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                             American International Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research; Vol. 4, No. 1; 2018 

ISSN 2638-1249  E-ISSN 2638-1273 

Impact Factor: 5.8 

Research Article                        Published by Centre for Research on Islamic Banking & Finance and Business 

 

22 
 

A Literature Review on the Separation of Chemical Compounds 
 

 

Nemah  Sahib  Mohammed Husien
1
, Rajaa  Abd Alameer Gafel

2
 & Noor  Dia  Jaffer

3 

 
1,2,3

Department of Chemistry, College of  Education for girls ,kufa univ,  Iraq 

 

 

Correspondence: Nemah  Sahib  Mohammed Husien, Department of Chemistry, College of  Education for girls 

,kufa univ,  Iraq 

 

To cite this article: Husien, N. S. M., Gafel, R. A. A., & Jaffer, N. D. (2018). A Literature Review on the 

Separation of Chemical Compounds. American International Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research, 4(1), 

22-31. Retrieved from https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/aijmsr/article/view/225 

 

 

Received: December 13, 2018         Accepted: December 20, 2018          Online Published: December 27, 2018 

 

       

Abstract 

This  literature  involved  explanation  about  separation organic  components  in  mixture such  as(chromatography 

,extraction ,filtration, centrifuge…) , principles of separation  , methods of separation ,types of separation , 

purification  of separated  compounds , conditions of separation , physical and chemical properties of  mixture. 

 

Keywords: Separation, Chemical, Compounds.  

 

Introduction 

The  separation of  chemical  compounds  depend  on  differences  in physical properties  , differences  in  melting  

or  boiling  point , structures  of  compounds , purity of  compounds  and  classes  of  chemical  compounds. All  

chemical  compounds  of  biochemical  interest  occur naturally  as components of   complex mixtures  from  which 

they can be  isolated   only  with  considerable  difficulty. 

Types of  Separation  

1- Separation   by  Chromatography  

Various  separation methods  are  based on chromatography, that is, separation of the  compounds   in  a mixture   

through  differences in the way they become distributed  between   different  phases. Liquid-solid chromatography  

was developed for the separation of  substances  which  is  colored ,for this  it  is  named  name chromatography, 

which stems from the Greek word (( chroma )) meaning color  and ((graphy)) because the method was used for the 

separation  and isolation found  in  aromatic  plants., which  described  in 1906  by Tswett. This  is a chemical  

method used for the  isolation  of mixtures  into  its parts ,purification of components and also to test the purity of 

components.  

The  chromatography  technique  depends  on the difference in the rates of the components  in  a mixture move  in  a 

porous medium  which  named  stationary phase but  moving  phase   is  solvent  or  gas  for  this  reason   this 

technique contain  from   two  phases (( a stationary phase of large surface area   and   second is a moving phase 

which is allowed to move  over  stationary phase )) . The stationary phase is either a solid or a liquid but the moving 

phase may be a liquid or a gas. Chromatography   depending on the nature of the stationary phase and the mobile 

phase, It is constant for a given substance (component) under a given set of conditions. Therefore, it is possible to 

identify the different compounds through estimation their values.In an extraction, the sample is one phase and we 

extract the analyte or the interferent into a second phase. We can isolate  and separate the components  and 

interferents by continuously passing one sample-free phase, named  the mobile phase, over a second sample-free 

phase that remains fixed or stationary. The sample is injected through the mobile phase and the sample’s 

components partition themselves between the stationary phase and the mobile phase. Those components with larger 

partition coefficients are more likely to move into the stationary phase, taking a longer time to pass through the 



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system. This is the basis of all chromatographic separations. Chromatography gives both a separation of components 

and interferents, and a means for performing a qualitative or quantitative analysis for the analytic. 

