99 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 identification of the electroflotocoagulation cleaning process at a car washing station karimov abror qayumovich institute of counter-engineering economics abstract: this article discusses the process of identification of the area of car wash stations and agricultural machinery containing oil products, surfactants and other pollutants by electro flocculation. keywords: oil, active substance, wastewater, electrolysis, hydroxyl group, concentration, automation, oxidation. the most dangerous for the environment is the area of car wash stations and agricultural machinery, which contain oil products, surfactants and other pollutants. according to the research carried out at the department of surface transport systems of tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov, as well as information from other sources, oil products and surfactants with physical, chemical, electrical and hydrodynamic properties by means of electrochemical action a number of factors influencing the processing of waste water have been identified. in the automation of wastewater treatment processes, the principle of diversion control is adopted as the main direction. the pollution concentration of the water entering and leaving the device is monitored using a conduct metric measurement sensor. the principle of operation of the device is based on the use of molten electrodes in electrolysis. as a result of electrolysis, the details are restored, the components of the cleaned waste are reduced and the oxidation process takes place. divalent iron ions are transferred to water, they combine with the hydroxyl group and are good substances that destroy harmful substances [1,2]. at the same time as electric foaming, the process of electro flotation is also carried out. oxygen and hydrogen bubbles separated from the electrodes collect the dirty layer on the surface of the part under the influence of a non-homogeneous electromagnetic field and bring the collected foam to the top. the results of experimental studies were used for the mathematical model of the process. according to them. the information scheme of the control object shown in fig. 1 is defined. figure 1 information management scheme. 100 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us x(t) input parameters; y(t) – control parameters; u(t) are output parameters. when developing a scheme for automating the cleaning process, the following requirements for the control system are studied: 1. ensuring process suitability and reliability of cleaning equipment. 2. exclusion of automatic and manual control at the same time. switching from automated control to manual control or vice versa should not affect the operation of the cleaning device, causing it to stop. 3. turn off the device and turn on the alarm when the cleaning process is broken. blocking after emergency stop before prohibiting the automatic or remote start of the technological process. 4. after completing or suspending the cleaning process, the control system should be ready for the next start. the functional diagram of the automated system (fig. 2) allows full control of the main parameters of the cleaning process. to do this, the operator enters the initial pollution data into the computer, which are produced by the oil product of the waste, and gives the command to start cleaning. based on the entered data on the level of pollution of waste water, the program module selects from the database the corresponding parameters of the electric field strength in the electric fan and the magnetic field strength in the hydro cyclone and transfers these values to the control unit. figure 2. functional diagram of the automated system for electromagnetic regulation of the washing currents of auto tractors: dik initial pollution concentration na – control apparatus (programmable control), kdt – computer software; nb – control unit; ehb – electromagnetic computing unit; ts purified water us – treated water with conductivity sensor; ds level sensor; hs – temperature sensor; vma – instruments for determining the amount of hydrogen; ksk, chsk inlet and outlet solenoid valves. the server part of the automated system stores basic data on the optimal values of the electrochemical parameters of the pollutants coagulated under the influence of the electroflotocoagulator and the electromagnetic cyclone. the conclusion is that if the proposed electrochemical reaction device is used at the car equipment and agricultural machinery cleaning stations in our republic, high efficiency will be achieved in reducing water consumption and saving electricity. literature 1. в.в. кафаров, м.б. глебов. кимёвий ишлаб чикаришнинг асосий жараёнларини математик моделлаштириш. м.: олий мактаб, -1991. 400с. 2. eshqobilov o.x., daminov l.o. materialshunoslik. o„quv qo„llanma. –qarshi: “intellekt”, 2021. –255 b. 3. umarov e.o. materialshunoslik. darslik. -t.: “cho„lpon”, 2014. 4. eshqobilov o.x., tursunov sh.s., ismailov i.i., berdiyev sh.a. materialshunoslik va konstruksion materiallar texnologiyasi. o'quv qo'llanma. – qarshi: "intellekt", 2023. -215 b. 36 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 06, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 lms tizimlari va ularning tavsifi abduraximov ozodbek azimjon o‘g‘li, tojidinov azizbek ilhomjon o‘g‘li, nazirjonov ubaydulloh nozimjon o'g'li muhammad al-xorazmiy nomidagi tatu farg‘ona filiali talabasi ma’lumki, har bir ta’lim muassasasi o`z ta’lim jarayonini boshqarish uchun zamonaviy texnologiyalardan kelib chiqqan holda, o`zining virtual axborot ta’lim muhitini yaratishga harakat qiladi. hozirgi vaqtga kelib, virtual axborot ta’lim muhitini yaratishning hojati qolmagan, chunki web muhitiga moslashgan har xil turdagi dasturiy majmualar jonkuyar dasturchi va ta’lim sohasida ishlab kelayotgan xodimlarning hamkorlikda ishlashlari, shuningdek, ta’limga yo`naltirilgan fondlar tomonidan qo`llab-quvvatlanishi natijasida, erkin va ochiq kodli dasturiy ta’minotlar yaratilgan. bu o`quv modulimizda masofaviy ta’lim jarayonini tashkillashtirish imkoniyatini beruvchi erkin va ochiq kodli dasturlar majmuasining tahlili keltiriladi. o`quv modulida keltirilgan dasturiy majmualar tahlili ko`p yillar davomida olib borilgan ilmiy-tadqiqotlar natijasidir. masofaviy o`qitish – eng yaxshi an’anaviy va innovatsion metodlar, o`qitish vositalari va formalarini o`z ichiga olgan sirtqi va kunduzgi ta’lim singari axborot va telekommunikatsiya texnologiyalariga asoslangan ta’lim shaklidir. masofaviy o`qish – bu yangi axborot texnologiyalari, telekommunikatsiya texnologiyalari va texnik vositalariga asoslangan ta’lim tizimidir. u ta’lim oluvchiga ma’lum standartlar va ta’lim qonun-qoidalari asosida o`quv shart-sharoitlari va o`qituvchi bilan muloqotni ta’minlab berib, o`quvchidan ko`proq mustaqil ravishda shug`ullanishni talab qiluvchi tizimdir. bunda o`qish jarayoni ta’lim oluvchini qaysi vaqtda va qaysi joyda bo`lishiga bog`liq emas. masofaviy ta’lim – masofadan turib o`quv axborotlarini almashuvchi vositalarga asoslangan, o`qituvchi maxsus axborot muhit yordamida, aholining barcha qatlamlari va chet ellik ta’lim oluvchilarga ta’lim xizmatlarini ko`rsatuvchi ta’lim majmuasidir. masofaviy o`qitish tizimi – masofaviy o`qitish shartlari asosida tashkil etiladigan o`qitish tizimi. barcha ta’lim tizimlari singari masofaviy o`qitish tizimi o`zining tarkibiy maqsadi, mazmuni, usullari, vositalari va tashkiliy shakllariga ega. axborot-kommunikatsiya texnologiyalari ta’lim jarayonida (xususan, masofaviy ta’lim jarayonini) qo`llash asosan ikki xil ko`rinishda amalga oshiriladi. birinchi sharti bu texnik jihozlar bo`lsa, ikkinchi sharti esa maxsus dasturiy ta’minotlar bilan ta’minlanganligidir. texnik jihozlar bilan ta’minlanganlik: kompyuterlar, tarmoq qurilmalari, yuqori tezlikdagi internet tarmoqlari, videokonferensiya jihozlari va hokazo. dasturiy ta’minotga mavjud qurilmalarni ishlatadigan dasturiy ta’minotlardan tortib shu soha uchun mo`ljallangan dasturlar to`plami kiradi. so`nggi yillarda g`arbda ta’lim tizimini boshqarishda qo`llanib kelinayotgan internet yoki intranet tarmog`i orqali elektron shakldagi ta’lim turi elearning (elektron ta’lim) atamasi bilan kirib keldi. elektron ta’lim — axborotkommunikatsiya texnologiyalari asosidagi ta’limning turli ko`rinishlarini anglatuvchi keng tushunchadir. elektron 37 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ta’limni tashkillashtirishning ko`pgina manbalari orasidan quyidagilarni ko`rsatish mumkin: mualliflik dasturiy mahsulotlari (authoring tools), virtual ta’lim jarayonini boshqaruvchi tizimlar lms (learning management systems), ichki kontentni boshqaruvchi tizimlari cms (content management systems). lms/lcms tizimlari elektron ta’limni (masofaviy ta’lim jarayonini) tashkil etishning asosiy funksiyalarini o`z ichiga oladi. bunday funksiyalar qatoriga o`quvchilarning (o`qituvchilarning, kurs yaratuvchi pedagoglarni va boshqalarni) ro`yxatga olish, foydalanuvchilarni o`quv kurslardan chetlashtirish, o`quvchilarning mustaqil ta’lim olish muhitini yaratish, o`quvchi va o`qituvchilarning o`zaro individual yoki guruh bo`lib, hamkorlikda ishlashini (web2 elementlarini ishlatish orqali) tashkil etish, guruhlar yaratish va ularni boshqarish, oraliq, joriy va yakuniy nazoratlarni tashkillashtirish va elektron nazorat turlarini yaratish (elektron nazorat turlariga yopiq turdagi test, ochiq turdagi nazorat, moslikni topishga oid, ketmaketlikni to`g`ri joylashtirish, bo`sh qoldirilgan joyni to`ldirish va boshqa turlari kiradi), har xil turdagi ijtimoiy so`rovlarni tashkillashtirish, o`quvchilarning bilim darajasini monitoring qilish, sertifikatlar (diplomlar) berish imkoniyati, elektron axborot resurslarini (elektron kutubxonalar) tashkillashtirish, elektron o`quv resurslarini eksport/import qilish imkoniyatlari, tizim foydalanuvchilarining (o`quvchilar, o`qituvchilar (tyutorlar), kurs yaratuvchi pedagoglarning) tizimga qachon, qancha vaqt davomida o`quv kontentlar bilan tanishganligi, qaysi ip-manzil orqali kirganligini (bu esa qaysi davlatdan tizimga kirganligini aniqlashga yordam beradi), brauzer va qaysi operatsion tizim orqali kirganligi, tizimda mavjud foydalanuvchilarning faolligini maxsus grafiklar orqali monitoring qilish imkoniyati, o`qituvchi (tyutor yoki elektron kurs yaratuvchi pedagoglar) tomonidan elektron o`quv-resurslarini yaratishi, authoring toolslarda scorm, tincan yoki boshqa standartlar asosida yaratilgan elektron o`quv resurslarini yuklashi, o`quvchilarning boshqa o`quvchilar/o`qituvchilar bilan (chat, forum, videokonferensiya, umumiy elektron doskalar yoki tizimning ichki/tashqi xabarlar almashish moduli orqali) muloqotini tashkillashtirish, o`quv jarayonida bo`ladigan yangiliklarni barcha foydalanuvchilarga ommaviy xabar yuborib turuvchi modullarning mavjudligi, iqtisodiy va marketingga oid operatsiyalarni boshqarish va boshqa imkoniyatlarni sanab o`tish mumkin. ko`rinib turibdiki yuqorida ko`rib chiqilgan lms tizimlarining imkoniyatlari bir-biridan qolishmaydi. biroq, ular yordamida masofaviy ta’lim tizimlarini tashkil etish administratorning qobiliyatiga hamda tizimlarning imkoniyatlari yaratilayotgan masofaviy ta’lim tizimiga qay darajada mos kelishiga bog`liq bo`ladi. masofaviy ta’lim tizimlarini yaratishda minimal holatda darsning nazariy qismlarini yaratish, turli shakldagi testlar tuzish, forum, izohli lug`at, talabalarning reyting tizimini nazorat qilish bo`limlarining bo`lishliligi talab etiladi. ko`rib chiqilgan lms tizimlarining deyarli barchasi scorm va ims standartlarini qo`llabquvvatlaydi. bunday standartlar taqdimotlarni namoyish qilish, elektron manbalarni ko`rib chiqish hamda sodda va murakkab ko`rinishdagi testlarni tuzish imkonini yaratadi. scorm va ims standartli fayllarni bir tizimda yoki bir bo`limda emas, balki turli tizimlarning turli bo`limlarida qayta-qayta foydalanish imkoni mavjud bo`ladi. foydalanilgan adabiyotlar: 1. ergashev, o. m., turgunov, b. x., & turgunova, n. m. (2023). microprocessor control system for heat treatment of reinforced concrete products. international journal of inclusive and sustainable education, 2(5), 11-15. 2. turgunova, n., turgunov, b., & umaraliyev, j. (2023). automatic text analysis. syntax and semantic analysis. engineering problems and innovations. 3. tojalievich, t. i., mavlonjonovich, m. m., tokhtasinovich, u. j., & eraliyevich, t. a. (2022). methods of implementation of information protection system. galaxy international interdisciplinary research journal, 10(6), 1037-1040. 38 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. tojiboev, i. t., mamirkhojayev, m. m., toychibaev, a. e., & umaraliyev, j. t. (2021). cash memory of the computer, memory address and their order. academic research in educational sciences, 2(7), 37-43. 5. umaraliyev, j., turdaliyev, k., isoqjonova, s., & abduraximov, o. (2023). it applications and prospects in education. interpretation and researches, 1(11). извлечено от http://interpretationandresearches.uz/index.php/iar/article/view/1277 6. ilhomjon o‘g‘li, t. k., to‘xtasin o‘g‘li, u. j., & azimjon o‘g‘li, a. o. (2023). zamonaviy texnologiyalar jamiyatdagi taraqqiyotidagi o‘rni va ahamiyati. international conference on architecture and civil engineering, 1–3. retrieved from https://conf.innovascience.uz/index.php/icace/article/view/31 7. ilhomjon o‘g‘li, t. k., jamshidbek to‘xtasin o‘g, u., & azimjon o‘g‘li, a. o. (2023). an article on the progress of modern technologies in society. fan, ta'lim, madaniyat va innovatsiya, 2(6), 15-17. 8. to‘xtasin o‘g‘li, u. j. ., azimjon o‘g‘li, a. o. ., & ilhomjon qizi, i. s. . (2023). the transformative role and importance of telecommunication technologies in our daily lives. &quot;online conferences&quot; platform, 138–139. retrieved from http://papers.onlineconferences.com/index.php/titfl/article/view/1260 9. umaraliyev, j., abdurakhimov, o., & isokjonova, s. (2023, june). use and effectiveness of information technologies in medicine. in academic international conference on multi-disciplinary studies and education (vol. 1, no. 11, pp. 148-151). http://interpretationandresearches.uz/index.php/iar/article/view/1277 https://conf.innovascience.uz/index.php/icace/article/view/31 http://papers.online-conferences.com/index.php/titfl/article/view/1260 http://papers.online-conferences.com/index.php/titfl/article/view/1260 8 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 use of modern landscape tools in designing theater buildings sultanova. m. f kamoliddin behzod national institute of art and design teacher of the "design" department, independent seeker abstract: in today's modern urban development, the demand for green areas around the world is extremely strong, we can see in the example of the landscape design for the environment of the new and multi-storey buildings that are being built every step of the way. this article also talks about the problems in the landscape design of the theater buildings in the city of tashkent. keywords: modern city, theater, landscape, electronics, design, architecture, ornament, factor. today, the modern development of cities creates problems related to the development of landscape design of buildings built in open spaces and included in the history of architecture as cultural heritage. at the same time, the beautification of the environment of the theater buildings, which are emphasized as cultural heritage, as well as the design in accordance with the design requirements, is one of the main problems of dolizarb. but this landscape design, which is used for a new building, is not suitable for other buildings with a history of several years, it may not serve the needs of the population and the area where it is located, and it may also cause some inconveniences. from the point of view of these problems, the uzbek state theater of drama and comedy named after "muqimi" is no exception. in addition, it can be said from the point of view that this theater building is located on the road where several serkatnov streets of the city of tashkent are united, so this problem seems more acute for this theater. theater areas have always had a special place in the structure of cities. this primarily concerns their urban planning and functional purposes. in addition, these areas have always carried an intellectual and emotional-artistic load. in the conditions of the modern transformation of the city of tashkent, from the point of view of urban planning and landscape, the problems of improving open urban areas are especially relevant. people's ease of being in a city depends largely on its attractiveness and the availability of several amenities for living and cultural recreation. today, great importance is attached to finding a solution to these problems and not only to the importance of landscape design in the city center, but also to the theater and its artistic and cultural significance, aesthetic design and the design of their interior space, to further increase their position in the social and cultural life of the population. historically speaking, with the emergence of the folk theater, the creative search for the appearance of the field in front of it is extremely important. in 1943, architects and decorators d. khazanov, v. tikhonov built the building of the muqimi theater based on the combination of ancient and modern architectural styles; engineer a. rabinovich; folk masters yu. musaev, m. kasimov, usta shirin, sh. gafurov was built by usta mominlar. on the 2 sides of the peshtoki, 9 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us there is a ganchkori grid. master yusufali raised the halls of the hall with ribbed domes, installed arches one above the other between the columns, and decorated the interior with ganch carvings. usta momin carved the image of grapes and its leaves on the wall of the auditorium, and a blossoming apricot tree is depicted in the foyer. however, the design of the building based on national traditions could not reveal that the entrance area of the building is not based on a perfect solution. landscaping techniques in theatrical urban areas had to be classical, that is, in accordance with the style of the building. the problem of reconstruction of this theater space can be solved by active use of terrain, landscaping and landscaping elements. figure 1. uzbek musical drama and comedy theater named after muqimi if we pay attention to the area where the building is located, it can be seen that there is a space for the formation of landscape design and sufficient use of small architectural elements at its front entrance. however, the entrance to the building is almost pathetic today. in order to make effective use of this space, to form its landscape design, it is first of all necessary to use electronic advertising banners based on modern technologies, but suitable for the design of the facade of the building. figure 2. seats with advertising banners. electronic advertising banners of this type can direct the flow of viewers by presenting the repertoire of the theater team. currently, such interactive projects and design ideas are widely promoted by designers (fig. 2). application of the above project of a small architectural object with both seats and electronic advertising in this theater area will increase the coefficient of effective use of its landscape. 10 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us at the same time, it is necessary to improve the information navigation system in the area of the landscape theater building, as well as to ensure ecological, architectural and landscape balance. taking into account the fact that the theater building is located at the intersection of besyagoch and furqat streets, as well as the presence of a newly built park near it, it can be said that these streets will be very crowded and people will be active. this in itself indicates the need to provide light in the dark part of the day, along with seats intended for recreation. taking into account these factors, it can be very beneficial to design small landscape objects. figure 3. design of seats with lighting. according to this project (fig. 3), the seats not only have the feature of relaxation and lighting at the same time, but also have a decorative function. today's urban environment must provide not only environmental safety and safety of functional life processes, but also visual comfort. a theater building is an architectural structure that is a place of presentation of staged actions. in recent years, architects have paid great attention to the construction of modern theater buildings. the theater embodies literature, music, vocals, choreography and other arts. the theater has different directions, so there is a lot of interest in it. beautification of the theater area, paving, the use of small architectural forms and design elements (fountains, sculptures and visual advertising communications) allow not only the architectural and spatial arrangement of the area, but also contribute to its correct technical solution in terms of sanitation and hygiene. in short, green areas should be subordinated to the general architectural composition of theater areas. their role is important and diverse: they decorate the area, help define the main building, and help visually unify the space. the installation of a monument or fountain, especially if it has a large size and complex configuration, should organize the space of the square. the vertical layout should be designed in such a way as to emphasize the leading role of the theater building. to cover the surface of the theater areas, a combined coating is recommended: the decorative coating of the free spaces of the area is combined with the gray asphalt of the road. references: 1. s. tursunboev. history of foreign theater. tashkent:. 2005. b-196. 2. b. ibrokhimov. stage technique and decoration technology. methodical guide. tashkent:. spring print. 2010. b-149. 3. n.m. ubaidullaev. m.m. inoghamov. typological foundations of residential and public building design. tashkent:. successor publishing. 2009. 11 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. f. ya. syrkina. e.m. kostina. russian theater decorative art. moscow: art. 1978. b-234. 5. sultanova muhayyo fahriddinovna the formation of art and architecture of the ancient period // european journal of arts. 2023. №1. url: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-formation-of-art-and-architecture-of-the-ancient-period (дата обращения: 19.09.2023). 6. kizi sultanova m. f. the role of tour bases in the development of tourism in uzbekistan //international scientific and current research conferences. – 2021. – с. 1-5. 7. daughter sultanova m. f. the role of the tourist base in the development of tourism in uzbekistan //international science and research conferenceii. – 2021. – с. 1-5. 8. muhayyo s., ruzibayevich r. f. design solutions and development chronology in the construction of business centers. emergent: journal of educational discoveries and lifelong learning (ejedl), 2 (11), 96–103. – 2021. 9. latipovich t. a. experience of using operated roofs abroad //international journal on orange technologies. – 2023. – т. 5. – №. 3. – с. 19-23. 10. nilufar m., farrukhovna i. n. basic provisions and requirements for the formation of interior spaces of hotels //european journal of life safety and stability (2660-9630). – 2021. – т. 12. – с. 417-420. 11. furkatovna, tursunova shakhnoza. "packaging evolution and design." (2021). 9 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 02, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх on the effectiveness of the spatial constructions with stergen and their use maxmatkulov turdimurod candidate of technical sciences, acting professor qarshiyeva sh, sadulloyev x master students samarkand state architecturial and civil engineering university abstract: today, in domestic and foreign construction practice, spatial constructions with earthquake-resistant beams are widely used. the article analyzes the work carried out on the study of the effectiveness of their use and summarizes the relevant conclusions. keywords: spatial constructions with rods, efficiency, types, structural solutions, geometric appearance, types of support, grids of plates. today, a number of scientific research and experimental construction works are being carried out on a large scale in order to increase the efficiency of the use of earthquake-resistant spatial constructions in domestic and foreign construction practice. the main purpose of the research and design of spatial constructions with sterjen is to ensure the earthquake resistance of buildings and structures, to create new structural solutions of this type of constructions, to improve calculations, to use modern computer programs in calculations, to ensure the reliability, durability and integrity of existing constructions, to reduce the cost and consumption of materials. 1]. it is known that the strength of spatial constructions with stergen depends to a large extent on the quality of the materials used in their preparation and other requirements. today, the general direction of the development of building structures is further industrialization, unification and standardization of structural elements, which ensures serial and mass production, reducing the weight of structures, reducing their installation time and the total cost of construction [2]. in the same way, the above-mentioned earthquake resistance requirements are met by rigid spatial constructions and their constructive solutions. improvement of attachment methods, use of new solutions, correct selection of covering elements in the use of spatial constructions with beams are the main elements that ensure the strength and stability of the entire building. therefore, it is important to analyze the structural solutions of existing compounds used in rigid spatial constructions, to study their advantages and disadvantages, to introduce effective compounds into production, to recommend various structural solutions, taking into account the operating conditions of buildings. today, structural solutions that include complex technological processes along with simple structures are used in spatial constructions with stergens put into practice [1,2]. 10 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us structural solutions of various geometric shapes were used as the main load-bearing structures in these constructed buildings. spatial constructions with spars have high strength indicators, priority, high level of load distribution in constructions, 20-30% less consumption of metal materials than traditional constructions, earthquake resistance up to 9 points, the possibility to reduce the height of constructions by 1.5-2.0 times, and finally, the price and the significant positive indicators of cost force their wider use. an overview of constructive solutions that are widely used today is presented in figure 1. in these constructive solutions, different solutions of crystal lattices were used, taking into account the characteristics of the building under construction, while at the same time increasing the architectural appeal. compared to buildings covered with ordinary farms, their weight and height are small, the size of buildings and structures is drastically reduced, and the possibility of placing various communications between the fences has raised their use to a new level. the geometric forms of structural spatial constructions that are widely used in construction practice today are presented in figure 1. figure 1. geometric forms of structured spatial constructions in the structural solutions presented in the picture, the consumption of materials is relatively evenly distributed. as a result of unevenly distributed and changing loads on the constructions, it is possible to make light constructions as a result of which all the struts receive the stresses, which is more effective than the multi-support constructions. the possibility of creating bars of different sizes in the girders of the constructions, the possibility of making different sizes of the bars makes it possible to simplify the use of suspension lifting mechanisms. 11 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us another of the most important advantages of structures belonging to this class is the reliable distribution of stresses in multi-connector systems, often in statically uncertain systems, along with high strength properties. because, in this case, the ability to accept the stresses in the broken booms is equalized as a result of plastic deformation, it creates conditions for their smooth operation, and spare strength is created in the booms. the multi-connectivity feature of structural spatial constructions, the spatial work system allows to design covers with a height of 2 times less than that of flat constructions, and this indicator is taken in the ratio of 1/15...1/25 compared to the arch. another important advantage of structured space structures is their ease of assembly and installation with light cranes and devices on the working mark due to their lightness and ease of assembly. due to the universality of this type of construction, covering large areas and using a small number of supports in it, it is possible to build open-type industrial buildings, magnificent public buildings, etc. in a short period of time. the effectiveness of the construction work depends to a large extent on the placement of the supports of the structures. figure 2 shows the layout of supports in structural solutions. placement of the supports of structural spatial constructions largely depends on the type of buildings, the size of the constructions, operating conditions, the type of materials, the structural solutions of nodes, the dimensions of the cross-sectional surface, etc. the geometric structures mentioned above are also important when choosing the constructions of the supporting elements. at the same time, the placement of the supports also depends on the orthogonal schemes of the spatial constructions. figure 2. schemes of placement of supports in spatial constructions with a beam: a – along the contour of the building; b placement within the contour. nodes of spatial constructions with stergons "crystals" of the nodes of the above-mentioned solutions consisting of stergons located on their edges in various forms are in the form of a pyramid (tetrahedron and semi-octahedron), parallelepiped and many other angles. 12 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us geometric organizers of structures are of great interest to architects and designers due to the availability of their various forms (fig. 3). due to the wide variety of constructive solutions of connecting nodes of spatial constructions with rods, it is difficult to describe the advantages and disadvantages of all of them. figure 3. shapes of structural spatial constructions in the form of a square base: a tetrahedron and (b) – octahedron in total, about 130 different structural systems have been confirmed in world practice, most of which have some degree of differences in the connection nodes of the sterns. "mero" marxi" type solutions are among the constructive solutions widely used today, which meet a number of positive requirements according to designers and constructors. an overview of this node is shown in figure 3. connection of the masts and nodes of the marxi type spatial constructions with the help of connectors allows the use of pipes with a round diameter of 60/3 to 146/10, lengths of 1.5, 2 and 3 meters. figure 4. "mera" type system node and its modifications: a and b overview, node element and details; v, g – "marxi" and "tubular elements and details of the weimer-type system. 1 – internal grooved hole; 2 – bolt; 3 – guide nut; 13 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4 – mounting hole; 5 – groove; 6 – end of the groove; 7 – index finger; 8 – fixator; 9 – puck; 10 – pin; 11 cut on the nut in recent years, welded joints have been widely used in spacial constructions. some of their types are shown in figure 4. figure 5. types of structural solutions performed with welded joints. an important feature of structural solutions of the "mero" and "marxi" type is the ability to prepare details in machine-building factories through automated processes. the difference of the "mero" solution compared to other solutions is that the spherical polygonal node element is attached through a special guiding bushing. the advantage is the presence of a cross-sectional hole on the cross-sectional surface of the bolt, which allows to increase the strength of the tensile elements. therefore, in this solution, hot-worked solid bolts with a diameter of 8.8, 10.9, 12.9, are used. therefore, today, large-scale pavilion-type constructions, unique industrial and public buildings are widely used in earthquake-prone areas as a highly effective solution based on scientific research [3]. references: 1. холмуродов р.и., худайназаров х., исабеков к. экспериментально-теоретические исследования колебаний перекрестно-стержневых пространственных конструкций. журнал «проблемы архитектура и строительства». №2, 2022, с. 144-150. 2. ибрагимов н.х., исабеков к. пути уменшеные масс перекрестно-стержневых пространственных конструкций. журнал «проблемы архитектура и строительства». №4, 2021, с. 134-139. 3. михайлов в.в. сергеев м.с. пространственные стержневые конст-рукции покрытий. владимир, 2011. -52 с. 4. ибрагимов ҳ,м., исабеков к. пути уменьшение масс перекрестно-стержневых пространственных конструкций. «проблемы архитектуры строительство» научно технический журнал , самарканд. 2021. №4, с.134-139. 84 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 continuous mixer with heat treatment of feed e.u.eshdavlatov candidate of technical sciences, associate professor, department of land transport systems karshi engineering and economic institute, karshi, uzbekistan a.a.suyunov doctoral student, department of agricultural mechanization and service karshi engineering and economic institute, karshi, uzbekistan abstract: the article provides a definition of steam consumption for heating feed mixtures in a continuous flow, taking into account its losses when unloading the finished feed mixture. keywords: mixer, feed, heating, steam, steam distributor, heat transfer, airlock, steam loss, steam line, coil, free space, mixing quality, steam consumption. introduction in livestock farming, steam is widely used for heat treatment of feed. the main advantage of heating feed with steam is better preservation of vitamins and nutrients than when heating with other types of heating media. it is convenient to transport it through pipes over a considerable distance without large additional costs, and it is easy to regulate the flow and temperature by changing the pressure. steam has a high latent heat of vaporization and heat transfer coefficient; its production does not require large costs compared to other types of coolants. there are two ways to heat feed with steam: heating through a dividing wall, that is, between the material and the steam there is a wall through which heat is transferred to the material and the material does not have contact with the steam; heating by direct contact of steam with the heated material. heating through the dividing wall increases processing costs and reduces equipment productivity. this is due to the low heat transfer coefficient, since due to the dividing wall between the heated material and the steam, heat can penetrate into the internal layers of the material mass only due to thermal conductivity. this method requires a special design of equipment that provides the highest heat transfer coefficient. for example, equipment can be manufactured with double walls, between which steam is passed: with a rotating coil, which is part of the heating surface and ensures mixing of the material, etc. all these designs complicate manufacturing and increase cost. equipment. in addition, the use of equipment with costs compared to equipment that provides direct contact of steam with the heated material (cleaning the heat exchange surface from scale and soot, maintaining mixing mechanisms, etc.). therefore, to heat feed, it is advisable to use devices that provide steam input directly into the 85 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mixing chamber. one of the main factors influencing steam consumption and feed heating temperature is the method and device for supplying steam to the mixing chamber. the best arrangement for the steam distributor should be one in which the steam reaches all the most distant points and the material is heated in a relatively short time. in this case, heat loss for heating the product and heating the environment will be minimal. the proposed design of a mixer with thermal treatment of feed includes a frame-mounted housing with a lid, loading and unloading sluice gates, a double-threaded auger with gaps between the turns, a steam distributor and a drive (fig. 1). fig.1. recommended continuous mixer design actions with heat treatment of feed; 1.5 sluice gates with drive; 2cover, made in the form triangular box; 4gear motor; 6casing; 7-screw;8-paroras-distributor the steam distribution pipe is installed inside the casing along the mixer on its right side along the technological process above the axis of the screw, which eliminates steam loss into the environment (fig. 2.). in addition, the pipe additionally heats the air space inside the mixer casing. steam distribution cone-shaped holes are located in a single row on the steam distribution pipe to ensure uniform distribution of steam in the mixing chamber. a tap is installed to regulate the steam supply. calculation of steam consumption for heating the product was carried out by many scientists [1, 3...6]. the resulting formulas for calculating steam consumption practically do not differ from each other and they can be represented in general form by the following expression .321 qqqq  (1) 86 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where q1 steam consumption for heating the product, kg; q2 steam consumption for heating the walls of the installation, kg; q3 steam loss to the environment through the walls of the installation housing, kg. this formula is only valid for steamers or batch mixers. with continuous mixing with heat treatment of feed, the finished product is discharged from the mixer in a continuous stream. in this case, along with the finished product, a certain amount of steam also leaves the mixer through the discharge neck. therefore, in formula (1) for a continuous mixer with thermal treatment of feed, it is necessary to additionally include steam losses that occur during continuous unloading of feed. taking this into account, formula (1) for continuous mixers can be written as follows ).( 321 qqqсq  (2) where с coefficient taking into account steam loss when unloading the finished feed mixture. coefficient c is determined experimentally. steam consumption for heating products was determined by the formula [2, 4,6, 7] ; )(10 1 3 1 r ttcq q okсм   (3) where q см mixer productivity, t/h; ск specific heat capacity of feed components, j/kg°c; t1 let us express the axial velocity of the particle in terms of the absolute velocity vo oon vv sin or considering (13) the finished product, °с; to initial temperature of feed components, °с;  duration of the heating process, h; r latent heat of vaporization, j/kg. the steam consumption for heating the walls of the mixer was determined by the formula [1], r ttcm q cmcт )( 11 2   (4) where mweight of heated parts of the mixer, kg; сстspecific heat capacity of the mixer wall material, j/kg-°c; t 1 cт и t 1 final and initial wall temperatures, °c. steam losses to the environment were determined using the formula [1] ; )(3600 1 3 r ttfa q okcm   (5) a1 heat transfer surface area of the walls, m 2 ; tcm average temperature of the outer surface of the walls, °c; t0k average ambient temperature, °c; f total heat transfer coefficient by convection and radiation [6], w/m2 °c. );(055,007,9 okcm ttf  (6) knowing the calculated values of q1, qz, qз and experimental values of the total steam flow, you can determine the coefficient c from the following expression ; 321 qqq q с   (7) experimental values of the total steam consumption were determined by measuring the resulting amount of steam condensate on a specially manufactured installation simulating a mixer steam distributor (fig. 3), in which all the geometric dimensions of the supply sections of the steam 87 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us pipes installed in the mixer were preserved. the installation consisted of a tank with a capacity of 1.6 m3, three coils, each of which was connected at one end to the supply steam line, the other ends to the discharge pipeline, inlet and drain pipes for cold water (fig. 3.). the experiments were carried out as follows: the supply steam line was disconnected from the mixer and connected to the installation. the container was connected to the flowing water supply system. when the container was filled with cold water, the steam supply was turned on at the same pressure and temperature as during heat treatment of feed in the mixer. fig.1. steam supply to the mixer fig. 2. general view of the installation for determining steam consumption after reaching a steady state of steam supply, measurements were made of the resulting amount of condensate using a measuring container per unit time. time was controlled with a stopwatch. the experiments were carried out in triplicate, with 5 samples taken in each experiment. to obtain more reliable data, experiments were carried out at different pressures in the steam line, namely at 0.04 and 0.05 mpa. the coefficient taking into account steam loss when unloading the finished feed mixture is c=1.08...1.10. bibliography 1. кулаковский и.в., кирпичников ф.с., резник е.и. машины и оборудование для приготовления кормов.справочник. –м.: россельхозиздат, 1987.-285 с. 2. сыроватка в.и. и др. механизация приготовления кормов. – справочник. м.: агромиздат, 1985. – 368 с. 3. уланов и.а. машины для смешивания, гранулирования и тепловой обработки кормов. саратов, 1977. 38 с. 4. терпиловский к.ф. механизация процессов тепловой обработки кормов. минск: урожай, 1973. 127 с. 5. грачева л.н., алексеев в.в. и др. обоснование теплотехнических характеристик установок термохимической обработки соломы, в кн.: механизация и электрификация сельского хозяйства. -киев, 1983, вып. 58. 72 с. 88 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. захаров а.а. применение теплоты в сельском хозяйстве. -i.i.: агропромиздат, 1986. 288с. 7. руно а.а., терпиловский к.ф. анализ способов повышения производительности кормоприготовительных машин. труды цйишэсх, т. у, вып. 2.1986. 64-67 general information on the effectiveness and disadvantages 64 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 general information on the effectiveness and disadvantages of cotton ginsing machines ubaydullayev madaminjon mo‘minjonovich fergana polytechnic institute q.x.f.f.d.