




































    

 American Journal of Arts and Communication 

Vol.10, Issue 4; July-August 2025; 

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A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS TECHNIQUES IN 

MANAGING ANTHROPOGENIC DISASTER CONTROL IN THE NIGER 

DELTA 
 

Alikor, Queen Nneka, Okon, Godwin Bassey (Ph.D), Amadi, Richard Nlemanya (Ph.D) 

and Dike, Harcourt Whyte (Ph.D) 

Department of Mass Communication, Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, Rivers State University, 

Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria 

Email: queen.alikor@ust.edu.ng/ okon.godwin@ust.edu.ng/ amadi.richard@ust.edu.ng/ 

harcourt.dike@ust.edu.ng 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16028557 

 

 

Abstract: This study was an examination of a critical assessment of public relations techniques in managing 

anthropogenic disaster control in the Niger Delta. The study was anchored on three theories; the systems theory, 

Environmental Justice Theory and stakeholders’ theory. The study adopted the survey research design. The 

population of the study comprised of two streams, first the public relations department of the selected 

multinational companies and secondly, the population of their host communities in the Niger Delta. The total 

population of the study for the first stream was 3,825,499. The population of the second stream was 25. A 

census and Taro Yamane Sampling size determination formula was used to arrive at sample size of 400 for the 

study. Purposive sampling technique and the proportionate sampling technique were used for the study, and the 

data obtained from the instruments were analyzed using the four-point Likert scale. Findings of the study 

showed that the three companies employed public relation techniques to address anthropogenic disasters in 

Niger Delta. Findings of the study further showed that the three multinational companies had best practices of 

public relations techniques with which they successfully engaged local communities’ remediation efforts in the 

Niger Delta. The conclusions drawn from the study revealed that not without certain challenges, the SPDC, 

Total Energies, and NAOC each implemented public relations techniques tailored to address anthropogenic 

disasters in the Niger Delta, demonstrating that PR was a core instrument in their environmental management 

frameworks. The companies consistently aligned their approaches with best practices in public relations, which 

facilitated meaningful engagement with host communities and enhanced the legitimacy of their remediation 

efforts. It was therefore recommended that oil companies in the Niger Delta should adopt more structured, 

transparent, and inclusive public relations techniques in the remediation of man-made disasters to ensure active 

participation and trust from host communities. The study also recommended that companies should align their 

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 American Journal of Arts and Communication 

Vol.10, Issue 4; July-August 2025; 

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Impact Factor: 7.94 

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public relations strategies with internationally recognized best practices, integrating proactive and reactive 

communication measures such as early warning systems, crisis preparedness, and rapid response mechanisms. 

Keywords: Critical Assessment, Public Relations, Techniques, Managing Anthropogenic, Disaster Control, 

Niger Delta 

Keywords: Public Relations, Anthropogenic Disasters, Niger Delta, Remediation Efforts, Stakeholder 

Engagement 

 

Introduction 

Over the years, multinationatfrdel companies operating in the Niger Delta Region have been facing one form of 

crisis or the other due to perceived inadequate attention in the remediation of anthropogenic disasters most 

especially with their host communities. This often leads to militancy, kidnapping of oil workers, vandalization 

of facilities. Thus, this has sometimes raised some question marks on the public relations crisis management 

strategies of the oil firms.  

The British Institute of Public Relations (BIPR) sees public relations as the deliberate, planned and sustained 

effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an organization and its publics. Hence, public 

relations is a process that must be deliberately planned, carefully implemented and assiduously monitored to 

achieve a given goal or objective, targeted mainly at building and sustaining mutual understanding between an 

organization and its publics (Onwaunali, 2006). Every organization has both internal and external publics with 

whom mutual understanding must be nurtured and maintained for the growth of the organization.  

According to Meintjes (2011) issues management in public relations practice is the proactive monitoring and 

resolving of simmering issues with negative potentials before they escalate into crisis. On the other hand, crisis 

management is the coordinated effort to handle effects of unfavourable publicity and ensuring fast and accurate 

communication in times of emergency especially during anthropogenic disasters. Furthermore, it involves the 

communication management function used to convey accurate facts and data to the general public and to 

specific publics during a crisis or disaster situation in order to minimize negative publicity that could adversely 

affect the success of the company (Fuchs, 2009). This involves identifying the type of disaster, planning a 

response to the disaster and confronting and remediating the disaster. 

In addition, the success and failure of multinational companies operating in the Niger Delta region such as Shell 

Petroleum Development Company (SPDC), Nigerian Agip Oil Company (NAOC) and Total Energies Nigeria 

Limited will be determined by the strategies employed by the company’s public relations department to address 

and redress reputation, issues, challenges, and disasters that arise in the course of their operations, that is, 

exploration, exploitation and distribution of petroleum and gas product (Nwosu & Uffor, 2005). According to 

Asemah, (2011), today’s business would have become very competitive; hence, to survive in this ever-changing 

business environment requires the recognition as well as acceptance of public relations crisis communication 

tools as vital weapon in the hands of all organization in all modern societies. The Mexican statement 1978 as 

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stated in Uduji (2012) must have borne disaster management in mind when it defined public relations practice 

as “the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counseling organization leaders 

and implementing planned programmes of actions which will serve both the company’s and the public interest.” 