The most common phase pairs used in chromatography are a mobile liquid phase in contact with a solid phase. The 

liquid phase can be a pure liquid, such as water or an organic solvent, or it can be a solution, such as methyl alcohol, 

sodium chloride in water, or hexane in toluene. The solid phase can be a continuous material such as paper, or a 

fine-grained solid such as silica, powdered charcoal, or alumina. The fine-grained solid can also be applied to a 

supporting material, such as paper, plastic, or glass, to form a coat of continuous material. Alternatively, gas/liquid 

phase systems can consist of an inert gas, such as nitrogen or helium, in conjunction with a high-boiling point liquid 

polymer coated on the surface of a fine-grained inert material, such as firebrick. This system is called gas-liquid 

phase chromatography (GLPC), or simply gas chromatography (GC). In each system, both phases play a role in the 

separation by offering a physical or chemical characteristic that will result in differential distribution of the 

components of the analytical mixture being separated. Liquid-liquid phase systems are similar to gas-liquid phase 

systems in that one of the liquid phases is bound to an inert surface and remains stationary 

2-Adsorption Chromatography  

Adsorption chromatography partitions components of a mixture by means of their different adsorption 

characteristics onto the surface of a solid phase and their different solubilities in a liquid phase. Adsorption 

phenomena are primarily based on intermolecular interactions between the chemical components on the surface of 

the solid and the individual components of the mixture. They include van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole 

interactions, and hydrogen bonds. Silica is a useful adsorption medium because of the ability of its silyl OH groups 

to hydrogen bond or form dipole-dipole interactions with molecules in the mixture. These forces compete with 

similar intermolecular interactions   between the liquid phase and the components of the mixture    to produce the 

differential distribution of the components. This process causes separation to occur as the liquid phase passes over 

the solid phase. 

3-Separation by Extraction 

This method is used for the separation of an organic compound (solid or liquid) from its aqueous solution by shaking 

with a suitable solvent (e.g. ether, benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride etc.) in a separating funnel. The 

selected solvent should be immiscible with water but should dissolve the organic compound to an appreciable 

extent. 

 



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It is important to note that extraction is more efficient (i.e., more complete) when a given volume of the extracting 

solvent is used in several installments. 

 

 
 

In this technique, two liquids that do not dissolve very well in each other (immiscible liquids) can be separated by 

taking advantage of their unequal density. A mixture of oil and water, for example, can be separated by this 

technique 

3-Separation  by  Centrifuge: 

A centrifuge technique is used to  isolation and   separation  small amounts of a heterogeneous mixture ( for bio-

components). Test tubes containing the mixture are spun around very fast so that the solid gets flung to the bottom. 

The mixtures are spun horizontally in balanced containers, and the rotation sets up centripetal forces causing the 

mixture’s components to separate according to their densities. Separating blood a centrifuge is used to separate 

blood plasma from blood cells. As the test tubes spin, the heavier blood cells sink to the bottom. Centrifuges are 

useful in laboratories and on an industrial scale for separating solids from suspension in liquids. For example, in the 

food industry, a centrifuge is used to separate cream from milk or yeast from fermented malt. Usually when the 

heaviest particles have settled to the bottom, the top liquid is decanted or poured off the to separate the liquid layer 

from the bottom layer. 

4- Separation by Filtration  

This is a more common method of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid. An example of such a mixture is sand 

and water. Filtration is used in water treatment plants, where water from rivers is filtered to remove solid particles 

Filtration is any of various mechanical, physical or biological operations that separate solids from fluids 

(liquids or gases) by adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass. The fluid that passes through is called 

the filtrate.  In physical filters oversize solids in the fluid are retained and in biological filters particulates are trapped 

and ingested and metabolites are retained and removed. However, the separation is not complete; solids will be 

contaminated with some fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size, filter thickness and 

biological activity). Filtration occurs both in nature and in engineered systems; there are biological, geological, 

and industrial forms. For example, in animals (including humans), renal filtration removes wastes from 

the blood, and in water treatment and sewage treatment, undesirable constituents are removed by absorption into 

a biological film grown on or in the filter medium, as in slow sand filtration. Depending on the application, either 

one or both of the components may be isolated, and it is very important in chemistry for the separation of materials 

of different chemical composition. A solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the 

other. By dissolving the mixture in the chosen solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through the 

filter, while the other will be retained. This is one of the most important techniques used by chemists to purify 

compounds; it is important and widely used as one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. It may be 

simultaneously combined with other unit operations to process the feed stream, as in the bio filter, which is a 

combined filter and biological digestion device. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_physiology#Filtration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_waste
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_sand_filter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilter


