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        American Journal of Agricultural Science, Engineering and Technology 
 

 
 

 ISSN: 2158-8104 (Online), 2164-0920 (Print), 2021, Vol. 5, Issue.2 
http://journals.e-palli.org 

 



        American Journal of Agricultural Science, Engineering and Technology 
 

 
 

 ISSN: 2158-8104 (Online), 2164-0920 (Print), 2021, Vol. 5, Issue.2 
http://journals.e-palli.org 

The American Journal of Agricultural Science, Engineering and Technology (AJASET) is 
blind peer reviewed international journal publishing articles that emphasize research, 
development and application within the fields of agricultural science, engineering and 
technology. The AJASET covers all areas of Agricultural Science, Engineering and 
Technology, publishing original research articles. The AJASET reviews article within 
approximately two weeks of submission and publishes accepted articles online immediately 
upon receiving the final versions.  

Published Media: ISSN: 2158-8104 (Online), 2164-0920 (Print).  

Frequency: 2 issues per year (January, July)  

Area of publication: Agricultural Science, Any Engineering and Technology related original 
and innovative works.  

EDITORIAL BOARD 

Chief Editor 

Dr Mamun-Or-Rashid 
Professor, Dhaka University, Bangladesh 

Board Members  

Dr. Sumit Garg, IL, USA 
Professor Dr. James J. Riley, The University of Arizona, USA 
Dr. Ekkehard KÜRSCHNER, Agriculture Development Consultant, Germany 
Professor Dr. Rodriguez Hilda, USA 
Professor Dr. Michael D. Whitt, USA 
Professor Dr. Wael Al-aghbari, Yemen 
Professor Dr. Muhammad Farhad Howladar, Bangladesh 
Dr. Clement Kiprotich Kiptum, University of Eldoret, Kenya 
Professor Dr M Shamim Kaiser, Professor, Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh 
Professor Dr Mohammad Shahadat Hossain, Chittagong University, Bangladesh 
Professor Dr. Nirmal Chandra Roy, Sylhet Agricultural University, Bangladesh 

Managing Editor 

Md. Roshidul Hasan 
Professor, Department of Computer Science and Information Technology,  
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Bangladesh



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URBANIZATION AND THE LOST OF RIVER ACTIVITY ON  
MALAY HUMAN SETTLEMENT 
Julaihi Wahid1 & Azli Abdullah2* 

 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5537202  
 

ABSTRACT 

Malaysia, as any other country, is constantly evolving in all facets of life, including 

architecture, economy, and culture. Despite that, the Malay settlement on the River's 

fringe remains an early settlement due to the Malays' strong connections to agriculture 

and socio-culture. The Malay's brilliance in establishing settlements on the river's 

fringe is among the leading reasons for this community's glorious history in the 

maritime world. However, today's shift in river activity has eroded the strong bond in 

Malay settlement. Therefore, affecting the Malay settlements, which have a significant 

impact on their economic growth. The research methodology employs previous 

researchers' exploratory techniques focusing on the effects of urbanization, as well as 

socioeconomic data from 350 local respondents collected during the field survey in 

April 2019, and observation analysis information commonly used by architects to 

evaluate the context of the discussion. These include physical, social, cultural, and 

public amenities, and the data gathered then was amalgamated using IBM SPSS V26, 

supplemented by interview techniques and pictorial documentation. Mapping 

techniques are being used to generate existing settlements patterns by utilizing the 

Google Earth software. Finally, AutoCAD 2018 software is used to demonstrate the 

current settlement pattern in the case study situation. According to the results of the 

study, the pace of urbanization is speeding up and creeping into the Malay settlements. 

The destruction of river activities encouraged in order to change Malay settlement 

patterns and force them to follow or reject the current trend of urbanization. 

 

Keywords: River Activity, Human Settlement, Kota Bharu 

1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, UNIMAS, Sarawak, Malaysia 
2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Ekistics, UMK, Bachok, Kelantan, 

Malaysia, *Corresponding autor: azli.ab@umk.edu.my 

 

 

 

 



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INTRODUCTION 

It is important to study the total range of human settlements from the most rudimentary to the 

most sophisticated in order to understand the villages, towns and cities that we live in. Our 

subject, the entire gamut of human settlements, is a highly complex system made up of five 

elements: nature, man, society, shells (that is, buildings), and networks. It is a complex 

system of natural, social, and man-made components that can be observed in various ways, 

including economic, social, political, technological, and cultural. As a consequence, we can 

grasp the widest possible viewpoint. In this article, the researcher attempts to demonstrate the 

necessity for, and the significance of, a vast expanse of knowledge that man is seeking to 

recapture and develop systematically through a few situations. Even if it is often viewed as 

technology and art, this discipline is a science without the scientific foundations - a mistake 

for which we have paid a high price. Since there is lacking presenting the entire case in a 

short article, several points were selected to demonstrate the truth of the initial statements and 

the practical relevance of the effort to investigate the influence of the loss of river activity on 

Malay humans settlements. 

