









































Pa
ge

 
1



Pa
ge

 
1

American Journal of  Economics and 
Business Innovation (AJEBI)

Innovative Pay Methods: Addressing Compensation Challenges in the Construction
Sector in South Sudan
Jackline Benjamin Libo Warille1*

Volume 4 Issue 3, Year 2025
ISSN: 2831-5588 (Online), 2832-4862 (Print)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajebi.v4i3.5343
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: June 01, 2025

Accepted: July 04, 2025

Published: August 25, 2025

The protracted civil conflict in South Sudan has significantly impeded the development of  
infrastructure, particularly the road system, which remains inadequate or nonexistent in 
many rural areas where 80% of  the population resides. Among the many difficulties faced 
by construction companies include material delivery delays, a shortage of  local skilled labor, 
disruptions during the rainy season, insecurity, delayed project approvals and payments, 
and a large number of  public holidays. Furthermore, culturally motivated employee 
procrastination has a detrimental impact on output. Employee pay usually does not take 
these difficulties into consideration, which affects business performance. The purpose of  
this study was to suggest innovative payment strategies suited to the unique construction 
environment of  South Sudan. The study employed a mixed-methods approach.  Data was 
collected from eight project locations via questionnaires, interviews, and workshops. SPSS 
and qualitative content analysis were used to analyze the data. Three successful pay models 
were found: Management-Driven Pay (MDP), Shared Pay Rate (SPR), and Team-Based Pay 
(TBP). These strategies seek to match incentives with actual problems that exist on the 
ground, such as security and weather. To encourage better labor relations in the industry, the 
report suggests modifying the Labor Act of  1997.

Keywords
Compensation, Construction, 
Innovative, Methods, Pay, Sector

1 School of  Business Management, University of  Juba, South Sudan
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: oringo.james@ku.ac.ke

INTRODUCTION
Background
Due to decades of  civil war, South Sudan essentially 
experienced a lack of  fundamental infrastructure, which 
eventually reduced a large portion of  its industrial 
potential. An estimated 80% of  the country’s population 
lives in rural areas, where the road network is appalling 
and, in some places, nonexistent (ADB, 2012). As a key 
tactic to promote economic growth, the South Sudanese 
government has made road construction investments 
a top priority. This stance was reaffirmed during the 
nation’s Economic Cluster of  the Council of  Ministers 
meeting, which highlighted the urgent need for roads in 
the nation to facilitate trade and generate employment 
(UNMISS, 2013).
However, due to the high cost of  developing roads 
throughout the nation, the government’s and its 
development partners’ road construction projects have 
not gone smoothly. Inadequate equipment for high-quality 
road building, insufficient but unskilled human resources 
paid through haphazard compensation methods, and 
unfavorable climate variations that cause drought or heavy 
rainfall to damage unpaved or murram roads, are the main 
causes of  these high costs. According to UNICEF’s 2011 
Labour Market Report, 94% of  young people in South 
Sudan enter the workforce without any qualifications. 
This suggests that workers from neighboring countries 
fill specialized roles in industries like construction. 
Although this may serve as an explanation for the 
pay gap between international and domestic workers, 
unskilled foreign workers occasionally earn more than 

their domestic counterparts. Furthermore, the situation is 
not improved by the fact that international employees are 
paid in US dollars (Sudan Tribune, 2012). Even though 
bad weather, insecurity, and delays in the supply of  
construction materials and equipment sometimes force 
road construction to halt, road construction companies 
still pay their employees their full monthly salaries, which 
drives up the cost of  building a single road in South 
Sudan.
It’s also crucial to remember that most local workers do not 
associate their work performance with their pay because 
of  their cultural background and the detrimental effects 
of  the civil war. For them, simply showing up for work 
is sufficient reason to be paid. In response to the attitude 
of  local workers, respective construction companies 
have strengthened their supervisory functions, typically 
by hiring a foreign expert. This has further increased the 
already exorbitant cost of  road construction (Business 
Daily, 2014).
One of  the main causes of  the high cost of  building 
roads is the employment of  random compensation 
techniques in the country. The current pay method in the 
construction industry in South Sudan is not supporting 
the growth of  the companies. The fact that the existing 
pay structure ignores significant issues that impact the 
nation’s road construction sector lends credence to this 
viewpoint.
These issues include things like delayed delivery of  
building materials due to impassable roads, a shortage of  
skilled local workers, the inability to work during rainy 
seasons, insecurity brought on by rebels and intertribal 



