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American Journal of  
Chemistry and Pharmacy (AJCP)

Influence of  Nano Copper Oxide Addition on the Thermal, Rheological and Tribological 
Properties of  Locally Sourced Avocado Oil Based Nanofluids

Idris Iliyasu Kirim1*, Samuel Ishaya2, Amos Danlami Agbu3, Tani Yavala1, Paul Notani4, Mohammed Gambo Abdullahi1

Volume 3 Issue 1, Year 2024
ISSN: 2834-0116 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajcp.v3i1.3869
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajcp

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: October 05, 2024
Accepted: November 11, 2024
Published: December 30, 2024

The goal of  this study is to turn waste into value by producing lubricant from abandoned 
avocado fruits, as the globe looks for more environmentally friendly and sustainable 
lubricants than those derived from fossil fuels. In response to the growing need for high-
performance, environmentally friendly products, we created a lubricant enriched with 
copper oxide nanoparticles (nCuO) using avocado oil as the foundation. The nano copper 
oxide was elucidated using XRD. To find out how these nanoparticles impact the oil’s 
viscosity, thermal stability, and other important characteristics, we introduced trace amounts 
of  nCuO at concentrations of  0.4 wt%, 0.8 wt%, and 1.2 wt% in our studies. The nanofluids 
underwent 3.5 hours of  ultrasonication at 75°C. The formulation with 0.8 weight percent 
nCuO proved to be the most effective, with a higher flash point of  220°C and viscosities 
of  7.5 cSt at 40°C and 2.7 cSt at 100°C, all of  which satisfied the ASTM D445 standards. 
Furthermore, as compared to pure avocado oil, the ideal formulation demonstrated a 13.6% 
decrease in the coefficient of  friction (COF) and a 16.9% decrease in wear rate. Good low-
temperature performance was indicated by the pour point of  -1°C and the cloud point of  
15°C, respectively. According to the thermal conductivity measurements, the oil’s capacity 
for heat transport was improved by the addition of  nCuO. These results imply that avocado 
oil-based nanofluids, especially those containing 0.8 weight percent nCuO, have great 
potential as high-performing, environmentally friendly substitutes for lubricating light-duty 
engines and other industrial uses.

Keywords
Avocado Oil, Nanofluids, Nano 
Copper Oxide, Tribological 
Properties

1 Department of  Mechanical Engineering, Taraba State Polytechnic, Suntai, Nigeria
2 Works Department, Taraba State Polytechnic, Suntai, Nigeria
3 Department of  Electrical Electronic Engineering, Taraba State Polytechnic, Suntai, Nigeria
4 Department of  Science Lab. Technology, Taraba State Polytechnic, Suntai, Nigeria
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: kirimsid@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Rising awareness of  environmental sustainability and 
dwindling fossil fuel reserves have driven a worldwide 
movement towards eco-friendly alternatives across 
various industries. The lubricant sector, in particular, 
faces mounting pressure to lessen its dependence on 
petroleum-based products due to their non-biodegradable 
nature and harmful impact on the environment. 
Conventional lubricants made from petroleum not only 
damage ecosystems but also accelerate the depletion 
of  finite resources. To address these issues, bio-based 
lubricants especially those sourced from vegetable oils 
are increasingly recognized as promising substitutes. 
Avocado oil, known for its high viscosity index, 
outstanding thermal stability, and abundant fatty acid 
content, has gained attention as potential base oil for bio-
lubricants. Its natural attributes make it ideal for uses that 
demand consistent lubrication at diverse temperatures. 
Nevertheless, similar to other vegetable oils, avocado 
oil struggles to meet the demanding performance 
standards of  industrial applications especially in wear 
resistance, friction reduction and oxidative stability 
which have impeded the broader adoption of  bio-
lubricants in sectors with rigorous performance criteria. 
Nanotechnology presents a promising solution to these 
challenges. Integrating nanoparticles like nano copper 
oxide (CuO) into bio-lubricants has been proven to 
significantly improve their tribological properties. With 