A SHORT SYNOPSIS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT 

Human life is essential and not dependent in the broadest sense on human settlement. 

Settlements have existed following the advancement of social progression for as long as 

humans live. Traditionally, human settlements are considered exclusively concerned with 

physical characteristics. Generally, human settlement is the science of the surface of the 

earth. According to Doxiadis (1974) and Wu (2001), it is more than only static objects and 

physically built-up areas, which is a process and a system that has evolved from various 

perspectives such as geography, topography, growing populations, technological transition, 

changing conditions in the natural environment, and successive social, political, and cultural 

attributes. It includes all elements of human life on Earth The natural environment, as well as 

social, political, and cultural phenomena, influence on they exist. Human settlement is a 

subject of dynamic, metamorphic entities that cannot be grasped infractions. A wide range of 

subjects and methodologies involving geography, urban planning, and related disciplines is 

required in conducting human settlement research (Ma et al, 2016). Humans do not survive 

alone but are connected to other living things by ideas, feelings, or environmental elements 

(Seamon, 2018). It is necessary to evaluate its overall structure because it involves the link 

between the previously explained aspects. Doxiadis and co-founded (together with Jaqueline 

Tyrwhitt) an EKISTIC theory on human settlement. His hypothesis explored human 

settlement challenges by employing dynamic and evolutionary processes (Bromley, 2003). 



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According to Fookes (2000), Doxiadis (1962&1972), Mitarachi (1973), Alexander (1987), 

Gottman (1976), and Farizkha et al (2019), ekistics has amassed a multi-disciplinary body of 

knowledge from various disciplines such as science, methodology, or philosophy. However, 

ekistics is a science that naturally develops human understanding to maintain the expansion 

of human existence generally. This is due to the necessity for humans to deal with the future 

crisis is faced by modern civilization. Heywood (1969), Middleton (2009), and Silva (2019) 

described ekistics as a discipline that focuses on metamorphic processes and requires an 

analytical set of scales based on dynamic morphology. This demands investigation on the 

evolutionary nature of settlements and the natural stages of their expansion. 

THE PRINCIPLE OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT 

According to Mumford (1946), the evolution of the city starts with the development of the 

family. He further said that the village, which became the centre of human civilization, 

spread into the city. Then, it evolved into a town, a city, a metropolis, and a megapolis. In 

reality, no comprehensive overview of human settlement, beginning with the existence of 

village, town, and city until the entire fabricated system in life is investigated. This man-

made system was tightly linked to each human settlement depending on the location of the 

area. The history of human settlements represented human existence from the beginning of 

the early age to modern development. Human settlement is a complicated issue, and the 

elements are divided into five categories Doxiadis (1974): 

1. Nature: The whole environment as the foundation for the formation of the settlement 

and the functionality of the surrounding context 

2. Man / Anthropos: The inhabitant, as an individual 

3. Society: The interaction system between people 

4. Shell/ Buildings: The structures that shelter, people, their function and activities. 

5. Networks (road and telecommunications): Roads, water supply, sewerage system, 

electricity supply, facilities, communication facilities, economic policies, educational, 

legal, and political systems are examples of natural man-made systems that are used 

for settlement. 

The above-mentioned aspects evolved in response to the economic, social, political, 

technological, and cultural factors. The history of human settlement need to examine for 

understanding since the future is unpredictable and the current situation is too restricted to 

analyze (Sirakov, et.al 2010; Smith, 2014 & Doxiadis, 1974). The origins, ideas, and 

principles that humankind has been developing and evolving over the past two million years 

should be learned from human experience. 



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Do we have a comprehensive understanding of the history of human settlement? Doxiadis 

(1968, 1974, and 2005) had described their 40-year investigation of human settlement. The 

chronology and location of early human settlements shifted dramatically over time. Each new 

archaeological findings changed the history of all past human settlement discoveries. This 

complicates the history of human settlement (Papaioannou, 2005).  

THE EXISTENCE OF HUMAN SETTLEMENT 

We have no idea how long it will take to build a settlement. The type of settlement can be 

guessed from the structure's remnants. Individual shelters are the smallest, with mid-size for 

small families and large volumes for prominent families. These settlements were established 

in various ways through trial and error regardless of the limited experience and information 

gained from past mistakes. Christaller (1966) and (Brian & Chauncy, 1970), a Bavarian 

geographer and researcher, described this as the connection of acts, events, circumstances, 

and experiences triggered by persons or groups that comprise the building. Whether it is for 

living, working, pleasure, conducting business, or any other reason. In this circumstance, 

however, the building will support the lifeworld it shelters in connection to other lifeworlds 

and spatially intertwined with the environment (Seamon, 2018). 

