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American Journal of  Applied 
Statistics and Economics (AJASE)

Postgraduate Problems 1988 to 2000: ESE-IPN Case in Mexico
José Antonio Villalobos López1* 

Volume 1 Issue 1, Year 2022
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Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: August 15, 2022

Accepted: August 26, 2022

Published: October 02, 2022

This article is presented under the deductive method, in the hermeneutic paradigm, with a 
qualitative approach, of  interpretative type and narrative design of  topic. The Escuela Supe-
rior de Economía: Instituto Politécnico Nacional (ESE-IPN) - Higher School of  Economics 
of  the National Polytechnic Institute- offers a master’s and doctorate in economics, starting 
courses in January 1970 and February 1986 respectively. During the last years of  the last 
century, these postgraduate programs presented two complex problems: Too long time be-
tween the completion of  academic subjects and the achievement of  the professional license, 
and they were not recognized by the Programa Nacional de Posgrados de Calidad (PNPC) 
-National Quality Postgraduate Program. The first master’s degree card registration is kept 
until 1993 and the doctorate one is given in 2003, after completing the thesis and defense of  
the exam, taking up to fifteen years to obtain it. Regarding the degree of  excellence that the 
PNPC qualifies, the ESE-IPN doctorate obtained this recognition until 2010, eighteen years 
after the first register of  postgraduate excellence in the country was released, the master’s 
degree being in a similar situation.

Keywords

Doctoral Degree, Graduate 
Student, Master’s Degree, 
Public Documents

1 Instituto Politécnico Nacional: Escuela Superior de Economía, México
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: jvillalobosl7500@egresado.ipn.mx

INTRODUCTION
Postgraduate studies are considered the pinnacle and 
culmination of  the educational processes at the higher 
level, where the aim is to reinforce the training of  the 
professionals required by the country to link them 
with the productive sectors of  society, in aspects of  
science, technological development and innovation. 
The postgraduate program is potentially conceived as a 
series of  methodologies to serve as a basis for research 
work or for the specialization and professionalization 
of  human resources. Until the end of  the 1960s, 
postgraduate programs were scarce and insignificant in 
Mexico, depending on foreign universities for the training 
of  scientists and high-level professionals in the country. 
In 1970 there were only 13 institutions with graduate 
studies, with 226 programs offered and 4,088 graduate 
students (Arredondo, 1989).
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural 
Organization (UNESCO, 2019) uses an International 
Standard Classification of  Education to divide higher 
education into: a) Short-cycle tertiary education 
programs (level 5); b) The tertiary education degree or 
equivalent (level 6); c) Master’s degrees, specializations or 
equivalents (level 7); d) The doctorate level or equivalent 
(level 8). These levels of  higher education are recognized 
in Mexico:

> Level 5: Higher Technician or Professional Associate, 
requires 180 credits.

> Level 6: Bachelor’s Degree, which is recognized with 
300 credits.

> Level 7: Divided into: 1) Specialty, which requires 
45 credits additional to the bachelor’s degree; 2) Master’s 
degree, which requires 75 credits subsequent to the 
bachelor’s degree. The specialty is equivalent to 60% of  
the master’s degree, reaching the latter with 30 additional 

credits.
> Level 8: Doctorate, equivalent to 150 credits after the 

bachelor’s degree, or 75 credits after the master’s degree, 
or 105 credits more if  the specialty is taken as a starting 
point.
Until the end of  the last century, according to Reynaga 
Obregón (2012), there was confusion and disorder in the 
country among the three recognized postgraduate levels, 
mentioning that there was no consensus on the specific 
requirements for accrediting each of  them. Sometimes a 
specialization was more rigorous than a master’s degree, 
or this in turn could be more rigorous than a doctorate, 
depending on the institutions offering these postgraduate 
programs: “This has led to the fact that on a national 
scale we have specialties that are taught as master’s 
degrees, master’s degrees that give the appearance of  
being a re-medial process of  a bachelor’s degree, or that 
we sometimes accept international doctorates that could 
be studies equivalent to bachelor’s degrees”.
The work is presented under the deductive method, 
following a hermeneutic paradigm, based on the 
experience on the subject. The approach addressed in 
the article is qualitative, since descriptions of  specific 
situations are made, of  interpretative type and narrative 
design.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Registration and qualification of  postgraduate 
studies by educational authorities
For UNESCO (2019), specialization and master’s 
programs are oriented to develop research skills, are 
usually essentially theoretical and sometimes include 
practical training, while doctoral programs are oriented 
to advanced research, usually concluding with the 
presentation and defense of  a thesis, which must make a 

