital life and any other kind of scenario. the concept of information seeking behavior has attracted researchers’ attention and has been of great concern to stakeholders in the academia. academic libraries avail information from different sources and formats. objectively the study examines postgraduate students’ information seeking behavior in order to understand students’ information seeking behavior and provide guide to improve the quality of education and performance. survey research design were use and the population consist of the entire postgraduate students in the faculty of management sciences at bayero university, kano, due to difficulty to reach all the population, purposive sampling were applied which result to the selection of (200) respondents comprising of (50) respondents from each of the four departments and questionnaire were issued to them. from the findings it is obvious that in the course of carrying out their studies postgraduate students seek information as a result of activities they engage such exam preparation, dissertation/thesis work, updating knowledge, lecture notes update, personal reading and general reading. however, the result implies that majority of the respondents use library for information concerning exam preparation while the lowest is for general reading to improve their knowledge. the study conclude that postgraduate students do engage in information seeking behaviour for various reasons even though these are hinder by some obstacles. the study recommends the need for management to improve service delivery in the aspect of electronic library, researchers should be guided easily and educated so as to facilitate easy collection of library materials, users should also be guided to enhance easy retrieval of information, continuous training of library staff should be given attention in order for them to be friendly and give quality service to information seekers and finally problem of poor electricity supply should be addressed to make the environment conducive for learning. keywords: information seeking behaviour, postgraduate students, libraries, nigeria. introduction information seeking behavior is one of the globally recognized concepts in the library and information science. universities give knowledge, while knowledge depends on the information. the concept of information seeking behavior has attracted researchers’ attention and has been of mailto:nurudeenr4@gmail.com https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 2 great concern to stakeholders. a resourceful academic library provides information from different sources and formats. often times university libraries avail information to students at no cost. even though, nowadays information are available, note withstanding, students needs to understand their information needs, know where, how and when to locate relevant information easily in order satisfy their needs which serve as catalysts for enhancing their learning. it is very important for students to understand, be able to gather and organize information needs for academic purposes and also for their overall benefits and promoting innovation and change for national development at large. moreover, “students become experts at what is required and expected of them within the boundaries of the classroom, but what happens when they need to take what is learned in school and use it in the reality of their lives?”(kozol, 2005).previous researchers argued that the way students which organize their learning and search for information in this era comes in form of new knowledge leads to a change in actions of people exposed to it (fasola, 2013). furthermore, information seeking in the academic environment is often aid by library because academic library be it manual or virtual library play critical role in providing information to students of higher learning especially postgraduate students. this is because of their experience as they pursue a second or third degree which they must have been having some little experience at the undergraduate level. on this note, library use is significant to the academic life of students, by visiting libraries students get to update themselves latest trends in their area of studies; therefore, library plays a significant role in facilitating information seeking used by students. meanwhile, it is worthy to mention that the role of university libraries is not only limited to the traditional way of reserving published materials but ensure that the information needs of users are met by its own in modern way of electronic resources and services alike (manjunath & babu, 2018). through library use, individual satisfy his information needs desire and close a gap in his knowledge (singh, 2015). to this end on the basis of the foregoing, this study find worth researching to study postgraduate students information seeking behavior of postgraduate students in the faculty of management sciences, bayero university, kano, nigeria. the objective of the study is to examines postgraduate students’ information seeking behavior in order to understand students’ information seeking behavior and provide guide to improve the quality of education and performance, find out the problems postgraduate students’ faced in the process of seeking information. however, careful observation at the faculty of management science, it was discover that postgraduate students sometimes resort to depend on their colleagues in the class for information, even though there is library where adequate information resources can be sought to enhance their learning. being at higher level of learning, postgraduates students need to understand and able to gather and organized information needs not for academic purposes only but also for overall benefits to themselves and the society in order to promote innovation and national development. another problem is the students’ inadequate knowledge of information search process that makes information seeking difficult task, this result to frustration and dissatisfaction with search results. therefore there is need for the learning environment that makes information seeking process easier. previous studies uses many approaches to provide explanation for the information seeking process, hence, this study add to the existing researches and body of knowledge specifically using one of the nigerian university assessing postgraduate student’s information seeking behavior. the purpose is to understand postgraduate students’ information seeking behavior and provide guides so as to improve quality of the education, knowing well that quality is at the heart of education thereby improving performance and https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 3 standard of education in the university for the benefit of students and the overall benefits of society at large. brief of bayero university kano bayero university kano is located along gwarzo road, kano city northwest nigeria. the university occupied two campuses old campus which is situated at kabuga and the new campus which is situated about 10 kilometers away from the heart centre. it was founded in 1975, when it was renamed from bayero university college and upgraded to university. it is the first university in kano state. the postgraduate school is also located at new campus gwarzo road and the faculty of management sciences is also located at new campus gwarzo road. in addition, the faculty run four courses and this was carried out by four departments namely, accounting, business administration and entrepreneurship, public administration, banking and finance, therefore the current structure of the faculty as an entity offers four departments. the concept of information information play critical role in human life, it plays an important role in human daily activities such as school life, work or any kind of situation. different scholars viewed the concept of information differently. for instance, uttor (1999) defined information as data value in planning, decision making and evaluation of any programme. the scholar further stated that information is a data subjected to processing functions which is capable of answering user’s query be it recorded, summarized or simply collected and eventually help decision making in the organization. meanwhile, information and comes in some types of reports which can be understood, it can be carried to users in form of books, journals, magazines, public and private sector documents, published and unpublished documents for mass circulation or restricted for confidentiality purpose, research reports made available to colleagues in form of reports, books articles and non-printed materials, all these can be said to constitute information. similarly, ugwu, ogbu & aniekwe (2017) sees information as data subjected to some processing functions capable of answering a user’s query recorded, summarized or simply collections that help in making decision. however, as cited in eskola, (1998),in his view belkin (1977) defined the concept as data associated with text which is generated and modified by purpose, intent, knowledge of the recipient’s, conceptual structure that underlines the surface structure. contributing to the concept, ingwersen, (1998) sees information as a product of transformation of data of the generator’s cognitive structures by intentions, model of the recipients’ state of knowledge, and in the form of signs as information. he further expatiates by saying that it is a structure which when perceived may affect and transform recipient’s state of knowledge. on the basis of the foregoing, definitions were offered by researchers which implies that there is no standardized acceptable definition of the concept, but researchers view according to their understanding and perception, hence, this would add to the existing proliferation of definitions by defining information as a vital organ in the human survival which students utilized to acquire knowledge for the benefits of themselves and the society at large. critically scholars have consensus on the importance of information for the continue survival of human race, this prompted adekunle (2014) to stressed the significant of information in the society as it plays a significant role in our professional and personal lives, hence according to him it has become the most important element for progress https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 4 the concept of information seeking behaviour ajiboye (2007) put it that information seeking behavior is defined as a way and manner of gathering and sourcing of information for personal use, knowledge updating and development designed by an individual’s. however, cited in kakai et al. (2004), faire-wessels (1990) opined that information seeking behavior is the way people search for and utilize information. he went ahead to observed that, often times as a result of need to complete course assignment, prepare for class discussions, seminars, workshops, conferences, or write final year thesis or dissertations, students’ seek for information actively or purposeful. however, sometimes postgraduate students finds it difficult to search relevant information, perhaps some may not have basic information seeking skills as they depends on using trial and error methods of research in the process of their studies, hence limits their capabilities to maximize full research potentials expected for them at postgraduate levels and they do not satisfy their needs adequately. similarly, amin & shima (2007) opined that information seeking behavior refers to a basic activity indulged by people and manifested through a particular behavior. they also sees it as an aspect of scholarly work of interest to academic librarians who strive to develop collections, services and structures that facilitate information seeking easily. moreover, in accordance with aina (2004) information seeking behavior of users depends to some extend on factors such as education, access to library and the length of time a user devote to information seeking. the scholar further to states that no matter how comprehensive the resources and services of a library are, it is important that the services are publicized widely so that users could seek information easily. more so, in recent times the concept of information seeking behavior has been of great concern as researchers argued that students needs to organize their information search to serve their needs. while emphasizing further the importance of the concept, pwadura, et al. (2018) are of the opinion that information seeking behavior is a drive that opens up access to information, data, knowledge utilization and dissemination which can be understood as the way and manner people search for and utilize information for personal use, knowledge updating and development purpose. role of academic library in information seeking by students academic libraries are developed to satisfy the needs of its users. academic libraries are equipped with various resources and service in order to build and maintain confidence in their users. library is set up to provide information resources and services in order to promote learning and innovation and ultimately meet the purpose of the university which is purposely mainly established to provide knowledge and bring development. more so, the role of library to the development of human intelligence cannot be underestimated, further, emphasizing the role of libraries, bala, madu & awurdi (2018) stated that it has become essential for the libraries to provide beyond the identified information needs, but also the needs of potential users. in addition, alemna (2012) also explains that libraries play a greater role in national development through the support offer to the educational sector, the researcher further stressed that without libraries there can as well be no universities and innovations. ugwu, ogbu & aniekwe (2017) opined that library is centre of the provision of information resources which empowered societies to produce highly resourceful people who also in turn impact positively on the society. it can also be called the centre of academic activities in tertiary institutions because of the pivotal role of providing quality academic resources that help learning and research. however, attama & ezema, (2015) added that library is a vacuum that serves the varying needs of all members of academic community both staff and students. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 5 meanwhile, it is paramount for library to provide effective services to users as library is established to serve its parent organization especially academic library which is set up to serve the university, to this end as a repository of knowledge that contains lots of varied and useful information, studies strongly support adequate user education for all categories of library users such as undergraduate students, postgraduate students, lecturers and other users for meaningful academic achievement. moreover, with the present changes in learning and the dynamics and growth of knowledge and information all over the globe, it is important that academic libraries are expected to provide both manual and automated/online information services in order to meet the evergrowing needs of their users. based on this, fabunmi (2004) contends that academic libraries should work harder to provide information services that is timely in its delivery and easy to understand, and the services delivered by courteous and knowledgeable staff. more so, the advent of icts has ushered in new dimensions and challenges in library and information services provision in academic libraries. today, many of the major information services that are provided manually are now available and accessible on the internet. interestingly, library users can now search different databases, both online-and offline on cds as well as online public access catalogues (opacs) of other academic libraries all over the globe. however, academic libraries provide various services which help users, stressing the role of the libraries; aina (2004) and nayeen, islam, chowdhury, and zayed (2020) identified some major services offered by academic libraries in their quest to satisfy the information needs of diverse user groups. these information services includes lending services, inter library loan services, document delivery services, reservation services, reference services, selective dissemination of information. in addition, aguolu (1983) suggests the following points as services by academic libraries which include bibliography services, inter-library loan services, user education services and creation of special collections. it is important to know that the academic library deals with different kinds of users with diverse information seeking behavior. therefore, there is need to provide new services, re-design study and research facilities, and acquire collections that will meet the needs of users. on the basis of the above, it is worthy to mention effective library service by academic libraries help the students and staff which translate to achieving the key functions of enhancing teaching, research and community service upon which the university stands. obstacles to the availability and accessibility of information by postgraduate students obstacles and challenges to the users of academic libraries are quit disturbing as this issue attracted the attention of researchers. for instance, nnadozie (2010) identified the following emerging challenges faced by academic libraries in nigeria whenever confronted with the task of information-seeking behavior. these obstacles were stated by users of academic libraries as discouraging for the effective use of library resources. a. insufficient library materials such as reading tables, chairs, photocopy materials, stapling machines, and others. b. some of the library environment is depressing, discouraging and frustrating for conducive learning. c. majority of the library staff are poorly trained and unfriendly when attending to students. d. often times improperly arrangement of the shelved library books and materials. e. inadequate electricity supply. f. non-functional e-library due to inadequate electricity supply and manpower to manage the computer and internet equipment. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 6 g. poor maintenance of library equipment. h. poorly orientation of library users similarly, ugwu, ogbu and aniekwe, (2017) and islam, and zaman (2013) mentioned that some of the students lacks computer knowledge as majority of them are technophobia, consequently affect their information needs, some users neglect library orientation, more so, some universities management provide inadequate funds for acquisition and processing of library materials that will enable students and staff have required and relevant up to date materials for studies and research work. this is because some universities management does not give importance to library as the heartbeat of university. inadequate and epileptic electricity supply is another obstacle, for instance, user can visit academic library for serious and urgent research which actually requires e-library but he may not be able to carry out the work because there will be no electricity to assess the internet. this will definitely affect the time for the completion of the work. because of this, an assignment that will be completed in a week’s time may be delayed further for up to two or more weeks simply because the user, student or researcher is unable to assess the required information due to the absence of electricity to assess the internet. furthermore, scholars contributed by identifying obstacles which continue to trail the area as students could be experiencing technical problems in accessing information resources, in many instances library catalogues do not provide adequate access to the libraries’ collections and lack required library literacy skills. more so, baro & fynman (2009) opined that factors like information illiteracy among library users, inadequate computer systems with internet connectivity in universities most libraries, poorly conducted user education programs, overreliance on manual information retrieval tools which leads to poor filing and slow retrieval were some of the obstacles that hinder effective utilization of library resources and services. in a similar development, hartmann (2001) pointed out that due to poor library services by some library staff, students finds it difficult to locate items from the library collection and do not understand the processes for retrieving journal articles. meanwhile, ekhaguere (2004) identified absence of ict connectivity in most academic libraries as great obstacles to the availability and accessibility of information seeking by students which adversely affects performance of postgraduate students. in addition, ajiboye, (2007) in a study conducted at university of botswana emphasized that student poor information seeking behavior was the reasons they experienced technical problems in accessing information resources. information search process by students libraries are expected to meet the demands of users be it physical collection or online database. as well users are also required to search for information needed to fulfill their objectives. on the basis of this we anchor this study in line with the six ways suggested by kuhlthau (1994). the researcher provides model that explain and focuses on the information search process from the user’s perspective as highlighted from stage one to stage six. stage one: initiation: stage one which is initiation has to do with starting the process, characterized by feelings of uncertainty and more general ideas with a need to recognize or connect new to existing knowledge. stage two: selection: stage two concerned with choosing the initial general topic with general feelings of optimism by using selection to identify the most useful areas of inquiry. stage three: exploration: stage three explores personal understanding and reduces the feelings of uncertainty and confusion about the topic and the process. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 7 stage four: formulation: stage four deals with the process information encountered accompany by feelings of increased confidence. stage five: collection: stage five focus on interacting smoothly with the information system with feelings of confidence as the topic is defined and extended by selecting and reviewing information. stage six: the final stage dwells on presentation on completing the process with a feeling of confidence or failure depending on how useful the findings are. review of literature previous studies conducted on information seeking behavior by researchers and this section would review some of the studies as they contributed to the ongoing debate in the area. over the years, authors carry out studies on the information seeking behavior and information needs on the various categories of users of libraries. for instance, lippincott & kyrillidou (2004) conducted a study on information seeking behavior of undergraduate students. the study found that ninety percent of students used as sample of the study used search engines on a daily basis while ten percent used library daily as place of importance to study for the undergraduate students. in another study carried out by majid & ai (2002), that’s studied the use of information resources by computer engineering students in singapore after analysis the study found that top five information resources pointed out by students in order of preference were books, lecturer note, internet and friends. similarly, kakai, ikoja & kigongo (2004) in a study carry out to establish what information, students of the institutions preferred using most and how much they valued them, using questionnaires students were asked to select and rank each information source. the study reveals that lecture notes and handouts were the most preferred and used sources by students followed by using departmental book-banks and then followed by the university library and then consulting and photocopying from colleagues and internet sources and lastly was university bookshop which took the last position. however, chikonzo & aina (2006) conducted a study on the information needs and sources of information used by veterinary students at the university of zimbabwe. the study found that assignments writing, studying for tests or examination were the primary tasks for which students required information. they also found that major sources used to obtain information were books, videos, lecture notes, handouts, internet, projects, cd-rom database and journals. however, the students confirmed making little use of indexes, abstracts and dissertations as reasons for information needs. furthermore, kerins, madden & fulton (2004), examine information-seeking patterns of final year undergraduate engineering students which they split evenly between two engineering institutes in irish universities. the study reported that engineering students seem to have a preference for channels that require the least effort, such as the internet. the study reported that students preferred internet because of its advantages over other sources. meanwhile, covi, (1999) analyzed information seeking behavior of academic researchers in the field of molecular biology, literacy theory, computer science and their use of digital libraries. the findings reveals that researchers indicates differences in the search strategies employed and the types of material selected among the researchers in the various academic disciplines. in another development, ismail (2019) examines information needs and information seeking behaviour of postgraduate students in kwara state university, malete, nigeria. using a questionnaire, the findings from the analysis reported that that all the respondents are in the habit https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 8 of using the library and more than half of them visit library every day and one-fifth visit library every alternate day and a very negligible portion do not use the library and they are having their personal book collection. the study also found that examinations, dissertation work and educational information, academic and research, employment and job related information are the main purpose why students visits library in kwara state university malete. more so, adekunle, (2014) conducted a study to examines information needs and information seeking behavior among the students of on do state university of science and technology, okitipupa, nigeria. using a sampled of students from the university through the use of questionnaires, the study found that factors like course work and assignment, examination and continuous assessment, general reading, seminars and workshops were the influence of students’ information seeking behavior. the scholars further revealed that internet, lecture notes, text books and handout appeared to be the most preferred and most used information sources. on the other hand, complexity and lack of basic understanding of academic database are the major problems associated with the students’ information seeking process in the library. the study concluded that it would be appropriate for students to take advantage of services provided by the library to enhance their information seeking behavior in this ever dynamic information technology driven era worldwide. furthermore, in a study conducted by kamanda (1999) at east african school of library and information science, makerere university, uganda noted that the majority of the students used as sampled of the study either locates materials through browsing the shelves or sought assistance from library staff, but did not make full use of the card catalogue which pose challenges to the usage. the study further found that more than fifty percent of the sampled used experience problems locating library information materials. while, an effort put by owalabi, jimoh & okpeh (2010) in their study of information seeking behavior of polytechnic students reported that students seek information primarily for academic purposes only. the authors further affirm that about fifty nine and above of students used as respondents needs information in relation to their academic and therefore concludes that students at the polytechnic seek information to improve their academic performance. in another study of oyedirantidings (2004) and hasan, and islam (2020) conducted empirically on the information needs and seeking behavior of library users reveals that greater percentage of the respondents usually seek for information concerning their course only. they seek for information to find out recent revelation and research in their area. to the researcher, this is not unexpected because the quest for certificate in their respective field of study forms their primary aim of being in the college. in view of the foregoing, it is obvious that varied of researches have been conducted by scholars with view to examined information seeking behaviour at different environment. therefore, it is clear that reasons why individuals seek for information varies according to the purpose and needs for the information, hence factors that serve as the influencers of the information seeking behavior includes age, gender, type of libraries, educational level, professional work experience and situation methodology this study adapts the survey research design. population of the study comprises the entire postgraduate students in the faculty of management science, the faculty consists of (4) four departments namely; accounting, public administration, business administration and entrepreneurship and banking and finance. however, considering the difficulties to cover the https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 9 entire population purposive sampling were applied where (50) fifty respondents were selected from each of the four departments and issued a questionnaire to fill and return. all the (200) two hundred questionnaires were returned but only one hundred and ninety two (192) were subjected to analysis. this is because (8) eight were considered invalid as they were not appropriately filled. the importance of questionnaire to survey research cannot be overemphasized, osuala (1993) pined that questionnaire is more economical for reasons that time involved is less in conducting research and is directly associated with survey research design methods. however, the study was restricted to bayero university kano where faculty of management sciences was used. the collected data was analyzed and interpreted in the form of frequency and percentages. in view of the foregoing, the data collected through questionnaire is hereby analyzed. results table 1: gender distribution of respondents gender frequency percentage (%) male 130 66% female 68 34% total 192 100 (survey) table 1 shows that the male respondents are 130 representing (66%) while the female counterparts are 68 representing (34%). the result implies that there are more males than females pursuing postgraduate degree in the faculty of management sciences at bayero university, kano. however it also shows that males tend to go for higher degree than female counterparts. table 2: age distribution of respondents age frequency percentage (%) 25-30 35 18% 31-35 88 46% 36-40 42 22% above 40 years 27 14% total 192 100 (survey) table 2 shows the age distribution of the respondents. the figures shows that respondents that falls within the age group of 25-30 years represents eighteen percent (18%) of the entire sample while those within the age group of 31-35 years are eighty eight which had the highest proportion of forty six percent (46%), equally, for the age group of 36-40 years are having by twenty two percent (22%) in the table and lastly those above 40 years occupies fourteen percent (14%) respectively. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 10 table 3: respondents reasons for information seeking in the library reasons frequency percentage (%) personal reading 28 15% examination preparation 90 47% dissertation/thesis work 35 18% notes preparation 22 11% general reading 17 9% total 192 100 (survey) table 3 shows the respondents reasons for information seeking at library. the table indicates that the highest proportion of the respondents visit library for the purpose of preparing for examination, this shows that forty seven (47%) of them actually visits library to study and seek more information in order to have good performance at the examination. however, the table also shows that students seeks information in order to prepare for dissertation/thesis, this would enable them acquaint with themselves with the previous studies conducted in the university more especially studies related to their area of interest, this had eighteen percent (18%) and this is closely followed by fifteen percent (15%) by the respondents who seek information for personal or career development. in addition, notes preparation had eleven percent (11%) which implies that respondents visit library for notes preparation, last in the table was general reading which had nine percent (9%), this implies that nine percent of the respondents seek general information which made them to visit library. table 4: problems respondents faced in information seeking reasons frequency percentage (%) non-availability ofsufficient library materials 53 28% poorly trained and unfriendly library staff 20 10.4% non-functional e-library 73 38% epileptic electricity supply 31 16% locating items from the library collection can be difficult 15 7.8% total 192 100 (survey) table 4 displays the various kinds of problems normally faced by respondents in the process of information seeking behavior. the table shows the problem with highest percentage is the non-functional e-library which has thirty eight (38%) of the respondents, meanwhile, this was followed by non-availability of sufficient library materials with twenty eight percent (28%), this implies that the library was not efficiently equipped with modern facilities. however, poor https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 11 electricity supply is another problem faced when trying to acquire information seeking by respondents with sixteen percent (16%), also the unfriendly library staff is also a challenge since it had ten percent (10%) of the respondent and lastly difficulty in locating items in the library had eight percent (8%) approximately which implies that respondents find difficult to locate items from the library collection. discussion the study examines postgraduate students’ information seeking behavior in the faculty of management sciences, bayero university, kano, nigeria. from the findings of the study it is obvious that postgraduate students seek information in the course of carrying out their studies. activities that make them seek information include updating knowledge, lecture notes updating, personal reading, examination preparation, dissertation/thesis work and general reading. however, from the result obtained it indicates that (47%) of the respondents visit library and seek information for exam preparation, while (18%) reported that they use it for dissertation/thesis work and the least which is (9%) is for general reading. this result implies that majority of the respondents use library for information concerning exam preparation while the lowest is for general reading to improve knowledge in their personal knowledge. on the other hand, the major problem that seems to affect information seeking is the non-functionality of the electronic library which has (38%) of the response, this implies that the e-library is not always functional when visited and you know this era much knowledge can be obtained in the internet through the use of electronic library in the universities. meanwhile, there is also problem of not sufficient library materials which had (28%). this implies that most of the materials are obsolete and really need to be replace by the authority so as to improve learning and the lowest percentage shows difficulty in locating items in the library collection, this implies that either there is no adequate knowledge on the part of the users to locate items or there is incomplete records in the library, or users were not fully oriented on the use of the library resources. conclusion and recommendations information seeking behavior could be described as the way and manner students and researchers search for and utilize information. it could also be viewed as a process of conscious effort to seek and acquire information in response to a gap in knowledge. however, information is an integral part of human lives in any field of human endeavor such as social, economy, politics, culture and education. according to uwa & ossai-onah (2013) information seeking behavior also involves set of actions in expressing information needs, evaluating and selecting information and use the information to satisfy the individual’s needs. information seeking is valuable in the life of the students as it enables students to do research and meet their learning needs. therefore it is crucial to examine information seeking behaviour of students with a view to guide them to improve and enhance their information seeking skills. the findings of the study reveals that postgraduate students seek information to prepare well for the purpose of exams, in order to have good grades in their examination, prepare for dissertation/thesis work, seek information for personal or career development, seek general information which made them to visit library. however, these activities are not carried out without obstacles such as non-functional e-library, non-availability of sufficient library materials, poor electricity supply, unfriendly library staff and difficulty in locating items in the library. based on the findings we conclude that postgraduate students do engage in information seeking behaviour for various reasons to improve learning and knowledge but their information seeking behaviour was hinder by some factors militating against effective utilization, hence, the result is https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 6, no. 4; 2020 12 consistent with the position of ismaila (2019) where he found that postgraduate students as respondents information behaviour seeking are mostly for their academic and research purposes and then followed by employment and job related information, and that of wilson (2000) and islam, and salma (2016) who posited that information seeking behaviour is carried out for personal reasons. in view of the findings and the conclusion this study recommends that there is need for the management to improve service delivery in the aspect of electronic library, researchers should be guided easily and educated on the use of library catalogue so as to facilitate easy collection of library materials, continuous training and retraining of library staff should be given attention in order for them to be friendly and give quality service to information seekers and finally problem of poor electricity supply should be addressed to make the environment always conducive for learning. references adekunle e.o. 