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There are many different methods of filtration; all aim to attain the separation of substances. Separation is achieved 

by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter. The substance that is to 

pass through the filter must be a fluid, i.e. a liquid or gas. Techniques of filtration vary depending on the location of 

the targeted material, i.e. whether it is dissolved in the fluid phase or suspended as a solid. 

Hot Filtration, solution contained in the Erlenmeyer flask is heated on a hot plate in order to prevent re-

crystallization of solids in the flask itself. There are many filtration methods depend on the desired outcome namely, 

hot, cold and vacuum filtration. Some of the major purposes of getting the desired outcome are, for the removal of 

impurities from a mixture or, for the isolation of solids from a mixture. 

A- Separation  by  Hot  filtration: 

 This  separation   method  is used  to  separate  and  isolate solids components  from  a hot solution   to prevent 

crystal formation  in the  filtration  funnel and other  apparatuses which   comes in contact with the solution. As a 

result, the apparatus and the solution used are heated in order to prevent the rapid decrease in temperature which in 

turn, would lead to the crystallization of the solids in the funnel and hinder the filtration process.
 
 One of the most 

important measures to prevent the formation of crystals in the funnel and to undergo effective hot filtration is the use 

stemless  filtration  funnel. Because  the absence of stem in the filter funnel, there is a decrease in the surface area of 

contact between the solution and the stem of the filter funnel, hence preventing re-crystallization of solid in the 

funnel, adversely affecting filtration process. 

B- Separation   by  Cold Filtration : 

Method is the use of  ice bath in order to rapidly cool down the solution to be crystallized rather than leaving it out 

to cool it down slowly in the room temperature. This technique results  give  the formation of  crystals(very small) 

as opposed to getting large crystals by cooling the solution down at room temperature. 

 
 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_mixtures
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suction_filtration


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4- Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) 

Microwave energy to facilitate partition of component from the sample matrix into the solvent .Its radiation interacts 

with dipoles of polar and polarizable materials give heating near the surface of the materials and heat is transferred   

through conduction. Dipole rotation of the samples induced by microwave electromagnetic disrupts hydrogen 

bonding; enhancing the migration of dissolved ions and promotes solvent penetration into the matrix. In non-polar 

solvents, poor heating occurs as the energy is transferred by dielectric absorption only .Microwave-assisted 

extractions have replaced Soxhlet extractions in some applications.
 

The process is the same as that 

described earlier for a microwave digestion. After placing the sample and the solvent in a sealed digestion vessel, a 

microwave oven is used to heat the mixture. Using a sealed digestion vessel allows the extraction to take place at a 

higher temperature and pressure, reducing the amount of time needed for a quantitative extraction. In a Soxhlet 

extraction the temperature is limited through the  boiling point  of  solvent  at atmospheric pressure. When acetone is 

the solvent, for example, a Soxhlet extraction is limited to 56
o
C, but a microwave extraction can reach 150

o
C. Two 

other continuous extractions deserve mention. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can be quantitatively removed 

from liquid samples by a liquid–gas extraction. The purge gas removes the VOCs, which are swept to a primary trap 

where they collect on a solid absorbent. A second trap provides a means for checking to see if the primary trap’s 

capacity is exceeded. When the extraction is complete, the VOCs are removed from the primary trap by rapidly 

heating the tube while flushing with He. This technique is known as a purge-and-trap. Because the analyte’s 

recovery may not be reproducible, an internal standard is necessary for quantitative work. 