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Am. J. Appl. Stat. Econ.1(1) 1-10, 2022

significant contribution to a specific field of  knowledge.
It is considered that postgraduate studies began to 
be offered on a massive scale in the country in 1970. 
According to Alcántara Santuario & Canales Sánchez 
(2004) in 1969 there were 5,011 postgraduate students 
in the country, representing 2.6% of  the total number 
of  higher education students in the country, of  which 
1,677 were for specialties, 2,802 for master’s degrees 
and 532 for doctorates. By institution, these students 
were: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 
(UNAM) 3,055 (61%); Instituto Tecnológico y de 
Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) 698 (13.9%); 
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (UANL) 
408 (8.1%); Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) 294 
(5.9%); Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Avanzados 
(CINVESTAV-IPN) 121 (2.4%); Universidad Autónoma 
Chapingo 200 (4%). These six universities absorbed 
95.3% of  the students enrolled.
The total enrollment of  postgraduate students in 1970 
was 5,953 students, while in 1980 and 2000 there were 
25,502 and 118,090 students, respectively, according to 
ANUIES (Reynaga, 2002). This represents an exponential 
increase of  twenty times in the number of  graduate 
students registered in 30 years (from 1970 to 2000) 
or 4.6 times in 20 years (from 1980 to 2000). In 1970, 
postgraduate programs were offered by 13 institutions 
in the country, with 75% of  enrollment concentrated in 
the Federal District, where UNAM absorbed 56% of  the 
total, IPN 8%; the state of  Nuevo Leon was the next in 
postgraduate offerings with 20% of  the total, with UANL 
and ITESM standing out (Kent et al, 2001: 66).
Of  the country’s total graduate enrollment, Mexico 
City had 75.5% in 1970; 57.8% in 1980; 43.55% in 1990 
and 35% in 2000; where the remaining percentage was 
concentrated in universities in other states (Alcántara & 
Canales, 2004: 119). Thus, it can be seen that the Federal 
District absorbed 3 out of  every 4 graduate students in 
1970, but only 1 out of  every 3 students in 2000, despite 
the fact that three of  the five largest public universities in 
the country are concentrated in the capital: UNAM, IPN 
and  Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM).
The 1985 the Asociación Nacional de Universidades 
e Instituciones de Educación Superior (ANUIES) - 
National Association of  Universities and Institutions 
of  Higher Education- in Statistical Yearbook records a 
total of  37,040 graduate students, with 3% in agricultural 
sciences, 6.7% in natural and exact sciences, 29.5% 
in health sciences, 36.3% in social and administrative 
sciences, 10.2% in education and humanities, and 14.3% 
in engineering and technology. The same yearbook shows 
that the Federal District had 52.4% of  the students at 
this level.
The main problem of  postgraduate programs at the 
end of  the 1980s was the graduation of  the graduates, 
since the great majority of  people who studied them in 
the country did not manage to formally complete their 
academic degree, as Arredondo Galván (1989) would say 
in this regard: “There is, however, a great concern for 

the low terminal efficiency of  graduate programs...The 
concern is centered, above all, on the scarce graduates’ 
degrees, as well as on specifying the times for obtaining 
academic degrees... ”
The Integral Program for the Development of  Higher 
Education- was approved in 1986 by the general assembly 
of  the ANUIES, where a specific part was contemplated 
for postgraduate education (Mendoza, 1989). In 1988, 
the document Declarations and Contributions for 
Educational Modernization (ANUIES, 1990), with a 
section on postgraduate education that stated: “In recent 
years, postgraduate programs have undergone enormous 
growth and diversification. However, in many cases the 
conditions in which these programs are carried out do 
not guarantee a minimum of  quality”.
In the National Program for Educational Modernization 
1990-1994 (1990), the degree of  concentration of  
postgraduate programs was noted, especially in social and 
administrative areas, highlighting: a) during the last five 
years, the relative participation of  technological areas in 
postgraduate studies decreased; b) 50% of  the enrollment 
is located in the Federal District, 32% in five states and the 
remaining 18% in 23 other states; c) 81% of  researchers 
in the technological-logical area are concentrated in the 
metropolitan area of  the Federal District.
In 1991, the Consejo Nacional de Cienciay Tecnología 
(CONACYT)-National Council of  Science and 
Technology- implemented the Graduate Programs of  
Excellence, acquiring transcendental importance in its 
supervision of  graduate studies, giving them a boost and 
orientation towards research, reorienting the resources 
destined to the projects financed and above all to the 
scholarships granted to students.
When the Programa Nacional de Posgrados de Calidad 
(PNPC) -National Quality Postgraduate Program- was 
issued in 1991, only 424 postgraduate programs were 
approved, one fourth of  the postgraduate programs 
existing in the country. The requirements of  the PNPC 
are increasingly greater and by the year 2000 only 406 
graduate programs were registered, which means a drop 
of  18 programs in a decade (4.2% decrease). The number 
of  doctoral programs increased from 118 in 1991 to 151 
in 2000, with 33 more programs at this level in a decade 
(28% increase).