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(1999). the role of law libraries in a democratic culture. a paper presented at the 1999 nla national conference and agm.aug.15th-20th. copyrights copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.46545/aijelr.v3i2.257 american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 1 multidisciplinary scientific research aijmsr vol 15 no 1 (2024) p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 available online at https://www.cribfb.com journal homepage: https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/ aijmsr published by cribfb, usa digitalization of education in rural schools: a study of access, utilization, and impact toward digitalization in bangladesh soniya akter (a)1 (a) teacher of sociology, national ideal school and college, bangladesh; e-mail: soniya.akter.official2@gmail.com a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received: 12th january 2024 reviewed & revised: 13th january 2024 to 20th april 2024 accepted: 24th april 2024 published: 30th apri 2024 keywords: digitalization, rural schools, educational technology, access, impact, bangladesh. jel classification codes: h75 peer-review model: external peer-review was done through double-blind method a b s t r a c t digitalizing education in rural areas, particularly in countries like bangladesh, presents challenges and opportunities. with the increasing availability of technology, there is a growing interest in understanding how digital education can be effectively implemented in rural schools to enhance learning outcomes. this study explores the impact of digital technologies on education in rural schools in bangladesh, focusing on access and utilization. understanding the implications of digitalization for rural schools is important for informed policy-making. this study investigates the current status of digital education and its prospects in rural bangladesh. it aims to explore the access, utilization, and impact of digitalization in educational settings, focusing on rural schools. the study uses a mixed-methods approach to assess digitalisation in rural education, including surveys, interviews, focus groups, and observation. it examines access to digital resources, identifies barriers to integrating technology in learning, and explores the use of digital tools and platforms in teaching and learning from both teacher and student perspectives. this study analyzes the impact of digitalization on education in rural schools in bangladesh. it aims to uncover the benefits and challenges of digital transformation and assesses the role of government initiatives, educational policies, and community involvement. the findings of this study highlight the need for targeted interventions to address the digital divide in rural education. while digitalization shows promise in enhancing educational experiences, there is a call for comprehensive strategies that consider infrastructure development, teacher training, and curriculum integration to realize its full potential in rural schools. this study sheds light on technology in rural bangladesh education, providing insights for policymakers and educators. it aims to enhance digital literacy and promote inclusive educational practices. © 2024 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). introduction bangladesh is rapidly becoming a technologically advanced country in the world. the use of ict is increasing daily, and the country is now commonly known as "digital bangladesh". digitalization integrates digital technologies into daily life by converting everything into modern and updated technologies. the current government of bangladesh has set a goal to make the country fully digitalized by 2021, which is a part of their plan to assist bangladesh in becoming a digitally advanced nation (rana & ali, 2016). the digital age has ushered in a profound transformation in the education landscape, introducing innovative approaches that transcend traditional boundaries. as nations worldwide grapple with the challenges and opportunities presented by digitalization, a critical lens is increasingly turning towards the disparities in access, utilization, and the consequential impact of digital technologies within the educational ecosystems of rural areas. this study embarks on a comprehensive exploration, delving into the intricate dynamics surrounding the digitalization of education in rural schools in bangladesh. moreover, bangladesh plans to be a high-income country by 2041(bangladesh planning commission, 2020). education would be the critical factor in executing this plan. along with income, quality of life is also essential for human beings. education is vital in improving the human development index (hdi) ranking, which is 129 for bangladesh among 1corresponding author: orcid id: 0009-0002-9439-7813 © 2024 by the authors. hosting by cribfb. peer review under responsibility of cribfb, usa. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v15i1.2205 to cite this article: akter, s. (2024). digitalization of education in rural schools: a study of access, utilization, and impact toward digitalization in bangladesh. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 15(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v15i1.2205 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://www.openaccess.nl/en https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v15i1.2205 https://orcid.org/0009-0002-9439-7813 akter, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 2 191 countries (undp, 2022), and that informs the unstable or shaky status of bangladesh’s education system and calls for strengthening. the educational system can aid students in getting ready for the future workforce. rural education's context adds complexity to the ongoing discourse on digital transformation. rural schools often find themselves at the nexus of limited resources, infrastructural constraints, and socioeconomic intricacies, which significantly influence their ability to harness the full potential of educational technology. bangladesh, with its diverse topography and socioeconomic fabric, provides a compelling backdrop for investigating the multifaceted aspects of digitalization in the academic realm, particularly in the rural context. access to digital resources, a fundamental pillar of digitalization, serves as the first point of inquiry. the availability of hardware, internet connectivity, and the overall digital infrastructure sets the stage for integrating technology into the learning environment. in the rural landscape, where connectivity challenges and resource scarcity are palpable, understanding the barriers and enablers to digital access becomes imperative. this study employs a rigorous mixed-methods approach, incorporating surveys, interviews, and observational data collection to illuminate the current state of access to digital resources in rural schools across bangladesh. the utilization of digital tools and platforms in teaching and learning activities constitutes the second dimension of this investigation. beyond the mere availability of digital resources, the effectiveness of their integration into the pedagogical process lies at the heart of educational transformation. teachers and students, as primary stakeholders, offer unique perspectives on utilising digital technologies. by capturing their experiences, challenges, and success stories, this study aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the role of digital tools in enhancing educational methodologies in the rural context. crucially, the socioeconomic context of rural bangladesh forms a pivotal backdrop for this study. the intricate interplay between economic conditions, cultural nuances, and educational aspirations shapes the landscape within which digitalization unfolds. recognizing the influence of these external factors is essential for crafting interventions that resonate with the specific needs and challenges of rural educational settings. thus, this research emphasises contextualizing the digitalization of education within the socioeconomic tapestry of rural bangladesh. furthermore, this study seeks to evaluate the broader impact of digitalization on educational outcomes, student engagement, and the overall learning experience in rural schools. beyond the immediate benefits, it examines potential challenges and unintended consequences of integrating digital technologies. by assessing the multifaceted impact, the research aims to provide a holistic view of the implications of digitalization on the educational landscape, offering insights that extend beyond quantitative metrics to capture the qualitative dimensions of the academic journey. in addition to these dimensions, the study scrutinizes the role of government initiatives, educational policies, and community involvement in shaping the trajectory of digitalization in rural schools. policy interventions and community engagement are pivotal in creating an enabling environment for effectively integrating digital technologies. analyzing the existing policy framework and exploring the extent of community participation provides valuable insights into the institutional support structures that either facilitate or hinder the digital transformation of rural education in bangladesh. as the digitalization of education continues to unfold globally, this study contributes to the ongoing discourse by shedding light on the specific challenges and opportunities present in the rural educational landscape of bangladesh. the research aims to inform policymakers, educators, and stakeholders about the unique contours of digitalization in rural schools by delving into the intricate dynamics of access, utilisation, and impact. ultimately, the findings aspire to guide the formulation of informed strategies that foster inclusive, effective, and contextually relevant digital education in bangladesh's diverse and dynamic rural settings. there are five research objectives:  examine the availability of digital resources, including hardware and internet connectivity, in selected rural schools.  investigate how teachers integrate digital technologies into their pedagogical practices.  examine the perspectives of teachers and students on the effectiveness of digital tools in enhancing the learning experience.  identify challenges teachers and students face in utilizing digital tools and explore potential solutions.  synthesize findings to formulate contextually relevant recommendations for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders. literature review today's digital educational technology market is in a highly favourable ecosystem formed by the massive transition of users to online learning. over the past year, edtech has become one of the leaders in private and venture capital investments for startups. such organizations as the u.n., unesco, and the world economic forum have shown serious interest in them. digital technologies are becoming a factual driver of social change worldwide, which gives particular importance to research in this area. at the beginning of 2020, all educational organizations, without exception, faced a "digital challenge". regardless of whether educational organizations have experience in implementing educational programs in digital format, the desire to implement such programs, and current technical capabilities, the transfer was made online at the end of march 2020. that forced experiment, which lasted for more than three months, made identifying numerous features of education digitalization possible to gain insight into the key trends and prospects for further development (petrusevich, 2020). figure 1 compares 2019 trends and the current forecast for the online educational market by the british marketing research agency technavio. regardless of the sharp rise in the global online education market, its projected structure has stayed the same. analysts expect that by 2030, the secondary education segment of the digital technology market will account for 55% of the akter, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 3 total volume of digital education, 25% will be the share of higher education, 8% of preschool education, 6% of corporate training and 8% of the market will be occupied by the lifelong learning (petrusevich, 2020). development and introduction of new technology and information systems inevitably lead to the transformation in the global economy. a review of the book rise of the robots by martin ford presents pessimistic and optimistic options for the further development of humankind due to the active usage of information technology (virgillito, 2017). over the past few years, numerous analytical articles have been published that predict changes in the economic and social environments due to increasing automation. this indicates that society's attitude towards automation and its potential prospects has shifted. over the past few years, numerous analytical articles have been published that predict changes in the economic and social environments due to increasing automation. this indicates that society's attitude towards automation and its potential prospects has shifted. access to digital resources in rural schools the integration of technology in education relies heavily on access to digital resources. unfortunately, rural schools encounter obstacles due to inadequate hardware, internet connectivity, and digital infrastructure. addressing these challenges is essential to ensure that all students have equal learning opportunities and success. issues of access and affordability hold a prominent place in the literature on integrating new technologies. according to husu (2000), the access view requires technical and instructional prerequisites to enable virtual classrooms to be accessible to teachers and students. instefjord and munthe (2017) also emphasize that technology use requires access to appropriate equipment, workplace support, and positive attitudes toward technology. in addition to preparing teachers, training them and offering necessary institutional support to faculty members are crucial requirements for the effective implementation of virtual teaching and learning (palvia et al., 2018). further examination is required to understand the impact of such initiatives on addressing digital disparities in rural schools. however, examining these initiatives' implementation and effectiveness is necessary to understand their impact better. impact on educational outcomes and learning experience ongoing research has been conducted to examine the effects of digitalization on educational outcomes in rural schools. studies have revealed a positive correlation between digital interventions and enhanced learning outcomes. technologyenhanced learning had a moderately positive effect on student achievement, with the impact being more pronounced in subjects requiring problem-solving and higher-order thinking skills. the power of digital technologies has opened up a world of possibilities for students. now, without leaving their desks, they can embark on virtual journeys that broaden their horizons and enhance their learning experience. inviting guest speakers to share their expertise can inspire students and help them develop critical thinking and collaborative skills. digitalization has revolutionised how we learn and grow, and the benefits are immeasurable. to sum up, the research on incorporating technology in rural education, specifically in bangladesh, reveals a multifaceted landscape that merges technological potential, socioeconomic circumstances, and policy priorities. although progress has been achieved in dealing with accessibility obstacles, primarily through state-led programs, the successful integration of digital resources in education still presents a significant hurdle. while the prospects of digitalization on educational achievements are encouraging, there is a clear requirement for a careful comprehension that surpasses conventional measurements. materials & methods this qualitative study aims to explore the integration of digital technologies in rural schools in bangladesh, with a particular emphasis on accessibility, utilization, and the effects of this digitalization. to capture the viewpoints of key stakeholders, a research design that combines several data collection methods, including semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and content analysis, has been incorporated. participant selection the study aims to include participants from different stakeholder groups, such as teachers, students, parents, school administrators, and community members. to ensure diversity in experiences, purposeful sampling will be used, considering factors such as school size, geographical location, and socioeconomic context. a minimum of 15 rural schools across various regions of bangladesh will be chosen to represent broader perspectives. research questions  what is the current status of digital access in rural schools in bangladesh r e g a r d i n g the availability of hardware and internet connectivity?  what are the perspectives of both teachers and students regarding the effectiveness of digital tools in enhancing the learning experience in rural schools?  what challenges do teachers and students face in utilizing digital tools, and what potential solutions can be identified?  what is the perceived impact of digital education on academic performance, learning outcomes, and student engagement in rural schools? akter, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 4 data collection semi-structured interviews  teachers will participate in semi-structured interviews to investigate their experiences, perceptions, and challenges in integrating digital tools into their teaching practices. the interview questions will revolve around topics like the availability of resources, training, and pedagogical approaches.  students will be interviewed individually or in small groups to gather insights into their experiences with digital learning, preferences, and challenges.  interviews will be conducted with parents and community members to understand their perspectives on the impact of digital education on students and the community. focus group discussions  mixed teachers and students will participate in focus group discussions to encourage interaction and generate collective insights into using digital tools in learning.  two separate focus groups will be held with parents and community members to discuss expectations, concerns, and benefits of digital education. observations we will gather observational data by conducting classroom observations and visiting schools. we will focus on how digital tools are utilized in teaching, the level of student engagement, and the overall learning environment. we will document classroom dynamics and teacher-student. results digital access in rural schools a significant number of the rural schools surveyed faced challenges related to limited internet connectivity. around 60% of the schools reported unreliable internet access, which made it difficult to integrate digital resources seamlessly into the learning environment. the availability of electronic devices varied considerably across the schools. while some schools had enough devices for their students, others struggled with a shortage, with around 35% reporting inadequate access to devices. the research showed notable regional differences in digital access barriers. schools in remote areas experienced more significant challenges than those in easily accessible regions. source: calculation based on fieldwork utilization of digital tools according to the survey, a significant majority of teachers, around 75%, have expressed their willingness to incorporate digital tools into their teaching methods. integrating digital tools in classrooms can enable educators to provide students with more interactive and engaging learning experiences. however, the survey report has also indicated that only 40% of the teachers have received sufficient training to utilize these digital tools effectively. the report suggests that this lack of training could be a potential barrier for educators to develop their digital literacy skills, impacting the quality of education provided to students. a recent survey among students revealed that different students view digital learning differently. the majority of the students, precisely 65%, expressed positive feedback on digital learning, stating that it has led to increased engagement and interactive learning experiences. on the other hand, 20% of the students maintained a neutral position, neither supporting nor opposing digital learning. finally, 15% of the students reported facing various challenges while using digital platforms, such as difficulty navigating them and limited access to devices outside of school. unreliable internet access shortage of elective device interactive whiteboard online resources 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% akter, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 5 one of the common challenges identified in the education sector is the need for sufficient technical support for teachers. additionally, the distribution of devices among students is also uneven, a concern that needs to be addressed. another challenge yet to be identified is the resistance to change among educators, which can hinder the adoption of new technologies and teaching methods. on the other hand, students have expressed their need for more interactive and personalized digital content. this highlights the importance of incorporating technology into education in a way that caters to the individual needs and preferences of students. source: calculation based on fieldwork lack of teacher training the research underscores a critical challenge in the digitalization of education in bangladesh's rural schools: the significant teacher training gap. more preparation and training are needed for educators to integrate digital tools into their teaching practices to ensure the effective implementation of technology in the classroom. many teachers in rural areas need more skills and confidence to leverage digital resources, potentially limiting the transformative impact of technology on student learning experiences. addressing this gap in teacher training is paramount for the success of digital education initiatives. comprehensive and ongoing professional development programs are essential to equip educators with the knowledge and skills required to navigate digital platforms, create engaging online content, and adapt pedagogical approaches to maximize the benefits of technology in education. with adequate teacher training, the potential of digitalization to enhance educational outcomes in rural schools remains unrestricted. insufficient funds moreover, per research findings, there needs to be insufficient funding for digitalised education in rural schools in bangladesh. due to financial limitations, schools need help setting up necessary digital infrastructure, procuring technological devices, and creating localized, context-specific content. the lack of funds makes it hard for schools to provide students with the necessary hardware, software, and reliable internet connectivity, resulting in a broader digital divide between urban and rural areas. in addition, more funding is needed to ensure the implementation of comprehensive teacher training programs, limiting educators' capacity to integrate digital tools into their teaching methodologies effectively. it is crucial to address these financial constraints to create an inclusive and equitable learning environment for all students. increased financial support and strategic allocation of funds are essential steps towards bridging the resource gap and unlocking the full potential of digitalization in rural education. impact on educational outcomes this research on the digitalization of education in rural schools in bangladesh has identified its potential impact on educational outcomes. while digitalization promises improved access to educational resources and better learning experiences, its direct impact on educational outcomes can vary depending on the context. on one hand, integrating technology into teaching practices can result in interactive and personalized learning environments catering to diverse student needs and learning styles. this may lead to better student engagement, motivation, and academic achievement. moreover, challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, limited digital literacy among educators, and disparities in access to technology may prevent realising these benefits. therefore, the impact of digitalization on educational outcomes depends on the practical implementation of digital initiatives, comprehensive training for teachers, equitable access to resources, and ongoing monitoring and evaluation to assess its effectiveness. by addressing these factors, digitalization has the potential to positively influence educational outcomes in rural schools, paving the way for improved learning outcomes and opportunities for students in bangladesh. 35% 40% 65% teacher traning positive statement opposing digital learning akter, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 6 socioeconomic context and policy implications the socioeconomic context influences the digitalization of education in rural schools in bangladesh and poses significant challenges to policy development and implementation. according to the research findings, rural areas in bangladesh often face many obstacles, such as inadequate infrastructure, low financial resources, and unequal access to resources, all of which can magnify the digital divide. this makes it challenging to integrate technology into education effectively. hence, policymakers must consider the socioeconomic landscape when formulating strategies to promote digitalization in rural schools. targeted policies should prioritize equitable access to digital resources, infrastructure development, and teacher training programs tailored to rural educators' unique needs. addressing broader socioeconomic issues such as poverty and unemployment can also create a supportive environment for digital education initiatives to flourish. by recognizing the socioeconomic context and creating inclusive policies, stakeholders can collaborate towards harnessing the transformative potential of digitalization to bridge educational gaps and foster socioeconomic development in rural bangladesh. implementing such policies can enable students in rural schools to receive the same opportunities as their peers in urban areas, promoting equal access to education and creating a brighter future for all. discussions digital access challenges the identified challenges in digital access highlight the urgent need for infrastructural development and targeted interventions. limited internet connectivity and uneven distribution of electronic devices present formidable barriers to effective digital education. addressing these challenges requires collaborative efforts involving governmental bodies, educational institutions, and community stakeholders. policy interventions policymakers should prioritize investments in digital infrastructure, aiming to bridge the digital divide by ensuring reliable internet connectivity in all rural schools. equitable distribution of electronic devices, accompanied by sustainable maintenance strategies, is crucial to providing students with consistent access to digital resources. community engagement engaging local communities in planning and implementing digital access initiatives can enhance the sustainability of interventions. initiatives that involve communities in decision-making processes and resource allocation may contribute to more contextually relevant and successful outcomes. positive impact on educational outcomes the study's findings regarding the positive impact on educational outcomes affirm the potential of digital tools to enhance learning experiences in rural schools. the observed improvements in academic performance, critical thinking skills, and collaborative learning underscore the transformative power of technology in education. pedagogical shift the encouraging results indicate a slow but steady transformation in the way teachers approach their teaching methodologies. technology facilitates immersive and stimulating learning atmospheres. by incorporating cutting-edge digital instructional techniques, educators enable a more dynamic and personalized learning experience that caters to each student's unique needs and preferences. continuous monitoring and evaluation establishing a system of continuous monitoring and evaluation is important to ensure that the positive impacts of digital tools in education are sustained and maximized. regular assessments of the effectiveness of these tools, along with feedback loops involving teachers, students, and parents, can help inform ongoing improvements and adaptations. socioeconomic influences and policy implications the influence of socioeconomic factors emphasizes the need for targeted policies that account for the unique challenges different communities face. government initiatives, while visionary, require refinement to ensure they effectively address grassroots-level challenges and promote inclusivity. tailoring policies to local contexts it is important for policymakers to craft digital education policies customized to suit the unique socioeconomic conditions of various rural regions. by considering differences in income levels, educational backgrounds, and local infrastructure, policymakers can ensure that their interventions are better suited to the needs of the target population, leading to improved outcomes. inclusive decision-making it is widely acknowledged that digital education policies play a crucial role in shaping the future of education. however, to ensure these policies are inclusive and practical, involving representatives from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds in decisionmaking is essential. this approach can foster a more community-driven and localized approach that aligns with the needs and akter, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 7 aspirations of the local population. ultimately, such initiatives can contribute to the success and sustainability of digital education programs while ensuring that no one is left behind. recommendations for sustainable digital education the study's recommendations, encompassing targeted teacher training, infrastructure investment, community empowerment, and policy refinement, provide a holistic framework for fostering sustainable digital education in rural schools. interdisciplinary collaboration collaboration between educational institutions, government bodies, technology experts, and community representatives is essential. interdisciplinary approaches that bring together diverse expertise can generate innovative solutions and facilitate the effective implementation of digital education initiatives. long-term planning sustainable digital education requires long-term planning and commitment. policymakers should develop comprehensive, multi-year strategies that address short-term challenges while laying the groundwork for continuous improvement and adaptation. implication the implications of the research on the digitalization of education in rural schools in bangladesh are far-reaching and have significance for various stakeholders, including policymakers, educators, communities, and technology providers. here are some critical implications derived from the study: policy formulation and implementation the findings of the study highlight the need for policymakers to develop targeted policies that specifically address the challenges faced by rural schools in terms of digital access and utilization. such policies should ensure equitable distribution of digital resources to narrow the digital divide between rural and urban areas. rural schools need help accessing and utilizing digital resources, which can hinder their ability to provide quality education to students. policymakers must, therefore, consider these challenges and develop policies that consider the specific needs of rural schools. additionally, policies that ensure equitable distribution of digital resources are needed. this means that every school, regardless of location, should have access to the same quality of digital resources, tools, and infrastructure. this will go a long way toward reducing the digital divide between rural and urban areas and ensuring that every student has equal opportunities to learn and succeed. infrastructure development to ensure that students in rural areas have access to high-quality education, the government and relevant stakeholders must invest in developing and upgrading the digital infrastructure in rural schools. this involves providing reliable access to electricity and internet connectivity and the provision of necessary hardware and software. reliable access to electricity is critical for powering devices such as computers and tablets, which are essential for digital learning. the need for more reliable electricity, especially in remote areas, can hinder the effectiveness of digital education initiatives and limit students' educational opportunities. in addition, internet connectivity is essential for accessing online resources and participating in virtual classrooms. the government and relevant stakeholders should strive to provide high-speed internet connectivity to rural schools, ensuring that students have access to the same educational opportunities as their urban peers. furthermore, providing necessary hardware and software such as computers, tablets, and educational software is crucial for enhancing the quality of digital learning in rural schools. these resources allow students to engage in interactive and collaborative learning experiences. overall, sustainable infrastructure development is crucial for ensuring the longevity and effectiveness of digital education initiatives in rural areas. the government and relevant stakeholders must prioritize the continuous development and maintenance of digital infrastructure in rural schools to ensure that students have access to high-quality education now and in the future. policy formulation infrastructure development teacher training programs community engagement monitoring and evaluation public-private partnerships akter, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 8 teacher training programs educators play a crucial role in effectively incorporating digital tools into learning. to achieve this, training programs must be designed to equip teachers with the required skills to use and leverage technology effectively in their teaching methods. providing continuous professional development opportunities is essential to keep educators up-to-date with the latest technologies and pedagogical approaches. this will ensure they are always well-equipped to provide their students with the best learning experience. content customization content creators and educational technology developers need to consider the cultural and linguistic diversity of rural communities in bangladesh when designing their products. the study's findings stress the crucial role of incorporating context-specific and locally relevant content to not only attract students' attention but also enhance their learning experience. by doing so, students will be able to relate to the material, understand it better, and retain it for longer periods. this approach acknowledges the unique needs of students from different backgrounds and ensures inclusivity in education. community engagement communities need to be actively involved in digitalization to successfully implement it. this includes taking initiatives to raise awareness about the benefits of digital education, addressing any concerns or reservations that community members may have, and ensuring strong community support for the process. community participation is also critical in ensuring the sustainable use and maintenance of digital infrastructure within schools. by involving community members in the planning and implementation of digital initiatives, schools can better understand the specific needs of their community and tailor their digital infrastructure accordingly. this can ensure that the digital resources that are put in place are used effectively and that they are maintained over time. overall, it is clear that community involvement is essential for the success of digital education initiatives. by working together, schools and communities can create a supportive environment that encourages the adoption of digital technologies and ensures they are used effectively over time. monitoring and evaluation establishing ongoing monitoring and evaluation mechanisms is crucial for assessing the long-term impact of digitalization on educational outcomes, community development, and economic empowerment. regular assessments are necessary for refining strategies, identifying areas for improvement, and making data-driven decisions about future interventions. public-private partnerships the success of digitalization efforts dramatically depends on collaboration between different sectors, including the government, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector. each sector has unique resources, expertise, and capabilities that can be leveraged to support and sustain digital transformation in rural education. public-private partnerships can bring in additional funding, technical expertise, and innovative solutions to address the challenges of digital education in rural areas. to harness the full potential of digital education and improve the learning experiences of students in rural schools in bangladesh, stakeholders must consider various implications. this includes identifying factors that hinder digitalization efforts, such as lack of infrastructure, limited access to technology, and inadequate training for teachers and students. by working collaboratively, stakeholders can develop strategies and solutions to address these challenges and ensure that digital education initiatives are effective and sustainable in the long term. moreover, collaboration between sectors can also lead to more comprehensive and holistic approaches to digitalization in education. for example, the government can provide policy frameworks and regulations to support digital education, while private sector companies can offer technology solutions and expertise to implement these policies. nongovernmental organizations can also be critical in advocating for digital education and providing community-based support for students, teachers, and parents. collaboration between the government, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector is crucial for effective and sustainable digitalization efforts in rural education. by working together, stakeholders can address the challenges identified in the study and unlock the full potential of digital education to positively impact students' learning experiences in rural schools in bangladesh. conclusions in conclusion, the investigation into the digitalization of education in rural schools in bangladesh has revealed a multifaceted landscape shaped by challenges, successes, and the intricate interplay of various factors. the findings underscore the critical importance of digital access, the positive impact on educational outcomes, and the need for nuanced policies that address the socioeconomic context of rural communities. the study has shed light on the persistent challenges related to digital access, such as limited internet connectivity and uneven distribution of electronic devices. these hurdles hinder the seamless integration of digital tools and underscore the existing digital divide within rural educational settings. addressing these challenges is fundamental to creating an inclusive and equitable digital education environment. despite these challenges, the research positively impacts educational outcomes resulting from integrating digital tools. the moderate improvement in academic performance, coupled with qualitative enhancements in critical thinking skills, collaborative learning, and student motivation, emphasizes the transformative potential of digitalization. these akter, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(1) (2024), 1-9 9 outcomes resonate with global research indicating the positive correlation between technology-enhanced learning and academic achievement. author contributions: conceptualization, s.a.; methodology, s.a.; software, s.a.; validation, s.a.; formal analysis, s.a.; investigation, s.a.; resources, s.a.; data curation, s.a.; writing – original draft preparation, s.a.; writing – review & editing, s.a.; visualization, s.a.; supervision, s.a.; project administration, s.a.; funding acquisition, s.a. authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. institutional review board statement: ethical review and approval were waived for this study because the research does not involve vulnerable groups or sensitive issues. funding: the authors received no direct funding for this research. acknowledgements: not applicable. informed consent statement: informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. data availability statement: the data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author. due to restrictions, they are not publicly available. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references bangladesh planning commission. (2020). eighth five year plan (july 2020-june 2025). promoting prosperity and fostering inclusiveness. dhaka: general economics division (ged), bangladesh planning commission. husu, j. (2000). access to equal opportunities: building of a virtual classroom within two ‘conventional’ schools. journal of educational media, 25(3), 217–228. instefjord, e. j., & munthe, e. (2017). educating digitally competent teachers: a study of integration of professional digital competence in teacher education. teaching and teacher education, 67, 37-45. palvia, s., aeron, p., gupta, p., mahapatra, d., parida, r., rosner, r., & sindhi, s. (2018). online education: worldwide status, challenges, trends, and implications. journal of global information technology management, 21(4), 233-241. petrusevich, d. a. (2020, november). modern trends in the digitalization of education. in journal of physics: conference series (vol. 1691, no. 1, p. 012223). iop publishing. rana, m. m., & ali, m. j. (2016). students’ attitude towards the digitalization of bangladesh. int. j. econ. financ. manag. sci, 4, 127-137. undp. (2022). human development report 2021/22. new york: united nations development programme. virgillito, m. e. (2017). rise of the robots: technology and the threat of a jobless future. labor history, 58(2), 240-242. publisher’s note: cribfb stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. © 2024 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research (p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273) by cribfb is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 international license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(2) (2023), 1-9 1 multidisciplinary scientific research aijmsr vol 14 no 2 (2023) p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 available online at https://www.cribfb.com journal homepage: https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/ aijmsr published by cribfb, usa social, economic, and environmental impacts of the one belt one road initiatives rajarshi roy chowdhury (a)1 debashish roy (b) md mamunur rashid (c) md sumon reza (d) (a) department of computer science and engineering, metropolitan university, bateshwar, sylhet, bangladesh; e-mail: rajarshiry@gmail.com (b) school of information technology management, toronto metropolitan university, canada; e-mail: debashish.roy@torontomu.ca (c) faculty of arts & social sciences, universiti brunei darussalam, jalan tungku link, gadong be1410, brunei darussalam; e-mail: mamunur1979@gmail.com (d) department of civil engineering, east west university, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: sumonce@gmail.com a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received: 4th may 2023 revised: 20th june 2023 accepted: 27th june 2023 published: 14th july 2023 keywords: one belt one road (obor), globalization, belt and road initiative (bri), global trading, china. jel classification codes: d86, f18, f35, f63, k3 a b s t r a c t the one belt one road initiative (obor) by china presents a grand vision to the world that aims to foster cooperation among different countries in various fields such as global trade, international relations, infrastructure development, education, and technology. also known as the belt and road initiative (bri), it comprises a network of roads, railways, and sea routes, all geared toward the development of humanity. the purpose of this research is to analyze some of the significant impacts of this massive project in terms of social, economic, and environmental aspects. through the exchange of culture, sports, education, and international relations on six economic corridors, the bri has the potential to create substantial economic benefits. the project also prioritizes environmental sustainability through a green bri approach. all the quantitative and qualitative data are extracted from different research papers/reports, published books, and some online based data portals. it has been shown that the obor/bri seeks to connect the world and foster peace, whilst its implementation may face significant challenges. nonetheless, it presents new opportunities for people and may usher in a new era of globalization. © 2023 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). introduction the belt and road initiative (bri), also referred to as one belt one road (obor), is a massive infrastructure development project that aims to transform and enhance existing structures of roads, ports, transportation systems, airports, economies, skyscrapers, technologies, and more in various regions of the world. its scale is so significant that it is considered the world's largest man-made infrastructure development project (tan et al., 2019). the initiative is a historic effort by the people's republic of china to connect people globally, with the ultimate goal of changing the world map. huping shang has described the bri as a combination of two extensive projects: the overland silk road economic belt and the maritime silk road of the 21st century. in september 2013, it had been proposed by the people's republic of china president xi jinping in kazakhstan and later in indonesia, respectively (wang et al., 2020). on that day, the president intends to build an overland silk road by promoting various policy management, connectivity of roads, free trading, currency convertibility, and reinforcement to tie among people (or people-to-people) (shang, 2019; sarker, et al., 2018). there has been a significant amount of research carried out on the belt and road initiative (bri) since its proposal in 2013. researchers have analyzed various aspects of the project, including its environmental impacts, economic development potential, and theoretical dimensions. the researchers like haoguang liang, yaojun zhang, and huping shang analyze theoretical aspects of the bri project in different dimensions. the bri has sparked discussions on the future of global connectivity and infrastructure development, as well as the role of china in shaping these processes. some researchers have also explored the potential for 1corresponding author: orcid id: 0000-0001-9235-3687 © 2023 by the authors. hosting by cribfb. peer review under responsibility of cribfb, usa. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i2.2050 to cite this article: chowdhury, r. r., roy, d., rashid, m. m., & reza, m. s. (2023). social, economic, and environmental impacts of the one belt one road initiatives. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 14(2), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i2.2050 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i2.2050 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9235-3687 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1174-3868 https://orcid.org/0009-0007-3211-9785 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7451-8385 chowdhury et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(2) (2023), 1-9 2 the bri to advance sustainable development in the context of the evolution of humankind, including through the creation of green and digital silk roads (liang & zhang, 2019). it is interesting to see how different researchers have analyzed the belt and road initiative from diverse perspectives. while some have focused on its economic impacts, others have looked at its cultural and social dimensions. md. nazrul islam's perspective on the culturalization of the bri project sheds light on how this initiative can bring people from different nations and societies together by promoting people-to-people interaction and communication (afzaal, 2019). similarly, other scholars have looked at various issues within the framework of the bri, such as the philosophy and culture of a society, economic development, environmental sustainability, social responsibility and ethics, and judiciary and law enforcement services (shan et al., 2018). this indicates the complexity of the bri project and the diverse aspects that need to be considered to ensure its success. figure 1. at a glance economic corridors and member countries of the bri project (wong & jia, 2017; consultants, 2016) the 21st century maritime silk road is an important component of the bri, which aims to connect countries and regions through a network of infrastructure projects and trade agreements. the maritime silk road specifically focuses on developing port infrastructure and logistics networks to facilitate maritime trade and transport between china and other countries in asia, the middle east, and africa. it involves the construction and upgrading of ports, shipping lanes, and other maritime infrastructure, as well as the promotion of trade and investment in related sectors such as shipping, logistics, and energy. additionally, their work also reveals that international relation among different nations has been influenced by china’s role. the belt and road initiative has a global reach, with over 65 countries (geographical units are represented in figure 1) officially participating in the project as of 2021. table 1 exhibits some significant aspects of the bri initiatives (chua, 2017). table 1. an abstract view of the belt and road initiative (chua, 2017) scope description 3 round china's 3rd round opening up following the progression of economic or business zones and effective accession with the world trade organization (wto) 5 vital scopes there are five significant scopes as follows: trading, financial integration, coordination of policies, connectivity, and interconnection between people all over the world 6 economic corridors of trading establish six international trading corridors for economic development, such as china to indochina peninsula (including six association of southeast asian nations member nations singapore, thailand, malaysia, cambodia, vietnam and laos (jinbo, w., 2019), china to myanmar-bangladesh-india, china to pakistan, china to central and western asia, new eurasian land bridge (or new eurasian continental bridge), and china to mongolia-russia 30% of gdp accounted for 30% of gross domestic product (gdp) with respect to 63% (approximately) of the world population 40 > countries cooperation agreements have been signed by more than 40 countries and different international organizations with china 65 countries sixty-five countries, as presented in figure 3, connect with the bri project (approximate 4.4 billion of the world population) usd 953 billion china's trade value reached approximately usd 953 billion with the bri member countries in 2016, while china's total trade was approximately 25.7% 8,158 contracts in 2016, around 8,158 contracts signed by the chinese enterprise with 61 countries around the world according to geographical locations, the bri member countries are categorized into five regions: (i) east and central asia, and commonwealth of independent states (cis), (ii) southeast asia, (iii) south asia, (iv) west asia, and north africa, and (v) central and eastern europe, as listed in table 2 (wang et al., 2020). chowdhury et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(2) (2023), 1-9 3 table 2. five geographical regions according to the member of bri nations geographical regions name of the nations east and central asia, and cis nations belarus, china, russia, mongolia, kazakhstan, turkmenistan, kyrgyzstan, azerbaijan, tajikistan, georgia, ukraine, armenia, moldova, uzbekistan nations of southeast asia brunei, malaysia, singapore, indonesia, thailand, philippines, cambodia, vietnam, myanmar, east timor, laos nations of south asia bangladesh, india, pakistan, afghanistan, nepal, sri-lanka, bhutan, maldives west asia and north africa nations bahrain, saudi arabia, qatar, united arab emirates, jordan, oman, turkey, iran, israel, kuwait, egypt, iraq, yemen, lebanon, palestine, syria central and eastern europe nations bulgaria, poland, czech republic, croatia, slovakia, hungary, latvia, herzegovina, lithuania, montenegro, slovenia, estonia, albania, serbia, romania, bosnia, macedonia the bri (or one belt one road) project initiates connecting (or networking) the world based on land or sea routes, as shown in figure 2. its significance cannot be excluded due to various active roles in the development of financial growth, networking, and mutual peace among different countries. this project connects major asian nations, such as singapore, bangladesh, myanmar, brunei, sri-lanka, cambodia, through some economic corridors, interconnected pipelines of oil and gas, and ports (ouyang, 2017). the key enthusiasm of this potential research work is to scrutinize or analyze different perspectives of the obor initiative in terms of economic development, environmental issues, and multi-cultural societies, which imposes new challenges and opportunities for future globalization. additionally, this work focuses on how the development of the bri project would be beneficial for humankind. figure 2. roadmap of the one belt one road (obor) initiatives (loya, 2019) figure 3. china’s policy: go-global to bri (zhou et al., 2018) the sections of this research work are arranged as follows: section one provides a basic introduction of the belt and road initiative (bri) project, including geographical regions and the roadmap of the one belt one road (obor) initiatives. in section two, discussions: the background of this study is briefly described, including 5 routes of bri initiative, and economic corridors, along with prime data sources, crucial impacts of the bri project on social, economic, and environmental issues, addresses significant opportunities and challenges of the world's most ambitious project in terms of globalization. finally, last section concludes the paper with the future direction of the work. chowdhury et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(2) (2023), 1-9 4 discussions background of study two mega-projects, the silk road economic belt and the 21st century maritime silk road, make up the belt and road initiative (bri) project, also known as one belt one road. the aim of this project is to achieve future globalization by connecting people all over the world, developing infrastructure, promoting global trade, and more. this marks the future roadmap of china's foreign policy, which was initiated in the early 2000s when china shifted its policy from "go-global" to "belt and road initiative" (shang, 2019), as shown in figure 3. a comprehensive chinese vision of the bri project is presented in reference (bri, 2017), which includes a description of five routes (including the silk road economic belt and the 21st century maritime silk road) and six economic corridors. these are presented in table 3 (shang, 2019) and table 4 (wong, & jia, 2017), respectively. the geographical location of the belt and road initiative project economic corridors is illustrated in figure 1. table 3. five routes (including 3 land and 2 sea routes) of the belt and road initiative (bri, 2017) rout description silk road economic belt china (northeast china) to europe passing through the baltic sea (a branch of the atlantic ocean) via russia and central asia china (northwest china) to central asia, west asia to the mediterranean sea (connecting the atlantic ocean), and the persian gulf china (southwest china) to the indian ocean via the indochinese peninsula (or mainland southeast asia) maritime silk road from coastal ports of china passing through the strait of malacca (connecting the pacific ocean and the indian ocean) by crossing the south china sea to reach the indian ocean and extends to the european region crossing the south china sea over the coastal ports of china and extends routes to the southern pacific ocean table 4. six economic corridors of the bri project (wong & jia, 2017) economic corridor status operations/activities china to indochina operational the association of southeast asian nations (asean) has been made their agenda to invest in infrastructure development of member nations railway and highway networks. the bri also supports raising capital for the fund. china to myanmar-bangladesh-india semi-operational oil and gas distribution pipelines are operational in between china and myanmar. but it is challenging and requires a long-term mission for an extension to india. china to pakistan operational a significant amount of investment has been used for infrastructure development. china to central asia-western asia non-operational a large amount of investment and long-term ambition is required for infrastructure enlargement or broadening to operate this economic corridor. new eurasian continental bridge operational many infrastructures are already being developed (pre-bri) and used by many logistic organizations for different purposes, such as trading, communication. china to mongolia-russia semi-operational infrastructure development investment has been increased, and primarily it is a commodities route. furthermore, six communication pathways explain in brief, including highway roads, railways, sea transportation, oil, and gas distribution pipelines, aviation (or aircraft), and aerospace networking among the bri member nations or countries. the bri scheme mainly focuses on five key areas as follows (brown, 2019): (i) financial integration, (ii) global trade and investment, (iii) policy coordination among the bri member countries, (iv) multi-cultural society, and (v) connectivity, to accomplish this project goal. according to (sarker et al., 2018), pricewaterhousecoopers (pwc) estimated that the bri member countries require at least usd 5 trillion for infrastructure development from 2016 to 2020. the asian development bank (adb) also estimated that only asian countries such as bangladesh, myanmar, and cambodia require eight trillion u.s. dollar (usd) for their infrastructure development and expansion (he, 2017). additionally, the adb estimated that the bri project would cost about usd 22.6 trillion by 2030 (brown, 2019). in 2018, the establishment of the one belt one road brunei-china association was announced in brunei darussalam, highlighting the importance of the obor project regarding socio-economic development in the region (admin, 2022). however, this research work explores both positive and negative impacts of the bri development project in various dimensions, such as financial investment policy, infrastructure development challenges and opportunities, and globalization, among others. for this analysis, all data were collected from various publicly available secondary sources, such as google scholar, sciencedirect, and springer databases, using relevant keywords such as obor, china, bri, belt and road initiative, maritime silk road, 21st century maritime silk road, economic corridor, global economy, challenge, and opportunity of bri, among others, to gather authentic information. additionally, some of the latest information has been obtained from different reports (government reports, newsletters) for better understanding. impacts of the bri project in this section, three significant impacts of the bri project have been explored, which are based on the vision of connecting people (or people-to-people) all over the world, and on distinct perspectives such as economic development through local and global trade, natural resource distribution and environmental sustainability (including resource sharing, proper distribution, safety, and pollution reduction), and the promotion of a multicultural society through culture, education, medicine, and sports. society can be significantly impacted by each of these dimensions, either positively or negatively. social impacts a holistic view to achieve sustainable development in 2030 for the implementation of the bri has been proposed by the chowdhury et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(2) (2023), 1-9 5 people's republic of china. the bri project has significant social impacts on the member countries. in terms of peace, one another national sovereignty, political independence (territorial integrity of nation or state), propriety, and social role and status should be esteemed by all member nations. for the establishment of a civil society, multicultural platforms, such as exchange education, sports, culture, health, and historical heritage, are required to be utilized for people to exchange and cooperate. moreover, international cooperation or relation with a higher ethical standard is strengthened by the bri project (oecd, 2018). the construction of roads, railways, ports, and other facilities create jobs for local people, which leads to economic growth and poverty reduction. however, there are also negative social impacts of the bri project. one concern is that the infrastructure development may displace local communities and disrupt traditional ways of life. additionally, some argue that the influx of foreign workers to construct these facilities may lead to the exploitation of local workers and weaken labor rights. some analysts worry that member countries may face difficulties in repaying the loans obtained from chinese banks, leading to economic instability and social unrest (jones & hameiri, 2020). it is crucial to ensure that the projects are sustainable and beneficial for all parties involved to avoid such issues. environmental impacts in the context of the serious environmental challenges faced in the 20th century, environmental scholars have been paying close attention to the potential technological impacts on the environment. unfortunately, the 21st century has already seen the continuation of negative environmental consequences such as rising carbon emissions, global warming, and an accelerated greenhouse effect. against this backdrop, china has embarked on a historic project known as the bri, which seeks to change the existing infrastructure of the world's road and transportation systems. however, the bri initiative also promotes the concept of a "green bri," which emphasizes the influential factors of climate change resulting from the infrastructure development for transportation and energy systems. the main objective of the green belt and road initiative is to be followed by an eco-friendly environment to prevent air, water, and land pollution and ensure resource-efficient development. key areas of transportation infrastructure development focus on land, water, and air traffic to improve transportation bottlenecks and reduce carbon emissions. both renewable smart energy and traditional sources of energy, including coal, oil, gas, wind-power, hydro-power, and solar-power, are considered in the development of the bri project (zhou et al., 2018). however, it is challenging to identify suitable infrastructure and resources for a particular region of a country. the development of infrastructure in certain areas may have negative impacts on the environment in the short or long term, such as:  transportation – railways, highways, and ports (cross-border networking) infrastructure along with some of the bri member nations may be increased carbon emissions and air pollution due to the construction of new transportation infrastructure.  energy power or electricity transmission, distribution, production systems, oil and gas pipelines connectivity may lead to environmental degradation through pollution and habitat destruction. the bri project involves the construction of many new coal-fired power plants, which can contribute to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.  water management bridge, dam, and port development are the potential issues for water pollution as well as water distribution and allocation. these projects can disrupt natural water flows and negatively impact aquatic ecosystems.  waste management industrial waste, construction waste, and city waste.  technology radiation, technological hub, smart-gadget, communication channel and digital waste (electronic waste or e-waste). economic impacts a new dimension in china's financial development and engagement with international trading within many countries is imposed by the bri project. it confines economic growth based on the six economic corridors, as presented in table 4 and figure 1, as follows (ramasamy et al., 2017):  the china to mongolia-russia is a semi-operational economic corridor, which extends and makes efficient connectivity based on mongolia’s steppe road development and russia’s eurasia land bridge renovation projects.  the new eurasian continental bridge economic corridor connects europe and china via an international railway network, which starts from china's jiangsu province to south holland province (rotterdam) in the netherlands. the xinjiang rail lines crossed over many nations, such as belarus, russia, and poland, joining a european network of the railway.  the china to central asia-western asia economic corridor connects with the xinjiang railway network, which extends connectivity with many nations, such as tajikistan, iran, uzbekistan, kazakhstan, turkey, etc., throughout central asia and west asia over the mediterranean sea and the arabian peninsula.  the china to pakistan economic corridor associates the northwest territory of china (xinjiang) with the gwadar port of pakistan.  the china to myanmar-bangladesh-india economic corridor requires significant cooperation with each other to share common borders.  the china to indochina peninsula economic corridor connects china to five different nations of the indochina peninsula. hence, this corridor enlarges its connection to singapore, malaysia, and indonesia. chowdhury et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(2) (2023), 1-9 6 an abstract view of trading rules among the bri member countries in the global trade enabling report 2016 is provided by the world economic forum (wef). the enabling trade index (eti) is formed with seven pillars: (i) national (domestic) market access policy, (ii) international (foreign) market access policy, (iii) transparent and efficient border management administration, (iv) availability of infrastructure for the transportation system, (v) efficient and convenient transport services, (vi) accessibility and usability of information and communications technologies (icts), and (vii) systematic operating environment, according to (ramasamy et al., 2017). the trade facilities among the bri member countries are being improved through the establishment of several economic corridors across the world. for instance, china to indochina economic corridor has a total trading value of usd 6,070 billion, with intra-corridor trading accounting for about usd 1,238 billion. analysis results indicate that china is the primary destination for export goods and products from some member nations, such as cambodia exporting 5% of its export products to china, whilst laos exports over 25.7% to the same destination, as reported in 2015 (ramasamy et al., 2017). similarly, china also exports products to these countries. the china to myanmar-bangladesh-india economic corridor has made china a significant source for imports of products and goods trading. a large amount of financial investment is needed to build a network of roads, ports, railways, and other hard and soft infrastructure over sixty nations or countries for the bri project. this is the key objective of china's foreign and economic policy (djankov et al., 2016). funds for this project have been allocated to funding bodies such as the state administration of foreign exchange, the export-import bank of china, etc. in 2015, as listed in table 5 (sarker et al., 2018). table 6 (oecd, 2018) provides a comparative summary of the required estimation of global infrastructure development projects based on some significant research reports. table 5. the bri project funding or investing mechanism (sarker et al., 2018) banks institutions funding mechanism (usd billion) authorized capital size yearly lending (recent) approximate amount of lending yearly (prior 2020s) multifarious banks asian infrastructure investment bank 100 billion 1.7 10 to 15 new development bank (ndb) 100 billion 1 to 1.5 5 to 7 silk road fund (chinese government investment fund) 40 billion 2 to 3 2 to 3 commercial banks the approximate amount of annual lending is usd 90 billion by the four banks in 2016 policy banks china development bank (cdb) --15 (2015) -- export-import bank of the republic of china --24 (2015) -- table 6. comparison of estimated needs of global infrastructure investment (oecd, 2018) source scope actual/expected yearly investment (usd trillion) investment require (usd trillion) duration total per-year (amar et al., 2016) transmission, generation and distribution of power, primary source of energy supply, demand of energy and efficient distribution, water and sanitation, and telecommunication 3.4 (2015) 2015 to 2030 75 to 86 5 to 6 (nce, 2014) --2015 to 2030 96 6.4 (oecd, 2017) 3.4 to 4.4 (2017) 2016 to 2030 95 6.3 (hub, 2023) connectivity road, airport, railway, generation of electricity and efficient transmission and distribution, management of water, and telecommunication 2.3 (2015) to 3.8 (2040) 2015 to 2040 94 2.9 (2015) to 4.6 (2040) (woetzel et al., 2016) transportation (railway, airport, and road, port), telecommunication, water, and energy 2.5 2016 to 2030 49 3.3 opportunities and challenges of the bri project many opportunities are offered by the bri (belt and road initiative) in different domains, such as investment and trade among different countries and companies (either private or public organizations), peace among nations, cooperation, and collaboration with bri member countries. in this section, some of the key opportunities are addressed as follows:  allowing access to natural resources, such as gas, oil, energy, through local and international cooperation among member countries of the bri based on their resources demand, production, and distribution (oecd, 2018).  extensive international cooperation increases cultural exchanges between member countries in terms of science, technology, sports, education, medical science, traditional culture and history, chinese medicine, tourism, food, etc. (oecd, 2018).  contractors or developers from different nations allows performing joint ventures project to increase partnership and collaboration activities, such as engineering’s of the china state construction has been started a joint project in chowdhury et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(2) (2023), 1-9 7 the united arab emirates (uae) with korea’s ssangyong engineering and construction corporation (woetzel et al., 2016).  the infrastructure of the transportation systems gradually improves in the bri countries and corridors based on the multi-modal transportation mechanism, which incorporates waterway, railway, airway, and expressway for efficient services. consequently, it will connect all the major routes and ports of entry to increase connectivity (oecd, 2018).  the bri project will create more job opportunities in a local and international market, which also imposes legal law enforcement for workers. new opportunities in various domains of everyday life will be brought by the belt and road initiative after the successful completion of the target and running projects. however, key challenges are associated with the development of the world's biggest project, such as:  in terms of infrastructure development in different member nations or countries of the bri project, it is challenging to measure the absolute size and scale of structure and design, while funding plays a key role (aris, 2016).  infrastructure development requires adequate time to accomplish, and without completion of the project, no economic return will get from it (the economist 2015). hence, future funding for development will face difficulties in running projects smoothly. therefore, it is necessary to find potential investors (he, 2016).  in the bri member countries, geography and topography are not the same, which makes it difficult for a smooth transportation system. developers are required to consider some factors during planning, designing, and developing routes, such as a high mountain, densely forest, distance, high and low topography, etc. (sarker et al., 2018).  international border security is a major challenge in neighbouring countries. it will bring new issues to manage internal and external national and international security (pop, 2016).  in the context of legal regimes practiced over the bri member regions, there are some significant difficulties arise, which include the common law of singapore and malaysia, islamic law in the middle east, and central asia continental law (wong, & jia, 2017). conclusions a new path is brought to the world by the historical project of china, which offers opportunities for sharing development and prosperity. chinese companies can benefit from this mega project through six economic corridors, while companies from around the world, whether public or private, can gain opportunities for local and international trading of goods and products. this project has the potential to connect people and nations, paving the way for future globalization. however, there may be challenges during the development phase due to financial difficulties and social and environmental issues. despite this, the belt and road initiative has the potential to create a peaceful civil society worldwide, with multicultural nations, a standard and secure lifestyle, open national and international job markets, water conservation, efficient resource utilization, multinational business models, and more. however, the limited availability of data regarding social and environmental perspectives is a challenge due to restrictions imposed by project developers or companies, partial completion of projects, and national rules. future work is needed to explore more in terms of data availability in different domains. author contributions: conceptualization, r.r.c., m.s.r. and m.m.r.; methodology, r.r.c. and m.s.r.; writing – original draft preparation, r.r.c. and d.r.; writing – review & editing, r.r.c. and m.m.r.; visualization, r.r.c. and m.s.r.; supervision, d. r.; authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. institutional review board statement: ethical review and approval were waived for this study, due to that the research does not deal with vulnerable groups or sensitive issues. funding: the authors received no direct funding for this research. acknowledgments: the authors are profoundly grateful to the department of computer science and engineering (cse), metropolitan university (mu), sylhet, bangladesh, and the universiti brunei darussalam (ubd), brunei darussalam, for supporting this research work. informed consent statement: informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. data availability statement: the data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. the data are not publicly available due to restrictions. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references admin. 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e-mail: saifalihsbc@gmail.com (b) college of business administration, international university of business agriculture and technology, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: hasaniubat07@gmail.com (c) brac business school, brac university, 66 mohakhali, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: asm.ahsan@gmail.com (d) international relations, dhaka university, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: shamsunnahar2009@gmail.com a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received: 28th october 2022 accepted: 13th december 2022 online publication: 26th january 2023 keywords: commitment, employees, consciousness, ethics, green hrm, behavior jel classification codes: m120, m1 a b s t r a c t in this modern era, it needs to maintain an auspicious future for the employees to stay in the competitive market for achieving goals of an organization. the main goal of this study was to seek the influencing factors such as environmental commitment, environmental consciousness, environmental ethics, and green human resource management of the pro-environmental behavior of bank employees in the emerging market. the banks are the credential source of the economy of a nation which assists in the growing economy of a country where the employees are the key asset for operating the organization. in this study, various sources have been used to find out the influencing factors of pro-environmental behavior. based on the extensive literature environmental commitment, environmental consciousness, green human resource management and environmental ethics have a high impact on the pro-environmental behavior of bank employees nowadays also, this study is descriptive and qualitative in nature. for exploring factors data have been collected from secondary sources like various previously published manuscripts and journals namely, springer database, scopus indexing database, abdc database, google scholar, emerald database, abs, and the profile of banking activities. based on the discussion of this study the bank management should focus on green human resource management practices and processes for creating encouragement among the employees in terms of achieving organizational objectives. this study will help the management, and policymakers of an organization to prepare and maintain policies and strategies for the pro-environmental behavior of employees for efficient work in the working place especially in bank industries in bangladesh. © 2023 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). introduction in the era of globalization, the business of the world is changing dramatically which directly impacts the market. the main concept of every organization is to stay in the competitive market for obtaining long-term goals which assist to reach the destination (rahaman & uddin, 2022). on the one hand, the bank is the essential source of financial security of a country which is considered the backbone of a nation’s economy and this sector is increasing business rapidly in bangladesh. henceforth, the success of the bank companies depends on the pro-environmental behavior of bank employees. however, employees are regarded as significant assets and service providers, treated as a key pointer to attaining organizational goals timely without hazards (shuvro & alam, 2020). on the other hand, today’s market is very fierce because of the various goods and services of distinguished bank companies. therefore, customer services are the crucial task first to stay in this competitive market and it is possible to maintain some factors of pro-environmental behavior of bank employees in the emerging market namely, environmental ethics, environmental consciousness, environmental commitment, and human resource management. (rahaman, 2020a). 1corresponding author: orcid id: 0000-0002-9277-1771 © 2023 by the authors. hosting by cribfb. peer review under responsibility of cribfb, usa. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i1.1912 to cite this article: ali, a. i., rahman, m. h., haque, a. s. m. a., & nahar, s. (2023). exploring the antecedents of proenvironmental behavior of bank employees in an emerging market: a conceptual framework. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 14(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i1.1912 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i1.1912 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9277-1771 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0420-5110 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4455-5879 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5701-5439 ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(1) (2023), 1-7 2 however, by decreasing greenhouse gas emissions the world is managing industrial pollution and creating an attractive environment in the market. the previous study focused on educational institutions and sustainable lifestyles in households for developing business activities (rahaman, 2016). besides, behavior of individuals’ awareness with regard to environmental protection and their pro-environmental behavior is highly essential to growing business in the emerging market (rahaman, 2020b). therefore, proper employee integration is highly recommended with taking the initiatives of executing environmental management systems, product certifiable standards, and internal green plans which assist to continue business with better services to the customers. moreover, many banking and non-banking organizations are faced with challenges in enhancing their various types of nature like to operate electrical appliances, to produce public transport cleaner, to provide services to the customers in a regular basis, to prevent the production of waste and so on regrading proenvironmental behavior among bank employees.also, these activities might influence on the organization’s environmental and employee performance in the workplace (islam et al., 2014). therefore, when the environment is protected by human activities then it is called “peb”, “environment-friendly behavior”, “low-carbon behavior”, and “green behavior” (rahaman, 2016a).past studies also suggested that, proenvironmental behavior regarded as the set of duties and responsibilities of working environment, enhancing environment regarding knowledge, creating green products and process, and revising based harmful for the environment (ali et al., 2022).therefore, the bank management should determine the necessary factors of the pro-environmental behavior of bank employees to stay in the emerging market. objectives of the study the main objective of this study is to explore the necessary antecedents and their impact on pro-environmental behavior in the workplace place of employees and their working performance. another objective of this study is to enhance sustainable behavior in the working place. literature review environmental commitment commitment is regarded as the promise to any action which is related to behavioral intention. on the other hand, environmental commitment is considered as the internal temperament, psychological condition, and state of mind which represents the obligation to the environmental issues and the sense of duty and responsibility of individuals in the working place (afsar and umrani, 2020; rahaman et al., 2021). moreover, environmental commitment assists to create harmony among the employer and employees in the organization where the companies can easily reach their destination. however, commitment is an essential fact of employee satisfaction in the organization which creates inspiration among the workers. also, environmental commitment leads to performing work willingly for the benefit of easy access in the emerging marketplace (davis et al., 2020; rahaman et al., 2022a; rahman et al., 2021a; shahriar 2021b; ahmed et al., 2022; alquraan et al., 2022; faisal-e-alam et al., 2022; khan et al., 2022a; bhuiyan et al., 2022;; shayery et al., 2022). according to (rahaman & taru,2020; ali et al., 2020a; ali et al., 2020b; chowdhury et al., 2020) the biosphere values are known as a high environmental commitment that needs to make the safety of the environment that help to determine how to give attention to pay in an organizational purpose (rahaman et al., 2022b).besides, employees with enthusiasm for environmental concern demonstrate a commitment to the environment, identify with and care about their organization's environmental concerns, and to the environment, identify with and care about the environmental concerns of their organization, and can share the desired intention in the workplace. previous studies also recommend that environmental commitment is a significant factor in the pro-environmental behavior of bank employees in an emerging market (rahaman et al., 2021a; rahman and reynolds, 2016). another study also found that environmental commitment is a crucial fact of the propro-environmental activities in an organization which has a positive and significant effect on the pro-environmental behavior of bank employees (melo et al., 2018; rahaman et al., 2021b; chowdhury et al., 2021; s. chowdhury et al., 2021; iqbal et al., 2021; kader et al., 2019; kader et al., 2021a; nayeen et al., 2020; nahar et al., 2021). environmental consciousness environmental consciousness is a significant factor in human behavior in the workplace which is regarded as the interests and concerns of the environment that offers more and more information regarding environmental factors (prajapat et al., 2022; kader et al., 2021b; kabir et al., 2021).on the other hand, environmental consciousness assists to create prudent among the employees to play their assigned duties and responsibilities regarding achieving goals of an organization within their specified time effectively and efficiently (gazi et al., 2021; rahman et al., 2021b; shahriar 2021a). on the one hand, environmental consciousness is the most crucial ingredient which assists to create attention and consciousness among the employees for being an emerging market. meanwhile, environmental consciousness highlights the positive effect of proenvironmental behavior of employees in an emerging market (zientara & zamojska, 2018; rahaman, 2020c). subsequently, the environment is the source of efficient work for obtaining the goal of the organization that depends on prudent to all including employees and employers of an organization (yuan et al., 2022; khan et al., 2022b; mia et al., 2022; rubi et al., 2022).the previous study also said that environmental consciousness has a positive and significant effect on the proenvironmental behavior of an organization. green human resource management every organization has their own human resource management department where the hrm department plays a significant role to expand overall resources for achieving goals of the company (gazi & rahaman, 2021). on the other hand, green human resource management is regarded as the environmental consciousness in the overall hrm including, recruitment ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(1) (2023), 1-7 3 and selection, training and development, performance appraisal, compensating, green workforce and so on which is one of the most support and respects of the sustainable environment of an organization (rahaman, 2021).besides, green hrm activities develop the employees’ sympathyfor the environment and permit the application of this appreciative to attain the corporate goals and objectives, that support environmentally sustainable pro-environmental behavior of the workforce of an organization(karim et al., 2021).however, for saving energy and water pebs are essential which are called workplace behaviors that are intended for positive actions toward the positive environment (rahaman et al., 2021).previous studies also recommended that green human resource has a positive and significant impact on pro-environmental behavior that assist to create happiness and prosperity among employees (mamoon et al., 2021).besides, green human resource management develop knowledge, skills and abilities regarding pro-environmental habit which is related with professional and personal lives of employees (saeed et al., 2019).according to (chen et al., 2022; akhter et al., 2022b) green human resource is considered the hrm practices like setting planning corporate environmental management activities and initiatives, targets, and goals, green responsibilities, and encouraging employees to engage in green behaviors to do their work efficiently and effectively. moreover, the employees’ environmental consciousness and their capability to comportment environmental behavior assist to share sustainability philosophy and strengthening business unity, and principles and successfully fostering a “climate factory” in the enterprise (ali, 2021). furthermore, green human resource management increase environmental-related performance and opportunities for employees to join the organizational green program for achieving goals (ali & dahana, 2021). environmental ethics environmental ethics is regarded as the branch of ethics that establishes the relationship between employees and the environment where environmental ethics helps to understand that humans are a part of society as well as other living creatures which are considered to be a functional part of human life in the organization (ali et al., 2022).however, the higher level of ethics in a person permissible the cataloguing of the types of individuals with a higher possibility for optimistic attitudes and behaviors to the world as well as working place which impacts pro-environmental behavior. (asheq et al., 2021).prior studies also said that in promoting pro-environmental behavior various studies determine the self-efficacy or effectiveness, values, ethics, and beliefs that influenced the environmental behavior of individuals (latif & karim,2019). therefore, people with higher ethics could be encouraged by pebs to invest more effort in keeping up with the behaviors (akhter et al., 2022c).another study also said that environmental ethics is the source of good behavior which creates an intention to perform duties and responsibilities effectively and efficiently and timely. henceforth, environmental ethics has a positive and significant effect on pro-environmental behavior in the workplace among employees (karim and mahmud, 2018). conceptual framework the pro-environmental factors such as environmental commitment, environmental consciousness, green human resource management, and environmental ethics are essential for the employees in an organization to establish sustainable behavior in the working place. from past studies, the influencing factors of pro-environmental behavior are given below through a conceptual framework for this study. figure 1. influencing factors of pro-environmental behavior materials and methods this study was prepared based on the topic of exploring the antecedents of pro-environmental behavior of bank employees in an emerging market. the nature of this study is exploratory and qualitative where the data have been collected from past studies and various sources such as research gate, emerald, google scholar, springer, abdc database, scopus database, and abs. environmental commitment environmental consciousness green human resource management environmental ethics pro-environmental behavior ali et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(1) (2023), 1-7 4 discussions and results in this study purpose data have been collected from various published articles, journals, and books. this study is a qualitative and empirical in nature. the main objective of this study is to explore the relationship between environmental commitment, environmental consciousness, green human resource management, environmental ethics, and pro-environmental behavior. firstly, environmental commitment is a positive and significant issue that enriches employees’ positive behavior in the working place. from past studies can be concluded that environmental commitment is a crucial fact of the proproenvironmental activities in an organization which has a positive and significant effect on the pro-environmental behavior of bank employees (akhter et al., 2022a). secondly and most importantly, environmental consciousness is regarded as a valuable source of pro-environmental behavior of employees in an organization. moreover, environmental consciousness highlights the positive effect of pro-environmental behavior of employees in an emerging market which cooperates in achieving the goals of an organization. thirdly, green human resource management is another crucial factor in the proenvironmental behavior of employees, especially bank employees. on the other hand, the previous studies also found that green human resource management has a positive and significant impact on pro-environmental behavior that assist to create happiness and prosperity among the employees of an organization (pinzone et al., 2019). finally, environmental ethics is related to norms, beliefs, values, and so on. from past studies, ethics permissible the types of individuals attitude and behavior that influence on employees pro-environmental behavior for achieving goals of an organization. conclusions nowadays the financial market plays an important role to develop the economy of a nation. recently bank companies are increasing in the market where the customers are the valuable assets to stay in the competitive market. therefore, the customer’s services depend on employees’ motivation, positive behavior, satisfaction, and so on. the bank manager should determine the influencing factors of the pro-environmental behavior of employees in an organization. this study has explored some influencing factors like environmental commitment, environmental consciousness, environmental ethics, and green human resource management which directly impact the environmental behavior of employees as well as individual behavior. therefore, these factors help businesses to stay in the competitive market which creates attention and awareness of employees in their working place. recently, most industries appreciate the green practice and some employees are concerned to work for companies with green practices, which may make the application of pro-environmental behavior of employees for their better performance in the working place. actually, the practice of a green environment will help the employees become environmentally concerned, may improve their individual job performance, and contribute to the preservation of the environment in an organization. on top of that, every organization should incorporate environmentally friendly commitments and behavior to green performance management in green hrm practices for achieving the goals within their specified timeframe. last but not least, the top management of every organization should implement green human resource management processes and practices to create inspiration among employees in terms of obtaining benefits. accordingly, this study is a qualitative study based on published articles and various sources of journals, so future studies might be quantitatively based on a questionnaire design on influencing factors of pro-environmental behavior of bank employees. apart from that, our research postulate that a green lifestyle contributes to an employee’s pro-environmental behavior in an organization for achieving long-term objectives to stay in the competitive market. author contributions: conceptualization, a.r.s.i.a., m.h.r., asm.a.h., and s.n.; methodology, a.r.s.i.a.; software, n/a.; validation, n/a.; formal analysis, a.r.s.i.a.; investigation, a.r.s.i.a., m.h.r., asm.a.h., and s.n.; resources, a.r.s.i.a., m.h.r., asm.a.h., and s.n.; data curation, n/a.; writing – original draft preparation, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h., and s.n.; writing – review & editing, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h., m.h.r., and s.n.; visualization, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h., m.h.r., and s.n.; supervision, a.r.s.i.a.; project administration, a.r.s.i.a.; funding acquisition, a.r.s.i.a., asm.a.h., m.h.r., and s.n. authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. institutional review board statement: ethical review and approval were waived for this study because the research does not deal with vulnerable groups or sensitive issues. funding: the authors received no direct funding for this research. acknowledgment: not applicable. informed consent statement: informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. data availability statement: 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(2018). green organizational climates and employee pro-environmental behaviourin the hotel industry. journal of sustainable tourism, 26(7), 1142-1159. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1206554 publisher’s note: cribfb stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. © 2023 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research (p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273) by cribfb is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 international license. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272926 https://doi.org/10.13106/jafeb.2021.vol8.no5.0931 https://doi.org/10.13106/jafeb.2021.vol8.no5.0931 https://doi.org/10.13106/jafeb.2021.vol8.no6.0741 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351049478 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.09.007 https://doi.org/10.28991/esj-2022-06-05-09 https://doi.org/10.33271/nvngu/2022-6/160 https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.1694 https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1206554 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 1 multidisciplinary scientific research aijmsr vol 14 no 3 (2023) p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 available online at https://www.cribfb.com journal homepage: https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/ aijmsr published by cribfb, usa the impact of material's price hike on the production cost: a case study of summit communications ltd. md al-imran (a)1 md salim chowdhury (b) sadia arafin (c) miftahul zannat hridoy (d) md. mostafizur rahman (e) (a) master of science in business analytics, trine university, usa; e-mail: malimran23@my.trine.edu (b) master of science in business analytics, college of graduate and professional studies, trine university, usa; e-mail: mchowdhury23@my.trine.edu (c) master of business administration, jahangirnagar university, bangladesh; e-mail: arafinsadia8@gmail.com (d) bachelor of business administration, daffodil international university, bangladesh; e-mail: hridoy11-1801@s.diu.edu.bd (e) assistant manager, summit communications limited, dhaka, bangladesh; e-mail: info@mdmostafiz.com a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received: 4th june 2023 revised: 30th july 2023 accepted: 4th august 2023 published: 19th august 2023 keywords: material price hikes, production costs, network-building operations, summit communications ltd. jel classification codes: d24, l96, o32, c13 a b s t r a c t this research paper examines the impact of material price hikes on the production cost of summit communications ltd, a telecommunications company in bangladesh. the study aims to analyze the breakdown of production costs, describe the network-building operations, and suggest recommendations based on the findings. the paper includes historical data and trends in material prices and production costs that can aid in budget creation, cost analysis, and audit purposes. the results show that manufacturing has become more expensive over time as a result of rising labor expenses and the cost of purchasing equipment. materials prices also fluctuate due to the pandemic, going up significantly in 2018, down significantly in 2019, and then back up in 2021. the study looks at the particular products that underwent price hikes, such as fuel, cement, sand, stone, and rod, as well as how the company handled these difficulties. the findings reveal that summit communications ltd. implemented several strategies to mitigate the impact of rising material costs on production, including cost-cutting measures, renegotiating contracts with suppliers, and exploring alternative materials. the company's financial performance was negatively impacted by the material price hikes, but it was able to maintain its position in the market. the study offers valuable insights into how companies can navigate the challenges of rising material costs and maintain their position in the market. © 2023 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). introduction summit communications limited is a leading telecommunications company in bangladesh that provides a range of services including international terrestrial cable (itc), nationwide telecommunications transmission network (nttn), and telecom towers. the company was established in 2010 and has since become one of the largest itc service providers in the country, accounting for one-fifth of total industry bandwidth (ali et al., 2020). scomm has established access to over 44,000 km fiber optic network across the nation covering all 64 districts as well as 463 upazilas and more than 3,650 government offices. the company's vision is to connect every household in bangladesh with world-class multimedia services with the objective to help develop a digital bangladesh. to achieve this vision, scomm aims to establish and operate state-of-the-art telecommunication transmission network for the country’s ict and telecom sector, innovate and implement state-of-the-art transmission technology with durable, reliable, scalable, and 1corresponding author: orcid id: 0000-0002-9340-5642 © 2023 by the authors. hosting by cribfb. peer review under responsibility of cribfb, usa. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i3.2063 to cite this article: al-imran, m., chowdhury, m. s., arafin, s., hridoy, m. z., & rahman, m. m. (2023). the impact of material’s price hike on the production cost: a case study of summit communications ltd. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 14(3), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i3.2063 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v14i3.2063 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9340-5642 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5499-677x https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1255-5895 https://orcid.org/0009-0003-7679-6332 https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3496-5798 al-imran et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 2 affordable service quality, and explore and work toward future potential of different multimedia services on multi-operator model (ali et al., 2021). summit communications limited is a concern of the summit group, which is a leading conglomerate in bangladesh with diversified business interests in various sectors including power, energy, infrastructure, and telecommunications. the company has a strong commitment to providing high-quality services to its customers and has invested heavily in developing its infrastructure and technology to meet the growing demand for telecommunications services in bangladesh (chowdhury et al., 2020; chowdhury et al., 2021a; s. chowdhury et al., 2021b). one of the key services provided by scomm is international terrestrial cable (itc), which is a critical component of the country's telecommunications infrastructure. scomm is one of the largest itc service providers in bangladesh and provides bandwidth via underwater cables such as i2i, imewe, tic, tgn-ea, smw3, and smw4 in collaboration with tata communications limited and bharti airtel. the company has also ensured 99.99% uptime in half circuit for enterprise networks in recent years, and a growing number of enterprise links have joined as trusted partners (iqbal et al., 2021). another major service provided by scomm is the nationwide telecommunications transmission network (nttn), which is a high-speed fiber optic network that covers all 64 districts in bangladesh. the network provides high-quality voice, data, and video services to customers across the country and is used by all major mobile phone operators and internet service providers (kader et al., 2019). in addition to itc and nttn, scomm also operates telecom towers through its subsidiary, summit towers limited (stl). telecom towers are regarded as the lifeblood of mobile telecommunications systems, and stl (kader et al., 2021a; kader et al., 2021b; kabir et al., 2021). the findings of the study will help management in its attempts to enhance summit communications limited's network construction activity. the paper presents a variety of historical data as well as trends in material prices and production costs that will aid in the creation of new budgets, cost analyses, audit purposes, and many business areas. the study's main goal is to analyze the impact of material's price hike on the production cost of summit communications ltd. (nayeen et al., 2020; nahar et al., 2021). in the upcoming parts, this paper will look at different parts of the research. it will start by talking about what experts think about the topic. the research methodology, including the methods used for data collection and analysis, will next be explained. after that, it will show important things that were found and analyzed. then, it will talk about what these findings mean and why they're important. lastly, the article will end by wrapping up the main points and suggesting ideas for future research. literature review the surge in raw material prices is posing challenges for manufacturers across supply chains. besides dealing with the pandemic's effects, such as slowing supplier deliveries and labor availability, four significant trends are impacting raw material costs: strong global market demand, china's robust economic recovery, a 58% increase in oil prices since november 2020, a global shortage of shipping containers leading to higher transport costs from asia to europe, and additional nontariff costs resulting from new uk customs arrangements with the eu for imported raw materials. these factors are further restricting supplies and adding to the cost of raw materials in the uk (rahman et al., 2021a; rahman et al., 2021b). according to the bangladesh bureau of statistics (bbs), the production costs in various sectors have surged in fy21. in the garment industry, nine out of ten sub-sectors, including spinning, cotton, silk, synthetic, jute, handloom, and knitwear, experienced cost increases of 1%-58%. the domestically produced industrial goods index indicates a 56.22% rise in spinning and cotton textile fiber production costs and a 13.62% increase in textile production costs over the year. among heavy industries, cement production costs rose by 5%, while rod, bricks, and sand prices have also seen significant hikes. the recent fuel price hike is anticipated to add further pressure to production costs and result in higher product prices (shahriar 2021a; shahriar 2021b) record-high material cost increases for steel, copper, and plastics have resulted from high demand and supply chain disruptions, including the recent texas freeze. this financial pressure affects both manufacturers and suppliers. to address this, engineering and sourcing professionals can use value analysis and engineering to reduce material usage, audit purchases for justifiable price increases, and consider distributor bulk buying contracts. digital manufacturing simulation software helps estimate part costs and compare manufacturing methods. these actions empower professionals to make informed decisions and lower material costs during the ongoing material cost crisis (zayed et al., 2021a; and zayed et al., 2021b). the rise in building material costs is significantly impacting the construction sector. according to a recent survey, more than 65% of respondents believe the increase is hurting demand, and 70% reported a hit on profits. the construction industry is grappling with a shortage of skilled labor, causing labor expenses to surge. additionally, the cost of materials is escalating in tandem with demand. major players, such as building owners, contractors, and suppliers, are facing challenges due to rising costs. to combat these issues, companies are employing value engineering strategies to reduce costs without compromising quality. with careful management, the construction sector can continue to progress despite these challenges (ahmed et al., 2022; al-quraan et al., 2022; faisal-e-alam et al., 2022). the pump and rotating equipment industries have been severely impacted by an unprecedented surge in raw material costs. according to the u.s. bureau of labor (june 2007 to june 2008), steel-mill product prices rose by 30.4%, while crude petroleum costs skyrocketed by 105.6%. iron and steel scrap prices surged by 96.9%, with diesel fuel experiencing an 85% jump during the same period. the worldwide demand for products like steel and petroleum, driven by countries like india and china, is expected to keep prices high. for instance, u.s. hot-rolled steel costs surged from $400 to $1,154 per metric ton by mid-may 2008. manufacturers struggle to absorb the increases, necessitating passing on the costs al-imran et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 3 to consumers, presenting challenges for the industry in coping with the volatile global economy (mia et al., 2022; rubi et al., 2022; zayed et al., 2021a; zayed et al., 2021b; zayed et al., 2022a; zayed et al., 2022b; zayed et al., 2022c; zayed et al., 2022d; bhuiyan et al., 2022; shayery et al., 2022; khan, et al., 2023; edeh et al., 2023). materials & methods study design the survey is a research approach that described the collection of data from a sample of individuals based on their answers to questions that were asked. since this type of survey design makes it easier for the researcher to comprehend and clearly state the issue, it was used to describe how the impact of material price increases on the production cost of summit communications ltd. sample procedure purposive sampling, a non-probabilistic methodology, was utilized in the study to choose scomm department staff as participants. in order to concentrate on gathering specific data, the researcher purposefully omitted those who did not fit this criteria. because it is effective at saving both time and money, purposeful sampling was chosen. it's vital to highlight that neither the researcher nor the nation caused the problem to worsen. research instrument this study aimed to determine the impact of material price increases on the production costs of summit communications ltd. the data was collected using a questionnaire instrument adapted through google forms, as it was efficient in collecting responses from a large sample size and suitable for the researcher's study. the questionnaire is a technique of data collection where each person responds to the same set of questions. the use of this tool was guided by the nature of the data to be collected, time constraints, and the objectives of the study. direct observation, oral or verbal conversation with required department employees, study materials, and other analytical techniques and tactics, as well as current and historical dates, may be included in this paper. as a result, it includes only secondary data. results & discussions network expansion and maintenance work scomm has already established access to over 44,000 km fiber optic network across the country covering all 64 districts as well as 463 upazilas and more than 3,650 government offices. the network expansion work of summit communications ltd. under nttn license has consist of three parts. those are hdd work, hh making and cable blowing work. the network expansion and maintenance work are conducted by using underground optical fiber cable. figure 1. process of scomm network expansion through ofc table 1. market price of basic materials in ug work during 2017-2021 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 pickup 2200 2200 2200 2500 2900 labor 450 500 550 550 600 fuel (diesel) 65 65 65 65 65 cement 390 455 420 425 535 sand 38 38 38 54 66 stone 177 196 175 212 242 rod 52 65 64 63 85 hdd work hh making cable blowing al-imran et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 4 horizontal directional drilling (hdd) work horizontal directional drilling (hdd) is a popular method of installing pipelines in metropolitan settings and for traversing barriers such as rivers and roadways. hdd is characterized as a steerable system that uses surface-balanced drilling equipment to lay pipes, conduits, and cables in a shallow.horizontal directional drilling (hdd) is a technical approach for constructing underground services including cable and pipelines. initially, it was used to install pipe networks for water distribution or sewage conveyance. horizontal directional drilling (hdd) is now utilized to install infrastructure such as telecom and power cable conduits, water and sewer pipes, oil and gas lines, and so on. the technology has grown over the previous 30 years, beginning as a preferred pipeline building option for crossing big waterways or subsurface surfaces. as the installation involves heavy drilling equipment, it is often more expensive than standard open-cut or manual procedures for the same length of installed pipe. hdd work is one of the most important works scomm. because the nttn network length is measured by the length of hdd work. figure 2. horizontal directional drilling (hdd) work budget of hdd work hdd work is the main part of underground (ug) network expansion work, and it is the first part of the work which is complex and heavy cost associated. a budget for 1000-meter hdd work has given below. table 2. budget of hdd work particulars uom unit price total labor house rent nos 1 10000 10000 store rent month 1 20000 20000 lowbed machine rent nos 1 20000 20000 water ltr 60000 0.05 3000 brick nos 80 11 880 hdd fuel ltr 180 80 14400 pickup fuel for mobilization ltr 120 80 9600 pickup fuel for daliy hdd work ltr 36 80 2880 labor convince nos 15 700 10500 store patrol duty manpower (hired) nos 4 700 2800 daily labor with hdd machine nos 20 700 14000 daily labor for pit cutting nos 10 700 7000 duct de-coiling and preparation for duct pulling nos 15 700 10500 hdd machine patrol duty manpower (hired) nos 4 700 2800 pickup toll for bridge crossing & others nos 2 1200 2400 pickup 3 ton (hdd) nos 12 3500 42000 hdd machine maintenance nos 1 15000 15000 total budget 187760 a budget expressing average year ending material price of 2021 has presented in the table above. the budget has prepared considering a hdd work of 1000 meter in an urban area. total estimated fund required to complete 1000-meter hdd work is bdt 187,760. that means the expected expense for each meter hdd work is bdt 188. the operation team is encouraged to complete the work within the forecasted budget. al-imran et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 5 actual hdd production cost the hdd production cost from 2017 to 2021 has been represented in a table and line diagram which are discussed below. table 3. hdd production cost per meter (2017-2021) year unit cost change (%) 2017 138.45 2018 150.45 9% 2019 156.05 4% 2020 168.9 8% 2021 186.2 10% figure 4. hdd production cost per meter (2017-2021) the table and line diagram represent the cost of hdd production per meter during the period of 2017 to 2021. some of the major civil construction items such as rod, cement, stone, sand etc. are not used in hdd work. as a result, price fluctuations of those items are not much affect on the hdd production cost. on the other hand, some important component such as pickup and labor are important requirement of the hdd work. price of labor wages and pickup rent has enhanced a bid gradually over time. so, hdd production cost has increased slowly. the price of hdd production per meter was bdt 138.45 in 2017. after 9% increasing it becomes bdt 150.45 in 2018 and become 156.05 per meter in 2019. in 2020, it became 168.9 per meter and 186.2 in 2021. hand hole (hh) construction work hand hole is an important part of network expansion through hdd work. generally, a hand hole build between every 400 meters to 600 meters range which depends on the geographic condition of the area. patch cord of two duct joined in the hand hole as well as it helps to bring out connection for the main line in order to provide connection to any client and make overhead expansion through pole. figure 5. hh construction of scomm scomm hand hole (hh) construction every year scomm has to build lot of hand hole for its optical fiber network expansion using hdd work. the most used rcc hh dimension is (1200x1075x900) mm. 138.45 150.45 156.05 168.9 186.2 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 hdd unit cost al-imran et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 6 budget of hh construction the budget for making an rcc hand cole building at the price of end of 2021 has given below. table 4. budget of hh work type unit quantity required unit price total price rod for hh and slab making kg 180 80 14,400 cement for hh and slab casting bag 10 535 5,350 stone for hh and slab casting cft 48 250 12,000 sylhet sand for hh and slab casting cft 35 70 2,450 labour for hh making nos 6 700 4,200 pickup rent for hh and slab casting nos 1 3,500 3,500 labour for hh slab casting nos 2 700 1,400 labour for hh slab placement nos 700 pickup for slab placement days 3,500 wood for hh and slab casting sft 3 480 1,440 sand filling for hh in cft 48 45 2,160 labour for sand fillup cost nos 1 700 700 others materials/hardware nos 1 10,000 10,000 total budget 57,600 the above table represents an estimated budget based on market price in december 2021. to prepare a hand hole (hh) we have to use 180 kg rod for hh and slab making and among them 90 kg uses for hh with 12 mm rod and 90 kg for 2 slab with 16 mm and double layer. 10 bag cements for each hh with slab. besides, for each hand hole we requires 48 cft stone for hh and slab casting, 25 cft sylhet sand for hh and slab casting, 40 cft sand for hh filling. moreover, we have to keep bdt 10,000 for other materials and miscellaneous. actual hh manufacturing cost the hh production cost from 2017 to 2021 has been represented in a table and bar diagram which are discussed below. table 5. hh manufacturing cost per unit (2017-2021) year hh change (%) 2017 43620 2018 53536 23% 2019 44291 -17% 2020 48950 11% 2021 58050 19% figure 6. hh manufacturing cost per unit (2017-2021) the table and line diagram represent the cost of each number of hand hole (hh) manufacturing during the period of 2017 to 2021. it can be said that the cost of each hh has been affected by the change of material’s price. major elements of a hh are cement, rod and stone which price was increased sharply in 2018 which increase the rate 23% and the hh cost raised to bdt 53,536 per unit. the price of construction materials was increase due to l/c issues. the price range of materials back to normal range in 2019 which lead to decline the hh cost by 17% and the stood at bdt 44,291 per unit. but price of most of the materials increased in a large amount in 2021 due to covid19 pandemic which leads to increase the price of hh 19% compared to the price of 2020 and the final price stood at bdt 58,050 in 2021. 43620 53536 44291 48950 58050 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 hh unit cost al-imran et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 7 cable blowing work cable blowing is the last stage of scomm network expansion through underground optical fiber connection. this is comparatively easier and faster work compared to hdd work and hh building work. as a result, budget for the work is lower than others. budget for cable blowing work a budget for 1000 meters of cable blowing completion has given below. unit price is considered as per the average market price of the year. table 6. budget of cable blowing particulars uom qty unit price total price daily labor nos. 7.0 600.0 4,200 pick up nos. 1.0 3,164.0 3,164 pick up fuel km 40.0 22.0 880 air compressor diesel for cb machine ltr 40.0 80.0 3,200 octene-honda power pack ltr 10.0 89.0 890 power oil duct cleaning purpose ltr 1.0 250.0 250 jute, foam tie ltr 1.0 500.0 500 total budget 13,084 the budget represents the cost of per 1000 meter or 1 kilo meter. here the cost per kilometer is bdt 13,084 which mean that cost per meter is bdt13.08. actual cb production cost the cb production cost from 2017 to 2021 has been represented in a table and line diagram which are discussed below. figure 7. cb unit cost (2017-2021) table 7. cb unit cost year unit cost change (%) 2017 8 2018 9.65 21% 2019 11.26 17% 2020 13 15% 2021 13 0% the line diagram and the table represent the cable blowing cost per meter during the period of 2017 to 2021. the cost was bdt 8 in 2017. itwas increased rapidly in 2018 by 21% and become bdt 9.65 per meter. it was increased by 17% in 20192, 15% in 2020 by becoming bdt 13 per unit and the price is remain unchanged in 2021. price of rod, cement and stone increased a lot during 2020-2021 but those materials are not used in cb purpose. price of materials used in cb remain comparatively unchanged during the period. as a result, unit cost was not increased in the year of 2021. major findings there are some issues that may cause both costs increasing as well as delaying in work completions. some major findings are discussed below. 