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 VOLUME Vol.05 Issue03 2025 

PAGE NO. 1-6 

 
 
 
 
 

Agronomic Approaches to Enhance Kiwifruit Calcium 

Content and Investigate Its Impact on Fruit Physiology 
 

Huang Tao 

Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Plant Cell Culture Research, School of Biological Engineering, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, 

China 

 

Chen Jun 

Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Plant Cell Culture Research, School of Biological Engineering, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian, 

China 

 

Received: 03 January 2025; Accepted: 02 February 2025; Published: 01 March 2025 

 

Abstract: Kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) is a highly nutritious fruit valued for its rich content of vitamins, antioxidants, 
and minerals, particularly calcium, which plays a crucial role in its physiological processes. Calcium influences 
several aspects of kiwifruit growth, quality, and shelf-life, yet the optimal strategies to manipulate its levels remain 
under exploration. This paper reviews agronomic strategies aimed at increasing kiwifruit calcium content, 
including soil amendments, foliar applications, rootstock selection, and the use of controlled environments. 
Through a detailed analysis of these strategies, we aim to better understand the relationship between calcium 
content and fruit physiology, including its impact on fruit firmness, ripening, and resistance to physiological 
disorders. The findings suggest that while calcium plays a key role in kiwifruit quality, effective agronomic 
interventions are essential for optimizing its levels and improving overall fruit production. Future research in this 
area will provide valuable insights for advancing sustainable and high-quality kiwifruit production.   

 

Keywords: Kiwifruit, calcium content, agronomic strategies, soil amendments, foliar applications, rootstock 
selection, calcium uptake, fruit quality, fruit physiology, calcium fertilization, postharvest quality, irrigation 
management, controlled environments, calcium-related disorders, kiwifruit production, sustainable agriculture, 
nutrient management, fruit firmness, shelf-life extension, plant nutrition, agricultural practices. 

 

Introduction: Kiwifruit is a climacteric fruit that has 
gained global popularity due to its unique flavor, 
texture, and health benefits. Among its nutritional 
attributes, calcium is a key mineral that influences 
various physiological processes in the plant, including 
cell wall structure, enzyme activity, and membrane 
stability. Calcium also contributes significantly to fruit 
quality by affecting the firmness, ripening, and 
storability of kiwifruit. However, despite its 
importance, the mechanisms by which calcium 
influences kiwifruit physiology remain complex and not 
fully understood. 

Agronomic practices can play a pivotal role in 
manipulating the calcium content in kiwifruit. Given the 
challenges in achieving consistent calcium levels, 
researchers and farmers have turned to a variety of 

agronomic strategies to optimize calcium uptake and 
distribution in kiwifruit vines. This review examines 
current strategies for increasing calcium content in 
kiwifruit, including soil fertilization techniques, foliar 
calcium applications, rootstock selection, and 
environmental management. By enhancing our 
understanding of how these practices influence 
calcium uptake and fruit quality, we aim to contribute 
to more sustainable and efficient kiwifruit production. 

Kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) is a widely cultivated fruit 
known for its unique taste, vibrant green color, and 
impressive nutritional profile, which includes high 
amounts of vitamin C, dietary fiber, and essential 
minerals. Among these minerals, calcium plays a 
particularly significant role in determining the fruit’s 
quality, firmness, and storage capabilities. While 
calcium is vital to the overall health of the kiwifruit 

 



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plant and its fruit development, the mechanisms by 
which it influences fruit physiology and its optimal 
levels in the fruit remain complex and somewhat poorly 
understood. 

Calcium is essential for plant cell function, especially in 
processes such as cell wall stability, membrane 
function, and signaling mechanisms involved in stress 
response. In kiwifruit, calcium is particularly important 
during the fruit ripening process, as it contributes to 
the structural integrity of cell walls, influencing fruit 
texture and firmness. A higher calcium content in the 
fruit is typically associated with better postharvest 
quality, including reduced susceptibility to 
physiological disorders such as internal breakdown, 
softening, and blossom-end rot, which can diminish 
marketability and shelf-life. Furthermore, adequate 
calcium levels can help reduce the occurrence of 
disorders that are particularly problematic in kiwifruit, 
such as “black spot” and “stone bruise” during handling 
and storage. 