The case of  graduate programs at the ESE-IPN 
Graduate Section
On May 11, 1970, the ESE-IPN Graduate Section began 
its activities offering a master’s degree in science with a 
specialization in industrial economics. According to Dean 
Ruiz Suárez (IPN, 2012: 14) in that cycle 22 students 
enrolled, who had to apply for financing through the 
Banco de México -Bank of  Mexico-, since tuition was 
onerous for that time: $2,000 pesos. The dean of  the 
ESE-IPN reminds us that sometime later the master’s 
degree was sponsored by other governmental institutions, 
such as the Ministry of  Finance and Public Credit, the 
Ministry of  Industry and Commerce, and National 

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Financial. The $2,000 pesos of  tuition in 1970, after 
making some calculations using consumer price indexes 
(Aguirre, 2022), would be equivalent to $18,450 pesos in 
November 2021. 
According to the Gazette Polytechnic of  January 31, 1970 
(IPN, 1970), the master’s degree in industrial economics 
was the first postgraduate program in Latin America to 
be offered on this subject.
The ESE-IPN Graduate Section incorporated the Master 
of  Science with specialization in International Trade and 
Economic Development in 1973 and 1974 respectively, 
offering for the first time the PhD in Economic Sciences 
in February 1986. The specialty of  Financial Economics 
was offered until 1998, which eventually changed its 
name and now the specialty taught is Financial Risk 
Management.
In order to establish a general regulation for postgraduate 
studies, in 1965 the first Postgraduate Regulations were 
approved at the IPN. In 1981, a new Organic Law of  
the IPN came into force and on November 16, 1982, 
the General Advisory Council approved the second 
Regulation for Graduate Studies, while López Portillo 
was still President of  Mexico. In 1983, the Regulations 
for Graduate Studies were modified once again, as part of  
President Miguel de la Madrid’s Modernization Program 
(Tena, 2008).
In May 1991, a new Regulation of  Graduate Studies 
was approved, which was in force for fifteen years, and 
in 2006 substantial modifications were made to these 
graduate regulations (Ruiz et al, 2006: 43-44). Finally, on 
September 15, 2017, the new Regulations for Graduate 
Studies of  the IPN came into force.
The postgraduate programs offered in Mexico in the 
area of  social sciences and especially in the division or 
subject of  economics and development (related subject), 
according to Kent Serna et al (2001: 100) since 1980 were 
as follows:

o In 1980 there were 14 master’s programs dedicated 
to economic-development, representing 9% of  all social 
science programs; while in 1997 there were 58 programs 
(10.1% of  social sciences).

o In 1980 there were 2 doctoral programs dedicated to 
economic-development, representing 9.5% of  all social 
science doctoral programs; while in 1997 there were 8 
programs (15.4% of  the social sciences).

o In 1997, of  the total number of  programs offered in 
the area of  economics-development: 2% corresponded 
to specialties; 91.1% to master’s degrees; and 6.9% to 
doctorates. 
Of  the 14 master’s degree programs registered in the 
area of  economics-development in 1980, the ESE-IPN 
Graduate Section had a master’s degree in science with its 
three specialties: industrial economics, international trade 
and economic development. In 1980, the two doctoral 
programs that existed in this area corresponded to the 
economics program offered by the Faculty of  Economics 
(UNAM) since 1976 and the socio-economics, Statistics 
and Informatics program offered by the Postgraduates 

College since 1979. 
Until February 1986, the doctoral program in economic 
sciences was offered at the IPN, making it the third 
doctoral program in the economic area offered in the 
country. By 1997, eight doctoral programs in the area of  
economics and development were being offered.
Arredondo G. (1989) mentions that at the end of  the 
eighties, most postgraduate programs were located 
within the same academic and administrative structure 
of  the undergraduate schools or faculties, causing an 
almost inseparable inertia to be observed between the 
undergraduate and postgraduate programs, where the 
ways of  teaching and evaluating were so similar, not to 
say that they were completely the same, observing that 
professors in the same school cycle taught undergraduate 
and postgraduate courses.
García, J. (1995) agrees with this panorama, stating 
that the postgraduate sub-system was mixed with the 
undergraduate in academic-administrative procedures in 
several universities, for example, in some cases both levels 
of  higher education share a budget, as well as professors 
and physical space. It should be noted that there should 
be a level of  differentiation between undergraduate 
and graduate programs, where the latter should have a 
division, council or directorate to manage academic and 
administrative matters.
In this aspect, the then ESE-IPN Graduate Section 
(now Graduate Studies and Research Section) was so 
independent from the undergraduate area that at the 
beginning of  the 1980s, the semester in the Graduate 
Section began in the first days of  August, while the 
semester in the undergraduate area began in October 
(two months later), so that if  a student from the school 
itself  wanted to study a master’s degree, he had to wait 
four additional months to begin his studies.
Another point of  independence of  the bachelor’s and 
master’s degree areas at ESE-IPN was that bachelor’s 
degree graduates did not have an automatic pass to the 
master’s degree, but had to take the propaedeutic course 
just like applicants from other institutions, noting that the 
mathematics content in these courses was demanding, 
therefore, a little more than half  of  the students enrolled 
in the master’s program came from engineering areas 
or from foreign countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, 
Dominican Republic, Bolivia, Costa Rica), for which 
they were not as “severe” when it came to accrediting the 
propaedeutic course.
In reference to the fact that they could be the same 
professors for the bachelor’s and master’s degrees at ESE-
IPN, no undergraduate professors were found teaching 
graduate classes, nor were undergraduate professors who 
were graduate students, at least from 1983 to 1987.
Regarding the physical space, the ESE-IPN Graduate 
Section was located on the second floor of  the building, 
where almost no undergraduate students circulated and it 
felt as if  there was ‘a door’ when accessing the graduate 
part, where it had its own library, offices for student 
services, as well as its own auditorium and since 1986 it 

