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American Journal of  
Chemistry and Pharmacy (AJCP)

A Review on the Utilization and Environmental Concerns of  Coal Fly Ash
Saidu Kamara1, Edward Hingha Foday Jr2, Wei Wang1*

Volume 2 Issue 2, Year 2023
ISSN: 2834-0116 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajcp.v2i2.1609
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajcp

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: April 26, 2023

Accepted: June 10, 2023

Published: July 02, 2023

Fly ash is a solid by-product from the pulverization of  coal in thermal power plants. It 
is a cost-effective raw material that has gained so much attention from industrialists for 
a series of  engineering purposes. It is utilized in various applications like cement and 
concrete, bricks, road construction and embankments, mine backfilling, mixed asphalt, 
soil amelioration, catalyst, production plants, geopolymers, etc. Asia and USA. are the top 
global fly ash producers. The high demand for its utilization adds to the economy of  fly 
ash-producing nations. China, India, and Japan contribute to the fly ash market growth 
through urbanization and sustainable infrastructural activities. Fly ash is not environmentally 
friendly. It is currently one of  the leading industrial solid wastes that has attracted so much 
public attention due to its associated environmental health concerns. It poses a severe social 
and economic burden to municipal and central authorities. COX, NOX, SOX, and matter 
are pollutants emitted from fossil fuel burning. Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are 
indirect agents of  climate change. Fly ash contains heavy metals and some radioactive 
elements; therefore, utilizing it can lead to severe health and environmental consequences if  
not adequately managed.

Keywords
Coal, Environment, Fly Ash, 
Power Plants, Pulverization, 
Utilization

1 Department of  Chemical Engineering, School of  Water and Environment, Chang’an University, Xi’an, China
2 Key Laboratory of  Subsurface Hydrology and Ecology in Arid Areas, Ministry of  Education, Chang’an University, Xi’an, China
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: wwchem@chd.edu.cn

INTRODUCTION
The global demand for fly ash utilization in buildings and 
infrastructure, agriculture, geopolymers, catalysts, etc is 
on the increase. Sustainable industrial and infrastructural 
development projects in Western nations influence the 
market growth of  fly ash. According to sources from 
Vantage market research, the global fly ash market in 
2021 was at USD 12.1 billion. Recently, many countries 
have been trying to shift away from using fossil fuel as 
a source to renewable energy technology to combat 
the environmental impacts of  greenhouse gases (COx) 
emitted from burning fossil fuels in thermal power plants 
(Mucomole, Silva, & Magaia, 2023). This is a significant 
challenge for the growth of  the fly ash market. However, 
developing new technologies to produce fly ash will 
possibly maintain a sustained fly ash market growth 
now and in the future. The key market players are now 
focusing on sustained practices to reduce emissions, 
and waste minimization, and utilize renewable energy 
sources(Hossain & Pk, 2023; Mucomole et al., 2023).
It can also be recycled and used for multiple purposes 
rather than dumped or disposed of  in open pits, landfills, 
and ponds. Using recycled fly ash for many farm practices 
contributes significantly to the growth of  the fly ash 
market. Fossil fuel has the largest share and source of  
global electric power production. The utilization of  coal 
for electricity generation is still widely embraced on a 
worldwide platform. In 2011, coal power supplied up to 
29.9% of  global energy, and this is projected to rise to 
46% by 2030 (ARDHA & AZIZ, 2007). Coal-powered 
generation is economically attractive due to the high 
prices of  oil and gas  (Hossain & Pk, 2023; Lior, 2010). 
Pulverized fuel ash is a by-product that evolves out of  
coal-fired boilers with flue gases (Hossain & Pk, 2023; 

Rani, Rani, Bansal, Singh, & Singh, 2021). The waste 
residue is trapped by filtration equipment before the gases 
enter the chimneys (Rani et al., 2021). The constituents in 
fly ash vary depending on the sources of  the coal utilized 
(Ahmaruzzaman, 2010). 
The health and environmental problems of  fly ash are 
well-known.  Open land disposal is the most common 
method adopted by coal power industries. Fly ash is 
regarded as a general solid waste in some countries. The 
concentrations, and solid/liquid ratio, affect trace elements 
in aqueous environments (Saikia, Kato, & Kojima, 2006). 
This threatens the air, surface, groundwater, soil, and crop 
production (ARDHA & AZIZ, 2007). In the early years of  
thermal power plant operations, fly ash was disseminated 
into the atmosphere with no control measures by the 
industries. The development of  air pollution regulatory 
standards required fly ash to be trapped by pollution 
control equipment before being released and stored at 
the sites of  power plants or landfills (Finkelman, Wolfe, 
& Hendryx, 2021). 
Pozzolans provide better concrete protection from moist 
conditions and chemical attacks. Reports and findings 
from various scientific research (Sadik, El Amrani, & 
Albizane, 2014) reveal that fly ash can be utilized to 
fabricate refractory materials (cordierite, mullite, and 
kyanite) when combined with alumina and subjected to 
high temperatures. Manufactured refractory materials 
have a better advantage over other engineering materials 
utilized for various engineering purposes. This review 
summarizes fly ash utilization and associated health 
and environmental concerns. Fly ash is considered a 
worldwide environmental hazard since it contains organic 
and inorganic pollutants, toxic heavy metals (Pb Hg, Cr, 
V), and radionuclides.