Pa
ge

 
2

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi

Am. J. Econ. Bus. Innov. 4(3) 1-7, 2025

conflict, the inability to obtain new projects after old ones 
are finished or suspended, the approval and payment of  
certificates, and an excessive number of  public holidays. 
Procrastination also affects work, which is a product of  
staff  culture and mindset. 
  
LITERATURE REVIEW
As stated by Zaharie (2013), decisions related to 
compensation should be approached strategically. This is 
due to the significant portion of  a company’s resources 
allocated to compensation-related efforts. Consequently, 
it is essential for management and company owners to 
align compensation strategies with the broader goals and 
objectives of  the organization. In the context of  the road 
construction sector in South Sudan, the unpredictable 
environment in which these companies function limits the 
ability to take such careful considerations. In this situation, 
the majority of  road construction firms in South Sudan 
have embraced an entitlement compensation philosophy, 
which Zaharie (2013) describes as a philosophy that 
ensures salaries, benefits, and incentives regardless of  the 
variations in industry or economic conditions.

Widely Used Pay Models by Companies
Different researchers and dictionaries have recognized 
distinct pay models. According to the Free Online 
Dictionary, a fixed monthly salary is the sum of  money 
provided to employees for office or professional 
labor, usually on a monthly basis. The Fee for Service 
(FFS) model is an additional model. Employees are 
compensated according to the number of  office visits, 
tests, and treatments they perform under this approach, 
which is popular among healthcare practitioners (Centre 
for Studying Health System Change 2008 as cited in 
Greene et al., 2013). Merit pay, also known as pay for 
performance (PFP), has been seen as a successful strategy 
for encouraging workers to put in more effort (Mulvaney 
et al., 2012; Park & Sturman, 2012).
“Forge a link between pay expenditures and individual 
productivity” is the theory behind this approach 
(Mulvaney et al., 2012, p. 507). A compensation plan 
known as “team-based performance pay” links financial 
rewards to a group’s or project team’s performance as 
opposed to individual work. Among its fundamental 
tenets are responsibility and common objectives (Lawler, 
1990) group incentives connected to quantifiable results 
(Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992) and interdependence and 
cooperation as a means of  motivation (Hackman, 2002).

Team Based Performance (TBP) Pay Method and 
Compensation Challenges in Road Construction 
Sector in Turbulent Environments
Meyer (1994) examined how effective metrics can support 
teams and identified four key principles: the objective of  
measurement should be to assist a team; a team ought to 
establish its own measurement framework; a team should 
develop metrics that monitor the process for delivering 
value across multiple functions; and importantly, a team 