In this very definition, analyzing trends, predicting their consequences and counseling company leaders entails 

proactive disaster management approach. 

According to Hazarika (2013) disaster is an incident or event with consequences which pose a significant thrits 

to the strategic objectives of the company or an organization. These include oil spillage, water pollution/soil, 

gas flaring, sooth pollution and other environmental degradations. Disaster management works to minimize all 

these and the consequent damage to a company’s reputation. At the same time, it tries to take advantage of any 

benefit that can be obtained from the disaster such as communication that occurs with response phase of 

emergency management method of a company (Hazarika, 2013). This is because all stages of oil exploitation 

negatively affect the environment and the gritsest single intractable problem caused by crude oil exploitation in 

the Niger Delta is oil spillage. 

In spite of all these, the manner and way in which these multinational companies, Shell Petroleum Development 

Company, Nigeria Agip Oil Company and Total Energies Nigeria Limited apply their public relations will 

either go a long way in reducing the problems faced by the companies as a result of inadequate attention given 

to remediation of anthropogenic disaster in the Niger Delta region or compound the woes of these companies. 

The Niger Delta region, rich in oil and natural resources, has suffered decades of environmental degradation and 

anthropogenic disasters due to oil exploration and extraction activities. Multinational corporations (MNCs) 

operating in the region have been criticized for their role in these disasters, sparking public outrage, protests, 

and litigation. Effective public relations (PR) techniques are crucial in addressing these issues, restoring 

stakeholder trust, and ensuring sustainable operations. The thrust however, is to appraise the use of public 

relation techniques in the remediation of anthropogenic disasters in Niger Delta State.  

Statement of the Problem 

The Niger Delta region of Nigeria, rich in biodiversity and natural resources, has been plagued by 

anthropogenic disasters primarily stemming from the activities of multinational corporations involved in oil 

exploration and extraction. These disasters, which include oil spills, gas flaring, and environmental degradation, 

have had devastating effects on the local communities, resulting in significant ecological damage, health issues, 

and socio-economic challenges. The repercussions of these disasters extend beyond the immediate environment, 

affecting the livelihoods and well-being of the communities that depend on these natural resources for their 

sustenance. The inability of traditional communication strategies to effectively address the challenges posed by 

these disasters necessitates an exploration of public relations techniques that can facilitate effective remediation 

and foster better community relations. 

Despite the presence of numerous multinational corporations operating in the Niger Delta, there seems to be 

noticeable gap in the understanding of how these companies employ public relations strategies to engage with 

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Vol.10, Issue 4; July-August 2025; 

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local communities affected by man-made environmental disasters. Existing literature on public relations and 

environmental communication often overlooks the specific dynamics at play in the Niger Delta, where distrust 

between local communities and multinational companies has reached alarming levels (Emenike, 2018). This 

disconnect has resulted in a lack of effective communication and engagement strategies that could potentially 

mitigate the impact of anthropogenic disasters and enhance corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives.  

This study therefore sought to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by exploring the intersection of 

public relations and environmental management in the context of anthropogenic disasters in the Niger Delta. 

Objectives of the Study 

1.  Find out the public relations techniques often adopted by the oil companies under review in the 

remediation of man-made disasters in their areas of operations; 

2.  ascertain if the public relations techniques are in line with conventional practice by way of being 

proactive and reactive; and 

3.  Appraise how well the public relations techniques have served the companies under review by way of 

goal accomplishment. 

Public Relations 

Wilcox and Cameron (2009:p.5) explain that folks often define public relations by a number of its visible 

techniques and tactics, like publicity during a newspaper, a television interview with an organization’s 

spokesperson, or the looks of a star at a special event. What people fail to know is that a public relations may be 

a process involving many subtle and far-reaching aspects. Public relations include research and analysis, policy 

formation, programming, communication, and feedback from numerous publics. Its practitioners operate two 

distinct levels as advisers to their clients or to an organization’s top management and as technicians who 

produce and disseminate messages in multiple media channels.  

Public relations is therefore, a particular management function which helps establish and maintain mutual lines 

of communication, understanding, acceptance, and cooperation between an organization and its publics; 

involves the management of and the way it relates to the study. Emphasis is placed on the concept, role, 

functions, the positioning of public relations within the hierarchy of a corporation and an in-depth discussion on 

how public relations differs from marketing. 

Defining public has been, for academics and professionals alike, a difficult obstacle to bits. The matter is not in 

knowing what it is that public relations does, or hopes to accomplish, but rather breaking it right down to an 

easy, easily understood definition. One amongst the challenges lies within the incontrovertible fact that public 

relations is practiced in many various sorts of organizations, and focuses on many various stakeholders, and 

sometimes to the dismay of writers of textbooks, it is difficult to parse all of these areas into an easy definition. 

Texts public relations centers on different areas. Each generally will mention a minimum of several of the 

following: investor relations, community relations, employee relations, various practices and tactics public 

relations focused on educational institutions, corporations, agencies, hospitals, not-for-profits, entertainment, 

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religious institutions, and an assortment of other areas counting on the interests or expertise of the authors 

(Adams, 1965; Cutup, Center & Broom, 1994; Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman. Toth & Van, 2004; Lesly, 1950; 

Seitel, 2007; Stephenson, 1960; Wilcox, Cameron, Ault & Agee, 2003). The commonly mentioned tactics, 

strategies and general principles of practice in each of those areas often includes the design of special events, 

developing relationships with targeted audiences, doing research and evaluation, strategic planning and 

analyzing audiences, composing speeches and using other internal communication vehicles. However, one thing 

that is common across all texts public relations is a thorough discussion of media relations (Turk & Snedeker, 

1986). 