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LITERATURE REVIEW
Fly ash is a fine-grained and powdered particulate 
matter obtained from the combustion of  coal in a coal-
fired boiler in thermal power plants. The electric power 
industry has three types of  coal-fired boiler furnaces 
referred to as dry-bottom bottom boilers, wet-bottom 
boilers, and cyclone furnaces.  It is an industrial solid 
waste that poses many environmental and storage issues 
in coal power-producing nations. It is nowadays popularly 
utilized as a mineral additive by construction companies 
as a low-cost material, reduces environmental pollution, 
and also helps in reducing the need for the utilization of  
natural resources. 
Fly ash is available in two main classes. It is classified as 
class C or class F ash based on its chemical constituents 
particularly when used as a mineral admixture in concrete. 
It consists of  significant amounts of  SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, 
and CaO and smaller amounts of  oxides of  magnesium, 
potassium, sodium, titanium, and sulfur. Class C fly ash 
is produced from the combustion of  lignite or sub-
bituminous coal. It possesses pozzolanic and cementitious 
properties and contains more than 10% calcium oxide. It 
composes of  higher amounts of  alkali and sulfate (SO4 
) compounds (Dwivedi & Jain, 2014). Class F fly ash is 
formed from anthracite or bituminous coal. It is naturally 
pozzolanic and contains less than 10% calcium oxide 
(CaO). Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as 
Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with water 
to produce cementitious compounds. Adding a chemical 
activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F 
ash can lead to the formation of  a geopolymer (Dwivedi 
& Jain, 2014). 

Advantages and disadvantages of  fly ash
Advantages of  fly ash
It is a cost-effective substitute. It reduces the heat of  
hydration. The water required is reduced with better 
workability. It has low permeability and improved 
resistance to sulfate attack. It solves the problem of  cracks 
experienced in Portland cement. Using fly ash in concrete 
reduces CO2 and is thus a friendly environmental solid 
waste. 

Disadvantages of  fly ash 
It changes from liquid to solid in a few hours after pouring. 
The air ingress reduces. The color of  the concrete is 
more challenging to control. The use of  fly ash increases 
salt scaling and experiences seasonal restrictions. Unlike 
Portland cement, it reduces the demand for waste.

Utilization and management of  fly ash 
Coal is the only natural resource widely used in thermal 
power plants to produce electricity (Mao & Xu, 
1999). Industrialization, urbanization, and economic 
development are the major factors influencing the 
growing desire for electricity. Fly ash from pulverized 
coal has been proven to be a helpful waste material in 

many applications (Jala & Goyal, 2006; Rani et al., 2021). 
Alumina and silica are the principal compounds, that make 
fly ash essential for profitable utilization. The ash from the 
coal plant is first processed using various techniques such 
as demagnetization, sinterization, grinding, etc. (Sukkae, 
Suebthawilkul, & Cherdhirunkorn, 2018). The utilization 
of  fly ash can abate environmental threats, render income, 
create job opportunities, and provide a sustained cleaned-
up environment, etc (Dwivedi & Jain, 2014; Finkelman 
et al., 2021; L. C. Ram & Masto, 2010; Senapati, 2011). 
Mercury, lead, arsenic, etc., released into the environment, 
affect the quality of  air, soil, and underground water (Yiwei 
et al., 2007). The health risks of  fly ash have led to several 
studies on its utilization in many applications, such as 
ceramic, bricks, landfills, and fly ash products, including 
ceramic refractories, plastics, metal composites, etc. 
(ARDHA & AZIZ, 2007). A tremendous amount of  fly 
ash is annually produced, but utilization is minimal in many 
countries(ARDHA & AZIZ, 2007). The non-utilization 
of  fly ash in many nations is due to some regulations that 
categorize fly ash as hazardous waste and the challenges 
of  fabricating high-grade products (ARDHA & AZIZ, 
2007).  The utilization of  fly ash in some applications and 
its management are discussed as follows:

Refractory
Due to their high-temperature resistance, refractory 
materials are used in furnace linings and metal-melting 
pots. The characteristics of  fly ash have been studied, 
followed by examining the high-temperature resistance 
of  materials mixed with fly ash and other silica-alumina 
source materials(ARDHA & AZIZ, 2007; Hwang, 1999). 
S. Maitra et al. (Maitra, Kumar, Vishwakarma, & Dutta, 
2001)  synthesized refractory aggregates from beneficiated 
fly ash by reaction sintering at 1600°C. The fly ash was 
discovered to be a good alumina-silica raw material based 
on castable refractory(Dana, Sinhamahapatra, Tripathi, & 
Ghosh, 2014). 

Concrete
Fly ash is pozzolanic and it is used as a low-cost (Maitra 
et al., 2001; Sukkae et al., 2018) material compared to 
Portland cement. It is more environmentally friendly; it 
reduces the corrosion of  steel and improves its resistance 
to chemical attacks. It can be used to construct underwater 
structures. Portland cement is the world’s third-largest 
industrial consumer of  energy; it is the second-highest 
CO2 emitter with an estimated share of  8-10% of  global 
emissions (da Silva, Malacarne, Longhi, & Kirchheim, 
2021). The pozzolanic reaction between fly ash and lime 
produces less heat and hence reduces the possibility of  
thermal cracking (Dhadse, Kumari, & Bhagia, 2008; V. M. 
John, Quattrone, Abrao, & Cardoso, 2019; S. A. Miller, 
2018; Shen, Wang, Li, Yao, & Jiang, 2020). The cement 
industry in India utilized about 60.11 million tons of  
total production in 2018 and 2019 (Dwivedi & Jain, 2014; 
Tejasvi & Kumar, 2012).

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Soil Stabilization
Modifying soil properties temporarily enhances sub-
grade stability to speed up construction (Association, 
2003; S. K. John, Nadir, & Girija, 2021; Sun, Li, Zhao, 
Zhu, & Zhang, 2016). Xiaofei et al. (Sun et al., 2016) 
reported that stabilization could change the properties of  
municipal solid waste. It is also used to treat a wide range 
of  sub-grade materials, from expensive clays to granular 
materials. Mixing fly ash with soil plasticity results in a 
decrease in plasticity; the primary mechanism behind this 
is the change in the size of  soil grains (Dwivedi & Jain, 
2014).

Embarkment
Fly ash is more economical and environmentally friendly 
to be utilized as an alternative to topsoil for road 
embankments, and its suitability has proved successful 
in many cases. Construction and design require many 
favorable properties like lightweight (superior over weak 
subsoil), higher shear strength (more excellent stability), 
no lumps, usually moist, compacted characteristics under 
inclement weather, cost savings, etc. (Ghazali, Muthusamy, 
& Ahmad, 2019). This utilization has many advantages 
over conventional methods. It saves the topsoil and 
fills up low-lying areas thus created. The utilization of  
fly ash is affected by its properties such as grain size 
distribution, compaction characteristics, shear strength, 
compressibility, permeability, and frost susceptibility 
(L. C. Ram et al., 2007; L. Ram et al., 2006). Class F fly 
ashes are typically used in embarkment because they are 
obtained from anthracite and sub-bituminous coal, rich in 
silica, alumina, and iron oxide (L. C. Ram & Masto, 2010; 
L. C. Ram et al., 2007). It is globally used as a structural fill 
material for highway embankments. However, the use of  
fly ash in road embankments has environmental concerns 
like soil erosion, dispersion of  fly ash into the air by wind, 
and the leaching of  heavy metals into the subsoil. 

Bio-Amelioration of  soil
Reports from some recent research indicated that fly 
ash has a better application when mixed with organic 
materials like cow manure, sludge, farm yard manure, 
sludge, crop residues, and organic composts(Yao et al., 
2015). A combination of  fly ash and organic matter 
reduces heavy metals, kills pathogens in sludge, improves 
bulk density, porosity, and biological activity in the soil, 
and reduces the leaching of  nutrients, which is beneficial 
for agricultural utilization (Tu et al., 2022). Organic 
amendment applications provide anchorage and growth 
of  the plant on a fly ash dumping site.