Despite the clear importance of calcium, achieving 
optimal calcium content in kiwifruit has proven to be a 
challenging task for growers. Calcium uptake in plants 
is influenced by numerous factors, including soil pH, 
nutrient availability, rootstock, irrigation management, 
and environmental conditions. The root system of 
kiwifruit is highly sensitive to calcium availability, and 
imbalances in calcium levels can lead to poor fruit 
quality, compromised cell wall structure, and reduced 
resistance to disease. In many cases, soil-based calcium 
amendments may not be sufficient to meet the plant’s 
demands, leading researchers and farmers to explore 
supplementary methods for calcium application, such 
as foliar sprays and rootstock selection. 

In response to these challenges, agronomic strategies 
have been developed to manipulate and optimize the 
calcium content in kiwifruit. These strategies include 
the application of calcium-containing fertilizers 
through soil amendments, foliar calcium sprays, and 
the selection of specific rootstocks that enhance 
calcium uptake. Furthermore, the use of controlled-
environment agriculture, such as greenhouses and high 
tunnels, has gained interest as a means to create more 
consistent growing conditions that promote calcium 
absorption. Each of these strategies offers distinct 
advantages and limitations, which depend on the 
specific environmental and operational context of 
kiwifruit cultivation. 

This review aims to explore the role of calcium in 
kiwifruit physiology and the agronomic strategies 
currently employed to enhance its uptake and 
distribution. By synthesizing current research and 
examining the relationship between calcium content 

and fruit quality, the paper seeks to provide insights 
into how these strategies can be optimized to improve 
kiwifruit production. Understanding the intricacies of 
calcium’s role in kiwifruit will ultimately support 
sustainable farming practices and help growers 
produce high-quality fruit with improved shelf life, 
reducing postharvest losses and maximizing market 
value. 

METHODS 

This review paper draws upon existing research and 
case studies from various scientific publications, 
including peer-reviewed journal articles, conference 
proceedings, and agricultural reports. Sources were 
identified through academic databases such as Google 
Scholar, JSTOR, and ScienceDirect. The selected 
literature primarily focuses on the effects of calcium on 
kiwifruit physiology and the agronomic strategies used 
to enhance its content. A thematic analysis was 
employed to synthesize information on soil 
amendments, foliar calcium applications, rootstock 
selection, and controlled-environment management, 
allowing for a comprehensive understanding of each 
strategy’s effectiveness in enhancing calcium content 
in kiwifruit. 

Agronomic Strategies to Manipulate Kiwifruit Calcium 
Content 

1. Soil Amendments and Fertilization 

Soil calcium content is crucial for determining the 
amount of calcium available to kiwifruit vines. Calcium 
is generally absorbed by the roots in the form of 
calcium ions (Ca2+), and its availability depends on the 
soil’s pH, texture, and nutrient composition. Soil 
amendments such as calcium carbonate (lime), calcium 
sulfate, and gypsum are commonly used to increase soil 
calcium levels and improve the uptake of this essential 
nutrient. 

Research suggests that optimal calcium levels in the soil 
can lead to better fruit quality, including firmer texture 
and reduced incidence of disorders such as blossom-
end rot and internal breakdown. However, the effect of 
soil amendments can be influenced by factors such as 
soil type and the presence of other competing cations, 
which can limit calcium uptake. Additionally, overuse of 
certain fertilizers, like calcium nitrate, can lead to 
nutrient imbalances that affect plant health and fruit 
quality. 

2. Foliar Calcium Applications 

Foliar calcium sprays are widely used as an effective 
method to supplement calcium in kiwifruit plants, 
particularly when soil amendments alone do not yield 
the desired results. The application of calcium through 
the leaves ensures that the nutrient is directly available 



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to the plant tissues, bypassing soil-related constraints. 
Foliar applications can improve calcium levels in the 
fruit’s skin and pulp, thereby enhancing fruit firmness 
and storage life. 