Though seemingly as challenging as it is to define as public relations can generally be viewed as the 

relationship between the uncontrolled mass media and public relations practitioners (Kendall, 1996). Media 

relations are often seen as the systematic (Kendall, 1996), planned (Lesly, 1991), purposeful (Miller, 1984) and 

mutually beneficially relationship (Guth & Marsh, 2003) between journalists within the mass media and public 

relations practitioners. Its goal is to determine trust, understanding and respect between the two groups 

(Lattimore et al., 2004). Fetig (2004), a media relations practitioner, sums up the relationships. 

Public Relations Techniques 

The following are examples of common PR tactics you can use to gain a competitive advantage: 

a. Press release: Press releases are a conventional PR tactic that organizations use to make announcements 

about their activities, such as a new product launch or merger. A press release is essentially a detailed news 

article. It consists of an intriguing story angle to entice journalists to write and talk about your brand. Agencies 

and professionals in the field usually have a list of media contacts they can share a press release with. 

b. Press conferences: Larger companies whose actions make a sizable shift in the market or are of 

substantial interest to customers hold press conferences to discuss their decisions and goals. Press conferences 

are a media event that allows journalists to ask important questions. It's an effective PR tactic to show 

transparency and disseminate information quickly. 

c. Events: From small trade shows to large launch parties, events are a dynamic PR tactic to connect with 

customers and potential partners in person. Events also generate buzz with their influential attendees and 

exciting photo opportunities. They capture marketable moments that you can share on social media and press 

releases. 

d. Partnerships: Partnerships are a PR tactic that allows you to grow your audience by leveraging on 

someone else's following. It's important to choose partnerships carefully, as your partner's values and reputation 

can impact your own. Most brands with a similar target market will partner with each other to achieve a shared 

goal. 

e. Letter to the editor: If building support for a cause or issue is part of your organization's goals, a letter 

to the editor of your local newspaper can be highly effective. It exemplifies your values to your customers, 

showing them that there is much more to your brand than just generating sales. 

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f. Pop-up stores: Pop-up stores not only help you access new customers, but they are also interesting PR 

angles you can promote to gain more coverage for your brand. The interactive event is an opportunity to try out 

critsive tactics that you might not otherwise do on your online or in your retail store. This makes for marketable 

stories that you can share on other platforms too. 

g. Publicity Stunt: A publicity stunt is an artificially critsed event or story that captures people's attention. 

Its unusual nature sparks discussion about a brand and its activities. Publicity stunts are a PR tactic 

professionals use to generate hype about an upcoming event, such as a new partnership or marketing campaign 

Social and Environmental Sustainability  

Sustainability and sustainable development have been considered within the accounting literature in the context 

of social and environmental sustainability reporting (hereafter “sustainability reporting” or SR). This has arisen 

because accounting for sustainable development shares some of the concerns of SR and both consider the same 

range of issues, namely the social and environmental impacts of corporate activity (Bebbington, 2001). What is 

the function of sustainability reporting? Sustainability reporting helps organizations to set goals, measure 

performance, and manage change in order to make their operations more sustainable. A sustainability report 

conveys disclosures on an organization’s impacts be they positive or negative on the environment, society and 

the economy. In doing so, sustainability reporting makes abstract issues tangible and concrete, thereby 

assisting in understanding and managing the effects of sustainability developments on the organization’s 

activities and strategy (Global Reporting Initiative, 2013c). 

SR examines the areas where accounting affects its functional environment and seeks to develop accounting 

tools to assess these effects. As we have seen in the previous section, the concept of sustainability has gained 

wider acceptance, there has been a worldwide trend toward gritser use of sustainability reports. Over the last 

decades, companies have paid growing interest towards environmental and social issues and there has been 

substantial growth in the research attention being devoted to social and environmental accounting topics 

(Bagnoli, 2004; Barth & Wolff, 2009; Deegan et al., 2002; Elkington, 1999; Epstein, 2007; Kolk, 2008; Laine, 

2010; Manetti & Toccafondi, 2011; Thorne, Mahoney, & Manetti, 2014). It is the emergence of large-scale 

business organizations in the last third of the nineteenth century within Europe and the United States that gave 

rise to concerns about corporate social responsibility (Epstein, 2007). The development of social and 

environmental accounting and reporting over the last 40 years has resulted in a wide range of actual and 

potential accounts of organisational interactions with society and the natural environment: such accounts can be 

understood as narratives of events articulating, with varying degrees of thoroughness and misdirection, the 

relationships of the organisation with its ‘stakeholders and its immediate substantive environment (Gray, 2010). 