Agriculture
Fly ash improves soil fertility status, plant growth, and 
agricultural yield (Bayat, 2002a, 2002b; Bhattacharya, 
Iftikar, Sahariah, & Chattopadhyay, 2012; Gorai & Ash, 
2018; Kishor, Ghosh, & Kumar, 2010). It improves soil 
texture properties, aeration (Page, Elseewi, & Straughan, 
1979), water-holding capacity, and porosity(Kene, 

Lanjewar, Ingole, & Chaphale, 1991). It provides 
micronutrients such as Mo, B, Fe, Zn, Cu, etc. (Dinjus, 
Fornika, & Scholz, 1996; Khan & Wajid, 1996). Fly ash 
is used for the reclamation of  sodic soils and acidic soils 
(Adriano, Page, Elseewi, Chang, & Straughan, 1980; 
Bhattacharya & Chattopadhyay, 2003; Haynes, 2009; S. 
Singh & Gupta, 2003). However, there are associated 
hazards such as the effects on human and grazing animals, 
groundwater pollution, and soil infertility due to high fly 
ash doses in agricultural fields. Radionuclide present in fly 
ash also causes radiochemical pollution. 

Geopolymers
More recently, fly ash has been used as a compound in 
geopolymers, where the reactivity of  the fly ash glasses 
generates a binder comparable to a hydrated Portland 
cement in appearance and properties but has porosity 
and reduced CO2 emission. The limited use of  fly ash 
geopolymer is due to its low reactivity, which depends on 
the particle size, glass content, and composition(Kumar 
& Kumar, 2011). 

Waste Treatment
Fly ash is combined with other alkaline materials to 
transform sewage sludge into organic fertilizer or 
biofuel (Bayat, 2002a, 2002b). It is used for domestic 
and industrial wastewater treatment and as a toxic metal 
adsorbent to remove industrial and poisonous wastes like 
dyes (Dasmahapatra, Pal, & Bhattacharya, 1998; Devi & 
Dahiya, 2006; Dutta, Basu, & DasGupta, 2003; Goswami 
& Das, 2000). 

Wood Substitute Material
Fly ash can be a good substitute for doors, windows, 
ceilings, partitions, furniture, etc. The main objective for 
using fly ash as a wood substitute composite (i.e., fly ash 
geopolymer composites) is to reduce deforestation by 
using it as an alternative to timber products, which is very 
much required to save our environment (Khan & Wajid, 
1996). The development of  fly ash-based composites 
needs fly ash as filler and jute cloth reinforcement. 

Management of  coal fly ash
Fly ash is a residual waste from burning fossil fuel in 
thermal power plants and is globally recognized as 
problematic. Studies have reported that the estimated 
annual yield in India, China, Germany, and the UK 
are 112, 100, 40, and 15 million tons, respectively. 
Some challenges in managing fly ash are the vast land 
requirement for disposal and the contamination of  
groundwater (Twardowska, Szczepanska, & Stefaniak, 
2003). Fly ash can be adequately managed when used in 
various applications like building and road construction, 
soil amelioration, glass ceramics, geopolymers, filling low-
lying areas, bricks, Portland cement, and concrete. The 
management of  fly ash as solid waste should concern 
regulatory bodies, with particular emphasis on utilization 
to keep our environment safe from its hazards. Power 

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plants should also adopt adequate fly ash management 
systems due to the large space occupancy within the 
power plant area. The coal fly ash also contains significant 
amounts of  toxic metals such as As, Ba, Hg, Cr, Ni, V, 
Pb, Zn, and Se, characteristically enriched in coal fly ash 
particles.

The environmental effects of  coal fly ash
Emissions from the burning of  fossil fuel
Carbon dioxide and Carbon monoxide
Outdoor and indoor fossil fuels are employed for global 
consumption and domestic energy purposes (Belyaeva 
& Haynes, 2012; J. Chen et al., 2014; Yousuf, Manzoor, 
Youssouf, Malik, & Khawaja, 2020). The CO2 emission 
from chemical processes is far greater than CO2 from 
oil-based chemical processes (J. Chen et al., 2014; Ren & 
Patel, 2009). According to Mohammad Ehsan Munawer 
(Munawer, 2018), CO and CO2 are mainly emitted from 
the chemical oxidation processes that occur during coal 
combustion, which significantly contribute to global 
warming and several health issues including cardiovascular 
diseases. About 90% of  the worldwide CO2 is from coal, 
also known as fossil fuel(Ewane & Ewane, 2023). COx 
gases are climate change contributing factors that lead to 
flooding and hurricane that negatively affects agriculture 
and the food chain (Ewane & Ewane, 2023; Gething et al., 
2010; Jos G.J. Olivier (PBL) & Marilena Muntean (IES-
JRC), 2015). The growth of  the plasmodium mosquito 
significantly depends on the temperature within the 
environment; therefore, CO2 emissions  may contribute 
to the increase in malaria, a primary global environmental 
health concern(Ewane & Ewane, 2023).      
 
