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American Journal of  
Chemistry and Pharmacy (AJCP)

Patterns of  Health Complaints and Perception of  the Role of  Pharmacists Among Clients 
Visiting Community Pharmacies in Lagos State, South-West Nigeria

Promise Olaitan Ernest-Otaru1, Tinuola Omotomilayo Odugbemi1, Aloysius Obinna Ikwuka2*, Francis Chigozie Udeh2

Volume 4 Issue 1, Year 2025
ISSN: 2834-0116 (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajcp.v4i1.4310
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajcp

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: January 03, 2025
Accepted: February 01, 2025
Published: March 10, 2025

Health complaints and its patterns differ generally in the population. The public perception 
of  community pharmacies and drug vendors as a one-stop facility for almost all health 
complaints and services is a major determinant of  the type, quantity, quality, effectiveness, 
and success of  healthcare as they encourage irrational use of  drugs and poor utilization of  
health facilities. In addition, the existing high prevalence of  self-medication encouraged by 
the constant displays, advertisement, and access to over-the-counter drugs contribute to 
the problem. The aim of  this study was to assess the patterns of  health complaints and 
perception of  the role of  pharmacists among clients visiting community pharmacies in Agege 
Local Government Area (LGA) of  Lagos State. A descriptive cross-sectional study of  305 
adults visiting community pharmacies in Agege LGA using a multi-stage stratified sampling 
technique was used. Data was collected using an interviewer-administered questionnaire 
and analyzed using SPSS Version 23. The Chi-square test was used to test the association 
between socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics (independent variables) and 
perception of  the role of  pharmacists (dependent variable) of  the study participants at a 
significance level of  p<0.05. Among the study participants, the mean age was 36.83±11.89 
years, the majority were females, married, from the Yoruba tribe, living with family members, 
employed, and earning below the poverty level of  US$2 per day. The patterns of  health 
complaints ranged from minor ailments like pain (21.0%), multiple symptoms (13.1%), 
upper respiratory tract infections (11.5%), and fever (8.9%) to more major conditions like 
gastrointestinal disorders (6.6%) and non-communicable diseases like hypertension, diabetes 
mellitus, and hyperlipidemia (11.1%). The majority (83.0%) of  the study participants have a 
positive perception of  the role of  pharmacists, as 77.7% of  them believed that pharmacists 
should be able to advise them on their medications, and 56.7% believed they should be able 
to report any drug-related adverse effect to a pharmacist. The socio-demographic and socio-
economic characteristics of  the study participants have no statistically significant association 
with their perception of  the role of  pharmacists in community pharmacies (p>0.05). The 
patterns of  health complaints at community pharmacies ranged from minor to more serious 
complaints that were related to age groups and income status. Therefore, community 
pharmacies should be stocked with over-the-counter as well as prescription-only drugs.

Keywords
Community Pharmacies, Health 
Complaints, Lagos State, Nigeria, 
Patterns, Perception, Pharmacists

1 College of  Medicine, University of  Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria
2  College of  Medicine and Health Sciences, American International University West Africa, Banjul, The Gambia
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: aloysiussweet@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
Pharmaceutical care has recently become a vital element 
of  national healthcare systems. When data from this 
sector is accurately gathered, it can significantly aid 
in compiling healthcare statistics and tracking disease 
trends, spread, and prevalence. In Nigeria, community 
pharmacies serve as private drug retail centers overseen 
by licensed pharmacists, offering a variety of  primary 
healthcare (PHC) services alongside traditional 
medication dispensing (Bradley, 2013; Ihekoronye, 2020). 
In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), community 
pharmacists in these private drugstores are instrumental 
in monitoring the health of  both children and adults, 
as people often visit these pharmacies for minor health 
issues. This trend is driven by the accessibility of  over-
the-counter drugs and a growing preference for self-
diagnosis and self-treatment (Zawahir, 2021; De Tran, 
2019). In these settings, community pharmacists generally 
interact with 11–30 patients daily, with each consultation 
lasting an average of  4.8 minutes (Ayele, 2018; Yusuff, 
2021). Community pharmacies have expanded their 

services beyond dispensing medications; they now offer 
counseling, healthcare advice, and affordable medication 
options, all while prioritizing confidentiality and 
adherence to medical ethics (Ihekoronye, 2020). As they 
normally open late and are often available on weekends, 
community pharmacies make healthcare accessible 
without appointments.
The types of  complaints presented at community 
pharmacies vary depending on factors like location, 
demographics, seasons, and prevailing public health 
concerns in the host community and environs. Common 
complaints include detailed symptom information, 
with cases such as diarrhea in infants and adults and flu 
being prevalent in economically disadvantaged regions 
(Nguyen, 2023; Nafade, 2019). Flu is a serious public 
health threat in regions with impoverished populations 
and poor healthcare accessibility (Nguyen, 2023). Other 
frequent issues in LMICs include aches, migraines, 
physical injuries, fever, allergies, insect bites, skin rashes 
and reactions, cardiovascular disorders, and other 
respiratory and gastrointestinal upsets, with common 