should not implement numerous metrics simultaneously. 
Meyer’s principles will aid a team in collectively reaching 
a goal. In road construction, a group can set a goal 
and strive to achieve it together. Merriman (2009) 
argues that incentivizing team performance may be 
counterproductive, as team members may perceive it as 
unfair. Rewarding teams is a good idea but there should be 
ways of  how to reward individuals within the team or else 
low performers will get paid for work done by other people.
Kim et al. (2011) examined the impact of  group-based 
pay for performance and discovered that it improves 
overall company performance. Members are more likely 
to collaborate as a team rather than focus on individual 
efforts (Ellemers et al., 2004; Kim et al. 2011). Through 
this approach, individual objectives are accomplished by 
aligning them with group goals, which motivates the team 
to work diligently towards achieving personal aspirations. 
Each team member contributes their unique skills 
and knowledge, allowing the group to reach its shared 
objectives. This, in turn, fosters a spirit of  teamwork. 
According to Kim et al. (2011), the sustainability of  group-
based pay for performance supports empowerment 
practices, which Kirman et al. (2004) defined as ‘an 
increased task motivation that is due to employees’. If  
empowered, teams will be able to make decisions that will 
support their plan to achieve specific set of  goals. They 
are usually satisfied when the outcome shows the impact 
of  their decision.
It’s crucial to understand that when employees are driven 
by their anticipated pay, they may be inclined to overwork 
machinery and deliver inferior quality output simply to 
meet their own interests. In the road construction sector 
of  a volatile environment like South Sudan, workers often 
misuse machinery when motivated by promised bonuses, 
and they rush to complete a section, which results in 
subpar work. Consequently, the consultants brought 
in to supervise the project often reject that section. As 
a result, the company is then forced to redo the work, 
leading to significant expenses on machinery repairs. 
Nonetheless, the communal way of  living in South Sudan 
may foster effective teamwork. Individualistic lifestyle is 
not common in South Sudan. People live communal life 
and may support working as a team.
 
Shared Pay Rate (SPR) and Compensation 
Challenges in Road Construction Sector in Turbulent 
Environments
The challenging and unproductive circumstances that 
employees encounter in unpredictable environments 
are often not represented in conventional compensation 
models. Studies indicate that workers are frequently 
undercompensated despite their readiness to remain 
engaged when projects experience delays due to 
logistical challenges, seasonal weather issues, and safety 
concerns (Mundial, 2017; Ahmed & Ochieng, 2020). As 
a result of  these shortcomings, researchers and industry 
professionals are exploring alternative compensation 
structures that align pay more closely with the actual 



Pa
ge

 
3

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi

Am. J. Econ. Bus. Innov. 4(3) 1-7, 2025

situational conditions. Among these options, the 
Shared Pay Rate (SPR) has gained traction as a method 
that offers employees income stability by designating a 
portion of  their wage that is independent of  individual 
daily performance. This method recognizes the 
uncontrollable outside influences that prevent consistent 
labor performance, such as weather extremes, road 
inaccessibility and civil unrest.
The significance of  SPR becomes particularly evident 
in volatile environments where traditional “pay-for-
performance” approaches fall short. By instilling a sense 
of  job stability and equity, SPR boosts employee morale 
and retention, especially in situations where risks are 
collective rather than individual (Bawole et al., 2021). 
Given that employees often face challenges beyond their 
control, SPR serves as an effective compensation strategy 
in South Sudan by ensuring that 50% of  wages are 
guaranteed regardless of  productivity. Research indicates 
that such models also enhance relationships within 
industries, foster collaboration, and mitigate conflicts 
between labor and management (Ndegwa & Wanjiku, 
2022).

Management-Driven Pay (MDP) and Compensation 
Challenges in Road Construction Sector in Turbulent 
Environments
In unstable regions such as South Sudan, challenges 
like systemic inefficiencies, poor infrastructure, and 
regular interruptions from conflict and adverse weather 
conditions often exacerbate compensation problems 
in the road construction sector. These persistent 
external factors remain unaddressed by conventional 
compensation models, which primarily focus on direct 
labor output. Consequently, these issues often lead to 
worker dissatisfaction, reduced productivity, and strained 
relationships within the industry (Gollin, 2019; Ali & 
Kamau, 2021). The increasing research on compensation 
reform in fragile states highlights the necessity for 
adaptable pay models that account for local contextual 
factors. The Management-Driven Pay (MDP) framework 
introduces a shift in accountability by empowering 
management to actively tackle site-level challenges such as 
material delays, security issues, and work interruptions due 
to weather. MDP fosters enhanced strategic planning and 
coordination among clients, contractors, and employees 
by making management accountable for establishing 
conditions that allow work to continue smoothly.
The foundations of  MDP are based on institutional 
and contingency theories, which assert that efficient 
compensation structures must consider both 
organizational capabilities and external conditions. 
To shield employees from unjust penalties, managers 
implementing MDP should not only ensure work 
readiness but also discuss non-performance factors 
with clients, such as inclement weather, conflicts, or 
inaccessible roads (Omwenga & Abebe, 2020). Research 
indicates that this approach mitigates blame-shifting and 
labor disputes by aligning accountability with decision-