Studies indicate that calcium chloride and calcium 
nitrate are the most commonly used calcium-based 
foliar fertilizers for kiwifruit. The timing, concentration, 
and frequency of foliar applications are critical factors 
in determining their effectiveness. It is generally 
recommended to apply calcium sprays during the fruit 
development phase and at key stages of ripening to 
maximize the calcium content in the fruit. However, 
excessive or poorly timed applications can cause leaf 
burn or other phytotoxic effects, making it important to 
carefully manage the dosage and timing of treatments. 

3. Rootstock Selection 

The selection of rootstock plays a pivotal role in 
regulating the calcium uptake and distribution within 
kiwifruit vines. Rootstocks vary in their ability to absorb 
and transport nutrients from the soil, including calcium, 
to the scion. Specific rootstocks have been shown to 
enhance the calcium content in the fruit, improving its 
texture and reducing susceptibility to calcium-related 
disorders. 

In addition to calcium uptake, rootstock choice can 
influence the plant’s overall growth and stress 
tolerance, further contributing to fruit quality. For 
example, studies have indicated that certain rootstocks 
may be more efficient in water and nutrient uptake, 
leading to better calcium availability during the fruit’s 
development. Selection of the appropriate rootstock 
can thus be an important agronomic strategy for 
improving kiwifruit calcium content. 

4. Controlled Environments and Irrigation 
Management 

Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, 
and water availability can influence calcium uptake and 
distribution in kiwifruit plants. Controlled-environment 
conditions, such as those in greenhouses or high-tunnel 
systems, can provide more consistent control over 
environmental variables and facilitate the optimization 
of calcium absorption. 

Irrigation practices also play a key role in managing 
calcium levels in kiwifruit. Over-irrigation can lead to 
leaching of nutrients from the soil, including calcium, 
while insufficient watering can cause water stress, 
limiting calcium transport within the plant. Researchers 
recommend implementing precision irrigation systems 
to ensure optimal water distribution and nutrient 
uptake, thus promoting better calcium assimilation. 

DISCUSSION 

Calcium is critical to kiwifruit quality, influencing both 

its structural properties and its resistance to 
physiological disorders. The strategies discussed in this 
review—soil amendments, foliar applications, 
rootstock selection, and environmental management—
offer viable approaches to increasing calcium content 
in kiwifruit, with varying degrees of success depending 
on the method and context. 

While soil amendments provide a foundation for 
calcium availability, foliar applications have proven to 
be particularly effective in boosting calcium levels in 
the fruit. However, a key challenge remains in 
balancing the application of calcium with other 
nutrients to prevent imbalances that can affect overall 
plant health. Rootstock selection presents an exciting 
avenue for improving calcium uptake, yet more 
research is needed to identify the rootstocks that best 
support calcium transport under different 
environmental conditions. 

The controlled environments and irrigation practices 
discussed in the paper emphasize the need for 
precision in managing both water and nutrients. As 
climate change introduces variability into agricultural 
practices, adopting such strategies may prove essential 
for maintaining stable and high-quality kiwifruit 
production. 

The relationship between calcium and fruit physiology 
in kiwifruit is complex, and future research should focus 
on refining these agronomic strategies. In particular, 
understanding the precise mechanisms by which 
calcium influences cell wall integrity, fruit ripening, and 
resistance to postharvest disorders will help to 
optimize calcium management in kiwifruit orchards. 

The role of calcium in kiwifruit physiology is 
multifaceted, influencing both the growth of the plant 
and the quality of the fruit. Calcium affects a wide range 
of cellular processes, such as cell wall integrity, enzyme 
activity, and membrane function. Understanding how 
to manipulate calcium content in kiwifruit through 
various agronomic strategies is critical for improving 
fruit quality, reducing physiological disorders, and 
extending shelf-life. However, despite its importance, 
managing calcium in kiwifruit cultivation presents 
several challenges. This section discusses the 
effectiveness of agronomic strategies to enhance 
calcium levels in kiwifruit, the limitations of each 
approach, and their broader implications for 
sustainable production. 

1. Soil Amendments and Fertilization: Enhancing 
Calcium Availability 

Soil amendments are often the first line of defense 
against calcium deficiency in kiwifruit cultivation. The 
application of lime, gypsum, and calcium sulfate to the 
soil has been shown to increase the calcium content 



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available for uptake by the plant roots. These 
amendments raise the calcium concentration in the soil 
and help mitigate deficiencies, particularly in acidic 
soils where calcium availability is naturally lower. The 
improvement in soil calcium is linked to increased 
firmness in the fruit, reduced susceptibility to disorders 
such as blossom-end rot, and an overall improvement 
in fruit texture. 