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treatment requests for cold remedies, oral rehydration 
solutions, and pain relievers (Ihekoronye, 2020; Yusuff, 
2021). Some other customers visit pharmacies to refill 
ongoing prescriptions.
In many urban areas of  Nigeria, including the Agege 
Local Government Area (LGA) of  Lagos State, 
community pharmacies play a crucial role in addressing 
diverse health complaints. However, the specific patterns 
of  these health complaints presented at these pharmacies 
are not completely understood. There is lack of  clarity 
on patient perception of  the role of  pharmacists in these 
community pharmacies, which may hinder the optimal 
use of  community pharmacies and potentially lead to 
poorer health outcomes.
Patient satisfaction plays a crucial role in influencing 
perception and continued use of  healthcare services. 
Studies have examined patient satisfaction across various 
healthcare settings, finding that factors like demographics, 
health status, medical care, communication with the 
patient, and patient expectations impact satisfaction 
(Ferreira, 2023). More specifically, patients’ satisfaction 
with community pharmacy services has been studied 
in some European countries where patients reported 
being highly satisfied (Cavaco, 2005; Edideco, 2000). 
However, a similar study in Nigeria reported that patients 
were unsatisfied with undue delay in drug dispensation 
(Afolabi, 2003).
There is a growing interest in evaluating patients’ 
perception of  the actual role of  pharmacists in community 
pharmacies, with studies conducted in some countries in 
Europe e.g. Malta (Wirth, 2011), Bosnia and Herzegovina 
(Catic, 2013); in Africa e.g. Nigeria (Aderemi-Williams, 
2017), Ethiopia (Fekadu, 2011); and in the Middle-East 
e.g. Saudi Arabia (Al-Arifi, 2012), United Arab Emirates 
(Akshar, 2014).
The quality of  service and effectiveness of  community 
pharmacists’ primary healthcare (PHC) interventions 
depend largely on contextual variables such as patient 
health outcomes, duration per encounter, cost of  drugs, 
the emotional concern of  community pharmacists, the 
delivery of  care by the community pharmacists, and the 
overall patient experience. These factors are important 
determinants of  patients’ perception and acceptability 
of  community pharmacists in local practice settings 
(Aderemi-Williams, 2017; Afolabi, 2003; Ekpenyong, 
2018). From entering the pharmacy to obtaining 
medications and paying for them, every step influences 
patient satisfaction and the perception of  the role of  
pharmacists in community pharmacies in rendering 
quality healthcare (Aderemi-Williams, 2017).
Recognizing that the success of  PHC and therapy are 
dependent on patient satisfaction and health outcomes, 
and that patients constitute an essential source of  
information about care effectiveness (Donabedian, 1992), 
this study therefore aimed to provide a comprehensive 
data on the patterns of  health complaints and perception 
of  the role of  pharmacists in community pharmacies 
among clients visiting community pharmacies in Agege 

LGA of  Lagos State, South-West Nigeria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The study was conducted in Agege Local Government 
Area (LGA) of  Lagos State, South-West Nigeria. Agege 
LGA has a vibrant economy with several urban markets, 
about 35 community pharmacies, and an estimated 
population of  683,600 (City Population, 2024). The 
recorded population of  residents above 15 years of  age 
within the study area from a previously conducted census 
was 307,677 (City Population, 2024). The estimated 
number of  community pharmacies in Agege and Ifako-
Ijaiye LGAs (both in Lagos State) is 150, each of  which 
receives 30 patients daily (Medpages, 2024).

Study Design
A descriptive, cross-sectional, community-based survey 
was conducted for six (6) weeks using a well-structured 
interviewer-administered questionnaire.

Study Population
The clients who visited community pharmacies within 
the Agege LGA within the study period constituted the 
study population.

Sample Size
A sample size of  305 was deduced from the total 
population using the Cochrane formula for single 
proportion formula, n = (Z2PQ)/d2 , in concordance 
with (Okeke, 2023a; Okeke, 2023b; Okoro, 2024a; Okoro, 
2024b; Udeh, 2023).
Where:
n = minimum sample size when the population is greater 
than 10,000.
Z = standard normal deviation usually set at 1.96 
corresponding to a 95% confidence interval obtained 
from a standard statistical table of  normal distribution.
P = proportion of  the population that visits community 
pharmacies in a similar study conducted among adult 
traders in Agege LGA with a non-response rate of  40%, 
and P was 85% = 0.85 (Afolabi, 2008).
Q = 1 – P = 1 – 0.85 = 0.15
d = degree of  accuracy desired (absolute precision) = 
5.0% = 0.05
Therefore: 
n = (1.962×0.85×0.15)/0.052  =  195.9,  approximately 
196
It is ideal to consider a non-response after calculating 
the minimum sample size using the Cochrane sample 
size formula. Similar to another study (Afolabi, 2008), 
a non-response rate of  40% was considered to cover 
erroneously filled questionnaires, some study participants 
dropping out, or loss of  data.
To adjust the estimated minimum sample size for non-
response and attrition, 
n = n0 / expected response rate   =  196/0.6 = 326.67 
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Of  this calculated sample size, only 305 individuals who 
agreed to participate were selected using a multistage 
stratified sampling method. Five wards (Isale/Idimangoro, 
Orile Agege, Darocha, Keke, and Okekoto) were balloted 
from the eleven wards in Agege LGA. Three community 
pharmacies were balloted from each ward, making a total 
of  fifteen selected community pharmacies visited within 
six weeks for data collection. 