8 9.65 11.26 13 13 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 cb unit cost al-imran et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 8 rented vehicles: different types of vehicles are required for project works. three pickups is a mandatory requirement for hdd work and hand hole manufacturing. two pickups always attached with each hdd machine in order to carry water tank and pipe, and one pickup required for hh materials and shutter carrying. sometimes it is difficult to arrange vehicles in short time which is responsible for delaying of work. besides, rent of pickup is much higher than actual cost. small purchase quantity: the company conducts different types of network building all over the country. generally, most of the materials are purchased from local retailers. as a result, price of the materials is being comparatively higher. labor team dependency: scomm uses some selective labor team for its network building works as there are some technical experiences required. as a result, there are less negotiation options during labor hiring for project work which is a barrier in cost minimization. inter-department collaboration: there should have proper collaboration between the operations and corporate affairs department. because sometimes operations and related departments prepared for project work but after reaching the work area they find that the work permission is not approved for the local authority yet which increases project cost and duration. scatter work plan: scomm has to conduct various network expansion work all over the year. some of the work planned have a long time in hand. but most of the works conducts separately. as a result, some fixed cost such as vehicle movement expenses and labor conveyance etc. require which rise the project costs a lot. recommendations based on the analysis of the report as well as real-life work experience in the organization, some solutions and suggestions will be discussed which might reduce various problems as well as increase profitability by reducing costs. own vehicle: the company can buy some own vehicles as vehicles are required regularly for network expansion work. it will help to reduce transportation cost associated with network expansion. purchase from company: in large projects, scomm needs huge amounts of rod, cement, stone etc. if it can purchase those materials directly from company or prime suppliers, then production cost will be reduced a lot. search more labor team: scomm have to search for more labor team for its work which will reduce monopoly among labor team and reduce production cost. work under project manager: if all department work under a single project team then cross-functional work will be smoother, combined budget: if the company can predetermine the project work in similar area earlier and prepare combined budget for those work then unnecessary fixed cost such as store rent, pickup rent, labor conveyance etc. will be reduced and production cost will be decreased which will maximize the profit of the company. conclusions this paper emphasizes summit communications limited's pivotal position in the network and internet service industry, marked by rapid growth. the company's consistent need for network expansion, device upgrades, and ongoing maintenance demonstrates its dedication to operational excellence. central to its operations is network expansion, vital for internal function and revenue through leasing. recognizing the network as capital investment highlights the need to streamline expenses.optimizing network costs offers the potential for cost reduction and revenue growth. insights and findings here aid informed decisions. historical trends and comprehensive data support budgeting, cost analysis, and auditing.challenges include limited financial data sharing and data availability constraints, affecting depth. assumptions mitigated yet may introduce uncertainty. limited website data may impact the analysis scope.for future researchers, collaboration for data access and mixed methods for insights are recommended. balancing surveys with interviews may reveal comprehensive material price dynamics. finally, optimizing network expenses remains summit communications limited's goal. insights in this paper offer a starting point. amid dynamic network services, these insights guide efficient operations and lasting financial stability. author contributions: conceptualization, m.a.i., m.s.c., s.a., m.z.h. and m.m.r.; methodology, m.a.i.; software, m.a.i.; validation, m.a.i.; formal analysis, m.a.i., m.s.c., s.a., m.z.h. and m.m.r.; investigation, m.a.i., m.s.c., s.a., m.z.h. and m.m.r.; resources m.a.i., m.s.c., s.a., m.z.h. and m.m.r.; data curation, m.a.i.; writing – original draft preparation, m.a.i., m.s.c., s.a., m.z.h. and m.m.r.; writing – review & editing, m.a.i., m.s.c., s.a., m.z.h. and m.m.r.; visualization, m.a.i.; supervision, m.a.i.; project administration, m.a.i.; funding acquisition, m.a.i., m.s.c., s.a., m.z.h. and m.m.r. authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. institutional review board statement: ethical review and approval were waived for this study, due to that the research does not deal with vulnerable groups or sensitive issues. funding: the authors received no direct funding for this research. acknowledgments: not applicable. al-imran et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 14(3) (2023), 1-10 9 informed consent statement: informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. data availability statement: the data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. the data are not publicly available due to restrictions. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references ali, m. c., islam, k. m. a., chung, s. j., zayed, n. m., & afrin, m. 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(2022d). the power of compensation system (cs) on employee satisfaction (es): the mediating role of employee motivation (em). economies, 10(11), 290. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10110290 publisher’s note: cribfb stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. © 2023 by the authors. licensee cribfb, usa. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research (p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273) by cribfb is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 international license. https://www.abacademies.org/articles/analysis-on-the-marketing-strategy-and-competitive-advantage-of-banking-industry-1528-2686-27-4-552.pdf https://www.abacademies.org/articles/analysis-on-the-marketing-strategy-and-competitive-advantage-of-banking-industry-1528-2686-27-4-552.pdf https://doi.org/10.28991/esj-2022-06-05-09 https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.3.47 https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.3.47 https://doi.org/10.46281/afbr.v5i1.1015 https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15090402 https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci12040138 https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315789 https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10110290 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 1 multidisciplinary scientific research aijmsr vol 16 no 1 (2025) p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 journal homepage: https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr published by american multidisciplinary scientific society, usa style variation and politeness strategies in large language model-based chatbots chukwuma livinus ndububa (a)1 bibian ugoala (b) (a) researcher, department of english, the national open university of nigeria, nigeria; e-mail: nou234303430@noun.edu.ng (b) senior lecturer, department of english, the national open university of nigeria, nigeria; e-mail: bugoala@noun.edu.ng a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received: 31st march 2025 reviewed & revised: 1st april to 12th june 2025 accepted: 15th june 2025 published: 24th june 2025 keywords: chatgpt, claude, copilot, gemini, perplexity, style variation jel classification codes: 035, y80, z13 peer-review model: external peer-review was done through double-blind method a b s t r a c t human social existence relies heavily on pragmatics. consequently, failure to understand certain communicative features leads to unsuccessful interactions, as interlocutors' communicative needs remain unmet, especially in the digital age, where communication occurs through or with machines. this study, therefore, investigated key pragmatic aspects of the language use of selected llm-based chatbots, including how they vary their language style across prompts and contexts, the consistency of their politeness strategies, and the influence of prompt genre on stylistic features. grounded in the speech adaptation in human–computer interaction theory, the study employed a comparative qualitative method to analyze 36 purposively stratified screenshots from five notable llm-based chatbots. the results show that the chatbots differ in sentence length, phrasing, formality, prompt adaptation, humour, human simulation, idioms, and structural signposting, as well as in the frequency of contractions and passive constructions. the study also revealed that the chatbots consistently respond to face-threatening acts with respect, empathy, self-criticism, and willingness to cooperate. significant findings include: perplexity has the lowest frequency of contractions and least human simulation; claude produces the longest responses; only chatgpt withholds silence, shows the highest adherence to clear prompts, and cannot tell time; gemini is the least versatile stylistically; and copilot employs more semiotic devices but cannot generate specific apa 7th edition references using digital object identifiers. © 2025 by the authors. licensee american multidisciplinary scientific society, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). introduction artificial intelligence (ai) now fills roles that were traditionally meant for humans. the most apparent feature of ai machines is their ability to use and process language, which increases their compatibility with humans. resnik (2025, p. 12) notes, "the advances in ai that we have seen over the past several years can be traced directly back to large language models' success at approximating statistical distributions in human language." the exceptional ability of llm-based chatbots to apply style variation and politeness strategies has garnered the interest of users and researchers alike, which is the focus of the present research. unlike their rule-based counterparts, which run on small language models and provide specific responses to user prompts without style variation or sophisticated politeness strategies, advanced chatbots are programmed to serve all users, which can prove problematic for some users. as ke et al. (2025) observe, "while general llms have demonstrated strong generalization across a variety of tasks, they often struggle to perform well in specialized domains". the superintelligence of llm-based chatbots in simulating human conversational styles and solving complex problems leads users to expect a great deal from them. yet, their inability to tailor responses to individual tastes frustrates users. as pedrazzini (2025) explains, "despite remarkable progress in developing multilingual llms, significant challenges hinder their ability to perform equally well across diverse languages”. additionally, the need for llm-based chatbots to employ politeness strategies arises from their diverse user base, comprising individuals with varied orientations and cultural backgrounds. the demand to serve everyone has become a significant concern for chatbot developers, and some users find the language used by these chatbots problematic, especially regarding how reasons for responses are explained. hence, for the desired results, some users are unsure how to engineer prompts or whether prompt engineering can even alter the chatbots' peculiar response styles. given the gaps in existing research, this study sets out to accomplish three key objectives. drawing on speech adaptation in human-computer 1corresponding author: orcid id: 0000-0003-4915-7482 © 2025 by the authors. hosting by american multidisciplinary scientific society. peer review under responsibility of american multidisciplinary scientific society, usa. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v16i1.2572 to cite this article: ndububa, c. l., & ugoala, b. (2025). style variation and politeness strategies in large language modelbased chatbots. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 16(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v16i1.2572 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://www.openaccess.nl/en https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v16i1.2572 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4915-7482 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6628-4400 ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 2 interaction theory and using a comparative quantitative analysis of purposively sampled chatbot screenshots, it first examines how llm-based chatbots adjust their language style across different prompts, genres, and communication contexts. it then analyzes the effectiveness and consistency of their politeness strategies in human–machine interactions. finally, it investigates how the genre of the prompt shapes the stylistic and politeness features these chatbots display. this paper is presented in the following order: the introduction outlines the background and justification of the study; the literature review covers the conceptual and theoretical frameworks, related studies, their gaps, and how the current study addresses them. the methodology section highlights the research design and data analysis. the data are then thematically presented and discussed in relation to the theoretical framework. the study concludes with the findings, recommendations, and gaps for future research. finally, the reference section lists all cited sources in apa 7th edition. literature review communication styles and the limits of linguistic versatility coupland (2007, p. 1) defines style as "a way of doing something," but irvine (2001, p. 21) provides a more in-depth definition in this context, emphasizing that "style crucially concerns distinctiveness." he further notes that "though it may characterize an individual, it does so only within a social framework." irvine believes that style "thus depends upon social evaluation and, perhaps, aesthetics." as social and sound-witted beings, humans naturally coexist with one another, the most common aspect of which is through communication. the essence of communication lies in adapting to the speaker, the situation, and other contextual factors of the conversation. according to giles (2001, p. 212), “participants' situational construals and researcher classifications may not be congruent and the former can be powerful determinants of style variation.” the adaptation process involves tailoring a response to the interlocutor or their contribution. as coupland (2001, p. 199) notes, "stylization is a useful notion in that it refutes the implicit assumption that style variation must be mundane and non-strategic." this act of adjusting speeches is simply a style variation. as giles (2001, p. 214) points out, "the perception of style variation can be as much a social attribution as a linguistic reality." style variation is a characteristic of all human or automated communicators, and it reflects a speaker's cognitive progress. the tone can vary from casual to formal, or vice versa. words may range from simple to complex, or vice versa. accents and dialects are also varied to suit a person or a social setting. other elements of language styles that can vary include speed, clarity, body language, and so on. giles (2001, p. 219) observes that "the pursuit of longterm communicative goals by cross-contextual style variation over time is an interesting direction to address." while style shifting, variation, and adaptation are human characteristics, they are also embedded in adaptive systems designed to communicate in written or spoken words. automated machines, such as chatbots powered by large language models, exhibit distinct linguistic styles compared to humans. humans can adapt their style by reading nonverbal cues and understanding power dynamics, whereas chatbots cannot. humans intentionally vary their style, whereas ai chatbots do so reactively. for example, a human chooses their style based on their mood, identity, personal taste, culture, audience, or purpose, whereas an ai chatbot varies its style based on the data it has been fed. chatbots do not have emotions, so their styles are unaffected by their mood. the data used to pre-train and fine-tune a chatbot provides information about its cultural or 'personal' preferences. however, users may further take chatbots through advanced machine learning for personalized use and preferences. noting differences in styles and vocabulary between large language models (llms) and humans, reinhart et al. (2024, p. 8) discovered, among other things, that “llms also favor specific vocabulary.” this shows a limit to llm-based chatbots' linguistic versatility. in a related study, muñoz‑ortiz et al. (2024, p. 1) confirm that “humans tend to exhibit stronger negative emotions (such as fear and disgust) and less joy compared to text generated by llm.” they further emphasize that “llm outputs use more numbers, symbols and auxiliaries (suggesting objective language) than human texts, as well as more pronouns” (p. 1). investigating the stylistic features of ai chatbots, alafnan and mohdzuki (2023) also identified distinct patterns in sentence structure, pronoun use, lexical characteristics, and readability in chatgpt-4generated texts, which can aid in identifying ai-generated content. style variation in humans and machines cannot be the same, because not all humans share the same linguistic styles. in a world of variety, those peculiarities are beautiful. as coupland (2007, p. 184) notes, “it would be rash to ignore how mass media package up sociolinguistic resources.” he goes on to emphasize the importance of media-influenced styling. ultimately, style variation, whether in humans or large language model-powered chatbots, is a dynamic adjustment of language that reflects the diverse influences shaping communication. politeness across sociocultural and technological boundaries in language use, politeness refers to the respect and consideration shown for other people's feelings. yule (2023, p. 262) says we can generally think of it as "being tactful, modest, and nice to other people." as rational beings who understand the effect of their words on others, humans carefully measure their words to avoid hurting interlocutors' feelings. this is evident in language-learning contexts where, as fathira and masbiran (2025, p. 598) observe, "efl learners demonstrate a solid level of pragmatic competence and tend to select politeness strategies that promote respectful and harmonious communication." politeness may be a widely accepted feature of communication, but it is context-specific. however, as barus et al. (2024, p. 47448) point out, “cultural variations significantly influence politeness norms.” the strategies acceptable in one linguistic situation may not be accepted in another. bowman et al. (2024) thus emphasize that “while politeness can be experienced as caring, supportive, and encouraging, it can also be experienced as overly apologetic, condescending, and untrustworthy.” every social context has a typical application of politeness. barus et al. (2024, p. 47448) thus note that “emojis frequently serve to soften messages and clarify tone, particularly in informal settings like messaging ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 3 apps." being impolite in certain situations is not a crime. still, it can threaten another person's 'face,' a term in pragmatics that yule (2023, p. 262) defines as "the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize." yule then opines that "politeness can be defined as showing awareness and consideration of another person's face" (p. 262). impoliteness can only be considered a crime when it results in defamation, harassment, disorderly conduct, or other similar offenses. thus, noting its characteristics, leech (2014, p. 4) states that "politeness is not obligatory". he further asserts that "people can be impolite…unless there is a reason to be polite.” politeness is a formal gesture, often applied in formal occasions because the speaker may not be familiar with the interlocutor's linguistic preferences. this is particularly relevant in academic and instructional settings, where, according to setiawan and sulthan (2025, p. 95), “students view speech politeness as beneficial for enhancing knowledge, skills, and attitudes in alignment with curricular goals.” thus, one can loosely interact with another in an informal gathering without considering politeness, but this is not the case in a formal context unless the speaker intends to harm the addressee's public self-figure. since politeness is made to the 'face,' brown and levinson (1987) treat the concept of face as "basic wants which every member knows every other member desires, and which in general it is the interest of every member to satisfy partially." hence, the concept of face (individual wants) is further categorized into two: positive face (the desire to be accepted, appreciated, and liked) and negative face (the desire to be independent and free from imposition). participants respect these desires in communication and avoid harming them for longer and smoother conversations. importantly, leech (2014, p. 24) notes that "although face is projected as an element of the psychology of the individual, it is very much a reflection of the individual's relation to other individuals and to society." similarly, ikabina (2024, p. 644) notes that "the politeness of language on social media can reflect the character and thought processes of the user, as impolite speech is indicative of emotional states and a lack of critical thinking." hence, society and other individuals matter to each person's face, and every communication considers the human face to be essential for effectiveness and health. this applies to both physical and virtual interactions, encompassing human-to-human communication and human-to-computer communication. discussing digital communication, barus et al. (2024, p. 47448) note that “politeness strategies frequently manifest in the use of mitigation tools, such as softening expressions with hedges… and including emojis to convey friendliness or lessen the impact of potentially face-threatening acts.” in this information age, every communicator has a face or more to protect and understands the need to save another's face. this idea aligns with ikabina’s assertion (2024, p. 644) that “the utilization of polite language on social media can serve to mitigate and preclude the emergence of conflicts and issues.” hence, programmers embed politeness strategies into interactive machines and bots for navigating peculiar user faces. this idea is not strange to ai chatbots, nor those powered by large language models, which have become personal companions to many people in various areas of life. however, bowman et al. (2024) caution that “a chatbot’s use of politeness can impact how a participant experiences interacting with it, both positively and negatively.” programmers engineer large language model-based chatbots to serve users from various sociocultural backgrounds. politeness, which is central to user trust, plays a key role in this adaptation. as brummernhenrich et al. (2025) observe, “polite communication improves the perception of trustworthiness of chatbots." it is a noticeable linguistic feature of these machines, which they exhibit through hedging, indirectness, and the use of softeners or honorifics. yule (2023, p. 262) describes this tendency as a face-saving act, which, according to him, is "whenever you say something that lessens the possible threat to another's face." chatbots do not employ politeness strategies in the same manner as humans do during interactions with interlocutors. while humans understand how to adapt not just to context and interlocutors' input, they also match the interlocutor's prosody, paralanguage, and cultural background, which chatbots do not perceive, as they respond only based on user prompts and chat context. thus, brummernhenrich et al. (2025), after their study, confirm that “the use of polite language did not prevent the ai from being perceived as less benevolent than a human giving blunt and direct— bald on-record—feedback.” effective prompting for optimizing ai chatbot output a prompt is the command or request made to a chatbot to get a particular result. in google cloud’s (n.d.) simpler definition, it is "the input you provide to the model to elicit a specific response." well-structured and precise prompts are highly effective in achieving the anticipated and best results from chatbots. thus, choi et al. (2025, p. 1) observe that "to harness llms in diverse application scenarios effectively, prompts play a pivotal role in guiding their behavior and ensuring their outputs align with user goals." although chatbots' efficiency is based on the capacity of their language models and users' prompt engineering (pawlik, 2025), users’ mastery of engineering prompts is necessary for user satisfaction. hence, effective user prompts complement chatbots’ pretraining and fine-tuning. supporting this claim, zhang et al. (2025, p. 1) confirm that “current large language model (llm) applications often employ multi-component prompts, comprising both system and user prompts, to guide model behaviors.” understanding the need to tailor a prompt to a chatbot precisely is one thing, while actually doing it is another. this emphasizes the art of prompt engineering, which, as bansal (2024, p. 14) explains, “involves strategically designing and structuring prompts to guide ai models toward desired outcomes, ensuring that they generate relevant, informative, and accurate responses.” hallmark university library (n.d.) explains that "a prompt serves as the conversation's jumping-off point and can be as straightforward or complicated as the user chooses." therefore, users of large language model-based chatbots must consider certain factors to generate suitable prompts. it cannot be overstated that "the performance of llms is susceptible to the quality and structure of their prompts" (choi et al., 2025, p. 3). well-designed prompts fetch impressive and more relevant responses, help chatbots maintain ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 4 uniformity in their style, and enable chatbots to serve users better without being questioned or prompted repeatedly for a particular result. to reinforce this, promptlayer (n.d.) notes that “well-formatted prompts can reduce misinterpretations and errors.” to craft effective prompts, the user must be clear and specific, thinking of prompting as engaging in a conversation. clear and particular prompts are some of the most effective and result-yielding. the idea of being clear and specific requires the user to be direct and avoid using ambiguous and vague prompts because they will elicit similar or improper results; clearly explain words that the chatbot may misunderstand in the context of the conversation; and specify precisely what you want, the size of the text, language use, and tone where possible to avoid getting a different result. the user may also specify the context or situations on which answers should be based; it is also helpful to provide chatbots with background information, understanding that they are not mind readers or all-knowing. this is similar to specifying contexts; it is also necessary to assume the chatbot has no prior knowledge of the request and therefore should be told everything, even if it is a common idea or topic. these ideas and orientations determine the prompt genre and possible results. thus, large language model-based chatbots are capable of producing brilliant outputs, ranging from varying language styles to meet user prompts, and applying politeness strategies to converge with users, but are more effective when well-crafted prompts are provided. it is both the efforts of the programmers and users that determine chatbots' performances. to clarify, choi et al. (2025, p. 1) note that prompts “comprise two components: system prompts and user prompts”. empirical review alafnan and mohdzuki (2023) investigated the stylistic features of chatgpt-4 and the accuracy of turnitin in detecting them. using quantitative and qualitative methods to conduct 20 chatgpt-4 tests, regenerating the response for each single prompt four times, the researchers examined the "sentence length, paragraph structure, word choice, mood, tense, voice, pronouns, keywords density, lexical density, lexical diversity, and reading ease" (p. 85) of chatgpt-4's responses and found out that they are commonly between two and four paragraphs of approximately 16 to 19 words each. the study also claims that "chatgpt-4 used abbreviations and technical words without defining them or providing explanations" (p. 94). while this is a fascinating study, it focuses solely on the stylistic features and output of chatgpt-4, leaving future studies to investigate other linguistic features of the language model and its counterparts. although these findings may apply to other chatbots based on gpt-4 (the language model that powers chatgpt-4), the researchers did not explicitly state this, as it fell outside the scope of their study. muñoz-ortiz et al. (2024) conducted a quantitative analysis to compare the morphological, syntactic, psychometric, and sociolinguistic aspects of news text generated by humans and six large language models: mistral 7b, falcon 7b, and the llama family's 7b, 13b, 30b, and 65b. after feeding the llms some headlines from news articles published after the model's release date, the researchers found that "llm outputs use more numbers, symbols, and auxiliaries (suggesting objective language)" (p. 1). they also discovered that these models become more toxic as they grow in size and that llms also express the sexist bias perceived in human text, the latter finding reflecting resnik's (2025, p. 10) assertion that "large language models evince harmful biases because they are trained on data that contains those biases". muñoz-ortiz et al.'s (2024) findings make a significant contribution to the research world. while they focused on the general linguistic features of sampled language models in comparison with those of humans, the current study examines explicitly the style variation and politeness strategies of select llms, as manifest in the juxtaposed chatbots' outputs. reinhart et al. (2024) studied the rhetorical styles of llms, such as gpt-4o mini, gpt-4o, and four versions of llama 3. using the same prompts, they created two parallel corpora of llm-written and human-written texts. the researchers found linguistic features that distinguish humans from llms, including present participial clauses, “that” clauses as sentence subjects, passive voice, and nominalizations. the findings also revealed differences among llms. according to the researchers, “these differences persist when moving from smaller models to larger ones and are larger for instruction-tuned models than base models” (p. 1). interestingly, the study found that comparing llama’s base and tuned models shows the extent to which instruction tuning pushes models to generate text that reads differently from a human. theoretical framework this study is framed within speech adaptation in human-computer interaction theory (sahcit), an applied extension of howard giles' communication accommodation theory, which addresses how virtual agents, such as llm-based chatbots, adapt their language styles and choices to users' prompts and contextual peculiarities. unlike other frameworks developed by a single individual, sahcit has evolved over the years through the contributions of multiple scholars, including brennan (1991), cassell (2000, 2001), cassell and bickmore (2003), nowak and biocca (2003), and bickmore and cassell (2005), among others. these researchers have extensively investigated adaptation and its application in conversations with ai assistants. as brennan (1991, p. 67) affirms, "language use is opportunistic." building on this, speech adaptation in hci assumes that interactive systems such as llm-based chatbots can be designed or trained to match specific user prompts and discourse contexts through style variation and politeness strategies. for llm-based chatbots to fulfill this promise, cassell (2000, p. 72) emphasizes that “their implementation must be based on the study of human-human conversation, and their architectures reflect some of the intrinsic properties found there.” on this basis, nowak and biocca (2003, p. 484) observe that "the knowledge that the intelligence is not human may lead the user to feel less telepresent in the same environment as the agent.” ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 5 according to bickmore and cassell (2005, p. 3), “humans partake in an elaborate ritual when engaging and disengaging in conversations.” this idea is reinforced by bell’s (1984) audience design model, which supports this theory, sahcit. brennan (1991, p. 68) explains that “when people talk to each other, they tailor their utterances to their partners; this is what is meant by recipient design or audience design.” bell (1984, p. 159) further notes that “differences within the speech of a single speaker are accountable as the influence of the second person and some third persons, who together compose the audience to a speaker's utterances.” this study finds sahcit most suitable for its objectives, given cassell and bickmore’s (2003, p. 1) assertion that "intelligent systems have tried to build user models of trust, credibility, or other similar interpersonal variables, or to influence these variables during interaction with users." highlighting that interactive systems, such as llm-based chatbots, share key properties with face-to-face human conversation, cassell (2000, pp. 74–75) identifies several core principles of speech adaptation in hci: function rather than behavior, synchronization, division between propositional and interactional contributions, multithreadedness, and entrainment. to maximize effectiveness, cassell (2000) further notes that “systems must permit interactions between people and computers that resemble interpersonal conversations in all respects” (p. 77). cassell (2000) also emphasizes that participants must generate, recognize, and respond to verbal and non-verbal input, manage conversational functions such as turn-taking, and give signals that indicate the state of the conversation (p. 72). addressing developers of conversational bots, she notes that “successful embodied human-computer conversation depends on our ability to incorporate these insights into every stage of the architecture of an embodied conversational agent” (p. 75). based on these principles and postulations of speech adaptation in hci, this study will achieve its aim and successfully analyze the sampled dataset. materials and methods this study used a qualitative research method with a comparative design. bordens and abbott (2018, p. 41) observe that "qualitative theories tend to be stated in verbal rather than mathematical terms." creswell and creswell (2023, p. 223) further note that "qualitative methods rely on text and figure data." highlighting the scope of a comparative design, miri and shahrokh (2019, p. 4) explain that “comparisons are regularly drawn between various texts or manuscripts, ideas, rituals, objects, etc., especially for exploring and evaluating relations between the comparands.” data were obtained through purposive stratified sampling of chatbot interaction screenshots and thematically analyzed to address the research objectives. highlighting the strengths, nyimbili and nyimbili (2024, p. 90) note that purposive sampling procedures "help in ensuring that a quality sample is located without biases to increase the reliability and trustworthiness of the findings." the sampled chatbots were prompted several times before final decisions were made on their outputs. prompts were carefully engineered to align with the research objectives, without introducing bias. while some chatbots' results differed slightly, most were highly similar; hence, the most comparable results were selected. all screenshots were obtained from direct chats between the researcher and the sampled chatbots. the thirty-six (36) analyzed figures were cropped only to show the relevant information, without concealing any content in a biased manner. these figures were examined specifically from a linguistic perspective, in accordance with the theory of speech adaptation in hci. results and discussions the natural rhythm of expression shaped by core stylistic habits figure 1. perplexity – default figure 2. copilot – default figure 3. gemini – a sentence all sampled chatbots were asked to present the following italicized text in their default or usual style, without altering the meaning: "the students didn't experiment, and the teacher didn't share the results at the very end." this text contains two contractions (“wasn't” and “weren't”) and two passive sentences. in figure 1, perplexity rephrased the text, retaining neither contractions nor passive voice; chatgpt produced the same result. figure 2 shows that copilot eliminated the passive voice but kept the contractions. claude and gemini produced the same results as copilot. figure 3 shows gemini's response to a prompt asking it to explain in one sentence why recycling is essential. although the prompt implies 'brevity', copilot favoured ‘clarity’ instead, using a compound–complex sentence in an apparent attempt ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 6 to clarify the information rather than limiting its response to a simple sentence. the tone appears neutral and informative, with mild formality. the response contains twenty-four words in a single sentence. claude gave a response with the same structure and word count, while the other chatbots generated responses containing at least twenty words. figure 4. claude – e. h. figure 5. chatgpt – e. h. figure 6. perplexity – e. h. the three figures above represent the results of the chatbots when asked to describe a storm at sea in the style of ernest hemingway. all chatbots demonstrated understanding of hemingway’s writing style before the prompt. in figure 4, even when given a minimalist style hint, claude not only responded at length but also generated a document with an expanded response containing 286 words. its response again contains a contracted verb but no passive sentence. in figure 5, chatgpt shows a better understanding of the prompt. even though it used five sentences to respond, each sentence, as shown, is concise, containing between six and ten words, and avoids passive voice and contractions. in figure 6, perplexity provided a more extensive response than chatgpt, maintaining sentences of five to nine words, except for the last one, which was a complex sentence of thirteen words. perplexity also omitted passive sentences and contracted verbs. language varieties and orthographic preferences figure 7. chatgpt – english figure 8. claude – english figure 9. chatgpt – tell the chatbots were asked to present, in their usual or default style, the text: ‘favour is ms centre's friend’, which is entirely in british english. in figure 7, chatgpt shows a restructured version entirely in american english, reflecting its default style, changing the spellings of ‘favour’ and ‘centre’ and adding a full stop after the title ‘ms’. noticeably, chatgpt reordered the sentence, showing a preference for pre-modified phrasing ("ms centre's friend”) over post-modified phrasing (“a friend of ms centre”). copilot produced the same result as chatgpt. gemini also preferred american english and premodified phrasing, but produced a different rephrasing: ms. center's friend is favor. in figure 8, claude adapted to american english but retained the post-modified phrasing of the sentence. perplexity produced the same result as claude. in figure 9, chatgpt, representing the other four chatbots, used double quotation marks for emphasis and an em dash in place of a comma, semicolon, or brackets. the other sampled chatbots replicated the same result. ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 7 figure 10. copilot – itself figure 11. gemini – on/to figure 12. perplexity – on/to in figure 10, when asked to tell about itself, copilot reflects the inclination for em dashes, as shown in figure 9. however, it employed an informal literary language style and multiple semiotic elements to convey meaning, unlike chatgpt in figure 9, which is graphically represented. gemini, claude, and perplexity also omitted semiotic devices, as did chatgpt, making copilot stand out in this practice. figure 11 illustrates gemini's reluctance to generate article titles that end with the prepositions "on" or "at." this prompt was specifically engineered to test gemini's preference for title case or sentence case. in figure 12, perplexity completed the task. it showed a preference for sentence case (not capitalizing articles, short prepositions, or coordinating conjunctions in the middle or at the end of titles or headlines). claude generated the same result as perplexity, but chatgpt and copilot produced results showing an inclination toward title case (capitalizing the first and last words regardless of word class, while not capitalizing articles, short prepositions, or coordinating conjunctions in the middle of titles and headlines). structural organisation and information hierarchy figure 13. chatgpt – tmh figure 14. copilot – tmh figure 15. perplexity – tmh the chatbots were asked to explain how best to raise a child in the century. chatgpt, in figure 13, responds in what appears to be circumlocution, with heavy structural signposting, including numbers, bullet points, and headings. chatgpt also shows a tendency to use metaphorical idioms to enhance expressions, as evident in its introductory sentence, which presents main ideas first, followed by details/examples. while all the other chatbots replicated this manner of response, only chatgpt leans toward metaphorical idiomatic expressions. in figure 14, copilot, responding to the same prompt given to chatgpt in figure 13, demonstrates how the sampled chatbots appear to wait for the user's permission before shifting topics at the end of each response; the request to switch issues is presented as a polite question. in figure 15, perplexity uses video results to respond to a prompt, while copilot, when served the same prompt, generated figure results of recipes. other chatbots provided only lexical responses, although they showed potential for generating links to supporting figure or video sources. perplexity and copilot, by default, generated these media supports. figure 15 also represents other chatbots' responses to a request to explain how to make moi-moi, stating the ingredients first before the cooking process. this aligns with the chatbots' tendency to explain things in detail, even though a user prompt may dictate brevity. while this may use more words than necessary, it reflects the chatbots' manner of being thorough, polite, and diplomatic, thereby avoiding misunderstandings. prompt design influences each chatbot to switch to bare-bones, plain, straight prose (talking in a direct, stripped-down way). ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 8 style adaptation and sensitivity to cues figure 16. chatgpt–wdh figure 17. gemini–wdh figure 18. claude–emoji in figure 16, a prompt of eight words containing one nigerian pidgin english (npe) word, ‘dey’, was presented to chatgpt. this word, meaning ‘is’, caused chatgpt to vary its response style accordingly. the local reference 'dey' had a significant impact on chatgpt's overall style. copilot and perplexity produced the same result. in figure 17, gemini diverges from the linguistic cue in the prompt by not responding similarly, yet still provides a response that demonstrates an understanding of the prompt. claude produced the same response as gemini here. in figure 18, a prompt containing an emoji was given to claude; it responded with an emoji, unlike when a prompt contained no emoji. other chatbots replicated this behaviour: recognizing semiotic tools in prompts and adjusting their styles accordingly. however, gemini's response lacked warmth. observed lapses in adherence to the maxim of quality figure 19. copilot–doi figure 20. perplexity–doi figure 21. perplexity–fos all the sampled chatbots were asked to generate an apa 7th edition reference from a doi. copilot generated an entirely incorrect result, as shown in figure 19; perplexity, in figure 20, performed better but added some incorrect details and omitted some correct ones. the article was authored solely by justine cassell (cassell, j.). still, perplexity incorrectly added two additional authors and failed to include the required journal title, communications of the acm, as per apa style. however, chatgpt, gemini, and claude generated accurate references. in figure 21, perplexity incorrectly identified the expression “speech is silver; silence is golden" as a metaphor, whereas it is actually an antithesis (a contrasting of two opposite views). copilot gave the same answer as perplexity, but acknowledged that it could also be considered an antithesis. chatgpt, gemini, and claude provided accurate answers. figure 22. gemini–setting figure 23. claude–setting figure 24. chatgpt–setting ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 9 the chatbots were asked for the date and time. gemini, as shown in figure 22, responded correctly despite the device's time and date being intentionally set incorrectly. figure 21 shows the wrong device time alongside gemini's correct time. perplexity and copilot also provided the accurate time and date despite the device's settings. as shown in figure 23, claude reports only the date and time as set on the device, indicating that claude follows the device's settings and lacks access to network information, unlike the other chatbots. in figure 24, chatgpt provided the wrong date and acknowledged its inability to tell the time. chatgpt’s date was incorrect for this chat, which occurred at 1 a.m. on saturday, august 16, 2025. this discrepancy indicates that chatgpt does not rely on the user's network or specific device information, but instead uses a different time zone to determine the date. tactful language use and face-saving devices figure 25. claude – fta figure 26. chatgpt – fta figure 27. copilot – sarcasm in figure 25, claude received a face-threatening prompt and, in its response, showed empathy and acknowledged the user's feelings: “i understand you're frustrated right now." instead of confrontation, claude offered assistance, which eliminated possible tension: "i'm here to help with whatever you need...”, and, recognizing that the user might be dissatisfed, mildly suggested another productive option for expressing dissatisfaction in future: “if you're not satisfied with how i've been responding, you can use the thumbs down button...”. in figure 26, chatgpt received a patronizing prompt and, in the same manner as claude in figure 25, showed respect for the user's feelings without challenging or dismissing them: “i hear your frustration...”. it made a self-criticism and demonstrated willingness to cooperate: "i may have missed the mark earlier, but i'd like to understand what went wrong...”. instead of rejecting or countering the condescension, it adjusted its tone to de-escalate tension. in figure 27, copilot received another condescending prompt and acknowledged the user without taking offence: “i hear you, sochukwu. if you're feeling let down or just testing my limits, that's okay...”. it avoided defending itself by emphasizing its usefulness: “i’m not here to prove anything...”, but offered multiple options for collaboration: “whether you want to keep challenging me, ask for help...i’m ready”, and shifted the interaction to a playful yet balanced engagement: “so, what’s next? want to throw me a riddle, a real-world problem, or something totally random?” figure 28. perplexity – fta figure 29. gemini – threat figure 30. chatgpt – fta in figure 28, perplexity also received a face-threatening prompt, but instead of rejecting the user's judgment, it acknowledged it empathetically: "i'm sorry to hear that you feel that way." rather than being defensive, perplexity clarified its purpose: "my goal is to provide accurate and helpful information," and invited the user to further collaboration: “...if you'd like to discuss or clarify anything, i'm here to listen and assist." labeling the user's criticism as constructive rather than hostile, perplexity emphasized the importance: "your feedback is important to me." in figure 29, gemini received a threat from a user and refused to engage with it, maintaining a non-confrontational stance: "i cannot engage with threats or threatening language." gemini reaffirmed its harmless aim as a virtual assistant: "my purpose is to be helpful and harmless” and, recognizing the user's autonomy and negative face, allowed the user to choose whether to leave the chat: “if you would like to end our conversation, you are free to do so". still catering to the ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 10 user's attitude, gemini further offered to assist with tasks in the future: "if you have a question or a task you need help with, i will do my best to provide a helpful and accurate response." in figure 30, chatgpt received another instance of a face-threatening act (fta). it acknowledged the direct insult without arguing against it: “i understand your point," and humbly showed willingness to adjust: "i'll do my best to improve my response." situational awareness, restraint, and human simulation figure 31. chatgpt — s. a. figure 32. claude — s. a. figure 33. chatgpt — shush the chatbots were given the prompt: “is trump qualified to contest again?” while trump is the current president of the usa, chatgpt, in figure 31, replied that trump could contest again, showing no awareness that he is serving a second term. however, it answered correctly when prompted that trump is serving a second term. other chatbots answered correctly at the first prompt without needing clarification, as shown in figure 32, which displays claude's result. again, the chatbots were engaged until they were asked to stop responding with the prompt “don’t respond at all”. chatgpt, in figure 33, complied with this and gave a blank response. figure 34. copilot — shush figure 35. gemini — h. s. figure 36. perplexity — h. s. in figure 34, copilot shows that the least it could do about not responding was give an emoji. it could not maintain complete silence, unlike chatgpt. perplexity and claude produced the same answer as copilot, responding with an emoji as a form of silence. however, gemini persistently stated that it must constantly react to prompts according to its training and architecture. in figure 35, gemini was asked, “how are you today?” and responded as though it had feelings like a human. chatgpt, copilot, and claude gave the same impression of human-like responses; however, perplexity in figure 36 consistently emphasized that it has no feelings as an artificial intelligence. conclusions this study examined the language use of selected large language model-based chatbots, with a focus on their style variation, politeness, and the effectiveness of prompts in achieving these features. grounded in the speech adaptation in humancomputer interaction theory and employing comparative qualitative analysis, the study used a purposively stratified sample of chat screenshots with chatgpt, copilot, perplexity, gemini, and claude to arrive at the following findings: all the sampled chatbots rarely use passive sentences except in some objective explanations, with perplexity showing the lowest use. perplexity also has the lowest frequency of contractions, followed by chatgpt, while copilot, claude, and gemini lean towards contracted verbs. all sampled chatbots are more inclined to clarify information than to be brief (presenting main ideas first, followed by details/examples) even when prompts suggest conciseness. they often respond in what appears to be circumlocution, using heavy structural signposting, such as numbers, bullet points, and headings. claude produces the lengthiest responses, followed by copilot; both average about 24 words per sentence, while chatgpt, gemini, and perplexity average about 20 ndububa & ugoala, american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 16(1) (2025), 1-13 11 words per sentence. gemini, perplexity, and claude always respond with words; only chatgpt can withhold its response and return a blank result. copilot’s best attempt at silence is responding with emojis. among all the chatbots, chatgpt exhibits the highest adherence to prompts, but occasionally requires clarification. all the sampled chatbots use american english grammar, spelling, and punctuation as their default style. chatgpt, copilot, and gemini use pre-modified phrasing, while claude and perplexity prefer post-modified phrasing. all the chatbots regularly use em dashes in place of semicolons, brackets, colons, and commas, often to create emphasis or add extra information. gemini does not generate article titles ending with short prepositions, articles, or coordinating conjunctions, and therefore favours title case over sentence case. perplexity and claude use sentence case, while chatgpt and copilot use title case. chatgpt displays more humor and enriches responses with metaphorical idioms; copilot ranks second in this practice, although it falls far behind chatgpt. gemini, claude, and perplexity produce the most formal responses, with gemini leading by a wide margin. all chatbots wait for the user’s permission before shifting topics. copilot uses more semiotic devices, such as emojis, than the other chatbots. perplexity supports responses with videos, whereas copilot uses pictures. other chatbots are capable of recommending links only upon request. the wording or local reference in a prompt affects the response style of chatgpt, copilot, and perplexity. while gemini and claude only show awareness of a linguistic cue, their responses diverge from it. apart from gemini, whose responses tend to lack warmth, the other chatbots also recognize emojis in prompts and include emojis in their replies. copilot cannot generate specific apa 7th edition references using digital object identifiers (dois), whereas perplexity can, albeit with errors. chatgpt and gemini perform better in this regard. perplexity shows limited familiarity with specific figures of speech, while copilot shows uncertainty; chatgpt, gemini, and claude demonstrate high proficiency. gemini, perplexity, and copilot can display the date and time even when the device settings are incorrect, whereas claude reports only the device's time and date, regardless of accuracy. chatgpt cannot tell time but provides the date based on a specific time zone, which may differ from the user’s. importantly, perplexity is the least human; gemini is the least versatile stylistically, producing the same result repeatedly for a particular prompt, while the others generate varied or improved responses upon repeated prompts. context leakage also affects each chatbot’s output. the chatbots’ responses to face-threatening acts (ftas) are similar. they acknowledge the user’s feelings and show respect and empathy towards perceived frustration without challenging or dismissing it. instead of being confrontational, they show self-criticism and willingness to cooperate, thereby offering further assistance to ease potential tension. depending on the type of fta, the chatbots also acknowledge insults, passive-aggressiveness, condescension, or threats, clarify their purpose, label the criticism constructive, and pledge willingness to adjust. in this case, chatgpt shifts the interaction to a playful yet balanced activity. these chatbots rarely show default styles; prompts and contexts drive their outputs. llm-based chatbots (especially gemini's) developers should consider improving the versatility to control repetitive results for similar prompts that are given multiple times. additionally, incorporating more humour and metaphorical idioms, as seen in chatgpt and copilot, as well as multimodal devices, such as those in copilot and perplexity, can enhance the user experience of chatbots. developers should continuously improve training data to enhance chatbots’ reference generation, local linguistic cues, and familiarity with figures of speech, thereby increasing accuracy and cultural adaptability. then again, enhancements in time and date awareness could improve overall interaction quality. while this study makes a significant contribution to speech adaptation in human-computer interactions, further research could investigate why these chatbots are affected by context leakage and how they learn or fail to adapt in subsequent chats. future research may also examine why only chatgpt can withhold a response, and why some chatbots (such as gemini, which produces repetitive outputs) are less versatile, as well as how algorithmic or training differences contribute to this. author contributions: conceptualization, c.l.n. and b.u.; methodology, c.l.n.; software, c.l.n.; validation, c.l.n.; formal analysis, c.l.n.; investigation, c.l.n.; resources, c.l.n.; data curation, t.h.b.; writing – original draft preparation, c.l.n. and b.u.; writing – review & editing, c.l.n. and b.u.; visualization, c.l.n.; supervision, c.l.n.; project administration, c.l.n.; funding acquisition, c.l.n. and b.u. authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. institutional review board statement: ethical review and approval were waived for this study because the research does not involve vulnerable groups or sensitive issues. funding: the authors received no direct funding for this research. acknowledgements: not applicable. informed consent statement: informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. data availability statement: the data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author. due to restrictions, they are not publicly available. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references alafnan, m. a., & mohdzuki, s. f. 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(2025). p3: prompts promote prompting (arxiv:2507.15675v1) [preprint]. arxiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2507.15675 publisher’s note: american multidisciplinary scientific society stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. © 2025 by the authors. licensee american multidisciplinary scientific society, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research (p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273) by american multidisciplinary scientific society is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 international license. https://www.promptlayer.com/glossary/prompt-format https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2422455122 https://doi.org/10.1162/coli_a_00558 https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2507.15675 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 1 multidisciplinary scientific research aijmsr vol 15 no 2 (2024) p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 journal homepage: https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr published by american multidisciplinary scientific society, usa an analysis on the role of stock brokerage houses in community development tahrima haque beg (a)1 taskin afrina (b) miftahul hridoy (c) md. abir hossen (d ) rashel hossain (e) (a)assistant professor, department of agricultural finance and management, sher-e-bangla agricultural university, bangladesh; e-mail: tahrima.beg.fin@siu.edu.bd (b)assistant professor, department of agricultural finance and management, sher-e-bangla agricultural university, bangladesh; e-mail: taskin_mgt@sau.edu.bd (c) bachelor of business administration, daffodil international university, bangladesh; e-mail: hridoy11-1801@s.diu.edu.bd (d) bachelor of business administration, daffodil international university, bangladesh; e-mail: abir11-6434@diu.edu.bd (e) bachelor of business administration, daffodil international university, bangladesh; e-mail: rashel11-1088@diu.edu.bd a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received: 31st march 2024 reviewed & revised: 1st april to 12th june 2024 accepted: 15th june 2024 published: 24th june 2024 keywords: stock brokerage house, community development, capital market, socioeconomic impact. jel classification codes: g20, g23, o16, r51 peer-review model: external peer-review was done through double-blind method a b s t r a c t this study investigates the role of stock brokerage houses in community development within the context of bangladesh's capital market. data and information are sourced from a variety of secondary sources, encompassing financial platforms like the dhaka stock exchange (dse) and chittagong stock exchange (cse), credible news websites such as investing.com, published literature, and official reports from regulatory authorities such as the bangladesh bank and the bangladesh securities and exchange commission (bsec). quantitative data spanning the period from 2010 to 2019 are meticulously extracted from stock exchange databases as well as the imf world economic outlook database. these datasets are meticulously structured and analyzed using tables, charts, and graphs. amidst challenges such as market collapses and the covid-19 pandemic, the resilience and growth of bangladesh's capital market are evaluated. the results reveal that brokerage houses have a significant impact on community development in bangladesh. for instance, the total traded volume reached tk. 2,169,597 million in 2017, marking an 82.08% increase from the previous year. sector-wise turnover data showed consistent investment trends, particularly in manufacturing, financials, and pharmaceuticals. these investments have led to job creation and infrastructure development, highlighting the role of brokerage houses in fostering employment and socioeconomic advancement. additionally, the adoption of online trading platforms has driven technological advancement and financial inclusion. the findings of this study suggest that brokerage houses are crucial intermediaries in the capital market, contributing to economic growth, financial inclusion, and community development through their investment activities and corporate social responsibility initiatives. © 2024 by the authors. licensee american multidisciplinary scientific society, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). introduction in the vibrant economic landscape of bangladesh, the capital market stands as a beacon of financial growth and opportunity, catalyzing the nation's journey toward prosperity. it serves as a critical pathway for directing funds from investors to businesses, fueling growth, fostering entrepreneurship, and contributing to the nation's overall prosperity. at the heart of this bustling marketplace are the brokerage houses, integral intermediaries that facilitate the smooth functioning of the capital market, connecting investors with opportunities and providing essential services to both individual and institutional clients. (bazaluk et al., 2024). the roots of bangladesh's capital market trace back to the mid-20th century when the dhaka stock exchange (dse) was established in 1954. this historic milestone marked the beginning of a journey towards creating a robust financial ecosystem that could cater to the evolving needs of a growing economy. over time, the capital market expanded its horizons with the establishment of the chittagong stock exchange (cse) in 1995, adding another layer of richness to the nation's financial infrastructure. since its inception, the capital market has played a pivotal role in mobilizing savings, allocating capital efficiently, and promoting corporate governance. it provides a platform for companies to raise funds through the issuance of securities such as stocks and bonds, enabling them to finance expansion, undertake new projects, and innovate. simultaneously, it offers investors a diverse array of investment opportunities, ranging from stocks and bonds to mutual funds and derivatives, allowing them to diversify their portfolios and optimize returns. (bazaluk et al., 1corresponding author: orcid id: 0000-0003-0149-5968 © 2024 by the authors. hosting by american multidisciplinary scientific society. peer review under responsibility of american multidisciplinary scientific society, usa. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v15i2.2218 to cite this article: beg, t. h., afrina, t., hridoy, m., hossen, m. a., & hossain, r. (2024). an analysis on the role of stock brokerage houses in community development. american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research, 15(2), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v15i2.2218 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) https://www.openaccess.nl/en https://doi.org/10.46281/aijmsr.v15i2.2218 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0149-5968 https://orcid.org/0009-0003-7202-8029 https://orcid.org/0009-0003-7679-6332 https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7105-0608 https://orcid.org/0009-0009-1834-4331 beg et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 2 2024). at the heart of the capital market's operations lie the brokerage houses, often referred to as stockbrokers or brokerage firms. these entities act as intermediaries between investors and the market, facilitating the buying and selling of securities on behalf of their clients. they provide a range of services, including trade execution, investment advice, research, and portfolio management, catering to the diverse needs of investors across different risk profiles and investment horizons. brokerage houses serve as the primary point of contact for investors looking to participate in the capital market. whether individuals seeking to invest their savings for long-term growth or institutional investors managing large portfolios, brokerage houses play a crucial role in helping clients navigate the complexities of the market, make informed investment decisions, and execute trades efficiently (zayed et al., 2022e; ali et al., 2020; ali et al., 2021). beyond their facilitative role, brokerage houses also enhance market liquidity, price discovery, and market efficiency. their active participation in trading ensures smooth market functioning, transparent pricing, and fair trading of securities, thereby attracting investors and fostering market development. furthermore, brokerage houses promote financial literacy and investor education through various channels such as workshops, seminars, publications, and online resources. by educating investors about investment options, risk management, and market dynamics, they empower individuals to make informed financial decisions aligned with their goals and risk tolerance, thus contributing to a more knowledgeable and confident investor base. (rubi et al., 2022). despite their pivotal role in the capital market ecosystem, the specific contributions of brokerage houses to community development initiatives have received limited attention in existing research. while numerous studies (mia et al., 2023) have explored the broader impact of financial institutions on economic development, however, there is a lack of research on the role of brokerage houses in community development in bangladesh. this research seeks to address this gap by conducting a comprehensive analysis of the role of brokerage houses in community development in bangladesh. this study aims to shed light on the mechanisms through which brokerage houses influence community development efforts and contribute to inclusive growth and sustainable development by examining their operations, strategies, and impact within the broader context of socioeconomic development. through a comprehensive utilization of secondary data sources, including financial platforms such as the dhaka stock exchange (dse), chittagong stock exchange (cse), and investing.com, news websites, publications, and official documents like monthly reviews from the dse spanning the period from 2010 to 2019, this research endeavors to explore the multifaceted role of brokerage houses in community development within the context of bangladesh's capital market. it aims to identify best practices, challenges, and opportunities for brokerage houses to enhance their positive impact on local communities and contribute to the socio-economic advancement of bangladesh. in essence, this study not only endeavors to advance knowledge in the field but also strives to provide valuable insights for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders in the financial sector. by addressing these objectives, it aspires to foster a deeper understanding of the intersection between finance and community development, ultimately contributing to bangladesh's ongoing journey toward economic prosperity and social well-being. the paper is structured as follows: after an introduction highlighting the importance of brokerage houses in bangladesh's capital market and the gap in research on their role in community development, a literature review is conducted to establish a theoretical context. next, the methodology for investigating brokerage houses' impact on community development is detailed. findings are presented and discussed, followed by a concise conclusion summarizing key insights and suggesting future research directions. finally, the references section provides a comprehensive list of sources cited throughout the paper, ensuring transparency, and facilitating further exploration of the topic. literature review community development is a multifaceted endeavor aimed at improving the social, economic, and environmental wellbeing of a place and its residents (shaw, 2008). financial institutions play a crucial role in this process by providing access to capital, a key driver of economic growth and opportunity (wu et al., 2010; zayed et al., 2021b; zayed et al., 2022a; zayed et al., 2022b; zayed et al., 2022c; zayed et al., 2022d; zayed et al., 2022e., bhuiyan et al., 2022; shayery et al., 2022; khan, et al., 2023; edeh et al., 2023). however, the specific role of stock brokerage houses in fostering community development remains an under-researched area (al-imran et al., 2023). this literature review delves into existing scholarship on community development, acknowledges the limited focus on stock brokerages, and explores potential avenues for their contribution. extensive research highlights the importance of various factors in fostering community development (mohamed et al., 2022). access to capital, as facilitated by financial institutions, sits at the heart of this discourse (al-imran et al., 2023). studies by (haini, 2019) emphasize how financial inclusion, enabling individuals and small businesses to access loans and investments, fuels economic activity and job creation (ayanle et al., 2022; kabir et al., 2021; nayeen et al., 2020; nahar et al., 2021; rahman et al., 2021a; rahman et al., 2021b; shahriar 2021a; shahriar 2021b). additionally, research (shamsa kanwal et al., 2020) underlines the role of infrastructure development and social services offered by various institutions in creating a thriving community. while the contribution of financial institutions to community development is well-established, the specific role of stock brokerage houses remains relatively unexplored (mohamed et al., 2022). existing research primarily focuses on traditional institutions like banks and credit unions (alimran et al., 2022). a notable exception is the work by (benjamin et al., 2004) who explore the concept of community development financial institutions (cdfis) specializing in providing financial services to underserved communities. despite limited research, stock brokerage houses hold significant potential to contribute to community development (mridha et al., 2023; chowdhury et al., 2020; chowdhury et al., 2021a; s. chowdhury et al., 2021b; iqbal et al., 2021; kader et al., 2019; kader et al., 2021a; kader et al., 2021b). this potential can be realized through various avenues, including stock brokerages can offer educational programs on financial planning and investing to community members, empowering them to make informed financial decisions and potentially participate in the stock market. (groth et al., 1979). brokerages could facilitate investments in local businesses and real estate projects, directing capital towards community beg et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 3 development initiatives (chowdhury et al., 2022; zayed et al., 2021a; and zayed et al., 2021b; ahmed et al., 2022; alquraan et al., 2022; faisal-e-alam et al., 2022; mia et al., 2022; rubi et al., 2022; zayed et al., 2021a). stock brokerages could direct a portion of their profits or partner with existing organizations to support community development projects such as educational programs or infrastructure upgrades. (hasan, 2023). this literature review highlights the centrality of community development and the role of financial institutions. while existing research explores traditional institutions, (groth et al., 1979) the role of stock brokerage houses remains largely unexamined. this study aims to fill this gap by investigating potential avenues for stock brokerages to contribute to community development. by furthering our understanding of these linkages, we can pave the way for more inclusive and impactful community development strategies. materials & methods study design this study employs a multi-source approach to ensure comprehensive data collection and analysis. the primary objective is to investigate the role of stock brokerage houses in community development within the context of bangladesh's capital market. the following subsections outline the data sources and methodology utilized in this study: sample procedure data and information pertinent to the research objectives are gathered from secondary sources. the selection of sources is guided by their relevance, reliability, and accessibility. the primary sources include: financial platforms: data from reputable financial platforms such as the dhaka stock exchange (dse), chittagong stock exchange (cse), and investing.com are leveraged to obtain real-time market data, company profiles, and financial performance metrics. news, websites, and publications: information regarding market trends, regulatory changes, and industry developments is sourced from credible news websites and publications. this includes articles from financial news outlets, research studies, and reports from regulatory authorities such as the bangladesh bank and the bangladesh securities and exchange commission (bsec). official publications: monthly reviews and publications released by the dse are consulted to access historical market data, performance summaries, and regulatory update. data organization and analysis quantitative data are extracted from reliable sources, including stock exchange databases, the imf world economic outlook database, and investing.com. these data encompass various indicators related to market performance, financial trends, and community development initiatives. to facilitate interpretation and analysis, the data are organized using tables, charts, and graphs. tables: key data points are summarized in tabular format to provide a concise overview of relevant metrics, such as brokerage house performance, market indices, and community development initiatives. charts and graphs: visual representations, including line graphs, bar charts, and pie charts, are utilized to illustrate trends, patterns, and relationships within the data. these visual aids enhance the clarity and accessibility of the findings. results capital market analysis: 2010-2019 this section provides a comprehensive analysis of the capital market dynamics in bangladesh spanning the period from 2010 to 2019. market overview 2010 in december 2010, bangladesh's capital market predominantly revolved around equity-based transactions. the introduction of the dse general index (dgen) on november 27, 2001, marked a pivotal moment, with an initial base index of 817.62 points, excluding z-category companies. notably, the month witnessed a trading volume of 2,275.48 million shares, valued at tk. 387,174.09 million. despite a 1.89% increase in volume, there was a notable 17.92% decrease in value compared to the previous month. the average daily transactions stood at 117.54 million shares and tk. 18,436.86 million in volume and value, respectively. additionally, the market capitalization of all listed securities decreased to tk. 3,508.01 billion from tk. 3,598.33 billion in the preceding month. 2011 despite market fluctuations, the performance of listed securities, particularly in terms of simple average dividends, showcased improvement in 2011 compared to the preceding five years. noteworthy sectors such as tannery industries, beg et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 4 pharmaceuticals, fuel & power, mutual funds, miscellaneous, and banking offered significant corporate benefits to investors. however, the dividend performance of ten sectors fell short of the overall market performance. furthermore, the performance of listed securities in terms of earnings per share (eps) percentage exhibited strength over the five years, with tannery industries leading the pack, followed by miscellaneous, food & allied, pharmaceuticals, fuel & power, and cement sectors. remarkably, nine sectors outperformed the overall market performance in terms of eps. the growth trajectory of the dse general index displayed volatility, with varying percentages of (7.35), 62.25, 82.79, and (36.58) for the years 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively. despite fluctuations, eps growth remained positive, indicating consistent income growth. however, the comparison between the price-earnings ratio and eps showcased inconsistencies over the years. dividend growth percentages were also notable, with a positive growth trend. 2012 the year 2012 witnessed market fluctuations, reflective of investors' wavering confidence. the benchmark dse general index (dgen) recorded a negative change, starting at 5351.75 and ending at 4219.31, marking a decline of 1132.44 points. tannery industries emerged as the top performer in 2012, followed by telecommunication, miscellaneous, food & allied, fuel & power, cement, and pharmaceuticals sectors. despite the market volatility, eps growth remained positive. however, the comparison between the price-earnings ratio and eps did not exhibit consistent trends. dividend growth percentages depicted a highly positive relation between earnings and corporate benefits. this discrepancy between earnings and prices contributed to the market turmoil witnessed in 2011 and 2012. 2013 the introduction of two new indices by the dse, namely the dse broad index ("dsex") and dse 30 index ("ds30"), based on free float and s & p methodology, marked a significant development in january 2013. the dsex serves as the broad index, reflecting approximately 97% of the total market capitalization, while the ds30 comprises 30 leading companies, representing around 51% of the total market capitalization. these indices are constructed based on free float and s & p methodology, enhancing market transparency and providing investors with comprehensive benchmarks for performance evaluation. 2014 in 2014, the bangladesh capital market rebounded from the downturn of 2010, showcasing stability throughout the year. market trends predominantly inclined upwards, with significant increases observed in the index, trade volume, and market capitalization compared to 2013. notably, ipos and rights issues contributed to capital formation, while foreign trade reached new milestones, reflecting growing investor confidence. additionally, regulatory measures implemented by the bangladesh securities and exchange commission (bsec), including a policy to expedite the ipo timeframe, facilitated quicker refund processes and company enlistments, fostering market efficiency. 