its high surface area and distinct physical characteristics, 
Nano CuO enhances anti-wear and anti-friction qualities 
while offering excellent thermal conductivity.
These improvements position nano CuO as an excellent 
additive for enhancing the performance of  lubricants 
derived from avocado oil, potentially closing the gap 
between environmental sustainability and industrial 
efficiency. Although the outlook is promising, there is 
limited comprehensive research on avocado oil-based 
lubricants formulated with nano CuO additives. Current 
studies mostly address either the base properties of  
avocado oil or the overall impact of  nanoparticles on 
lubricant performance, which leaves a significant gap in 
understanding this unique combination fully. This study 
aims to fill that gap by developing an eco-friendly and 
high-performance lubricant using avocado oil as its 
base combined with nano CuO additives. By employing 
systematic formulation, thorough characterization, and 
extensive performance testing methods, our research 
seeks to advance sustainable lubricant technologies while 
providing a viable alternative to conventional options that 
align with both environmental and industrial standards.
Traditional petroleum-based lubricants, though effective, 
present considerable environmental challenges due to 
their non-biodegradability and the emission of  harmful 
byproducts. With Nigeria being a signatory to the Paris 
Accord and international environmental regulations 
becoming stricter alongside increasing demand for 



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sustainable industrial practices globally, reducing reliance 
on fossil fuel-based products has become crucial. This 
shift necessitates finding eco-friendly alternatives. 
However, bio-based lubricants made from vegetable oils 
often fail to meet performance requirements in heavy-
duty or high-temperature applications, which hinder their 
widespread use. Large quantities of  avocado fruit are 
being transported from Gembu in the Sardauna Local 
Government Area of  Taraba State to other regions, 
especially Jalingo, the state capital. However, due to long 
travel distances and a lack of  specialized transportation 
methods, many avocados spoil before reaching their 
destination markets. This results in waste that needs 
disposal and underscores an urgent need to transform 
this wasted produce into valuable products. Avocado 
oil is known for its high thermal stability and viscosity 
index which make it promising base oil for bio-lubricants. 
Nevertheless, its natural properties do not yet match 
up with the superior performance offered by synthetic 
lubricants alone. Advances in nanotechnology have 
shown that adding nano copper oxide (CuO) additives 
could significantly boost anti-wear qualities while 
reducing friction and enhancing thermal stability when 
used within avocado-based oils as lubricants. Despite 
these possibilities, there remains insufficient research on 
formulating such improved lubricant solutions featuring 
enhanced characteristics through nano scale CuO 
integration marking out crucial gaps needing bridging 
toward establishing sustainable high-efficiency lubrication 
standards systematically vetted via appropriate testing 
methodologies under various conditions.
In their study, Shafi et al. (2018), investigated the 
tribological performance of  copper (Cu) nanoparticles 
mixed with avocado oil as a lubricant. They used a Pin-
on-Disc tribometer to evaluate both the lubricating 
capabilities of  pure avocado oil and the enhanced 
effectiveness when Cu nanoparticles were added. Stribeck 
curves were plotted for both base oil and oils containing 
Cu nanoparticles at concentrations of  0.5 wt. % and 1 
wt%. The worn surfaces on aluminum alloy 6061 pins 
were examined using scanning electron microscopy 
(SEM). Their findings revealed that incorporating Cu 
nanoparticles reduced friction and wear noticeably. 
A minimum coefficient of  friction was observed at a 
concentration level of  1 wt%, while specific wear rate 
reached its lowest point at the concentration of  0.5 wt%. 
This enhancement in overall tribological properties was 
attributed to the film-forming ability offered by adding 
these particles to bootstrap those advantages over 
ordinary base oils. 
In another study by Guzman et al. (2018), they explored 
the tribological properties of  copper nanoparticles. They 
incorporated these particles at concentrations of  0.3 wt% 
and 3.0 wt% into both mineral oil and synthetic ester 
base oils. The team utilized a pin-on-disk tribometer 
to measure the coefficients of  friction (COF). From 
their investigations into friction and wear, they arrived 
at several conclusions: (1) they discovered that copper 