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Male and female adults, resident and non-resident clients 
visiting community pharmacies in Agege LGA were 
included in the study. Health professionals including 
medical doctors, nurses, and pharmacists currently 
working in other healthcare facilities and patent medicine 
vendors within Agege LGA were excluded in the study. 

Study Procedures
One-on-one well-structured interviewer-administered 
developed Google form questionnaires containing a 
total of  33 questions, consisting majorly of  closed-ended 
questions together with a few open-ended questions 
adapted from the literatures, were piloted and used as 
data collection tools for this study. Each questionnaire 
has three sections:
Socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics 
of  the study participants
Patterns of  complaints of  the study participants
Perception of  the role of  pharmacists by the study 
participants

Study Techniques and Data Collection
A reserved area, free from interruption, was created 
within the pharmacy and used for the interview. Using 
a stratified random sampling method, clients who visited 
the pharmacies within the six weeks of  the survey and 
were willing to participate were selected. On average, 50 
questionnaires were administered weekly. From the in-
flow of  clients into the community pharmacy, an individual 
was approached every 20 minutes. Only a member of  the 
research team was involved in administering and filling 
out the questionnaires on Google Forms. Upon successful 
data collection, questionnaires were cross-checked for 
adequacy of  information, numbered, organized, and 
entered into a Microsoft Excel sheet for data analysis. 

Reliability of  Study Techniques and Data Collection
A pre-test of  the data collection tool (questionnaire) was 
carried out among 30 clients (approximately 10% of  the 
sample size) in two community pharmacies in a different 
LGA (Ikeja LGA). Some questions were later modified 
for clarity. Using the Pearson correlation coefficient (r), 
the test-retest reliability of  the data was determined for 

this study. r>0.7 was obtained which was enough to 
justify the use of  research instruments since 0.7 is the 
minimum score for a good test-retest (Kline, 2000).

Data Analysis
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23 
software was used to validate and analyze the data. A 5% 
significance level (p-value) was considered significant. The 
socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics 
of  the study participants and their responses to questions 
were expressed in frequencies and percentages. The 
patterns of  complaints were recorded and compared to 
the age groups and income status of  the study participants. 
The perception of  the role of  pharmacists in community 
pharmacies was assessed using the eight (8) different 
response options in which they can select multiple choices 
that are appropriate. Six (6) out of  the eight question 
options provided were appropriate responses while two (2) 
were inappropriate responses. The maximum obtainable 
score was 8 and the minimum was 0. Any respondent who 
scored >4 by choosing appropriate options was classified 
as having a positive perception, and any score ≤4 was 
classified as a negative perception.  Bivariate analysis was 
conducted using Chi-square to determine the association 
between socio-demographic and socio-economic 
characteristics (independent variables) and perception 
(dependent variable).

Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the 
Health Research and Ethics Committee (HREC) of  the 
Lagos University Teaching Hospital (LUTH). A letter 
of  introduction was obtained from the Department of  
Community Health and Primary Care in the College of  
Medicine, University of  Lagos and this letter was presented 
to community pharmacies to seek permission from the 
related authorities of  the community pharmacies which 
were involved in the study. The interviewer properly 
informed the participants of  the nature of  the study, its 
objectives, its confidentiality, its importance to the society, 
and an informed oral consent was obtained from all study 
participants. There were no financial benefits to the study 
participants. The participants were also assured that they 
could withdraw from the study at any time during the 
data collection stage without suffering any consequence 
if  they choose not to participate further.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of  305 individuals participated voluntarily in this 
present study, giving a 93.3% response rate from the 
anticipated 327 sample size. The obtained results are 
presented in tables and figures.

Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of  the study participants
Variable Frequency (n=305) Percentage (%)
Age group (years)
< 20 6 2.0



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20-24 21 6.9
25-29 73 23.9
30-34 64 21.0
35-39 47 15.4
40-44 24 7.9
45-49 19 6.2
50-54 18 5.9
55-59 14 4.6
≥60 19 6.2
Mean±SD 36.83±11.89
Gender
Male 138 45.2
Female 166 54.4
Transgender 1 0.3
Marital status
Single 93 30.5
Married 201 65.9
Divorced/Separated 6 2.0
Widowed 5 1.6
Ethnicity
Yoruba 202 66.2
Igbo 41 13.4
Hausa 33 10.8
Others 29 9.5
Living status
With family 252 82.6
Alone 40 13.1
With non-family 13 4.3

The mean age was 36.83±11.89 years, the majority were 
young adults between the ages of  25 years and 44 years. 
Most were female - 166 (54.4%), majority (65.9%) were 

married, were of  the Yoruba tribe (66.2%) and live with 
their family (82.6%).