While the focus in the early 1990s was on environmental reporting and this was joined by growing interest in 

social reporting from about the mid-1990s, the principal focus in the latest years is on either triple bottom line 

reporting or sustainability reporting (Gray & Milne, 2002). It is important to note that these two latter 

concepts, despite appearances, are not synonyms. Although in practice there is a lot of confusion on the use of 

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terms as “sustainability report” and “social and environmental report” - and even “social, environmental and 

sustainability report”, on a theoretical level much literature argues that is important to highlight the specific 

features of each concept. On the first hand, as stated in section 1.3.2, the concept of Triple Bottom refers to the 

notion that organisations that are beginning to think about issues related to sustainable development need to 

work away from a single, only financial bottom line and to a recognition that organisations also have both 

social and environmental performances, or social and environmental bottom lines (Gray, 2010; Gray & 

Milne, 2002). The merit of Triple Bottom Line is that promoted the idea that for full accountability, an 

organisation needed to produce, alongside its financial statements, a full set of both social and environmental 

disclosures (Gray, 2010; Gray & Milne, 2002). 

Pollution and Ecological Destruction of the Niger Delta 

Ecosystem is a community of living organisms that exist with the nonliving components of their 

environment that share the benefits in the environment such as air, food, water and soil (Hatcher, 1990). 

These biotic and abiotic components are connected together through nutrient cycles and energy flows (Odum, 

1971). Humans operate within ecosystems and their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external 

factors like climate, as the ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend 

(Schoener, 2009). Human can pollute and destroy the ecosystem through the overuse of the available natural 

resources (Jones, Lawton & Shachak, 1994).  

Pollution is simply the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that could alter the normal 

occurrences or distort the orderliness in the system. Pollution was also defined by the European Union 1996 

Council Directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) as “the direct or indirect introduction as 

a result of human activity, of substances, vibrations, hits or noise into the air, water or land which may be harmful 

to human health or the quality of the environment, result in damage to material property, or impair or interfere 

with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment” (Fagbeja et al., 2008). The pollution of the 

environment overtime usually leads to the total destruction of the entire ecosystem (Bodo, 2019). Ecological 

destruction is happening everyday as it is reported that 25% of our coral reefs have disappeared and it is 

expected that 60% more will be gone in 30 years (Gimah and Bodo, 2019a; Gimah and Bodo, 2019b) . This is 

as a result of acidification of the oceans through water pollution and illegal fishing. Quest for development has 

necessitated to intense deforestatio n leading to the burning and cutting down of more than 4.6 million hectares 

of forest (Bodo and Gimah, 2018; Gimah and Bodo, 2019a; Gimah and Bodo, 2019b). The case of Niger Delta 

ecosystem is even more pathetic as the people are not knowledgeable on the consequences and implications of 

destroying their environment (Bodo, 2018; Gimah and Bodo, 2019a) as oil exploitation has led to massive 

habitat loss (Gimah and Bodo, 2019b). 

Oil Exploration and Exploitation 

Shell British Petroleum (now Royal Dutch Shell) first discovered crude oil in 1956 at Oloibiri, a village in the 

Niger Delta, and as already mentioned commercial production began in 1958. Today, there are 606 oil fields 

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in the Niger Delta region, out of which 360 are on-shore and 246 are offshore (Nigeria Country Analysis 

Brief, 2005). Nigeria is at present the largest oil producer in Africa and the sixth largest in the world, 

averaging 2.7 million barrels per day (bbl/d) in 2006. Nigeria’s economy is heavily dependent on earnings from 

the oil sector, which provides 20% of GDP, 95% of foreign exchange earnings, and about 65% of 

budgetary revenues (CIA World Fact Book, 2005). 

Nigeria’s state-held refineries (Port Harcourt 1 and 11, Warri, and Kaduna) have a combined capacity of 

438,750 bbl/d, but problems including sabotage, fire, poor management and lack of regular maintenance 

contribute to low current capacity of around 214,000 bbl/d, according to World Markets Research Center. 

Plans for several small, independently owned refineries are also being developed with the Nigerian 

government planning for three new refineries to come on stream by 2008 (Nigeria Country Analysis Brief, 

2005). 

Oil and Gas Reserves in Nigerian Niger Delta 

Oil and Gas Journal (2005) estimates Nigeria’s proven oil reserve at 35.2 billion barrels. The Nigerian 

government plans to expand its proven reserves to 40 billion barrels by 2010 (Nwilo and Badejo 2005). In 

February 2005, Nigeria announced the award of five oil blocks in the Joint Development Zone (JDZ), shared 

by Nigeria and neighbouring Sao Tome and Principe (STP). The JDZ reportedly holds reserves of 11 

billion barrels and could potentially yield up to 3 million bbl/d in the next 2-3 years. Development is also 

occurring in the waters surrounding the JDZ (Nigeria Country Analysis Brief, 2005). Oil and Gas Journal 

(2005) further stated that Nigeria has an estimated 176 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves 

in 2005, giving the country one of the top ten natural gas endowments in the world and the largest 

endowment in Africa (see figure 2 below). 

The question has been, how sustainable are the mining of these natural resources in the Niger Delta region? 

This study recommends that the exploitation of these resources be carried out sustainably in such a manner 

that the environment is well protected by using clean technologies, with net economic gains by the oil 

companies, and the local communities where these activities take place get better treatment by way of human 

and infrastructural development opportunities. 