nanoparticles are unsuitable for use in synthetic ester base 
oil. The addition of  these particles increased wear by 7.5 
times, and there was no change observed in the friction 
behavior. (2) Incorporating copper nanoparticles into 
mineral base oil significantly decreased friction and wear. 
At a concentration of  0.3 wt% of  copper nanoparticles, 
the reduction in wear was observed to be as much as 
64%. Ultimately, they concluded that while copper 
nanoparticles are effective in mineral base oils, they do 
not perform well in synthetic base oils.
Akl et al. (2018) had examined the tribological properties 
of  engine lubricants enhanced with nano-copper 
oxide as an additive. They incorporated copper oxide 
nanoparticles into Mobil 1 SAE15W-40SF engine oil at a 
concentration of  0.1% by weight. Two new engines were 
utilized for testing over a period of  1000 hours; one was 
supplemented with the nanolubricant while the other 
used standard lubricant. Periodic sampling resulted in 
twelve samples from each engine to assess wear particles 
using ASTM-D6595 spectrometry standards. Further 
analysis on selected oil samples employed Laser Net Fines 
Analyzer tests, revealing improved friction characteristics 
through decreased wear rates when nano-additives were 
applied. Specifically, reductions in aluminum, iron, and 
chromium wear particles were observed at rates of  48%, 
11.5%, and 42%, respectively alongside average declines 
in specific types: cutting wear reduced by around 39%, 
severe sliding wear by approximately 36%, and fatigue 
wear by about 60%. Additionally, a notable decrease in 
engine temperature was achieved.
In their study, Rajaganapathy et al. (2021) investigated 
the tribological properties of  vegetable oil enhanced 
with nanoparticles using a pin-on-disc tribometer. They 
utilized palm and brassica oils in their experiments, 
incorporating copper oxide (CuO) and titanium oxide 
(TiO2) nanoparticles as additives at weight percentages 
of  0.1% and 0.5%. The findings revealed that palm oil 
containing a lubricant sample with 0.5% CuO exhibited 
a significant reduction in both coefficient of  friction 
and wear compared to other lubricant samples tested. 
Additionally, the viscosity and thermal conductivity 
properties increased as nanoparticle concentrations were 
raised within these vegetable oils.

MATERIALS AND METHOD
Materials
The materials used to carry out this research safely are 
listed below:

• Waste Avocado fruit.
• Copper acetate
• Sodium hydroxide 
• Oleic acid 
• Ethanol
• Phosphoric acid 
• Water
• Potassium Hydroxide
• Sodium Hydroxide



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Am. J. Chem. Pharm. 3(1) 27-34, 2024

Method
Preparation of  Base Oil
Waste avocado fruits were collected from Gembu 
and Jalingo. They fruits were cleaned, with the stones 
separated from the skins. The pulp was placed in a 
blender and bitten until it becomes thick paste. The paste 
was then thin spread onto a tray to ensure a wider surface 
area. The tray was lodge into an oven initially set at the 
temperature of  450C and held for 5-6hrs until it turns 
dark green. The dark green paste was transferred in small 
batch onto thin cheesecloth, while applying pressure, 
the oil is extracted slowly into a cleaned container. This 
procedure was repeated until 1000cm3 of  avocado oil 
was obtained. Finally, the extracted oil is transferred into 
plastic bottle and labeled AvoOil for storage. This process 
is painstaking and the oil yield is small as compared to the 
industrial process.

Purification of  Base Oil
Determination of  the Acid Value
A digital balance was used to weigh 1.11g of  base oil, 
while another measurement recorded 0.56g of  KOH, 
which was then dissolved in 100ml of  water to create a 0.1 
molar solution. This KOH solution was titrated against 
the oil until the endpoint indicated by the oil turning pink 
was reached at a volume of  2.7 ml, determining what is 
known as either the acid value or neutralization number.

Determination of  % Total Fatty Acid
The %TFA was obtained from equation 1 below,
%TFA= (Total Fatty Acid)/2              (1)

Preparation of  Copper Oxide Nanoparticles
An aqueous solution containing 0.02 mol of  copper 
acetate was prepared in a round-bottom flask. To this, 1 
ml of  glacial acetic acid was added and the mixture heated 
to 100°C with constant stirring using magnetic stirrer. 