Sulfides
Sulfur is released into the environment in gaseous forms 
during coal combustion, which leads to air, water, and 
land pollution. The annual sulfides and particulate matter 
emitted by unregulated coal power plants are twice higher 
than emissions from factories, trucks, and cars (Delucchi, 
2003; Skalska, Miller, & Ledakowicz, 2010). These 
gases travel hundreds of  miles away from power plants 
to pollute air and water and form H2SO4, a significant 
constituent of  acid rain (Likens, Wright, Galloway, & 
Butler, 1979; Skalska et al., 2010). Aerosols, mist, and 
smoke combines with SO2 and may penetrate the lining 
of  the lungs leading to severe lung diseases (Kelsall, 
Samet, Zeger, & Xu, 1997; Pourgholami, Akhter, Wang, 
Lu, & Morris, 2005). It affects farm plants and reduces 
crop yield (Galloway & Whelpdale, 1980; Rajput, DP, & 
WD, 1977; Winter, Mallepalli, Hellem, & Szydlo, 1994). 
The oxides of  SO2, NO2, and limited O3 generated during 
fossil fuel combustion produce acid rain upon hydration, 
fall within the surroundings of  industrial locations, and 
are then transported through rivers and water reserves 
at far distances. Consuming contaminated food causes 

severe complications (Foday Jr, Bo, & Xu, 2021). In 
summary, sulfides negatively impact human health. Coal 
with low sulfur and ash contents is preferred due to the 
harmful nature of  sulfur. 

Nitrogen
The exposure to NO2 gas emitted from coal pulverization 
in power plants and burning from our domestic activities 
aggregates in the air and causes environmental and 
health problems(Lee, Ha, Lee, Lee, & Kim, 2006; Levy, 
Moxim, Klonecki, & Kasibhatla, 1999). Pulmonary 
function is decreased when people are directly exposed 
to NO2 gas. Some have been so vulnerable to even lower 
NO2 concentrations in the air resulting in asthma, lung 
malfunction, respiratory failure, long-term pulmonary 
hypertension in young babies, DNA damage, and 
cancer(Alexis et al.; Arnold, Mittal, Katsuki, & Murad, 
1977; Chauhan & Johnston, 2003; Li, Liu, De, & Tao, 
2001; Roberts Jr, Polaner, Zapol, & Lang, 1992; Van 
Amsterdam et al., 2000). Nitrogen acids (HNO2 and 
HNO3) are formed when NO2 reacts with H2O damaging 
agricultural plants, decreasing the rate of  photosynthesis 
and structural buildings, and causing skin burns and skin 
cancers(A. Singh & Agrawal, 2007). In summary, nitrogen 
gases and compound affects human health and plants 
(Skalska et al., 2010).

Particulate Matter
The coal dust and fly ash significantly contribute to 
forming this component, which causes respiratory 
problems in children (Brabin et al., 1994; Y. Chen et al., 
2004; ClaneyL, 2002; K. A. Miller et al., 2007; Pope III, 
Ezzati, & Dockery, 2009). The bottom ash found in 
coal power plants or dumping sites affects aquatic and 
terrestrial animals (Temple & Sykes, 1992). The coal 
combustion residue also contaminates soils near ash 
ponds, decreases soil pH, hinders crop production, and 
affects the food web (Lokeshappa & Dikshit, 2012). 
Metals and other constituents in coal enhance the toxicity 
of  particulate matter (Boström et al., 2002; Organization, 
2006). The inhalation of  PAHs affects DNA molecules, 
resulting in DNA mutation, child neurodevelopment, 
reduced IQ, epigenetic effects, reduced child intelligence, 
cancer, and different cardiovascular diseases (Dragović et 
al., 2013; Edwards et al., 2010; Jedrychowski et al., 2003; F 
Perera, Li, Lin, & Tang, 2012; Frederica Perera et al., 2008; 
F. P. Perera et al., 2009)
The figure below shows how inhaled particles penetrate 
the lungs. The smaller the particle the deeper they 
penetrate the lungs. Particulate matter is one main 
contributor to air-born pollution, and it causes cancers, 
cardiovascular diseases, and reproductive disorders. 
Conclusively, particulate matter (PM) from fly ash is 
another leading source of  air pollution that causes various 
health problems. Hazardous elements in fly ash

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The silica fume generated in coal power plants contains 
toxic elements referred to as heavy metals. The ash 
constitutes immense amounts of  lead, mercury, arsenic, 
etc., which negatively affect soil and water. They are 
imperishable chemical elements present in coal gangue. 
Coal gangue is the leading industrial residue in coal 
combustion and it is largely produced due to continuous 
coal combustion. Large stockpiles of  coal gangue are 
in Asian countries such as China and India (Haibin & 
Zhenling, 2010; Tang et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2008). 