(рhd) khakimov iqboljon master of technology of cotton preprocessing and seed preparation abstract: the article describes the natural quality indicators of cotton fiber after the ginning process, as well as general information on improving the efficiency of work and the existing shortcomings. keywords: cotton fiber, quality, international saw gin, raw material chamber, mechanical damage, saw cylinder, short fiber, high average length, micronaire, hvi system. ginning — primary processing of seeded cotton is considered the main operation of the technological process, in which the seeded cotton fiber is separated from the seed. in the process of ginning, the seeded cotton fiber is separated from the seed by mechanical force. since the strength of the connection of the fiber with the seed is 2�3 times lower than the breaking strength of a single fiber, during the ginning process, the fiber is separated from the seed while keeping its natural properties (length, thinness, degree of ripeness, etc.). in the initial processing of cotton, ginning is one of the main processes. this process includes the process of separating cotton into fiber and seed. in this process, the following requirements are met: the complete separation of fiber from the seed, the absence of various defects in the fiber as a result of the impact of the working parts on the fiber, the fact that the leaves do not mix with the seeds when leaving the gin, the high cleaning effect is ensured, and the control of the process of dehairing of seeds is considered in the case of fiber and dirty mixtures. one of the important issues in this field is to create a scientific methodology and increase efficiency while maintaining energy efficiency, resource saving and fiber quality through optimal modeling of the working parts of the gin machine. cotton ginning enterprises of our country are mainly equipped with dpz-180, 4dp-130, 5dp130 type sawing machines. the practical operation process of these gins shows that their performance is much lower than the performance indicated in their passport, the consumption of electricity and resources is very high, and the fiber quality is average. that is, mainly in the technical passport of the gin machine 4dp-130 and 5dp-130, the fiber production productivity is written as 12 kg per 1 saw, but practical studies conducted at several cotton ginning factories show that the productivity of these gin machines is 4-5 kg per 1 saw. corresponds to sawed gins are equipped with pd-type feeders, which should ensure uniform and coordinated transfer of cotton to the gin, as well as its additional cleaning and cleaning of small impurities. 65 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us pd is the cross-cutting scheme of the provider 1. supply voltage. 2. pile drum. 3. mesh surface. 4. trough (tray). 5. conveyor of dirt energy consumption is very high, and short fiber connections are increasing in the composition of the fiber. such indicators lead to a decrease in the quality of the fiber and cause a decrease in the competitiveness of the product. schematic diagram of the 4dp-130 chainsaw 1 – working chamber; 2 – saw cylinder; 3 – kolosnik; 4 – apron; 5 – fiber separation air chamber; 6 scraper; 7 – large conveyor; 8 seed comb; 9 – bruce the natural quality indicators of cotton fiber and the quality indicators of these fibers after ginning were determined in the modern hvi 900 sa instrumental laboratory system, and experimental and research work was carried out. the main purpose of conducting experiments and researches is to determine the level or percentage of mechanical damage caused by the saws to the fiber quality during the process of separating the fibers from the seeds in the raw chamber using the saw cylinder. the problems of the movement of seeded cotton in the raw material chamber of the sawing gin, the seeds not being able to leave the chamber in time, a certain part of them rotating in the chamber for 12-14 minutes, the mechanical damage of a certain part of the seeds, and the cutting of a certain percentage of fibers by the saws remain. fiber entanglements, combined tangles, 66 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us knots and seed husks, which have a negative effect on the quality of the fiber, also occur in the raw chamber of the sawing gin. the following technological requirements must be met during ginning of seed cotton: ø extracting fibers suitable for spinning from seeds; ø absence of defects in the fiber and seed as a result of the effect of the working organs of the gin on the fiber; ø pieces of seeded cotton do not join the fiber or seed coming out of the gin; ø high efficiency of cleaning from large and dirty mixtures; ø the hairiness of the emerging seed and the amount of fiber in the grain should not exceed the specified norm. references 1. the influence of defoliants on the technological quality indicators and chemical composition of seed 2. m ubaidullayev, u kurbanova science and innovation, 2023 3. ubaidullayev, m. m. (2022). new defoliants productivity bonds. archive of science, 2(1). 4. mominjonovich, u. m. (2022). effectiveness of defoliants. eurasian research bulletin, 8, 9-12. 5. mominjonovich, u. m., & ogli, m. i. v. (2022). study and analysis of technological processes of cotton drying in a cluster system. international journal of advance scientific research, 2(11), 6-10. 6. ubaydullaev, m. m., & ut, t. (2022). determination of appropriate norms and terms of defoliants. american journal of applied science and technology, 2(05), 18-22. 7. ubaydullaev, m. m., & makhmudova, g. o. (2022). medium fiber s-8290 and s-6775 cotton agrotechnics of sowing varieties. european international journal of multidisciplinary research and management studies, 2(05), 49-54. 8. ubaidullaev, m. m., & komilov, j. n. (2022). effect of defoliants for medium fiber cotton. international journal of advance scientific research, 2(05), 1-5. 9. ubaydullaev, m. m., & mahmutaliyev, i. v. (2022). effectiveness of foreign and local defoliants on the opening of cups. international journal of advance scientific research, 2(05), 6-12. 10. ubaydullaev, m. m., & sultanov, s. t. (2022). defoliation is an important measure. european international journal of multidisciplinary research and management studies, 2(05), 44-48. 11. ubaydullaev, m. m., & nishonov, i. a. (2022). the benefits of defoliation. eurasian journal of engineering and technology, 6, 102-105. 12. ubaydullayev, son of madaminjon mominjon, & marufjanov, son of abdurahmon mosinjon. (2022). biological efficiency of foreign and local defoliants. "science and innovation" international scientific journal, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6569808 13. ubaidullayev, m. m. (2021). acceptable standards and terms of defoliation in goza. monograph.-corresponding standards and terms of deflation of cotton. monograph. sootvetstvuyushchie normy i sroki defoliatsii klopka. monograph. zenodo. 67 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 14. ubaidullaev, m. m. (2020). the importance of sowing and handling of c-8290 and c-6775 seeds in the conditions of the meadow soils of the fergana area. in international conference on multidisciplinary research (p. 11). 15. ubaidullayev, m. m., & nematova, f. j. (2021). the importance of planting and processing of medium-yield cotton varieties between cotton rows in fergana region. the american journal of agriculture and biomedical engineering. usa, 3(09). 16. teshaev, f. j., & ubaidullaev, m. m. (2020). determination of the effective norm of new defoliants and the conditions of the soil of the fergana region at the opening of the box of 50-60% sorting of s8290 and s6775. actual problems of modern science, (5), 62-64. 17. mominovich, u. m. (2021). the importance of planting and processing of medium-field cotton varieties between cotton rows in fergana region. the american journal of agricultural and biomedical engineering, 3(09), 26-29. 18. ubaidullayev, m. m., nematova, f. j., & marufjonov, a. (2021). determination of efficiency of defoliation in medium-fiber cotton varieties. galaxy international interdisciplinary research journal, 9(11), 95-98. 19. ubaidullaev, m. m. u., askarov, k. k., & mirzaikromov, m. a. u. (2021). effectiveness of new defoliants. theoretical & applied science uchrediteli: teoreticheskaya i prikladnaya nauka,(12), 789-792. 33 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 coatings for the complex protection of metal structures of industrial facilities e. m. murtazayev dotsent, karshi engineering and economic institute, karshi, uzbekistan abstract: this article discusses the main content from the point of view of science, corrosion processes in civil engineering represent the most real threat to metal structures. regardless of the thickness of the steel, rust quickly renders the material unusable, the technology of protection against the appearance and development of corrosion requires an increase in the corrosion resistance of structures. keywords: corrosion, metal structure, gas corrosion, iron and steel products, temperature, coatings introduction. corrosion control is a very important task for the oil and gas industry. in order for metal structures to serve for many years, it is necessary to protect the metal against corrosion. the destructive effect of the atmosphere and aggressive environment leads to the fact that the material gradually loses its qualities and loses its appearance. in this case, the metal needs corrosion protection. the anti-corrosion protection goals depend on the high-quality anti-corrosion coating of the durability and reliability of various metal parts, pipes, construction structures and many other metal objects. for the anti-corrosion treatment of metal structures, machine tools, construction and agricultural techniques, special paints are used. metal structures corrosion-resistant coatings are very widely used. for example, corrosion protection is necessary for pipes, building metal structures, (construction and rail). in addition, bridges, hydraulic structures, roadblocks and any other metal structures that come into contact with an aggressive environment need protection. the main factors that reduce the durability of metal structures of objects of the oil and gas industry:  severe climatic conditions and precipitation;  industrial pollution of the atmosphere (sulfur compounds, chlorides, etc.);  aggressive liquid environment;  aggressive soils. to ensure the continuous operation of oil and gas equipment, effective means of anticorrosion protection should be used. over time, forces can change from time to time or periodically. in the future, we will only consider the voltages that change from time to time from the maximum that is most common in the construction industry. 34 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us so, for example, with an even rotation of the balcony (fig. 1) under the influence of a constant p load that leads to bending, the normal voltage at point c, located on the surface of the part of the balcony under consideration, is determined by the following formula here region moment in cross section x from the reaction on the left base; y is the distance from the point under study to the neutral axis ( y \ ) ; ix – moment of inertia of val cross section of cross section with respect to neutral axis; ω – the rate of rotation of the shaft; t is the current time. form: 1. symmetrically loaded shaft the constant load of p leads to bending, the upper fibers of the shaft are located in the compressed zone, and the lower fibers are located in the stretched area. (1) the formula follows that the voltage graph represents the cosinusoid shown in the time-dependent loop attachment of lattice sterjins from pairs and single angles is carried out with knotted styles or corner nodes directly on the straps and is calculated by the external force acting on the attached sterjins (figure 1.). this movement is distributed between the nodes and the angle: ( ) approximately acceptable; for angles with equal angles 0,3, 0,35-for unequal places attached with a wide angle, 0,25-the same, for places attached with a narrow shelf. if the height of the flat part of the double taurine wall is not enough to accommodate grid attachment seams, such styles are arranged in knots as thick as the double taurine wall. to increase the strength of the knots, one of the planes is fixed on one of the corners to the wall of the double torah, the other is not brought before it, to ensure the welding of the style. to pairs of lengths, the angles of each angle were the same, their attachment at the bottom and performed at the upper corners (figure-2) 35 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure-2 these norms apply to the protection of building buildings and structures (concrete, reinforced concrete, steel, aluminum, wood, stone and asbestos) from corrosion when designing under the influence of aggressive damage at temperatures from minus 40°c to plus 50°c. corrosion protection of building structures that emit radioactive substances from themselves is not recommended for design, including the design of special concrete structures (polymerbeton, acid, liquid-resistant concretions). when designing buildings and structures, the analysis of the state of corrosion should definitely be considered, taking into account the degree of aggressiveness in the environment of the appearance and new conditions of use of structures and protection coatings. the protection of construction structures is guided by the application of corrosion-resistant materials for this environment, as well as by the fulfillment of structural requirements (initial protection), the coating of metal, oxide, varnish and mastic wax coatings on the surface of the structures, lubrication, wrapping with a thin curtain, covering other, storage with materials (second protection), at the same time a comprehensive review of existing corrosion models of steel-reinforced farm structures and a study of their efficiency in long-term exposure under different atmospheric environment conditions, with an emphasis on low and high (c2 to c4) corrosion classes. these levels can be represented by the presence of corrosive factors in the air, from the atmosphere (low level of pollutants) to the industrial atmosphere. high levels of pollutants, table 1 № corrose categories corrosi state atmosphere of the outer atmosphere 1 c1 too low dry or cold zone with very low pollution and gravity 2 c2 low emperor zone with low pollution (so2 ( ⁄ )< 5), short-drawn dry and cold zone, such as 3 c3 middle intermediate zone with moderate pollution so2 ( ⁄ )< 30) and low chloride effect, for example, low concentration of chloride ions 4 c4 high moderate zone with high pollution so2 ( ⁄ )< 90) or important effects of chlorides 36 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5 c5 too high temperate zones with high pollution levels so2 ( ⁄ )<250) high chloride deposition rates, such as industrial areas 6 cx extreme jju has a high level of so2 atmospheric environment with deposits so2 ( ⁄ )<250) accompanying and production factors with a deep effect of chloride concentration to implement this goal, holistic instructions were first given on the mechanism of corrosion in steel-reinforced farm structures and its main causes. subsequently, a quantitative comparison (table 1) of the most updated and reliable corrosion models of steel-reinforced farm structures in the atmospheric environment by various corrosion categories was reported, and for a long time the most significant differences were indicated. in addition, applied research has been analyzed to assess the dynamic properties of corrosive samples by using the finite element method at different corrosion rates, referring to the process unit within the petrochemical plant. impact on construction structures, by level, the environment is divided into nonagressive, sluggish aggressive, moderately aggressive and strongly aggressive. it decomposes into gaseous, solid and liquid according to its physical state in environments. it is advisable to carry out the surface protection of construction structures prepared at the plant in a factory setting. metals are rare in elemental forms, and they combine with oxygen and other common chemicals to form thermodynamically stable ores. they are usually oxides and mineral ores; therefore, they occur in this form and must be purified in energy-intensive processes (figure 3). chemically, corrosion is defined as a chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material (usually metal or alloy) and an aggressive medium that causes the material to decay. figure 3. corrosion cleaning of steel parts process corrosion can be classified using different approaches. the most common classification divides types of corrosion according to their appearance, some can be identified visually, while others are not visible (figure 5). the most common types of corrosion to steel components can be expressed as follows 37 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusions. in connection with the production of metal structures, as a rule, in factories that are later transported to the construction site, the project should provide for the possibility of transporting them in full or in parts (load-bearing elements) using the appropriate vehicles. it should be designed with an emphasis on the most modern and effective technological methods that ensure maximum reduction of labor, taking into account the production technology and installation requirements. it should correspond to the possibilities of assembling it in the shortest possible time, taking into account assembly equipment. the durability of a construction is determined by the conditions of its physical and spiritual deterioration. physical wear of metal structures is mainly associated with corrosion processes. wear is associated with changes in working conditions. loyhas, regardless of their purpose, should have harmonious forms. this requirement is especially important for public buildings and structures. all these requirements are met by layha on the basis of the principles developed by science and practice and the main directions of its development. bibliography 1. qmq 2.01.07-96. loads and effects. t., 1996. -65 b. 2. i.i.siddikov, f.n. nurkulov. issledovaniye modifisirovannix epokidnix kompozisionnix materialov ponijennoy opasnosti. materiali yiii-mejdunarodnoy nauchno-prakticheskoy konferensii " chrezvichayniye situasii: preduprejdeniye i liquidation” < br >. minsk 2019. s.331-335. 3. proshin, a.p. stroitelniye rastvori dlya zashiti ot radiasii [tekst] / a.p. proshin, e.v. korolev, n.a. ochkina, s.m. sadenko. – penza: pgasa, 2002. – 202 s 4. pavlov y . a . metallicheskiye konstruksii: ucheb. ch. 2. 5. arutyunyan, n.k.. mathematical model of a dynamically accreted deformable body . mech.of solids, 1990, 25 ( 6):80 ( part.i);1991, 26 ( 1):67 ( part.ii) 6. e.m.murtazayev, o.s.nurova, a.sh.suyunov, t.g.abdiyev practical and laboratory training tutorial against material resistance.qarshi 2022 y. -.235 b 7. e.m.murtazayev, o.s.nurova, t.g.abdiyev construction mechanics tutorial.qarshi 2021 y. -.235 b 8. e.m.murtazayev mechanics tutorial.qarshi 2021 y. -.104 b 12 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 assessment of the effectiveness of industrial gas purification with diethanolamine asadova rano dilmuratovna, khikmatova dildora khumaydullaevna, karimov saydjon salohiddin o’g’li, bolibekova shaxnoza yarkulovna tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov abstract: the presented work is devoted to the efficiency of industrial purification of dea from sulfur compounds in gas. to evaluate the efficiency of dea purification in laboratory conditions, studies were carried out that showed the presence of foaming on samples taken before entering activated carbon and at the exit after 60 days of carbon adsorption purification. to compare the results obtained, a foaming study was also carried out on fresh dea. the content of high-boiling resinous substances in the composition of dea was studied by chromatographic and photocolorometric methods of analysis. keywords: sulfur compounds, foaming, resinous substances, carbon adsorption purification, chromatographic and photocalorimetric methods of analysis, diethanolamine. it is difficult to imagine the modern world economy without energy, transport, light, communications, radio, television, computer technology, automation equipment, space technology, etc., the basis for the development of which is the fuel and energy complex (fec). the level of development of the fuel and energy complex reflects social, scientific and technological progress and often determines state policy. energy resources play a leading role in the modern economy. the level of development of the productive forces of each state is determined to a large extent by the scale of energy consumption. the important role of energy resources is evidenced by the fact that more than 70% of the world's mineral resources are energy sources. the oil and gas industry in the economy of uzbekistan occupies one of the priority areas, since it largely ensures the well-being of the country's population and affects not only the economic development of the country, but also its security and energy independence, therefore the formation of tasks facing the oil and gas industry of uzbekistan is dictated by the need for progressive economic development and is associated with solving problems to ensure the profitable use of the fuel and energy complex of the republic, since oil and gas occupy the leading place in the structure of the country's primary fuel and energy resources (96%). along with this, special attention is paid to improving purification technology, increasing the stability of the physical and chemical properties of sorbents and improving the environmental conditions for processing secondary sorbents from oil and gas refineries. absorption desulfurization of gases using aqueous solutions of diethanolamine (dea), monoethanolamine (mea), triethanolamine (tea), despite a high degree of purification, has a significant drawback associated with foaming of the absorbent and its carryover from absorption columns, leading to a decrease in the productivity of installations. the presence of intense foaming in the system leads to increased losses of absorbent and deterioration in the quality of 13 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us commercial gas. these factors, as well as an increased pressure drop in the absorber, can serve as evidence of foaming in the system. dea is used for non-selective removal of acidic components and provides the necessary purification of gas from h 2 s and co 2 , however, the disadvantage of dea is the increased foaming of the diethanolamine solution , as well as the heat costs required for the regeneration of the absorbent. increased foaming during absorption purification of natural gas from acidic components is a whole complex of problems caused by the presence of impurities of various origins in the amine solution. this undesirable effect is associated with the accumulation in solutions of tar-like substances and amine reaction by-products, which reduce the surface tension of dea and promote the formation of stable foam, with a high volumetric rate of the process and the use of coal that has exhausted its adsorption resource. several methods are known to combat foaming: physical, mechanical, technological and chemical. physical methods of combating foaming include: thermal effects (freezing, heating, hot steam treatment), electric current, acoustic waves (most often ultrasound), vibration, creating high capillary pressure in the foam, etc. the most effective means is the removal of impurities from the system by continuously filtering the amine solution. the mechanical method of combating foam formation is carried out using various devices a centrifuge, stirrer, etc. however, this method is ineffective. chemical defoaming is the most common and most effective method of combating foam formation, in which various antifoaming agents and defoamers are used . the fight against foaming is carried out with the help of special additives for extinguishing foam, vacuum distillation or extraction of foaming substances, by filtering spent amine solutions, as well as by changing the pressure of the medium. defoamers must be highly effective, have a high defoaming rate , work at low concentrations and have a prolonged effect; they should not change the properties of the intermediate product and complicate subsequent processing, should not have a toxic effect, and should be stable when exposed to high temperatures and storage. to assess the effectiveness of industrial purification of dea ohm, two samples were taken, one of which was taken before entering the activated carbon, and the other at the exit, after 60 days of carbon adsorption purification , and the parameters of their foaming were determined. to compare the results obtained, a foaming study was also carried out on fresh dea. the content of high-boiling resinous substances in the composition of dea was studied by chromatographic and photocolorometric analysis methods. the results of chromatographic analysis showed that in the dea solution selected before and after carbon adsorption purification, along with the peak of the main substance, there are broad peaks of high-boiling resinous substances, which color the dea solution red-brown. this is confirmed by data obtained at fec -2, when measuring the optical density of solutions before and after carbon adsorption purification. however, as experience in the operation of coal adsorption plants shows, despite the use of carbon adsorption purification, in some cases it is not possible to avoid foaming, which may be due to three main reasons: poor adsorption capacity of the ag-3 coal used in relation to large molecules of impurities; high linear speeds of the gas absorption process; and with the duration of use of coal, which has exhausted its adsorption resource. when processing natural gas to purify amine solutions from tarry, corrosive substances and decomposition products, the carbon adsorption purification method is widely used , in which regenerated amine solutions are passed through a filter filled with activated carbon. assessing the quality of activated carbons used in the process is a primary task in amine desulfurization of 14 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us natural gas, because they directly affect the performance of the amine system and the quality of the resulting product. in addition, activated carbons used in adsorption plants must meet the following requirements: 1. have a high adsorption capacity (absorb a large amount of adsorbent at a low concentration in the gas or liquid phase); 2. have high selectivity (selectively absorb only one component from the mixture). the higher the value of the selectivity coefficient, the wider the scope of use, i.e. the possibility of its use for purifying gases with low concentrations of acidic components ; 3. be chemically inert with respect to the components of the mixture being separated; 4. have high mechanical strength; 5. easy to regenerate (the ability to restore original adsorption properties) for subsequent reuse; 6. have a low cost. assessing the quality of activated carbons used in the process is a primary task in amine desulfurization of natural gas, because they directly affect the performance of the amine system and the quality of the resulting product. foaming experiments were carried out in a laboratory setup. 50 ml of dea solution was poured into a hollow cylinder with a diameter of 35 мм, into the base of which a filter schott was soldered, and air was passed through the lower tube using a compressor, which, passing through the volume of the solution, formed foam. it was also found that the height of the foam is directly dependent on the linear speed and degree of carbon adsorption cleaning. the linear speed of air supplied to the laboratory installation was in the range of 0.03 ÷ 0.14 m/s and covered the range of linear speeds (0.11 m/s) of the industrial installation. effect of linear speed on the height (cm) of dea foaming dea solutions linear speed, m/s 0.14 0.07 0.04 0.03 dea before cleaning thirty 13 4.5 2.5 dea after carbon adsorption purification 29 13 4.5 2.5 dea fresh 2 absent _ absent _ absent _ reducing the linear speed by 2-3 times does not eliminate foaming, both in spent and purified dea. in this regard, it was assumed that the coal used, after working for 60 days, does not provide the necessary degree of removal of the resulting impurities. in addition, by changing the optical density of solutions, the degree of purification and foaming of solutions can be determined. to do this, a certain amount of ag-3 coal (0.05 ÷ 1 g) was poured into flasks containing 60 ml of spent dea. the flasks were shaken on the device for 5 hours, after which the solutions were filtered and their optical density and the amount of foaming were determined. another reason for unsatisfactory purification of dea may be due to the high volume load of activated carbon. it has been experimentally determined that effective cleaning is observed up to a volume load of 5 h -1 . a further increase in the volumetric load from 5 to 15 h -1 leads to a significant deterioration in cleaning, and at higher volumetric velocities practically no cleaning occurs. this study showed that for effective industrial purification of dea, it is necessary to reduce the operating time of ag-3 carbon, or use activated carbon with a higher adsorption capacity. 15 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us list of used literature: 1. s.v. nabokov, n.p. petkina absorbents for gas purification from h 2 s and co 2 : experience and prospects for the use of ethanolamines at gas processing plants of ojsc gazprom // scientific and technical collection of vesti gazovoy nauki. 2015. – no. 1 (21). – p.3-8. 2. afanasyev a.i., stryuchkov v.s. prokopenko industrial experience in cleaning low-sulfur natural gas // gas industry. – 1987. – no. 5. – p. 14–16. 3. b.e. shermatov , m.s. mansurova , e.ya. yalgashev , d.i. ismatov , i.e. abdirakhimov innovative work in gas processing // oil and gas complexida burghilash, kazib olish va kaita ishlash zharayonlarining zamonaviy tehnologiya republic of ilmiy-technician anjumani. karshi. – 2018. – p. 3-6. 25 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 03, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх stages of development of military equipment and weapons in bukhara (18-19 centuries) burxonov shahzod burxon o`g`li, hakimova xandona oybek qizi in 3rd grade student of the national university of uzbekistan abstract: in this article, the military reforms carried out by the emirs of bukhara in the emirate are covered based on the relevant sources. keywords: emirate of bukhara, military reforms, amir haidar, amir nasrullah, army structure, navkar, foot soldiers, artillery, regular army. introduction the study of the problems of military art and military affairs of the country's past, the reasons for existing shortcomings, victories and defeats, is one of the pressing problems of the history of uzbekistan. therefore, the study of military work and the state of the army in the emirate of bukhara was considered very important. the emirate did not have its own regular army in the early years when the manghite dynasty came to power. the main task of the few military that existed in the emirate was characterized by the work of guarding the emir and his nobles and ensuring the tranquility of the city. as for the formation of an army in the emirate of bukhara, from the disintegration of the timurid kingdom to the first quarter of the xix century, almost no major changes are observed in this matter. materials and methods by the beginning of the 19th century, efforts were made to form a regular army in the emirate of bukhara. in particular, amir haydar began to pay special attention to the formation of the army from the first years of his reign. the main reason for this was the rise of separatist movements in the eastern regions of the bukhara emirate from his time and the fact that not only diplomacy, but also military power became important in suppressing these movements [1]. results in times of war, people's armies were gathered and engaged in military operations by order of the emir. during the reign of amir shahmurad, the army consisted of two wings. on the left wing: mangit, kenegas, keroit, dorman, konigirot, qiyat, kyrgyz, chinese, kipchak, turkmen, arlot, kalmyk, and uyghur boys formed teams. on the left wing: qatagon, saray, yabgu, bahrin, jaloir, yuz, min, naiman, karluq, berkut, fulodchi, kirq, olchin, mojar, chinboy, bedoyil, boglan, ilyi, tugut and shagirdpesha groups are located [2]. 26 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us there is reason to say that the first radical changes took place during the rule of the mangit dynasty (1800-1826), that is, a regular army was established in a certain sense [3]. however, some historians do not fully agree with this view. researcher b. ismailova divides the organization of army and military affairs in the bukhara emirate into two stages, and considers the first stage from the beginning of the 19th century to the 30s of the 19th century, i.e., during the period of amir heydar, and considers this period as the initial foundation of this field, full regular and he said that he completed the establishment of the army in the ii stage, corresponding to the era of amir nasrullah (1827-1860) and in 1837 [4]. during haidar's time, the military units of the country were divided into two parts: regular army navkar, and non-regular army black army. the navkar was the backbone of the regular army, numbering 200 to 300 in each division, rising to the rank of guard. the irregular part of the military forces of the emir of bukhara, called "cherik", "troop" (black cherik), is the supreme ruler's according to the decree, it was collected from the civilian population during the hostilities. after peace was established in the country, the black soldiers were dispersed to their homes and engaged in their usual occupations (farming, cattle breeding, crafts, labor, etc.) [5]. amir haidar tried to form his standing army in karshi, because the military garrison there was the strongest. in the army he established, officers and military commanders had the status of commanders and received salaries from the state treasury. monthly salaries were paid partly in cash and the rest in kind. the head of the pansad had his own symbol a flag. next to the centurion there was always a bigger flag and it was called "tug". a group of 1,000 people had the right to such a flag, and its leader had the right to pass through the gate of the arch on horseback, and other officers entered on foot [6]. 27 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the number of soldiers in the squads of the army of the bukhara emirate was not uniform. the number of troops is determined by each clan and region based on the available opportunities or according to its influence in the emirate. in addition, the army included prisoners of war, slaves and representatives of other categories who were citizens of different countries. in particular, amir nasrullah paid great attention to military reforms in addition to reforms in the administrative and political spheres. through the efforts of this ruler, a regular army of foot soldiers and artillery was formed. during the time of amir nasrullah (1827-1860), the structure of the army was as follows: a group of 80 prisoners of war, a military unit of 700 people, they were divided into 7 groups, at the beginning of fifty heads, this group was also divided into tens it was led by a commander and was considered an assistant military official to the centurion [7]. discussion it is worth noting that nasrullah was the first among the mangit emirs to establish a permanent military unit consisting of infantrymen and artillerymen. amir nasrullah organized a group of musicians consisting of 14 drummers and 14 pipers. each hundred had two turkish-style drummers, 4 trumpeters, and 6 trumpeters. in addition, there were bolobomists, a group of military musicians formed from foot soldiers under the guidance of tatar ismail and russian trofim, russian prisoners of war [8]. amir nasrullah tried to introduce a unified army deployment system. in this regard, he will build houses for soldiers and artillerymen to live with their families outside the city of bukhara, between the gates of oghlan and tolipoch. as a result of this event, a permanent residence of 800 soldiers will be created near the city of bukhara. this place was popularly known as "sarbozkhana". in the emirate of bukhara, the material support of the troops is determined according to the position they occupy. the army was provided with money or food products [9]. during the reign of amir muzaffar khan in bukhara emirate, many reforms were implemented in the military sphere. for example, during his reign, soldiers had the opportunity to bring their weapons to their homes in peacetime. since this period, changes have also occurred in their military uniform. a long black cap (similar to that of a kalandar), white gray pants, and a military tunic (kulucha) in winter made up the appearance of bukhara soldiers. pants and underwear are changed every two years. every soldier had to bring his shoes with him. by the time of amir abdulahad khan, the soldiers were given a pair of boots every two years [10]. military style "kulucha" or "closed" headgear is called "kolonchin". the number of the squad was attached to the shoulder straps of the soldiers [11]. 28 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us after the death of amir muzaffar khan, amir abdulahad khan reduced the number of soldiers to 2000. the soldiers of saturday made up 4 companies (4000 people), and the soldiers of tuesday made the same number. especially during this period, another group of soldiers was separated. out of 4,000 shanbegi soldiers, 2,000 were armed with rifles and called "dumbalapurs" (that is, the bullet is located at the back of the rifle, it is also worth mentioning that there are cannons called "dumbalapurs" in the emirate, and their owners are also called dumbolapurs ) was named [12]. the above-mentioned reduced group of soldiers included those who were accepted from the turkestan general governorate (mainly from kokand, jizzakh, samarkand) and were to be released based on the agreement with the governorate. during the reign of amir abdulahad khan, the soldiers taken from russian prisoners were almost freed. at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, during the time of the last emir of bukhara, olim khan, european-style regular military groups were established and all their expenses were covered from the treasury. in 1910, when amir olim khan came to power, "daily" expenses for the military were canceled, and in 1918-1920, they were reintroduced again [13]. the purpose of such a decision is the increased threat to the territory of the emirate from the soviet authorities. conclusion in conclusion, it should be noted that the military work and army structure in central asian khanates, including bukhara emirate, remained almost unchanged in a state of stagnation. nevertheless, at the beginning of the 19th century, the first practical steps were taken to create a regular military force in the emirate. amir haydar, one of the mangit emirs, continued the reforms started in this area by his successor, amir nasrullah, and in 1837 he founded a standing army for the first time in the history of the emirate. amir nasrullah khan's theology alone increased the military potential of the emirate for a certain period of time. as a result of various reforms carried out by amir nasrullah in the bukhara emirate, the economic and military power of the state increased somewhat. references 1. samarqand shahridagi o'zbekiston madaniyati tarixi davlat muzeyi arxivi. – hujjat. № 814. (archives of the state museum of the history of culture of uzbekistan in the city of samarkand. document. no. 814.) 2. shukurillayev y. buxoro amirligida qo'shin va harbiy ish (1756 – 1920 yillar). tarix fan. nom. diss. ... – toshkent, 2006. (shukurillayev y. army and military work in bukhara emirate (1756-1920). history is a science. name diss. ... – tashkent, 2006) 3. tursunov b. qo'qon xonligida harbiy ish va qo'shin: holati, boshqaruvi, an`analari. (xix asrning 70 – yillarigacha. tarix fan. nom. diss. ... – toshkent, 2006. (tursunov b. military work and army in the kokan khanate: situation, management, traditions. (until the 70s of the 19th century. dissertation of history, nom. ... tashkent, 2006) 4. zamonov a., & egamberdiyev a. buxoro amirligi tarixi (xviii asr o„rtalari – xix asr o„rtalari): uslubiy qo„llanma. – toshkent: “tamaddun”, 2022. (zamonov a., & egamberdiyev a. history of the emirate of bukhara (mid-18th century mid-19th century): methodological guide. tashkent: "tamaddun", 2022 ) 5. андреев м. с., чехович о.д. арк бухары. – душанбе, 1972. (andreev m. s., chekhovich o.d. ark bukhari. dushanbe, 1972) 6. арендаренко г. бухарские войска в 1880 г. // туркестанский сборник. 297 том. (arendarenko g. bukharan army in 1880. // turkestan collection. 297 roofs.) 7. исмоилова б. бухарский эмират при эмире хайдаре. худжанд. 2000. b. 36. (ismailova b. emir of bukhara emirate, haidar. khujand. 2000. p. 36.) 288 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 analysis of catalysts for hydropuring pyrolysis distillates and studying the possibilities of their extraction ismoilov jahongir master of bukhara engineering and technology institute asadova dilnavoz senior lecturer at bukhara engineering and technology institute abstract: in this article the patterns of occurrence and determination of the main kinetic parameters of hydrocatalytic reactions and hydrotreating processes of various hydrocarbon feedstocks in the presence of synthesized catalysts were studied. the composition and structure of the active component and active centers of transition metal sulfides, as well as methods for the synthesis of catalysts, are described. special attention is paid to the features of hydrotreating olefin-containing raw materials. keywords: hydrotreating, process, oil refining, catalyst, concentration, sulfide catalysts. hydrotreating is the largest-scale process in modern oil refineries. a wide variety of straight-run petroleum fractions and gas oils of secondary origin (gasoline, kerosene and diesel fractions, vacuum gas oil, various types of oil feedstock) are subjected to hydrotreating, and the process has different technological directions: obtaining ultra-clean diesel fuels, deep purification of gasoline fractions from sulfur, nitrogen and other poisons for their further isomerization or reforming; preparation of vacuum gas oil for further catalytic cracking or hydrocracking, selective removal of sulfur while preserving the olefins of catalytic cracking gasoline, etc. environmental requirements played a major role in the development of this process, primarily the fact that when fuel is burned, a very large amount of harmful substances are released into the atmosphere. when processing sulfur and high-sulfur oils, the hydrotreating process is simply indispensable for obtaining products that meet modern quality requirements. currently, deep hydrotreating of petroleum fractions to obtain ultra-clean fuels is possible only in the presence of highly efficient catalysts. to obtain fuels that meet current and future environmental requirements, deep hydrotreating of hydrocarbon raw materials is necessary, which is difficult to carry out without understanding the individual composition of heteroatomic compounds. despite the fact that ni (co )-mo(s)/γ-al2o3 catalysts have been well known since the mid-30s of the last century, when they were used in germany in the bergius process for liquefying coal, studies to determine the structure of the active phases and understanding of the workings of its active centers are still ongoing. the 70s and 80s of the last century were especially fruitful in this regard, when, with the development of new physical methods, many models of the active phase of these catalysts were put forward and studies of catalysts in situ. 289 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us since the late 90s of the twentieth century, publications devoted to the study of the surface morphology of hydrodesulfurization catalysts have resumed in the scientific and technical literature. currently, new catalysts, and with them new technologies for hydrotreating processes, are associated with research into catalysts at the atomic level. modern hydrotreating catalysts, capable of producing motor fuels of the required quality, contain phase ii co (ni) mos crystallites on the surface. the concentration and morphology of this active component, other things being equal, determines the catalytic properties. therefore, new methods for synthesizing catalysts should ensure the maximum content of type ii co (ni) mos phase. the main stages of the synthesis of hydrotreating catalysts are the following: preparation of the carrier and impregnation solution, impregnation of the carrier, drying, possible calcination and sulfidation. the improvement of supported sulfide catalysts is associated with each stage of preparation; however, the most effective ways to increase catalytic activity should be highlighted. the main “levers” for increasing the activity and stability of sulfide catalysts are the improvement of catalyst supports and active phase precursors. the main studied modifiers of the active phase of hydrotreating catalysts are p, f and b, i.e. nonmetals, they are introduced into the catalyst either from their corresponding acids and anions, or heteropolycompounds. the promoting effect of modifiers is explained by: the formation of polymer oxometalates mo (polyoxometalates (poms) or heteropoly compounds ), which sulfidize more easily than monomeric molybdenum oxide particles; suppression of the reactivity of the carrier and, as a result, weakening of the negative interaction “active phase carrier”; formation of a more active multilayer co (ni) mo (w)s phase ii; suppression of promoter loss due to migration into the carrier through the formation of pom or phosphate anion salts. with an increase in the content of the above modifiers, the activity of the catalysts passes through a maximum, i.e. the optimal content of the additive is always observed. this may be due to the fact that modifiers such as p, f, b provide, first of all, the acidity of the impregnation solution, including the liquid film formed after impregnation of the carrier and subsequent drying. the nature of the support has a significant impact on the dispersion of the oxide and sulfide phases of catalysts, sulfidation of the supported precursor, the composition of particles on the surface of the support, particle size distribution of the active component, mass transfer , catalytic properties, process selectivity, deactivation, etc. therefore, modern developments of highly active catalysts are associated with improving the properties of the support. hydrotreating is the final technological process of thermocatalytic purification of dewaxed oil raffinates _ the purpose of hydrotreatment of oil fractions is to increase thermal stability, reduce coking and acidity, and improve the color of base oils. hydrotreating of oil fractions is a catalytic hydrogenation process carried out under relatively mild conditions compared to fuel hydrotreating. during hydrotreatment , chemically unstable components are subjected to hydrogenolysis. these are mainly oxidation products and resinous compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen-containing functional groups and unsaturated bonds in the molecule. the raw materials are distillate and residual oil fractions after dewaxing. the stability of base and commercial oils (in all cases the same portion of additives was introduced) obtained using the hydrotreating process is higher than that of oils after contact posttreatment. it has also been established that the oil “reacts” to the addition of an antioxidant, the more deeply it is purified and the less aromatic hydrocarbons it contains. 