Subsequently, 0.4 g NaOH was gradually introduced into 
the warmed solution until its pH reaches neutral (pH = 
7), resulting in a copious formation of  black precipitate. 
This precipitate was then subjected to centrifugation 
and washed four times using deionized water before 
being air-dried for up to one day. To enhance surface 
functionality, CuO nanoparticles were modified by 
adsorbing oleic acid as a carboxylate onto their surfaces; 
this chemical modification facilitates superior integration 
within blends acting as solid-liquid suspensions ultimately 
fostering strong intermolecular forces at interfacial zones 
according Van Der Waals theory by minimizing molecular 
agglomerations. This was achieved by dispersing 5g of  
nanoparticle into a preheated 100ml of  ethanol at 600C. 
The solution was then stirred for 15 minutes to attain 
even dispersion, and then 0.25 ml oleic acid was added 
and stirred for 2h. The solution was centrifuged to 
separate the ethanol-oleic acid mixture. The resulting 
nanoparticles were oven dried at 80 0C to remove the 
excess surfactant as adopted from (Oparanti et al., 2021).

Bio NanoLubricant Preparation (BNnL)
The nano-lubricant was formulated into one sample by 
dispersing the treated CuO nanoparticles (NP) into the 
purified avocado fruit oil in weight percentages from 
0.4 wt. % and stirred. The dispersion of  nanoparticles 
in the base oil was done by ultra-sonication for 3.5h, 
at fixed interval of  30 minutes throughout the process. 
The sonication was conducted at 59 Hz frequency, 100% 
power, and temperature of  75 0C. The precipitates at the 
bottom of  the beaker were checked to make sure that 
the dispersion process is going in accordance with the 
protocols by (Lawal et al., 2023). After the sonication, the 
blend was vacuum dried for 24hrs to exclude the effect of  
gas bubbles and moisture generated during the process. 
The Biolubricant produced was stored into a bottle and 
labeled AvonCuO4.

Figure 1: Graphical Abstract



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Evaluation of  Chemical Properties
XRD of  Nano Copper Oxide
The phase composition of  the nano copper oxide powders 
were investigated through data that were collected on 
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) patterns machine 
(Rigaku Miniflex diffractometer operating a copper tube 
at λ=1.5418A, which was generated at a voltage of  40 KV 
and a current of  30 mA.

Viscosity Measurement
Kinematic viscosity at 40°C and 100°C was measured 
using a Brookfield DV-II+ Pro Viscometer following 
ASTM D445. Viscosity index was calculated based on the 
measured values.

Cloud Point and Pour Point Measurement
The cloud point and pour point were determined using 
ASTM D2500 and ASTM D97, respectively.

Cloud Point
Visual observation of  wax formation while cooling the 
nanofluid.

Pour Point
The lowest temperature at which the nanofluid remained 
flowable.

Flash Point Measurement
Flash point was measured using the Pensky-Martens 
closed-cup apparatus according to ASTM D93.

Tribological Test
The pin-on-disk Anton Paar tribometer, which measures 
friction and wear with extreme precision under controlled 
loading circumstances, was chosen to evaluate the 
tribological characteristics of  the nanofluids. The test 
was devised to assess the impact on wear behavior and 
friction of  varying quantities of  copper oxide (CuO) 
nanoparticles distributed in avocado oil.

Friction and Wear Measurements
During the tribological test, the following properties were 
measured:

Coefficient of  Friction (COF)
The COF was continuously recorded using the Anton 
Paar tribometer’s high-resolution friction force sensor 
(0.06 mN resolution), which accurately captured small 
variations in frictional forces throughout the test.

Wear Scar Diameter
After each test, the wear scar on the stationary balls was 
measured using optical microscopy. This allowed for an 
estimation of  the wear resistance of  the nanofluids.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
XRD pattern of  the nCuO particles
From figure 2 below, the crystalline planes of  nano 
copper oxide, or nano CuO, are generally represented by 
discrete peaks in the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern. The 
peaks at 2θ values of  36° and 39° in a nano CuO XRD 

Figure 2: XRD patterns of  nCuO particles

pattern are particularly interesting to examine because 
they can reveal information about the sample’s phase 
composition and crystal structure. Prominent peaks at 
36° and 39° usually suggest that monoclinic CuO makes 
up the majority of  the sample’s composition. The lack 
of  further prominent peaks may indicate phase purity, 
which would indicate the presence of  none or very little 
other copper oxides (such as Cu2O or metallic copper). 