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had its own computer center. In addition, its classrooms 
were totally different from those of  the undergraduate 
part, where the professor sat in the center and the students 
in a half  circle in how many benches (15 per classroom). 
Before the end of  the eighties, a small annex building was 
built exclusively for the graduate area.
In the ESE-IPN Graduate Section, the highest body 
that made decisions on academic and technical aspects 
was the College of  Professors, where only the Head of  
the Section, the professors and students representing 
the three specialties of  the master’s program could 
participate. I never heard of  any pressure exerted by the 
school administration or any other educational authority.
Arredondo G. (1989) mentions that at UNAM the 
General Examination Regulations governed students 
from high school to postgraduate level, where it was 
established that class attendance was not compulsory for 
high school and undergraduate levels, since there were 
extraordinary exams (called at some time at the IPN 
“proficiency examination”), while at postgraduate level 
class attendance was compulsory, since there were no 
extraordinary exams to accredit the subjects at that level.
In this aspect, the same requirements were applied in 
the IPN graduate programs, since only ordinary subjects 
could be accredited, and if  the subject was not accredited, 
it would have to be taken again in another period. Also, 
the 1982 IPN Graduate Regulations established that the 
minimum passing grade for studies at that level was eight 
on a scale of  ten, stating that if  two different subjects 
were failed or the same subject twice, graduate students 
would be automatically dropped from the program.
In general, in 1986, some graduate courses continued 
to be taught by personnel with bachelor’s degrees, since 
there were no better qualified academics due to the 
growing number of  students registered in the graduate 
program; 15% of  the professors had bachelor’s degrees 
and were teaching in some graduate program (García, 
1995). It was also common for professors with master’s 
degrees to teach at the doctorate level, since there were 
not as many professors with the highest degree.
In the case mentioned, since the ESE-IPN Graduate 
Section worked independently, there was no case of  
a professor with a bachelor’s degree teaching at the 
postgraduate level. What I saw in the first generation of  
the doctoral program was that the subject of  Computer 
Science was so new at the beginning of  1986 that one of  
the graduates of  the master’s program (candidate) had to 
serve as a tutor for that course, since he was an expert in 
the subject and had dedicated himself  professionally to it.
Master’s and doctoral graduates who had completed all 
the credits of  the academic program, with the exception 
of  the thesis with its respective presentation of  the degree 
exam, were called candidates, where they used to put the 
initial ‘C’ after the academic degree, to denote that they 
did not have the respective title or degree. 
Ruiz Gutiérrez et al (2006) show that the educational 
institutions that offered the most doctorates in Mexico 
in 2000 and those that were classified as of  academic 

excellence in the PNPC were the following:
o UNAM: 32 programs, of  these 25 included in the 

PNPC (78%)
o UANL: 23 programs, of  which 5 were registered in 

the PNPC (22%).
o CINVESTAV (IPN): 22 programs, the only institution 

with 100% endorsed in the PNPC.
o Universidad de Guadalajara (UdeG): 20 programs, 9 

registered in the PNPC (45%).
o IPN: 18 programs, 8 registered in the PNPC (44%).
o UAM: 15 programs, 11 included in the PNPC (73%).
o College de México: 6 programs, 5 registered in the 

PNPC (83%).
As can be seen, the country’s top university (UNAM) 
had the largest number of  doctoral programs in 2000, 
with more than three quarters of  them having academic 
quality recognition. IPN’s CINVESTAV ranked second 
in doctorates offered in the country in that year, besides 
being the only institution that has all its doctorates 
recognized for excellence in the PNPC.
The IPN and the University of  Guadalajara (UdeG) have 
similar figures in terms of  doctoral programs offered, 
where both universities had less than 50% of  their 
doctorates in the PNCP excellence list. UAM also had 
about three quarters of  its doctoral programs recognized 
as high quality by CONACYT, which speaks of  the 
spirit of  teaching-research. It is also noteworthy that the 
College de México has five doctoral programs rated as 
excellent out of  the six it offered.
Adding the doctoral programs offered by CINVESTAV 
and the IPN would give the figure of  40 doctoral 
programs offered by both institutions in 2000, becoming 
the institution with the largest number of  doctoral 
programs, as well as 30 programs recognized as excellent 
by CONACYT, placing it in first place nationally.
The diagnoses made in the National Program for 
the Improvement of  Graduate Studies in 1988 by 
ANUIES and in the National Program for Educational 
Modernization 1990-1994 of  the SEP were carried out in 
an adequate and timely manner. The problem is that no 
transition period was contemplated between the programs 
offered and the new educational quality requirements, 
leaving a good part of  the postgraduate programs offered 
at the IPN in an impasse or trance, as was the case of  
the master’s degree programs in economics offered 
since 1970 and the new doctorate program in economics 
offered since 1986.
The problem of  the IPN’s postgraduate programs in 
economics was located in the registration before the 
Dirección General de Profesiones (DGP) -General 
Directorate of  Professions- of  the Secretaría de 
Educación Pública (SEP) –Ministry of  Public Education- 
and in the National Program of  Quality Postgraduate 
Programs (PNPC) of  CONACYT, in such a way that the 
postgraduate programs offered at the ESE-IPN remained 
in the ‘limbo’ of  recognition for a period of  time. In this 
undefined space, it was not possible to process degree 
certificates, nor was it possible to obtain financing or 