290 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us increasing the quality of oil during hydrotreatment allows for less deep selective purification with a greater selection of raffinate without deteriorating the quality of the final product. in addition to the listed advantages, the hydrotreatment process is characterized by higher economic indicators: an increase in the yield of the target product by 4-5%, an increase in labor productivity, a reduction in the area of installations, and a reduction in operating costs. the economic disadvantage of the process is higher capital investments, but this factor is compensated by the improvement of other indicators. the main result of the reaction of aromatic hydrocarbons is the formation of naphthenic hydrocarbons with the same number of rings, as well as naphthenic and aromatic hydrocarbons with a smaller number of rings in the molecule than the original ones. naphthenic hydrocarbons of heavy petroleum feedstock are predominantly represented by condensed ring structures. under mild conditions of the hydrogenation process, these hydrocarbons are quite stable and undergo almost no changes. under more stringent conditions in the presence of special catalysts, the hydrodecyclization reaction is most typical for them. in this case, the resulting naphthenic hydrocarbons with a smaller number of rings in the molecule undergo further decyclization with the addition of hydrogen atoms at the sites of rupture of carbon-carbon bonds. as a result, the content of condensed naphthenic hydrocarbons in the product is significantly reduced and the accumulation of monocyclic and non-condensed naphthenic hydrocarbons occurs. the most progressive significance in the production of high-index base oils is acquired by technological processes of targeted formation in their composition of the maximum content of isoparaffin hydrocarbons with low sulfur content. an analysis of global trends in progressive innovations from the 60s of the last century to the present day shows that on the path to the best world achievements in the production of base oils, it is fashionable to distinguish three main stages: 1. application in the production of oils from selected oil oils of catalytic processes of hydrorefining of distillates and raffinates in combination with selective purification and dewaxing processes using new, more efficient solvents; 2. application for the production of base oils of hydrocracking processes of heavy vacuum gas oil and deasphalted oil , further modified into isocracking , as well as hydrodewaxing processes , then modified into isodewaxing of various raw materials: hydrocracking oils, raffinates , slacks solvent dewaxing. creation of a fully catalytic flow scheme for the production of vi oils from any oils based on the processes of isocracking and isodewaxing with hydrotreating; 3. application of technologies for the synthesis of paraffinic (isoparaffin) oils based on α olefins (hydrogenated poly-αolefin oils) and on the basis of synthetic oil obtained from natural gas via the fischertropsch reaction (on cobalt or iron-containing catalysts with subsequent isodewaxing). the catalytic dewaxing process is a highly flexible and low-cost process for eliminating bottlenecks and expanding traditional solvent production. dramatic improvement in the structure of the isomerization catalyst dewaxing msdw provides high yields and viscosity index, as well as flexibility in raw material selection. commercial oils obtained on a high-index base have a high and super-high level of viscositytemperature properties (iv 130-150-170), low and super-low pour point, and high stability under various operating conditions of equipment. 291 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us literatures 1. nikulshin pavel anatolyevich molecular design of hydrotreating catalysts based on heteropolycompounds, chelatons and carbonized supports. dissertation for the degree of doctor of chemical sciences. samara 2015. 2. амонов, м. р., раззоков, х. к., равшанов, к. а., мажидов, а. а., назаров, и. и., & амонова, х. и. (2007). исследование релаксационных свойств хлопчатобумажной пряжи, ошлихтованной полимерными композициями. узбекский химический журнал, 2, 27-30. 3. яриев, о. м., амонов, м. р., амонова, х. и., & мажидов, а. а. (2007). оценка реологических свойств полимерной композиции на основе природных и синтетических полимеров. композиционные материалы: научно-технический и производственный журнал, 1, 6-10. 4. amonovich, m. a., muxammadjonovna, m. s., & saidovna, m. g. (2019). printing and technical properties of cotton fabrics printed by thickning polymer compositions. austrian journal of technical and natural sciences, (11-12), 45-47. 5. мажидов, а. а., амонов, м. р., очилова, н. р., & ибрагимова, ф. б. (2020). физикохимические основы загущающих систем для печатания хлопчатобумажных тканей. композиционные материалы: научно-технический и производственный журнал, 2, 3-7. 6. амонов, м. р., равшанов, к. а., амонова, х. и., & содикова, с. ш. (2007). исследование физикомеханических свойств шлихтующих композиций на основе водорастворимых полимеров и ошлихтованной хлопчатобумажной пряжи. дан руз, (6), 60-62. 7. мажидов, а. а., яриев, о. о., амонов, м. р., & назаров, с. и. (2008). ресурсосберегающая технология получения загустителя печатных красок на основе крахмала модифицированного серицином и кмц. бухоро давлат университети илмий ахбороти журнали, (3), 50-52. 8. мажидов, а. а. (2008). изучение зависимости реологических свойств загусток на основе полимерной композиции от состава компонентов. композиционные материалы: научно-технический и производственный журнал, (3), 14-17. 9. маджидов, а. а. (2022). разработки технологии композиционных материалов на основе природных и синтетических полимеров. amaliy va tibbiyot fanlari ilmiy jurnali, 1(6), 267-274. 10. лебедев н.н. химия и технология основного органического и нефтехимического синтеза. москва, химия, 1988. –586 с. 181 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 calculation of internal and external pressures of thick-walled pipes under the influence of aerial flows o. chulponov namangan engineering construction institute abstract: water reservoirs are designed with different radii and thicknesses of water discharge systems or engineering pipes in accordance with the water discharge effort. the thicknesses of the pipes in the drainage system are different for pipes working under high pressure. keywords: reservoirs, water release system, radius of engineering pipes, pipe thicknesses, pressure. it is known that reservoirs are designed with different radii and thicknesses of water discharge systems or engineering pipes in accordance with the water discharge pressure. the thicknesses of the pipes in the drainage system are different for pipes working under high pressure. due to this, internal pressure is obtained, and in order to balance the forces corresponding to this pressure, in some cases, an artificial aeration process is created in the pipes. in this case, it is important to take into account internal and external distributed pressures. this paragraph deals with the solution of axisymmetric problems in thick round pipes under pressure. lame's problem of the theory of elasticity is used to solve axisymmetric problems in thickwalled ring-section pipes under the influence of internal uniformly distributed pressures. we calculate the stresses in the walls of the pipe with a large wall thickness. when solving the problem, we use the following formulas in the polar coordinates of the theory of elasticity. [ ][ ] [ ][ ] we find the formulas for tension through the general solution of symmetric problems with respect to the axis. 182 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the considered problem refers to the case of plane deformation, and the formulas depend on the elasticity constants e1 and [ ][ ] [ ][ ] to determine the constants a and v, we have the following conditions: да putting the above into formula (1), we determine the following: [ ][ ] [ ][ ] putting the above into formula (1), we determine the following: ; putting the found constants into the equation (4.6.2), we determine the following formulas for voltages. it should be noted that, and the sum of the normal stresses is the same for all points in the pipe. consequently, when we combine the expressions in the formula (5) normal stress in the cross section of the pipe in case of plane deformation is formed, as is known considering this formula , this formula can be written as follows. (8) that is, we will have the formula. 183 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us so, along the longitudinal axis normal stresses are uniform along the length of the pipe. in the finished parts of the pipes, there is no effect of flat deformation. in particular, the external pressure acting on the pipe, then the voltage equation (5) will have the following form. conclusions a calculation scheme was formulated for the issue aimed at ensuring the durability and long service life of water discharge pipes in reservoirs, taking into account soil and water pressure, pipe material, its geometric dimensions, dimensions, shape and material of the reinforced concrete shell surrounding the pipe to study the deformation stress state. mathematical formulation of the problem was carried out. references: 1. rs juraevich, c.o gofurjonovich, mr abdujabborovich. stretching curved wooden frametype elements “sinch” european science review, 223-225. 2. k.k muminov, o cholponov, ba mamadov, m oglu bakhtiyor, d akramova physical processes as a result of concrete concrete in dry-hot climate conditions international journal of human computing studies 3 (2), 1-6. 3. b mamadov, k muminov, o cholponov, r nazarov, a egamberdiev. reduction of destructive processes in concrete concrete processing in dry-hot climate conditions . international journal on integrated education 3 (12), 430-435. 4. ш.а. хакимов, о.г.чулпонов. опит использования солнечной энергии при изготовлении бетонных изделий на открытых площадках. научный электронный журнал «матрица научного познания 93 5. худойкулов, о.чўлпонов. кўп фазали оқимнинг эркин сирти юзаси бўйлаб ҳаво оқимининг кириб боришини моделлаштириш. си pedagog 5 (6), 156-162. 6. о чўлпонов, д каюмов, т. усманов. марказдан қочма икки томонлама “д” турдаги насосларни абразив емирилиши ва уларни камайтириш усули. science and education 3 (4), 304-311. 7. n ikramov, t majidov, m mamajonov, o chulponov. hydro-abrasive wear reduction of irrigation pumping units. e3s web of conferences 264, 03019. 8. б.ш.ризаев, о.чўлпонов, ж. махмудов. прочностные и деформативные свойство тяжелого бетона в условиях сухого жаркого климата. issn 26587998, 760-765 9. о чўлпонов. оқимнинг концентрацияси даражасининг кўп фазали аэрацион оқимда тарқалишини ҳисоблаш усуллари. pedagog 5 (7), 542-549 10. о.г.чулпонов, си худайкулов, ш хакимов. моделирование турбулентного течения смеси вязких жидкостей. бнту. 11. о.г.чулпонов,с.и.худайкулов,шм.журахонова. элекросбрегающая технология в использовании водных ресурсов. инновации в сельскохозяйственном машиностроении, энергосберегающие. 12. о.г.чулпонов, с.и.худайкулов, ш.хакимов, м. абдурашидов вопросы моделирования турбулентного течения многофазных потоков. бнту. 13. ог чулпонов, си худайкулов. матрица научного познания. матрица научного познания учредители 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(2022). compressive strength of disperse reinforced concrete with basaltic fiber. texas journal of engineering and technology, 15, 278-285. 168 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 directions of development ground-level processing plugs f. mamatov karshi engineering economics institute (uzbekistan) abstract: in uzbekistan, cotton and its accompanying crops are cultivated in specific soil and climatic conditions. the article analyzes the technologies and design features of plows for basic tillage of the cotton-growing zone. a combined frontal plow for smooth, rowless plowing is proposed. the devices and the principle of operation of the plow are given. it has been found that when using a frontal plow, direct costs per hectare are reduced by 55-60% compared to the existing technology, and fuel consumption by 57-60%. keywords: plow, smooth plowing, longline plow, unit, tractor, technology. introduction. the call to "produce more products" due to the intensive development of new lands for sowing cotton and other crops turned into a terrible disaster for humanity. the environmental situation in the central asian republics has deteriorated sharply as a result of a decrease in the water level in the aral sea. the ecological situation in the cotton-growing area largely depends on the agricultural, mainly cotton orientation of the region. in recent years, there has been a deliberate reduction in cotton crops. the development of land for agricultural crops has been stopped [1-3]. in this regard, at this stage, the only way to further develop cotton farming, including other branches of crop production, is to increase yields. the solution to this problem requires the implementation of a set of measures to increase soil fertility. the farming system includes a whole range of different activities, among which one of the main places is occupied by the tillage system. a rational processing system is designed to ensure an increase in the potential fertility of soils, high and sustainable yields of agricultural crops with minimal labor and money per unit of output [8]. results. due to the widespread use of the method of cultivation of agricultural crops based on intensive technologies, the requirements for the quality of land cultivation are increasing sharply. high-quality preparation of fields for planting can be achieved only by plowing the land flat. the flat plowing method imposes great demands on the quality of plows [9]. based on the analysis of the general laws of development of driving units and their development direction, the following technical processes for the creation and use of flat plow plows in uzbekistan can be expressed: creation and use of rotary plows for urgent work ; creation of two-tier plows with passive working organs without scythes; to create plows with a combined working body that crushes the stalks of the medium-urgent soil cultivation unit, flattens the soil and prepares the soil for planting, spreads fertilizers and plants crops in one pass, and apply. in cotton growing areas, including in the conditions of the republic of uzbekistan, tillage with two-tier plows is the most effective agrotechnical plowing method. therefore, it is necessary to immediately carry out work on the creation and implementation of two-level compacted small-sized rotary plows on a large scale [10-12]. it is known that when a wheeled tractor works with a suspension plow, the rear wheels are loaded more, and the load on the front wheels is reduced. the balance of the drive units and 169 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us traction characteristics can be improved by hanging the plows on the front and rear of the tractor [12]. when such a unit works, the conditions of using the engine power are improved due to the redistribution of loads to the axles of the tractor and the reduction of the shaft. front and rear suspension plow drive unit can do flat plowing with right and left tipping bodies. when the drive unit of the front and rear suspension plows works, the loads are evenly distributed to the tractor axles and wheels, in this case, the tractor's gearing mass increases; engine power is efficiently used; labor productivity increases. therefore, it is promising to create and use a driving unit that plows the land flatly based on front and rear suspension plows. in the future, it is planned to use regional farming systems that protect the soil, maintain soil fertility on the basis of new technologies and technical tools of tillage and tillage, and get a high yield from crops with the least effort and labor. the most promising technology is the technology of flat plowing by turning the soil blade 180° in its place. the frontal plows that implement it are small in size, have a small metal capacity, are highly maneuverable, and have a very short path of deepening into the soil. a number of scientific and practical works were carried out at the karshi institute of engineering and economics in cooperation with scientists of the moscow state university of agricultural engineering on the development and application of flat tillage technology and technical tools for cotton-growing regions. as a result, three experimental plugs were created. two of them have a passive working body, and one is a front plow with a combined passive and active working body. for example, the pfx-2 type frontal plug with a passive working body is made symmetrically with respect to the longitudinal axis of the drive unit. it consists of plug frame 1, oppositely oriented right and left overturning bodies 2 and 3, zaplushki 4, disk blades 5, two supports 6, a traction mechanism 7 and a support-leveling roller 10 [13-17 ]. the plug consists of oppositely oriented right and left tilting housings, and the coverage width of each housing can be changed in the range of 45-52.5 cm. the total coverage width of the plug is 1.8-2.2 m. when the speed of the tractor is 8-12 km/h, the productivity of the plow is 1.2-1.3 ha/h. the driving depth is 25-30 cm. the soil leveling roller is hinged to the plow frame with the help of a hammer. by changing the pressure force of the spring, it is possible to adjust the level of soil crushing using the support-leveling roller [18-20]. plugs were tested in the fields of kashkadarya region of the republic of uzbekistan. according to the conducted experiments, it is determined that the main agrotechnical indicators of these sample plugs (pfx-2, pls-3) are not lower than those of the layered plugs (pya-3-35 and pd-335). the metal capacity of these plugs is 1.5-1.75 times lower than double-layer plugs, and the productivity is 25-60% higher. flat plows ensure good loosening of the soil and high-quality leveling of the field surface. one-row crops, especially cereals, can be sown on the land cultivated by these plows. a machine based on frontal plows, which performs such processes as grinding the stubble, fertilizing, softening the soil under the plow layer, complete preparation of the soil for planting, planting, and furrowing in one pass with flat plowing of the land. and aggregates can be developed. 170 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us symmetrical frontal plug with passive working body: 1 – frame; 2 – body that turns to the right; 3 – left-turning body; 4 – zaplujnik; 5 – disc-shaped knife; 6 – support wheel; 7 – towing device; 8 – zaplujnik handle; 9 – bracket; 10 – support-leveling roller according to the calculations, when using integrated frontal plugs, all economic costs are reduced by 2.5 times, that is, the total labor costs for the annual work volume are 67-70%, operating costs are 55-60%, capital costs are 5358, and the mentioned costs are reduced by 5559%. in addition, fuel is saved up to 57-60%, and productivity increases by 27-30% [20]. the cost of grain crops is reduced by 20-25% due to the complete preparation of the land for sowing in one go by the integrated plow. in addition, productivity increases by 2-7% due to prevention of soil compaction. in the conditions of uzbekistan, when intermediate crops are planted, it is possible to get a double harvest from grain crops. 171 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us it is promising to turn frontal plugs into universal machines. preliminary research showed that it is possible to create universal machines based on these plows, which, in addition to flat plowing by overturning the plow, can perform such tasks as drawing the land and fully preparing it for planting, milling, crushing the stalk, making ditches and furrows. therefore, it is appropriate to carry out large-scale scientific-testing and pilot-construction work on the creation 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article examines the issues related to waste generation and disposal in surkhandarya, a region in southern uzbekistan. it explores the current waste management practices, their environmental impact, and proposes sustainable solutions to address the challenges. the study incorporates literature analysis, data collection, and expert opinions to present a comprehensive overview of the situation. keywords: waste generation, waste disposal, surkhandarya, environmental impact, sustainability, waste management, recycling, landfill, public health. аннотация в данной статье рассматриваются вопросы, связанные с образованием и утилизацией отходов в сурхандарьинской области на юге узбекистана. в нем исследуются современные методы управления отходами, их воздействие на окружающую среду и предлагаются устойчивые решения для решения этих проблем. исследование включает в себя анализ литературы, сбор данных и мнения экспертов, чтобы представить всесторонний обзор ситуации. ключевые слова: образование отходов, утилизация отходов, сурхандарьинская область, воздействие на окружающую среду, устойчивое развитие, управление отходами, переработка отходов, полигоны, здравоохранение. introduction surkhandarya, a region known for its cultural richness and natural beauty, is confronted with the pressing issue of waste generation and disposal. as the population grows and urbanization continues, the region faces challenges related to the proper management of waste. this article aims to shed light on the current state of waste management in surkhandarya, analyze its environmental impact, and propose sustainable solutions to mitigate the challenges. literature analysis and methodology 35 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the literature on waste management in surkhandarya reveals several critical aspects: ➢ rapid urbanization: surkhandarya has experienced significant urbanization in recent years, leading to increased waste generation due to population growth and changing consumption patterns. ➢ inadequate infrastructure: the region faces challenges in terms of waste collection, transportation, and disposal infrastructure, resulting in inefficient waste management. ➢ environmental impact: improper waste disposal practices, such as open dumping and burning, have detrimental effects on air and soil quality, as well as on local ecosystems. ➢ health concerns: inadequate waste management poses health risks to the population, including the spread of diseases and exposure to hazardous materials. ➢ recycling and circular economy: the literature highlights the potential for implementing recycling programs and adopting a circular economy approach to reduce waste generation and promote sustainability. to assess the waste generation and disposal situation in surkhandarya, a comprehensive methodology was adopted: ✓ data collection: primary and secondary data sources were used to gather information on waste generation rates, disposal practices, and existing infrastructure. ✓ expert interviews: interviews with local waste management experts and officials were conducted to gain insights into the challenges and opportunities in the region. ✓ environmental impact assessment: an assessment of the environmental impact of current waste management practices was conducted, including air and soil quality analysis. ✓ sustainable solutions: based on the collected data and expert opinions, sustainable solutions for waste management in surkhandarya were formulated, focusing on waste reduction, recycling, and improved disposal practices. results the analysis revealed several key findings: 1. high waste generation: surkhandarya is experiencing a significant increase in waste generation due to population growth and urbanization. 2. inefficient disposal: open dumping and unregulated waste disposal practices are common, contributing to environmental pollution and health risks. 3. environmental degradation: improper waste disposal has led to soil and air pollution, negatively impacting the region's ecosystems and public health. 4. potential for improvement: there is potential to implement sustainable waste management practices, including recycling initiatives and enhanced infrastructure. conclusion waste generation and disposal in surkhandarya are pressing issues that require immediate attention. the region's rapid urbanization has exacerbated the problem, leading to inefficient waste management practices and environmental degradation. however, the study also highlights opportunities for improvement through the adoption of sustainable waste management solutions. by focusing on waste reduction, recycling, and improved infrastructure, surkhandarya can move 36 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us towards a more environmentally friendly and economically sustainable waste management system. references 1. белоселский б.с. технология топлива и 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(2018). what a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. urban development series. world bank group. 302 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 analysis of the coils used in soil drilling d. b. irgashev, phd institute of engineering and economics m. buriyev phd student, institute of engineering and economics abstract: in general, following this, the biological system “soil-plant-atmosphere” is considered. an artificial soil-cultivating working body is introduced into this system, which is created according to the biological prototype of a bionic object related to this system and functioning in it. the result is the adaptation of the working organ, bringing it to the resemblance of a living organism and giving it certain geometric shapes, movement dynamics (multi-contact impact) and the properties of a living prototype. in this case, methods of general systems theory, agricultural mechanics, continuum mechanics, integral and differential calculus are used. keywords: soil, tillage, technologies, parameters, roller, resource-saving, atmospheric, working bodies, soil-protective. introduction. an increase in agricultural yields is inextricably linked with improving the quality of soil preparation, the purpose of which is to create the required structure and density of the seed layer. in this regard, special attention should be paid to the processes of loosening, rolling and leveling the soil. existing designs of serial tillage rollers cannot provide the required quality of loosening, compacting and leveling the soil surface, especially in soil-climatic zones with insufficient precipitation. the solution to this problem is to use a mechanical-bionic approach to analytically describe the optimal shapes and parameters of the working bodies of soil-cultivating rollers in order to more effectively influence the soil. currently, bionics methods are widely used in the development of design schemes and justification of the parameters of various agricultural and soil-cultivating machines. therefore, to justify optimal parameters and operating modes, it is necessary to use agricultural technical bionics in combination with a biosystems approach. the purpose of the research is to develop theoretical prerequisites for the bionic substantiation of the parameters of the working parts of a ring-cutting soil-cultivating roller. material and methods. the scientific foundations for substantiating the rational parameters of agricultural machines and tools were laid by academician v.p. goryachkin, who was the first to apply the laws of mechanics to describe the processes of operation of agricultural machines and implements. doctor of technical sciences, professor a.n. gudkov it was proposed to take into account the nature of living matter of plants, animals and soil when theoretically considering the technological processes of machines and tools. living organisms living in the soil, as a result of evolutionary development, have improved digging limbs with ideal geometric parameters and kinematics of movement, which allows them to loosen and compact it most effectively with minimal energy consumption. the initial data for substantiating the parameters are the physical and mechanical properties of the soil: soil deformation index, shear modulus, lateral expansion coefficient and friction coefficient. 303 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in modern agriculture, many technologies for cultivating agricultural crops are known: extensive, intensive, industrial, integrated, biological, adaptive, landscape, soil-protective, moisture-saving, resource-saving, environmentally friendly, etc., designed to increase natural soil fertility, improve the quality of crop cultivation, increase their productivity. with the advent of powerful tractors, the intensive impact of traditional means of mechanization caused over-compaction of the soil and dispersion of its top layer, which negatively affected soil fertility. ultimately, such technologies were recognized as energy-intensive, which led to a sharp reduction in the number of technological operations performed and simplification of the remaining ones; single-operation mechanization tools began to be replaced by combined ones. to date, the most energy-intensive branch of agriculture remains crop production, which accounts for 70% of all costs, including more than 40% for operations related to soil cultivation. the main task when implementing any technology is to reduce labor costs, energy and resource conservation while simultaneously increasing the yield of cultivated crops and, as a consequence, reducing production costs. many scientists and agricultural specialists have reliably established that the use of conservation technologies reduces the number of passes of units across the field, preserves soil fertility, and minimizes environmental pollution from fuel combustion products. one of the main conditions for the successful implementation of such cultivation technologies is the use of agricultural machines of a higher technical and technological level. the massive use of herbicides and pesticides has given impetus to the introduction of energy-saving, minimum and zero tillage and sowing technologies into the agricultural system. discussion the largescale introduction of new technologies has influenced the need to take additional measures to combat water and wind soil erosion, improve the conditions for moisture accumulation and its conservation in the top layer of soil. currently, domestic and foreign manufacturers and enterprises produce a wide range of agricultural machines for basic and presowing tillage, sowing and mechanized care of crops, designed to implement resource-saving and soil-protective farming technologies. the world experience of scientists and agricultural producers in the cultivation of cultivated plants shows that most technologies for the production of agricultural products differ fundamentally depending on the characteristics of each crop, the soil and climatic conditions of the region and the preferences of the producer of these products. consequently, as the number of technologies increases, the need for technical means for their effective implementation also increases. accordingly, with the development of scientific and technological progress in crop production, the adaptation of technological processes and technical means to the natural, climatic and soil conditions of a particular region of the country is becoming increasingly important. results any technology for cultivating agricultural crops, as a rule, includes: basic and pre-sowing tillage, sowing and care of crops (mechanized, using row cultivators, or chemical sprayers), harvesting and transportation of crops. if we take into account that there is no alternative to sprayers, harvesters and vehicles, then the main reserve for energy savings remains the operations of preparing the field for sowing, sowing and caring for crops, which account for up to 50% of energy costs. in addition, conservation technologies should be aimed not only at preserving the humus layer of the soil, but also at combating wind and water soil erosion, accumulation and preservation of soil moisture in the root layer during the growing season of plant development. rolling is the cultivation of soil with special agrotechnical tools compacting rollers. rollers can have different shapes and designs: smooth, ring-spur, ringtoothed and others. their choice depends on the mechanical composition of the soil, structure, humidity, degree of loosening of the soil and the sown crop. but no matter what you choose, sv machines are able to satisfy any request. 304 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. kw rubber wedge roller the kw rubber wedge roller (diameter: 580 mm) can be used universally and is especially recommended when strip reconsolidation is strictly necessary. whether in wet or dry conditions, light or heavy soils, the wedge roller performs very reliably. thanks to the rubber rings, the rubber wedge roller optimally forms compacted strips in the seed furrow. the space between them remains loosened at the same time, so that water and air exchange are possible. this targeted reconsolidation creates a capillary effect that, even under dry conditions, favors the supply of soil moisture to the seedlings. a large amount of precipitation, on the contrary, seeps into uncompacted soil. individually adjustable scrapers clean the roller precisely and reliably even under the most difficult conditions. an optional harrow is available for additional crumbling and leveling. figure 2. tubular roller the sw tube roller (diameter: 520 mm or 600 mm) is a simple and inexpensive entry-level model. due to its low weight, the roller is especially suitable for tractors with low lifting power. reconsolidation is carried out transverse to the direction of travel with good crumbling quality and an open soil surface structure. especially on light soils, the tubular roller has a high loadbearing capacity and a powerful drive. thanks to the twisted arrangement of the durable pipes, the roller is highly stable and operationally safe. the tube roller is also an ideal choice for incorporating liquid manure and for cultivating the soil after spreading the liquid manure. the larger roller (diameter: 600 mm) provides higher load-bearing capacity and re-consolidation. in addition, the tubular roller is particularly smooth in running and rolling. an optional rear harrow is available for additional crumbling and leveling 305 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. tw tandem roller the tw tandem roller (diameter: 520 mm/380 mm) is mainly used for seedbed preparation as it provides a good crumbling effect. this effect is achieved due to the different peripheral speeds of the small and large rollers, which are observed especially on light and medium soils. thanks to the pendulum suspension, the tandem roller ensures optimal ground contour following by both rollers. an optional harrow is available for additional crumbling and leveling. figure 4. pw toothed roller the pw toothed compaction roller (diameter: 600 mm) ensures continuous reconsolidation over the entire working width. the welded teeth create a good crumbling effect and also form more fine soil. adjustable scrapers ensure clogging-free operation even on sticky soils and large amounts of plant matter. the scrapers, coated with hard metal as standard, guarantee a long service life even under the most difficult operating conditions. the optimal area of application is medium and heavy soils, where the toothed compaction roller has a high load-bearing capacity and a powerful own drive. an optional harrow is available for additional crumbling and leveling. figure 5. rubber wedge roller with matrix kmw tires the rubber wedge roller with matrix kmw tires (diameter: 650 mm) is the ideal roller with the largest diameter of all rollers and offers advantages not only due to its size. the flexibility of using the roller, as well as high load-bearing capacity on almost all types of soil and under all conditions, is ensured due to its size. thanks to the matrix profile tires, a powerful drive is provided, so that the traction requirement is very low. 306 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us with strip reconsolidation, the matrix profile provides good crumbling quality with a sufficient amount of fine earth. individually adjustable scrapers clean the roller precisely and reliably even under the most difficult conditions. an optional harrow is available for additional crumbling and leveling. figure 6. dw disc roller the dw disc roller is designed for use on heavy and wet soils. to prevent the roller from clogging with soil, it is equipped with separately screwed, adjustable scrapers. thanks to its high dead weight of 220 kg/m working width and narrow tines, the disc roller ensures good reconsolidation on heavy soils and also good crumbling quality. the lumps are cut and the stones are pressed into the soil. thus, the roller leaves a cleared soil surface and thereby ensures a low tendency to siltation, as well as good air and water exchange. an optional following harrow is available for additional crumbling and leveling.. figure 7. ddw double disc roller the ddw double disc roller (diameter: 2 x 600 mm) with a weight of 270 kg/m working width is the heaviest in the range of rollers. this roller can be used on almost all types of soil, but the optimal application area is heavy and sticky soils. here, high load-bearing capacity is ensured, high throughput is guaranteed and, due to the robust and heavy construction, resistance against stones. wear-resistant disc elements provide good crumbling, cut lumps and provide strip, deep reconsolidation. thus, the roller leaves a cleared soil surface and thereby ensures a low tendency to siltation, as well as good air and water exchange. 307 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 8. ww corner roller the ww corner roller (diameter: 580 mm) is used primarily on medium to heavy soils without stones, where it specifically cuts clods. it features a bent profile with good cutting and crumbling quality. wedge-shaped rings provide strip reconsolidation with a penetrating effect and optimal crumbling. an optional spring knife system is available. intensity-adjustable spring knives clean the gaps between the rings and further crush lumps. figure 9. u-profile roller uw the u-profile roller uw (diameter: 580 mm) is especially recommended when high load-bearing capacity, high throughput and at the same time a leveling effect are a priority. the open uprofile roller is purposefully filled with soil, thereby reducing wear and compacting the soil through soil-to-soil contact. reconsolidation is carried out in the direction of movement without intensive influence on the depth. the u-profile roller performs its job particularly well on light soils. thanks to its design, the uprofile roller is also relatively lightweight and very wear-resistant. an optional spring scraper system or harrow is available. figure 10. double u-profile roller the double u-profile roller (diameter: 2 x 580 mm), like the simple u-profile roller, is recommended when high throughput and at the same time a leveling effect are a priority. due to the soil-to-soil contact of u-profiles, wear is extremely low. thanks to twice the number of uprofile rings on two rollers, the double u-profile roller provides even higher load-bearing 308 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us capacity. in addition, due to the narrower ring spacing, the roller provides a more aligned return compaction in the direction of travel than a simple u-profile roller. conclusion.the operations of each of these technologies can be implemented mechanized, through basic moldboard or non-moldboard tillage, surface tillage of the soil using serial machines and units. others use minimal or no tillage, leaving stubble and crop residues on the field surface or incorporating straw into the soil. having analyzed the known technologies for pre-sowing field preparation, we can conclude that the soil before sowing is treated with cultivators, disc, tooth and needle harrows, as well as soil-cultivating rollers. rolling before sowing ensures the destruction of soil lumps, as well as partial leveling of the field surface. however, the problem of high-quality preparation of the field for sowing using tillage rollers is currently not sufficiently solved. therefore, it is necessary to justify the optimal basic design parameters of a soil compaction tool containing new working parts, which include, in particular, ring sealing elements and pointed rippers. references 1. mamatov f.m., fayzullayev x.a., irgshev d.b., mustapaqulov s.u., nurmanov m., hamrayeva l. substantiation of loosening the soil with a subsoiler during soil processing for sowing melons and gourds under a closed film tunnel// international journal of progressive sciences and technologies (ijpsat) issn: 2509-0119.© 2020 international journals of sciences and high technologies. – vol. 24. – india, 2020. – p. 444450. 2. ravshanov k., fayzullayev k., ismoilov i., mamatov s., mardonov sh.. irgashev d,b.. the machine for the preparation of the soil in sowing of plow crops under film // iop conf. series: materials science and enginereering 883. 