Lead 
Pb is a toxic metallic element found in fly ash, and it 
contaminates water and air, which travels far and wide 
areas of  coal power plants (Bhangare, Ajmal, Sahu, 
Pandit, & Puranik, 2011; Fernandez-Turiel, De Carvalho, 
Cabañas, Querol, & Lopez-Soler, 1994; Goldstein, 1992; 
Lansdown & Yule, 1986; Mushak & Crocetti, 1988). 
Exposure to lead damage the kidneys, heart, nervous 
system, and blood circulation in humans (Foday Jr 
et al., 2021; Naja & Volesky, 2017; Wang et al., 2006). 
Mining, moving vehicles, and burning coal are reported 
to be the primary sources in an occupationally exposed 
environment to Pb.  Children are more susceptible to Pb 
exposure than adults (Leggett, 1993; Todd et al., 1996).

Mercury
Investigations of  coal used in homes for domestic 
purposes show significant Hg (Naja & Volesky, 2017). 
Hg is a deadly toxicant in the environment also emitted 
from fossil fuel combustion and circulates far distances 
through atmospheric dissemination. Hg is highly unstable 
in its free state. The bacteria present in water chemically 
transform Hg to methyl mercury (MeHg) which, when 
consumed by eating aquatic animals, will conglomerate 
in their systems and thus affects the function of  the 

brain of  the fetus of  pregnant women. The increased Hg 
binding with the thiols of  tubulin, a protein that forms 
the microtubules in the neurons, leads to structural-based 
pathological modulation, thereby resulting in neuronal 
migration and other brain deformities in newborns(Lu 
& Holmgren, 2014; Osman et al., 2000; Silva-Adaya, 
Gonsebatt, & Guevara, 2014).

Arsenic
The release of  arsenic poses severe illnesses like lung, 
heart, skin diseases, etc., and it is known as the third most 
toxic element. It occurs in different oxidizing states and 
undergoes various types of  chemical reactions to form 
other products. The human body takes up arsenic trapped 
in the hair and nails (Dai et al., 2012; Kang et al., 2011; Liu et 
al., 2007; Tian et al., 2013).  The amount of  trace elements 
in coal is determined according to grade. Yudovich et 
al. (Yudovich & Ketris, 2005a) in their article stated the 
average amount of  arsenic content around the world for 
low-rank coal, such as bituminous and lignite coal. Arsenic 
is released in the form of  oxides at lower and higher 
temperatures (Cui & Chen, 1998; Shpirt, Goryunova, & 
Zekel, 1998; Yudovich & Ketris, 2005b). Some of  the 
symptoms experienced when arsenic (As) is consumed 
in food and inhalation are weakness, drowsiness, fatigue, 
asthma, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, 
etc. Long-term exposure to arsenic (As) from water and 
air may lead to anemia, leukemia, leukopenia, and DNA 
damage that may lead to various cancers like skin and 
respiratory cancers (Lerman, Ali, & Green, 1980; Okui & 
Fujiwara, 1986). Conclusively, the release of  arsenic from 
burning coal in power plants leads to severe illnesses, 
including lung, heart, and skin diseases.    

Radioactive Elements in Fly Ash
Radioactive elements, such as uranium, thorium, radium, 

Figure 1: Illustration of  how minute particles infiltrate into the lungs(Wilson et al., 2009) 

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etc., are also present in fossil fuels and their combustion 
products. They are released alongside their decay 
products from the original coal formations in the form 
of  gas or solid. People are exposed to the emission of  
these radionuclides during fly ash utilization like concrete, 
stabilization, amelioration, agriculture, etc. Exposure to 
these will result in severe radiological health consequences 
like cancer, cataracts, and genetic defects (Amin et al., 
2013; Gagnaire, Adam-Guillermin, Bouron, & Lestaevel, 
2011; Habib et al., 2019). Therefore, it is necessary to 
develop a radiation control program for the exposure of  
workers and the public in areas where power plants are 
installed.