However, the effectiveness of soil amendments is 
contingent upon various soil conditions. For example, 
soils with high levels of magnesium or potassium can 
compete with calcium for absorption, reducing the 
amount of calcium available to the plant. Similarly, soil 
pH plays a significant role in calcium availability; soils 
that are too acidic or too alkaline may impair calcium 
uptake. Therefore, the success of soil amendment 
applications depends on careful soil testing and the 
precise application of fertilizers to maintain an optimal 
nutrient balance. Over-fertilizing can lead to nutrient 
imbalances that impact overall plant health, making it 
crucial to adopt a targeted and well-monitored 
approach to soil nutrient management. 

2. Foliar Calcium Applications: Precision in Calcium 
Delivery 

Foliar calcium sprays provide a direct method to deliver 
calcium to the plant, circumventing the limitations of 
soil-based calcium uptake. Foliar applications are 
particularly beneficial in situations where soil 
amendments fail to meet the plant’s calcium needs or 
when environmental factors hinder calcium absorption 
from the soil. By spraying calcium directly onto the 
leaves or fruit, growers can rapidly increase calcium 
concentrations in the plant, improving fruit firmness 
and reducing postharvest disorders. 

Research shows that foliar calcium applications can 
significantly enhance the calcium content in kiwifruit, 
particularly during critical growth phases, such as early 
fruit development and ripening. Calcium chloride and 
calcium nitrate are commonly used for foliar sprays, 
but their effectiveness depends on various factors, such 
as the concentration of the solution, the timing of 
application, and weather conditions. Foliar applications 
are most effective when applied during cooler, dry 
conditions to ensure better absorption and prevent the 
rapid evaporation of the calcium solution. 

Despite their advantages, foliar applications have 
limitations. Excessive application or high 
concentrations of calcium can lead to leaf burn or 
phytotoxicity. Moreover, the uptake of calcium 
through the leaves is not as efficient as through the 
roots, and the calcium absorbed may not always reach 
the fruit tissues in sufficient quantities. Additionally, 
foliar sprays may need to be repeated at several stages 

of fruit development to maintain effective calcium 
levels, which increases labor costs and can pose 
practical challenges for large-scale kiwifruit growers. 

3. Rootstock Selection: Enhancing Calcium Transport 
Through Genetic Variation 

Rootstock selection has garnered attention as a 
promising method to improve nutrient uptake, 
including calcium, in kiwifruit. The rootstock plays a 
vital role in the plant’s ability to absorb water and 
nutrients, and certain rootstocks have been shown to 
be more efficient at transporting calcium to the fruit. 
By selecting rootstocks that enhance calcium uptake, 
growers can significantly improve fruit quality, 
especially in soils with low calcium availability or in 
regions that experience adverse environmental 
conditions. 

Some studies have indicated that specific rootstocks, 
such as those from certain Actinidia species, have a 
greater capacity to absorb calcium, leading to higher 
calcium concentrations in the fruit and reduced 
physiological disorders like internal breakdown and 
softening. Rootstock selection can be especially 
valuable in areas where soil amendments or foliar 
applications alone may not be enough to maintain 
optimal calcium levels. Furthermore, rootstocks that 
promote better nutrient absorption can improve 
overall plant health and stress resilience, which can 
contribute to higher yields and better fruit quality. 

However, the success of rootstock selection is highly 
dependent on the compatibility of the rootstock with 
the scion (the fruit-bearing part of the plant). 
Additionally, rootstock selection may not offer 
immediate results, as it may take several growing 
seasons to observe the full impact on fruit quality. 
Furthermore, the genetic variability of rootstocks and 
scions necessitates careful selection and testing, as not 
all rootstock varieties will be equally effective in all 
environmental conditions. 