Valuation of Contaminated Environment in the Niger Delta 

Jackson (2001) posited that the literature available on the valuation concepts and methods for valuing the 

effects of environmental contamination on real estate relates to income- producing, commercial and industrial 

real estate and that only very few empirical studies of contaminated real estate exist. The available literature 

has focused on how existing appraisal methods can be adapted to estimate the impact of contamination on 

value. Within the Niger Delta context, there is a dearth of literature on the subject of valuation of 

contaminated/polluted properties, despite the widespread pollution from oil spillages. Attempts to value any 

polluted land have adopted methods prescribed for the compulsory acquisition of land in Nigeria, see 

Ogedengbe (2007) and Otegbulu (2009). 

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The Niger Delta 

The Niger Delta with an estimated area of about 70,000km
2 

is one of the World's largest deltas. It is located 

in the Central part of Southern Nigeria between above latitude 5
o
33

'
49

''
N and 6

o'
31'38"E in the North. Its 

Western boundary is given as Benin 5
o
44

'
11

"
N and 5

o
03'49

"
E and its Eastern boundary is Imo River 

4
o
27'16"N and 7

o
35'27"E. The Niger Delta is located along the Atlantic coast which forms the southern 

boundary of Nigeria, and it is the entrance of Rivers Niger and Benue into the ocean through a web of rivers, 

creeks, and estuaries. It is the largest wetland in Africa and the third largest in the world, with about 2370 

square kilometres of rivers, creeks and estuaries. Its vegetation is predominantly of the forest type with 8600 

square kilometres of swamp forest and about 

1900 square kilometres of mangrove forests (Alagoa, 2005). The region situated in the southern part of 

Nigeria, is bordered in the east by the Republic of Cameroun and in the south, by the Atlantic Ocean. Within 

Nigeria, the region is defined both geographically and politically. The later, being for revenue sharing 

purposes. The geographic Niger Delta includes the littoral States of Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta Cross River and 

Akwa Ibom and has an area of about 67,284 square kilometres with a combined population of 

16,331,000 persons. The political Niger Delta includes these and in addition, Abia, Edo, Imo, and Ondo states, 

with a total area of 112,110 square kilometres of land as at 2006. The region represents about 12% of Nigeria’s 

total surface area (NDDC, 2006). 

The region has a lot of gas reserves which when sufficiently harnessed, could yield income far in excess of 

crude oil incomes. There are about 606 oil fields in the Niger Delta, of which 360 are on-shore and 246 are 

offshore (Nwilo and Badejo, 2005). Most of the new oil fields are deep water fields developed and being 

developed offshore. Figure 2.2 shows the States now known as the Niger Delta (the Political Niger Delta 

States) while Table 2.1 shows the respective states and their land areas and populations and Table 2.2 shows 

the Geographical Niger Delta States. The region is dominated by the Ijaw ethnic group. Other groups in the 

Western Delta include; the Isoko, Itsekiri, Kwale and Urhobo. In the eastern delta are groups like the Ekpeye, 

Andoni, Ikwerre, Ndoni and the Ogoni. The Niger Delta region with its natural endowments of oil and gas 

which drives the international economy is poverty ridden as a result of political marginalization, economic 

pauperization and environmental degradation occasioned by its small soil and oil company activities in the 

region and long years of reflect by the Federal Government of Nigeria. (Akpan, 2007). 

The Systems Theory 

Systems Theory is an interdisciplinary framework that views complex entities as cohesive systems comprised of 

interrelated parts. It emphasizes the relationships and interactions between these parts, rather than focusing 

solely on individual components. The theory originated in the early to mid-20th century and has been applied 

across various fields, including biology, engineering, sociology, and management. The foundational concepts of 

Systems Theory were significantly advanced by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, an Austrian biologist, who is often 

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credited with its development in the 1940s. Bertalanffy introduced the idea of "general systems theory" in his 

1968 book, "General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications." He sought to establish a 

common framework that could be utilized across diverse disciplines to better understand the complexity of 

various systems. 

At its core, Systems Theory posits that a system is more than just the sum of its parts; rather, the interactions 

and relationships among the parts are critical to understanding the system as a whole. This perspective is 

particularly useful in analyzing social, ecological, and organizational systems. Bertalanffy's work highlighted 

that systems have boundaries, inputs, outputs, and feedback loops, all of which play essential roles in the 

functioning of the system. 

A system is comprised of four aspects. The first type is items, which are also the system's components, 

elements, or variables. Depending on the nature of the system, these can be physical, abstract, or both. Second, 

a system is made up of attributes, which are the characteristics or properties of the system and its objects. Third, 

a system's objects had internal relationships with one another. Fourth, systems exist in their surroundings. A 

system, then, is a collection of items that interact with one another in a given context to generate a bigger 

pattern that is distinct from any of the pieces. The basic systems-interactive approach of the organizational 

analysis incorporates continuous stages of input, throughput (processing), and output, demonstrating the 

concept of openness/closeness. Wholeness refers to the interdependence of the various elements that constitute 

the system. This means that individual parts of a system contribute to the existence of the organization. This 

theory is relevant to this study because it emphasizes the adaptive and proactive behaviour of organisations that 

should be based upon systems theory conceptual pillars to promote and manage man-made disasters so as to 

encourage sustainable and long-lasting performance. 