THE RIVER'S IMPORTANCE 

The River is the fundamental source of human life as people have access to water sources to 

sustain their lives (Leakey & Lewin, 1979; Kuentzel & McDonald, 1992; Wohl et.al., 2015; 

Alam, 2021). Humans either stay nomadic or permanently in one place (Mumford, 1961). 

Therefore, the River not only serves as a source of water for a human settlement, but it is also 

the supply of food, transport, communication and cultural formation. The River is also the 

ground for a better experience in comparison with other locations (Mumford, 1961; 

Choomgrant & Sukharomana, 2017). Ibrahim et al (2018) said the majority of the existing 

settlements are located on the river banks. Most people in the area have significant 

socioeconomic activities in farming and fisheries (Adji Syahputra, 2018; Ismail& Hasan, 

2018). Furthermore, the traditional design of a house adapts to the wet soil, tropics and flood 

crises, alongside settlements in the arid landscapes. Therefore, the human settlement in many 

Asian countries started to establish along rivers. The Mekong River serves as the link 

between the various groups in places where tough areas form waterways (Mossop, 2018; 

Vadillo & Kallio, 2020). In the past, it has been considered easier than roadways. The variety 

of various ethnologies in language through the same linguistic family, similar lifestyles, 

established their settlement easily according to Hudson & Shaw (2003). This phenomenon 

occurred due to different beliefs and cultures in the River. Water is one of the four elements 



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of ancient cosmography, is considered fundamental to physical and organic life. According to 

Thaitakoo & McGrath (2008), the Chao Phraya River is also an important river system in 

Indochina since its basin defined the provinces of Central and Northern Thailand. The Upper 

Basin has rice fields and forests, while the Lower Chao Phraya River delta spreads across the 

urban agricultural market dominated by the orchards to the west, rice fields to the east, 

coastal shrimp farms, and lowlands fish farms. The geographical structure of the Chao Phraya 

River Basin influenced the architectural design and settlement as the natural environment 

determines the design. In Thai Environment and Culture, the "Good Old Days" of Siam 

(Wichiencharoen, 1993), which portrays Thai cultural patterns resembling nature, is 

remembered. Coastal communities are important in understanding the significance and 

impact of tradition in the daily lives of amphibious cultures. The community has been 

established to prevent and respond to annual high tide floods since predominantly populated 

along the River (Loucks , 2019; Panin, 1999). The traffic rafts and boathouses in the 

commercial zone were utilized as shophouses for convenient transportation and trading along 

the River. This practice has persisted since the era of Rattanakosin. Unfortunately, this Thai 

cultural utopia panorama has since vanished. The traditional patterns of the villages in 

Malaysia are classified into three groups, namely rural village, water village and a mix of the 

settlements, according to Hassan and Ku Hassan (2001). The geography of the riverside 

banks forms the basis for the land villages and the water villages. The land village is the 

village that first lines the bank of the River goes to the land, while the water village that 

began on the river develops gradually in front of the water. The local community's 

socioeconomic activities are fishing (Shari, 1992). The settlement pattern was shaped by the 

topography factors of the river basins and the development of Malay craftsmen. People build 

dwellings on a high-quality jetty or shelters to keep their houses by building a stable jetty 

throughout time. This village was called the water village (Zanuri et.al, 2020). There is also a 

bridge linking every dwelling in the village. The integrated pattern of the village is a mixture 

of two morphological forms that are hard to identify since the habitat exceeds the water and 

the surrounding area.  

THE PAST EXPERIENCE: THE RIVER OF LIFE 

There has been much discourse on the role and contribution in human life of rivers. His 

importance in the development and participation (Pula, 2019; Isa & Samsudin, 2020) and 

social life had been established for centuries. There are extremely dominating links between 

the location of the city and the River. The River and sea served as the main transport route 

before the arrival of the Colonial. Elephants may also be used for transport (Mohd Faiz, 



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2019). However, elephants are of very little interest, unlike in Thailand (Andaya & Andaya, 

1992). Human settlements such as villages were developed along the river banks and the 

seaside (Ibrahim, 2018). The River offers a wide range of advantages for natural 

transportation as the people use water as their domestic business. Through this, the 

community can benefit financially (Kuentzel & McDonald, 1992; Lamb, 2018). Rivers serve 

as important method of transportation, source of water and source of livelihood represented 

by the culture of life. The River is the people's choice to move inland to the island's egress 