3. fayzullayev kh., mustapakulov s., irgashev d.b., begimkulova.m raking plates of the combination machine's subsoiler // e3s web of conferences 264, 04039 (2021). 4. fayzullaev kh., mamatov f., мirzaev b., irgashev d.b., mustapakulov s,, sodikov a. study on mechanisms of tillage for melon cultivation under the film // e3sweb of conferences 304, 03012 (2021). 5. иргашев д.б., файзуллаев х. а., курбанов ш. б. обработка почвы между рядами садов чизелом рыхлителом// международной научно-практической конференции. сборник научных трудов. “автотракторосроение и автомобильный транспорт”. – минск, 2021. – c. 265-268. 6. иргашев д.б., даминов л.о., муспакулов с.у. обосновать параметры рыхлителя, для обработки между садовыми рядами// международной научно-практической конференции. сборник научных трудов. “автотракторосроение и автомобильный транспорт”. – минск, 2021. – 268-271. 7. irgashev d.b. аgrotechnical requirements for deep tillage without turning the soil// научное обеспечение устойчивого развития агропромышленного комплекса. сборник материалов международной научно-практической конференции посвященной памяти академика ран в.п. зволинского и 30-летию создания фгбну «пафнц ран» – с. соленое займище, 2021. – c. 577-580. 8. https://sv-m.com/ru/stati/obrabotka-pochvy-i-posev/pravilnyy-katok-dlya-lyubykh-pochvobratnoe-uplotnenie-i-vedenie-po-glubine/ 28 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the role of new technologies in the formation of the project of modern museums saipova d. sh. national institute of art and design, named after kamoliddin bekhzod teacher of the department of design abstract: in the design of museums, through new technologies, a communicative connection with time is created, attracting the attention of visitors. the concept of museum design is also different in that it requires a unique creative approach. the study of the factors influencing the decisions of the interior design of the museum consists in the search and study of interior elements through technologies based on modernity, in accordance with the needs and interests of these institutions. keywords: technologi, communicative, accent element, functionality concept. the targeted plan for organizing the provision of additional services in state museums, the development of new concepts of state museums, the safe storage of museum objects, the creation of favorable conditions for visitors, especially persons with disabilities, tourist services, architectural planning, interior design, constructive and landscape solutions, confirms the project of each museum building based on the direction and content of decree of the president of the republic of uzbekistan pq-261 of may 27, 2022. today's trend in the formation of new technologies in modern museums, along with the development of new concepts of museums, is a kind of inversion of museum practice. previously, the exposition of visiting museums by the period was taken in the form of an exhibition, where, to the maximum, places were allocated to espanats and hidden behind glass,"do not touch with your hands!".now museums, on the contrary, seek to establish a connection between the visitor and the work from all sides through sound, painting, smell, touch. this is evidenced by the formation of new technologies in modern museums. one of these is used in the organization of a museum through a multimedia tool. multimedia (latin for — multiple and — mediator hap) is a computer device that allows you to work with text, graphics, sound and video data. in later times, graphics accelerators and high-volume universal cds were also added to the multimedia device standard. museums, armed with new technologies, try to open and deepen the context of the perception of exhibits, in which visitors are directly in contact with the qualities of art.the museum building was opened to the public on february 22, 2022. each floor of the building is allocated for a specific exposition these are space research objects, workshops for the development and testing of technologies in the building, laboratories, lecture halls and, of course, entertainment for any taste, and for each section from new tehnalogies, in an interactive way, information is moistened through tach panels in the required pilgrimages. the interiors of the modern museum building are equipped with touch equipment screens and any touch kiosks, monoblocks or monitors, there is a choice, able to accommodate all information.visitors to the museum will be able to use a long mudat of this device, regardless of age, and get the necessary information. for the interactive complex‖ tachinform: museum", he ech kiosks were used with a unit. along with the color proportionality and selected tehnik devices in the interiors of the museum, an attempt was made to perfectly find the desired compass solution. 29 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us museum of the future, dubai tachpanels these devices are equipped with shock-resistant screens for the future generation, of which the walled interactive panels do not take up much space, the necessary data is installed, equipped with a multi-touch screen against vandal (metal keyboard), which works through the protective glass.for museum expositions, monoblocks were used, for small rooms full-fledged information for 1 square meter will serve. since the future generation that came to the museum was the age of new technologies, as much as possible, through new technologies, screen-screen infokiosks on the walls are displayed through large volumes of data and interactive navigation systems, and people receive the information they need. it depends on the implementation of museums in the creation of their design: sometimes the technological framework of the exhibition overloads its subjective interpretation, attracts attention. the unprepared viewer, accustomed to living in an information-rich, vibrant, mobile world, today is causing ever-decreasing emotions. for this reason, augmented (ar) and virtual (vr) reality technologies are in great demand.the first introduces the exhibition into the reality surrounding the viewer. the latter creates a separate universe on the basis of an exhibition, into which it is possible to penetrate and look around, to better understand and feel the mood and content of the work. modern techniques and trends in exhibition design of the museum the main features of modern museum design analysis of the development of exhibition activities in recent years shows that more and more museums are resorting to exhibition practice, its dynamism and increased interest of the audience. a study of museum practice shows that modern museum design is endowed with a number of features that make it relevant. one of the main criteria in the design of the museum is its functionality. in general, the functionality of the design is determined by utilitarian requirements practicality, rationality and ease of use. museum of the future, dubai 30 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us currently, several approaches have been formed in understanding the role of information technology in exposition. the first approach is associated with the use of technical means in the exposition of the museum, the authors of which believe that information technology should play an instrumental, serving role in the exposition with the content of information. the second point of view is more daring, it assumes that the functions of multimedia tools are gradually expanding, in addition, information technology in some cases can act as equal participants in the museum exhibition, in addition to the originals. a new generation of innovative technology-based computer graphics software and technical tools has opened up a wide range of opportunities to use traditional design, modeling and presentation techniques from computer-aided design (alt), 3d modeling and sculpting, visualization (render), informative modeling (bim) systems. the exposition should provide comfortable accurate information about all exhibits and serve so that visitors do not get tired. this requires limiting the number of exhibits, beautiful placement at the required level, and variety. halls located in a sequence corresponding to the theme of exhibits should have a shape corresponding to their character. it is advisable that each group of paintings, if possible, be placed in one room, with a separate wall for each painting. such a system requires small rooms, in which the ratio of the area of the wall to the area of the allocated area is obtained suitable proportions for rooms where large pictures are displayed the size of the hall is required to be placed in direct proportion to the size of the paintings 1 . how are the information tools in the museum organized? information tools-indicate the location of any environment. 1. target acquisition and risk awareness data, 2. technical data, 3. organizational data, 4. visual propaganda. the 1st batch data tool relies on special constructions, technical safety rules, laws.1) alarm, prohibitive colors fire extinguishers, pipes passed and various containers capacity, vehicles inside and between the workshops v.b. 2) safety signs in production prohibiting, inhibiting, commanding and indicating.3) conditional marks of items transported using vehicles gost 14202 69; 4) to detect (select) the repellent conductors (a facility where gas, par, liquid is transferred through a long-distance repellent) and display samples of their colors.the 2nd batch i.e. information about technical means, which are given in blue and put in places where the worker refers to technical information in general places. the blue color indicates the safety signs of the main technique in the interior. this color is mainly used in the decoration of tables of technological constructions, indicators, etc. the 3rd organizes the placement of information about the social, administrative organization and scientific and technical information.this information is given on the walls of a special vestibule, in corridors, outside the working zones. the 4th guru is obliged to have information that expresses high-level artistry, is conspicuous, and is well connected in the interior with the help of colors and compositional solutions, complement each other. at such times, elements of monumental color image, sculpture and applied decorative art can be used. visual propaganda imagery tools can be diverse: thematic, decorative pannos, monumental fresco compositions, should be enriched with the installation of mosaics on the walls. the designer should take into account not only the architectural and functional features of museums, but also the social and economic conditions of construction, the requirements of 1 referat. ―national research tomsk polytechnic university. 168 pages. 31 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us potential viewers its requirements and real capabilities. it consists of issues such as the reproduction of ideas in the design process or existing, the use of traditional solutions or the search for volumetric-spatial projects based on new technological capabilities. the constant development of science and technology leads to the comprehensive development of design, distinguishing the exact conditions for the implementation of projects. based on the decision of the president, the center of islamic civilization of uzbekistan will be transformed into a center promoting the idea of the "third renaissance — new uzbekistan", scientifically studying the achievements of the country during the new rise and communicating to the general public. according to the decision of the president on july 16, the center of islamic civilization in uzbekistan under the cabinet of ministers is being transformed into a scientific and educational center, which carries out the following: a broad promoter of the idea of the" third renaissance — new uzbekistan"; a scientific researcher of the achievements of the country's history during the new rise, a supplier of it to the general public; a promoter of samples of material and cultural heritage, ancient and rich traditions associated with the religion of islam. work was carried out on the project, not moving away from the general concept, and the color proportionality in the project of french designers was maintained. the reason is it is necessary to maintain the overall color harmony. in the tarh part of the project, all elements are placed along the circular center. in the center, three mock-up projects are planned, the mock-ups embody the three renaissance in uzbekistan. modern tach panels are planned to be used throughout much of the museum. the interior design of the museum building consists of several functional zones: a director's room, administration, common rooms, a large hall designed for staff meetings, a multimedia room, a customer waiting room, a storage room for exhibits, a small buffet, a waiting zone, conversation building study rooms and recreation zones. the designer uses plan methods and solutions to divide museum rooms into specific zones; carefully consider room decoration, find lighting and color solutions; correctly select equipment for exhibits; reduce natural lighting as much as possible; correctly use ergonomics to create comfortable conditions for spectators; draw an exposition map for museum visitors; the economic zone includes the necessary building buildings (garages, warehouses, transformer substations the first stage: the author's team, the specifics of the museum, the thematic structure of the exposition, the scientific concept of the development of the museum for the near future and future, the approximate composition and area of the buildings, urban planning, architectural and artistic-figurative orientation options are developed. summary.the role of new technologies in the formation of the museum project is very largewith these tehnalogies, the ground is broken for the next generation. as the data age progresses forward toboro has a larger capacity to contain data. the use of technology leads to a more perfect project. because all the necessary data capacity is placed on tach panels, the design of the walls is so namoish that the visitor will have the information of the necessary technologies using touch wall panels. "this center will be our face in islamic propaganda. therefore, its appearance, attention should also be paid to the building materials used here. it is necessary to abandon the usual, eye — catching projects and find a new shape and design," the president said. not only does the viewer who comes to the museum have the necessary information in dubai's ―museum of the future‖, but the soothing and selected tehnik devices from the psihalogic side found through the color proportionality in the museum interiors will further motivate the youth of the present time to aspire, to become interested. as well as the future generation, which came to the museum of the islamic civilization center of uzbekistan, we can see that, as if returning to our history for a while, the design projects designed by the time of the exposition prayer were awakened by new tehnalogies. a draft proposal is being made to allow the maelunot to be distributed by exchanging on screen infokiosks along the wall.the creation of facilities for 32 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us visitors of all ages and the penetration of new technalogies as much as possible for the future generation through the capacity of information in the appearance of new programs for the current period, work is underway on ergonomic and compositional solutions of width and location in the museum interior. in the interiors, proposal ideas were given, which should be honored through holograms. relying on this instruction, scientists, mature thinkers, creative artist designers began to work under the leadership of shoazim minavarov, director of the islamic civilization center. based on the decision of the president, the center of islamic civilization of uzbekistan will be transformed into a center promoting the idea of the "third renaissance — new uzbekistan", scientifically studying the achievements of the country during the new rise and communicating to the general public. according to the decision of the president on july 16, the center of islamic civilization in uzbekistan under the cabinet of ministers is being transformed into a scientific and educational center, which carries out the following: it is an idea that promotes the idea of the" third renaissance — new uzbekistan"; studies the achievements of the country's history during the new rise on a scientific basis, delivers it to the general public; promotes samples of material and cultural heritage, ancient and rich traditions associated with the religion of islam.work was carried out on the project, not moving away from the general concept, and the color proportionality in the project of french designers was maintained. the reason is that maintaining overall color harmony is considered to be important factors. in this interior part of the museum, great attention is paid to the chronological location of all exhibits, photos and information. a doctor of historical sciences, a professor, a senior researcher, a museum scientist are working on the department. based on the above pictures, designers are further enriching the interiors of the museum. among the creative research, we can see that scientific research is being solved list of literature used 1. president of the republic of uzbekistan sh.mirziyoev decree no. 4947 of february 7, 2017 ―on the strategy of action for the further development of the republic of uzbekistan‖http://strategy.regulation.gov.uz 2. resolution of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan ―on measures to improve the activities of museums of the republic‖adopted on december 23, 1994 // people's word, december 24, 1994. 3. resolution of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan "on issues of fundamental support for the activities of museums"adopted on march 5, 1998 // people's word, march 15, 1998. 4. "muzey ishi asoslari" o'quv qo'llanma d. t. kuryazova. 2018. 5. muzey va jamiyat (dars) j. x. ismoilova, k. s. nishonova, m. s. muxamedova. 2015yil. 6. muzeyshunoslik 2018yil.ch.x. g'aniyeva. 7. latipovich t. a. prototiplash uslublari ... prototiplash va maket haqida / / o'rta evropa ilmiy byulleteni. – 2022. – т. 20. – с. 76-80. 8. maxmudova m. t. issiq mamlakatlarda qishloq uyining xususiyatlari / / academicia: xalqaro ko'p tarmoqli tadqiqot jurnali. – 2021. – т. 11. – №. 3. – с. 2167-2173. 9. mannapova n. r., saidyusupova m. f. badiiy maktablarkompozitsiya va rangli echimlarda / / ilmiy taraqqiyot. – 2021. – т. 2. – №. 6. – с. 1919-1921. 10. kasimov o. s. migel bir. bir. bir. //теория и практика современной науки учредители: теория и практика современной науки" институт управления и социальноэкономического развития".ооо – №. 10. – с. 24-31. 11. саипова д. yoritish dizayni va muzey ko'rgazmalarini tashkil etishning zamonaviy tendentsiyalari / / <url>. – 2021. – т. 2. – №. 33 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 12. sultanova m. f. et al. the effect of architectural design and its dimensions on human psychology //nveo-natural volatiles & essential oils journal| nveo. – 2021. – с. 16011610. 13. sultanova m. f. the role of tour bases in the development of tourism in uzbekistan //international scientific and current research conferences. – 2021. – с. 1-5. 14. kasimov o., salimov o. landscape formation in central part of historical cities of uzbekistan //problems of architecture and construction. – 2018. – т. 1. – №. 1. – с. 17-20. 15. makhmudova m., makhmudova m. islamic style in landscape design on the example of ancient gardens of the temurid period //society. integration. education. 16. kasimov o., salimov o. landscape formation in the central part of the historical cities of uzbekistan / / problems of architecture and construction. – 2018. t. 1. – №. 1. s. 17-20. 21 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 02, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх development of a digital gas sensor module designed for industrial safety systems and their application abdazimov shavkat xakimovich, gafurov baxtiyor mengliyevich, zuhriddinov hayotbek qaxramonjon o’g’li tashkent state transport university, tashkent, uzbekistan annotation: the article discusses the development of a wireless monitoring system for the control of toxic and combustible gases to solve the actual problem of automated control of the gaseous environment at hazardous production facilities. the architecture of the monitoring system, which consists of wireless gas analyzers with connected remote digital modules, is described . the article discusses design and circuit solutions for the development of a digital gas sensor module, which includes: a microcontroller, an rs-485 transceiver, an integrated power supply based on a pulse converter, a unit with digital gas sensors. the principle of combined protection against electrostatics and microsecond interference, as well as the concept of digital gas sensors with sensitive elements of various physical types, is considered. the developed module makes it possible to detect explosive and toxic gases in the atmosphere, and can be used in industrial accident prevention systems together with actuators. key words: monitoring system, industrial safety, gas sensor, intelligent digital sensor, zigbee , micro assembly, rs-485, toxic gas, explosive gas. introduction. the task of warning and avoiding hazardous situations associated with the presence of combustible and toxic gases in the atmosphere is relevant and timely. at present, wired automated systems for monitoring toxic and explosive gases are used at large production facilities of the chemical industry. in technological processes associated with the extraction, transportation, processing, production, storage and use of combustible and toxic gases, there is always a high probability of the formation of explosive and toxic mixtures [1,2]. a high concentration of combustible gases can lead to ignition or explosion when the gas content in the air is between the lower and upper flammable concentration limits [3,4]. a high concentration of toxic gas above the established maximum permissible concentration of p(dk) in industrial premises can cause severe poisoning of personnel. at present, the causes of explosions and poisonings in uzbekistan are most often a gross violation of the rules for the safe operation of equipment, a lack of control over technological processes, and sometimes a low level of qualification of the working personnel[4,5]. thus, in uzbekistan, the task of automated control of the gaseous environment at industrial facilities is very relevant. modern western industrial enterprises install automated detection systems for toxic and explosive gases[6,7]. such systems , consisting of gas analyzers, controllers, warning devices and actuators, perform the functions of early warning of the development of a dangerous situation. thus, gas detection systems make it possible to localize the development of dangerous situations at an early stage, and also increase the period of time for taking appropriate protective measures and actions to eliminate emergency situations[8,9]. to solve it, it is necessary to constantly improve existing gas analyzers to increase their reliability, 22 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us accuracy of measuring concentrations, as well as versatility and ease of operation. as a result , an urgent task is to develop complex gas analyzers that meet modern requirements for speed and accuracy, and operate stably under conditions of disturbing environmental factors [10,11]. wireless monitoring system to detect leaks of toxic and combustible gases at production facilities, a special system based on wireless gas analyzers has been developed. the wireless monitoring system of the ieee 802.15.4 standard consists of a network coordinator, a router and an end device [12,13]. in the network topology, the router and the end device are multi-channel and non-volatile gas analyzers. ieee 802.15.4 zigbee standard allows to provide data transmission over long distances with low power consumption of transceivers [14,15]. a feature of the ieee 802.15.4 zigbee standard is that devices support relay and routing functions to increase the communication range. the architecture of the monitoring system is presented. the developed monitoring system based on wireless non-volatile gas analyzers is designed to measure the concentration of toxic and combustible gases, signaling the excess of concentration levels and control the actuating elements of ventilation systems, sound and light alarms and automation[16,17]. the main components in the monitoring system are multi-channel wireless non-volatile gas analyzers, each of which consists of: a power source with batteries, a zigbee transceiver, a control microcontroller, a micro-assembly of power switches, a galvanic isolation unit with digital interface drivers rs-485, usb. specialized digital modules of gas sensors are connected to wireless gas analyzers. in turn , the multichannel wireless gas analyzer provides power for remote digital sensors, signal processing and indication of measured gas concentrations, data reception and transmission to the wireless network, alarm devices triggering when the threshold values of measured gas concentrations are reached, and diagnostic selfmonitoring[18,19,20]. digital gas sensor module. correct placement of gas sensors of various physical types is the key to the effective operation of the monitoring system[21,22]. at present, multi-channel digital modules with rs-485 interface, which are connected to stationary or mobile devices, have proven themselves the most well. on fig. 1. the appearance of the developed digital module of gas sensors for wireless gas analyzers and for industrial stationary systems of the existing type is presented[23,24,25]. rice. 1. external view of the digital gas module with 4 sensors. remote gas modules are installed near the zone of possible gas release and connected to a wireless gas analyzer. the installation height of the remote module completely depends on the physical properties of the controlled gases[26,27]. since gases heavier than air (carbon dioxide, propane , chlorine, etc.) will accumulate in the lower part of the room, the sensitive elements are installed at a height of no more than 1 meter from the floor. lighter gases will rise to the top of the room and the sensors should be placed near the ceiling. for gases having a density close to air, the location can be any[28,29]. for toxic gases, sensors are located at the level of human breathing. when receiving information and interpreting it from a remote gas module, it is 23 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us required to be guided by the general sanitary and hygienic requirements for the air of the working area gost 12.1-005-88. the digital gas sensor module may only be connected in a non-explosive atmosphere[30,31]. on a real object, the number of sensor units and their location is determined by the project and regulatory documents. each remote digital module of gas sensors is connected to an autonomous main gas analyzer using a twisted pair cable, through which power is supplied and service information is transmitted according to the rs-485 standard. the use of the rs-485 standard for data communication between a wireless nonvolatile gas analyzer and a remote sensor enables low-cost and reliable data communication in environments with high levels of noise and adverse conditions, such as rooms with a large number of industrial installations. reducing the susceptibility to external interference on the rs485 bus is achieved due to the differential signal transmission method[32,33]. the digital module includes : a microcontroller, an rs-485 transceiver, an integrated power supply, a block with digital gas sensors. currently, when developing a digital gas module, it is required to strictly take into account the power consumption of all its components in order to increase the battery life of the system. almost all electronic components that were created more than 5 years ago are not suitable for use in stand-alone devices due to the high level of power consumption. on fig. figure 2 shows the electrical circuit of the integrated power supply implemented in the developed module. rice. 2. part of the circuit of the electrical circuit of the power source. the integrated power supply of the digital module receives external power via a twisted pair cable no longer than 10 meters from a wireless gas analyzer and generates a constant analog and digital 3v power supply for the control microcontroller, gas sensors, and an rs-485 driver chip[34,35]. on the side of the wireless gas analyzer, to which digital remote modules are connected, a galvanic isolation unit is installed to protect the main product. capacitors and a specialized suppressor (vd1) are installed at the power supply input to suppress impulse noise. the developed power supply uses a switching voltage regulator (da1 in the circuit) tps62740. the miniature switching regulator has its own current consumption of only 360na, its conversion efficiency reaches 95% at a rated load of up to 100ma [36,37]. such indicators are achieved through the use of the dcscontrol control architecture , which combines the advantages of hysteresis control and voltage control mode [38]. the output voltage of the switching voltage regulator is set by a four-bit combination. noise filtering is carried out both on the power supply (l2) and on the common wire (l3). anti-ringing resistor r1 serves as a fuse, and capacitors of various capacities (c4-c9) suppress high-frequency and low-frequency noise on the digital and analog power lines. the use of just such a regulator makes it possible to reduce the power consumption of the module by several times, since digital gas sensors have a pulsed mode of operation. in the pulsed mode of operation , digital gas sensors are in “sleep mode” for a greater amount of time, and only wake up according to the timer every 15-30 seconds to measure the concentration of toxic and explosive gases[39]. 24 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us power consumption of the digital gas sensor module. the general trend in the development of instrumentation is towards miniaturization and reduction of energy consumption. modern monitoring systems use battery-powered wireless systems. because of this, the issue of reducing the energy consumption of the components of the product and thereby increasing the operating time of the product is acute. in gas analytical devices that control combustible gases with semiconductor and thermocatalytic sensing elements, the most energy-intensive object is the sensing element, which must be heated to an operating temperature reaching 400-500 °c. in gas analytical instruments , which control toxic gases, the most energy-intensive component is already the control microcontroller and the rs485 driver chip[40]. the power consumption of the developed digital module can be divided into 2 parts active mode and sleep mode. in active mode, the stm32l011 microcontroller, operating from an internal clock source, consumes only 76 μa / 1 mhz clock frequency, in sleep mode, only 0.29 μa with the options for waking up from an external interrupt and uart receiving a package from the rs-485 driver chip. the rs485 driver chip in active mode consumes at least 1.1 ma, in sleep mode only from 10na to 5ua. unfortunately , the rs-485 driver chip cannot be disabled, since at any time a package with important data may arrive from the master device. in sleep mode, digital gas sensors draw less than 0.1 ma[41]. conclusion. on the basis of a modern ecb, a low-power digital module of gas sensors has been developed for the industrial safety and environmental monitoring system. structural and circuit solutions allow the developed module of gas sensors to function in an unfavorable electromagnetic environment at real industrial facilities. using the concept of digital intelligent gas sensors can greatly simplify the maintenance of the finished monitoring system. the developed module makes it possible to detect explosive and toxic gases in the atmosphere and can be used in industrial accident prevention systems together with actuators. monitoring systems based on the developed module make it possible to localize the development of dangerous situations at an early stage, and also increase the time period for taking appropriate protective measures and actions to eliminate emergency situations. the results of the work can be used in various industries, at enterprises: gas and oil industries, oil refining and chemical industries, energy, mining and coal industries, metallurgy , food industry. references 1. ogli, z. k. q. 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(2022). binolarda kelib chiqishi mumkin bo‟lgan favquloddagi vaziyatlarda yong‟in hodisalarini optik harorat datchiki orqali aniqlash. journal of integrated education and research, 1(6), 85-89. 27 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 36. камилов, х. м. (2022). темир йўл транспорти ҳаракатланувчи таркибида ёнғинни бошланғич босқичда олдини олиш. barqarorlik va yetakchi tadqiqotlar onlayn ilmiy jurnali, 2(1), 177-179. 37. musayev, s. g., & hamroyeva, m. a. q. (2023). ishlab chiqarishdagi baxtsiz xodisalar va mehnat muhofazasi bo‟yicha samarali natijaga erishish borasidagi sayharakatlarni yanada maqsadli tashkil etish. science and education, 4(1), 1141-1146. 38. gulamovich, m. s., & o‟g‟li, z. h. q. (2023). learning the skills of ergonomic knowledge in production through digitalization. ta’lim fidoyilari, 16, 137-144. 39. gulamovich, m. s., & o‟g‟li, z. h. q. (2023). ergonomic personal development of teachers through digitalization of modern education. ta’lim fidoyilari, 16, 130-136. 40. камилов, х. м., мусаев, ш. ғ., & холбоева, м. о. қ. (2021). электрoмaгнит мaйдoн таъсиридан ҳимоялаш вoситaси самадорлигини ҳисoб мoдели (темир йўл станция навбатчиси иш жoйи мисолида). scientific progress, 2(8), 872-877. 41. аблялимов, о. с., хисматулин, м. и., зоирхонов, с. т., эркинов, б. х., мусаев, ш. г., & ишбутаев, х. ғ. (2018). об использовании тепловозов uzте16м3 на участке мароканд-каттакурган узбекской железной дороги. in актуальные вопросы современной науки (pp. 58-70). 39 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 principles of development of engineering ecology kuchkarova ch. kh. docent, andijan institute of machine building abstract: nowadays, the population of the earth has increased several times from the beginning of the last century to the present day of the new century. this in turn led to the construction of many factories, construction of roads, construction of houses, increase of motor vehicles and many similar activities in the countries in order to provide them with vital products. . as a result, nature has been used and is being used mercilessly, and it itself is overflowing with various wastes. if the situation continues at this level, the existence of humanity on earth will be in danger in the near future. therefore, regardless of the class of the industrial network, every enterprise should pay serious attention to the complete decontamination and cleaning of the wastes released from it. it is no secret that the development of production, science and technology causes many different wastes to be thrown into the environment. at this point, the student may have a question, what should be done, what should be done? of course, it is natural for any thinking person to have such questions. first of all, a person should take a deeper look at nature with the eyes of his "mind" and see that all the creatures, plants, all natural resources above and below the ground were created for him and that they all serve him, and then they should realize that those who are left here on our motherland should also live. the earth is a place of residence for all living things and plants, it nourishes and clothes us. the earth and the surrounding air water and soil layer create comfortable conditions for us to live [1;2]. all minerals, waters and creatures living in them serve for man, for his living in this world. realizing this, people should try to increase their love for nature, preserve it and live in harmony with the laws of nature. but unfortunately, in response to this, many people do not value nature and do not protect it. they think that the earth will lift all their "unsuitability", "masculinity". today, severe pollution of the environment, derailment of the ecological balance, occurrence of various climatic changes and disasters are a clear evidence of our "unacceptable" pollution, its practical manifestation [3;4]. nature itself is a system in balance, connected by various energy connections, which leads to the violation of these connections, its derailment, disruption of existing natural processes on earth, and as a result of this, various ecological disasters occur on the surface of the earth. about 5,500 years ago, the following inscription was left on the cheops pyramid in egypt: "man is condemned to death because he ignores the forces of nature and does not understand the real world." a lot can be said and given examples about this. 40 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. impact of industrial enterprises on the environment therefore, today the problem of environmental protection has become one of the main issues of every country. because the population of the planet has grown from 1.5 billion to 8 billion since the beginning of the last century. this in turn led to the intensive use of land, natural resources, and energy in order to provide them based on the needs of living. these days, more than 100 billion tons of natural resources are being extracted from the earth, 800 billion tons of metal are being melted, 60 million tons [5]. various synthetic materials are produced, 500 mln.t. mineral fertilizers, 3 mln.t. toxic chemicals are being added. 700 billion of industrial and domestic wastewater is discharged into natural water bodies. so, so2, no2, c2n and dust occupy the most important places among the toxic gases released into the environment. 250 mln.t annually into the atmosphere. more than 200 million tons of dust. so, 150 mln.t. so2, 50 million tons. nitrogen oxides, 50 million tons. more than 20 million tons of hydrocarbons. more than so2 gas is discharged [6]. currently, there are more than 200 million cars on earth (this number is increasing day by day), each of them emits more than 200 types of toxic substances into the environment. they contain various hydrocarbons and lead compounds with highly carcinogenic properties. the presence of tetra-ethyl lead substance in gasoline after their use in automobile transport, causes the spread of various toxic substances of lead substance with oxide, nitrate, sulfate, chloride compounds into the environment [8]. these substances are constantly found on city roads due to vehicles. when burning coal, together with smoke and ash, more substances are released into the environment compared to the amount of its extraction, for example, magnesium 1.5, molybdenum z, arsenic 7, uranium, titanium 10, aluminum, iodine, cobalt 15, mercury 50, lithium, boron, strontium, beryllium, zirconium spread 100 times more. therefore, they are always present in plants, water, and soil, through which these substances are transferred to the human body through products (water, air, by eating vegetables and fruits). extremely dangerous radioactive substances are spread through nuclear power plants (npps). these substances are constantly collected in the atmospheric air, they can combine in the air and form extremely dangerous substances, and nitrogen oxides and freons cause the destruction of the ozone gas layer located in the stratospheric layer of the atmospheric air. let's not go too far, today's climate changes, the increase in natural disasters (floods, hurricanes, storms, forest fires, etc.) are caused by the increase in the amount of "greenhouse" gases in the atmosphere. can be shown to have arrived. at the same time, it is no secret that as a result of the accumulation of waste gases in the atmosphere, "acid rain" and smog are formed, and they fall to the ground, damaging water bodies and fertile lands. references 1. kuchkarova c. h. et al. the high water plants water road in cleaning //annual research & review in biology. – 2019. – с. 1-5. 2. habibullaevna k. c., xodjakulov m. n. emergency situations that may occur as a result of public disorder, damage reduction and fire safety measures //international journal of formal education. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 12. – с. 74-77. 41 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. habibullaevna k. c. fuel based on food and agricultural organic waste development of safe technology of briquettes //international journal of biological engineering and agriculture. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 6. – с. 36-39. 4. kuchkarova c. h. natural distribution of the algae plant of the treatment of telearosovodis, systematic place and separate biological features //central asian problems of modern science and education. – 2019. – т. 4. – №. 2. – с. 117-124. 5. habibullaevna k. c., mohinur n. monitoring the impact of industrial enterprises on the environment //" online-conferences" platform. – 2022. – с. 285-288. 6. habibullaevna k. c., maftunakhan o. development of safe technology of fuel briquettes //" online-conferences" platform. – 2022. – с. 281-284. 21 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 1, issue 1, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 test-driven enterprise data engineering with pyspark and dbt arvind kumar sharma department of data science and engineering, indian institute of technology (iit) madras, chennai, india kavya nair department of computer applications, national institute of technology (nit) trichy, tiruchirappalli, india abstract: enterprises increasingly rely on large-scale data pipelines to deliver analytics and insights, but traditional development practices often leave data engineering projects vulnerable to errors, inefficiencies, and costly rework. test-driven development (tdd), long established in software engineering, is now emerging as a critical discipline in modern data engineering. this article explores how pyspark and dbt (data build tool) can be combined to bring test-driven methodologies into enterprise-scale data ecosystems. by applying unit tests to pyspark transformations, and leveraging dbt’s native testing and documentation framework, organizations can enforce data quality, detect schema drift, and validate business logic before deployment. the discussion highlights architectural patterns, integration workflows, and best practices for embedding testing across the data lifecycle—from ingestion to transformation and consumption. future directions such as ai-assisted test generation and continuous testing in real-time pipelines are also considered. ultimately, the article positions tdd not merely as a technical safeguard, but as a strategic enabler of trustworthy, maintainable, and scalable enterprise data engineering. keywords: iot security, cyberattack detection, real-time monitoring, rt-iot2022, machine learning, network intrusion (nids). introduction: why test-driven data engineering matters in today’s digital economy, data has evolved into a mission-critical enterprise asset, powering everything from operational dashboards and compliance reporting to machine learning models and real-time customer experiences. as organizations collect and process increasingly complex and diverse datasets, the reliability of data pipelines directly determines the trustworthiness of insights and the success of data-driven strategies. yet, many enterprises still rely on ad-hoc pipelines that are hastily assembled to meet immediate reporting needs. these pipelines often suffer from silent failures, undetected schema changes, inconsistent transformations, and data quality issues that surface only when decision-makers notice discrepancies. over time, these fragile systems accumulate technical debt, making them harder to scale, maintain, and govern. the result is a cycle of firefighting, where engineering teams spend more time troubleshooting than delivering value. to break this cycle, organizations are turning to test-driven principles as the foundation of modern data engineering. just as test-driven development (tdd) revolutionized software engineering by embedding validation into every stage of coding, test-driven data engineering applies the same discipline to data pipelines. by writing tests before implementing 22 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us transformations, engineers can validate assumptions about data, catch errors early, and enforce data quality at scale. this approach not only strengthens trust in analytics but also enhances maintainability, reduces risk, and ensures that pipelines evolve without compromising reliability. test-driven data engineering, particularly when implemented with tools like pyspark and dbt, provides enterprises with a blueprint for building robust, auditable, and future-ready data systems—a critical step in treating data as the enterprise-grade product it has become. challenges in enterprise data engineering as data becomes the lifeblood of enterprise operations, engineering teams face mounting challenges in building and maintaining pipelines that are both reliable and scalable. unlike small-scale projects, enterprise data engineering must contend with the realities of massive volumes, shifting data landscapes, and strict accountability requirements. three core challenges stand out as defining the complexity of this domain. 