making authority, thereby enhancing fairness and 
performance (Ndegwa, 2022). Nonetheless, effective 
leadership, clear contractual agreements, and supportive 
labor policies are essential for the successful execution of  
MDP. As a result, connecting pay results to managerial 
performance and project execution that considers the 
context, MDP provides a viable yet management-heavy 
approach to addressing compensation issues in delicate 
construction settings.

Compensation Challenges Faced by Road 
Construction Companies in Turbulent Environments
Construction companies operating in unstable regions 
deal with challenges such as political instability, conflict, 
poor infrastructure, and extreme weather conditions. 
These companies encounter significant problems related 
to compensation, which ultimately impacts employee 
morale and the completion of  projects. Traditional 
performance-based compensation models often fall 
short in these contexts because they fail to account for 
uncontrollable delays such as supply chain disruptions, 
flooding, or insecurity (Ali & Kamau, 2021). Although 
external disruptions frequently hinder employees from 
fulfilling their duties, they are often penalized for not 
performing. This has been linked to ongoing labor 
conflicts, decreased motivation, and elevated employee 
turnover (Gollin, 2019). In addition, inconsistent 
project financing and delayed client payments hinder 
construction companies from providing competitive 
salaries, particularly in public sector contracts. The 
absence of  a legislative framework that can adjust to these 
unpredictable working conditions further complicates the 
provision of  fair and prompt compensation (Omwenga 
& Abebe, 2020).
Insufficient labor regulations, informal employment 
agreements, and inconsistent enforcement strategies 
exacerbate compensation issues and erode employee 
trust. To avoid navigating complex labor laws, companies 
often resort to informal hiring practices, which later 
results in conflicts over wages and benefits (ILO, 2018). 
Moreover, social fragmentation plays a significant role 
because ethnic factors can influence perceptions of  pay 
equity, potentially causing clashes among local labor 
organizations (Saferworld, 2019). In addition, many 
road projects in South Sudan rely on funding from the 
government or donors, and delays in payments frequently 
impact worker morale and project timelines (Norwegian 
Refugee Council, 2022). Overall, these factors highlight 
the need for compensation strategies that are transparent, 
flexible, and tailored to the realities of  fragile states.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research Approach and Strategies
The research employed a mixed-method approach, 
integrating both quantitative and qualitative techniques as 
a research strategy. The goal was to enhance triangulation 
by complementing action research with diverse forms 
of  quantitative and qualitative information. As noted by 



Pa
ge

 
4

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi

Am. J. Econ. Bus. Innov. 4(3) 1-7, 2025

Denzin (1978), triangulation in action research involves 
gathering various types of  data, utilizing different sources, 
and collecting information at multiple points in time. 
This approach ensures a comprehensive and credible 
understanding of  the situation. Data was gathered from 
workshops, interviews, and questionnaires.

Study Population
At the time of  this research, there were only three 
local firms engaged in bridge and road construction: 
Payii, Markeric, and Tumu. Consequently, a decision 
was made to draw study samples from all members of  
the population. As noted by Babbie (2007), researchers 
should ensure that, when possible, every element that 
meets the theoretical criteria has an opportunity to be 
included in the sample. This approach allows researchers 
to maintain the representativeness and generalizability of  
their results.