Table 2: Socio-economic characteristics of  the study participants
Variable Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
Highest level of  education completed
Highest level of  education completed 6 2.0
None 21 6.9
Vocational 73 23.9
Primary 64 21.0
Secondary
Tertiary
Employment status
Employed
Self-employed 139 45.6
Private employed 89 29.2
Government employed 30 9.8
Unemployed
Student 26 8.5



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Retired 12 3.9
Unemployed (due to lack of  job) 9 3.0
Estimated monthly income in Naira (N)
<N10,000 10 3.3
N10,000 – N30,000 12 3.9
N30,001 – N50,000 51 16.7
N50,001 – N100,000 131 43.0
N100,001 – N200,000 73 23.9
N200,001 – N500,000 20 6.6
>N500,000 8 2.6
LGA of  residence in Lagos State
Agege 274 89.8
Ifako-Ijaiye 12 3.9
Alimosho 8 2.6
Ojodu 5 1.6
Ota 2 0.7
Surulere 1 0.3
Eti-Osa 1 0.3
Ikeja 1 0.3
Isolo 1 0.3

Majority of  the study participants reside within Agege 
LGA of  Lagos State - 274 (89.8%), had completed 
the tertiary level of  education – 175 (57.4%), and were 
employed - 258 (84.6%). Most - 204 (66.9%) earned 
below US$2 per day, out of  which 22 (7.2%) earned 

below the prevailing minimum wage (as of  the time of  
data collection) of  30,000 naira approved by the Federal 
Government of  Nigeria. As of  today, the minimum wage 
in Nigeria has been increased to 70,000 naira by the 
Federal Government of  Nigeria.

Table 3: Types of  complaints among study participants, other reasons for visits to community pharmacies 
S/No. Types of  complaints Frequency (n=305) Percentage (%)
Pains 64 21.0
Multiple symptoms 40 13.1
Upper respiratory tract infections 35 11.5
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs – hypertension, 
diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia)

34 11.1

Fever 27 8.9
Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) disorders 20 6.6
Refill of  prescriptions 17 5.6
Genital infections 14 4.6
Need for supplements 13 4.3
Dermatological conditions 11 3.6
Hormonal related issues 9 3.0
Need for OTC drugs 6 2.0
Ear infection 4 1.3
Eye infection 3 1.0
Other eye problems 3 1.0
Insomnia 3 1.0
Shortness of  breath 1 0.3
Other complaints (BPH, erectile dysfunction, cramps) 1 0.3



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Pain was highly prevalent among this population aside 
other complaints as it was reported by 21.0% of  the 
study participants. Other symptoms with high prevalence 
were multiple symptoms (13.1%), upper respiratory 

tract infections (11.5%), non-communicable diseases 
(hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and hyperlipidemia) 
11.1%, and fever 8.9%.

Figure 1: Previous (3-6 months) health complaints of  the study participants

Figure 2: Health complaints of  the study participants by age group

The commonest health complaints of  the study 
participants in the past three to six months were collected, 
recorded, and compared with their present health 
complaints. The majority of  the study participants have 
had multiple symptoms (34.4%), pains in different parts 
of  the body (12.1%), complaints of  non-communicable 
disease (11.8%) which was almost similar (in percentage) 

to complaints of  upper respiratory tract infections 
(10.5%). Other health complaints were GIT disorders 
(4.6%), fever (3.3%), genital infection (5.2%), eye 
infection (2.0%), shortness of  breath (1.0%), insomnia 
(3.0%), ulcer related issues (0.3%), and hormonal related 
issues (0.3%).

The majority of  the old adult respondents complained 
of  having non-communicable diseases and many of  them 
were there to fill their prescriptions. Next to them were 
the middle-aged adults. Conversely, the majority of  the 

young adult respondents complained of  pains and upper 
respiratory tract infections. Multiple symptoms were 
presented across all the age groups. A lower percentage 
of  the elderly adult respondents presented multiple 



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symptoms while a higher but similar percentage of  the 
young adults and middle-aged adults presented it.
In addition, the highest percentage of  those who 

complained of  genital infection were the elderly adults 
followed by middle-aged adults, and GIT disorders were 
also more common among the elderly adult respondents. 

Figure 3: Health complaints of  the study participants by income status

Pain was the most frequently reported health complaint in 
both income groups (living below poverty line and living 
above poverty line), with a slightly higher percentage in 
those living below poverty line. The percentage is over 
20% for both groups, making it the dominant complaint 
across all categories. Both groups reported a notable 
percentage of  upper respiratory tract infections, with 
slightly higher percentages among those living above 
poverty line.
The respondents complained of  multiple symptoms while 

a lower percentage of  the middle-income respondents 
and upper-income respondents presented it. The highest 
percentage of  those who complained of  genital infection 
was the upper-income respondents followed by middle-
income respondents. Moreover, the highest percentage 
of  those who complained of  genital infection was 
the upper-income respondents followed by middle-
income respondents, and GIT disorders were also more 
common among the middle- and upper-middle-income 
respondents. 

Table 4: Perception of  the role of  community pharmacists by the study participants
S/No. Types of  complaints Frequency 

(n=305)
Percentage 
(%)

Advise me on the drugs I am using 237 77.7
Report to them if  I react to a drug 173 56.7
Seek advice from them if  the condition is not serious enough to visit a physician 153 50.2
Provide information on the use of  drugs and answer my drug-related questions 98 32.1
Help monitor and provide information on my health progress with the medication 77 25.2
Provide extended services like health screening services, BP monitoring, and blood 
sugar monitoring mainly in community pharmacies

48 15.7

Function as a medical doctor 13 4.3
Give injections or drips 7 2.3

The majority of  the study participants believed that a 
pharmacist should be able to give them advice on the 
drugs that they are using - 237 (77.7%), they should be 
able to report any drug reactions to the pharmacist - 173 
(56.7%), and they should be able to seek advice from the 
pharmacist in conditions that are not serious enough to 
visit a physician - 153 (50.2%). However, the majority 
of  the study participants did not expect a pharmacist to 

give injections or drips (97.7%), function as a medical 
doctor (95.7%), nor provide extended services like health 
screening services, BP monitoring, and blood sugar 
monitoring mainly in community pharmacies (84.3%).
Table 5 shows that the majority of  the study participants 
- 253 (83.0%), had a positive perception of  the role of  
pharmacists in community pharmacies.