(Mentayani, 2019). He referred to the villages along the banks of the River as a "station", 

where one village is connected to another. As in the Kelantan River, the lush delta was 

formed, and many agricultural activities were carried out. Kota Bharu city has fertile soil, is 

in good geographical condition due to the lush delta; the area has attracted the attention of 

locals, accommodating a large population, sustaining a dense population, and promoting 

urban growth. Now, with the pace of urbanization, the river is the only unnoticed natural 

heritage. Many rivers that flow through urban areas are polluted, eroded, and sedimented to 

the point of no longer be used for domestic purposes. This occurrence happened due to the 

formation of settlement concentration with a settlement pattern along the river banks, as 

mentioned by Saleh (1986). The River is important by providing for life, transport and 

mobility, economic, social, cultural and political interests and are beneficial for residents 

living on the riverbank. The river culture originated from the population concentration and its 

connection with the river. According to Wahid (1996), the houses stand on poles, all facing 

the River, using wooden sticks on each structure (bridges). However, currently, the city's 

rivers have now transformed for garbage and hazardous waste disposal. Consequently, this 

leads to the loss of a valuable natural endowment (Mohamad et al, 2005) 

THE MALAYS OPPORTUNITIES ON THE WATERWAYS 

The Malays are very skillful in making boats, allowing them to be ancient seafarers. The 

Malays could be in the advantage of using this skill as they could cruise globally and trade 

with countries abroad (Evers & Hornidge, 2007; Evers, 2017; Evers, 2013). They originally 

started operations in the coastal areas before expanding to a global enterprise. They also 

cooperate in West and East China with traders from India (Fahimudin , 2020). Malay traders 

also believed that since the early centuries AD, they came to southern China and Funan. This 

business was responsible for transforming this community from river fringe settlers to 

international traders. 

 

 



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THE DEMISE OF THE RIVER ACTIVITY AND MALAY CULTURE 

Early settlements in Malaysia were discovered near rivers and coastal lines like other 

settlements worldwide. These settlements were not confined to the topography and location 

of the river during the British colonial age. Today, there are many colonial cities in Malaysia, 

of which the majority have no connection or contact with the river. Rather, the city was 

designed based on its economic importance, including maritime trade, natural resources, 

import and export activities (Mohamad, Toriman, Aiyub & Jaafar, 2005). Roads and railways 

were established in the British economic centres under the Colonial administration of 1920 

mainly to exploit our natural resources. The major cities serve as hubs for agricultural 

resources with the roads connecting them. As a result, the development of towns in the area 

has been encouraged (Kiroh & De Silve, 2018). Finally, the River is no longer an important 

element in determining the location of cities. The phenomenon also arises in the post-

independence era. Private developers established new urbanization programs during the NEP 

that consider the River at the back of the houses. Almost all of the new towns are located far 

from the River. Due to the Industrial Revolution, the River was no longer the major 

transportation system. The city thrived and developed as a mining centre, collecting and 

distribution centre for rubber products. Later, George Town, Kuching, Kota Kinabalu, 

Taiping, Ipoh, Seremban and Kuantan, and the largest town of all Kuala Lumpur, became the 

capital city. After independence, all these major towns were connected to roads, and the 

towns expanded swiftly for economic and development purposes (Idrus et al, 2011). As a 

consequence, the River's role as a communication waterway is diminishing. The community's 

river connections are a future loss (Hartanto & Ruly, 2020; Wicaksono, 2018). After 

independence, the new metropolis included a new business centre and modern housing 

(Awang Besar et.al, 2012). According to Sendut (1962), the discovery of economic minerals, 

especially tin, was a major development in the late nineteenth century. As a result of this 

prosperity, traders established numerous mining centres, including Taiping, Ipoh, Kuala 

Lumpur, and Seremban (Sendut, 1962). It was planned following a modern plan that was 

only marginally compatible with the Chinese. Colonial City was established at the time to 

promote Chinese migrants' urbanization processes. The invaders are apprehensive about the 

Malays' potential to survive in the city. According to Ever (2016), most urban spaces in 

Malaysia were constructed by colonists to sustain urban areas considered appropriate 

exclusively for Chinese citizens. The character of Chinese 'closed space' differs significantly 

from that of Malay centrifugal space. The formation of the colonial city resulted through 

urbanization, was not based on their geographical, social, or religious characteristics. These 



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cities have the same character as colonial cities but differ slightly in their administration. The 

new settlement is unaffected by the river operations. However, some cities developed and 

remained near the River during the colonial era. The Chinese have adapted to the urban 

system because they've always treasured the entire city image and city life in their mental 

map (Ever, 2016). They can describe the city's morphology, emphasizing clear structures, 

borders, routes, and activities. The existing Malay settlements' development has shifted 

dramatically since then. Urbanization had significantly impacted on Malay settlements, even 

most residents are descendants of the original inhabitants,. Kuala Lumpur has evolved into a 

political, cultural, economic, industrial, and tourism centre resulted from mining operations. 