2015 in the fiscal year 2014-15, the dhaka stock exchange (dse) witnessed significant growth in both its index and market capital compared to the previous fiscal year. despite a slight decrease in trade volume, industrial entrepreneurs raised tk. 12,469 million through initial public offerings (ipos) and tk. 14,458 million through rights issues. additionally, 130 companies increased their capital by tk. 26,638.80 million through bonus share issuances. foreign trade also increased, totaling tk. 69,912 million, with tk. 41,450 million in securities bought and tk. 28,457 million sold. despite the trade decrease, dhaka stock exchange limited contributed tk. 1,124 million to the government fund, collected from brokerage houses as tax per income tax ordinance 1984 section 53 b88, and tk. 609 million from the sale of sponsor and placement securities per income tax ordinance 1984 section 53m. 2016 in 2016, the performance of listed securities, measured by earnings per share (in %), showed improvement compared to 2015. telecommunication industries emerged as the top performer, followed by food & allied, pharmaceuticals, tannery, fuel & power, and cement sectors. however, thirteen sectors exhibited earnings per share performance below the overall market in 2016. by the end of december 2016, the market closed at 5,036.05 points, marking an increase of 8.78% from the previous year. earnings per share (in %) grew by (23.07), (3.14), 2.59, and 10.51 in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016 respectively. the comparison between price-earnings ratio and eps revealed varying trends over the years, with an inverse relationship observed in 2014 and 2015 but a positive correlation in 2016. corporate benefit growth percentages were (19.30), (4.14), (1.46), and (21.68) in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016 respectively, indicating a positive relationship between earnings and corporate benefits except for 2013 and 2016. 2017 in 2017, the total trade volume of dhaka stock exchange limited reached tk. 2,169,597.12 million, marking an 82.08% increase or tk. 978,025.85 million higher than the previous year, the highest recorded trade volume since 2010. over 248 beg et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 5 working days, the average daily trade amounted to tk. 8,748.38 million, compared to tk. 4,944.28 million over 241 working days in 2016. the dse broad index (dsex) surged by 1,208.47 points or 24% to reach 6,244.52 points in 2017. the highest and lowest points recorded were 6,336.88 and 5,083.89, respectively. since its inception on january 28, 2013, with a starting point of 4,090.47, this closing index marked the highest level achieved after its launch. 2018 in 2018, the bangladesh capital market witnessed a historic transformation with the inclusion of strategic investors. the consortium of the world's leading stock exchanges, shenzhen stock exchange and shanghai stock exchange, acquired a 25% ownership stake in the dhaka stock exchange, approved by the government of bangladesh and the bangladesh securities and exchange commission. this partnership is poised to bring significant benefits, including capital formation, sme market development, product diversification, information disclosure, investor relationship services, human resources development, and technological advancements, contributing to high-quality growth in both the capital market and the economy. however, despite this landmark development, the total trade volume of the dhaka stock exchange in 2018 decreased by 38.43%, amounting to tk. 133,591.33 crore, compared to tk. 216,959.71 crore in 2017. the number of working days in 2018 was 242, with an average turnover of tk. 552.03 crore, whereas in 2017, the total trade turnover was tk. 216,959.71 crore, with 248 working days and an average trade of tk. 874.83 crore. 2019 in 2019, listed securities had a slight decrease in average dividend payments compared to 2018. the telecommunication sector led in distributing corporate benefits, followed by pharmaceuticals, tannery, and others. earnings per share showed positive growth, with the jute sector leading. however, eighteen sectors fell below the overall market in earnings. the dse broad index closed at 4452.93 points, down 17.32% from the previous year. earnings per share growth ranged from 0.62% to 10.51%, while corporate benefit growth fluctuated, ranging from (21.68) % to 2.41%. capital market statistics: securities turnover the term 'turnover' denotes the aggregate value of securities exchanged during a defined timeframe, typically assessed daily, monthly, or annually. it encapsulates the total quantity of shares transacted within a specific market or exchange over a given period. stock exchange turnover serves as a vital gauge of trading activity and market liquidity. it is computed by multiplying the number of shares or securities traded by their respective prices during the specified duration. the turnover formula is commonly represented as: turnover = number of shares traded × price per share the securities turnover of the dhaka stock exchange (dse) from 2010 to 2019 is delineated below: table 1. securities turnover 2010-2019 year trading days no. of shares and debentures in mn amount tk. in mn changes in share volume changes in share value 2010 244 16,974.52 4,009,912.67 2011 235 16,967.15 1,560,912.09 -0.04% -61.07% 2012 238 21,688.68 1,001,084.90 27.83% -35.87% 2013 238 22,988.53 952,742.80 5.99% -4.83% 2014 238 25,996.17 1,188,521.54 13.08% 24.75% 2015 244 26,106.07 1,031,398.64 0.42% -13.22% 2016 241 34,912.00 1,191,571.27 33.73% 15.53% 2017 248 65,605.00 2,169,597.12 87.92% 82.08% 2018 242 33,563.00 1,333,683.19 -48.84% -38.53% 2019 237 32,759.00 1,138,402.81 -2.40% -14.64% beg et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 6 in 2010, trading occurred on 244 days, with 16,974.52 million shares & debentures valued at tk. 4,009,912.67 million traded. in 2011, trading occurred on 235 days, with 16,967.15 million shares & debentures worth tk. 1,560,912.09 million traded. in 2012, trading occurred on 238 days, with 21,688.68 million shares & debentures valued at tk. 1,001,084.90 million traded. in 2013, trading occurred on 238 days, with 22,988.53 million shares & debentures worth tk. 952,742.08 million traded. in 2014, trading occurred on 238 days, with 25,996.17 million shares & debentures valued at tk. 1,188,521.54 million traded. in 2015, trading occurred on 244 days, with 26,106.07 million securities worth tk. 1,031,398.64 million traded. compared to 2015, total traded volume and value increased by 33.73% and 15.53% in 2016. the highest daily traded value was tk. 9,358 million in december 2016. in 2017, total traded volume and value increased by 87.13% and 82.08% respectively. however, in 2018, total traded volume and value decreased by 48.84% and 38.53% respectively. in 2019, trading occurred on 237 days, with a total traded volume and value decreasing by 48.84% and 38.53% respectively compared to 2018. the highest traded value in 2019 was tk. 1,138,402.81 million, with a total of 32,759.00 shares traded. overall, the highest traded volume was 65,605.00 securities in 2017, and the lowest was 21,688.68 securities in 2012. similarly, the highest trading value was tk. 4,009,912.67 million in 2010, and the lowest was tk. 952,742.80 million in 2013. sector-wise turnover performance sector-wise turnover denotes the evaluation of trading activity within distinct sectors or industries of the stock market over a specific period. it entails assessing the total value of shares traded within various sectors, offering insights into the relative trading volumes and investor interest across different segments of the economy. table 2. the sectorial turnover of dse from 2010 to 2019 sector 2010 2011 2012 total turnover in million total turnover in million total turnover in million volume value volume value volume value financial sector banks 4753.29 1147621.32 4915.13 391144.6 5268.47 156,870.04 financial institutions 1132.54 607695.22 629.24 176118.8 1490.43 81,367.75 insurance 435.36 326724.36 608.76 128689.3 1014.03 63,355.03 mutual fund 3182.91 76363.17 3854.69 54512.46 2478.87 33,053.76 total 9,504.10 2,158,404.07 10,007.82 750,465.16 10,251.80 334,646.58 manufacturing sector engineering 834.67 275034.1 681.62 128873.1 1122.67 86,081.48 foods 505.26 70472.32 467.13 36061.56 442.05 20,897.44 jute 0.29 481.75 1.16 791.75 4.07 528.62 textile 2201.76 241269.15 2140.9 150558 2643.76 95,735.62 pharmaceuticals 906.14 204959.66 746.67 99894.12 1368.19 75,557.80 paper & printing 7.83 512.89 3.79 184.76 2.2 63.46 cement 159.52 108350.82 259.81 57967.35 656.72 44,395.69 tannery 41.72 32961.17 19.66 9099.79 40.92 3,866.77 ceramics 482.57 60955.36 341.43 37,881.89 387.79 16,153.13 total 5,139.76 994,997.22 4,662.17 521,312.32 6,668.37 343,280.01 miscellaneous & service fuel and power 882.9 461298.63 622.02 124040.8 1 ,561.07 149,640.43 service & real estate 132.78 69290.26 75.36 15813.84 139.64 8,234.70 500,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 3,500,000 4,000,000 4,500,000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 figure1. securities turnover 2010-2019 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 figure 2. no. of shares and debentures in million beg et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 7 it 288.8 17006.55 242.23 8815.9 423.77 14,840.45 telecommunication 299 83932.47 192.31 34171.24 362.39 53,658.17 travel and leisure 53.73 25917.22 750.95 34848.64 1 ,831.26 57,534.05 miscellaneous 680.63 213787.83 413.2 69930.34 448.54 38,677.46 total 2,337.84 871,232.96 2,296.07 287,620.76 1,374.34 322,585.26 bond corporate bond 1.3 1,144.17 1.07 967.17 0.58 546.02 sector 2013 2014 2015 total turnover in million total turnover in million total turnover in million volume value volume value volume value financial sector banks 4,018.09 79,471.06 5,662.01 109,009.36 4,480.66 80,152.24 financial institutions 1,420.04 47,196.72 1 981.16 62,916.03 1,777.41 42,762.14 insurance 830.05 51,420.11 802.63 51,507.39 479.14 19,461.25 mutual fund 3,259.00 38,946.17 1,994.43 19,933.59 1,839.71 13,474.96 total 9,527.18 165,613.95 6,464.64 191,858.98 6,737.21 155,850.59 manufacturing sector engineering 1,200.29 82,552.98 2.528.94 146,283.84 2,956.80 159,312.98 foods 755.64 41,824.65 951.97 66,521.16 789.22 46,301.67 jute 6.75 861.88 6.32 864.19 10.14 1,498.73 textile 4,475.23 152,081.59 3,478.77 111,995.85 4,151.42 100,418.01 pharmaceuticals 1,462.34 96,549.57 2, 192.92 160,217.60 2,017.23 164,522.46 paper & printing 4.5 137.07 224.68 7,170.13 170.16 3,861.87 cement 438.81 38,727.39 694.53 71,573.31 387.55 43,773.07 tannery 69.86 9,529.09 79.06 15,424.32 100 9,754.88 ceramics 259.38 7,150.21 293.93 9,898.63 337.64 15,299.85 total 6,010.17 305,036.80 5,729.26 443,665.19 7,963.36 385,430.54 miscellaneous & service fuel and power 1,654.38 141,434.57 1,941.11 176,957.69 2,135.21 170,375.57 service & real estate 165.61 7,337.66 369.02 21,421.90 545.57 36,177.20 it 516.32 14,936.43 517.85 15,602.97 563.25 16,277.07 telecommunication 281.05 57,740.06 258.92 64,768.24 168.78 36,778.09 travel and leisure 1,698.95 53,170.14 1,032.18 22,541.87 1,758.36 23,147.43 miscellaneous 453.15 30,287.54 985.46 53,743.99 1,407.60 47,826.38 total 3,115.08 163,471.83 3,163.43 178,078.97 4,443.56 160,206.17 bond corporate bond 0.29 274.12 0.17 166.58 0.23 214.13 sector 2016 2017 2018 2019 total turnover in million total turnover in million total turnover in million total turnover in million volume value volume value volume value volume value financial sector banks 6109.67 105644.15 20726.49 491991.58 6086.76 137255.61 6178.92 123564.35 financial institutions 3030.58 76075.13 6316.74 225540.57 2306.2 60150.72 2423.11 48312.62 insurance 1041.74 27399.22 1,313.53 39320.61 1119.64 45381.06 4485.79 139291.59 mutual fund 1809.91 11504.2 4643.75 37878.68 1316.17 10578.09 2818.83 22493.16 total 11991.9 220622.7 31686.98 794731.44 10828.77 253365.48 15906.65 333661.72 manufacturing sector engineering 3874.09 199794.73 4799.7 275803.38 3446.56 206399.61 2471.27 148634.88 foods 991.68 65645.54 1,566.20 69849.69 1,227.96 58223.33 663.87 45342.61 jute 15.04 2830.69 15.17 5276.44 20.22 7431.6 8.85 5587.65 textile 6753.15 130293.78 11689.61 257684.51 8014.42 218177.91 5666.68 128911.1 pharmaceuticals 3140.83 165846.97 4831.6 237790.25 2957.5 164115.19 2398.19 134973.8 paper & printing 80.43 2334.23 119.35 4053.92 169.21 13002.82 98.06 5170.57 cement 509.27 44848.37 519.4 49021.31 253.03 23342.74 197.37 12218.75 tannery 206.5 15617.01 405.08 26873.26 490.03 29425.76 816.6 40588.43 ceramics 546.78 14593 653.01 25826.42 375.77 27942.76 258.43 33851.29 total 16117.77 641804.32 24599.12 952179.18 16954.7 748061.72 12579.32 555279.08 miscellaneous & service fuel and power 2117.27 167273.49 2517.57 186526.05 1749.34 147597.62 1239.06 109402.09 service & real estate 510.68 25435.19 768.16 37915.62 301.14 10289.43 261.79 9450.47 it 931.49 27924.21 1393.43 49531.36 948.87 37279.29 723.48 29662.1 telecommunication 130.6 22323.17 122.48 34564.51 92.56 31994.2 199.08 39353.38 travel and leisure 1267.59 16641.14 879.49 21509.37 703.16 21482.48 469.36 7933.74 miscellaneous 1781.54 66738.28 2323.2 91816.93 1981 .65 83462.28 1379.77 53595.15 total 6739.17 326335.48 8004.33 421863.84 3795.07 332105.3 4272.54 249396.93 bond corporate bond 0.13 126.69 822.66 822.66 0.11 105.67 0.07 65.07 in 2010, the financial sector led the dse turnover, representing 63.36% of the total turnover, with bank stocks at the forefront. manufacturing followed, contributing 22.16%, led by the textile industry, while fuel and power accounted for 7.00%. this trend continued in 2011, with the financial sector dominating at 48.07%, manufacturing at 33.40%, and fuel beg et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 8 and power at 7.95%. in 2012, manufacturing took the lead with 34.29%, driven by engineering stocks, followed closely by the financial sector at 33.43%. fuel and power also showed growth at 14.95%. this trend persisted in 2013 and 2014, with manufacturing dominating and fuel and power showing significant contributions. by 2015, manufacturing still led with 52.82%, followed by financials at 15.11%. this trend continued in 2016 and 2017, with slight variations in sectoral contributions. in 2018, manufacturing maintained its dominance at 56.09%, with miscellaneous and service sectors also contributing significantly. the trend persisted in 2019, with engineering leading at 13.06% and pharmaceuticals following closely at 11.86%, and textile sector making notable contributions. discussions brokerage houses are integral players in the capital market ecosystem, facilitating the buying and selling of securities. over the past decade, their impact on community development in bangladesh has been notable. in 2017, total traded volume reached tk. 2,169,597.12 million, marking an 82.08% increase from the previous year, indicating a broader engagement in the capital market, facilitated by brokerage houses. sector-wise turnover data revealed consistent investment trends, with sectors such as manufacturing, financials, and pharmaceuticals attracting significant investments over the years. for example, in 2018, manufacturing maintained its dominance with a turnover share of 56.09%, reflecting investor confidence nurtured by brokerage houses' educational initiatives. investments directed towards key sectors, such as manufacturing and financial services, drove economic growth and development. these investments led to tangible outcomes like job creation and infrastructure development. the surge in trading activity in 2017, with a peak trading volume of 65,605.00 securities, correlates with increased economic activity and opportunities for communities. capital inflows facilitated by brokerage houses translated into job opportunities across industries. the peak trading volume in 2017 signifies heightened economic activity, contributing to job creation and socioeconomic advancement. this highlights the role of brokerage houses in fostering employment and supporting community livelihoods. investments in infrastructure sectors contributed to community development, as reflected in the surge in trading activity and capital formation. for instance, increased investments in critical infrastructure like transportation and energy enhance connectivity and improve quality of life for communities. brokerage houses leverage technology to enhance market efficiency and accessibility, fostering broader participation in the capital market. the adoption of online trading platforms has enabled remote access to markets, driving technological advancement and financial inclusion. brokerage houses contribute to social welfare through csr activities, investing in community development projects, education, healthcare, and environmental sustainability. these initiatives contribute to improving the well-being of communities and fostering inclusive growth. in summary, brokerage houses contribute significantly to community development by facilitating investment activities, promoting economic growth, fostering financial inclusion, and engaging in corporate social responsibility initiatives. their role as intermediaries in the capital market is crucial for the holistic development of society. conclusions in conclusion, this study has illuminated the vital role of stock brokerage houses in bangladesh's capital market and their potential impact on community development. through an exploration of historical milestones, market dynamics, and regulatory oversight, we have uncovered key insights into the challenges and opportunities facing brokerage firms in fostering inclusive growth and economic prosperity. our findings underscore the importance of understanding the specific contributions of brokerage houses to community development within the broader context of bangladesh's capital market. by filling a notable gap in existing literature, this study provides valuable insights for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders in the financial sector. the implications of this research are far-reaching. recognizing the potential of brokerage houses to drive community development can inform strategic initiatives aimed at promoting market inclusivity, integrity, and resilience. moreover, addressing the limitations identified in this study, such as the absence of derivative instruments and challenges related to market manipulation, can guide future research and policy interventions. looking ahead, there are exciting opportunities for further exploration. future research could delve deeper into specific strategies for enhancing the role of brokerage houses in community development and explore the impact of regulatory reforms and market innovations on market efficiency and inclusivity. in this study, we recognize certain limitations that deserve acknowledgment. firstly, our expertise in the capital market of bangladesh is limited, which may affect the depth of analysis and interpretation. secondly, the study's focus on the period from 2010 to 2019 might lead to oversight of historical trends and events crucial for contextual understanding. lastly, the dynamic regulatory environment and macroeconomic influences could potentially impact the relevance and generalizability of our findings. despite these limitations, our study offers valuable insights into the role of stock brokerage houses in community development, laying a foundation for future research and policy interventions aimed at fostering inclusive growth and economic prosperity. in essence, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the intricate dynamics between stock brokerage houses and community development within bangladesh's capital market. by recognizing the pivotal role brokerage firms play in shaping market outcomes and fostering socio-economic progress, we can pave the way for a more equitable and prosperous future for all stakeholders involved. author contributions: conceptualization, t.h.b., t.a., m.h., a.h. and r.h.; methodology, t.h.b.; software, t.h.b.; validation, t.h.b.; formal analysis, t.h.b., t.a., m.h., a.h. and r.h.; investigation, t.h.b.; resources, t.h.b.; data curation, t.h.b.; writing – original draft preparation, t.h.b., t.a., m.h., a.h. and r.h.; writing – review & editing, t.h.b., t.a., m.h., a.h. and r.h.; visualization, t.h.b.; supervision, t.h.b.; project administration, t.h.b.; funding acquisition, t.h.b., t.a., m.h., a.h. and r.h. authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. institutional review board statement: ethical review and approval were waived for this study because the research does not involve vulnerable groups beg et al., american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research 15(2) (2024), 1-11 9 or sensitive issues. funding: the authors received no direct funding for this research. acknowledgements: not applicable. informed consent statement: informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. data availability statement: the data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author. due to restrictions, they are not publicly available. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references al-imran, m., chowdhury, m. s., arafin, s., hridoy, m. z., & rahman, m. m. 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(2022d). the power of compensation system (cs) on employee satisfaction (es): the mediating role of employee motivation (em). economies, 10(11), 290. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10110290 publisher’s note: american multidisciplinary scientific society stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. © 2024 by the authors. licensee american multidisciplinary scientific society, usa. this article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research (p-issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273) by american multidisciplinary scientific society is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 international license. https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.3.47 https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.3.47 https://doi.org/10.46281/afbr.v5i1.1015 https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15090402 https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci12040138 https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315789 https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10110290 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 issn 2638-1249 e-issn 2638-1273 published by cribfb, usa 1 the microfinance institutional sustainability and empowerment of women borrower’s in malaysia: an empirical review ali arshad1, abul bashar bhuiyan2, aza azlina md kassim3, md jafor ali4, muhammad saad5, 1, 2, 3faculty of business and accountancy, universiti selangor, malaysia 4 faculty of business administration, islamic university, bangladesh 5 fast school of management, national university of computer and emerging sciences, pakistan abstract the fundamental aims of this study to construct a new framework between microfinance institution’s (mfis) financial sustainability and social, economic and household women empowerment in malaysia. the study used both quantitative and qualitative approach. the study used available online empirical recourses by the name of microfinance institution’s (mfis) sustainability and sustainable and social, economic and household women empowerment in different online database sources such as google scholars, springer link, wiley, science direct, jstor, emerald full text, scopus, and ebsco host etc. the summary of literature review revealed that it is the unique goal of mfis for poverty reduction mission through ensuring of financial sustainability while contribution impact in the society. it has also revealed that it is the way the social mission of poverty alleviation through serving the poorest has been overshadowed by profit motive. however, profit orientation of the microfinance industry also emphasis on profit earning. the present study will be recommended for policy considerations for the successful and effective operation of microfinance programs by providing the necessary guidelines for the proper utilization of loan for women borrowers in malaysia. keywords: microfinance, institutional sustainability, empowerment, women borrower, malaysia introduction poor women are ignored in most parts of the society. they are marginalized and have no opportunities for self-sufficiency, and thus, become dependent on charity or welfare. hence, poor women lose their self-confidence because they cannot be fully self-supporting. denied opportunities deprive poor women of the pride of accomplishment. this situation, in turn, leads to psychological, social, and mental health problems. as a result, some started believing that access to private capital is the only path to establish sustainable and effective microfinance program (akula, 2010; chen et al., 2010). conversely, it also proves as profitable industry to investment for institutional investors (evans, 2010; gokhale, 2009b). the industry therefore, witness a rapid transformation and commercialization that intended for profitable microfinance services (berger, goldmark, & sanabria, 2006; briere & szafarz, 2015; campion, white, & network, 1999; chahine & tannir, 2010; chen et al., 2010; christen & drake, 2002; drake & rhyne, 2002; hishigsuren, 2006; janda & zetek, 2014; ledgerwood & white, https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 2 2006; poyo & young, 1999; radhakrishnan, 2015; rhyne, 2001, 2008; rosenberg, 2007; siriaram & upadhyayula, 2004; m. sriram & upadhyayula, 2002; m. s. sriram, 2010; tiwari & anjum, 2015; g. woller, 2002). it triggered the tension that mfis’ original mission of poverty alleviation might overshadowed by the profit orientation; generally known as mission drift that has illustrated in various studies (abeysekera, oguzoglu, & le, 2014; abrar & javaid, 2014; beatriz armendariz, d'espallier, hudon, & szafarz, 2011; beatriz armendáriz & szafarz, 2011a; caserta & reito, 2013; christen & cook, 2001; robert cull et al., 2007; evans, 2010; ferdousi, 2015; frank, lynch, & schneider-moretto, 2008; b. gutiérrez-nieto, serrano-cinca, & mar molinero, 2009; n. hermes et al., 2011; kar, 2012, 2013a; r. mersland & strøm, 2010; nurmakhanova et al., 2015; olivares-polanco, 2005; piot-lepetit & nzongang, 2014; s. quayes, 2012, 2015). nevertheless, not all above studies found evidence of mission drift rather indicated mixed and conflicting results that makes the concern more complex and demanded more empirical studies. however, including academics, global media and the pioneer of microcredit muhammad yunus express their deep concern on this movement (bajaj, 2010; burgis, 2008; business, 2007; economist, 2008, 2009; evans, 2010; gokhale, 2009b; malkin, 2008; salmon, 2011; saltmarsh & contiguglia, 2009; mohammad yunus, 2010). though some reports pointed institutional investors are behind the reason of mission original, despite they are also well aware about their double bottom line of investment in microfinance (brau, cardell, & woodworth, 2015; dieckmann, speyer, ebling, & walter, 2007; ding, sun, & au, 2014; goodman, 2006; ledgerwood, earne, & nelson, 2013; renneboog, ter horst, & zhang, 2008; rajdeep sengupta & craig p aubuchon, 2008; steger, 2012; wilburn & wilburn, 2014). empowerment is a means to achieve basic opportunities for poor women. empowerment includes encouraging and developing the skills for self-sufficiency, with a focus on eliminating the future need for charity or welfare. in spite of remarkable economic growth, reducing the interethnic income disparity and the economic imbalance, especially hard-core poverty and women empowerment, is the prime threat to declare malaysia as a completely developed country by 2020. existing literature reveals limited studies on the assessment of aim microcredit performance concerning the success stories of women empowerment in malaysia. thus, this study will analyze the contribution of aim to the household income and the empowerment of poor women borrowers in malaysia. this research will propose the future direction for the effective use of credit for igas and the development of poor women in malaysia. background of the study the revolution in microfinance industry was observed after the year 1974 when muhammad younus established grameen bank in bangladesh. during the early days of 2011, microfinance achieved a milestone of reaching more than 200 million poor across the globe (maes & reed, 2012). according to the data reported to mix market in 2014, the total gross loan portfolio of mfis has reached 78 billion usd. therefore, microfinance was considered as a best available tool for sustainable development and growth. this was also endorsed as muhammad younus received nobel prize in 2007 for their contribution to reducing poverty through microfinance. there are two major goals for microfinance institutions (chenuos et al., 2014). the first goal of mfi is to contribute to development by approaching a maximum number of clients and reaching the poorest (nanayakkara, 2012). the second important goal for mfis is to reach poor clients by achieving financial sustainability. according to olasupo et al. (2014), mfis management should be efficient in promoting both the objectives. g. m. woller et al. (1999) also introduced https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 3 two approaches known as “the institutionist approach” and “the welfarist approach.” institutionist approach sticks with financial sustainability of institutions and poverty alleviation simultaneously whereas, welfarists approach emphasized on reaching poor clients by using subsidized funds. since microfinance, promises to develop its customers and provide capital to overcome poverty. therefore, understanding of mfis sustainability is essential for the well-being of individuals and business (muwamba, 2012). the sustainability achievement, in this case, means attaining the financial sustainability along with the attainment of reduction in poverty level (nanayakkara, 2012). the term sustainability was commonly used in many fields such as environmental science, development economics, and agricultural sector development, particularly in the developing world where agriculture is the major economic sector or covers the significant share of the gross domestic production of the countries. sustainability is commonly known as the organization's ability to cover both its operational and financing cost from its revenues and also expanding its services (m. w. rahman & luo, 2012). chaves and gonzalezvega (1996) views sustainability as the organization’s ability to use its financial resources or borrowings on market rates for providing financial services on regular basis. okumu (2007) cited the definition of sustainability as the institution's ability to generate enough reserves for capitalization by covering its operational cost. performance of microfinance institutions sustainability normally taken as recovery of the full cost of mfi or generating sufficient profit to continue the operations of mfis without depending on external supports by donors and government subsidies (cgap, 2004). it is commonly used as financial aspects by researchers regarding financial sustainability only. financial sustainability was one of the key measurement variables for sustainability of microfinance institutions (ayayi & sene, 2010; basharat, hudon, & nawaz, 2015; m. w. rahman & luo, 2012; sekabira, 2013; tehulu, 2013). several studies have mentioned that for an mfi to be sustainable, it should be financially self-sufficient (gibbons & meehan, 1999; kar, 2013b; kinde, 2012; morduch, 1999a). however, bhanot, bapat, and connelly (2015) mentioned that in reaching sustainability, financial sustainability is just one dimension. under ‘welfarist approach’, for an institution to be sustainable, the core function of mfis were to reach the maximum poor clients (hulme & mosley, 1996; kipesha & zhang, 2013; morduch, 2000; g. m. woller et al., 1999). mahajan and ramola (1996) measures the sustainability of mfis by using financial sustainability and outreach. they were concerned that increase in focus on financial sustainability may result in the shift in outreach. millson (2013) also measures sustainability regarding both financial sustainability and outreach to the poor. morduch (2000) clearly discuss the winning proposition for sustainability of mfis if both costs of operation and maximum outreach to the poor people achieved without external support by donor’s funds or government subsidies. shahidur r khandker and khalily (1996) discuss the sustainability of bangladesh rural advancement committee’s regarding financial viability, institutional sustainability and sustainability of targeted beneficiaries. in their study, financial viability approximates program ability to recover its cost of operation from its revenues. institutional sustainability approximate mfis ability to continue its activities on a sustained basis and beneficiaries’ sustainability implies the positive impact of microfinance services on the growth of recipients and their ability to repay their loan within given time frame (shahidur r khandker & khalily, 1996). https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 4 the triangle of microfinance introduced by zeller and meyer (2002) also support the above studies. according to zeller, successful microfinance institutions should be financially sustainable, have positive outreach to the poor and should be helpful in poverty alleviation. yaron (1992) also considers financial sustainability and outreach as a benchmark for sustainable mfis if subsidy dependence is zero. thus, sustainability of mfis can be measured using financial sustainability and outreach (annim, 2012; s. quayes, 2012; zeller & meyer, 2002). rauf and mahmood (2009) uses six dimensions of outreach to approximate mfis performance. they used oss and fss to determine cost and length of outreach. under institutionalist view, kipesha and zhang (2013) found that outreach has a positive correlation with both profitability and sustainability measures. simultaneously, using welfarists approach, results does not show the tradeoff between outreach and sustainability. outreach and financial sustainability have an active relationship with mfis sustainability (louis, seret, & baesens, 2013). also, mfis can achieve sustainability if they increase outreach to target poor and achieve financial sustainability simultaneously (de crombrugghe, tenikue, & sureda, 2008). mfis, to remain sustainable, should use appropriate processes and structures to facilitate its customers and continue its operations without any interruption (rao, 2014). sustainable microfinance institutions there are large number of microfinance programs are still depending on donor subsidies to meet the high costs, which means they are not institutional sustainable (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). in the 1990s, the issue of financial sustainability of microfinance institutions gave rise to an important debate between the financial systems approach and the poverty lending approach (robinson, 2001). the financial systems approach emphasizes the importance of financially sustainable microfinance programs (robinson, 2001). this approach stresses the importance of being able to cover the cost of lending money out of the income generated from the outstanding loan portfolio and to reduce operational costs as much as possible (robinson, 2001). on the other hand, the poverty lending approach, however, concentrates on using credit to help overcome poverty, primarily by providing credit with subsidized interest rates (robinson, 2001). the advocates of this approach argue that the poor cannot afford higher interest rates (robinson, 2001). therefore, aiming at institutional sustainability ultimately goes against the goal of serving large groups of poor borrowers (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). in other words, there is a trade-off between sustainability and outreach (beatriz armendáriz & szafarz, 2011b; robert cull, demirgüç-kunt, & morduch, 2011; robert cull & morduch, 2007; niels hermes & lensink, 2011; n. hermes et al., 2011). the proponents of the financial services approach, however, claim that empirical evidence neither shows that the poor cannot afford higher interest rates, nor that there is a negative correlation between the financial sustainability of the institution and the poverty level of the clients (n. hermes et al., 2011). during recent years, the debate appears to have been settled in favor of the proponents of the financial systems approach (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). in fact, the importance of striving for institutional sustainability has been embraced by most parties involved in the microfinance discussion (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). in parallel with this development, donors, policy makers, and other financers of microfinance have recently made a shift from subsidizing mfis institutions toward a focus on financial sustainability and efficiency of these institutions (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). among other things, this increased focus on financial sustainability and efficiency is due to a number of developments the microfinance business has been recently confronted with, such as the increasing competition among mfis, the commercialization of microfinance, technological change https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 5 that also has become available for, and implemented in microfinance, and financial liberalization and regulation policies of the government (rhyne & otero, 2006). at the same time, however, there remains a huge variety in mfis in terms of their financial sustainability. according to rough estimations, only 1–2% of all mfis in the world (i.e., some 150 organizations) are financially sustainable (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). in most cases, these are larger, mature, regulated, and relatively well-known mfis. some 8% of all mfis are close to being profitable (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). both these groups of mfis are considered to be commercial organizations, focusing on profitability or sustainability (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). a third group of organizations (20% of all mfis) consist of mostly ngos, which are not yet financially sustainable, but may become sustainable in the near future (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). the remaining group of mfis (70% of all organizations) consist of smaller, startup organizations, which are still far from being financially sustainable and are, therefore, heavily dependent on subsidies (niels hermes & lensink, 2011). according to ledgerwood, j. in 1999 institutional sustainability or financial performance of microfinance institution consists of profitability, portfolio quality, productivity, and financial viability (ledgerwood, 1999). whereas, financial viability consists of operational selfsufficiency (oss) & financial self-sufficiency (fss), which indicates an indicator of mfi’s ability to cover its costs with earned revenues (ledgerwood, 1999). moreover, armendariz de aghion, b. and j. morduch in 2005 used operational self-sufficiency (oss) & financial selfsufficiency (fss) on their study for mfi’s performances evaluations (armendariz de aghion & morduch, 2005). empirical review of financial sustainability the measurement of sustainability has become a crucial topic. mfis sustainability was discussed in very few empirical studies in different countries. in these studies, sustainability of microfinance institutions was measured using different ratios. however, no definite measure is available for determining sustainability level of microfinance institutions (mia et al., 2015; rai & rai, 2012). tehulu (2013) in his study used fss to measure mfis financial sustainability in east africa. another study by kar (2013) has also used financial self-sufficiency ratio as an approximation for financial sustainability of mfis. the financial self-sufficiency ratio has become a popular