The size of  the CuO nanoparticles can be inferred from 
the peak broadening. Larger crystallites are indicated by 
sharper peaks, and smaller nanocrystallites are indicated 
by broader peaks. The degree of  crystallinity can be 
inferred from the relative intensities of  these peaks in 
relation to other peaks in the XRD pattern. Relative to 
the background noise, high-intensity peaks indicate well-
ordered crystal formations.



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Kinematic Viscosity 
The kinematic viscosity of  the nanofluids was measured 
at both 40°C and 100°C for three different concentrations 

of  nCuO: 0.4 wt%, 0.8 wt%, and 1.2 wt%. The results are 
summarized in Table 1 and illustrated in Figure 3.

Table 1: Viscosity of  nCuO nanofluid at different concentrations
Conc. (wt%) Viscosity @40oC Viscosity @100oC
0.4 6.2 2.1
0.8 7.5 2.7
1.2 8.9 3.5

Figure 3: Viscosities of  nCuO particles at different Conc

Figure 3 illustrates a steady rise in viscosity with increasing 
nCuO concentration. At 40°C, the viscosity rose to 8.9 
cSt at 1.2 wt% from 6.2 cSt at 0.4 wt%. Likewise, across 
the same concentration range, the viscosity at 100°C 
increased from 2.1 cSt to 3.5 cSt. These findings support 
the notion that the presence of  nanoparticles, particularly 
at greater concentrations, increases fluid resistance to 
flow. These viscosity values are within permissible bounds 
for lubricants, per ASTM D445, particularly for industrial 

applications where temperature control is crucial. Ali et 
al. (2015) showed a similar trend in which the addition of  
metal oxide nanoparticles raised the viscosity.

Cloud and Pour Point
The cloud and pour points of  the nanofluids were 
measured to assess the low-temperature performance of  
the fluids. Table 2 and Figure 4 summarize the results.

Table 2: Cloud and Pour Points of  nCuO Nanofluids
Conc. (wt %) Cloud Point in oC Pour Point in oC
0.4 15 -1
0.8 13 -3
1.2 11 -4

Figure 4: Cloud and Pour Points of  nCuO Nanofluids



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Figure 4 illustrates how cloud and pour points gradually 
decrease as nCuO concentration rises. The cloud point 
was 15°C at 0.4 weight percent and 11°C at 1.2 weight 
percent. The pour point also dropped, going from -1°C 
at 0.4 wt% to -4°C at 1.2 wt%. These decreases imply 
that raising the nCuO concentration improves the 
fluid’s low-temperature performance and increases its 
suitability for cold situations. The observed pour points 
satisfy ASTM D97 specifications for hydraulic fluids and 
industrial lubricants that must continue to function at 
lower temperatures. The findings of  Sedighi et al. (2014), 
who found that metal oxide nanoparticles decreased the 
pour point of  oil-based fluids, are likewise consistent with 
this trend.

Flash Point
The flash point is an important safety measure for fluids 
that operate at elevated temperatures. Table 3 and Figure 
5 summarize the results of  the flash point measurements 
for the nanofluids.

Tribological Properties

Table 3: Flash Points of  nCuO Nanofluids
Conc. (wt %) Flash Point (oC)
0.4 217
0.8 224
1.2 231

Table 4: Tribological properties of  Nanofluid
Sample COF Wear Scar 

Diameter (mm)
Pure Avocado Oil 0.096 0.45
0.4wt% nCuO Nanofluid 0.081 0.38
0.8wt% nCuO Nanofluid 0.073 0.32
1.2wt% nCuO Nanofluid 0.078 0.35

Figure 5: Flash Points of  nCuO Nanofluids

The flash point rose as the concentration of  nCuO 
increased, as Figure 5 above illustrates. From 217°C at 
0.4 wt% to 231°C at 1.2 wt%, the flash point increased. 
This increase in flash point suggests that as nanoparticle 
concentration rises, so does the nanofluid’s thermal 
stability. For industrial applications, like engine oils or 
heat transfer fluids, that need stability at higher operating 
temperatures, these values are acceptable, under ASTM 
D93, which describes the closed-cup test procedure 
for flash point determination. Vajjha and Das (2009) 
observed a similar trend, with metal oxide nanoparticles 
improving base oils’ thermal stability.