It is strategically located at the confluence of the Klang and Gombak rivers. Furthermore, the 

Klang and Damansara River segments run through Petaling Jaya, a planned new colonial 

metropolis before independence (Mohamad et al, 2005). 

 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

The Malay human settlement is strongly related to river activities. This paper employed a 

mixed-method commonly disbursed in social research technique with a combination of a case 

study and longitudinal analysis of the progress of urbanization in Malaysia and the 

development of literature from the human settlement theory and urbanization process in 

Malaysia. A case study of a Malay settlement at Kota Bharu helps to clarify the scenario of 

sequential detail of the finding due to the pace of urbanization to derive the suggestion and 

discussions. This area was selected as it is the oldest settlement in Kota Bharu and is rich in 

cultural and historical values. This area is the origins of metal works and wood crafts trades 

practice by the people that became the trademark of Kelantan. The primary data was obtained 

from the questionnaire conducted during the fieldwork in 2019 using a random sampling 

technique to distribute the questionnaire to the case study area. The direct and participant 

observation technique, visual analysis, and interviews were used to help to understand the 

surroundings and the cultural aspect of the locals, which were greatly influenced by the daily 

activities of the settlers. A total of 350 questionnaires were distributed by the researcher in 

the area through various endeavors: that is through face-to-face interview, groups meeting 

and research assistance from the villagers, which easily compromise access in the area. 

Although there are 89 questions in the form, only the variables related to the topic of this 

paper are extracted and discussed in the context of the related area. With the help of the 

Google Map, Drone Dji Mavic Mini 1, AutoCAD 2018 and longitudinal history of the area, 



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the researcher enabled to visualize the change of the settlement and cross-examined with the 

theory and interview from the respondents.  

 

THE MALAY SETTLEMENT IN KOTA BHARU, KELANTAN 

The existence of several settlement units became one of the important facets of Jalan Atas 

Paloh Village (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The name of the village is derived from the influence 

of a specific person or activity carried out here that portrayed the greatness of the Malay 

community. 

  

Figure 1: Malay settlement pattern in the research area (Source: Abdullah, 2021) 

It has been customary for people to name their village after a particular figure. Even though 

they have a few settlements, they inform every activity or the presence of a person in their 

neighborhood to the village. Menuang Village is one of the last remaining settlements. 

Traditionally, the majority of the residents in these settlements engaged in the copper 

industry, which produces pottery and other copper-based products, also includes the 

manufacturing of gold coins known as 'ufti' for trade with the Siamese Kingdom. 

  

Figure 2: The image of the study area (Source: Abdullah, 2021) 



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The same situation happens at Haji Harun Village, situated adjacent to Tok Semian Road. 

Tok Aki Haji Harun, a religious figure in the neighborhood, is responsible for the existence 

of this settlement. As a consequence, his name has been perpetuated as a village name to 

honour his leadership,. Haji Harun Village has long had kinship and strong brotherhood. The 

rest of the people that live here are connected to each other by blood. Tok Aki Haji Harun, 

the institution's founder, has invited his relatives to dwell near his family. It is believed that 

there were only three settlements at the beginning of this village. They even built small 

bridges, or 'titi,' in the kitchen area to link one settlement to another because of their close 

bond. The Council School (Sekolah Majlis), now known as the Muzium Majlis dan Adat 

Istiadat Agama Islam Kelantan, and the traditional religious institution in Kubang Pasu 

Village, are among the religious institutions and schools at Jalan Pos Office Lama (refer to 

Figure 1.0) that badly affected by urbanization. According to Doxiadis (1974), his global 

study shows that, while each town's physical land is diverse, the patterns of these towns will 

be the same as they spread and develop over the whole world. It's because of the relatively 

small size of the village. Nevertheless, due to their robust economies centered on cattle 

breeding and hunting, other areas, such as the River and the hills, would be more vulnerable 

to geographical stratification. According to McGee (1975), a community and a state are 

formed for three reasons. First, there has been a rise in population in the past and a shift from 

rural to urban settlements. The second reason is the increase in birth rates in comparison to 

death. The natural progression is unavoidable. The third reason is that the migration of people 

from rural to urban regions. They are important urban and economic drivers. 