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Table 5: Overall perception of  the role of  pharmacists in community pharmacies by the study participants
Variable Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
Positive Perception 253 83.0
Negative Perception 52 17.0

Table 6: Association between socio-demographic characteristics and perception of  the role of  pharmacists in 
community pharmacies by the study participants
Variable Positive Perception 

n=253
Negative Perception 
n=52

X2 df Fisher’s exact
p-value

Age group (years) 3.561 9 0.938
<20 5 (83.3%) 1 (16.7%)
20–24 16 (76.2%) 5 (23.8%)
25–29 59 (80.8%) 14 (19.2%)
30–34 53 (82.8%) 11 (17.2%)
35–39 40 (85.1%) 7 (14.9%)
40–44 22 (91.7%) 2 (8.3%)
45–49 15 (78.9%) 4 (21.1%)
50–54 14 (77.8%) 4 (22.2%)
55–59 12 (85.7%) 2 (14.3%)
≥60 17 (89.5%) 2 (10.5%)
Gender 0.241 2 0.887
Male 115 (83.3%) 23 (16.7%)
Female 137 (82.5%) 29 (17.5%)
Transgender 1 (100.0%) -
Marital status 1.138 2 0.566
Single 74 (79.6%) 19 (20.4%)
Married 170 (84.6%) 31 (15.4%)
Divorced/Separated/
Widowed

9 (81.8%) 2 (18.2%)

Ethnicity 5.694 3 0.127
Yoruba 171 (84.7%) 31 (15.3%)
Igbo 29 (70.7%) 12 (29.3%)
Hausa 27 (81.8%) 6 (18.2%)
Others 26 (89.7%) 3 (10.3%)
Living status 1.421 2 0.491
Living with family 212 (84.1%) 40 (15.9%)
Alone 31 (77.5%) 9 (22.5%)
Living with non-family 10 (76.9%) 3 (23.1%)

Please note: ** statistically significant (Fisher’s exact p-value), X2 – Chi squared, df  - degree of  freedom, p-value<0.05

Table 7: Association between socio-economic characteristics and perception of  the role of  pharmacists in community 
pharmacies by the study participants
Variable Positive Perception 

n=253
Negative Perception 
n=52

X2 df Fisher’s exact
p-value

Level of  education 
completed

3.309 4 0.508

There was no statistical significant association between 
any of  the socio-demographic characteristics of  the 
study participants and their perception of  the role of  
pharmacists in community pharmacies as all p-values 
were above 0.05. However, the majority of  them across 

the age classification had a positive perception of  the role 
of  pharmacists in community pharmacies. In addition, 
there was a close similarity between the perceptions 
of  males (83.3%), and females (82.5%). Most of  them 
(84.1%) who live with family had a positive perception.



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None 8 (66.7%) 4 (33.3%)
Vocational 22 (81.5%) 5 (18.5%)
Primary 7 (87.5%) 1 (12.5%)
Secondary 72 (86.7%) 11 (13.3%)
Tertiary 144 (82.3%) 31 (17.7%)
Employment status 0.173 1 0.677
Employed 215 (83.3%) 43 (16.7%)
Unemployed 38 (80.9%) 9 (19.1%)
Estimated monthly 
income in Naira

4.158 4 0.385

<N30,000 17 (77.3%) 5 (22.7%)
N30,001 – N50,000 44 (86.3%) 7 (13.7%)
N50,001 – N100,000 112 (85.5%) 19 (14.5%)
N100,001 – N200,000 60 (82.2%) 13 (17.8%)
>N200,001 – N500,000 20 (71.4%) 8 (28.6%)

Please note: **statistically significant (Fisher’s exact p-value), X2 – Chi-squared, df  - degree of  freedom, p-value<0.05

No statistical significant association exists between 
socio-economic characteristics and the perception of  
the role of  pharmacists in community pharmacies by 
the study participants (p>0.05). However, most of  the 
study participants had a positive perception of  the role 
of  pharmacists in community pharmacies regardless of  
their socio-economic status.
The average age of  36.83 years obtained in this current 
study indicates that the study participants consisted 
predominantly of  adults (25-39 years) opposing the study 
of  (Ojha, 2023) where teenagers and young adults (18-
29 years) dominated. The dominance of  adults in this 
current study can be related to the fact that adults within 
the 25-39 years age group are non-dependent and are 
much more active in earning for themselves (Korn, 1987; 
National Bureau of  Statistics, 2021), predisposing them 
to several stressors that cause ailments, which make them 
visit the community pharmacies often for treatment. 
The slight female majority - 166 (54.4%) aligns with 
global trends where women are more likely to engage with 
healthcare services than men (Bertakis, 2000; Dluhos-
Sebesto, 2021). The negligible transgender representation 
mirrors societal dynamics in Nigeria, where transgender 
individuals are a marginalized group, often leading to 
underreporting in surveys.
The high percentage of  married respondents - 201 
(65.9%) can be attributed to the cultural importance of  
marriage in the Nigerian society, while the predominance 
of  the Yoruba ethnicity - 202 (66.2%) can be attributed 
to the study location which is a Yoruba-dominated area 
as reported by (Okoro, 2024a; Okoro, 2024b). The 
finding that 252 (82.6%) of  the study participants live 
with their family suggests a significant influence of  family 
on the patterns of  health complaints and perceptions of  
healthcare services (Omeire, 2017). 
Most 274 (89.8%) of  the respondents reside in Agege 
LGA, which is a reflection of  the targeted sampling 
within a specific locality. The level of  educational 