Study Sample Size  
The group of  participants for Payii consisted of  7 staff  
members from each of  the 4 projects, resulting in a 
total of  28 field participants and 7 management staff. 
Therefore, the overall population for Payii was 35. Tumu 
had 2 projects, each with 7 staff  members, leading to a 
total of  14 field participants and 3 management staff. 
Hence, the total population for Tumu was 17. Markeric 
also had the same total population of  17. When it came to 
the actual distribution of  interview questionnaires, Payii 
had 29 individuals who collected the questionnaires, while 
both Mutu and Markeric had 17 each. This resulted in a 
questionnaire distribution rate of  83% for Payii and 100% 
for both Mutu and Markeric. Additionally, qualitative data 
were gathered from the workshops.

Data Analysis
The gathered data was reviewed for any errors resulting 
from either omission or misrepresentation. Frequency 
analysis of  both the interview and survey data was 
conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences 
(SPSS). The data collected from workshop minutes was 
analyzed through qualitative content analysis. Hsieh and 
Shannon (2005) identify three types of  content analysis: 
conventional, directed, and summative. Qualitative 
content analysis involves identifying underlying themes 
within the materials under examination. The researcher 
utilized both personal interview data and workshop 
minutes to derive meaning from the texts for better 
understanding. The frequency with which items appeared 
in the texts significantly contributed to the study’s findings. 
Hsieh and Shannon (2005) referred to this as summative 
content analysis. This method involves counting and 
comparing keywords or content, along with interpreting 
the deeper context.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Questionnaire Return Rate

As depicted in Figure 1, 29 employees from Payii 
completed and submitted the questionnaires, while Tumu 
and Markeric each had 15 employees who completed and 
returned theirs. This resulted in a 100% return rate for 
Payii and an 88% return rate for both Tumu and Markeric.

Figure 1: Questionnaire Return Rate

Figure 2: Employees’ understanding of  pay

Employees’ Understanding of  Pay
As illustrated in Figure 2 above, employees typically show 
a strong interest in understanding the factors related 
to their compensation. Concerns like the criteria for 
salary increases and types of  bonus payments are highly 
prioritized by these workers.

Figure 3: Knowledge of  Pay Components

Knowledge of  Pay Components
Figure 3 above indicates that 29% of  employees are 
aware of  the components of  their compensation, while 
71% are not informed. Many individuals lack knowledge 
about what constitutes their compensation. If  only 
employees understand what they are entitled to in terms 
of  overall pay, they will actively seek those benefits. 



Pa
ge

 
5

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi

Am. J. Econ. Bus. Innov. 4(3) 1-7, 2025

Employees should insist on being informed of  all their 
entitled compensation before starting their job. From the 
researcher’s observations, when prospective candidates 

in South Sudan are queried during interviews about their 
expected salary, they tend to hesitate.

Figure 4: Reaction to the introduction of  a new system

Views on the Introduction of  a New System
Based on the individuals who completed the surveys, the 
responses to the implementation of  a new pay structure 
are illustrated in the figure above.
Based on Figure 4 above, 87% of  individuals are likely 
to embrace a new system, while only 1% will oppose it, 
and approximately 12% remain uncertain about their 
response. It’s likely that the 12% unsure about the new 
pay system feel apprehensive due to the fear of  the 
unknown. 
The 87% who are willing to accept the new system 
are characterized as risk-takers, indicating that these 
employees are open to exploring opportunities that could 
be advantageous for them. This presents an opportunity 
for employers to implement innovative approaches that 
could be mutually beneficial for both employees and the 
organization.
As a result of  the selected sample, 87% are open 
to accepting modifications that would include the 
compensation elements they have been lacking. Concerns 
regarding the sustainability of  the payment methods were 
raised during the interviews. The participants recognized 

that maintaining a consistent monthly salary is challenging 
due to various unforeseen circumstances.