 

THE MALAY SETTLEMENT'S TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 

Transportation is necessary to shift from one place to another. Boats were previously the 

main transportation since the Kelantan River is rich in various socioeconomic activities. 

However, during the Industrial Revolution, the Malay increased their usage of boats 

gradually. This finding is corroborated by Table 1, demonstrating that 208 respondents (59.4 

per cent) use cars to get around the city. Currently, a car is a necessary vehicle for a 

settlement owner. At the same time, 11 respondents (n = 3.1%) took a cab to the city. 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 1: Transportation to the city (n = 350) 

Item Frequency Percent 

Boat/ Perahu 5 1.4 

Car 208 59.4 

Taxi 11 3.1 

Motorcycle 113 32.3 

Bicycles 13 3.7 

Total 350 100.0 

(Source: Abdullah, 2021) 

This scenario showed that the people in the study area heavily rely on automobiles. Fast and 

safe from the climate become the primary reasons. Furthermore, this vehicle can carry a large 

number of passengers at once. According to observations, the majority of Malay residents 

owned an automobile. Cars are now considered a necessity for a house owner. It is no longer 

the same as it was before. At the same time, their socioeconomic situation remained 

unchanged. 

'...we drove to town because it was faster and easier.' There are many more vehicles on the 

road... (R-1). 

The city only provides them job opportunities. Meanwhile, the city's infrastructure is still in a 

poor state. Observations revealed that the roadways and parking lots in this area were 

likewise in bad condition. The majority of vehicles are parked on the side of the road, which 

affects others. This situation also showed that urban planning is now exclusively focused on 

transportation, human lifestyle, and industrial development. However, this does not apply to 

urban infrastructure. Although these settlements are in the city, they are not affected by the 

city's development since progress develops exclusively in the urban economic sector. As a 

result, their level of living remained constant. Their lives will be stressful and eventually 

impoverished in urban areas. 

'...with my current income, it is hard for me to live in the city. My salary is not particularly 

high. While the cost of living is always increasing... (R-2) 

This result is consistent with the findings of Wahid (2014), according to which metropolitan 

areas are regarded as a source of life for those with economic and educational capital. Other 

low-income groups are not affected in the same way. This group will be forced to remain 

involved in the urbanization process because the city is also the centre of urban poverty. 

Informal human settlement, such as formal squatting, generates spontaneous disturbance in 

the economy, environment, and human health. These phenomena have become commonplace 

in the developing world's urban living environment. As a reason, the image of a Malay 



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settlement gradually associated with a squatter settlement in the metropolis. The Industrial 

Revolution impacted transportation technologies such as railways, automobiles, and 

aeroplanes (Mohajan, 2019). These changes significantly affected human settlement, which 

resulted in the region's expansion, especially in the history of human settlement and 

population expansion (Doxiadis, 1974). Furthermore, some of these developments affected 

the Malays' water transport network obsolete. The loss of the transportation system impacted 

Malay expertise in manufacturing boats, economic opportunity, and, more importantly, the 

pattern and character of Malay settlements in the Malay settlements ecosystem. The River 

serves as the source of water and food and a mode of transportation, communication, and 

cultural formation for the Malay settlement (Figure 3). Life on the River is also the 

foundation for a better experience compared to other areas, according to (Mumford, 1961),. 

As a result, these changes decreased the chances of improving the lives of Malay people in 

the city, and no effort has been made to restore the function of the River as a source for 

Malay growth in the city. 

   

 

Figure 3: Kelantan River in 1907 (i) and the ceremonial boat in Kelantan (ii) (Source: 

Abdullah, 2021) 

THE CHANGE OF TRANSPORTATION 

Previously, the researcher emphasized the impact and contribution of rivers in the human 

experience. Traditional societies used it as a mode of water transportation. The relationship 

between the city and the River became one of the contributing factors to the emergence of 

Malay settlements. In contrast to cities, human settlements such as villages were established 

along rivers and coastlines due to the arrival of the colonials (Ibrahim, 2018). A River is also 



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a natural mode of transportation that offers a variety of attractions. Apart from exploiting 

Kelantan's wealth, the Colonials also built roadways after their arrival. Roads and 

automobiles are utilized to expedite the construction of new buildings, regardless of the 

socioeconomic impact of the Malays. Nowadays, the great majority of Malays have cars in 

their dwellings.  

Table 2: Vehicles that people own in study area (n = 350) 

Item Frequency Per cent 

Bicycle 36 10.3 

Motorcycle 98 28.0 

Car 211 60.3 

Others 5 1.4 

Total 350 100.0 

(Source: Abdullah, 2021) 

According to the results in Table 2, n = 211 (60.3 per cent) respondents owned a car. 