4. Environmental Management and Irrigation: 
Managing Water and Nutrient Distribution 

Environmental conditions and irrigation practices are 
key factors in the uptake of calcium by kiwifruit plants. 
The availability of water, temperature, and humidity 
levels directly influence the plant’s ability to absorb 
calcium and transport it throughout the tissues. 
Efficient irrigation management can help ensure that 
the plant receives adequate water and nutrients, 
preventing issues such as nutrient leaching or water 
stress that can reduce calcium uptake. 

Drip irrigation and precision irrigation systems have 
been shown to improve nutrient delivery to kiwifruit 
roots, minimizing water wastage and ensuring that 



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calcium is available in the root zone. These systems 
allow for precise control over water and nutrient 
distribution, which can optimize calcium uptake and 
improve fruit quality. However, the effectiveness of 
irrigation management depends on local 
environmental conditions and the specific needs of the 
kiwifruit plants. 

On the other hand, environmental conditions such as 
drought or excessive rainfall can disrupt nutrient 
uptake, leading to fluctuations in calcium levels. In dry 
conditions, water stress can hinder calcium transport to 
the fruit, while over-irrigation can cause nutrient 
leaching, including the loss of calcium from the soil. 
Controlled-environment agriculture, such as 
greenhouses or high tunnels, offers an opportunity to 
regulate environmental variables and create more 
consistent growing conditions, which can help optimize 
calcium uptake and improve fruit quality. However, 
these systems can be expensive to set up and may not 
be feasible for all growers, particularly in larger-scale 
commercial operations. 

5. Challenges in Calcium Management and Future 
Research Directions 

Despite the promising results from various agronomic 
strategies, several challenges persist in managing 
calcium content in kiwifruit. The variability in soil types, 
climate conditions, and growing practices makes it 
difficult to develop a one-size-fits-all solution for 
calcium management. Growers must consider multiple 
factors when choosing the most appropriate strategy 
for their specific growing environment, including soil 
composition, weather patterns, and the availability of 
resources. 

Moreover, the precise timing and integration of these 
strategies remain key to their success. For example, 
while foliar sprays can effectively boost calcium levels 
during specific growth stages, they must be applied at 
the right time and under optimal conditions to avoid 
toxicity. Similarly, rootstock selection, although 
beneficial, may not provide immediate results and 
requires careful monitoring over multiple seasons. In 
addition, soil amendments alone may not always be 
sufficient to meet the plant's calcium needs, 
particularly in soils with high nutrient competition or 
poor calcium availability. 

Future research should focus on further understanding 
the molecular mechanisms of calcium uptake and 
transport in kiwifruit. Identifying genes and pathways 
involved in calcium absorption could provide valuable 
insights into how to breed or engineer plants with 
improved calcium uptake capabilities. Additionally, 
research into the interaction between calcium and 
other nutrients, such as potassium, magnesium, and 

phosphorus, is essential for developing more 
comprehensive nutrient management practices. 
Furthermore, investigating the role of calcium in fruit 
quality and postharvest performance will help refine 
agronomic strategies for improving kiwifruit 
production. 

Calcium plays a fundamental role in the physiology of 
kiwifruit, influencing fruit quality, texture, and 
resistance to physiological disorders. Agronomic 
strategies such as soil amendments, foliar applications, 
rootstock selection, and environmental management 
offer promising approaches to enhance calcium uptake 
and improve fruit quality. However, the effectiveness 
of these strategies depends on various factors, 
including local environmental conditions, nutrient 
interactions, and the specific needs of the kiwifruit 
plants. By optimizing calcium management practices 
and continuing to explore new research directions, the 
kiwifruit industry can achieve more consistent, high-
quality production, reducing postharvest losses and 
enhancing the sustainability of the sector. 

CONCLUSION 

This review highlights the critical role of calcium in 
kiwifruit physiology and the various agronomic 
strategies available to manipulate its content. Soil 
amendments, foliar calcium applications, rootstock 
selection, and controlled-environment management all 
have potential to enhance calcium levels, improve fruit 
quality, and reduce the incidence of calcium-related 
disorders. As we continue to explore the complex 
relationship between calcium and fruit development, 
further research will be essential in refining these 
techniques to achieve sustainable and high-quality 
kiwifruit production. Through integrated approaches, 
the agricultural industry can optimize calcium 
utilization, leading to better fruit yield, quality, and 
postharvest performance. 

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