Effect on Climate Change
Over the past 20 to 30 years, concerns about the threats and 
environmental deterioration on the planet have galvanized 
an international response as scientists, governments, global 
leaders, policymakers, intergovernmental organizations, 
and other stakeholders have coalesced to take urgent actions 
and discussions were centered around developing policy 
for energy usage within the context of  climate (Donaldson 
& Borm, 1998; Henderson-Sellers et al., 1998). Climate 
change can lead to flooding in coal ash ponds(Ewane & 
Ewane, 2023). Heavy rains raise the water table that leaks 
into ponds which may contaminate the groundwater used 
for agricultural and drinking purposes. Regulations should 
be developed to control coal ash ponds in coal-producing 
communities. This will help control coal ash dumps to stop 
the leaching and subsequent contamination of  drinking 
water. Coal power plants are responsible for managing the 
environmental impacts that arise from their operations. 
Heavy penalties should be levied for any health and 
environmental problems that result from fly ash. 

Public Health Impacts
The health problems of  fly ash can best be addressed 
through engineering solutions that efficiently remove 
particulates from the escaping gases(Yao et al., 2015). 

Heavy metals such as arsenic and molybdenum in 
fly ash threaten our health and environment if  not 
adequately managed. Inhalation for a very long time 
causes pneumonitis, allergy, asthma, lung, fibrosis, 
bronchitis, cancer, and silicosis (Donaldson & Borm, 
1998; Murugappan, Manoharan, & Nandhini, 2004; van 
Maanen et al., 1999). The fly ash stored in wet lagoons and 
dry landfill can infiltrate and contaminate the groundwater 
if  the encage is not correctly lined. People living near the 
disposal sites of  coal ash have a greater risk of  cancer 
and other illnesses from the contaminated drinking water, 
particularly water contaminated by arsenic which is the 
most toxic element in coal fly ash. Several studies have 
been conducted to assess the hazards caused by fly ash on 
the environment and health (Mehra, Farago, & Banerjee, 
1998; Murugappan et al., 2004; G. Singh & Vibha, 1999). 
Exposure to toxic heavy metals in coal fly ash can 
also affect human development, cause heart and lung 
problems, lead to stomach ailments, and contribute to 
premature mortality. Therefore, environmental regulatory 
agencies in coal-producing countries must categorize fly 
ash as a dangerous waste. Coal fly ash regulatory agencies 
should assist the affected communities in enforcing rules 
and regulations. The low-income earners are affected 
mainly by the waste disposal sites and often lack the 
financial and political target to agree with polluters when 
fighting to seek redress.  

Adverse Effects on the Environment
Millions of  tons of  fly ash leach into water reservoirs 
and contaminate drinking water. Power plants often use 
ponds to dispose of  their generated solid waste. They 
should therefore be levied with heavy charges whenever 
a community accident results from fly ash. The heavy 
metal elements severely attack the aquatic ecosystem, 
ultimately affecting fishermen’s sustenance. The fishing 
communities are concerned about the high level of  toxic 
heavy metals found in many water species (fish, prawns, 
crabs, oysters, etc.).   

Figure 2: Photos showing fly ash deposition in a pond

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METHODOLOGY
A systematic review was carried out from a sample of  
131 articles containing topical-related data. The research 
question was structurally formulated based on the 
utilization and environmental health implications of  fly 
ash from previous studies such as (Ahmaruzzaman, 2010; 
Ghazali et al., 2019; Gollakota, Volli, & Shu, 2019; Tu et 
al., 2022; Yousuf  et al., 2020) which highlighted fly ash 
utilization and (Dwivedi & Jain, 2014; Finkelman et al., 
2021; Gorai & Ash, 2018; Sun et al., 2016; Yousuf  et al., 
2020) reported their work on the environmental effects 
of  fly ash. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
According to a statistical report from the data in figure 

3, India, China, and the USA are the annual highest fly 
ash producers, with yearly productions of  112, 100, and 
75 million. 
India is the top global fly ash producer, followed by China 
and USA. Their annual statistical utilization is inverse to 
their production. Among these three countries, the USA 
utilizes 65% of  the fly ash produced, 45% by China, and 
India 38%. As shown in the data above, Germany is the 
highest fly ash producer among the European countries 
while Denmark, Italy, and the Netherlands as the lowest 
producers (2 million tons per annum each). The three 
lowest fly ash producers utilize 100% of  the fly ash 
produced, followed by France and Germany, where both 
equally use 85% of  the fly ash production.
The United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada produce 15, 