The friction coefficient is marginally lower at 0.4 weight 
percent nCuO than base oil, indicating a minimal 
degree of  lubrication enhancement. More nanoparticles 
suspended in the base fluid at 0.8 weight percent cause 
the friction coefficient to further decrease, improving 
boundary lubrication. Because of  an even thicker coating 
of  protective nanoparticles that lessens direct metal-to-
metal contact, the friction coefficient for the 1.2 weight 
percent sample is at its lowest. This decrease is in line 
with earlier research (Li et al., 2015), which demonstrates 
that friction in nanofluids is much reduced at increasing 
nanoparticle concentrations.
It is clear from the data that tribological performance 
improves with increasing nCuO concentration. The wear 
scar diameter, wear rate, and lowered frictions are all 
well-balanced in the 0.8 weight percent sample. The 1.2 
weight percent sample, on the other hand, had the lowest 
wear rate, friction coefficient, and wear scar diameter, 
offering the best overall performance. When taking into 
account both tribological and economic factors, 0.8 
weight percent may be the best option because it offers 
significant improvement without the higher costs and 
possible handling complications associated with a higher 
concentration of  nanoparticles, even though 1.2 weight 
percent offers superior tribological performance.

CONCLUSION
The potential of  avocado oil-based nanofluids 
augmented with nano copper oxide (nCuO) as a 
workable substitute for traditional lubricants is well 
demonstrated by this study. The viscosity, tribological 
performance, and thermal stability of  the lubricant were 
all markedly enhanced by the addition of  nCuO at an 
ideal concentration of  0.8 weight percent. According 
to the findings, the improved formulation significantly 
reduced the coefficient of  friction and wear rate when 
compared to pure avocado oil, in addition to showing a 
higher flash point and excellent viscosity characteristics. 
These results demonstrate how well nano additives work 
to improve the performance of  bio-lubricants, which 
qualifies them for use in high-performance lubrication 
applications. The combination of  the advanced qualities 
of  nCuO with avocado oil, a renewable and biodegradable 
resource, is in line with the growing need in a variety of  
industrial sectors for environmentally friendly lubricants. 



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Additionally, this work opens the door for future studies 
into the stability and long-term performance of  avocado 
oil-based nanofluids and advances our knowledge of  the 
synergistic impacts of  nanotechnology on bio-lubricants. 
In summary, this research highlights the significance of  
creative methods for improving environmentally friendly 
lubrication technology, encouraging a change in the 
lubricant sector toward more environmentally friendly 
options.

Recommendations
i. It is recommended to explore additional 

concentrations of  nCuO beyond 0.8 wt% to identify any 
potential enhancements in lubrication performance and 
thermal stability. This may help determine the optimal 
concentration for specific applications.

ii. Conduct long-term stability and aging studies 
of  avocado oil-based nanofluids to evaluate their 
performance over extended periods. This will help 
ascertain their viability for real-world applications and 
identify any degradation issues that may arise.

iii. Implement field tests in various mechanical systems, 
such as light-duty engines and industrial machinery, to 
assess the performance of  the optimized nanofluids 
under operational conditions. This will provide insights 
into their practical effectiveness and durability.

iv. Investigate the environmental impact of  using 
avocado oil-based nanofluids in comparison to 
conventional lubricants. This assessment should include 
studies on biodegradability and toxicity to ensure that 
these formulations align with sustainability goals.

v. Consider investigating other bio-based oils as 
potential base fluids for nanofluid formulations. This 
could expand the range of  sustainable lubricant options 
available and enhance the understanding of  how different 
oils interact with nano additives.

vi. Encourage collaboration with industry stakeholders 
to facilitate the adoption of  advanced bio-lubricants. 
This partnership can foster innovation and support 
the development of  new technologies that enhance the 
performance and sustainability of  lubricants.

vii. Educational Outreach: Promote awareness and 
education on the benefits of  using bio-lubricants, 
particularly those enhanced with nanotechnology, within 
both the industrial sector and academic circles. This will 
help drive interest and investment in sustainable lubricant 
solutions.

Funding
This work was sponsored under the TETFund’s 
Institution Based Research (IBR) Funds, (2024).

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