attainment is commendable with over half  (57.4%) of  the 
respondents having completed tertiary education. This is 
indicative of  the status of  Lagos State as an educational 
hub in Nigeria, which might influence the lifestyle of  the 
respondents and which in turn determines their patterns 
of  health complaints at community pharmacies and their 
perception of  the role of  pharmacists in community 
pharmacies.
With a higher number (84.6%) of  employed respondents, 
majority (66.9%) of  them earn below the current poverty 
line (US$2 per day). This economic constraint likely 
impacts their healthcare choices, such as reliance on over-
the-counter (OTC) medications and self-medication, 
as evidenced in other parts of  this current study. The 
income distribution further emphasizes the economic 
challenges faced by the respondents, with only 9.2% 
earning above ₦200,000 monthly, reflecting the prevalent 
income disparity.
The patterns of  health complaints indicate a broad 
spectrum of  conditions are presented at community 
pharmacies, ranging from minor complaints like pain 
and fever to more significant health conditions like 
GIT disorders and non-communicable diseases (NCDs) 
e.g. hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia. 
Metabolic disorders e.g. hypertension, adiposity, diabetes 
mellitus and dyslipidemia collectively known as Metabolic 
Syndrome Diseases (MSDs) are diseases related to one 
another and have very high morbidity and mortality 
rates (Ikwuka, 2015; Ikwuka, 2017a; Ikwuka, 2017c; 
Ikwuka, 2023c; Ikwuka, 2023f; Virstyuk, 2016). Adiposity 
(obesity) is a risk factor for hypertension. Obesity is also a 
risk factor for Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (Ikwuka, 2023e).
Results obtained from different researches have 
shown that hypertension, adiposity, diabetes mellitus, 
dyslipidemia, asymptomatic hyperuricemia, systemic 
immune inflammation activation, and fibrogenesis 
can lead to kidney damage (Ikwuka, 2017d; Ikwuka, 
2017e; Ikwuka, 2018c; Ikwuka, 2018d; Ikwuka, 2019a; 



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Ikwuka, 2019c; Ikwuka, 2022; Ikwuka, 2023d; Virstyuk, 
2017a; Virstyuk, 2018a; Virstyuk, 2019; Virstyuk, 2021a; 
Virstyuk, 2021b).
The study identified that the most frequently reported 
health complaint among the respondents was pain. 
This aligns with the research of  (Shehnaz, 2013) which 
explained that pain or ache management was the primary 
reason expatriate high school students sought help 
at community pharmacies. Similar to these findings, 
other studies conducted on adolescents in Malta and 
Tamil Nadu, India reported that pain was the second-
highest complained symptom (Ellul, 2008; Arul, 2010). 
Pharmacies are often the first point of  contact for patients 
experiencing pain, due to the accessibility of  over-the-
counter (OTC) medications and the convenience of  
pharmacy services, a point highlighted by (Ellul, 2008) 
where pharmacies were reported as the most prevalent 
source of  medicines. This trend underscores the role of  
community pharmacies as crucial providers of  immediate 
relief  for minor ailments.
Multiple symptoms were also commonly reported, 
reflecting the complexity of  health conditions presented 
at community pharmacies. This may indicate either the 
presence of  multi-factorial illnesses or the recurrence 
of  inadequately treated conditions. The co-occurrence 
of  symptoms suggests that many clients might be 
experiencing complex health issues, necessitating a 
comprehensive pharmaceutical care.
Upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) were another 
prevalent complaint. Other studies also reported 
symptoms related to URTI like cough and cold to be 
prevalent (Ellul, 2008; Arul, 2010). The incidence of  
URTIs is consistent with the seasonal occurrence of  
respiratory illnesses, especially in urban areas like Agege 
LGA. This finding is significant given the role that 
pharmacies play in managing symptoms of  URTIs, such 
as coughs and colds, which are common reasons for 
self-medication. Urbanization has been associated with 
increased oxidative stress. Linked with the induction of  
oxidative stress are major free radicals. Among these 
major free radicals, superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical, 
and hydroperoxyl radical are of  physiological significance. 
Non-radical of  physiological significance is hydrogen 
peroxide (Ikwuka, 2023b). Increased oxidative stress 
can lead to mutation which is an alteration in the DNA 
sequence which produces new alleles (Ikwuka, 2023a).
The complaints of  NCDs like hypertension, diabetes 
mellitus, and hyperlipidemia by the respondents reflect 
the increasing burden of  chronic diseases in Nigeria, 
particularly in urban areas. The growing prevalence of  these 
diseases emphasizes the need for sustained management 
and the potential role of  community pharmacists in 
providing ongoing monitoring and care. Nevertheless, 
there is also need for new and effective treatment options 
in patients with Metabolic Syndrome Diseases. Sodium-
Glucose Linked Transporter 2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors e.g. 
Dapagliflozin and Glucagon-like Peptide 1 Receptor 
Agonists (GLP-1 RAs) e.g. Liraglutide have been found 