Figure 3: Fly ash production (mtn) and utilization (%) in various countries(Bhatt et al., 2019; Gollakota et al., 2019)    

13.1, and 6 million tons annually. Canada uses 75% of  the 
fly ash produced, followed by the UK and Australia, with 
50% and 45% utilization, respectively. The Middle East 
and Africa have an annual production of  32.2 million tons 
with 10% utilization. In contrast, the Russian Federation 
and other Asian countries have 26.7 and 16.7 annual 
outputs with 10% and 18% utilizations of  their annual 
fly ash productions, respectively. Among the three Asian 
countries (India, China, and Japan) in the above data 
(figure 3), Japan is the lowest fly ash producer, while India 
is the highest, followed by China as the second highest. 
Japan utilizes 96.3% of  the fly ash produced compared to 
India and China. On a global scale analysis, China, India, 
and the U.S.A. are the leading fly ash producers in the 
world, according to the data provided in figure 3. The 
European countries (Netherlands, Italy, Denmark, and 
Germany) with 100% and 85% and Japan (96.3%) are the 
highest utilizers of  their annual fly ash productions.       
According to the analysis of  this review, most countries 
are unable to utilize all their annual ash productions. Much 
ash is left unused, particularly in India and China, where 
it is generated in volumes. This means the remaining ash 

is probably disposed of  or exported to other countries 
around the globe for utilization in various applications. 
The global fly ash market for its utilization is briefly 
summarized below:   
From figure 4, the global market size of  fly ash in 2021 
was USD 12.1 billion. The market growth is projected to 
exponentially increase to USD 14.33 billion in 2024, USD 
15.16 billion in 2025, and USD 16. 90 billion in 2028. The 
estimated annual growth rate ( CAGR) between 2023 to 
2028 is 5.8%.      
According to a report from Vantage Market Research, 
Global Fly Ash sales are expanding. The increase in 
global energy demand is exponentially parallel to the 
global fly ash market for various construction purposes. 
It has excellent properties that boost the growth of  the 
fly ash market. China and India are the two countries 
contributing to the development of  the fly ash market 
due to their increased industrialization and urbanization 
initiatives to promote sustainable infrastructural projects. 
They, however, pointed out the following number of  
factors that are inhibiting the progress of  the fly ash 
market: 1) transportation and storage can be difficult and 

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Figure 4: Global fly ash market size and projected growth (Market, 2012)

expensive because the fly ash is a fine powder making 
it troublesome to handle; 2) Quality variability factor 
affects fly ash market by making it difficult for the 
contractors to determine the properties of  the ash., and 
3) Environmental concern is also a factor because of  the 
potential environmental impact that results in air and 
water pollution.  
The global demand for fly ash is currently overwhelming 
due to its utilization in multiple applications. This 
is particularly evidenced in bigger economy nations 
that have embarked on rapid infrastructural and other 
development projects. However, there are many health 
and environmental challenges, primarily from fossil fuel 
burning, ecological management problems, etc. The 
dangerous elements encountered during coal and fly ash 
utilization endangers human health. If  not adequately 
managed, heavy metals and radionuclides circulate into 
the air or leach into water sources, ultimately jeopardizing 
human health and crop yield. Also, fly ash utilization 
should be monitored for radon gas inhalation, particularly 
in building and construction practices, and potassium, 
thorium, and radium for soil and crop contamination. 
Another environmental concern is the pollution of  
gases such as COX, NOx, SOx, and particulate matter 
during coal combustion. COx gases are climate change 
agents that lead to global warming and flooding. NOx 
and SOX are acid rain components and affect crop yield 
and human health. The heavy investment in renewable 
energy sources to combat the problem of  climate change 
is causing a decline in the conventional production of  fly 
ash due to the closure of  several thermal power plants 
in Europe, the United States, etc. The emergence of  
alternative new techniques for fly ash production will 
sustain its utilization and market growth.  

CONCLUSION
Although fly ash is utilized for multiple purposes, it 
however, has so many environmental implications such 
as emissions (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfides, 
nitrogen, etc) from the burning of  coal and hazardous 

elements (lead, mercury, arsenic, radionuclides, etc) in 
fly ash which requires adequate management and safe 
disposal methods.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science 
Foundation of  China. Thanks, and appreciation to Wang 
Wei of  the chemical engineering department, school of  
Water and Environment of  Chang’an University for the 
adequate supervision and for providing the platform for 
the successful conduct of  this work.

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