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scholarships. 
Casanova del Ángel (2006) shows that at the end of  the 
1980s, the educational authorities did not allow graduates 
of  the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería y Arquitectura 
(ESIA-IPN) –School of  Engineering and Architecture- 
to obtain masters and doctorate degree certificates: 
“At the end of  the 1980s, the General Directorate of  
Professions of  the Ministry of  Public Education, through 
the Department of  Educational Institutions, informed 
the Polytechnic Institute that it was not going to issue any 
graduate certificates to IPN graduates because most of  its 
master’s and doctoral programs were not duly registered”.
In this regard, Casanova (631-632) reminds us that the 
ESIA-IPN carried out several necessary procedures and 
on November 8, 1988, the SEP issued several addendum 
communiqués for the registration of  master’s degree 
programs (environmental engineering, architecture, soil 
mechanics and geology), later adding two more master’s 
degree programs.
Tena Núñez (2008) shows us that in 1991 the IPN 
Advisory Council approved the new Regulations for 
Postgraduate Studies and Research, where changes were 
introduced in the operation of  postgraduate sections, 
academic programs and teaching staff. Also, with the entry 
into force of  the CONACYT’s National Postgraduate 
Program of  Excellence, criteria for rigorous evaluation 
of  ESIA-Tecamachalco’s postgraduate programs would 
be incorporated, such as the following: 1) Adjustment of  
student records in school control, causing the opening 
of  an audit related to the purging of  files; 2) Repatriation 
program for IPN scholarship holders who were studying 
abroad; 3) Appointment of  10 new full-time positions 
for teachers who had completed master’s and doctoral 
studies, thus preventing professors without a master’s or 
doctoral degree from teaching courses in postgraduate 
programs.
Another factor that could have influenced the problems 
experienced by the IPN’s economics graduate programs 
could have been the application of  neoliberal policies that 
Salinas de Gortari had been promoting since he became 
president, where this current of  thought took complete 
control of  public power, including the field of  education, 
science and technology. In this sense, P. Bordieu and S. 
Khan (1986; 2012; cited by Garrido, 2017) express that 
universities are vital to understand the elite in power in a 
country, where they play a crucial role in the creation and 
distribution of  social, cultural and knowledge capital that 
the elites themselves need to emerge, survive or renew 
themselves.
On this subject, García Escalante (2008 quoted by 
Villalobos, 2021) believes that the Mexican government, 
during the last years of  the 1980s, adopted the American 
model of  postgraduate education, abandoning and 
rejecting centuries of  European tradition, where from 
that time onwards, the performance of  education began 
to be measured based on the number of  articles and 
books published, where the neoliberal model would also 
establish profitability in higher education institutions 

as a reward, the author adds: “During the government 
of  Salinas de Gortari (1988-1994) ‘the free market’ 
was introduced in Higher Education, which caused a 
proliferation of  private IES -Institutions of  Higher 
Education-. These centers of  education were given the 
generic term ‘university’ without having the necessary 
infrastructure, and without the universality that should 
distinguish universities from lyceum”.
In the diagnoses of  ANUIES and CONACYT, it was 
mentioned that in the 1980s, postgraduate degrees in 
engineering and physical sciences were in decline, so 
it was necessary to promote them through the State’s 
educational policies, since young people had opted 
to study postgraduate degrees in administrative and 
economic areas in order to improve their labor position 
or obtain higher salaries.
In this regard, Adalid, C. (2011) points out that the 
classification of  excellence was not very well received 
by some academics and researchers in the social and 
administrative sciences, where a large number of  programs 
in the natural and exact sciences were included, as well as 
a considerable increase in the number of  postgraduate 
programs offered in private institutions. Similarly, Padilla 
Tirado & Barrón Magaña (2013) indicate that programs 
in psychology, psychology, economics and education, 
among others, were punished by the authorities in terms 
of  funding and rating of  excellence. 
According to the standards of  quality postgraduate 
programs elaborated by CONACYT, Reyes García (2006) 
mentions that the IPN had these programs considered 
in this select list: in 1991: 21 master’s degrees and 6 
doctorates; in 2001: 15 master’s degrees and 10 doctorates; 
and in 2004: 13 master’s degrees and 6 doctorates. As can 
be seen, very few IPN programs had been considered of  
quality by CONACYT.
The worst happened 13 years after that first evaluation in 
1991, in 2004 the IPN only had thirteen master’s programs 
that were considered of  quality by CONACYT, which 
means that eight master’s programs lost that approbatory 
quality, which represented 38% of  the master’s programs 
approved in 1991; the number of  doctorates grew ten 
years later, but there were only six approved thirteen years 
later.
According to data from the PNPC (CONACYT; cited by 
Tinajero, 2005), the IPN in 2000 was not going through 
its best times in terms of  postgraduate quality, since it 
only had 4 consolidated master’s degrees (highest quality 
level), while it had 11 conditioned master’s degrees; in 
doctorates only 2 were considered consolidated and 5 
conditioned. Continuing with the same source, in the 
year 2000 there were only three doctoral programs in 
economics with excellent quality in the whole country, 
which were classified as emerging, so I can infer that this 
included the doctorate in economics offered by UNAM.
Muñoz García & Suárez Zozaya (2004) prepared a 
table with data from the 2000 Census, as well as data 
from ANUIES and CONACYT, where I highlight the 
following:

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o Total population of  the country 97’014,867, with 
graduate studies 388,397 inhabitants. This means that 
0.4% of  the country’s population had postgraduate 
studies.

o Academic personnel in higher education institutions 
192,406 teachers, with postgraduate degrees 55,570 
teachers, 28.9% of  whom had postgraduate degrees in 
2000.

o Students studying for doctorates 8,407 in 1999. 
Students with doctoral degrees 1,069 in 2000.
From this information we can see that out of  every 
thousand inhabitants of  the country, only four had access 
to postgraduate studies in the year 2000; we can also see 
that 3 out of  every 10 professors of  higher education 
institutions studied for a postgraduate degree. Doctoral 
students who obtained their degree and academic degree 
represent one eighth. From the information provided 
by Díaz de Cossío (2002; cited by de la Peña & Tello, 
2004) for the year 2000, I take it that 56 public or private 
universities in the country offer a degree in economics.
In February 2010, the Polytechnic Gazette (IPN, 2010) 
reported that 12 more postgraduate programs were 
recognized by the PNPC, bringing the IPN’s total to 66 
postgraduate programs registered in CONACYT’s list 
of  excellence, increasing its recognition by 22%. These 
postgraduate programs, together with CINVESTAV’s 
53, add up to 119 options registered in the national 
postgraduate studies excellence list, making IPN the 
second national university offering more postgraduate 
studies, behind the UNAM (National Autonomous 
University of  Mexico).
The IPN went from 25 graduate programs recognized 
in CONACYT’s PNPC in 2000 to 54 programs in 2009, 
the following year (2010) they reached 66, which shows a 
growth of  1.64 times in its quality graduate programs in a 
decade. IPN Postgraduate Director Trujillo Ferrara (IPN, 
2010: 5) informed that four units that offer postgraduate 
studies entered the PNPC for the first time, among them 
the ESE-IPN with its doctoral program. This shows that it 
took eighteen years for its doctoral program in economics 
to be recognized as being of  excellence by the PNPC. The 
most serious problem I see in the postgraduate programs 
offered during the last two decades of  the last century 
is the lack of  a degree or the complete completion of  
studies, with a large majority of  them being presented as 
candidates for the degree.
With information from the ANUIES Statistical 
Yearbooks, we can see that there were 3,033 graduates 
with doctoral degrees in the country in the 2010-2011 
school year, of  which 1,120 corresponded to degrees 
awarded at universities in Mexico City (36.9% of  the total). 
In the latest data available, for the 2020-2021 school year, 
ANUIES reports that 8,439 students graduated from the 
doctoral program in the country, of  which 2,098 did so in 
universities in Mexico City (24.9%). 
On an annual basis, the number of  doctoral degree 
graduates in Mexico almost tripled from 2000 to 2010, 
while the annual number of  2020 doctoral degree 

graduates grew six times in relation to the number of  
2010 graduates. It is also observed that the number of  
doctoral graduates in 2020 in Mexico City decreased by 
one third in relation to the number of  graduates in 2010.

Information on ESE-IPN postgraduate graduates
According to public information provided by the 
National Polytechnic Institute in its Repositories: Online 
Catalog (IPN, 2021) and information on professional 
licenses from BuhoLegal Monitoring of  Judicial Activity 
(2021), this information is derived from graduates of  the 
Graduate Studies and Research Section ESE-IPN:

> The first Master of  Science degree with a specialty 
in industrial economics was awarded to Héctor Allier C. 
in 1993, presenting the thesis ‘The exponential law as 
a statistical model of  survival in systems reliability’ in 
1992. H. Allier already appeared in the Master’s Degree 
Prospectus of  the Graduate Section (1981) as a candidate 
for the Master’s degree. This shows that the certificate 
issued by the General Directorate of  Professions of  the 
SEP took at least twelve years after the completion of  his 
studies to be granted.

> The second certificate for a master’s degree in science 
with a specialty in industrial economics was registered 
in 1996, to a student who had presented his thesis in 
1982, which meant that it took fourteen years to obtain 
the SEP certificate. The third master’s degree certificate 
was registered in 1999 and also corresponded to a thesis 
presented in 1982, which took 17 years to obtain the 
certificate.

> The fourth master’s degree that I recognized is that 
of  Socorro Sánchez I., of  the 1983 to 1985 generation, 
who completed her thesis and exam in 1993, obtaining 
her master’s degree in science with a specialty in economic 
development in 2001, which took her 8 years to obtain 
her certificate after completing her professional exam, 
obtaining her degree certificate 16 years after completing 
her studies.