1. scale: handling billions of rows across distributed systems enterprises generate and process data at staggering volumes, often spanning billions of rows ingested daily from diverse systems such as iot devices, financial transactions, customer interactions, and digital platforms. managing this scale requires distributed processing frameworks like pyspark, but even with such tools, bottlenecks in storage, computation, and network transfer can quickly emerge. without careful optimization, queries can become prohibitively expensive, refresh times unmanageable, and system reliability compromised. 2. complexity: evolving schemas, upstream dependencies, and transformation logic enterprise data ecosystems are rarely static. source systems change field names, add new attributes, or deprecate tables with little notice. each change cascades downstream, breaking transformations, dashboards, and even machine learning models. moreover, the interdependencies between ingestion pipelines, business logic transformations, and reporting layers create a fragile web where one adjustment can have unintended consequences. this complexity often results in brittle pipelines that demand constant maintenance and firefighting. 3. accountability: ensuring data accuracy, reproducibility, and compliance beyond scale and complexity, enterprises face the critical challenge of accountability. executives, regulators, and customers expect data-driven decisions to be accurate, reproducible, and compliant with legal frameworks such as gdpr, hipaa, or sox. however, without proper validation and testing, errors can go unnoticed until they lead to flawed insights or compliance breaches. in industries like finance or healthcare, such failures can carry severe financial, reputational, and legal consequences. achieving accountability requires not only technical controls but also transparent auditability and robust testing practices embedded throughout the data lifecycle. in short, enterprise data engineering is defined by the trifecta of scale, complexity, and accountability. overcoming these challenges demands structured approaches like test-driven development, which can transform pipelines from fragile workflows into resilient, trustworthy data products. principles of test-driven development in data engineering test-driven development (tdd), a proven practice in software engineering, emphasizes writing tests before writing the actual code. this approach ensures that functionality is validated from the outset, reduces defects, and builds confidence in the system’s behavior. when translated into the world of data engineering, tdd adapts these same principles to address the unique challenges of data pipelines—ensuring that transformations, quality, and governance are enforced as part of the development lifecycle rather than as afterthoughts. 23 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. translating software tdd into the data domain in traditional software, tdd starts with writing a failing test that defines the expected behavior, followed by implementing code to pass the test, and then refactoring while keeping the test suite green. in data engineering, the principle is similar: ➢ define assumptions about the data (e.g., schema, constraints, or expected values). ➢ write tests to validate those assumptions. ➢ build transformations or ingestion logic to satisfy the tests. ➢ continuously run tests to ensure ongoing compliance as pipelines evolve. this mindset shifts pipelines from fragile, reactive workflows into predictable, testable systems. 2. types of data tests to operationalize tdd in data engineering, a variety of tests can be applied across the pipeline: ➢ schema validation tests: ensure that input data adheres to expected formats, column types, and constraints, preventing upstream changes from silently breaking pipelines. ➢ transformation correctness tests: validate that business logic—such as revenue calculations, joins, or aggregations—produces the expected outcomes against defined test cases. ➢ data quality checks: enforce rules around null values, duplicates, ranges, or referential integrity to guarantee that the data is both accurate and trustworthy. together, these tests create a safety net that catches errors before they cascade downstream. 3. benefits of test-driven data engineering adopting tdd principles in data engineering yields several enterprise-level benefits: ➢ catching issues early: problems such as schema drift or faulty transformations are detected at the development stage, reducing costly production failures. ➢ confidence in continuous delivery: automated tests allow pipelines to be deployed iteratively with reduced risk, enabling faster innovation and shorter release cycles. ➢ improved trust and accountability: stakeholders can rely on the accuracy and consistency of data, while engineers gain transparency into pipeline behavior. by embedding tdd into data engineering workflows—particularly with tools like pyspark for large-scale processing and dbt for transformation validation—enterprises can build pipelines that are not only performant but also reliable, auditable, and future-ready. role of pyspark in test-driven workflows pyspark has become the backbone of large-scale data engineering, enabling distributed processing of massive datasets across clusters. within a test-driven paradigm, pyspark plays a critical role by providing the execution engine for transformations while also offering flexibility for testing at scale. one of the key practices is writing unit tests for spark transformations using lightweight, inmemory datasets. by simulating input and output scenarios, engineers can validate the correctness of joins, aggregations, and business rules without running full-scale jobs. this approach ensures that logic is sound before it touches production-scale data. furthermore, pyspark allows engineers to mock external data sources and edge cases—such as missing fields, malformed records, or skewed distributions—ensuring pipelines remain resilient under real-world conditions. by combining distributed scalability with localized testing, pyspark enables enterprises to embed reliability directly into their data transformation layer. 24 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us role of dbt in test-driven data modeling while pyspark addresses large-scale computation, dbt (data build tool) acts as the semantic and transformation layer that enforces structure, consistency, and governance in enterprise data pipelines. dbt enables engineers to define transformations in sql while managing dependencies, documentation, and testing in a transparent and reproducible way. its built-in testing framework provides out-of-the-box capabilities for schema validation (e.g., column types, primary keys) and data quality checks (e.g., uniqueness, non-null constraints). for enterprises with specialized needs, dbt also supports custom test development, allowing teams to encode business-specific rules such as “revenue must always reconcile with general ledger totals” or “inactive customers cannot generate new orders.” beyond testing, dbt integrates seamlessly with version control systems and ci/cd pipelines, enabling continuous validation of transformations before deployment. each change to a model can trigger automated test runs, ensuring that regressions are caught early and that data products remain trustworthy as they evolve. together, pyspark and dbt form a powerful ecosystem for test-driven data engineering. pyspark ensures scalability and transformation correctness at the processing layer, while dbt enforces semantic consistency, governance, and quality at the modeling layer. by combining these tools, enterprises can build pipelines that are not only performant but also auditable, maintainable, and ready for continuous delivery in complex data environments. integrating pyspark and dbt in enterprise architectures bringing test-driven principles into enterprise-scale data pipelines requires the right blend of technologies. pyspark and dbt (data build tool) complement each other by addressing different layers of the data lifecycle—pyspark excels at distributed computation and heavy lifting of raw data, while dbt specializes in semantic transformations, governance, and testing. together, they provide a robust foundation for test-driven data engineering. 1. orchestrating pyspark jobs for raw-to-curated transformations pyspark is often the first layer in enterprise data pipelines, responsible for ingesting raw data from distributed sources and applying large-scale transformations such as joins, enrichments, or data standardization. these curated datasets serve as the foundation for higher-level business modeling. embedding unit tests into pyspark workflows ensures that assumptions about schema integrity, null handling, and data consistency are validated before data moves downstream. 2. layering dbt models for business logic and governance once raw data is curated, dbt provides a structured framework for applying business logic, defining kpis, and managing dependencies between models. dbt’s declarative approach enforces consistency while its built-in testing features validate referential integrity, uniqueness, and accepted values. by layering dbt models on top of pyspark outputs, enterprises achieve a clear separation between heavy data processing and business-facing logic, enabling better governance and maintainability. 3. end-to-end testing: from raw ingestion to analytics-ready datasets test-driven data engineering comes to life when tests span the entire pipeline, from ingestion to consumption. pyspark unit tests validate raw-to-curated data transformations, while dbt’s tests confirm that curated data meets business requirements. end-to-end integration tests further ensure that pipelines produce accurate, analytics-ready datasets. this multi-level testing strategy reduces the risk of silent failures and builds trust in downstream reports and machine learning models. 4. example workflow a typical enterprise workflow might look like this: 25 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ step 1: pyspark ingests raw data from multiple sources and applies distributed transformations. ➢ step 2: automated pyspark unit tests validate schema integrity and transformation logic. ➢ step 3: dbt builds semantic models on top of curated data, embedding reusable business definitions. ➢ step 4: dbt’s test suite validates relationships, accepted values, and data consistency. ➢ step 5: ci/cd pipelines orchestrate the automated execution of tests before deployment, ensuring production datasets are both correct and reliable. this integration provides a powerful pattern for scaling test-driven pipelines in complex enterprise environments. best practices for test-driven data engineering adopting tdd in data engineering requires not only tools but also disciplined practices that ensure tests are consistent, efficient, and scalable. the following best practices guide successful implementation: 1. shift-left testing: embedding tests early in pipeline design testing should not be an afterthought. by adopting a “shift-left” approach, engineers write tests alongside pipeline logic, validating assumptions at the earliest stages of design. this prevents errors from propagating downstream and reduces costly rework later in the lifecycle. 2. building reusable test libraries and frameworks enterprises benefit from standardized test libraries that encapsulate common validation logic, such as null checks, schema enforcement, or business rule validation. reusable libraries accelerate development, improve consistency, and reduce duplication across teams. 3. automating test execution with ci/cd automation is critical at scale. by embedding test execution into ci/cd pipelines, organizations ensure that every code change, schema update, or transformation runs through automated validation before deployment. this reduces manual overhead and enforces a culture of continuous quality. 4. balancing test coverage with performance and scalability while comprehensive testing is important, excessive test execution can introduce unnecessary overhead. enterprises must strike a balance, prioritizing critical data quality tests while leveraging sampling strategies or incremental checks for performance-heavy workloads. scalable testing strategies ensure pipelines remain efficient without compromising trust in the data. in essence, the combination of pyspark for distributed transformations, dbt for semantic governance, and disciplined test-driven practices creates a blueprint for building enterprise data pipelines that are scalable, resilient, and trustworthy. future outlook the future of test-driven data engineering is being shaped by advances in automation, ai, and real-time processing. as enterprises demand greater agility and reliability, the scope of tdd will expand well beyond today’s batch-oriented pipelines. 1. ai-assisted test generation for data engineering artificial intelligence is poised to revolutionize how data tests are created and maintained. by analyzing metadata, lineage, and historical query patterns, ai copilots can automatically suggest validation rules, generate unit tests, and even predict areas of potential failure. this shift will 26 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us reduce manual effort, accelerate development, and ensure that testing scales alongside growing data complexity. 2. expanding tdd principles into real-time and streaming architectures with the rise of event-driven systems, iot, and real-time analytics, pipelines are no longer static batch jobs. applying tdd principles to streaming frameworks will be critical to ensuring continuous validation of high-velocity data. lightweight, incremental testing approaches will help organizations safeguard both latency-sensitive applications and mission-critical decisionmaking. 3. toward self-healing, self-validating data pipelines the ultimate vision for test-driven data engineering is the creation of self-healing pipelines. by combining tdd with monitoring, anomaly detection, and automated remediation, pipelines will not only detect issues but also fix them in real time. this evolution will reduce downtime, enhance trust, and transform pipelines from fragile workflows into resilient, autonomous systems. conclusion test-driven data engineering represents both a cultural and technical shift in how enterprises design, validate, and maintain pipelines. moving away from reactive firefighting, it establishes testing as a first-class citizen in the data lifecycle—ensuring that quality and reliability are built into systems from the start. tools like pyspark and dbt serve as complementary pillars in this journey. pyspark provides the distributed power to transform raw data at enterprise scale, while dbt brings semantic structure, governance, and built-in testing frameworks. together, they enable organizations to embed tdd into every stage of data engineering. the path forward is clear: enterprises that embrace tdd will not only improve the resilience and trustworthiness of their data platforms but also unlock confidence in data-driven decisions. in an era where data is both an asset and a liability, test-driven engineering stands as a cornerstone of enterprise-grade reliability and sustainable innovation. references: 1. rachamala, n. r. (2023, october). architecting aml detection pipelines using hadoop and pyspark with ai/ml. journal of information systems engineering and management, 8(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.55267/iadt.retrieved from https://www.jisemjournal.com/download/22_architecting_aml_detection_pipe lines.pdf 2. aluoch, r. a., & masitenyane, l. a. factors affecting millennials’attitudes and purchase intentions towards organic personal healthcare products. 3. masitenyane, l. a., muposhi, a., & mokoena, b. a. (2023). outcomes of relationship quality in business-to-business contexts: a south african concrete product market perspective. cogent business & management, 10(3), 2266613. 4. masitenyane, l. a., muposhi, a., & mokoena, b. a. (2023). outcomes of relationship quality in business-to-business contexts: a south african concrete product market perspective. cogent business & management, 10(3), 2266613. 5. masitenyane, l. a., & mokoena, b. a. (2023). an examination of the vaal river carnival attendees’ perceptions of service quality towards satisfaction and future behavioural intentions. african journal of hospitality, tourism and leisure, 12(2), 673-687. https://www.jisemjournal.com/download/22_architecting_aml_detection_pipelines.pdf https://www.jisemjournal.com/download/22_architecting_aml_detection_pipelines.pdf 27 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. talluri, manasa. (2020). developing hybrid mobile apps using ionic and cordova for insurance platforms. international journal of scientific research in computer science, engineering and information technology. 1175-1185. 10.32628/cseit2063239. 7. niranjan reddy rachamala. 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(2023, july). orchestrating frontend and backend integration in aienhanced bi systems. international journal of intelligent systems and applications in engineering (ijisae), 11(9s), 850–858. https://doi.org/10.17762/ijisae.v11i9s.7768. retrieved from https://ijisae.org/index.php/ijisae/article/view/7768. 17. rachamala, n. r. (2022,jan). agile delivery models for data-driven ui applications in regulated industries. analysis and metaphysics, 21(1), 1–16. https://analysisandmetaphysics.com/index.php/journal/article/view/160 https://www.eudoxuspress.com/index.php/pub/article/view/3441 https://analysisandmetaphysics.com/index.php/journal/article/view/160 28 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 18. sukesh reddy kotha. (2023). ai driven data enrichment pipelines in enterprise shipping and logistics system. journal of computational analysis and applications (jocaaa), 31(4), 1590–1604. retrieved from https://eudoxuspress.com/index.php/pub/article/view/3486 22 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 03, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх trends in the management and development of complex systems: enhancing productivity and quality with cobots equipped with part recognition cameras normatov islomiy ilxombek o’g’li phd at andijan machine-building institute, andijan, uzbekistan fattayev muhammadjon avazbek o’g’li assistant teacher at andijan machine-building institute, andijan, uzbekistan isroilov asadbek ilhomjon o’g’li student of the department vehicle engineering fergana polytechnic institute, fergana, uzbekistan abstract: this article explores the emerging trends in the management and development of complex systems, with a specific focus on joint assembly processes. the study delves into the characteristics of complex systems within the context of joint assembly, analyzes engineering work and production process management methods, and highlights the essence of a synergistic approach in integrating different production standards. furthermore, it proposes the use of collaborative robots (cobots) equipped with part detection cameras as a means to improve productivity and quality in joint assembly operations. by leveraging defect analysis techniques and integrating industry standards, this approach aims to optimize efficiency, reduce errors, and enhance overall system performance. keywords: complex systems, joint assembly, engineering work, production process management, synergistic approach, cobots, defect analysis, production standards. introduction in today's rapidly evolving manufacturing landscape, the management and development of complex systems have become crucial for achieving efficient and high-quality joint assembly operations. this article explores the trends and advancements in this field, with a specific focus on utilizing collaborative robots (cobots) equipped with part detection cameras. by analyzing the characteristics of complex systems, engineering work and production process management methods, and the integration of production standards, this study aims to propose a synergistic approach that can enhance productivity and quality in joint assembly processes. 1.1 analysis of the characteristics of complex systems in the context of joint assembly complex systems are characterized by their interconnectedness, non-linear behaviors, and the presence of emergent properties. in the context of joint assembly, these systems encompass a multitude of components, processes, and interactions, which necessitate a comprehensive understanding of their inherent complexities. by examining the various elements involved, such as the physical components, human operators, and information flow, a holistic view of the 23 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us system can be obtained. this analysis provides valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities present in joint assembly operations. 1.2 analysis of engineering work and production process management methods in joint assembly effective engineering work and production process management methods play a vital role in optimizing joint assembly operations. various techniques, such as lean manufacturing, six sigma, and agile methodologies, have been applied to improve efficiency, reduce waste, and enhance quality. by adopting these methods and tailoring them to the specific requirements of joint assembly, manufacturers can streamline processes, enhance collaboration between human operators and cobots, and create an environment conducive to continuous improvement. 1.3 the essence of a synergistic approach to the integration of different production standards in joint assembly in joint assembly processes, multiple production standards coexist, ranging from industryspecific regulations to international quality norms. the integration of these standards is critical to ensure compliance, facilitate interoperability, and maintain high levels of quality. a synergistic approach involves harmonizing and aligning these standards, eliminating redundancies, and promoting a unified framework that enhances efficiency and effectiveness. by integrating part detection cameras into cobots, manufacturers can leverage real-time defect analysis, enabling rapid identification and rectification of assembly errors while adhering to production standards. methodology to explore the trends in the management and development of complex systems in joint assembly, a comprehensive literature review was conducted. various scholarly articles, research papers, and industry reports were analyzed to gain insights into the characteristics of complex systems, engineering work and production process management methods, and the integration of production standards. the findings were synthesized and presented in the following sections. results and discussion 3.1 analysis of the characteristics of complex systems in the context of joint assembly the analysis of complex systems in joint assembly revealed their interconnected nature, nonlinear behaviors, and emergence of properties. these characteristics pose challenges in terms of system design, optimization, and adaptability. understanding the dynamics between components, operators, and information flow is crucial for effective decision-making and problem-solving. 3.2 analysis of engineering work and production process management methods in joint assembly by applying engineering work and production process management methods, manufacturers can enhance the efficiency and quality of joint assembly processes. lean manufacturing principles enable waste reduction and continuous improvement. six sigma methodologies help identify and eliminate defects, while agile approaches promote flexibility and responsiveness to changes. combining these methods optimizes resource allocation, reduces lead times, and ensures efficient coordination between cobots and human operators. 3.3 the essence of a synergistic approach to the integration of different production standards in joint assembly the integration of diverse production standards requires a synergistic approach to harmonize and streamline operations. by equipping cobots with part detection cameras, real-time defect analysis becomes possible, enabling immediate identification and rectification of assembly errors. this integration ensures compliance with relevant standards, reduces rework, and enhances overall product quality. 24 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion this article has explored the trends in the management and development of complex systems in joint assembly operations. by analyzing the characteristics of complex systems, engineering work and production process management methods, and the integration of production standards, the study highlights the need for a synergistic approach to enhance productivity and quality. the proposal to utilize cobots equipped with part detection cameras offers a promising solution to improve defect analysis and facilitate compliance with production standards. by embracing these advancements, manufacturers can achieve optimized joint assembly processes and deliver highquality products in a competitive market. references: 1. al-mudimigh, a. s. (2014). the integration of quality, environmental, and occupational health and safety management systems. journal of cleaner production, 85, 20-29. 2. gao, j., & zhang, l. (2017). the implementation of an integrated management system for quality, environment, and energy: a case study. journal of cleaner production, 141, 152160. 3. genaidy, a. m., & sequeira, r. p. (2008). productivity improvement through the integration of quality, environmental, and safety management systems. journal of quality in maintenance engineering, 14(4), 363-380. 4. gonzález-gómez, f., ramis-pujol, j., & grasman, s. e. (2018). integration of sustainability standards in product development processes: the case of iso 14001. journal of cleaner production, 185, 409-422. 5. karthikeyan, r., & antony, j. (2018). integration of quality management and environmental management systems: a review. journal of cleaner production, 171, 867-881. 6. liao, y., wu, y., & shang, j. (2016). study on the integration of engineering standards and management standards in the context of industry 4.0. international journal of engineering business management, 8, 1-9. 7. ramos-salazar, l., fernández-sánchez, g., & ríos-insua, s. (2018). enhancing sustainability through the integration of iso management standards. journal of cleaner production, 172, 2774-2784. 8. shah, r., & ward, p. t. (2007). defining and developing measures of lean production. journal of operations management, 25(4), 785-805. 9. singh, r. k., murty, h. r., gupta, s. k., & dikshit, a. k. (2012). an overview of sustainability assessment methodologies. ecological indicators, 15(1), 281-299. 273 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 development of schemes used in the field of land transport vehicles radjabov mansur rustamovich associate professor at karshi engineering and economic institute abstract: in the educational programs created by the teachers of "engineering and computer graphics" at the department of "general engineering sciences" of the institute of engineering economics, karshi, they will create schemes based on the direction and learn the conditional graphic designations used in these schemes. great importance is attached to learning. in particular, efforts are being made to create methodological support for the students of the 60712500 vehicle engineering (automotive transport) department, which will help students to develop their knowledge and skills in the implementation of specialty schemes. research materials and method. diagrams used in the transportation industry can include various types of graphs, charts, and maps. some of these include: 1. road maps: these are detailed maps showing road infrastructure such as roads, streets, junctions and junctions. they may also include distances between different locations, estimated travel times, and other useful information for travelers. 2. traffic graphs: these are graphs that show changes in the number of vehicles on roads or other traffic routes over a period of time. they can be used to analyze and forecast traffic density, identify peak hours, and plan infrastructure. 3. public transport schemes: these are diagrams showing the public transport network in a particular city or region. they may include information about bus, tram, subway and other public transport routes, as well as information about stops and timetables. 4. transfer tables: these are graphs showing possible combinations of transfers between different modes of transport. they can be used to optimize routes and choose the most efficient methods of travel. 5. parking occupancy graphs: these are graphs that show the occupancy level of a parking space at a particular location or building over a period of time. they can be used to determine the availability of parking spaces and plan the parking infrastructure. these are some examples of schemes used in the transport sector. depending on the specific needs and tasks, other types of charts and diagrams can be developed and used. surface transport route maps are a graphic representation of routes and public transport stops in a given area. they allow users to easily navigate the city's transport network by showing optimal routes, schedules and other information needed to plan their journey. circuits can be presented in the form of maps or diagrams, using various graphic elements to show routes, stops and other details. they help to improve the ease and convenience of using public transport and help to make more efficient use of the city's infrastructure. 274 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the following requirements are set for the implementation of surface transport vehicle routing schemes: 1. clear and understandable: diagrams should be clear and understandable to users so that they can easily read and understand the information presented in the diagram. 2. completeness: schemes should contain all necessary information about routes, stops, timetables and other details related to surface transport. 3. accuracy: schemes must be accurate and consistent with actual ground transportation infrastructure and schedules. 4. updateability: charts should be updated to reflect any changes in routes, schedules or other ground traffic details. 5. ease of use: charts should be easy to use and have clear symbols, legends and instructions for users. 6. graphic representation: diagrams should use graphic elements such as arrows, lines, symbols and colors to clearly convey information about ground transportation routes and stops. this is only part of the requirements that can be specified in the implementation of schemes for the direction of surface vehicles. depending on specific needs and tasks, other requirements may be specified. the graphic symbols used in the implementation of surface transport schemes in uzbekistan are determined by gost 2.784-89 "unified system of construction documents. automated schemes. general requirements". the following graphic symbols are used in these schemes: 1. route lines: indicated by lines of different thicknesses and colors. each line corresponds to a specific route. 2. stops: indicated by circles or rectangles indicating the name of the stop. they are located on the route line. 3. transfer nodes: are indicated by special symbols indicating the possibility of transferring from one route to another. 4. terminals and termination points: indicated by signs indicating the beginning or end of the route. 5. main directions of movement: indicated by arrows indicating the direction of traffic. 6. other details: schemes may also include additional features such as signs, waiting areas, etc. summary. in conclusion, it can be said that if a student starts studying drawings and schemes related to his specialty in the first year, his interest and love for his chosen profession will increase. a student who has mastered drawing up schemes and reading them well has no difficulty in mastering the specialized subjects, moreover, this knowledge and skills will be very necessary in his work. list of used literature: 1. zyryanov v.v. kocher to v.g. pozdnyakov m.n. //sovremennye podkhody k razrabotke kompleksnykh scheme organizatsii dorozhnogo dvizheniya// transport rossiyskoy federatsii. scientific, practical, economic magazine. 2. a. v. velmojin, v. a. gudkov, a. v. kulikov, a. a. serikov. // effektivnost gorodskogo pasajirskogo obshchestvennogo transporta // monografiya, volgograd 2002 8 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 05, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 prospective development of historical city centers kamalova dilnoza zayniddinovna acting professor, samarkand state university of architecture and construction murotkulova guliniso 201 architecture student, samarkand state university of architecture and construction abstract this article presents socio-economic aspects of the reconstruction of existing historical urban massifs, as well as issues of formation and organization of modern tourist centers, expansion and development of their structure. keywords modern tourism, social, socio-economic importance, development, cultural, spirituality, neighborhood, city. introduction the rapid process of activation of historical cities, which play the role of organizational economic and administrative-cultural centers in the tourism system, is carried out with the increase of the total volume of construction in the historical centers where the main part of the monuments are collected. the formation and organization of modern tourist centers is carried out by expanding their content, developing their structure, increasing architectural expressiveness, changing historically formed centers and mastering the areas adjacent to them. in this case, architects-town planners have the task of actively using all historically valuable elements and preserving them, creating a harmonious unity of ancient and newly constructed structures from a historically created structure to a modern one. the difficulty of solving this task is that in the center of historical cities, the height of buildings usually does not exceed 1-2 floors, while modern construction is mainly focused on high-rise and large-sized buildings.[1] material and methods. in recent years, state, social and scientific organizations have addressed this issue, special international conferences, negotiations, and symposia have been held, testifying to the urgency of the problem. in the works of scientific research institutes, special importance is attached to such issues as an important part of various complex topics. general methods of restoration of historical city centers, guidelines for the historical solution and construction of historical city centers, methods of considering architectural monuments in restoration, protection of historical and cultural monuments in historical cities, recommendations for preserving the structure of planning solutions with historical value have been developed.[2] currently, work is being done to develop ways of reviving the historical city centers of uzbekistan, the architectural monuments located there, by preserving and using them for modern purposes. the leading scientists of the "history and theory of architecture" department at the tashkent institute of architecture and construction are participating in it. http://www/ 9 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us historical cities are classified according to their age, development, characteristics, natural, social and economic conditions, according to the value category of architectural monuments, as well as according to a number of other characteristics, and at the same time, they require a comprehensive approach, their restore centers. classification of cities according to one or more characteristics can be the basis for this. the future development of the centers of historical cities and the main methods of preservation of cultural heritage in them are determined on the one hand by their historical-archaeological, architectural-artistic and urban planning value, and on the other hand by modern economic opportunities in the development of tourism. three main categories of historical cities can be distinguished: historical cities with well-preserved architectural and architectural structure, favorable natural climate, less developed economic base, but need to be preserved as monuments of urban planning, with valuable cultural monuments, reserve-cities developed for recreation and tourism; historical cities with valuable monuments, which have preserved their ancient core, that is, their historical structure, but are developing as multi-purpose centers of administrative, cultural, industrial and transport importance with significant economic potential; historical cities with monuments of history and culture in active development with the renovation of reconstructed and historically formed parts, preservation of valuable monuments and creation of clear conditions for comfortable viewing.[2] since taking into account the modern conditions of the historical city development is subordinate to the historical-artistic value of the historical-urban planning heritage, in this classification new types of cities are not distinguished, unlike the grouping that takes into account only one sign the heritage value. however, despite the conditionality of this classification, which shows only the common relations of several signs of historical cities, it shows an attempt to comprehensively take into account the set of factors influencing the fate of historical cities of uzbekistan. at present, special importance is attached to the identification, study and evaluation of special signs of historical value of cities with their advantages of historical-artistic and urban development value. therefore, the method of determining the value of the historical complexes of the city is interesting. for an objective assessment of the complex spatial structure, first of all, it is necessary to individually assess the components of the historical center of the city based on the developed system of criteria, namely: historical, volume-spatial environment and stability of the elements of the architecturalplanning structure; artistic value of individual objects or their complexes; architectural-artistic and aesthetic values of complexes; manifestation of the complex as a material document, stages of development of urban spatial forms; uniqueness or majesty of the complex at the scale of the historical center or city; the value of historical traditions related to the republic; determination of the protection zone, special order zones and zones of strict regulation of constructions around the architectural monuments.[3] conclusion. these criteria are not equally important, their impact on the overall assessment is different. therefore, it is necessary to create a system that allows defining separate criteria for classification and comparing them with each other. in addition, at each criterion boundary, an additional consistency is carried out in the form of a numerical assessment, which defines the boundaries of the protection zone, depending on the degree to which the structure (system) under http://www/ 10 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us investigation should meet its requirements. a perfect classification begins after the preliminary research, which first defines the boundaries of the historically valuable areas of the urban space. it is proposed to evaluate the level of preservation of the historical space by elements, taking into account residential buildings and public buildings with special architectural solutions. because the changes in the spatial settlement of the city center are very different, they can be divided into those that destroy the ancient settlement, those that are indifferent, and those that enrich it. literature: 1. lavrov v.a. central asian culture of urban planning. m., 1950. 2. d.a. nozilov "people's architecture". tashkent. science, 1982. 3. d.a. nozilov. "symbolic customs related to the room in the architecture of central asia". vestnik. news. tashkent, 2002. issue 4. 4. gayratovna, i. d., & lola, k. (2022). samarkand history and architecture of historic courtyard houses. http://www/ 12 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 правила укладки плитки тактильной исакова мукаддас бадировна /isakova muqaddas доцент национальный институт художеств и дизайна им. камолиддина бехзода, г. ташкент аннотация: в статье анализируется правильное нанесение тактильных покрытий для использования в городской инфраструктуре, зданиях и сооружениях. ключевые слова: тактильные покрытия, жизнедеятельности, маломобильных граждан, полноценного существования, периодичность, инфраструктуры, мнемосхемы, здания общественного назначения, адаптация, ориентация в пространстве, навигаторы, мобильные приложения. тактильные материалы, способность видетьйо'коготганинсонлар свои йпрепятствия и опасные места место церкви на пути стопы, на пути коммуникации в жилых и промышленных зданиях, общественных зданиях и открытый доступ к техническим средствам в общественных местах пассивнымстимулирующим инструментом послужат. транспортные расходы при использовании средств в процессе определения способов их применения. тактильно-визуальные этикетки существуют нескольких типов:  тактильная плитка  тактильные индикаторы  тактильная лента  маркировка (тактильная маркалаш) s. тактильная плитка полимербетона с внутреннейивнешнеймаконларни конструкцией учун универсал ечимдир. такую плитку любого қандай жойни мослаштириш учункжавоб, который она дает,потому чтоонавеситнесколькотонн, аежедневная кунликвыдерживаетотдачу,силу, которой она обладает, а также оширди срок шунингдек, узоқ хизмат на срок продлился. покрытие из полимербетона. 13 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us гранитная тактильная плитка-плитка предназначена для установки в помещении tirbandlik high. безопасность окружающей среды в зданиях и сооружениях для слепых и чекланганлар может быть установлена наоборот, ограниченная способность видеть людей для церкви, улицы, двора обеспечивает мгновенную адаптацию зоны.