However, this does not imply that they are at ease in the settlement. These data also revealed 

that certain respondents still ride their bicycles regularly. A total of n = 36 (10.3 per cent) rely 

only on bicycles for mobility. According to observations, this group could not afford a car 

and would take a taxi for transportation. According to one respondent (R-33), he solely 

utilizes bicycles and motorbikes to travel around the city. He will take a taxi with his family 

for further travelling. This situation indicated that the impact of urbanization leads a group of 

the minority to fall further behind. Even though the city is known for providing opportunities, 

some people are nonetheless left behind. However, this group attempts to adapt due to their 

strong desire to live in the city. This result is corroborated by McGee's (1975) view that most 

migrants who migrate from rural to urban areas have an aspiration to adapt to urban life. 

These people continue to develop opportunities and a way of life depending on their 

circumstances while being behind technologically. 

On the other hand, the motivational push factor is a component for migrants. It is not the 

same as the situation of the residents, the vast majority of whom are locals. Residents here are 

no longer depending on motivational forces to get through a day due to the psychosocial 

stressors and the capacity to move on with the other's life. They were described to have few 

opportunities to migrate to other areas since this is a city settlement. 

It has a strong influence on the Malay settlement. Observations have previously shown that 

the emergence of settlement concentrations with settlement patterns originated along 

riverbanks. This is due to the significant geography and rivers effects. This finding is 



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corroborated by Saleh (1986), who believed that the River is significant to those who dwell 

on its banks to satisfy their needs and sustain their lives. Also, for their economic, social, 

cultural, and political and mobility. Finally, the settlement no longer has a linkage between 

nature and humans due to changes in the transportation system (Figure 4). 

  

 

Figure 4: The loss of river activity in Sungai Budor, Kota Bharu Kelantan.  
(Source: Abdullah, 2021) 

TRANSPORTATION'S IMPACT ON MALAY SETTLEMENT 

Automobiles are now considered a necessity. Previously, the Malay would use the boat as a 

mode of transportation. However, they no longer use it. The rapid pace of innovation has 

changed the community's lifestyle and put additional pressure on it. Traditionally, parking is 

not provided in the Malay settlements as they use boats that occupy no room in the settlement 

area. They anchored their boats in a nearby river. They are now confronted with challenges as 

a consequence of their dense population. Due to the congested environment, this settlement is 

unable to provide sufficient parking space. Due to the increasing number of cars, the area 

eventually became congested. Therefore, two effects were discovered in the settlement. The 

first is that the high-income group has a more comfortable settlement, adapting to 

urbanization. On the other hand, the poor people live in squatter settlements lacking adequate 

facilities and comfortable infrastructure. 

Table 3: Vehicle on the settlement (n=350) 

Number of cars in the house Number of motorcycles in the house 

Item Frequency Percent Frequency Percent 

1 216 61.7 208 59.4 

2 62 17.7 77 22.0 

3 26 7.4 12 3.4 

4 2 .6 5 1.4 

No 44 12.6 48 13.7 

Total 350 100.0 350 100.0 

(Source: Abdullah, 2021) 



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Table 3 shows that n = 216 respondents (61.7 percent) possessed one automobile for each 

settlement. At the same time, n = 22 respondents (12.6 per cent) claimed that they did not 

have an automobile. This scenario demonstrated that the Malay community in this area 

believes the automobile is necessary for daily life. Investigation showed that the number of 

automobiles was limited due to limited parking space (Figure 5). This result is supported by 

Table 4, demonstrating that only n = two respondents (0.6 per cent) own four automobiles in 

the settlement. Due to the obvious dense population, parking space seems to be a critical 

problem. This factor is considered as one of the reasons why each family has a relatively 

limited number of automobiles. Other factors, such as family economic factors, should also 

be considered. 

    

Figure 5: Limited parking in settlement areas (Source: Abdullah, 2021) 

The above-mentioned result is supported by Table 4, indicating that n = 140 respondents 

(40%) parked their automobiles outside the settlement compound. According to observations, 

this situation is problematic for the traffic system since most automobiles are parked on the 

side of the road. Due to the issue of dense settlement areas, parking spaces are in limited 

spaces for homeowners. In contrast, n = 70 responders (20.9%) have a car porch. 

Observations also revealed that most automobile porches were placed below the house 

because most settlements here were built with the silt on the ground. As a result, the house's 

ground floor is widely used for a variety of functions, including parking and a store. 