Environmental Justice Theory 

Environmental Justice Theory was not propounded by a single individual but rather evolved from grassroots 

movements and scholarly contributions that highlighted systemic environmental inequalities. The concept 

gained significant traction in the early 1980s, with a landmark study and subsequent activism that catalyzed the 

movement. Robert D. Bullard (1990) often regarded as the "father of environmental justice," Robert (1990) 

played a pivotal role in articulating the framework of Environmental Justice. His work, particularly the 

publication of “Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality” in 1990, systematically 

documented how African-American communities in the Southern United States were disproportionately 

affected by environmental hazards. Bullard’s research provided empirical evidence of environmental racism and 

laid the groundwork for the Environmental Justice movement. In 1982, civil rights leader Benjamin (1987) 

coined the term “environmental racism” during the protests against the siting of a hazardous waste landfill in 

Warren County, North Carolina. This event, where a predominantly African-American community protested 

against the dumping of toxic waste in their area, is often cited as the beginning of the Environmental Justice 

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movement. Chavis’s advocacy highlighted the intersection of civil rights and environmental health, bringing 

national attention to the issue. 

Environmental Justice (EJ) Theory is a critical framework that addresses the intersection of environmental 

issues and social inequality, emphasizing the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens across 

different socio-economic and demographic groups (Clinton, 1994). The theory highlights how marginalized 

communities, particularly low-income groups and ethnic minorities, disproportionately bear the brunt of 

environmental hazards, such as pollution and toxic waste, while often having less access to environmental 

goods, like clean air and water. This framework emerged in response to growing evidence that environmental 

problems were not just ecological or technical issues but were deeply intertwined with social justice concerns. 

Environmental Justice (EJ) Theory is highly relevant to public relations (PR) techniques used in the remediation 

of anthropogenic (human-caused) disasters, particularly in regions like the Niger Delta States. This area is 

marked by extensive environmental degradation due to activities such as oil extraction, leading to significant 

social, economic, and ecological impacts on local communities. The theory provides a critical framework for 

understanding and addressing the complex interplay between human activities and environmental impacts in the 

Niger Delta. By integrating EJ principles into public relations techniques, multinationals can enhance their 

remediation efforts, build trust with local communities, and contribute to a more just and sustainable future for 

the region. Effective PR strategies should prioritize equity, transparency, and community participation, ensuring 

that the voices of affected communities are heard and that their rights and well-being are respected in the 

remediation process. 

Empirical Review  
 Rajans (2012) carried out a study entitled: public relations techniques adopted by total energies Nigerian 

limited in remediation of environment disasters in Niger Delta state. The objective was to find out the 

special ways the public relations department of total energies Nigeria limited in solving the problems of man-

made environmental disasters. The study employees of very research design with purposive technique to derive 

a sample of 400 respondents from a population of 31.2 million people. Questionnaire was used as instruments 

for data gathering. Define things of the study review that the public relations department of total energies 

Nigerian limited apply the following public relations techniques such as transparent communication, building 

trust and engaging with stakeholders. The findings of the study show that the public relations department of the 

company gold beyond media coverage to resonate with the target audience based on the current public relations 

trends. The study concluded that the public relations department of total energy Nigeria limited applies the 

following public relation techniques such as transparent communication, building trust and engaging with 

stakeholders. The study also concluded that the public relations department of the company goes beyond media 

coverage to resonate with the target audience based on the current public relations trends. The study therefore, 

recommended that companies and order organizations should apply public relations techniques in their day-to-

day activities so as to enhance productivity and established mutual relationship between them and their host 

community. The study also recommended that the public relations department of companies and organizations 

should god beyond media coverage to resonate with target audience  

Olayinka and Ogbonna (2013) Environmental Remediation of oil spillage in Niger Delta Region 

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The impacts of oil spills are not limited to the direct effect on the ecosystem; it goes a long way to affect the 

social welfare, aggravates poverty, population displacement, social conflict, production reduction and also 

affects the profit margin of the companies involved. This study is aimed at providing a review and comparison 

of the remediation techniques currently in use and suggest the most suitable methods of oil spill cleanup and 

remediation in Nigeria Niger Delta region based on certain criteria and to also suggest ways of mitigating oil 

spill occurrences in this region. In the course of this research study, data collection was on primary and 

secondary data. For the primary data, a structured questionnaire was drafted and used for survey relating to the 

research study to rank and evaluate different perspectives of stakeholders on various remediation techniques 

that are in consideration. For the Secondary Data, the study was carried out with a literature study to gain an 

overview of the different remediation methods for PHCs contaminated soils. Finally using specific criteria 

including cost efficiency, operation and maintenance of the technique, environmental friendliness, time frame of 

achieving remedial objectives, health concerns, and applicability of the techniques were used to make an 

evaluation design for the different remediation techniques for hydrocarbons contaminated soils. The results 

from these studies show that single remedial action cannot be used for cleanup but the Thermal desorption and 

Remediation by Enhanced Natural Attenuation (RENA) was the best placed technique ranking highest under the 

different criteria of the evaluation design and the sample survey of the remediation techniques considered. More 

so, In-situ Vitrification is the most cost effective techniques with little or no disturbance of site. 