при проведении испытаний внутри церковного здания порог, закрывающий часть здания, также должен быть принят во внимание с учетом свойств материала. в противном случае, в случае, если расходы приведут к трудностям с тактильными материалами, пороговый охват лиц с ограниченными возможностями. гранитная покритые. тактильная керамическая плитка высокого качества для людей, лишенных полного или частичного тирбандлика и не имеющих возможности видеть помещение, предназначенное для адаптации. тактильная бетонная плитка в специальной зоне общественных мест (переходные зоны, светофор, барьеры и другие) используется для указания.), обеспечения беспрепятственного передвижения группы граждан с ограниченной подвижностью. плитка из бетона обычно готовится для улицы, это позволяет ей эксплуатироваться в различных погодных условиях, устойчива к заморозкам. это нисбатан нархгаценаега, прочная ва допуск на нагрузку в даетволю.бетонную плитку можно приобрести в отдельном устройстве на автобусной станции в дополнение к предупреждающим знакам о тактильном контрасте в способе выполнения строительных работ, введенных в эксплуатацию, а также простоте использования общественного транспорта. бетонные покритые. тактильной плиткой из полиуретана можно украсить любое удобное средство интерьера здания, при этом особое значение в строительстве будет уделено использованию метровой площади. полиуретановое покрытиеs. 14 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us покрытие из пвх для внутренней отделки большого здания рекомендуется наносить на текущие расходы. покрытие из пвх. самоклеящееся тактильное покрытие подходит для средней и низкой проходимости в качестве средства временной адаптации помещения. тактильный индикатор способ отметить это специальными устройствами, используемыми для слепых. индикаторы и конус внутри и снаружи выполнены в виде полос, а также предусмотрена возможность использования на месте укладки тактильной плитки. обычно конус служит для идентификации края платформы как опасного места, полосы при этом облегчают обнаружение вектора движения. тактильные индикаторы: тактильные показатели из полиуретана качество mablag'evaziga также в значительной степени подготовлено. тактильные индикаторы из полиуретана. пвх indekatorlar можно использовать на небольшой площади. покрытие с помощью пвх-покрытия порог цветовой контрастности, необходимый для нахождения в зоне есть. чрезвычайно гладкая поверхность материалов, которые будут использоваться в случае, если пороговый показатель qoplamalrining соответствует его организации. индикатор из пвх. также nerjavika, алюминиевый материал, изготовленный из latun indekatorlar если учесть важность fuektional die, пожалуйста, поддерживайте функции в зданиях. общественные и административные здания и гражданские сооружения для строительства комплекса выбираются на основе норм. мегаполис очень сложное перемещение и инфраструктура современного государства, и, следовательно, в городеухитида направление человекасложный процесс, который 15 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us необходимо точно учитывать. инвалиды в развитых странах по отношению к типу организации для решения проблем города обеспечивают удобство в процессе научных исследований, а также исследования масалалрида ллойиксаларни не применяются в практической жизни. собственные внутренние правила и причина, по которой в любом штате существуют строительные нормы с момента начала процесса разработки, были другими. предполагается, что люди с ограниченными возможностями составляют 15% населения узбекистана. муракаблашиб, которые пользуются инфраструктурой города ташкента, слабовидящиеи пожилые люди в инвалидных колясках, трудности для мужчин и расходы, которые возникнут. в качестве эталонного материала для слепого тактильного покрытия на обложке, если нужно попробоватьих, также любую область будут преодолены различные препятствия. когда мы анализируем некоторые из них в результате исследования материалов city street king или направления street, покрывающих постельное белье bo'yoqda, цвет контрастирует с тактильными действиями. например, шота руставели, шахрисабз, индепенденс ко'чав коридоре и поперек подножия стеныidчастично покрыты тактильным материалом. расходы на изготовление малых архитектурных форм, например, тактильного ящика для мусора из тувака или цветов, который размещается на материале. однако есть много дефектов, таких как внутри. ташкентt тактильные материалы , которыми будут покрыты улицы города. тактильные материалы объектов городской инфраструктуры расходуются частично на подошву, сверху на землю и на землю в виде предупреждающих знаков товара как будет нанесено покрытие. укладывается покрытие по всему коридору, и первое по линии лестницы. должна быть установлена ширина покрытия -80 см. пересечение частей главной улицы с покрытием размером 80x80 см и близкий доступ из основной части к различным социально значимым тактильным объектам будут покрыты. расходы на объект вдоль главной улицы до конца коридора и организацию, размещенную в этом йо'лоакларни, тактильным покрытием, чем на правой стороне здания, будут покрыты. уклон каждого здания был увеличен до 5% по сравнению с указанным местом. q при определении размера, вызывающего вышеупомянутые особенности, и для использования любого конкретного объекта курса учитывались нормы строительства. используйте в развитых странах, которые могут определить размер каждого покрытия и провести полный анализ норм, которые необходимо выполнить, если есть наш эксперт, чтобы получить надлежащую поддержку, нам также требуются глубокие знания и навыки в новых современных зданиях. айтганимизда завершает построение норм при проектировании любого предмета не только вглубь, но и в нормативных документах, которые необходимо учитывать при внедрении современных решений out lo. литература: 1. концепция создания и инвалидов на советской бюджетной казне начало безбарьерной автомобильной дороги другикс маломобильного населения.что в капитальном ремонте гордости пскова / осиновская б.в., бали, приднипоров е., ширд д.в. – псков: псковская областная общественная организация "чудской проект", 2018г. 2. всекс наберушкина к.е. город начало: начало для инвалидов городского пространства 16 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us доступности социологический анализ // журнал социолог и социальной антропологии. 2011. № 3 (56). с. 119-139. 3. https://vawilon.ru/statistika-invalidov-v-mire/ 4. https://tiflocentre.ru/stati/kolichestvo-slepyh-i-invalidov-po-zreniju-v-rossii.php 5. мухайѐ султанова влияние архитектурного дизайна и объемов на психологию человека // оии. 2021. №5. url: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/vliyanie-arhitekturnogodizayna-i-obemov-na-psihologiyu-cheloveka (дата обращения: 12.09.2023). 6. latipovich t. a. experience of using operated roofs abroad //international journal on orange technologies. – 2023. – т. 5. – №. 3. – с. 19-23. 7. kizi sultanova m. f. the role of tour bases in the development of tourism in uzbekistan //international scientific and current research conferences. – 2021. – с. 1-5. 8. latipovich a. t. planning decision of landscape objects and laf on exploited roofs //central asian journal of mathematical theory and computer sciences. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 10. – с. 128-131. 9. махмудова м. o'zbekiston arxitekturasi yodgorliklarini qayta tiklash //взгляд в прошлое. – 2021. – т. 4. – №. 6. 10. kasimov o., qaxramonovna n. f. trends and innovations in modern museum interiors in uzbekistan on the example of the wax museum //central asian journal of arts and design. – 2023. – т. 4. – №. 6. – с. 13-19. 11. mansurov y., khayrova t. formation of sustainable improvement of buildings in arid zones of karakalpakstan //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 402. – с. 07029. https://vawilon.ru/statistika-invalidov-v-mire/ https://tiflocentre.ru/stati/kolichestvo-slepyh-i-invalidov-po-zreniju-v-rossii.php 93-96 эффективность виртуального моделирования трехмерных 93 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 эффективность виртуального моделирования трехмерных объектов в развитии культуры и профессиональных навыков аудитории проекта касимов джахангир авлокулович заведующий кафедрой национального исследовательского университета «ташкентский институт инженеров ирригации и механизации сельского хозяйства» к.п.н. насритдинова умида ахмаджоновна доцент, национальный исследовательский университет «ташкентский институт инженеров ирригации и механизации сельского хозяйства», к.п.н. жинбаева нагийма кайратовна преподаватель национального исследовательского университета «ташкентский институт инженеров ирригации и механизации сельского хозяйства» аннотация: в статье рассказывается об эффективности различных графических программ, использующих 3d-моделирование трехмерной графики, для развития культуры проектирования и профессиональных навыков слушателей, а также приводится пример вертикального моделирования платформы apparel, одной из гидравлических структур в графической программе autocad. обеспечение. ключевые слова: 3d моделирование, вертикальное моделирование, аппаратная платформа, видеоурок, графическое программное. в системе образования страны компьютерная графика также играет важную роль, и педагогическая система уделяет особое внимание повышению качества и эффективности обучения. например, республиканские университеты, ряд средних специальных профессиональных колледжей, студенты по дизайну рисунков, компьютерной графики, дизайна, графического дизайна, дизайна интерьера и экстерьера, autocad, 3dsmax, archicad, compos, brisscad, cinema4d, blender, maya, lumion 3d, sketchup, rhinoseruos, ashampo 3d home, turbocad, floorplan 3d, 3d home architect, design suite deluxe, sweet home 3d, брайс, vue, k3-kottedj, планикс пейзаж deluxe, visicon, fieecad, инвертор, adobe photoshop, corel рисовать .... и другие учебные программы с помощью графических программ являются основой для эффективного графического образования. графические программы можно разделить на двумерные и трехмерные приложения. в то время как двумерные программы позволяют легко рисовать двумерные рисунки (скульптуры) объектов рисунков, программы трехмерной графики используются для построения трехмерных (3d) моделей. это послужит важной основой для развития навыков вашей аудитории, в том числе ваших творческих навыков, при работе с 2и 3-d графическими программами. с помощью этих графических программ инженерная графика может принести много положительных результатов вашей аудитории. 94 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us при использовании классов компьютерной графики, таких как стандарты гост, шрифты, маски, типы линий, геометрические чертежи, соединения, формы и рисунки, строительные чертежи и схемы, учащимся рекомендуется использовать следующие графические программы. в ходе изучения уроков инженерной графики в высших учебных заведениях студенты используют следующие программы для создания двумерных рисунков простым, сложным способом, иногда с ограниченными возможностями. это, конечно, означает, что им необходимо освоить программное обеспечение для трехмерной графики. рисунки, которые мы рисуем на компьютере, являются примерами рисунков, выполненных в этих программах (рисунок 1). рисунок 1 примеры трехмерного вертикального моделирования autocad используется для описания строительных чертежей и других чертежей. 3ds max это функция этой программы, которая включает в себя все функции вышеуказанных программ, и это то, что другие программы. программа трехмерная, в которой три проекции и яркие изображения объекта предназначены для одновременного просмотра.programe anime studio pro, animating touch, ресторан, toon boom studio5, solid works 2004, design review выполняет функции рисования, рисования и анимации в этих программах. приведенные выше примеры иллюстрируют возможности графического программного обеспечения. сбор информации в графических программах ориентирован на человеческие чувства слуха и слуха. другими словами, изображения и звук широко используются для передачи информации. основная задача превратить информацию в изображение и звук. сегодня существует множество компьютерных графических программ, которые различаются по области использования. специалисты из каждой отрасли выбирают графическую программу, удобную для их работы. ограничения возможностей программы также будут сосредоточены на конкретной области. поэтому при выборе графической программы важно учитывать ее возможности. в большинстве случаев вам необходимо освоить другие программы или дисциплины, прежде чем применять графическое программное обеспечение. тем не менее, графическое программное обеспечение становится более сложным. трехмерное вертикальное моделирование это форма электронного обучения, разработанная для учащихся или дружественной для пользователя среды, позволяющая пользователю предоставлять согласованное, визуальное, анимированное, визуальное и визуальное представление серии основанных на знаниях графических задач. увеличивается. видео уроки могут быть использованы непосредственно во всех видах образования. с помощью этих видеоуроков слушатели могут расширить свои знания, особенно в области самостоятельного обучения. 3d вертикальное моделирование объектов играет важную роль в развитии культуры дизайна и профессиональных навыков участников. это могут быть видеоруководства, электронные книги, видеоклипы. они предоставляют быстрый и удобный способ донести большие объемы информации до вашей аудитории. на практическом занятии учитель 95 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us рисует на каждом компьютере последовательность и правила выполнения графического задания, но аудитория подкрепляет свои знания повторением, репетицией и повторением наблюдения за процессом. в противном случае слушатели должны будут связаться с учителем несколько раз в течение урока. в большинстве случаев они не заканчивают это, и у них нет необходимых знаний, чтобы закончить задачу. в этих случаях использование формы видео-репетитора позволяет учителям эффективно использовать свое время и передавать то, что им нужно. например: платформа одежды, одна из гидравлических конструкций, должна быть спроектирована. знание этой структуры прослеживается в вертикальном моделировании процесса проектирования с помощью графического программного обеспечения, которое известно студентам по специальностям дисциплин. задача. пусть дизайн платформы apparel будет основан на данных измерениях в плоскостном (2d) и космическом (3d) моделировании. проблема: топографическая поверхность представлена горизонтальными линиями и их числовыми знаками. на этой поверхности, чтобы сделать прямоугольный участок, строят плиту, на которой вырезают почву и склоны, а также склоны склонов, и определяют границы грунтовых работ. высота возвышения составляет 44,0 м, уклон сарая и площадь раскопок i = 1: 5, а уклон шахты i = 1: 1. техника графического задания: 1. определить нулевую линию (горизонтальная 40) и точки (a40 и b40). земля сверлится справа от нулевой линии, а почва сбрасывается влево. наклоны плоскости склона это qi, qi, pi и pi, pi ', qi, перпендикулярные контуру площадки для образования линий поперечного сечения грунта и наклонных склонов. 2. от основания топографической поверхности, от контуров земли отводится 1 м для рва. 3. с учетом уклонов i = 1: 2 и i = 1: 1,5 определяются l = 1 м и l = 1,5 м, и масштаб уклонов плоскостей уклонов оценивается. в результате горизонтальные линии плоскостей наклона нарисованы. 4. прямые линии a ′, b ′ и c ′, d ′, пересекающие точки пересечения горизонтальных линий, где числовые знаки плоскостей склона совпадают, являются линиями пересечения плоскостей склона в областях, где почва разливается и выкапывается. 5. для определения границ грунтовых работ точки пересечения аппаратных линий определяются и переплетаются на основе горизонтальности топографических поверхностей и числовых знаков плоскостей склона. (рисунок 2). 6. используя 2d-проект на плоскости платформы apparel, будет построена 3d-модель пространства. используя 2d-проект на плоскости платформы apparel, 3d-модель пространства будет построена на основе заданной высоты. (рисунок 3). таким образом, использование трехмерных моделей вертикального моделирования для освоения проектирования водных . рис.2 2d модель платформы apparel рис.3 3d модель платформы apparel 96 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us объектов позволит им изучить алгоритмы их выполнения и получить навыки работы с графическим программным обеспечением. наблюдая трехмерное вертикальное моделирование, культура дизайна и профессиональные навыки слушателей развиваются одновременно. здесь слушатель приобретает дизайн практического задания, повышает свой интерес к работе над новыми объектами и осваивает графическую программу, что приводит к пространственному видению. эффективная организация учебно-слуховой деятельности в результате использования вертикальных образцов трехмерных объектов дает следующие результаты в самостоятельном обучении: преподавателю: представление материалов в современном виде; пошаговый рендеринг графических работ; демонстрация мультимедийного исполнения деталей различной сложности; позволяет за короткий промежуток времени передать слушателю большое количество информации. слушайте: слушайте и закрепляйте полученные знания; изучение процесса использования графических программных возможностей при реализации графических задач; развитие умения самостоятельно выполнять графические задания; редактирование задач (2d) и космических (3d) представлений; дает возможность усиливать графические знания список литературы 1. j.a. qosimov and others “the role of software in the development of modeling in education” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060013 2. j.a. qosimov and others “development of methods for improving the lessons of information technology on the basis of graphic programs” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060012 3. j.a. qosimov and others “increasing the effectiveness of lessons by creating a problem situation in teaching drawing” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060014 4. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. selection of software for modeling developments and technologies. international journal of advanced science and technology, volume 28, issue 15, 15 november 2019, pp. 554-558 5. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. threedimensional modelling technology for computer science education// iop conference series: earth and environmental science volume 403, issue 1, 19 december 2019, номер статьи 01217212th international scientific conference on agricultural machinery industry, interagromash 2019; don state technical universityrostov-on-don; russian federation; 10 september 2019 до 13 september 2019; код 156666 6. создание платформы для демонстрации м. якубова в формате 3d и моделирования вертикальных моделей развития и технологий. москва. преподаватель xxi век № 2. 2016. с. 96-106.2. 7. насритдинова у.а. разработка технологических платформ демонстрационных плошадка // конференция «перспективные информационные технологии». самара, 2017. с. 134-1383. 3d моделирование строительства л.т.эрига. испания, 2014.34 с 8. дж. ли, б. уэр. трёхмерная графика и анимация. — 2-е изд. — м.: вильямс, 2002. — 640 с. 9. д. херн, м. п. бейкер. компьютерная графика и стандарт opengl. — 3-е изд. — м., 2005. — 1168 с. 10. э. энджел. интерактивная компьютерная графика. вводный курс на базе opengl. — 2-е изд. — м.: вильямс, 2001. — 592 с. 5 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 05, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 issues of comprehensive development of the formation of mahalla islamova dilnoza gayratovna seniour teacher, student of the faculty of architecture samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering tugalov abrorbek dilmurod ugli student of the faculty of architecture samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering abstract the article deals with the formation of historical city blocks, the development of principles for the use of architectural monuments in order to meet the needs of tourists. durability of monuments, their correct and rational use. it is devoted to the problems of organizing, repairing and restoring protected areas in the historical part of the cities of uzbekistan. keywordsmahalla, history, social, socio-economic, significance, development, cultural, spiritual, community, city. introduction it is impossible to solve this problem without developing the principles of the formation of historical city neighborhoods and historic courtyard houses, and the principles of using architectural monuments to meet the needs of tourists. the longevity of monuments also depends on their correct and rational use, which means that the unique character of historical courtyard houses also depends on how and for what purposes they are used. the main attention is paid to this issue due to the lack of a single comprehensive base plan of urban development on the principles of restoration of historic courtyard houses, neighborhoods and neighborhood centers in the historical cities of samarkand, preservation of traditional houses. material and methods. one of the features that distinguish the historical cities of uzbekistan from other ancient cities is that most of the monuments in these cities were built in the form of an architectural ensemble a group of buildings a set of urban planning laws created at that time. the organization and decoration of the interiors of the traditional folk houses of samarkand were studied, and in the early 19th and early 20th centuries, a new modern direction was outlined in a combination of eastern and western methods of architectural decoration.[1] formation and organization of modern tourist centers, expansion of their composition, development of their structure, increase in architectural expressiveness, change of historical centers and development of adjacent territories. at the same time, the architects are faced with the task of carefully preserving all historically valuable elements from the historically established structure to the modern building, creating a harmonious unity of the old and new buildings. the complexity of http://www/ 6 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us solving this problem lies in the fact that in the center of historical cities the height of buildings usually does not exceed 1-2 floors, although modern construction is mainly focused on high-rise buildings, it is necessary to create a harmonious unity of buildings in the context of the incompleteness of the socio-economic aspects of the restoration of existing historical city blocks, they are constantly changing and the problem of bringing the structure of the city in line with modern requirements for the growth of the city in quantitative terms, functional zoning of the territory, the technical condition of capital buildings, the level of engineering equipment and improvement, urban transport, providing new social functions that meet the modern aesthetic requirements of society. the most important condition for the development of a historic city is the satisfaction of the socio-economic needs of modern society. this is why the city exists, and this is its essence. when planning and building settlements, one should take into account the scientific and historical or architectural and artistic significance and cultural monuments that are under state protection. around groups of monuments and cultural monuments, a buffer zone and a development regulation zone should be provided in agreement with organizations for the protection of cultural monuments.[2] the construction of new buildings and structures within the boundaries of the buffer zone is not allowed without the permission of organizations for the protection of cultural monuments. the emergence of a new category of "construction regulation zone", i.e., the expansion of the boundaries and functions of the protection of the architectural heritage, determines the connection of the leading structure with the environment, currently only in the immediate vicinity of the monument. in the historical cities of uzbekistan, mahallas develop as follows: samarka nd was divided into 7 districts and had 30 guzars. in bukhara, the city is divided into 12 districts, each of which has 5-7 mahallas. in tashkent the city is divided into 5 districts and more than 30 mahallas, in khiva the city is divided into 7 districts and more than 67 mosques are divided into tribes. the cities of the ferghana valley are also divided into dachas and mahallas. historical and typological development of regional centers can be divided into five stages: the ancient period bc. vi-iv centuries; muslim period viixiii centuries; timurid period xiv-xv centuries; the period of the uzbek khanates; the period of russian colonization the twentieth century (the period from 1917 to the present).[4] the classification of mahallas, developed in four stages, was studied by m. abramov, a. pisarchik and many other researchers before the revolution. the above information is based on sources left by these scientists. thus, the main conditions for the formation of regional centers were ideological, socio-economic and economic factors. they contributed to the creation of district centers, their appearance, the new look of quarters, played a formative role in the city and had a great influence on the renewal of its compositional and environmental composition, influencing the growth of the city in territorial terms. [3] narrow streets among traditional settlements prevail on each street of the historical part of samarkand, and mosques and teahouses stand out for their compositional solution in this environment. although these houses have a complex appearance, public buildings (mosques, teahouses, district centers) are included in the planning structure of these streets. the quarters were located in a proportional plane between settlements, at a distance of 450-500 meters between them. passers-by enjoyed the compositional atmosphere of the labyrinth of narrow streets and made their way to the main street from the distant minaret of the mosque. restoration of historical city centers, preservation of cultural heritage of historical cities and improvement of the quality of their architectural environment. the natural climatic conditions, characteristics and influencing factors of all settlements in the city of samarkand are studied. formation of historic traditional settlements, preservation of traditional settlements, construction of modern settlements in a form that is combined with historical settlements; http://www/ 7 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us formation of historical traditional settlements, preservation of ancient traditional settlements, harmonization of formation with modern settlements, modern experiences were analyzed and defined; conclusion.each structure has its own potential, which depends on the nature of the city, the compositional environment, the densely populated residential areas in the city, and district centers play a key role in the planning structure of the city. they reflect the historical street in the structure of the microdistrict, once again proving that samarkand is a historical city. the development of projects for the reconstruction of the historical part of the city and its environs is carried out on the basis of historical-architectural and historical-urban planning research. these studies should be carried out not only before the draft master plans of cities, the design and construction of centers, but also at all stages of development. list of used literature: 1. axmedov m. o'rta osiyo me'morchiligi ta'rixi. tashkent, 1995. 2. zasipkin b.n. monuments of architecture of central asia and their restoration // questions of restoration. .m., 1926. 3. g‘ayratovna, i. d. va zilola, a. (2022). samarqand viloyati viloyat markazlaridagi istirohat bog‘lari. texas multidisipliner tadqiqotlar jurnali, 9, 68-69. 4. исламова, д. г., & собирова, о. (2017). восстановление декоративных деталей и методики реставрации. актуальные научные исследования в современном мире, (5-8), 13-15. 5. gayratovna, i. d., & lola, k. (2022). samarkand history and architecture of historic courtyard houses. http://www/ 333 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 field test results of flat plow plug f. mamatov karshi engineering economics institute (uzbekistan) abstract: the quality of tillage with traditional plowing plows does not meet the agrotechnical requirements. the purpose of the research is to develop a plow for smooth, rowless plowing. a plow for smooth plowing is proposed, which contains twin screw housings, first-row colliders, rear screw rightand left-turning plow housings, second-row colliders. an experimental sample of a plow for smooth plowing was made. the results of field tests of the developed plow are presented. it is established that the quality indicators of the plow fully comply with agrotechnical requirements. at the same time, the degree of reduction in fuel consumption compared to the existing plow is 21, 26 %. keywords: technology; traditional plowing; ripper; plow; ochik egat; smooth smooth plowing; housing; double housing. introduction. it is known that there are plowing and flat plowing technologies [1-3]. traditional plows are adapted to the own method, which alternately performs "collective" and "separate" plowing (fig. 1) [1-3]. the main feature of plowing with traditional plows in the own method is the formation of open fields and marshes in the plowed area. figure 1. basic technologies of plowing [5] according to the results of scientists' research, on the surface of the plowed field, ridges with a width of 120-150 cm and a height of 28-30 cm and open ridges with a width of 120-210 cm and a depth of 30-36 cm are formed [4]. the number of open edges and margins, additional passes and additional area in leveling depends on the field surface, and these indicators increase with the increase of the surface (fig. 2) [4]. irregularities formed on the surface of the plow, that is, open edges and edges, worsen the working conditions of aggregates, increase the traction resistance of machines, make harvesting difficult, and do not allow aggregates to be used at high speed. 334 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. dependence of the number of open edges and borders, additional passes and additional area in leveling on the surface of the field formed ditches lead to the development of water erosion on the slopes. the plow layer in open heaths and marzas is very different from the plow layer in a flat plowed field and has a significant effect on plant development and, accordingly, productivity, because in the areas of heaths and open heaths, seeds are not buried evenly, resulting in their germination and development will not be good. as can be seen from the given data, the wheat yield in the 3 m wide area of open fields is reduced by 30-40%. the total surface area of open meadows and marzas is 6.5% to 19.5% of the total surface of the field [5]. additional operations performed on leveling the surface of the plow, along with increasing costs, significantly lengthen the period of preparation of the field for planting, lead to rapid drying of the soil and additional water consumption. thus, the agrotechnical, technical-economic and ecological indicators of the traditional plows used in the main tillage do not meet the requirements of the present time [5]. the purpose of the research is to develop a flat plow plow without an edge. materials and methods. field tests of the plow plowing without a plow were carried out in the fields of farms "khudaiberdiyev komil temirovich", karshi district, kashkadarya region. in the tests, the parameters of the flat plow plow without an edge were compared with the parameters of the standard pln-5-35 plow. table 1 shows the data on moisture and hardness of the tested field soil. the flat plow plow developed in closed and semi-open cutting conditions was used in combination with the new holland t-7060 tractor. the working depth is 25 cm, and the working speed is 8 km/h. in these tests, the following indicators of plugs were determined: coverage width; processing depth; completeness and depth of burial of plant remains; height of irregularities on the surface of the plow; soil quality. cited indicators tst 63.04:2001 “testing of agricultural machinery. machines and tools for surface tillage" va tst 63.02:2001 "testing of agricultural machinery. machines and tools for deep tillage" determined according to the data obtained from the tests were processed by the method of mathematical statistics. moisture and hardness of the field soil where the tests were carried out sampled layer, cm soil moisture, % soil hardness, mpa 0-10 8,7 2,88 10-20 10,2 3,87 20-30 12,1 4,66 30-40 13,2 4, 69 0-40 11,9 4, 01 335 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the depth of burial of plant residues was determined by measuring the distance from the surface of the plow to the upper limits of the placement of plant residues. two vertical cuts were made in each pass. measurements (accuracy of 0.5 cm and carried out in quadruplicate. the soil compaction quality was determined at six points (three on the movement of the aggregate, three on the return). to determine the compaction quality of the soil, the soil on the surface of 0.25 m2 the sample was taken using a bottomless box measuring 0.5x0.5 m. the samples were divided into fractions larger than 100 mm, 100-50 mm and smaller than 50 mm. the division of the samples into the indicated fractions was done in the field itself with holes of 100 and it was done with 50 mm sieves. first, the large pieces were picked by hand, then the soil was passed through the fine sieves. all fractions were weighed on a scale with an accuracy of ±10 g and divided by the total mass of the soil sample. the ratio was calculated in percentages. results. analysis of previous research and development works, flat plowing technologies and constructions of plows in developed foreign countries [1; 3] and based on agrotechnical requirements for plowing, a flat plow plow was developed in closed and semi-open cutting conditions, protected by the utility model patent of the russian federation ru no. 207103 [1; 3]. the unique feature of the technology of this plow is that it performs flat plowing in closed and semi-open cutting conditions of the fields (fig. 3). a straight plow works well. disc blade 1 cuts the soil in a vertical plane. the double hulls separate the 2 planks (fig. 3) from the bottom and wall of the egate, wait and roll them over the corresponding untreated planks. pushers 3, installed after the double bodies 2, push the slats to the side by a distance equal to the width of br, without overturning the slats. then the right and left turning screw housings 4 and 5, together with the screw guide plates 8, cut the blades first, push them to the side by a distance of bz and turn them to the vertical position, i.e. 900. after that, it lays on the egates formed by double hulls under the influence of hulls and guides. after that, pushers 7 push the slats on the surface of the field and place them on the edge formed by the bodies 4 and 5. this is how flat plowing is done. plug's suspension device is intended for use with tractors of class 4 and 5. disk blades and support wheels are serially produced. the mechanism for adjusting the plug support wheels allows you to change the depth of the plow within the limits of 22-27 cm. figure 3. the scheme of plowing without a plow: 1 disk-shaped knife; 2 – double hull; 3 – front thrusters; 4 and 5 housings that turn to the right and left; 6 – additional plow; 7 – rear pusher; 8 router. 336 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 4 shows the general view of the plow pt-4-45, which is developed in closed and semiopen cutting conditions. figure 4. an experimental copy of a flat plow plow without an edge in closed and semi-open cutting conditions the results obtained from the tests are presented in table 2. as can be seen from the above table, all the quality indicators of the flat plow without an edge in the conditions of closed and semi-open cutting fully meet the requirements of agrotechnics. in the tests, in the conditions of closed and semi-open cutting, the edgeless flat plow reliably performed the specified technological process, and its serious defects were not observed. the agrotechnical indicators of the experimental copy of plow plowing plow without edge in conditions of closed and semi-open cutting are almost the same as those of pln-5-35 plow. however, when using the experimental copy of this plow on farms, fuel consumption per hectare is 4.31 kg less than that of the pln-5-35 plow. table 2. test results of plow plow without edge № indicator name value of indicators according to the initial requirements according to the test results pln-5-35 fp-4-45 1. speed of movement, km/h 6-8 7,51 7,62 2. coverage: mave сm ±σ, сm v, % ±10 сm <10 177,4 6,7 3,77 183,2 3,2 1 ,75 3. driving depth: mave, сm ±σ, сm v, % 25 <10 25,1 1,89 7,53 24, 3 1, 81 7,45 4. burial completeness of plant remains, % >90 93,9 92, 4 5. burial depth of plant remains: mave, сm ±σ, сm >10 12,7 3,2 12, 1 2,9 6. amount of the following size fractions, % >50 mm 50-25 mm < 10 > 5 5,8 13,1 5, 1 12,5 337 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us <25 mm 81,1 82, 4 7. comparative fuel consumption, kg/ga 25,52 21, 21 conclusion. developed on the basis of the conducted researches, the plow with a flat plow reliably performed the specified technological work process, and its performance fully corresponds to the agrotechnical requirements and the technical assignment. fuel-lubricants are reduced by 21.26% when plowing the land using the developed flat plow plow. this allows for economic benefits. reference 1. mamatov f., kodirov u. energy-resourse saving machine for preparing soil for planting root crops on ridges // european science review, 125-1262016. 2. mamatov f, mirzaev b, toshtemirov s, hamroyev o, razzaqov t. study on the development of a machine to prepare the soil for cotton sowing on ridges// iop conference series: earth and environmental science 939 (1), 0120642021 3. маматов ф, файзуллаев х, эргашев и, мирзаев б. определение тягового сопротивления почвоуглубителя с наклонной стойкой// международная агроинженерия 42, 2012. 4. lobachevskij j, mamatov f, jergashev i. frontal’nyj plug dlja hlopkovodstva// hlopok 6, 35-37. 1991. 5. fayzullaev k, mamatov f, мirzaev b, irgashev d, mustapakulov s. study on mechanisms of tillage for melon cultivation under the film// e3s web of conferences 304, 030122021. 6. mamatov f, mirzaev b, berdimuratov p, 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technologies related to education including: the unique role of physics in human life in the world, the creation of favorable conditions for the lives of all citizens living in our country in the training of technical personnel in higher education institutions, especially technical universities, practical technological and pedagogical processes, professional self-activation, non-standard solutions technologies form the basis of the article in the development of educational technology development education based on a competency-based approach with special emphasis on the professional component. introduction: relevance and necessity of the topic. it is recognized that attention to the education system is necessary for all countries to develop the economy and ensure the welfare of society. at present, the development of the process of teaching specific sciences on the basis of new scientific and technical achievements, including the widespread implementation of a competent approach to improving the quality of teaching physics, is aimed at improving students' technical, information skills, creative and scientific thinking skills. serves to improve the application and technical skills of students, work with information, the formation of their creative and scientific thinking skills. improving the quality of education through the use of innovative technologies in the teaching process in all disciplines related to physics, the development of creative abilities of students, increasing the effectiveness of practical applications of physics and the development of students' scientific approach to interdisciplinary communication and also it is important to increase the activity of students, to acquire independent knowledge and to apply the acquired knowledge in practice. reforms in the system of higher education, the demand for competent personnel, create the need to form educational competencies in the teaching of physics in each subject, including physics. 20 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the sources of information that today's students receive in the world are the textbook of higher education of the xix century, the progressive opportunities of the teacher to receive information without limited time, the problem of inseparability of students from the internet, its solution is to develop students' ability to extract scientific information that is needed in the future and today, rather than when they get a light understanding of what they like from a vast database; based on a competency-based approach to look at the student subject as an object of education and to increase its priority over other information, taking into account the content of education, the interests of students. qualitative updating of the content of the education system, focusing on indepth study of physics, development of pedagogical criteria based on the competencies provided for in the standard curricula. this substantiates the need to develop students' competencies and improve methods based on general competency approaches in physics, to determine the content of education and the composition of competencies in the development of students' competencies. methods of teaching physics on the basis of a competency-based approach in higher education have been developed in the world's leading research centers and higher education institutions, including the national institute of technical teachers training anol research (india), england, germany, the russian academy of education, tashkent state pedagogical university. as a result of reforms in science, education and industry in our country, the educational system, especially physics and its material and technical base is being updated and students are developing innovative aspirations. as a result of the introduction of teaching methods based on basic competency technologies, students' interest in their specialty is growing, and the real sector of the economy is being trained as qualified and competitive personnel. naturally, there is a need for pre-planning of the educational process by university professors for the teaching of technical sciences based on the use of competency-based approaches. in the measures for the further development of physics education, "... the study of important and demanding subjects such as mathematics, physics, computer science and foreign languages on the basis of an in-depth competence approach" is identified as a priority. in this regard, creative competence-based approaches that develop creative activity in the teaching of kinematics, dynamics, statics, molecular physics, optics, atomic physics, which are an integral part of the physical sciences, design of teaching processes, as well as teaching based on advanced educational technologies, implementation of innovative ideas in education is the basis for the acquisition of knowledge about the results achieved in the field of nanophysics, atomic gliders, nanotechnology, the development of a system of training specialists in the technical field. in higher education, a radical renewal of its structure, a radical change in the potential of professors and teachers, a self-aware, strong-willed, whole-faith, purposeful in life, consciously free and free with his own mind, his own ideology, his own work, his own responsibility cultivating a like-minded person is a major problem. so, to radically improve the system of higher education in our country, strengthen the material and technical base, increase the capacity of teachers, bring the quality of education to new levels, including the teaching of physics in accordance with world standards, the achievement of high results through the introduction of advanced pedagogical technologies is a solution to pressing problems. in teaching physics, the interest of children in technical devices, models, robotics, radio engineering, nanotechnology from an early age, as well as the continuous improvement of the quality and level of professional skills of teachers, once again justifies the need to improve their methods. improving the system and mechanism is of paramount importance. 