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VOLUME 04 ISSUE 08 PAGES: 23-31 

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ABSTRACT 

Stomata are small microscopic openings found on the surface of the leaf and stem. Surrounding the stoma is a pair of 

guard cells. The stomata are a manifestation of stress in the skin. They work to regulate the flow of gases into and out 

of the leaf. The stomata are affected in terms of their development and opening by environmental changes, as 

changing environmental conditions affect their response. Stomata: Environmental factors, such as temperature, 

carbon dioxide concentration, relative humidity, and light, are factors that play an important role in the development 

and opening of stomata. 

KEYWORDS 

Microscopic, Skin, Stomata, Environmental conditions. 

INTRODUCTION

  Research Article 

 

THE EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ON STOMATAL 

DEVELOPMENT: A REVIEW 
 

Submission Date: Aug 02, 2024, Accepted Date:  Aug 07, 2024,  

Published Date: Aug 12, 2024  

Crossref doi: https://doi.org/10.37547/ajbspi/Volume04Issue08-03 

 

 

Evan Abdul Rahman Hamzah 
Biology Department, College of Sciences, University of Tikrit, Iraq 

 

Noor Adnan Abdullah 
Biology Department, College of Sciences, University of Tikrit, Iraq 

 

Rand Salwan Numan 
Biology Department, College of Sciences, University of Tikrit, Iraq 

 

Humam Saadi Hussein 
Biology Department, College of Sciences, University of Tikrit, Iraq 

Email: - humam.s.hussein@tu.edu.iq 

 

 

 

Journal Website: 

https://theusajournals.

com/index.php/ajbspi 

Copyright: Original 

content from this work 

may be used under the 

terms of the creative 

commons attributes 

4.0 licence. 

 

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The stoma is the microscopic pore present on the 

surface of the plant leaf as well as the stem [1]. The 

stoma consists of guard cells surrounding it, which 

work to close and open the stomata [2]. The stomata 

regulate the evaporation of the amount of water and 

the preservation of carbon dioxide by controlling the 

work of the guard cells [3]. The spread of water 

evaporation through the stomata depends on the 

dimensions of the stomata as well as their density, and 

through the concentration difference between the 

outer circumference and the inner circumference of 

the leaf, water is evaporated through the difference in 

mole fraction of the leaf and the air, and through the 

change in the conductivity, opening, and density of the 

stomata, water absorption is regulated, that is, by 

reducing or  Increasing the stomata's opening and flow 

area, thus controlling the spread[4]. The shape and size 

of the stomata, as well as its number, vary according to 

the type of plant [5]. It is possible that there is an 

adaptive relationship with the environmental 

conditions that surround the plant, through the 

change that occurs in the growth and opening of the 

stomata, meaning that the growth and opening of the 

stomata is adaptive, and this includes the size and 

shape of the stomata. Genetic factors have an effect 

on the number and density of stomata, as well as their 

distribution on the surface of the leaf [6]. Plants can 

adaptation to external factors because they are stable, 

and this adaptation comes from changing the stomata, 

their function and distribution. In order to obtain an 

increase in the rate of photosynthesis, the guard cells 

emit a different environmental signal that must be 

responded to in order to improve gas exchange in 

plants. Thus, the process of photosynthesis will 

increase. When climate conditions change, the 

stomata work to adjust the closure of the stomata.in 

order to reduce water loss and reduce its absorption 

carbon dioxide [7]. The concentration of carbon 

dioxide, as well as the rate of light flow, are two 

environmental factors that are sensed by guard cells 

and work to coordinate the opening of stomata [8]. 

There are previous studies that have confirmed that 

stomata are sensitive to carbon dioxide through the 

synthesis of abscisic acid resulting from drought [9]. 

Guard cells work to regulate the opening of the 

stomata [10]. Dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous 

plants, with the exception of grass plants, have kidney-

shaped stomata [11]. As for herbs, they have dumbbell-

shaped stomata. Controlling the opening and closing 

of the stomata is important to protect plants from 

excessive water loss as well as a lack of concentration 

[2].  Carbon dioxide: The role of guard cells is significant 

in protecting the plant from changing environmental 

conditions, including temperatures, humidity, water 

shortages, hormones, and sugars [5]. There are 

channels in the plasma membrane that regulate ions 

and transporters, as well as pumps found in the guard 

cells [12]. 