The Preferred Pay Methods
The research performed a comparative evaluation of  how 
employees are compensated through three interactive 
workshops: Workshop 1, Workshop 2, and Workshop 3. 
These workshops gathered participants from Payii, Tumu, 
and Markeric, which are three construction firms operating 
in South Sudan. The structure of  these workshops was 
based on agenda topics that were previously formulated 
from insights gained from comprehensive questionnaires 
and interviews with employees, managers, and site 
supervisors. The payment methods assessed during the 
workshops included Pay for Performance (PFP), Team-
Based Pay (TBP), Management-Driven Pay (MDP), Special 
Team-Based Pay (STBP), and Skill-Based Pay (SBP).
Throughout all three workshops, discussions consistently 
indicated that Pay for Performance (PFP), Team-Based 
Pay (TBP), and Management-Driven Pay (MDP) were the 
most favored compensation strategies. Participants noted 
that PFP incentivizes individual effort and accountability, 

Figure 5: Preferred Employee Payee Method



Pa
ge

 
6

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi

Am. J. Econ. Bus. Innov. 4(3) 1-7, 2025

especially during work periods when conditions 
regarding environment and security are optimal. TBP 
was preferred for fostering collaboration and shared 
accountability, particularly in scenarios where teams must 
seize fleeting opportunities to complete tasks amidst 
unstable circumstances. MDP received strong support 
as it places the onus on management to manage external 
disruptions—such as delayed supplies, insecurity, or 
severe weather—thereby shielding employees from being 
penalized for factors outside their influence.
The combination of  these three approaches was deemed 
especially appropriate for implementation by Payii, Tumu, 
and Markeric, all of  which function within the unstable 
construction sector in South Sudan. Considering the 
country’s persistent political unrest, insecurity, and 
logistical difficulties, a hybrid compensation framework 
grounded in PFP, TBP, and MDP would provide a balanced 
solution. PFP can incentivize top performers when work 
opportunities arise, TBP fosters team collaboration 
during joint endeavors, and MDP guarantees fairness by 
holding management responsible for creating supportive 
conditions. Together, these models offer adaptability 
and equity, aligning compensation with both effort and 
situational context. Their implementation would not only 
boost productivity and motivation but also enhance labor 
relations in a conflict-sensitive setting where inflexible 
pay systems have traditionally fallen short in addressing 
workers’ issues.
Figure 5 presented above shows the distribution of  
employee preferences regarding pay methods, derived 
from the outcomes of  Workshops 1, 2, and 3. The three 
most favored methods are Pay for Performance (PFP), 
Team-Based Pay (TBP), and Management-Driven Pay 
(MDP). Together, these three account for 75% of  the 
overall preference, highlighting their appropriateness for 
construction companies in South Sudan to implement.

CONCLUSION
This study investigated the potential of  innovative 
compensation strategies to address pay-related challenges 
in South Sudan’s construction sector. The high survey 
response rates of  100% from Payii and 88% from Tumu 
and Markeric reflect strong employee engagement, 
especially in matters concerning bonuses and salary 
adjustments. However, the research revealed a significant 
knowledge gap, with 71% of  employees lacking awareness 
of  the components of  their compensation packages. 
Based on data triangulation and workshop feedback, 
three strategies which include Pay for Performance 
(PFP), Team-Based Pay (TBP), and Management-Driven 
Pay (MDP), were identified as the most relevant and 
feasible. MDP emphasizes managerial accountability 
in influencing productivity, TBP promotes teamwork 
in unpredictable construction environments, and PFP 
motivates individual performance. Together, these 
strategies provide a balanced framework that aligns with 
the region’s complex economic and social dynamics. 
Notably, 87% of  employees expressed readiness to 

adopt a revised compensation system. The study 
concludes that a blended pay model incorporating these 
approaches could enhance transparency, motivation, 
and adaptability in South Sudan’s fragile construction 
industry. Implementing such a system may not only 
improve employee satisfaction and performance but also 
contribute to long-term organizational resilience and 
growth in a challenging post-conflict context.

Recommendations
Adopt a Hybrid Pay Model
Payii, Tumu, and Markeric should test a payment system 
that integrates MDP, TBP, and PFP. This will ensure a 
fair framework that motivates hard work, promotes 
collaboration, and makes management accountable for 
outside constraints.