21 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the scientifically based conclusions on the issues of consistent implementation of reforms in the field of higher education to improve the teaching of physics in higher education institutions on the basis of a competency approach are reflected in the reports and speeches of the president of the republic of uzbekistan sh.m.mirziyoev. these sources serve as a theoretical and methodological basis for research. the concepts of "competence" and "competency" originally expressed the need for interaction between scientists of different nationalities, and today the education system directly covers its content and practical essence. competence in higher education institutions, the theoretical basis for the development of professional competence, technical competence of technical engineers and its improvement are reflected in the scientific work of foreign scientists, including: in the scientific researches of such scientists as a.maslon, m.meskon, a.f.khijinskaya, d.brides, r.l.dofn, v.yu.ziligostef. teaching physics on the basis of a competency-based approach in higher education has been studied in the scientific researches of such scientists as d. haynes, j. ravel, j. devor, g. kholaj, b.a. bodrov, l.n. vashenko, a.n. novikov, n.a. rakova, a.i.chimel, a.hitorsky, b.b.sidorenko in the countries of the commonwealth of independent states. scientists of our country u.i.inoyatov, n.n.azizhujaev, k.tursinmetov, a.abdikodirov, yu.m.asadov, n.sh.turdiev, m.mirzaakhmedov, p.nasriddinov, yo.najmiddinova, m.matnazarova, z.alimardonov, m.makhkamova, s.kakhkhorov, b.mirzaakhmedov, d.d.begmatov, u.muminkhodjaev, e.u.eshjanov, a.yusupov and other scientists worked on the competent approach of students in the republic and the organization of independent educational activities of students who have been working on career guidance. methods: the rapid development of modern scientific and technological progress, the expansion of innovative knowledge requires rapid renewal in the teaching of physics, the adaptation of future technical engineers in the modern world, the expansion and development of learning. based on the study and analysis, it was identified that there are a number of tasks and challenges to further improve the quality of teaching physics in higher education on the basis of a competent approach: the purpose of teaching physics in higher education is limited by the state educational standard and the curriculum, the level of competence approach to students' knowledge and skills and their behavior are not developed, the teaching of topics is not improved in accordance with modern requirements. insufficient attention is paid to the development of independent thinking skills to form the ability to work independently on the basis of a competency approach, strong attention is paid to the organization of physics clubs based on the interests and needs of students, preparation for science olympiads is not up to date; in particular, the relevance of research is the practical application of knowledge acquired by students as a result of teaching all branches of physics and the development of their skills, the formation of a well-rounded person who can work successfully in our rapidly evolving society. in the implementation of these problems: to identify and analyze the creative individuality, creative abilities of students, to develop creative inquisitiveness, to conduct their knowledge and skills independently on the basis of a competent approach, to form the characteristics of comparing a new problem with a previous one. examination of the conditions of knowledge, preparation for the creation of an author's program in creative work, overcoming the difficulties observed in the implementation of innovations in educational practice, the organization and conduct of practical work analysis, teaching students to self-analyze the requirements of the innovative environment; the preparation can be systematized as follows. 22 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us learning to read is to teach students the problems of learning activities, in particular, to strengthen the acquisition of knowledge and its application in practice, to teach them to find optimal ways to achieve goals. to be able to understand and explain the content of events, to understand the nature of natural phenomena, their causes, interrelationships and to understand them through relevant arguments. to be able to determine their own personal attitude and direction to the current problems of life and society, in particular, to understand and learn to solve problems related to science, politics, economics, ecology. to know the spiritual and cultural values, to treat them with respect, to learn to determine their position and direction in the world of different worldviews and interethnic relations. in today's era of globalization associated with the unprecedented development of science and technology, the rapid growth of information, the importance of introducing best practices, innovative approaches and innovations in the field of education is growing. this necessitates the effective use of information that motivates students, increases their interest in the subject, and teaches students to think logically, as well as to provide interesting material from textbooks and manuals. because there are so many external factors (elements) that affect the attitude of today's students to the environment, thinking, worldview, place in society, the formation of the individual as a whole, the issue of extracting the necessary information, effective use of existing databases is becoming a global problem. in this regard, the development of the state education standard (ses) and curriculum in the republic of uzbekistan, based on a competency-based approach to science, aims to bring the level of knowledge of students to today's standards, to raise their knowledge, skills and abilities in personal, professional and social activities focusing on the formation of competencies in practical application. results and discussion: the current level of demand for physics: the technical development of science, the field of production and its role in everyday life, the scientific outlook of students, the ability to think logically, intellectual development, the formation and development of selfawareness, their education and professional activity, the formation of their competencies is determined by their ability to apply the knowledge they have acquired today to tomorrow. the following is an example lesson on the development of basic and general science competencies in students. in higher education, the chapter "fundamentals of molecular physics and thermodynamics" plays an important role in informing students about the fluid and its properties, and first of all, to increase their motivation to study. one of the main requirements for education today is the need for students to develop the ability to apply the knowledge they have acquired in life. in teaching science, 6 basic and 3 general competencies in physics were conditionally selected. these competencies need to be developed in each lesson and as its effective factors: the teacher‟s creative approach to each lesson; the competence of the science teacher and the need to increase the motivation of students to study (interest, desire, desire, devotion). exactly one of these factors is to motivate students to study. the student of today's information age differs sharply from yesterday with his high demands, worldview, and high need for innovation. after all, this period in itself requires the necessary modern requirements, that is, competitiveness in all areas. the upbringing of a competitive person is a standard requirement set by the state. a competent 23 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us approach to education is carried out by arousing in students the interest, desire, that is, motivation to study, this or that subject. we try to motivate students by creating a problematic situation in the subject of physics in the formation of students' competencies on the topic "fluid and its properties" and start the topic with simple life questions. 1. which glass of water is saltier? 2. ice, especially snowflakes, refracts light rays very strongly. what happens in nature if it refracts light less? comment on the pictures provided. 1. formation of communicative competence on the topic of 'liquid and its properties', students will be able to express their ideas orally and clearly by listening to the basic properties, physical and chemical properties of liquids, the importance of water in nature and the human body, writing their chemical formula, knowledge of the relationship of physical phenomena to science, the naming of physical terms in other languages and a firm opinion based on their own knowledge, respecting the opinion of others, based on each physical phenomenon, concept and law in different problem situations, based on their knowledge and skills this competence is formed in the student through the ability to make decisions. for example: comment on the pictures provided. 2. formation of competence in working with information. this competence is formed by studying the topic "fluids and their properties" by finding, selecting and effective use of sources of fluids, the analysis of the properties of fluids, in particular, the importance of water in human life, its use in everyday life. for example, “there is no mysterious liquid in nature like water. it has only its own characteristics.  water has a huge memory that can transmit information throughout the tissue and body.  about 75% of the earth's surface is covered with water. due to its high heat capacity, water absorbs most of the heat energy from the sun and protects it from overheating, ”and students are given the task to remember and search for new information question content the answer is it possible to make a fire with ice? yes, if you make a lens out of ice what percentage of the human body and bones are made up of water? up to 70% water is in the body and up to 22% in the bones 24 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us why does a small piece of iron sink into the water, but a huge ship can float on the surface of the water? remembering the law of archimedes, the shape, size of the ship ... 3. formation of self-development competence to strengthen the topic of "fluids and their properties", to understand the ratio of surface water and land areas, salt and fresh water basins, rain and snow formation, the amount of fluid in the human body and its exchange process, the ratio of drinking water (water) in winter and summer to be able to substantiate, to form an independent intellectual approach to problem solving based on life-long learning, knowledge, experience about the importance of fluids in maintaining a healthy lifestyle. comment on the pictures provided. 4. formation of socially active civic competence sensitivity to global problems related to our country and other countries, in particular, to the solution of problems leading to shortages of drinking water and motor fuels, to avoid excessive water wastage on the street, in higher education and at home, to keep the heat in the winter when using the heating system, this competence is formed by instilling in the minds of students a service to the interests of society, the family, with a good study of the liquid and its properties. which chapter and article of the constitution of the republic of uzbekistan contains the following text: citizens are obliged to treat the environment with care. chapter eleven. civic duties. article 50 what sources of drinking water do you know? 1. rain and snow melt water; 2. groundwater (wells, artesian wells) 3. reservoirs (river, lake, ...) 5. formation of national and cultural competence in strengthening the theme "liquid and its properties", this competence is formed in the students by the constant temperature of spring water in winter and summer, its composition, feeding of fish living in the spring of dissolved minerals, in particular, the careful preservation of the rich heritage of our ancestors the cultural and architectural complex "chashma" in nurata and following the rules of etiquette established there, kindness, generosity towards others, respect for the worldview, traditions and ceremonies of others. 25 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us comment on the pictures provided. 6. mathematical literacy, the formation of competence they perform the physical processes that occur in solving problems on the subject and in everyday life, using the necessary formulas, following precise calculations. in doing so, they will have the ability to leave their home at what time they arrive at school without ringing the school bell, and to plan in advance how to dress for school based on weather data. they can also make personal, family and economic plans based on accurate calculations. they are able to use them effectively in life, being aware of the latest scientific and technical innovations that lead to favorable conditions for people 1. how many grains of rice are on average in one tablespoon? (± 25) about 1100 2. what is the name of a device that combines the capabilities of a monitor, processor, keyboard, mouse, and several other devices on a personal computer? sensor 3. there are two 100-liter barrels. one is empty and the other is filled with water. three different: 9-liter, 6-liter and 3-liter containers are provided. how can these containers be used to distribute 50 liters of water in each barrel? by no means the formation of general competencies in physics in students can be done as follows. 1. observation, understanding, and explanation of physical processes and events the topic of “liquids and their properties” explains the phenomenon of evaporation and condensation through simple examples, such as fluidity, volume, crystalline state. the student uses knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the properties of liquids in daily life, understands and explains the process. in particular: he or she understands and explains the state of aggregation of water, the importance of maintaining the stability of the earth's surface and the human body, the solubility properties of liquids, the process of technical use of liquids. in addition, the student observes, understands and explains the process of seasonal change in nature, the formation of snow and rain. in doing so, the student is able to articulate his or her point of view clearly and concisely orally and in writing, ask questions logically based on the topic, and work collaboratively as a team while adhering to a culture of communication. by observing this process, students learn throughout their lives, constantly increasing their knowledge and experience independently, and this competence is formed. 1. is it easier to swim in clean water or in salt water? swimming in salt water is easy because salt makes the water much heavier. 2. if we put a watermelon first in a bath filled with clean water and then in a bath filled with very salty (wet) water, what is the volume of the overflow water varies, not the masses. 26 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the ratio of the masses of water overflowing from them? 3. which retains heat better: clean water or salty water? in this case, the salty water cools faster. 2. conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions in the course "liquid and its properties" students are taught about the volume, density, mass, heat capacity, formula, units of liquids and how to measure them. topic reinforcement questions are given in order to measure, identify, and apply physical quantities in practice. including: evaporation and boiling temperatures of water, the amount of hot water and cold water when filling the bath for bathing, the effect of relative humidity on respiration when declaring the relative humidity of the air in millimeters of mercury in weather data draws conclusions based on the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by the student during the course. they can measure the required physical quantities using scales, thermometers, psychrometers, calorimeters. conduct experiments, measure physical quantities and draw conclusions. 3. be able to use physical tools in practice the topic "liquid and its properties" provides knowledge about the temperature of a liquid, its physical size, unit, their scales, which determine the thermal state of a substance, and what instruments are used to measure temperature. at the end of the topic, the practical task is to provide information about the role and importance of fluids in the operation of excavators and cranes, heating buildings. this competence is formed by knowing the scales of thermometers, barometers, manometers, measuring quantities and their types, as well as the practical application of physical knowledge. be able to use physical tools in practice of course, creating competency-oriented assignments requires a great deal of effort on the part of the teacher. things like making cards, writing and copying texts, checking that assignments are done reading stories take a lot of time and paper. however, the fact that once prepared materials 27 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us can be used in the following years in an enriched way, the formation of competencies in students, the increase in their interest in science, rewards the work of the teacher. conclusion: scientific and practical significance of the topic. the scientific and practical significance of the topic proves that the methodological system can be used in higher education in the teaching of physics and engineering on the basis of a competency-based approach; introduce future technical professionals into personal economic and professional relationships for the rest of their lives; to take one's place in society; solve problems encountered in processes; to be competitive in their field and to create innovative ideas; as a result, the student acquires basic competencies, including communicative, information skills, self-development as a person, mathematical literacy, knowledge of science and technology. communicative competence in schools and higher education institutions: excellent oral and written communication, written and oral answers to structured questions, ability to express one's opinion clearly and concisely, work with additional literature and use them to create tests and questions, work in groups , to be able to defend their point of view, to persuade, to be self-directed in solving problems, to master foreign languages in addition to the native language. to form communicative competence  regular work with the textbook.  ability to work on text.  find answers to questions using the topic.  ability to perform practical tasks.  the methodology of the need to create an electrical circuit and graphics using the materials of the subject was developed. experimental tests were conducted to determine the effectiveness of students' knowledge on the topic of technology to improve the methods of teaching physics in higher education institutions on the basis of a competency approach (on the example of training technical engineers), including: at the annual scientific theoretical and methodological conferences of termez state professors, the termez branch of the tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov, the department of physics and teaching methods of karshi state university. the use of modular technology of activation of didactic interactive means of information and technical support of physics education was used to increase the effectiveness of the competency approach to education based on the basic competencies of competence, communicative, selfdevelopment as an individual. improving the effectiveness of physics serves to increase the knowledge and competence of methodological training of future technical specialists in higher education institutions. the results of the statistical processing of the experimental results were summarized and described in the histogram. the following results were obtained from the computational work for t-statistical observation:  tobservation = 8.7; tobservation> tcriterion = 7.81;  tobservation = 8.78; tobservation> tcriterion = 7.81;  tobservation = 11.56; tobservation> tcriterion = 7.81; 28 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us histogram of the results obtained as a result of the coverage of the topic of technology for improving the teaching of physics in higher education institutions (on the example of the training of technical engineers) on the basis of a competency approach, the following conclusion was reached. scientific novelty of the research: it was improved by the content of the components of the competent approach (innovative activity of the professor, independent learning, understanding, memory, application and control) to the methodological system of teaching physics and engineering (purpose, content, form, means and methods), development and improvement of the structure of the dialogue between faculty and students on the basis of expansion, development of problem-solving indicators (type, essence, classification, characteristics) of interdisciplinary and basic subject competencies (order, membership, application), planning stages of lessons according to the technology "person-centered education", "brainstorming", "didactic game", checking mastery, giving priority to the dynamics of physical knowledge (coordination activity, learning activity, practical activity); scientific and methodological recommendations for the study of physics based on the integration of the activities of faculty and students based on competent approaches that create a creative environment (innovative activities of teachers, independent learning, practice, comprehension, memory, application and control) improved by clarifying the requirements for lessons in the formation of basic and general science-related competencies according to the interactive approach of student-oriented course forms. conclusions: 1. the state policy on the development of science in higher education institutions of the republic of uzbekistan is based on a new education system, changes in the training of technical engineers, a new approach, a competent approach to educating students, educating them to compete with their peers, society and successful participation in life and requires that it be no less than its peers on a reciprocal scale. it should be noted that combining creative, scientific power and building a great scientific and innovative potential has become an urgent scientific and practical necessity. 2. the experiment identified criteria and indicators for improving the training of future technical engineers on the basis of a competency-based approach to teaching physics in higher education institutions and developed a methodology and used various non-traditional methods to determine the level of knowledge of students. educational and practical materials have been developed for all sections of physics. the sections of physics of mechanics, molecular physics, electronics, optics, atomic and nuclear physics were analyzed as a whole. students' knowledge was assessed as excellent, good and satisfactory, unsatisfactory. it was confirmed that students have the skills 29 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to apply theoretical knowledge in practice during lessons and clubs. it has been proved that in higher education institutions it is necessary to pay attention to the effective use of a competencybased approach, the development of communicative, self-control, activation and mathematical literacy. 3. the interest of students in the profession of the processes aimed at the development of methods of teaching physics on the basis of a competency-based approach in higher education is based on the existing structure that provides the development of intellectual, practical, emotional, volitional, organizational and communicative functions. 4. the comparative analysis of the component activities of students in the teaching of physics, the stages of implementation of methodological approaches, the elements of the educational process of traditional competent approaches (purpose, content, form, method) of the student and the teacher. 5. according to a study devoted to the study of the essence of professional, technical-engineering creativity, innovation, self-development, active civic competencies in the study of physics, it was found that the professional component is constantly evolving and is the result of the student's self-process. 6. the student's social and personal qualities are embodied in the process of creating innovations. individual stratification, teamwork, responsibility, organization of group work, the ability to express their views, the organization of its development have been created and put into practice. suggestions and recommendations: it was recommended to study the experimental teaching materials of future technical engineers in the course of teaching physics, to conduct experiments for the organization of independent creative work and to put them into practice. effective organization of independent work at home, both in the classroom and outside the classroom, served to develop competencies independent thinking, creative work skills, self-control competencies, increase the theoretical and practical significance of research work. experimental work was analyzed through a competency-based approach to physics. through the competency approach, non-traditional methods of teaching physics were found to be more effective than the traditional approach, the results obtained confirming the effectiveness of the experimental work and the fact that the experimental work was set correctly, the research was done correctly. as a result of research and experimental research, a methodology for teaching physics on the basis of a comet-based approach has been developed, proven to increase students' knowledge, methodological recommendations and manuals have been developed. note: the object of the topic is the process of developing students' technical creativity by developing a methodology for teaching physics on the basis of a competency-based approach. the subject of the topic is the improvement of the content of the components of the competency approach (innovative activities of the teacher, independent learning, thinking, memory, application) to the methodical system of teaching physics on the basis of the teacherstudent relationship and the methodology of developing students' competence on the basis of teaching. methods of the topic: in the research process, the methods of observation, comparative analysis, experiment, questionnaire, test, interview, physical and statistical analysis of the results were used. 30 a 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volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the use of artificial intelligence in the automation of machine-building production а. t. gaynazarov fergana polytechnic institute, senior lecturer, department of "mst and a" abstract: the article examines the application of artificial intelligence (ai) in the automation of machine-building production. the article describes the main tasks that can be solved with the help of ai, such as production optimization, quality control, prediction of equipment failures, etc. examples of successful ai implementation in mechanical engineering are given, such as the use of neural networks to predict equipment failures, automatic recognition of defects on the surface of parts, etc. keywords: artificial intelligence, automation, manufacturing, mechanical engineering. some problems related to the use of ai in mechanical engineering are also considered, such as the difficulty of integrating ai systems with existing production processes, the need for qualified specialists to configure and maintain ai systems, as well as problems of data security and confidentiality. the result of the article is the conclusion that the use of ai in machine-building production can significantly increase production efficiency, reduce costs and improve product quality. however, for the successful implementation of ai systems, it is necessary to take into account all the problems associated with this and conduct a thorough analysis of the economic feasibility in each specific case. the use of artificial intelligence in the automation of machine-building production: 1. optimization of production: ai can be used to optimize production processes, for example, to control production equipment and reduce machine downtime. the use of ai also makes it possible to adapt production to changes in demand for products. 2. quality control: ai can be used for product quality control, for example, to automatically detect defects on the surface of parts or to determine whether products meet specified parameters. 3. prediction of equipment failures: ai can be used to predict equipment failures, which allows for routine prevention and reduce the number of emergencies. 4. inventory management and logistics: ai can be used for inventory and logistics management, for example, to optimize the supply of materials or to distribute goods through a logistics network. 5. data security and protection: the use of ai in engineering can pose risks to data security and protection. for example, using ai systems to control production equipment can potentially create vulnerabilities for cyber attacks. 138 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. integration of ai systems with existing production processes: one of the main problems associated with the use of ai in mechanical engineering is the difficulty of integrating ai systems with existing production processes. the need for qualified specialists to set up and maintain ai systems can also be an obstacle to their successful implementation. 7. examples of successful ai implementation in mechanical engineering: examples of successful ai implementation in mechanical engineering can be the use of neural networks to predict equipment failures, automatic detection of defects on the surface of parts, optimization of production using ai control systems, etc. 8. using ai to improve design: ai can be used to improve product design, for example, to optimize the geometry of parts or to simulate the operation of a product in various conditions. 9. application of ai in robotics: robotics is an important field of mechanical engineering, and ai can be used to control and program robots. for example, ai can be used to train robots to perform complex tasks. 10. using ai in customer service: ai can be used to improve customer service in the engineering industry. for example, ai can be used to automatically process equipment repair requests or to provide online advice to customers. 11. the use of ai in personnel training: ai can be used to train personnel of machine-building enterprises. for example, ai can be used to create interactive simulators for learning how to work with equipment or to conduct online courses in technical disciplines. 12. using ai for decision-making: ai can be used for decision-making in the engineering industry, for example, to determine optimal production strategies or to predict product demand. 13. using ai to create innovations: ai can be used to create innovative products and technologies in the engineering industry. for example, ai can be used to create new materials or to develop new production methods. 14. trends in the development of ai in mechanical engineering: the engineering industry has seen the constant development and application of new ai technologies, such as deep learning and machine learning with reinforcement. it is expected that in the future ai will play an increasingly important role in the automation of machine-building production. conclusions in conclusion, it can be noted that the use of artificial intelligence (ai) in the automation of machine-building production has great potential to increase productivity, reduce costs and improve product quality. the use of ai allows you to optimize production processes, control product quality, predict equipment failures, and manage inventory and logistics. examples of successful ai implementation in mechanical engineering include the use of neural networks to predict equipment failures, automatic detection of defects on the surface of parts, and optimization of production using ai control systems. however, the use of ai in mechanical engineering is also associated with a number of problems, such as the difficulty of integrating ai systems with existing production processes, the need for qualified specialists to configure and maintain ai systems, as well as problems of data security and confidentiality. therefore, before implementing ai systems in mechanical engineering, it is necessary to conduct a thorough analysis of economic feasibility and take into account all related problems. in general, the use of ai in machine-building production is an important trend in the development of the industry and can significantly increase production efficiency, reduce costs and improve product quality. 139 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. гайназаров, а. т., & абдурахмонов, с. м. 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(2022). анализ технологической системы обработки рабочих поверхностей деталей вала на токарном станках. science and education, 3(8), 23-29. 17. рубидинов, ш. ғ. ў. (2021). бикрлиги паст валларга совуқ ишлов бериш усули. scientific progress, 1(6), 413-417. 140 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 18. рубидинов, ш. ғ. ў., & ғайратов, ж. ғ. ў. (2021). штампларни таъмирлашда замонавий технология хромлаш усулидан фойдаланиш. scientific progress, 2(5), 469473. 19. тешабоев, а. м., & рубидинов, ш. ғ. у. (2022). вакуумное ионноплазменное покрытие деталей и анализ изменения поверхностных слоев. scientific progress, 3(2), 286-292. 20. тешабоев, а. м., рубидинов, ш. ғ. у., & ғайратов, ж. ғ. у. (2022). анализ ремонта поверхностей деталей с газотермическим и гальваническим покрытием. scientific progress, 3(2), 861-867. 85 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 theoretical and methodological foundations for forming argumentation and proof of belief u.x. adambaev senior lecturer at urgench ranch technological university annotation: in this article, the logical structure of argumentation is the structure of proof, the interconnection of thesis and grounds in argumentation differs from that of proof in some aspects, the purpose of argumentation is to change trust and belief, the method of authorities is a study of interest in power and authority, and reasoning and proving opinions is a complex logical process. which discusses the use of one or more interconnected discussion systems. key words: argumentation, thesis, demonstration, intuition, belief, authority, tradition. аннотация: мазкур мақолада аргументлашнинг мантиқий тузилиши исботлашнинг тузилиши, аргументлашда тезис ва асосларнинг ўзаро боғланиши исботлашникидан баъзи жиҳатларига кўра фарқ қилаши, аргументлашдан мақсад ишонч-эътиқодни ўзгартириши, авторитетлар методи хокимиятга, нуфузга қизиқишни ўрганиш ўлароқ юзага келиши ва фикр-мулоҳазаларни асослаш, далиллаш мураккаб мантиқий жараён бўлиб, унда бир ёки ундан ортиқ ўзаро боғланган муҳокамалар системасидан фойдаланиш хақида фикр мулоҳазалар баён қилинган. калит сўзлар: аргументлаш, тезис, демонстрация, интуиция, эътиқод, авторитет, урфодат. аннотация: в данной статье логическая структура аргументации представляет собой структуру доказательства, взаимосвязь тезисов и оснований в аргументации в некоторых аспектах отличается от структуры доказательства, целью аргументации является изменение доверия-убеждения, возникает метод авторитетов. как исследование интереса к власти и авторитету, а также обоснование мнений и доказательств представляет собой сложный логический процесс, в котором рассматривается использование одной или нескольких взаимосвязанных дискуссионных систем. ключевые слова: аргументация, тезис, демонстрация, интуиция, убеждение, авторитет, традиция. the logical structure of argumentation is similar to the structure of evidence. its structure includes: a thesis (reasoning, a system of reasoning that needs to be proven), arguments given in support of the thesis, and a way of connecting theses and arguments (or demonstration) a form of thinking. in argumentation, the relationship between thesis and premises differs in some respects from the relationship between evidence. argumentation requires the interaction of at least two subjects (speaker and listener, speaker and audience, supporter and opponent, addressee and addressee) dialogue. argumentation also manifests itself in a monologue a person’s conversation with 86 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us himself. but since this process is often carried out through internal speech, studying it from the outside causes certain difficulties. logic studies argumentation in the form of dialogue. the purpose of argumentation is to change beliefs. various arguments are used to achieve this goal. reasons, definitions, axioms, theorems, laws and other empirical and theoretical generalizations serve as arguments. the facts presented as an argument must be interconnected and related to the essence of the thesis. in our opinion, it would be correct to take into account the fact that the theory of argumentation has gone through such a long historical process that it will continue to develop further in the future. in scientific literature, “the concept of argument (latin argumentum evidence) is to substantiate an idea, opinion or system of opinions by direct reference to reality (based on observation, experimental experiment, etc.) or with the help of other opinions, the truth of which is already proven" is described as the first knowledge about the methods of forming beliefs is described in ancient indian and ancient philosophy. by the second half of the 20th century, the study of non-universal methods of argumentation in the formation of beliefs reached a new level. this process was greatly influenced by the formation of various approaches to the theory of argumentation. in scientific studies of western scientists such as a. bergson, p. feyerabend, j. habermas, b. russell, d. moore, the influence of authority, common sense, and loyal habits on the formation of trust was studied. russian scientists a. aivin, e. lisanyuk, a.e. it can be noted that some aspects of the problem we are studying have been studied in the scientific works of reshetova and others. valuable opinions were also expressed by scientists of our republic on issues studied in the doctoral dissertations of t. tuychieva “the role of customs and traditions in the system of spiritual values of the uzbek people” and m. umarova “the role of customs and traditions in the development of national relations.” but for them this issue is not related to faith. the same situation is typical for monographs and textbooks by e. goziev, b. khusanov, l. mukhamadzhonova. valuable opinions on this issue were expressed in the scientific research of d. fayzikhadzhaeva, one of the philosophers of our republic. however, the issue of contextual argumentation and belief formation has not been studied as a separate topic. professor d. faizikhojaeva describes “contextual argumentation argumentation whose effectiveness is limited to a specific audience” and describes that “it uses traditions, authorities, intuition, faith, common sense, taste, etc. as arguments.” in our opinion, the method of non-universal argumentation, which is subjective in nature and does not directly refer to the results of experience or theoretical reasoning, is based on intuition, beliefs, authority, traditions and other social arguments that may lie at the basis. and in logic is called contextual argumentation. they are used on a more everyday level of consciousness. intuition is the ability to directly reach the truth without any discussion or evidence. the word “intuition” comes from the latin word “intuitio,” which means “to look closely.” intuition is a unique way of thinking. thanks to intuition, a person can understand the essence of a complex phenomenon without paying attention to its various parts. at the same time, to one degree or 87 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us another, individual parts of the thought process are not understood, but mainly the result of thinking only the truth is clearly and clearly recorded. although intuition is considered a sufficient basis for determining truth, it is not considered sufficient to convince others of that truth. this method is interested in “concrete” thoughts, that is, in changing a preconceived “apparent reality” to a concrete reality. very few people in the history of philosophy have ever resisted the temptation of intuition to discover truth. thus, all the great astronomers, including copernicus, believed that the orbits of the planets should be circular. before gauss, no mathematician or physicist had questioned the idea that two straight lines could not enclose a field. similar examples abound: the whole is greater than its parts; the characterization is unsystematic; sin of bigamy; for nothing happens without an adequate cause. unfortunately, it is very difficult to distinguish thought from intuition. opinions are accepted as facts. for example, land is a house, but this is a mistaken belief. it is known that intuition is a function of current behavior and early practice. the point is that our absolute feeling or opinion should not be formulated in the form of a question, but it is necessary to check our intuition. conviction is a set of views that inspire a person’s trust and, therefore, determine his actions in work, serving as his life program. beliefs may be based on unproven assumptions or uncritically studied a priori knowledge. belief, like intuition, is subjective in nature and changes over time. of course, when thinking about faith, it is important to distinguish between blind faith and knowledgebased faith, which is the result of historical and life experience. only strong faith can act as an argument in determining the truth of thoughts and opinions and accepting them as truth. authority (autoritas power, influence) in a broad sense, the unofficial influence of a person or organization, recognized by the majority, in various spheres of public life. the concept of “authority” is used in the sense of an authoritative, significant, authoritative source. reliance on authority means turning to authoritative, reliable, and authoritative sources to substantiate the truth of an opinion. the opinions and opinions of individuals, entries in sacred religious books, in particular, suras and verses written in the koran, folk proverbs and words of wisdom are used as an authoritative source. the authority method originated as a study of interest in power and influence. when one holds one's thoughts firmly and follows the essence of a source that is considered sacred. an emphasis on religion or quoting a holy book is necessary when seeking solutions to controversial issues or making decisions in court. how to dress for a funeral, what syntactical rules a writer should write, what product an entrepreneur should produce, how to behave during a social crisis such as war these recurring problems are solved by the authoritarian method. two forms of authoritarian manifestations can be distinguished. the first form is inevitable and justified. this form is used when there is no time or opportunity to solve any problems. for example, what diet or exercise helps relieve symptoms of stress, or what weight system the egyptians used. unable to draw a definite conclusion on this matter, we turn to a recognized authority. for them, turning to authority is the last “refuge”; we either keep it to ourselves (we come to a reasonable conclusion), or (when the time comes) slightly change the authority’s opinion. in the second form, power introduces certain sources of reliable and decisive decisions and encourages the approval of their decisions by external forces. thus, humanity is threatened, and although there are several suitable alternatives before it, it remains in its habit. 