to improve the efficacy of  treatment and clinical course 
of  type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension in patients 
with such comorbidities (Ikwuka, 2017b; Ikwuka, 2018a; 
Ikwuka, 2018b; Ikwuka, 2019b; Ikwuka, 2021; Ikwuka, 
2024; Virstyuk, 2017b; Virstyuk, 2018b; Virstyuk, 2018c).
Complaints about fever were among the middle-range 
prevalent complaint. However, according to (Shehnaz, 
2013), most of  the respondents complained about 
fever. The complaint about fever could be indicative of  
underlying infections such as malaria. The timing of  this 
current study, conducted during a period with higher 
incidence of  malaria, could explain the prominence of  
fever as a reported symptom. The correlation between 
seasonal changes and the incidence of  fever points to the 
need for community pharmacies to be well-equipped to 
manage febrile illnesses.
Comparison of  the current health complaints reported 
by the study participants at community pharmacies 
to their previous (3 to 6 months) health complaints 
showed a recurrence or persistence of  certain health 
conditions. This is evident from the close similarity in 
the percentages of  some specific conditions, for example, 
upper respiratory tract infections accounted for 10.5% 
of  previous health complaints, and 11.5% of  current 
health complaints. Non-communicable diseases were 
reported in 11.8% of  previous health complaints and in 
11.1% of  current health complaints. Many clients who 
visited community pharmacies complained of  multiple 
symptoms, as reflected in 34.4% of  previous health 
complaints and in 13.1% of  current health complaints.
It is also apparent that conditions such as pain, fever, 
gastrointestinal disorders, upper respiratory tract 
infections, non-communicable diseases, dermatological 
conditions, and genital infections occur more frequently 
than other health complaints such as eye infections, ear 
infections, and insomnia. The observed increase in cases 
of  pain, fever, and gastrointestinal disorders may be related 
to the seasonal timing of  data collection which took place 
in June, a period of  frequent rainfall when many people 
were experiencing malaria symptoms (Ipadeola, 2024). 
Factors perceived as contributing to these febrile illnesses 
included stress, mosquito bites, unclean water, and rain 
(Das, 2024; Ipadeola, 2024).
The results indicate that clients visiting community 
pharmacies may have a variety of  reasons beyond seeking 
treatment for illnesses. Some visit to obtain supplements, 
which could be considered a preventive health measure, 
with 4.3% of  respondents doing so. Approximately 5.6% 
of  respondents were recorded visiting the pharmacy to 
fill or refill prescriptions, suggesting that some clients see 
a physician for diagnosis before visiting the pharmacy, 
and that prescription-only medicines (POMs) are still 
being obtained with a prescription. However, it is unclear 
whether all patients requiring POMs come with a doctor’s 
prescription.
Figure 2 illustrates the patterns of  health complaints by 
age groups. It can be inferred that pain was a significant 
health complaint in all age groups, but is highest among 



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Am. J. Chem. Pharm. 4(1) 1-15, 2025

young adults between 25-44 years. Young adults were the 
highest to complain about fever and multiple symptoms. 
This indicates that antipyretic drugs purchased as OTC 
were mostly used by this group. Associating pain with 
fever, and multiple symptoms suggests that malaria 
which presents with symptoms such as pain, fever, and 
which has been reported to be associated with the rainy 
season which was the period this research was conducted, 
is predominant among young adults. Elderly adults visit 
community pharmacies frequently for NCDs. 
The data also indicates that complaints of  genital 
infections were low among respondents between the age 
of  18-24 years and those above 60 years because the latter 
group includes the elderly who were already less active 
sexually. On the other hand, complaints about genital 
infections were high among respondents between the 
ages of  25-44 years (young adults). This finding indicates 
that even though the World Health Organization (WHO) 
reported a high incidence of  sexually transmitted 
infections (STIs) among individuals between 15-49 years 
(WHO, 2024), those below 25 years were more cautious 
in preventing STIs, and those older than 25 years were 
more reckless sexually, supporting the findings of  (Du, 
2022) which stated that the incidence of  age-standardized 
incidence rates (ASRs) of  syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, 
trichomoniasis, and genital herpes increased by 1.70% 
globally. The variety of  health complaints decreases with 
age, and certain health complaints are more prevalent 
in specific age groups, for example, URTIs, pain, 
multiple symptoms, and fever are most common among 
young adults (25-44 years old), likely due to cumulative 
occupational exposure as this group is predominantly of  
working age (Korn, 1987).
The association between health complaints of  the study 
participants by income status showed that pain was 
the most frequently reported health complaint among 
individuals living below and above the poverty line, 
with an insignificantly higher percentage in the former 
group likely because many are in the non-dependent 
age group and face socio-economic vulnerabilities, 
leading them to undertake menial jobs or lower-tier 
employment (Fagerlund, 2023). Respondents below the 
poverty line complained less about fever and more about 
multiple symptoms, indicating that multiple symptoms 
are dominated by fever (pyretic symptoms) leading to 
the dispensing of  antipyretic drugs and subsequently 
lowering the fever complaints. The high rate complaints 
of  URTIs, and a slightly lower rate of  GIT disorders in 
both groups are almost inseparable respectively. 
Other health complaints such as ear infections, eye 
infections, insomnia, and hormonal-related issues are less 
frequent across both groups but show slight variations, 
with some complaints like dermatological conditions, 
genital infections and hormonal-related issues being more 
prevalent among those living below the poverty line. Refill 
of  prescriptions and complaints of  NCDs were seen 
more often among those living above the poverty line, 
which may be attributable to their socio-economic status 