Increase Employee Pay Awareness
Transparent and candid discussions about salary 
elements should be a primary focus for organizations. 
By offering orientation programs and ongoing education 
about compensation frameworks, employees can better 
understand and champion equitable pay.

Institutionalization of  Feedback Mechanisms
To monitor the effectiveness of  adopted compensation 
strategies and ensure continuous improvement, it is 
essential to create consistent feedback channels between 
management and employees (such as suggestion 
platforms or quarterly workshops).

Policy Reform and Advocacy
Employers, representatives from various sectors, and 
lawmakers should support reforms to South Sudan’s 
labor laws that include adaptable and context-aware 
compensation systems reflecting the challenges of  
unstable conditions.

Mitigate Sustainability Risks
Organizations ought to develop contingency plans, such 
as standby pay systems or contracts adjusted for weather 
conditions, to ensure that employee wages remain stable 
despite unexpected events.

Suggested Areas for Further Research
Longitudinal Impact of  Hybrid Pay Models
Future research should assess the long-term impact of  
integrated compensation systems (PFP, TBP, MDP) on 
employee retention, productivity, and industrial harmony 
in conflict zones.

Gender Dynamics in Pay Preferences
Investigate how compensation preferences and experiences 
differ between male and female employees in the construction 
sector, especially in fragile contexts like South Sudan.

Client Role in Compensation Sustainability
Explore how donor agencies, government entities, and 



Pa
ge

 
7

https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi

Am. J. Econ. Bus. Innov. 4(3) 1-7, 2025

private sector clients influence the financial viability 
and sustainability of  pay structures in conflict-prone 
construction projects.

Technology in Compensation Management
Assess the potential of  digital tools (e.g., payroll apps, 
mobile-based tracking systems) to improve compensation 
transparency and delivery in hard-to-reach project sites.

REFERENCES
Ali, R., & Kamau, J. (2021). Challenges of  compensation 

systems in post-conflict construction environments: 
A case study of  East Africa. Journal of  Construction 
Management and Economics, 39(4), 225–239.

Bawole, J. N., Osei-Kyei, R., & Chan, A. P. C. (2021). 
Compensation strategies and labor motivation in 
conflict-prone construction zones. International Journal 
of  Human Resource Management, 32(12), 2450–2472.

Gollin, D. (2019). Infrastructure gaps and labor market 
dynamics in fragile states. African Development Review, 
31(S1), 76–89.

Greene, J., Hibbard, J. H., & Overton, V. (2014). A case 
study of  a team-based, quality-focused compensation 
model for primary care providers. Medical Care Research 
and Review, 71(3), 207–223.

Hackman, J. R. (2002). Leading teams: Setting the stage for great 

performances. Harvard Business Press.
International Labour Organization. (2018). Employment 

and decent work in situations of  fragility, conflict and disaster. 
ILO.

Kim, H., Sutton, K. L., & Gong, Y. (2011). Group-based 
pay-for-performance plans and firm performance: 
The moderating role of  empowerment practices. Asia 
Pacific Journal of  Management, 30, 31–52.

Lawler, E. E. (1990). Strategic pay. Jossey-Bass.
Merriman, K. K. (2009). On the folly of  rewarding team 

performance while hoping for teamwork. Compensation 
& Benefits Review, 41(3), 61–67.

Meyer, C. (1994). How the right measures help teams to 
excel in performance measurement. Harvard Business 
Review, 72(3), 95–103.

Mulvaney, M. A., McKinney, W. R., & Grodsky, R. (2013). 
The development of  a pay-for-performance appraisal 
system for municipal agencies: A case study. Public 
Personnel Management, 41(3), 505–533.

Mundial, B. (2017). Infrastructure for resilience: A framework 
for fragile and conflict-affected countries (World Bank Policy 
Paper Series, No. 98234). World Bank.

Ndegwa, P. (2022). Innovative compensation models in 
unstable construction environments: Lessons from 
South Sudan. African Journal of  Labor and Industrial 
Relations, 14(2), 55–70.