Kingsley et al. (2021) Environmental implications of petroleum spillages in the Niger Delta region of 

Nigeria  
The issue of environmental pollution has been recognized as a typical example of an anthropogenic activity that 

constitutes a global challenge coupled with the influence of climate change. This has constituted several hazards 

which include bioaccumulation of toxic substances, pollution of the aquatic environment, and high rate of 

dilapidation of soil structure and texture, health hazards, high level of imbalance in the ecosystem and a high 

level of toxicity in humans and the environment. Despite the intervention of governments, industries, 

researchers and relevant stakeholders, these problems remain paramount in most regions. Therefore, given the 

aforementioned, it is essential to identify sustainable remediation techniques, innovative knowledge on 

remediation strategies and clean up techniques that could help in the mitigation of all these highlighted 

challenges. Moreover, several studies have revealed the deleterious influence of petroleum or oil spillages 

resulting in irreparable environmental dilapidation and other potential hazards to human health, agriculture, 

climate system, and the ecosystem in general. From the systematic analysis of the evidence-based, meta-data-

based review and other reviewed literature, it is noticeable that there is scant holistic review study that will 

incorporate all these aforementioned environmental implications resulting from the activities of petroleum 

resources in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria (NDRN) in just a single study.  

In the interim, it is alleged that there is hardly a permanent and tangible solution to these petroleum spillage 

issues and their impacts on the region; albeit, awareness will be fundamental for its mitigation. Hence, this 

review study will attempt to fill this gap by holistically reviewing the selected environmental implications of 

petroleum spillages in the NDRN drawn from 219 evidence and metadata-based reviews and other articles. 

Furthermore, the relevant legal frameworks that could guild in protecting against environmental issues and 

petroleum spillages, are discussed in this study. In conclusion, the study cautiously provides a way forward by 

submitting that effective research and development measures ranging from public health assessments of 

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petroleum contamination to an all-embracing application of bioremediation technology should frequently be 

carried out as a matter of urgency with resilient adaptation, mollification and management of these menaces. 

Methodology  

The study adopted the survey research design. The population of the study comprised of two streams, first the 

public relations department of the selected multinational companies and secondly, the population of their host 

communities in the Niger Delta. The total population of the study for the first stream was 3,825,499. The 

population of the second stream was 25. A census and Taro Yamane Sampling size determination formula was 

used to arrive at sample size of 400 for the study. Purposive sampling technique and the proportionate sampling 

technique were used for the study, and the data obtained from the instruments were analyzed using the four-

point Likert scale. 

Table 1 Public Relations Techniques and the Remediation of Man-made Disasters in Their Areas of 

Operations 

S/N COMPANIES RESPOSNES S 

A  

4 

A 

3 

D 

2 

SD 

1 

TOTAL WMS DECISION 

1 SPDC Community engagement, 

corporate social 

responsibility  

14 

56 

7 

21 

3 

6 

1 

1 

25 

84 

 

3.82 

 

 

Agree 

 

        

2. Total Energies Media relations, 

stakeholder collaboration, 

and conflict resolution 

programs  

 

15 

60 

8 

24 

1 

2 

1 

1 

25 

87 

 

3.48 

 

Agree 

 

3 Nigeria Agip 

Oil Company 

Sustainability reporting 

capacity building, oil 

company environmental 

remediation and 

transparency efforts 

16 

64 

6 

18 

2 

4 

1 

1 

25 

87 

 

3.48 

 

Agree 

Criterion Mean 2.5 

Data in the table show that the three companies employed public relation techniques in the style and manner 

shown above to address anthropogenic disasters in Niger Delta. 

Table 2: Public Relations Techniques and Conventional Practices 

S/N 

 

COMPANIES RESPOSNES S 

A  

4 

A 

3 

D 

2 

SD 

1 

 

TOTAL WMS DECISION 

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1 Nigeria Agip 

Oil Company 

Community Development 

Project, host community 

agreement and local 

employment initiatives 

establish open 

communication channels 

15 

60 

9 

27 

1 

2 

0 

0 

25 

89 

 

3.56 

 

 

Agree 

 

        

2. SPDC Global (Memorandum of 

understanding (GMoU), 

Health outreach 

programmes 

collaboration, empathy 

 

21 

84 

2 

6 

1 

2 

1 

1 

25 

93 

 

3.72 

 

 

Agree 

 

3 Total Energies Youth empowerment 

programmes, 

environmental 

sustainability campaigns, 

inclusive stakeholder 

engagement and 

transparency 

11 

44 

7 

21 

4 

8 

3 

3 

25 

76 

 

3.04 

 

Agree 

Criterion Mean = 2.5  

Data in table 2 above show that the three multinational companies employed Public Relations Techniques that 

fall with the frame of best practices. Data also revealed that the companies successfully engaged local 

community’s remediation efforts in the Niger Delta 

  

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Table 3: Public Relations Techniques and Goal Accomplishment by Companies under Review 

S/N COMPANIES RESPOSNES S 

A  

4 

A 

3 

D 

2 

SD 

1 

 

TOTAL WMS DECISION 

1 Agip Agip oil company has 

employed effective public 

relations strategies in 

managing hos 

communities clear 

communication, 

traditional press 

engagement, industry 

event participation content 

create creation 

12 

48 

16 

30 

2 

4 

1 

1 

25 

83 

 

3.32 

 

 

Agree 

 

        

2. SPDC Community employment, 

development programme 

reputation management 

stakeholders collaboration 

 

14 

56 

5 

15 

4 

8 

2 

2 

25 

81 

 

3.24 

 

 

Agree 

 

3 Total Energies Reputation management, 

facilitating effective 

communication, 

compensation programme, 

media management and 

transparency 

17 

68 

7 

21 

1 

3 

0 

0 

25 

92 

 

3.68 

 

Agree 

Criterion Mean = 2.5 

Table 3 above shows that the three multinational companies utilize Public Relations Techniques to accomplish 

their goals. 