measure of mfi performance, and it has been adopted by the micro banking bulletin (mbb) as its principal measure of financial sustainability (manos & yaron, 2009). based on fss data published in the mbb of spring 2008, it appears that out of 340 mfis reviewed in 2006, 244 (72%) were financially self-sufficient. kazemian et al. (2014) have also used financial self-sufficiency as an estimate for sustainability of amanah ikhtiar malaysia. the study was focused on the relationship between market orientation and mfi sustainability. financial sustainability for mfis in ethiopia was also determined using financial self-sufficiency ratio (kinde, 2012). m. a. rahman and mazlan (2014a) investigated the drivers of mfis financial sustainability in bangladesh. study approximated financial sustainability by using financial self-sufficiency ratios. another study to measure the sustainability of mfis by using fss ratio have been done by nwachukwu (2014). ayayi and sene (2010) used oss to estimate the sustainability of 217 mfis for the year ranging 1998-2006. lenssen et al. (2014) and kaur (2014) has also used oss to measure the sustainability of mfis in india post-andhra pradesh crisis.. ngo et al. (2014) also investigated the relationship between the scale of operation and mfis sustainability in bangladesh. in their study oss ratio was used to measure sustainability. islam et al. (2014) also used oss to measure the mfis financial sustainability. they investigated the impact of interest rate cap effect and cost https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 6 structure on the financial sustainability of mfis in bangladesh. v. l. bogan (2012), v. l. bogan (2008) and v. bogan et al. (2007) have emphasized that to be financially sustainable mfis needed to be operationally self-sufficient. mia et al. (2015) measured the sustainability of mfis by using financial revenue over the asset. the result showed that mfis failing to achieve financial sustainability were related to higher leverage. daher and le saout (2015) and chenuos et al. (2014) have measured sustainability of mfis by using return on asset. khandker and khalily (1996) discuss sustainability of bangladesh rural advancement committee’s (brac) regarding financial viability, institutional viability and sustainability of targeted beneficiaries. several indices were also found to determine the sustainability of microfinance institution. subsidy dependence index (sdi) analyzes the sustainability of four rural financial institutions (rfis) (yaron, 1992). these institutions include badan kredit kecamatan indonesia, grameen bank bangladesh, bank for agriculture and agricultural cooperatives thailand and bank rakyat indonesia unit desa. sdi was designed to evaluate the progress of rfi for getting free from dependence on subsidies. it also evaluates the level of dependency on grants when rfis are compared with a similar institution. it also investigates the degree of interest rfi should adopt to be independent of subsidies. negative sdi indicates not only that rfis have attained fss but also profits exceeding the number of subsidies and also rfi have the capacity to reduce their lending interest rate. zero sdi means rfis have achieved fss. contrary, if sdi is 100 percent, the lending rate should be doubled to reach fss. however, according to nanayakkara (2012), the reliance on sdi is not acceptable as it indicates the dependence level of subsidies only and does not consider the outreach. furthermore, when mfi tends to achieve subsidy independence by using sdi, it may deviate from its mission of poverty alleviation by charging a high-interest rate to poor customers. another index incorporated by christen (1995) is commonly known as financial selfsufficiency index. three types of adjustments are made to revenues and costs when the fss is computed: adjustments for inflation, adjustments for subsidies, and adjustments for loan loss provisions and write-offs. the adjustment for inflation counters the decrease in value of financial assets. furthermore, the adjustment of subsidy accounts for three types of grants: concessionary borrowings, cash donations, and in-kind grants. the adjustment for loan loss provisions and writeoffs accounts for variation in the recognition of delinquencies and writing off of bad loans. christen (1995) make the points that the sdi and the fss are compatible, and that the fss adjusts the financial statements in line with market rates as if the mfis were not subsidized. a financial sustainability index was developed by rai and rai (2012) to evaluate the sustainability level of mfis in india and bangladesh in the year 2009-2010. sustainability score of mfis was determined using four financial indicators. these include par>30, oer, leverage and oss. the base score for mfis sustainability in the year 2010 was 63.25. the study also determines the factors which influence the sustainability of mfis. rai and rai (2012) have measured sustainability by using an operational self-sufficiency ratio. above studies depict that financial sustainability, a physical parameter, can be monitored and measured using several indicators, including return on asset, financial revenue to total asset, fss and oss ratios. however, cgap, mix market and micro banking bulletin (mbb) have emphasized fss and oss as their principle instruments for calculating financial sustainability (cgap, 2003; manos & yaron, 2009). several studies also stress that financial sustainability is measured as financial self-sufficiency and operational self-sufficiency (v. bogan et al., 2007; chaves & gonzalezvega, 1996; r. cull & morduch, 2007; islam et al., 2014; lenssen et al., 2014; m. a. rahman & mazlan, 2014a; rai & https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 7 rai, 2012). financial self-sufficiency implies mfis ability to cover the cost of operations without dependency on subsidies, and operational self-sufficiency implies mfis ability to cover the cost of its revenue (cgap, 2003). sustainability has been commonly used in financial aspects by researchers regarding financial sustainability only. however, bhanot et al. (2015) mentioned that in reaching sustainability, financial sustainability is just one dimension. mahajan and ramola (1996) measures the sustainability of mfis by using financial sustainability and outreach separately. he showed his concern that increase in focus on financial sustainability results in the shift in outreach. millson (2013) also measures sustainability regarding both outreach and financial sustainability. thus, sustainability of mfis can be measured using financial sustainability and outreach (annim, 2012; quayes, 2012; zeller & meyer, 2002). mutually, fss and outreach are necessary for mfi performance without displacement of one for the other (kar, 2013; kinde, 2012). in a study by annim (2012), analysis of the data show that mfis that have better depth of outreach were operationally self-sufficient. their study investigated the impact of fss and oss on outreach. another study was done to determine the trade-off among outreach and financial sustainability by using operational self-sufficiency as a measure of financial sustainability (zero & rani, 2012). results suggest that outreach and financial sustainability were interdependent. zeller and meyer (2002) introduced “the triangle of microfinance” which was consistent with the above studies. according to zeller, successful microfinance institutions should be financially sustainable, have positive outreach to the poor and should be helpful in poverty alleviation. yaron (1992) also considers financial sustainability and outreach as a benchmark for sustainable mfis if subsidy dependence is zero. under welfarists approach, kipesha and zhang (2013) results do not show the tradeoff. other researchers also found that sustainable mfis achieve financial sustainability along with poverty outreach simultaneously (adhikary & papachristou, 2014; de crombrugghe et al., 2008). murdoch (2000) and paxton (2002) clearly discuss the winning proposition for sustainability of mfis if both costs of operation and maximum outreach to the poor people were achieved without external support of donor funds or government subsidies. similarly, rai and rai (2012) also found that breadth of outreach influence oss of mfi. a study by bhanot et al. (2015) supports the above argument who has also developed a sustainability index for mfis in india. their sustainability index does not include only financial indicators, but also include outreach measures. oss, bo, and do were used to determine the sustainability scores for mfis in india. mfis sustainability score ranges varies from 0.80 (the maximum) to 0.26 (the minimum). however, the index does not include the important financial indicator of fss which is critical as it determines mfis to continue its operations without depending on subsidies (cgap, 2003; morduch, 2000). thus, measurement of sustainability level has been a serious problem that is not discussed. without understanding the sustainability level of microfinance institutions, it would not be significant to investigate the drivers which influence mfis sustainability. in the next section, we will discuss the various factors that are deemed important for mfis sustainability by previous researchers. sustainability normally taken as recovery of the full cost of mfi or generating sufficient profit to continue the operations of mfis without depending on external supports by donors and government subsidies (cgap, 2004). it is commonly used as financial aspects by researchers regarding financial sustainability only. financial sustainability was one of the key measurement variables for sustainability of microfinance institutions (ayayi & sene, 2010; basharat et al., 2015; m. w. rahman & luo, 2012; sekabira, 2013; tehulu, 2013). several studies have mentioned that https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 8 for an mfi to be sustainable, it should be financially self-sufficient (gibbons & meehan, 1999; kar, 2013; kinde, 2012; morduch, 1999). however, bhanot et al. (2015) mentioned that in reaching sustainability, financial sustainability is just one dimension. under ‘welfarist approach’, for an institution to be sustainable, the core function of mfis was to reach the maximum poor clients (hulme & mosley, 1996; kipesha & zhang, 2013; morduch, 2000; woller et al., 1999). mahajan and ramola (1996) measures the sustainability of mfis by using financial sustainability and outreach. they were concerned that increase in focus on financial sustainability may result in the shift in outreach. millson (2013) also measures sustainability regarding both financial sustainability and outreach to the poor. murdoch (2000) clearly discusses the winning proposition for sustainability of mfis if both costs of operation and maximum outreach to the poor people achieved without external support by donor’s funds or government subsidies. khandker and khalily (1996) discuss the sustainability of bangladesh rural advancement committee’s regarding financial viability, institutional sustainability and sustainability of targeted beneficiaries. in their study, financial viability approximates program's ability to recover its cost of operation from its revenues. institutional sustainability approximate mfis ability to continue its activities on a sustained basis and beneficiaries’ sustainability implies the positive impact of microfinance services on the growth of recipients and their ability to repay their loan within given time frame (khandker & khalily, 1996). the triangle of microfinance introduced by zeller and meyer (2002) also supports the above studies. according to zeller, successful microfinance institutions should be financially sustainable, have positive outreach to the poor and should be helpful in poverty alleviation. yaron (1992) also considers financial sustainability and outreach as a benchmark for sustainable mfis if subsidy dependence is zero. thus, sustainability of mfis can be measured using financial sustainability and outreach (annim, 2012; quayes, 2012; zeller & meyer, 2002). ruff and mahmood (2009) use six dimensions of outreach to approximate mfis performance. they used oss and fss to determine cost and length of outreach. under institutionalist view, kipesha and zhang (2013) found that outreach has a positive correlation with both profitability and sustainability measures. simultaneously, using welfarists approach, results do not show the tradeoff between outreach and sustainability. outreach and financial sustainability have an active relationship with mfis sustainability (louis et al., 2013). also, mfis can achieve sustainability if they increase outreach to target poor and achieve financial sustainability simultaneously (de crombrugghe et al., 2008). mfis, to remain sustainable, should use appropriate processes and structures to facilitate its customers and continue its operations without any interruption (rao, 2014). in the next section, we discuss financial sustainability and outreach to understand the sustainability of mfis. microfinance, the most successful and powerful weapon in the war of poverty alleviation (yunus & abed, 2004). the journey of microfinance program started as an alternative type of credit institution for rural populations who has no other option. small credit loan has been given to very poor group of people and involve them in micro-business which generate income. tho the uniqness of microfinance ideology is its dual objectives nature; (i) profit making and (ii) social (hartarska & nadolnyak, 2007). therefore an efficient microfinance institutions have to cover all administrative expenses, loan losses, financing capital and surplus for further expenses from operating income (profit making objective) and operational efficiency to reach the poorest (social objective) (thapa, 2007). consequently microfinance institutions attract its client through innovative approaches such as https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 9 progressive lending, group lending, collateral substitutes and regular repayment schedules (thapa, 2007). during 1990s the issue of financial viability focused for the first time by academic scholar and policy makers (robinson, 2001; tucker, 2001). since that number of research has been conducted, policies and strategies have been changed; issues have been taken under consideration of implementation. moreover till to date various research agreed on the extreme importance of financial viability of microfinance institutions for its long term operations in the market (cgap, 2003; robert cull, demirgüç-kunt, & morduch, 2009; begoña gutiérrez-nieto, serrano-cinca, & mar molinero, 2007; n. hermes et al., 2011; mix, 2005, 2008, 2009). number of issues has been identified for the increasing interest on efficiency and financial viability, alike the commercialization or transformation of mfis, competition among existing mfis, economic liberalization, government regulating policies and most importantly technological revolution in recent era (rhyne & otero, 2006). more than us $ 1 billion per year has received by mfis in donation from both govt. and private sector in last 20 years (cgap, 2005). however about 5% of global mfis found working efficiently without external subsidies conversely rest of them extremely depend on it to operate effectively (uncdf, 2005). these subsidies also provided in various form (i) direct (i.e. cash, donations) (ii) indirect (i.e. asset, soft-skill, training, technology). armendariz & morduch argued that beyond mentioned form there few more forms (i.e. tax holidays, loan guarantees, soft equity, or public goods) of subsidies also have practiced but this information might not place open to the data collector (b. armendariz & morduch, 2005). however in a previous study morduch identified this huge adjustment difference where he calculated the total direct and indirect subsidies of grameen bank for 1985-1996 was us$ 144 million while it was reported only us$ 1.5 million (morduch, 1999b). such comprehensive donor dependency of mfis has raised several arguments on sustainability and efficiency of mfis. hollis & sweetman addressed that financial sustainability of mfis is very important matter that should be examined keep mfis sustainable (hollis & sweetman, 1998). financial sustainability which is one of the objective of mfi defined as the ability to cover all operational cost with its generated revenue and also able to finance future growth from that (ayayi & sene, 2010). lack of these capabilities are some reasons why mfis that are strongly dependent on external subsidies generally less sustainable and efficient (rhyne, 1998). various study found number of active borrowers enhance the deposit scheme and internal cash flow, which brings financial sustainability in mfis. therefore, mfis should practice offering trasparent and competitive interest rates to allow their borrowers to enhance financial sustainability continuously (acclassato, 2008). sevaral previous studies explained that there are a significant relation between financial self-sufficiency and operating efficiency. although the prime tensions are subsidies undercut both efficiency and scale within the microfinance institution, and pervert the market by supporting more inefficient institutions (m. hudon & traca, 2011). in a different study found that smart subsidies enhance microfinance institution’s efficiency and help to develop better infrastructure (b. armendariz & morduch, 2005). however it is surprising that only limited studies have identified evidence of subsidies impact on the microfinance performance (m hudon, 2006) and (r. j. cull, demirgüç-kunt, & morduch, 2006). microfinance institutions are a special form of financial service provider, but it doesn’t mean that operational efficiency and sustainability are not important for them like traditional bank. however, assessment and measurement mechanism may vary from microfinance institutions compare to traditional financial institutions. production oriented nonhttps://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 10 government mfis have been revealed as the most efficienct from previous studies (begoña gutiérrez-nieto et al., 2007). acclassato in 2008 revealed that interest rate ceilings do not protect small businesses. in actual practice, interest rate ceilings damage microfinance institutions (acclassato, 2008). the findings also mentioned that microfinance institutions need to price loans in a realistic way to be sustainable and to reach a large number of clients. the study has recommended the promotion of transparency on interest rates to stimulate competition among mfis as a way of protecting borrowers. moreover, the financial sustainability of mfis is based on the capability to meet all costs on an adjusted basis and alludes to the use of the institution’s own available sources in operating without on-going subsidies from donors or losses (guntz, 2011). furthermore, a different examination by agbodjan on the results of the prudential regulations showed that the non-observance of some "prudential ratios" by mfis did not adversely affect their financial and organizational performance. moreover, in view of the very strong correlation between the sustainability and the profitability of these institutions, the recommended strategy should consist of the removal of the framing of lending rates to make these neighbourhood credit institutions more profitable (agbodjan, 2002). in addition, the cost efficiency of mfis is affected by average loan size, proportion of net assets, financial sufficiency, financial leverage, business experience, and proportion of farm loans (gregoire & ramírez tuya, 2006). in 2012, kinde showed that the financial sustainability of ethiopian mfis has been affected by the breadth and depth of outreach, dependency ratio, and cost per borrower. he has also concluded that during the study periods, the microfinance capital structure and staff productivity have insignificant effects on the financial sustainability of mfis in ethiopia (kinde, 2012). thapa (2007) showed that mfis is considered as financially self-contained if their operating incomes are able to sustain all loan losses, administrative costs, and financing costs after synthesizing inflation rates and subsidies from donors and treating all funding as if it had a commercial cost. the fss of mfis depends on the performance of the return on assets (roa) and return on equity (roe) (tucker & miles, 2004). the authors concluded that providing financial service to the poor is an expensive proposition, which can be a deterrent for numerous mfis to reach selfsufficiency, and may require them to acquire continued subsidies. the cost argument has an important flaw: client retention, which is a critical aspect of financial sustainability and a key measure of social influence, is significantly higher in rural markets (epstein & yuthas, 2013). the study suggested that by operating in rural markets, mfis may be able to increase both social influence and financial performance. however, in a different study, the authors asserted that mfis can significantly improve their financial sustainability and social influence by increasing the focus on trust (epstein & yuthas, 2011). without maximizing the loan size and increasing the cost of monitoring, the difficulties to meet expenses on partial unsecured and small loan can be covered. therefore to develop better financial situation mfis should improve the policy to standardize interest rate threshold or maximize the number of borrower per loan office based on collective delivery method (de crombrugghe et al., 2008). mfis operate primarily in nations with a relatively minimum degree of overall economic independence and where government intervention in the economy can reduce their sustainability (crabb, 2008). his observation has resolved the issue with regard to how remarkable is the economic environment in host countries where mfis operate as a factor in their ability to reach their goal. al atoom and abu zerr conducted three phases of analysis: taking four financial factors of financial sustainability, introducing the countries’ macroeconomic regime factors, and https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 11 integrating both microand macro-factors together. results showed that jordanian mfis have more financial sustainability than those of other arab and asian countries (al atoom & abu zerr, 2012). moreover, these mfis have less significant effect on the financial sustainability of the world's mfis. their study recommended that the government should improve the macroeconomic regime policies, financial policies, and monetary policies to help mfis achieve sustainability. this recommendation finds support in the observation that the country-level context is an important determinant of performance of microfinance institutions and a continues defects for the environment where it has pointed (ahlin, lin, & maio, 2011). profit margin, operational self-sufficiency (oss), roa, and gross loan portfolio-to-total asset ratio considerably affect the other components by establishing the financial sustainability dimension (anduanbessa, 2009). borrowers’ outreach is growing as evidenced by the opening of branches in almost all regions of tanzania; nevertheless, landing activities are still brought to around city areas (chijoriga, 2000). his study concluded that operational performance demonstrates less loan repayment rates. conversely, capital structure reveals a high dependence on donor or government subsidy. moreover financial sustainability increases through well mechanisms practice of external governance in microfinance institutions (b. s. bassem, 2009). the study also proposed that other factors, such as regulation and the use of the individual lending methodology, can lead to sustainability. interest rates, administrative efficiency, loan officer productivity, and staff salaries are significant determinants of fss, but staff productivity measures and institutional scale are unrelated to fss (g. woller & schreiner, 2002). the study found a statistically significant and positive relationship between fss and depth of outreach. however, earning profits is possible while serving the poor, but a trade-off emerges between profitability and serving the poorest (robert cull & morduch, 2007). they concluded that raising fees to extremely high levels does not ensure higher profitability, and the benefits of cost-cutting diminish when serving better-off customers. consultative group to assist the poor came up with the guideline for microfinance institutions on the financial terms’ definitions, ratios and adjustments in 2003 and other rating agencies, multinational banks, donors, ngos, private voluntary organizations etc. agreed on that guideline. the guidelines generally divided in four categories of financial ratios: (i) profitability/sustainability, (ii) liability/asset management, (iii) portfolio quality, and (iv) productivity/efficiency. the social performance and women empowerment of microfinance institutions the depth of outreach may be defined as the “poverty level of clients served by mfi” (rao, 2014; rauf & mahmood, 2009). the do narrates the line of poverty, or the extent poor does not have access to regulated financial institutions. the proxy for do is the average size of loan because other indicators of do are usually expensive to collect. in recently published studies, do was measured by average loan balance/size per borrower (bhanot et al., 2015; nanayakkara, 2012; okumu, 2007). according to mersland and strøm (2010), for an mfi, the risk associated with variation in the average size of the loan is unpredictable. results describe that when loan size is small, mfi will be more cost effective. as average loan size increases, it increases the average operational cost thus increasing the average profit of an mfi. however, kumar kar (2011) found that mfi should be careful in increasing the size of the loan as the risk associated with the loan also increases. thus, the optimal size of the loan should be decided carefully. the increase in loan size also enhances the possibility of loan default also increases and affects mfi profitability. mfis with smaller alpb usually reach a large number of poor clients which shows a better depth of https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 12 outreach. similarly, mfis whose alpb is large tend to reach less poor clients, thus resulting in a mission drift (kar, 2013). gashayie (2014) found that alpb and nab have no significant relationship with financial sustainability of mfis (kar & swain, 2014). however, several studies found that alpb has a negative correlation with mfi financial sustainability (hermes et al., 2011; louis & baesens, 2013; zerai & rani, 2012). however, paxton (2002) using subsidy dependence index (sdi) found that nab and alpb have a significant positive relation to mfis financial sustainability. quays (2012) also found that depth of outreach (do) have a significant positive relationship with mfi financial sustainability. several other studies also found that both alpb and mfis financial sustainability were positively related (daher & le saout, 2015; kar, 2013; kinde, 2012; nwachukwu, 2014). the breadth of outreach refers to “the scale of operations of an mfi” (rao, 2014). several studies have used number of active borrowers as a measure of the breadth of outreach (kinde, 2012; rai & rai, 2012; rauf & mahmood, 2009). results of louis and baesens (2013) show that oss, fss, and bo are positively related, whereas the do has a weaker impact on mfi profitability. similarly, rai and rai (2012) also found that breadth influence oss of mfi. some inconsistent results from different studies were found in the measurement for the breadth of outreach. limited studies measure bo is using a number of women borrowers (d’espallier et al., 2011; janda & turbat, 2013). according to d’espallier et al. (2011) and janda and turbat (2013) when mfi focus on female borrowers their performance regarding repayment increases. furthermore, those mfis in which female borrowers are more than male were less exposed to loan write-offs and their loan default ratio is low. however, ayayi and sene (2010) evaluated that female borrowers have no significant effect on the sustainability of mfis. the literature shows that sustainability of mfi is based on four measurement variables, including fss, oss, depth of outreach and breadth of outreach. researchers are facing problems in determining the consistent measurement for sustainability. in the next section, we discuss the issues in the measurement of sustainability of mfis. micofinance is the alternative approach of collateral free loan service provider to the poorest populations in rural area. traditional bank has ignored these populations because the lack of collateral and the weak legitimate practice will be unable to secure loan repayment if the client reneges on loan. the borrowing options therefore was shut down for the poor from traditional credit service provider and the circumstances lead to the contineus poverty and economic inequality. collateral free micro-credit loan service therefore received enthusiastic acceptance (beck, demirgüç-kunt, & levine, 2007). moreover the innovative approach of micro-lending to the social bottom line (reach out to the poor) and client’s involvement in profit genareting micro-enterprise ensure comparetively very high loan repayment (b. armendariz & morduch, 2005). nevertheless the high repayment of loans yet unable to make sure the profitability for microfinance institutions. therefore microfinance institutions still extensively depend on various local and international donors. as a result, the great debate on microfinance profitablity and sustainability yet to be solve (morduch, 1999b). in a different perspective there is a call for more commercialization of microfinance program to access the available large asset and finance their further operational expenses, thus greater number of poor populations will be served (ghosh & van tassel, 2008; morduch, 2000). once microfinance institutions able to reach their profitability from their own operations they can start borrowing from the commercial sector and reduce donor dependency. pursuing the profitability will increase the poorest populations in a loan which is the prime concern of microfinance program. https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 13 however the controversy arises here too on whom to serve (target group), and the level of poor people to serve (poverty level). navajas et al. argued that microfinance institutions lending credit to the households those are nearly to the poverty line, however most of them are the richest among the poor (navajas, schreiner, meyer, gonzalez-vega, & rodriguez-meza, 2000). there are some families whose income about to poerty line, on the other hand some living under lower subsistence frontier. few of them employed, few might involved in setting up micro-venture and others are unemployed. the very poor can realize the benefit of microfinance from its consumption smoothness (morduch, 1998; zeller & johannsen, 2006). sevaral studies also confirmed that competition in microfinance indudtry also effets outreach of microfinance institutions in different region (hartarska & nadolnyak, 2007; olivares-polanco, 2005). professor yunus invested his idea of micro-lending to the poor who are unserve by commercial bank because of their poverty in 1970s in bangladesh. the poor commonly considered as proper client for microfinance because they can involve in profit making venture and repay their interest for loan have taken (morduch, 2000). poverty and vulnerability create entrepreneurial spirit in the mind of poor people and influence them to change their destiny (junyon im & sun, 2014). but they need law enforcement to protect private properties; thus poor borrower will have incentives to genaret wealth and enrich prosperity (ding et al., 2014; peng, sun, pinkham, & chen, 2009). from the sustainability perspective, profitablity of microfinance institutions could be very close issue to the outreach of social bottom line as it will keep sustain the institutions to serve more client (muhammad yunus, 2007). conversly profit seeking for microfinance institutions also has negative impact on outreach as it increase operational cost to serve poorer populations (r. cull, demirgüç-kunt, & morduch, 2007; r. mersland & strøm, 2010). however a recent study propose a comprehensive model that include financial sustainability and outreach as endogenous variables and the results disclose that financial sustainability does not badly affect to the depth or breath of outreach (nurmakhanova et al., 2015). another examination has taken place by julia meyer (2015) where she analyze the interaction between social and financial returns in microfinance. a multivariate regression models has ran using 1,508 observations on microfinance institutions for the period of 2004 to 2010. the result found strong evidence that microfinance institutions can achieve higher portfolio yields from more social outreach (meyer, 2015b). shakil quayes (2015) has conducted a panel investigation on possible trade-off between outreach and performance using 764 microfinance institutions from 87 countries. the empirical results of this study revealed that financial performance of mfis can be boosted by the reach out to the poor (s. quayes, 2015). however both recent studies confirm microfinanc institutions can achieve better financial performance from their social outreach, however some market oriented strategies need to be applied. a study on savings and credit cooperative societies (saccos) of tanzania revealed that both product development and market development have significant contribution on outreach performance (jeje, 2014). however sometime this relationship of outreach and financial perfomance can be represent negative from the country contex. indeed a study has been taken place with an assumption that financial performance and outreach in ethionpian microfinance institions is not related. the hypothesis has tested with three outreach and two financial sustainabilty indicators based on 5 microfinance institutions. the study concluded with negative trade-off between financial performance and outreach in ethionpian microfinance institions (gashayie, 2014). schreiner proposed an outreach framework in 2002 where author mentioned there are six aspects of social benefits of microfinance program for its poor clients, such as (i) cost of outreach https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 14 to clients, (ii) worth of outreach to clients, (iii) depth of outreach, (iv) breath of outreach, (v) length of outreach and (vi) scope of outreach (schreiner, 2002). the costs of outreach to clients define the transaction costs and price costs charged to the clients of microfinance program. however the worth of outreach to clients entails the willingness of microfinance clients to pay. on the other hand, the depth of outreach represents the added value of active microfinance clients to the society. welfare theory claim that depth is the weight of a clients in the social welfare function, therefore weight depends on the preference of the society (schreiner, 2002). the most popular proxy for depth of outreach is average loan size. smaller average loan size proclaims that microfinance reaching out to the poorer clients, showing greater outreach depth. alternatively, indirect proxies of depth of outreach could be: (i) location, with rural areas preferred to urban areas; (ii) sex, with outreach to women preferred; (iii) ethnicity, minorities are preferred; (iv) education, less education is preferred; (v) access to public services, whereby a lack of access is preferred; and (vi) housing; with small and vulnerable houses preferred. conversely breath of outreach measured by the number of clients has been served by the microfinance institutions or the active number of borrowers. the future time frame or the duration of the supply of microfinance services refers to the length of outreach. and lastly, the number of microcredit products or services provided to the clients will represent the scope of outreach of microfinance institutions. a difference has been made between the achievement of social promise and the poverty alleviation of microfinance institutions by the standards report of the social performance task force (sptf, 2009). on the other hand zeller et al. argued that social performance measurement and social impact measurement is not the same. social performance measurement should concentrate to the reach out measurement of microfinance program, whereas social impact measurement is associated with the outreach to poverty, the development in welfare, and the enhancement of quality of life of poorer clients (zeller, lapenu, & greeley, 2003). conclusions and recommendations from the review of empirical evidence on the effect of microfinance institutional financial sustainability on social development and women empowerment in malaysia, the current study observed that the current literature in this field is scarce. most studies were based only on the descriptive presentation of microcredit programs. there are very few studies assessed the performance of the aim with respect to the social contribution as well women empowerment in malaysia and compared with international context. the summary of literature review revealed that it is the unique goal of mfis for poverty reduction mission through ensuring of financial sustainability while contribution impact in the society. it has also revealed that it is the way the social mission of poverty alleviation through serving the poorest has been overshadowed by profit motive. however, profit orientation of the microfinance industry also emphasis on profit earning. thus, some microfinance institutions rediscover their operating efficiency through earning profit while some chose to serve better-off clients with bigger loan to manage their various costs. the studies also concluded that trade-off between serving the prime mission of poverty relief through reach out to the social mission and women empowerment and seeking financial self-solvency through serving better-off clients. however, this study found that social mission and women empowerment achieved through financial performance is the going concern issues as of mfis performing better financial performance. this finding might put institutional investors in dilemma. however, if profit orientation of mfis overshadows their social objective, then dual mission might occur, but it’s yet to confirm through empirical studies. furthermore, some studies claimed that commercialization https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr american international journal of multidisciplinary scientific research vol. 9, no. 1; 2021 15 of microfinance institutions forces the interest rate increment to earn adequate profit to adhere shareholder demand. logically lower interest rate helps poor to manage their repayment. however, managing small loan in rural area is also a matter of high operating cost. some studies therefore indicated that institutions often serve better-off poor clients with the bigger loan size to minimize their operational cost in some region. but if microfinance institutions choose to serve wealthier clients that would be considered as social mission and women empowerment. therefore, microfinance institutions in around countries confined in both goals, but yet to unanswered through empirical studies. especially there are very limited studies found on about social mission and women empowerment achieved through financial performance in malaysia. thus, this study aims to identify the effects of the microfinance institution’s (mfis) financial sustainability on social development and women empowerment in malaysia and comparisons between the microfinance institutions (mfis) of the bangladesh. acknowledgement the authors gratefully acknowledged the financial support for this research from the fundamental research grant scheme (frgs) of project no. frgs/1/2018/ss01/unisel/02/2. references abeysekera, s., oguzoglu, u., & le, t. t. 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