 

  
 

 

5- Continuous  Extractions 

The  extraction   by   this  method   of a solid sample is carried out  through  a Soxhlet extractor . The extracting  

solvent is  placed  in the  lower  reservoir and  heated to its boiling point. Solvent in the  vapor phase  moves 

upwards  through  the  tube on the far right side of the apparatus, reaching the condenser  where it condenses back to 

the liquid state. The solvent then passes through the sample, which is held in a porous cellulose filter thimble, 

collecting in the upper reservoir. When the solvent in the upper reservoir reaches  the return tube’s upper bend, the 

solvent and extracted  component   are siphoned back  to the  lower  reservoir. Over  time  the  component 

concentration  in the  lower reservoir increases. 

 

https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Analytical_Chemistry/Book%3A_Analytical_Chemistry_2.0_(Harvey)/07%3A_Collecting_and_Preparing_Samples/7.3%3A_Implementing_the_Sampling_Plan#Bringing_Solid_Samples_Into_Solution
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7-Separation  by  Precipitation  

Precipitation is separation  method occurs in two steps: first the tracer is separated through  coprecipitation with a 

carrier, after  that  it is  isolated  or separated from the carrier (Hermann and Suttle, 1961). Use of carriers that can be 

easily separated from the tracer is helpful, for this reason, coprecipitation  through inclusion is not generally used. 

Coprecipitation through surface adsorption on unspecific carriers  which  is the most common using . 

https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/12596/Figure7.24.jpg?revision=1


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8-Separation   by  Centrifuge( Bio  samples ) 

Separation  by  centrifuge  use  to  separation  of  bio samples  like  blood  and  contents  of  blood , plasma ,… 

through   rotation  of  samples  in  centrifuge. The components of a suspension can separate by centrifugation. The 

dispersed particles  and fractions of a suspension should be put in a special tube and placed into the rotor of the 

centrifuge. Then the tubes is subjected to centrifugal force, generated by the rotation of the centrifuge. 



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 Separation  of   Blood  Components , Blood  contain of  two types of cells: Red Blood Cells ((RBC-  erythrocytes) 

and White Blood Cells (WBC-  leucocytes )). Erythrocytes are the blood cells which distribute oxygen from the 

lungs to all the  organism, but  the leucocytes are responsible for attacking any infectious cells, sustaining the 

optimal performance of immune system. 

 
 

Principles  of  Separation  

A mixture of organic compounds may be in the solid or liquid form or may include a solid contents  or suspended 

in a liquid. If a solid contents  or a liquid contents  are present it is usually unwise to expect separation to be 

accomplished by filtration because the liquid phase almost certainly contains some dissolved solid and traces of 

the liquid component may be difficult to remove from the solid compound. The methods of isolating pure 

samples of the components from a mixture may be either physical or chemical. The chemical method consists of 

fractional distillation and is applicable only if there is a wide difference between the boiling points of the two 

compounds and provided that an azeo-trope is not formed. The chemical method of separating two  chemical 

compounds depends on their differing solubility in water, ether, dilute  base  or acid. 

 

 



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Mixed melting point 

The component, whose purity is to be tested, is mixed with a pure sample of the same compound. The melting point 

of the mixture is determined. If the melting point of the mixture is sharp and comes out to be the same as that of pure 

compound, it is sure that the compound under test is pure. On the other hand, if the melting point of the mixture is 

less than the melting point of the pure compound, the compound in question is not pure. A large number of methods 

are available for the  separation  of substances. The choice of method  depends  on the nature of components in 

samples ((solid or liquid)) and the type of impurities present in it.  

Purification  of  Compounds  after  Separation  

The separation  and  isolation  of  compounds   in  mixtures to give the  pure components is of great  practical 

importance in chemistry. Many  synthetic  reactions give mixtures of products and it is necessary for you to have a 

reasonably clear idea of how mixtures of compounds can be separated. Almost all compounds of biochemical 

interest occur naturally as components of very complex mixtures from which they can be separated only with 

considerable difficulty. 

The classical criteria for determining the purity of organic compounds are correct elemental compositions and 

sharpness of melting point or constancy of boiling point. Important though these analytical and physical criteria are, 

they can be misleading or even useless. For instance, the analytical criterion is of no help with possible mixtures of 

isomers because these mixtures have the same elemental composition 

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