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Figure (1) Kidney-shaped stomata on the right and dumbbell-shaped stomata on the left. 

Forms of stomata in leaves 

The epidermis of mature leaves generally consists of 

three types of cells: guard cells, hairs, and pavement 

cells [13]. Stomata are found on both surfaces of the 

leaf, and their presence may be limited to the upper 

surface of the leaf [14]. The density of the stomata may 

be greater on the adaxial surface of the leaf, and this 

works to prevent water loss [15].  Because this surface 

of the leaf is less exposed to heat, the pattern of 

stomata in monocot plants is of the regular type [16]. 

As for dicotyledon plants, the type of stomata is 

random [9]. The mature stomata are separated from 

each other by a human cell, and this works to perform 

the function of the stomata in the best way that the 

cells need [16]. It ensures that ions and water are 

exchanged with the surrounding cells [11]. 

The effect of light on the development of stomata 

Light is considered an important environmental factor 

as it affects the growth and development of plants. 

Plants need light in order to carry out the process of 

photosynthesis, as well as to regulate plant growth 

[17]. Photoreceptors control photosynthesis and 

development through light [18]. Phytochromes absorb 

red light, with wavelengths reaching 600 Nanometers 

[12]. Far-red light has wavelengths of up to 730 

nanometers [3]. Phototropin and cryptochromates 

mediate the effect of ultraviolet rays, as well as blue 

light [19]. An increase in light intensity leads to an 

increase in the number of stomata, while an increase in 

light intensity does not affect the area of stomata [20]. 

Regulating the opening of stomata according to their 

response to light is very important for crop production 

[8]. The change in the voltage of the plasma membrane 

that results from light has been observed, and this 

works to change the transport of potassium through 

the plasma membrane located in the stomata guard 

cells on the surface of the leaves. Both blue and red-

light work on stimulating the opening of the stomata 

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through two paths [21]. Red light stimulates the 

opening of the stomata through photosynthesis, 

specifically in the middle layer, as well as the 

chloroplasts present in the guard cells [20]. This leads 

to reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide 

present between the cells. That is, red light acts as a 

signal as well as a source of energy [6]. The response 

of the guard cells to the rate of decrease in carbon 

dioxide present between the cells and the direct 

response of the plastids present in the guard cells 

results in the opening of stomata resulting from red 

light [13]. The response to blue light of the guard cells 

is considered independent of the process of 

photosynthesis [22].  Changes in the light spectrum 

affect the behavior of the gap, and this change is 

considered a result of the daily change in the light 

spectrum, as well as the shading of trees or leaves at 

sunrise or sunset [17]. The sun is near the horizon or 

below the horizon, and this leads to a smaller solar 

angle, and thus the rays travel a greater distance 

through air [15].  

The effect of the concentration of carbon dioxide on 

the opening of stomata 

Plants work to coordinate the flow of carbon dioxide in 

order to complete the process of photosynthesis [23]. 

This is accompanied by a loss of water vapor through 

the pores in the stomata [21]. When there is an increase 

in the level of concentration of carbon dioxide present 

in the atmosphere, the stomata It will close, and this 

affects the growth of the plant and the temperature of 

the leaf, as well as the efficiency of water absorption 

[24]. That is, the concentration of carbon dioxide 

affects the opening of the stomata, and it also works 

to regulate its growth through the stomata [12]. 

Approximately 40% of carbon dioxide enters the leaves 

of plants during one year [25]. It is affected the process 

of photosynthesis changes the stomatal indicator that 

occurs in response to carbon dioxide in the 

atmosphere, and this works to change the 

concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere 

[26]. The reason for global warming is the continuous 

increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the 

atmosphere, and this increase affects the 

development of terrestrial plants [27].  When the 

concentration of carbon dioxide continues, it leads to 

a negative effect on the development of stomata in the 

leaves [28]. That is, the relationship is inverse between 

the increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide and 

the development of stomata [29]. The greater the 

concentration of carbon dioxide, the greater the 

decrease in the stomatal index. That is, the response of 

plants to changes in the concentration of carbon 

dioxide [30]. The greater the flow of carbon dioxide. 