Discussion of Findings 

Findings of the study showed that three companies employed public relation techniques to address 

anthropogenic disasters in Niger Delta. The findings of the study is in agreement with the earlier study carried 

out by Rajans (2012) whose study revealed that the public relations department of the company gold beyond 

media coverage to resonate with the target audience based on the current public relations trends. The findings of 

the study is also in agreement with the earlier study carried out by Olayinka and Ogbonna (2013) whose study 

revealed that single remedial action cannot be used for cleanup but the Thermal desorption and Remediation by 

Enhanced Natural Attenuation (RENA) was the best placed technique ranking highest under the different 

criteria of the evaluation design and the sample survey of the remediation techniques considered. The findings 

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of the study corroborate with the principles of The Systems Theory which states that the governance of the 

viable organizations then has to address and direct the system towards a final goal by transforming static 

structural relationships into dynamic interactions with other viable systems. The findings of the study also 

corroborate with the principles of Environmental Justice Theory which states that the theory highlights how 

marginalized communities, particularly low-income groups and ethnic minorities, disproportionately bear the 

brunt of environmental hazards, such as pollution and toxic waste, while often having less access to 

environmental goods, like clean air and water. 

Findings of the study shows that the three multinational companies had best practice of public relations 

techniques which they successfully engaged local communities’ remediation efforts in the Niger Delta. The 

findings of the study is in agreement with the earlier study carried out by Kingsley, Hussain, Charles, Uyiosa, 

Robert, and Olufemi (2021) whose study revealed that cautiously provides a way forward by submitting that 

effective research and development measures ranging from public health assessments of petroleum 

contamination to an all-embracing application of bioremediation technology should frequently be carried out as 

a matter of urgency with resilient adaptation, mollification and management of these menaces. The findings of 

the study also is in agreement with the earlier study carried out by Richard, Sylvester and Muhammad (2022) 

whose study revealed that waste dumps, gas flaring, and food processing units are sources of ammonia, 

hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic compounds, and 

particulates released into the atmosphere. The findings of the study corroborate with the principles of 

Stakeholder Theory, which states that the foundation of stakeholder theory lies in its emphasis on the 

interconnectedness of stakeholders and the organization. The findings of the study also corroborate with the 

principles of the Systems Theory, which states that the governance of the viable organizations then has to 

address and direct the system towards a final goal by transforming static structural relationships into dynamic 

interactions with other viable systems.  

Findings of the study shows that the three multinational companies utilize Public Relations techniques by way 

of goal accomplishment. Data showed that the companies under review at the very least have been able to forge 

a relationship with host communities, granting them access to the areas during disasters. The findings of the 

study is in disagreement with Amodu (2012) whose study revealed that community relations strategies adopted 

by the selected oil companies were not adequate in preventing and resolving conflicts in the Niger Delta. The 

findings of the study is however in agreement with the earlier study carried out by Rajans (2012) whose study 

revealed that the public relations department of Total Energy Nigeria Limited applies the following public 

relations techniques such as transparent communication, building trust and engaging with stakeholders, which 

accomplished organisational goals. The finding of the study corroborates with the principles of the 

Environmental Justice Theory, which states that the area has become a focal point for environmental justice 

advocacy, highlighting the disproportionate health impacts of industrial pollution on marginalized populations. 

The findings of study also corroborate with the principles of Stakeholder Theory, which states that the 

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traditional views of corporate governance often prioritize shareholders' interests, focusing on financial returns as 

the primary measure of success. In contrast, stakeholder theory challenges this notion by arguing that businesses 

must consider the interests and well-being of all parties affected by their actions. 

 

Conclusion 

The conclusions drawn from the study reveal that SPDC, Total Energies, and NAOC each implemented public 

relations techniques tailored to address anthropogenic disasters in the Niger Delta, demonstrating that PR was a 

core instrument in their environmental management frameworks. The companies consistently aligned their 

approaches with best practices in public relations, which facilitated meaningful engagement with host 

communities and enhanced the legitimacy of their remediation efforts. Furthermore, the application of public 

relations techniques proved instrumental in advancing the companies’ strategic goals, including reducing 

community unrest, improving corporate image, and sustaining operational continuity. 

Recommendations 

1. Oil companies in the Niger Delta should adopt more structured, transparent, and inclusive public 

relations techniques in the remediation of man-made disasters to ensure active participation and trust from host 

communities. 

2. The companies should align their public relations strategies with internationally recognised best 

practices, integrating both proactive and reactive communication measures such as early warning systems, crisis 

preparedness, and rapid response mechanisms. 

3. Regular evaluation of public relations strategies should be conducted to assess their effectiveness in 

achieving corporate goals such as conflict reduction, enhanced reputation, and environmental restoration. 

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