> The fifth master’s degree was obtained in 2002, when 
the thesis had been presented in 2000. The sixth certificate 
was obtained in 2003 and corresponds to the first of  the 
Master of  Science with a specialization in international 
trade, having presented the thesis and degree exam in 
2001. From these experiences it only took two years to 
obtain the SEP’s degree certificates.

> As for the doctoral program, the first certificate 
registered corresponds to Marcos Portillo V., from the 
first 1986-1988 generation of  the doctoral program, who 
presented the thesis ‘Econometric model for agricultural 
technology adoption under ecologically restrictive 
conditions’ in 2000, obtaining the IPN doctoral degree in 
economics in 2003, obtaining his degree certificate fifteen 
years after completing the academic part.

> The second doctoral degree in economics identified 
was obtained in 2006, where the thesis work was presented 
in 2002, so the process took four years to obtain the 
degree certificate.

> The third identified doctoral degree in economics 

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was obtained in 2008, where the doctoral thesis was 
presented in 2007, so the process was normal and it only 
took one year to register the degree with the SEP.
With the same sources of  information, I will present 
information that could not be confirmed in obtaining a 
graduate certificate, but nevertheless presented thesis and 
degree exam at the ESE-IPN, so that the complexity of  
the regularization of  graduate studies at this school can 
be observed:

> In 1973 the first exam for a master’s degree in science 
with a specialty in industrial economics was presented, but 
no degree certificate was obtained. In 1977 and 1980, two 
graduates presented theses and took their master’s degree 
exams, but did not obtain their respective certificates.

> In 1981, a student from Colombia presented a thesis 
and took the examination for a master’s degree in science 
with a specialization in economic development. Foreign 
students cannot obtain a professional license in the 
country.

> In 1986, two foreign students (Dominican Republic 
and Ecuador) presented their thesis and took their 
master’s degree exams. In 1989 two foreign students 
(Ecuador and Peru) presented their master’s degree exam 
and thesis. The Peruvian student was able to legalize 
his papers in Mexico and the degree he obtained in 
that country is recognized with a Mexican professional 
certificate in 2002, while in 2004 he obtained a master’s 
degree certificate from the IPN.

> In 1990, two graduates presented thesis and degree 
exam, but neither obtained a degree certificate. In 
1992, three graduates presented a thesis and a master’s 
degree exam, but none of  them obtained a professional 
certificate. In 1993, another two graduates took their 
master’s degree exams and neither of  them obtained a 
professional license.

> The first doctoral examination in economics was 
given in 1991, very close to the date of  completion of  the 
first academic generation (1988), but there is no record of  
a degree certificate for this first graduate.

> In 1992, a foreigner (Dominican Republic) presented 
a thesis and took a doctoral degree exam in economics, 
not requiring a professional degree certificate. These first 
two graduates belonged to the first generation of  1986-
1988 doctoral graduates.

> In 1995 and 1996, two doctoral theses and exams 
were presented, in which neither of  the two graduates 
had a professional degree certificate.

> In 1999, another graduate from a foreign country 
presented a doctoral thesis and examination. In 2001 and 
2002, theses and degree exams were presented, where 
neither of  the two graduates has a professional degree 
certificate.
As can be seen from this information, the process of  
obtaining professional licenses for master’s degrees taken 
at the ESE-IPN took up to fifteen years, as I noted, it 
was not until 1993 that the first license was issued for 
the master’s degree in industrial economics. Although 
there was the will to completely close the end of  graduate 

studies, in those years there was confusion and extreme 
complexity for the final processing of  degrees and degree 
certificates. 
From 2002 onwards, the certificates for the master’s 
degrees taught at the ESE-IPN were processed regularly, 
so I can affirm that since that year the complex situation 
of  years of  delays experienced by the first graduates in 
previous years to obtain the much-prized degree certificate 
granted by the General Directorate of  Professions of  the 
SEP was unblocked. As of  2008, the complex and late 
processing of  the ESE-IPN’s PhD in Economics degree 
certificates became normal and it only took one year 
for a graduate to complete the process of  obtaining his 
degree certificate. Thus, from that year on, the chaotic 
and complex situation experienced by the first graduates 
of  the doctoral program came to an end.
In the research study carried out on the graduates of  
the doctorate in administrative sciences of  the Escuela 
Superior de Comercio y Administración (ESCA-IPN) - 
School of  Commerce and Administration-, conducted by 
Garduño Román & Ruiz Saúl (2003), it is pointed out 
that the problem and weakness of  many of  the doctoral 
programs is fundamentally the obtaining of  the degree, 
adding that by the beginning of  the century less than 
25% of  the students who enroll in a doctorate program 
complete their studies. 
In the reference study (Garduño & Ruiz, 2003) they 
found: a) Age: average age of  graduates 43.3 years; b) 
Average grades were 9.65; and c) Time to graduate after 
graduation: 0.86 years. This shows that ESCA’s doctoral 
graduates conclude their studies in a short time (one 
year), after completing the academic subjects, in contrast 
to what happened eight years earlier: “This is very 
encouraging for the tutorial model, since some figures 
found in 17 graduates of  different generations of  the 
school program, in force from 1965 to 1994, showed that 
the time to graduate after finishing the credits was between 
6 and 17 years, which broke with the time to obtain the 
degree established in Article 88 of  the Regulations of  
Postgraduate Studies of  the IPN”.
From the ESCA study, it can be seen that until 1994 they 
had problems due to the long time it took for graduates 
of  their doctoral program to obtain their degree, the 
same as those registered in the ESE, but the first school 
was able to solve them fifteen years earlier.
Currently, the master’s and doctoral programs at ESE-
IPN already have the degree of  excellence granted by the 
National Program for Quality Graduate Studies (PNPC). 
In this sense, I constructed a table with information issued 
by the Statistical Yearbooks of  the National Association 
of  Universities and Higher Education Institutions 
(ANUIES) for the 2010-2011, 2019-2020 and 2020-
2021 school years (the last year that has information). 
The specialty taught in the Graduate Studies ESE-IPN is 
Financial Risk Management.
The information presented shows that for the 2010-
2011 school year, the master’s and doctoral programs 
offered by ESE-IPN reached a total of  108 students, of  