and better access to healthcare services enabling them to 
manage chronic conditions. Those below the poverty line 
reported a broader range of  symptoms, which indicate a 
more complex health burden and less access to preventive 
healthcare. 
The perception of  the role of  pharmacists in community 
pharmacies was assessed using eight different question 
options depicting user’s perception, from which they can 
select as many that are appropriate. A client’s understanding 
of  the role of  pharmacists in community pharmacies will 
help the client to align his/her expectations with the role 
of  the pharmacist which will improve the quality of  the 
services they receive. As described in Table 4, six out of  
the eight question options provided were appropriate 
responses while two were inappropriate responses. 
Respondents who scored >4 were classified as having 
a positive perception while those who scored ≤4 were 
classified as having a negative perception. 
In this current study, the perception of  the role of  
pharmacists in community pharmacies was largely 
positive (83.0%), with 77.7% believing that pharmacists 
should provide advice on drug use. This finding is 
consistent with the study of  (Awad, 2017; El-Kholy, 
2022; Xuan, 2023), where 86.3%, 72.0%, and 76.1% of  
respondents respectively, believed that it is the role of  
pharmacists to counsel patients about their medications, 
highlighting the trusted position of  pharmacists in the 
community especially for drug-related consultations. 
The high expectation for pharmacists to manage drug-
related issues, including adverse reactions (56.7%), is 
higher than the 40.0% reported by (El-Kholy, 2022), and 
54.8% reported by (Awad, 2017). This finding further 
emphasizes the community’s reliance on pharmacists for 
their pharmaceutical care.
Interestingly, 50.2% of  the study participants indicated 
they would seek advice from pharmacists for conditions 
not serious enough to warrant a visit to a physician. This 
finding agrees with the findings of  (Xuan, 2023) where 
67.5% of  respondents agree to seek a pharmacist’s 
services in treating minor symptoms such as cough, cold, 
constipation, and diarrhea. This suggests significant trust 
in pharmacists as the first point of  contact for minor health 
concerns. However, the expectation for pharmacists to 
perform roles beyond their traditional scope, such as 
health screening services (15.7%), functioning as medical 
doctors (4.3%) or giving injections or drips (2.3%) was 
notably low. This finding reflects a lack of  awareness 
about the expanding roles of  pharmacists in some 
healthcare settings or cultural norms that delineate the 
roles of  different healthcare professionals, similar to the 
reports of  (Akshar, 2014; Awad, 2017).
Moreover, while a majority (83.0%) of  the respondents 
had a positive perception of  the role of  pharmacists in 
community pharmacies, a lower proportion (17.0%) had 
a negative perception, indicating room for improvement 
in public education. This gap in understanding could be 
addressed through community outreach and educational 
programs designed to inform the public about the 



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comprehensive services pharmacists can offer, including 
health screenings and chronic disease management.
There was no statistical significant association between 
socio-demographic characteristics (e.g. age group, gender, 
marital status, ethnicity, living status) and socio-economic 
characteristics (e.g. level of  education, employment status, 
estimated monthly income) with perception of  the role 
of  pharmacists in community pharmacies, suggesting 
that perception was generally consistent across different 
population groups. The close similarity in positive 
perception between males (83.3%) and females (82.5%) 
further supports this finding. However, those living with 
family members had a better positive perception (84.1%), 
which could be linked to family influence in shaping 
healthcare decisions and perception.
However, one limitation of  this current study should be 
pointed out. The fact that data collection was carried out 
in June characterized with rains may influence the patterns 
of  health complaints. In other non-rainy, dry and dusty 
months, the patterns of  health complaints may differ.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the recurrence of  certain health complaints 
suggests that community pharmacies are a primary 
resource for ongoing care, particularly for chronic medical 
conditions. There is a need for better public education 
on the expanding role of  pharmacists in healthcare 
delivery. Enhancing public awareness about the risks of  
self-medication and the comprehensive health services 
offered by pharmacists, as well as a stricter regulation and 
enforcement on drug sales and acquisition could lead to 
better health outcomes. Leveraging family dynamics and 
addressing the broader socio-economic challenges in the 
society could further improve the community’s approach 
to healthcare.

Acknowledgments
The authors express their gratitude to everyone who 
contributed in one way or the other to make this research 
a success. The authors are also grateful to all the men 
and women who participated in this research for their 
cooperation and support, which are highly appreciated.
Conflict of  Interest
The authors hereby declare that they do not have any 
possible conflicts of  interest.

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