Table 4: Vehicle storage (n = 350) 

Item Frequency Per cent 

Car porch 73 20.9 

Under the house 137 39.1 

Outside the house compound 140 40.0 

Total 350 100.0 

During colonial rule in 1920, the British developed roads and railways to exploit our 

economic wealth. The roads connect rural and urban areas to improve the traffic on land. The 

construction of settlements began to concentrate along the roadways. This observation is 

substantiated by the findings of a study conducted by (Kiroh & De Silva, 2018). This 

scenario also prompted the development of cities near roadways. Therefore, colonial urban 

planning started causing problems in the Malay settlement. Rivers are no longer a significant 



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element in urban planning. This also happened during the post-independence era. Private 

developers introduced a new development design during the NEP that placed the river area on 

the backside of the house. The front porch is no longer a unique characteristic of Malay 

settlement. Almost new settlements are constructed away from the River. This has become a 

problem as the River was no longer the primary transportation route after the Industrial 

Revolution. Through observation, roads are now the primary mode of access in the study area 

as a result of Kota Bharu's colonialism planning. 

This discovery is corroborated by (Idrus et al, 2011), who argued that roadways connect all 

major cities, even though cities continued to grow after independence for economic and 

development goals. As a result, observations show that rivers as communication water 

channels are diminishing. The community's link to the rivers is a future loss. These data are 

compatible with previous research (Wicaksono, 2018), suggesting that rivers are no longer 

important for the community development component. Observations also revealed that the 

settlement is now being constructed and renovated with the porch of the settlement no longer 

facing the River. The settlement pattern transformed and is no longer the same as at the 

beginning of the settlement. The dwellings were constructed in line with the porch facing the 

River, according to (Wahid & Harman Shah, 1991). Now, all of those characteristics is 

started to disappear (Figure 6). 

   

 

Figure 6: River is no longer be used as a front porch in Malay settlements  

(Source: Abdullah, 2021) 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 

The existence of Malay settlements pertains to the potential to construct their unique 

ecosystem. They developed an autonomous community with their own cultural, economic, 

and political systems without depending on other ethnicities,. The Malay settlement reacted 

through ideas, ideology, ideas, and inspiration to the global consumers. They demonstrated 

that they could effectively adapt to their surroundings and form a community that strives for 

success in high quality of life. The destruction of the relationship between the environment 

and Malay settlements has created vulnerable ecosystems. This is due to the Malays' habit of 



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constructing settlements on the riverbank, demonstrating the relationship between nature and 

humans. The magnificence of the Malay settlements directly connected to the River and the 

Malay community and the settlements is expressed as a village in Malay urbanism. Malay 

urban living patterns are influenced by their needs and the manner of life of the community. 

This achievement is considered the lack of Colonial influence, law, and development 

regulation, which is a concept of the capitalist system. However, Malay settlement patterns 

gradually changed as the British introduced a new urban system. 

The River is the primary centre of Malay settlements. The Malay settlement can conserve 

energy because of its accessibility to the River,. Due to the sheer smaller range on their 

surroundings, it can speed up the process of basic survival. All of the critical parts for their 

sustenance were focused around the Malay settlement. However, urbanization gradually 

changed their culture and lifestyle, depending on the River,. The shifting activity of river life 

started to change their relationship. The Malays' lifestyle and culture were gradually 

influenced due to the loss of the character of the place.. The Malays' lifestyle gradually 

changed following the urbanization, causing them to fall behind in the economic sector. The 

Malay eventually accepted the modern economic sector, which drastically changed the 

lifestyle pattern throughout the century. This caused many river-related activities rapidly 

decreased. As a consequence of this scenario, the Malay identity, thought, and culture has 

been gradually disappeared. The rivers have been abandoned and no longer provide a 

significant benefit to the Malay settlement. These changes eventually forced the Malays to 

adapt their way of life and way of thinking in order to keep pace with urbanization. 

The Malay worldview has been affected by the process of urbanization, which the Malay take 

for granted or unconsciously. The Malay settlements that had been in existence for three 

generations (80 years) faced the consequences of urbanization, causing their lifestyles to 

change. River activity eventually fail to benefit the Malay to provide a reasonable settlement. 

Instead, they were forced to compete with other races to live a better life. They are not 

victorious because other races, especially the Chinese, have more urbanized experiences than 

the Malays. To recapitulate, the relationship between the River and Malay settlements has a 

significant effect on Malay settlement patterns. The Malay settlement is no longer concerned 

with the River's relationship, and the River is no longer a porch overlooking the River. This 

change is the consequence of the existence of roads that connect people. Meanwhile, the 

Malay community need to adapt their settlement in order to provide at least one area for 

vehicle parking. These changes increased the density of settlements. Every day, the number 



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of automobiles increases in tandem with the growing population. Meanwhile, the 

infrastructure system is in poor condition, whichnot portraying the image in the city. 

 

 

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