Water and materials are transferred to the guard cells 

that surround the pores of the stomata. The opening 

of the stoma is regulated [22]. The dissolved potassium 

works to regulate the closing of the stoma [31]. This is 

done through the guard cells that work on the flow of 

materials and water. The guard cells work to control 

the movement of the stomata [32]. The increase in the 

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concentration of carbon dioxide and abscisic acid 

work.  On closing the stomata, through studies, it has 

been found that there is a convergence between the 

pathway of carbon dioxide and abscisic acid, and that 

as the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, it 

stimulates an increase in the concentration of abscisic 

acid present in the guarding cells of the stomata, and 

thus leads to the closure of the stomata [33]. 

Stomata and temperature:  

Stomata are affected by high temperature, as 

temperatures lead to the development of stomata and 

their opening, and high temperatures will lead to 

preventing the production of stomata [34]. That is, 

high temperatures pose a danger to the plant because 

they cause water shortages and thermal damage [35]. 

Plants take several mechanisms to reduce the effect.  

High temperatures until the leaves take the form of 

elongating their petioles, which works to cool the plant 

[36]. The process of transpiration also works to cool 

the leaves. The fewer the number of stomata, the more 

this indicates a response to high temperatures, which 

leads to a decrease in cooling of the plant. Plants 

coordinate the process of cooling the leaves through 

the process of transpiration in return [37].  It loses its 

response to elongation, meaning that high 

temperature and the density of stomata are two 

factors that control the coordination of the plant’s 

response [38]. High temperature affects the process of 

photosynthesis, as the Rubisco (ribulose-1,5-

bisphosphate Carboxylase /oxygenase) enzyme has an 

important role in the process of photosynthesis [39]. 

Also, this enzyme is sensitive to high temperatures, 

and the more this enzyme is affected by temperature, 

the more it has a negative effect [40]. On the activity 

of the Krebs cycle, 1-it works more quickly to stop the 

action of the Rubisco enzyme, which is active. 2- it 

reactivates it more slowly, through the enzyme, which 

is sensitive to high temperatures. High temperatures 

stimulate the opening of the stomata, and this leads to 

coordination between the cooling of the leaves and 

the activity of using them [41].  Water for the 

movement of guard cells caused by high temperatures, 

components that work to open stomata through blue 

light [42]. 

Humidity and stomatal development  

Humidity has a close relationship with temperature 

because during the saturation process it will increase 

as the surrounding air temperature rises, and this 

affects the stomata, as they close in response to this 

deficit in vapor pressure, that is, less humidity, and this 

has an important role in the ability of plants to control 

water loss when  The environmental conditions 

surrounding the plant are dry, as the stomata are 

closed to prevent the plant from drying out. When 

plants are affected by moisture, it has the ability to 

close the stomata. It also has an effect on the density 

and size of the stomata [43]. The stomata are sensitive 

to air humidity, as they have a high response to 

humidity, as high relative humidity increases the size of 

the stomata, and this It leads to the expansion of 

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leaves, meaning that the density of stomata will 

increase in many types of plants due to high humidity 

[44]. When an imbalance in humidity occurs, it will 

negatively affect the absorption of carbon dioxide and 

water loss, leading to the death of the plant [39]. 

CONCLUSION 

 The stomata have an important role in balancing the 

water loss of plants with the process of 

photosynthesis. It is known that the stomata change 

their pattern according to the environment in which 

the plants are located. They are considered important 

organizing centers in the plant leaf and work to 

increase the absorption of carbon dioxide so that the 

process of photosynthesis can take place, by opening. 

When Closing the stomata can reduce water loss 

through the process of transpiration, meaning it is very 

important for balancing water loss. The process of 

photosynthesis stimulates the opening of the stomata 

through light, especially red and blue, which work to 

open the stomata, while high temperatures prevent 

the growth and development of the stomata. As for 

humidity, it is an environmental factor that affects 

When it decreases, the stomata close, and the higher 

the carbon dioxide concentration, the more this leads 

to the closure of the stomata, because the relationship 

between the stomata and the carbon dioxide 

concentration is inverse. 

 

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