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Table 9: Pattern of  communication change in the rural society
Cycle Postgraduate Total New Admission Who Terminated With Title
2010-2011 PhD. 34 14 11 5

Masters 74 22 24 20
Suma 108 36 35 25

2019-2020 PhD. 17 2 4 8
Masters 58 14 19 27
Speciality 21 8 7 4
Suma 96 24 30 39

2020-2021 PhD 16 0 7 5
Masters 55 16 20 19
Speciality 22 8 12 11
Suma 93 24 39 35

which 36 were new entrants and 35 graduates, achieving 
stability between new entrants and graduates; the master’s 
program had 20 graduates and the doctoral program had 
5 graduates.
For the 2019-2020 cycle, 96 students were enrolled in the 
postgraduate program, where it is observed that there 
are already students in the specialty, with a decrease of  
twelve students in relation to nine years ago. This year, 27 
master’s degree graduates are pre-sentenced, seven more 
than in 2011. At the doctoral level in 2019-2020, there 
was a drop of  17 students compared to nine years ago, 
with 8 doctoral graduates in that year, three more than 
in 2011. Where there is a sharp drop is in the number 
of  new students entering the doctoral program (2 vs. 14) 
compared to nine years ago, even before the COVID-19 
pandemic hit at its peak.
In the 2020-2021 cycle, 93 students are observed in 
the ESE-IPN postgraduate programs, dropping a total 
of  three students in relation to the previous year, with 
similar numbers for the three levels: specialty, masters and 
doctorate. The number of  specialty and master’s degree 
graduates is 28, compared to 31 the previous year. The 
number of  new specialty and master’s degree students is 
24, the same as the previous year.
At the doctoral level in the 2020-2021 cycle, there is one 
less student enrolled than in the previous year, a drop 
of  more than 50% compared to ten years earlier. The 
number of  Ph.D. graduates drops to 5, keeping the same 
number as ten years ago.  What would be of  concern is 
that there are no new students enrolled in the doctoral 
program in this last school year.

CONCLUSIONS
In the last fifteen years of  the last century there has been 
a substantial and exponential increase in the number of  
students enrolled in graduate programs throughout the 
country, particularly in Mexico City. Since 1984, it was 
sought that postgraduate programs be evaluated and 
qualified by national educational bodies. In 1991, the first 
evaluation of  CONACYT’s National Program of  Quality 
Postgraduate Programs took place, where only a quarter 
of  the postgraduate programs offered in the country 

could count on this qualification of  excellence, the IPN 
being one of  the most punished public universities in its 
qualification.
The master’s degree in science with a specialty in industrial 
economics, which opened in January 1970 at the ESE-
IPN, was the first master’s degree offered on this subject 
in Latin America. The doctorate in economics, which 
began in February 1986, was the third doctoral program 
in economics to be offered in the country, after the one 
offered by UNAM and the Graduate School.
In 1988, the first warnings were given of  how the 
qualifications of  the postgraduate programs would be 
from then on, when SEP educational authorities notified 
at least two IPN schools that their postgraduate programs 
were not duly registered, namely the ESIA and the ESE. 
With the arrival of  Salinas de Gortari to the presidency, 
the arrival of  the neoliberal current in the application of  
public policies in the country became evident, and was 
also felt in the field of  academia and higher education.
For graduates of  the ESE-IPN master’s program, the 
processing of  professional certificates was regularized 
until 2002, taking a year or a little longer to obtain this 
important document, after the presentation of  the thesis 
and the exam it entails, while doctoral certificates were 
regularized in 2008.
As for the degree of  excellence granted by CONACYT’s 
National Program of  Quality Postgraduate Programs 
(PNPC), the IPN’s PhD in Economics obtained this 
recognition in 2010, eighteen years after the first 
postgraduate degree of  excellence was issued. From 
the same Polytechnic Gazette that informs about the 
doctorate, it is inferred that the qualification of  excellence 
of  the IPN’s master’s degree in economics is also given 
in those years.

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