88 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the purpose of this method is to eliminate long-standing differences in authority, achieving unanimity and stability in trust. buddhists do not accept christians, and christians reject the authority of muhammad (peace and blessings of allah be upon him) and the koran. however, experts say that there are several errors. moreover, regulation through power is impossible, and another path will have to be chosen. if this method is not enriched with other methods, it will remain unclear. the scope and duration of authority will vary. with the passage of time or changes in the scope of application, the position of the authorities may worsen. only widespread and permanent, regular authorities are a sufficient basis for determining the truth of opinions. in the east, the koran and hadith, as well as the time-tested opinions of prominent religious figures, philosophers and scientists, reflecting universal human values, are considered the most reliable, important and authoritative sources for resolving issues of public life. , regulating relations between people and society and determining the truth of knowledge. it is typical for our national mentality to accept these sources without evidence in discussions and debates, and to rely on them in thinking. such authorities do not lose their value under the influence of historical conditions and political changes; they will stand the test of time. the wise words of great thinkers, universal moral values, proverbs reflecting the socio-historical experience of peoples, which are part of the treasury of universal spiritual culture, are also sufficient evidence to substantiate the truth of opinions. at the beginning of the xxi-st century, the pace of life has accelerated to an unparalleled level, and the flow of information has increased, as a result of which authority authoritative sources take on new meaning and appear in different forms. the youth of our society receives various information and information not only in educational institutions, but also through the media and the internet. along with receiving information that is useful and necessary for their education, they are also exposed to information that is directed against our moral values. some young people recognize the media and the internet as the authority, rather than their parents and mentor teachers, and take their information as truth when learning and determining their attitude to life. they pay almost no attention to the sources of information, the level of truthfulness, the main thing is that it is interesting and meets their needs. the media and some information on the internet have a negative impact on the formation of life concepts in young people, whose spiritual world is just being formed, and personal experience is not enough to distinguish truth from lies and fiction. therefore, a sign of intelligence and prudence is to pay attention to the reliability and truth of the arguments when substantiating an opinion. it is necessary to distinguish between authoritarian and authoritarian thinking. authoritarianism is a modified, distorted form of rationalism, a way of thinking devoid of innovation and creativity, in which the task of reasoning and determining its truth is assigned to authorities. the issue of power is complex and multifaceted. for this reason, when justifying the truth of opinions, it is necessary to use authoritative opinions in accordance with specific conditions, following the norm. tradition is behavior, a way of behaving in the same form, which is inherited from generation to generation and accepted by a certain society or social group and has a certain influence on the way 89 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of life and thinking of people. thinking and acting based on traditions often manifests itself within the framework of people's lives, moral standards and folk rituals. habit or inertia makes us feel comfortable and continue to believe our thoughts because we live them. according to our habits, when conflicting thoughts come to our minds, we try to avoid them. our frequently repeated habits increase our confidence by convincing us that the path or sect we are following is the right one. if someone tells us that our country, our race, our language or our religion is wrong, we begin to isolate ourselves from the truth or views that contradict the beliefs we always rely on. when our habits are challenged by facts, we become frustrated and try to change our thoughts. it will be very difficult at first, but later it can become a habit, even a better skill than before. the endurance method may not always protect habitual skills that are relied upon. the faith of mankind is not the same, since in certain historical processes the general views of societies were different and people tried to protect their personal and social interests. it is impossible not to always pay attention to the “pressure” of other opinions. a man who is faithful in his own way is sometimes forced to admit his shortcomings. when the breadth of other views is felt, this method does not have the ability to draw conclusions from conflicting opinions. and because of the loss of his only form of trust, he feels the need for fixed views. the national idea and national ideology are absorbed into the consciousness of members of society through traditions. the attitude of a society or social group towards a person or event is based on certain traditions. to justify an action, they think that “according to our customs...”. argumentation is a complex logical process that uses one or more interrelated systems of reasoning. justification of the truth of opinions, reliance on reliable arguments in proof is one of the most important features of thinking and ensures the logic, orderliness and persuasiveness of our thoughts. references 1. ruzavin g.i. methodological problems of argumentation. moscow, 997. pp. 34-35. 2. institute of philosophy and law named after i. mominov of the academy of sciences of the republic of uzbekistan. encyclopedic dictionary of philosophy. -t.: "national encyclopedia of uzbekistan" state scientific publishing house 2010. p. 24. 3. makovelsky a.o. history of logic. m.: science1967, p. 22. 4. faizikhodjaeva d.i. abu nasr al-farabi and abu ali ibn sina on logical proof. t. nishan publisher, 2013. p. 144. 64 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 physico-chemical processes for the production of agloporite from industrial waste in uzbekistan shakirov tuyg’unjon turg’unovich candidate of technical sciences, associate professor, head of the department of tcm and ic tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering odiljanov azimbek zokirjon o’g’li doctoral student of the department of tcm and ic department tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering abstract: the possibility of obtaining high-quality porous agloporite material with high physical and mechanical properties based on local clay raw materials and industrial waste from the tashkent industrial region has been established. the effect of chloride roasting, whose components are phosphogypsum industry waste and alkaline soda waste, on the mechanism and kinetics of mineral formation during agglomeration of agloporite gravel, is studied. it was established that the used waste mineralizers accelerate the process of glass formation during chloride firing, reducing the temperature of agglomeration and pressing by 50-80 o с, while obtaining a durable porous material. the regularities of the influence of physicochemical features, used clay materials and flotation waste of the almalyk mining and smelting complex on the mechanism of mineral and pore formation during agglomerate agglomeration are revealed.. keywords: agloporite, physicochemical properties, mechanism, kinetics, expansion, chloride firing. introduction during the enrichment of metallurgical ores, a huge amount of waste is generated. no other type of human industrial activity affects the environment as extensively and destructively as mining. in the sphere of its direct influence are the water and air basins, the earth's surface, subsoil, fauna and flora all elements of the natural environment. on the other hand, in the process of mining and processing of minerals, a significant amount of various wastes of direct production is generated, which often significantly exceeds the mass of marketable products. therefore, their integrated use is not only the basis of waste-free production, but also serves as a radical means of reducing the technogenic load on the natural environment and an important source of saving labor and natural resources. the economic significance of the problem of using secondary material resources lies in the fact that its correct solution allows: increasing the types of raw materials, reducing the use of natural raw materials; to prevent the loss of a large amount of land, including those important for agricultural production, which are occupied by dumps for waste and by-products; avoid high costs for the creation of warehouses, storage facilities, dumps; improve the technical and economic indicators of industries. the use of waste and by-products in the building materials industry gives a great economic effect due to a reduction in the cost of production, fuel, electricity and capital costs. raw materials or 65 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us components that are made from waste are cheaper than raw materials that are made specifically from natural materials. current investments in the use of certain types of waste are reduced by (30–50%). in addition, it should be remembered that the known reserves of natural raw materials are increasingly depleted and moving away from industrial regions. at present, much attention is paid to energy saving issues. one of these areas is the use of building materials with thermal insulation properties. agloporite is widely used as a heatinsulating material for the manufacture of lightweight concrete and heat fillings. agloporite is a porous granular material of a cellular structure obtained by swelling of clay rocks during their firing. complex physical and chemical processes occur in the fired clay material in different temperature ranges: dehydration, burnout of organic impurities, interaction between clay components, redox reactions, and others, which causes gas evolution, melt formation, softening of the material. with rapid firing, the temperature intervals approach, shifting to the region of high temperatures, which makes it possible to combine the process of gas formation with the softening of the material and the achievement of a certain viscosity, at which the clay swells. in this case, it is important that by the time of intense gas evolution, the surface layer of the granules should be sintered with the formation of closed pores. otherwise, the gases are easily removed through the layer of material without swelling it. according to the degree of swelling, weakly, medium, and well-swelling clayey rocks are distinguished with a swelling coefficient of at least 2.5, respectively, or from 2.5 to 4.5 and higher. the existence of different opinions about the causes of swelling and pore formation in clay raw materials during its high-temperature heat treatment to obtain agloporite and the inconsistency of some of these opinions indicate insufficient knowledge of the main factors of swelling and pore formation (1-4). in this paper, we studied the possibility of obtaining a heat-insulating material agloporite based on the use of technogenic products, by recycling various industrial wastes, as well as overburden clayey rocks and studying the effect of their physical and chemical properties on the mechanism and patterns of formation of porous agloporite. for this purpose, clay materials and flotation wastes of the tashkent industrial region were considered as raw materials in the production of aggloporite. research methods and materials used according to the results of preliminary studies, it was found that the most accessible and suitable materials for these purposes are overburden clay rocks of the akhangaran deposit of loess and gray unenriched kaolin of the angren coal basin, and as the main aluminosilicate component, the flotation tailings of the lead and copper processing plants of the almalyk mining and metallurgical plant (5,6) . as mineralizers of agglomeration and swelling processes, and as a chlorinator of residual metals contained in tailings, solid alkaline waste from soda production and phosphogypsum waste from phosphoric acid production were used. table 1. the chemical composition of the materials used names sio2 al2o3 fe2o3 cao mgo na2o k2o so3 ppp floating waste mof 59,32 13,86 9,31 1,16 0 2,31 3,14 6,02 4,18 flotation waste sof 45,7 8,72 7,1 14,59 7,10 2,00 0.98 2,98 8,83 unenriched kaolin 58,6 18,95 1,87 3,91 0,53 0,12 1,11 0,12 14,72 less 49,29 11,66 4,41 13,97 3,28 1,44 0,80 1,30 13,29 phosphogypsum 10,43 0,420 0,15 28,32 0,04 0,04 40,51 19,64 waste tosp 1,1 0,4 47,1 4,2 3,8 42,40 66 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the study of the used components of raw mixtures was carried out by a number of physical and chemical methods of analysis: x-ray phase, petrographic and infrared spectroscopic, mineralogical. x-ray phase analysis of the materials used showed differences in their chemical and mineralogical composition, which certainly indicates a completely variable effect on the processes of solid-state transformations occurring during firing, the temperature of the onset of the formation of the liquid phase and swelling of aggloporite, on the degree of swelling and a number of other physicochemical processes occurring during the agglomeration of silicate mixtures. the flotation waste from the copper concentrating plant (mof) dark gray in color, is formed during the enrichment of copper-bearing ore, it is an aluminum-iron silicate substance. the results of chemical analysis of flotation waste samples showed their little changeable chemical composition. the samples are characterized by a high content of silica, reaching 63% and its melting point is 1220-1240 o c. figure 1. x-ray patterns of flotation wastes: a) mof-copper-concentrating and b) sof of the lead concentrator the main minerals are quartz (up to 40%), feldspar (10%), hydromica (23%) and a small amount of calcium and magnesium carbonates. x-ray patterns of the mof flotation waste burned at different temperatures show characteristic maxima of quartz d=0.3344; 0.181; 0.153 nm, feldspar d=0.200; 0.166 nm, hydromicas d=0.441; 0.254; 0.148 nm, hematite d=0.370; 0.471; 0.499 nm, gelenite d=0.247; .284; 0.364 nm. dump tailings of the lead concentration plant (sof) of the almalyk mining and metallurgical combine are formed during the flotation enrichment of lead-containing ore and are a freeflowing, sandy material of gray color, with a grain size of 1-3 mm and a moisture content of 35%. the main constituents of tails are; oxides of silicon, calcium, aluminum and magnesium with the following mineralogical composition: quartz, calcite, dolomite, feldspar. as noted in a number of studies (7-10), clays containing silica in an amount exceeding 65% are in most cases unsuitable for the production of agloporite and expanded clay. as the content of sio2 increases and the content of al2o3, fe2o3, mgo, na2o k2o decreases, the swelling of clayey rocks decreases. a feature of the chemical composition of the studied clays is a low content of iron 67 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us oxide up to 5%. the granulometric composition of the clays of these deposits are similar and are characterized by a low content of large particles (1-0.005 mm), a high content of silty particles (0.05-0.005 mm) and a low content of particles of fine fractions. at the same time, the granulometric composition of flotation tailings differs in particle size from the natural clays used. the degree of swelling is greatly influenced by all oxides contained in clays and flotation tailings, so the optimal content should be, according to some studies, in the range of 17-22%, as the alumina content decreases, the swelling of clays decreases sharply. also in the works (7,8) it was found that as the ability to swell in clay materials decreases, the content of mgo decreases markedly, the introduction of which in the composition of alkaline waste from soda production causes, as shown further, their swelling during chloride firing. in addition, it is known that an increase in the cao content above 3-4% sharply worsens the sintering of granules during firing, and the content of alkaline oxides of potassium and sodium above 3-4% increases the swelling of the granules. a number of scientific data (9, 10) have shown the dependence of the physicomechanical parameters of aggloporite on the physicochemical properties of the raw materials used, when the optimal chemical and mineralogical composition of the raw mixture makes it possible to greatly reduce the temperature of formation of the liquid phase and firing and increase pore formation and strength characteristics. summarizing the above, it should be noted the possibility of using the proposed rocks and waste as a raw material for the production of agloporite. experimental raw materials were first dried and ground in a laboratory ball mill to a specific surface area of 1300-1500 g/cm2. then the components were weighed in the required quantities and mixed dry. after that, water was added to the dry mixture. granules 10-15 mm in diameter were made from the resulting mixture and fired in an electric muffle furnace with silicate heaters to temperatures of (1000, 1100, 1200) °c. physical and chemical studies have established that raw mixtures with mof flotation waste have a higher swelling ability compared to mixtures based on sof flotation waste, while at the same time, from clay materials, kaolin from the angren deposit is also preferable in comparison with the forest of the akhangaran deposit in terms of its chemical and mineralogical properties. characteristics. the temperature of the beginning of the formation of the glass phase and the completion of the agglomeration of raw mixtures based on the flotation wastes of mof and sof with the addition of wood and kaolin clay as an intumescent material, without mineralizers and with their participation, was determined, as a result of which the regularities of the influence of the physicochemical properties of the components on the agglomeration process were established. it is shown that the temperature of the beginning of swelling of aggloporite, and this process itself is directly dependent on the chemical and mineralogical composition of the initial components, so unenriched kaolin significantly increases the swelling of aggloporite. therefore, further studies were carried out in mixtures with unenriched kaolin (table 2). table 2. compositions of the studied raw mixes for agloporite raw mix № kaolin hmof waste sof waste coal phosphogypsum 1 10,0 85,0 5,0 20,0 2 15,0 80,0 6,0 30,0 3 20,0 73,0 7,0 30,0 30,0 4 10,0 5,0 15,0 30,0 5 15,0 80,0 6,0 30,0 6 20,0 73,0 7,0 30,0 chloridny objig syrevyx smesey providolsya v temperaturennom intervale 1000-1200 os, c dobavkoy ot 10 do 30% phosphogypsa i schelochnogo othoda, v vide granule 10-15mm mixed v corundum tygli. in the case of conducted experiments, it was established that the temperature of the appearance of the glass phase and the final agglomeration of 50-100 °c in the sulfochlorite objige occur, and the resulting material has a pronounced porosity. 68 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. x-ray patterns of obtained aggloporites a) based on sof flotation waste, b) based on flotation waste mof with sulfochloride additive 30% alkaline waste + 30% phosphogypsum x-ray phase and petrographic methods have been used to study the effect of sulfochloride roasting on the mechanism and kinetics of agglomeration of agglomeration crushed stone, and it has been shown that at a temperature of 800-900 o c in raw mixtures, decomposition of the initial minerals feldspars with d=0.200; 0.166 nm, hydromica with d=0.441; 0.254; 0.148 nm, caco3 with d=0.303; 0.191; 0.187 nm with the formation of new mineral phases in mixtures with mof tails at tobf=950-1100 o c mullite with d=0.211; 0.220; 0.339 nm, gelenite c d=0.285; 0.243 nm, calcium aluminate with d=0.297; 0.252 nm, in agloporite with sof tails additionally okkermanite with d=252 nm, wollastonite with d=0.329 nm (fig. 2). when determining the temperature range of sintering and swelling for mixtures of unenriched kaolin with flotation waste from a copper concentrating plant, the best results were obtained for samples from angren unenriched kaolin with the addition of alkaline waste from soda production and phosphogypsum in various amounts; tobzh 1160-1190 o c and with the addition of 30% alkaline waste and 30% phosphogypsum, there is a decrease in t obzh. up to 1100-1140 o c, and the swelling coefficient of agloporite increases from 2.5 to 3.5 (table 3). the coefficient of swelling of clay raw materials without additives and with additives is determined as the ratio of the volume of an expanded granule to the volume of a semi-finished product granule. the volume of each grain of a semi-finished product of stone-like raw materials, expanded clay crushed stone and gravel is determined according to gost 9758 and calculated by the formula . the coefficient of swelling of clay raw materials is determined by the formula where is the sum of the volumes of granules (grains) of the semi-finished product supplied for expansion, cm; the sum of the volumes of expanded granules of expanded clay gravel and expanded clay crushed stone, see. 69 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 3.the swelling temperature of optimal formulations compounds № composition of components in% т o с coefficient to, swelling kaolin hmof waste sof waste coal shosp phosphogypsum 1 10 85 5 20 20 1130 2,9 2 15 80 7 30 30 1110 3,6 3 20 75 6 20 30 1120 3,2 4 10 85 5 20 20 1150 2,7 5 15 80 7 30 30 1140 3,1 6 20 75 6 20 30 1145 3 presumably, on the basis of the physical and chemical studies carried out, the reaction mechanism during the synthesis of agloporite with flotation waste mof and sof proceeds according to the following scheme, at a temperature of 900-1000 o c, dehydration of clay minerals and iron hydroxide and crystallization of hematite and gelenite occur. at these temperatures, processes occur in the material, the most important for the formation of the structure of agloporite. inside the layer, with a lack of oxygen, the environment is reducing, therefore ferrous oxides are reduced to feo, which contributes to the intensive formation of the liquid phase, in addition, a sulfochloride additive serves as a smooth decrease in the temperature of the formation of the liquid phase, resulting in a decrease in the agglomeration completion temperature by 50-80 o c. sintering occurs inside the granules and at their contacts. the loose layer turns into sintered, but porous due to the suction of gases. clay and mica impurities partially swell, causing the formation of a certain proportion of closed pores in the material. it has been established that the used mineralizers accelerate the process of glass formation during sulfochloride firing, reducing the agglomeration temperature by 50-80 o c, obtaining a durable porous material. regularities of the influence of physical and chemical features of the used clay materials and flotation tailings of the almalyk mining and metallurgical plant on the mechanism of mineral and pore formation during sulfochloride roasting are revealed. as a result of the experiments, materials were identified that meet the requirements for chemical and mineralogical composition to obtain aggloporite with such properties as a high degree of pore formation, strength and low agglomeration temperature. raw mixtures of unenriched kaolin and flotation waste from a copper processing plant (mof) with the integrated use of phosphogypsum agglomeration process and alkaline waste from soda production as a mineralizer, which, as established by a complex of physicochemical methods, positively affect the kinetics of agglomeration and pore formation of aggloporite crushed stone. it has been established that raw mixtures based on mof flotation waste have a higher swelling capacity compared to mixtures based on sof flotation waste. list of used literatures: 1. a practical methodological manual for the production of heat-retaining building materials based on vermiculite. “ўзсаноатқурилишбанк” atb-2021. 2. гост 7076-99 “building materials and products. method for determining thermal conductivity and thermal resistance in a stationary thermal regime”. 3. ganiev a., tursunov b., karshiev e. study of physical and mechanical properties of high strong concrete with chemical additives //aip conference proceedings. – aip publishing llc, 2022. – т. 2432. – №. 1. – с. 050046. 4. akramov x. a. et al. to produce an effective composition of vermiculite plita and to study the coefficient of thermal conductivity //the peerian journal. – 2022. – т. 8. – с. 29-37. 70 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. ganiev a., tursunov b. a., kurbanov z. k. prospects for the use of multiple vermiculitis //science and education. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 409-414. 6. khursanovich t. f., orologli n. i. the study of physical and mechanical properties of construction gypsum and its study on the construction //academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal. – 2020. – т. 10. – №. 5. – с. 1990-1995. 7. x.akramov, sh.raximov, x.nuritdinov, m.turopov “beton to„ldiruvchilari texnologiyasi” , o„quv qo„llanma, toshkent, 2012y. 8. gaziev u.a., kadirova d.sh. beton va qorishmalar uchun qo„shimchalar. o„quv qo„llanma. 2015. 141 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 automation of assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering sh. g. rubidinov fergana polytechnic institute, associate professor of "mst and а" (phd), fergana, uzbekistan abstract: automation of assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering is an important task that can help improve production efficiency and reduce production costs. this annotation will consider an approach to automating assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering. keywords: automation, assembly, mechanical engineering, installation, systems. the first step in automating the assembly and installation processes is to define the stages of the production process. this may include steps such as preparation of materials, assembly of individual components, installation of finished components, testing and packaging of finished products. equipment and technology requirements should be defined for each stage. then it is necessary to develop automated systems for each stage of the production process. this may include the use of robots, automatic assembly lines, numerical control (cnc) machines, automated testing systems and other automation tools. it is important that all systems are integrated into a single production management system. to successfully automate the assembly and installation processes, the following factors must also be taken into account: 1. staff training. to work with automated systems, it is necessary to train personnel. this may include learning how to work with new devices, programs, and technologies. 2. software development. special software needs to be developed to manage automated systems. this may include programs for controlling robots, programs for controlling automatic assembly lines, and other programs. 3. definition of quality criteria. to successfully automate the assembly and installation processes, it is necessary to define quality criteria for each product. this will help to determine whether the finished product meets the customer's requirements and reduce the number of defects. 4. integration with the production management system. automated assembly and installation systems must be integrated with the production management system. this will allow you to automatically adjust production processes based on the results of quality control and other factors. 5. in general, automation of assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering has great potential to improve production efficiency and reduce production costs. however, for the successful implementation of automation, many factors must be taken into account, such as 142 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us software development, staff training, definition of quality criteria and integration with the production management system. automation of assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering is an urgent topic that attracts the attention of many manufacturing companies. automation of these processes can significantly improve production efficiency, improve product quality and reduce production costs. one of the key approaches to automating assembly and installation processes is the use of industrial robots. robotic systems can perform many tasks that were previously performed manually, such as feeding materials, assembling individual components, assembling finished components, and testing finished products. robotization of assembly and installation processes can significantly reduce production time and improve the accuracy of tasks. another important approach to automating the assembly and installation processes is the use of automatic assembly lines. they allow you to automate the product assembly process throughout the entire production cycle. automatic assembly lines can include various devices such as conveyors, robots, sensors and other automation systems. in addition, numerical control (cnc) machines are often used to automate assembly and installation processes. they allow you to automatically perform tasks that require precision and repeatability, such as drilling holes or cutting materials. the use of cnc also reduces production time and improves the accuracy of tasks. an important aspect of automating the assembly and installation processes is the integration of all automated systems into a single production management system. this allows you to automatically adjust production processes based on quality control results and other factors. integration also allows you to predict possible problems and take measures to eliminate them. for successful automation of assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering, it is also important to consider the following aspects: 1. the use of a video surveillance system. the video surveillance system can be used to control the quality of products at all stages of the production process. this helps to identify possible defects and errors in the early stages of production and increases the efficiency of the quality control process. 2. the use of artificial intelligence (ai). the use of ai can help automate the process of quality control and defect detection in the early stages of production. ai can also be used to optimize production processes and improve production efficiency. 3. development of a system for monitoring and managing energy consumption. this can help reduce energy costs and improve the efficiency of production processes. the monitoring system can be used to identify areas where energy consumption can be reduced, and the control system allows you to optimize energy consumption. 4. development of an inventory management system. using an inventory management system can help reduce production costs and improve the accuracy of material accounting. the inventory management system can be used to automatically order the necessary materials and control the quantity of materials in the warehouse. 5. the use of cloud technologies. cloud technologies can be used for data storage and processing, as well as for managing production processes. they allow the exchange of data and information between different systems and devices, which simplifies and speeds up the production process. it is important to note that automation of assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering requires significant investments and time costs. however, in the long term, automation can lead to significant economic benefits and increase the competitiveness of the 143 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us enterprise. in addition, automation reduces the risks associated with errors and deficiencies in the production process, which in turn increases the level of safety and reliability of production. conclusion. automation of assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering is an important aspect of production optimization, which allows to increase efficiency, accuracy and product quality, as well as reduce production costs. robotization, automation of assembly lines, the use of cnc machines, integration of automated systems into a single production management system all these approaches can be used to automate assembly and installation processes. however, for the successful implementation of automation, many factors must be taken into account, such as software development, staff training, definition of quality criteria and integration with the production management system. it is also important to note that automation requires significant investments and time costs, but in the long term it can lead to significant economic benefits and increase the competitiveness of the enterprise. in general, automation of assembly and installation processes in mechanical engineering has great potential to improve production processes and increase production efficiency. however, for the successful implementation of automation, it is necessary to take into account many factors and constantly monitor and optimize production processes. references 1. гайназаров, а. т., & абдурахмонов, с. м. 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(2021). машинасозликда сочилувчан материалларни ташишда транспортер тизимларининг аҳамияти. scientific progress, 2(2), 182-187. 31 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 regional location of commercial and household service complexes in uzbekistan regions taking into account natural-climatic conditions i. k. eshatov (phd) senior teacher, samarkand state university of architecture and construction a. a. aymatov (phd)associate professor, samarkand state university of architecture and construction f. f. soliyev senior teacher, samarkand state university of architecture and construction abstract: it consists in the development of recommendations and proposals for architectural and planning organization in the formation of commercial and consumer service complexes in the regions of uzbekistan. one of the urgent problems of modern world urban planning is the process of development and formation of agglomerations. the greatest influence on these processes in recent years has been the growth of the urban population, its concentration in economically developed large cities, the strengthening of ties between individual cities and villages (both transport and social, household and labor ties). in the following years, a significant increase in the development process in the socio-economic sphere of our country was noticeable. as the cultural level and material well-being of the population of the republic grow, so does its activity, purchasing power, and demand for agglomeration-level institutions focused on entertainment and public services. all this is considered expedient to create objective conditions for the accelerated development of cultural, residential, shopping centers focused on serving public interests. keywords: agglomeration, trade, complexes, natural environment, microclimate, pedestrians and transport. 1. introduction it is urgent to develop trade and household service complexes in the regional centers of uzbekistan in accordance with modern principles. architectural-planned organization of shopping centers and its effective operation, organized transport and pedestrian traffic on a planned basis are also considered to be key issues. in the world, special importance is attached to the issues of development of social infrastructure and trade-household service complexes at the level of agglomeration. currently, in developed countries, measures are being sought to increasingly activate social and economic relations and use the roads of agglomeration importance in this area. it is required to implement comprehensive projects on the formation of agglomeration trade complexes that have arisen on the basis of such worldly demands and are connected by highways. special attention is being paid to the reconstruction of shopping complexes due to natural needs. research on architectural and design features of new, modern types of commercial and household service complexes is considered a priority. 32 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in uzbekistan, like in other countries of the world, group systems of population areas are rapidly forming. ajgt (group systems of settlements) is formed based on certain factors. in the formation of ajgt or "agglomerations", such factors as the development of mutual relations between urban and rural population areas, the wide spread of population migration processes, the complex development of the network of population areas, and the development of spatial concepts in the field of urbanism are the main factors [1,2]. however, in the scientific studies devoted to specific agglomerations in uzbekistan, special attention was paid to its specific characteristics in the study of the relationship between the cities of our republic and the surrounding area. the development of city centers and the formation of shopping complexes have been widely discussed in the practice of urban planning in many countries in recent years. this phenomenon affects the structure and architectural appearance of the city centers in modern conditions. the problems of architectural formation of commercial centers of cities require a comprehensive consideration of complex urban development processes. for example, we all know that historical streets, villages and cities did not appear by themselves, they were formed along the streets. the development of the city center as a socio-cultural and public trade center requires the strengthening of the central functions of the agglomeration [2,3]. in the process of development of the regional centers of uzbekistan, their centers are being formed. in the design of commercial and household service complexes in the center of cities, taking into account the traffic and natural climate, there is a need to organize parking lots in the centers and streets of densely populated cities. as a result, noise and toxic gases begin to affect the physiological and psychological condition of the population and negatively affect the city's ecology. in historically existing cities, commercial and household service complexes, that is, markets, were formed before the appearance of motorized transport [3]. currently, the design of new commercial and residential service centers will have to take pedestrian and traffic into account. the main reason for the main difficulties in the formation of trade and household service complexes in city centers is related to the organization of pedestrian and traffic flows. that is why the place of organization in terms of urban planning in the design practice of trade and household service centers is incomparable. based on this, their main goal is to balance pedestrian and traffic flows with the help of architectural and planning tools [4,3]. the essence of the matter depends on the activity of trade and household complexes specializing in trade for placing trade centers in the city structure. shopping centers are considered to be the central collective life arena of cities, as well as a place for public gatherings and other events. as a regional center, as the city grows, the population's demand for agglomeration-level shopping centers also increases. for this reason, various services begin to be integrated in commercial and household service centers. there is a need to protect workers and visitors from the sun, rain, snow, dust and other natural influences in shopping centers [5,6]. we can consider the basics of architectural-planning design of trade-household service complexes in regional city centers in natural-climatic conditions. according to our observations, the role of the natural environment, lighting, acoustics, microclimate requirements, pedestrian and traffic management issues in the design is important. architectural-planning design of commercial and household service buildings and structures in regional cities requires the following:  comfortable environment;  the optimal ratio of natural and artificial light;  enough insulation and sunscreens;  requires organization of microclimate in buildings;  thus, it requires the organization of trade-complexes at exit points in the city, while connecting them with highways [5,6]. 33 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for this reason, a draft recommendation on the division of the territory of uzbekistan into zones was developed; figure 1. service in the settlement system of a large population scheme of organization of centers: in our work, recommendations were developed for the placement of commercial and household service complexes in the cities of karshi, urganch and jizzakh, which are the urban centers of kashkadarya, khorezm and jizzakh: ways of adapting commercial and household service complexes to the location, functional composition and natural-climatic conditions in the city structure have been developed; ways to adapt and connect the micro-climate of commercial and household service complexes to local natural and climatic conditions in the cities of karshi, urganch and jizzakh; due to the favorable climatic conditions (duration of the hot season) in uzbekistan, an offer and recommendation of a shopping complex was developed based on the following project: (figure 1.) open, semi-open and closed commercial and household service complexes were divided into: 1. for the open organization of trade and household service complexes, the main trade streets are open and various trade and household service enterprises are placed around it. open trade and household service complexes are economically efficient. trade and household service complexes are organized in temperate cities, for example, in jizzakh region. i. the semi-open trade-household service complex was divided as follows: 1. for the open organization of trade and household service complexes, the main trade streets are open and various trade and household service enterprises are placed around it. semi-open trade and household service complexes are organized in open and closed main shopping streets. trade and household service enterprises are placed along the streets. such trade and household service complexes are organized in flat areas. for example, it is organized in kashkadarya region. ii. a closed commercial and household service complex is organized as follows: 1. closed commercial and household service complexes are organized in a compact formation around the main closed shopping streets. in this case, trade and household service complexes can 34 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us be fully protected by customers in adverse climatic conditions. such trade and household service complexes are established in cities that are mainly affected by the desert. for example, it is organized in khorezm region [7,6]. ways to achieve planning diversity and compositional unity in the development of commercial and household service complexes in regional cities of uzbekistan are recommended: the movement of cars in regional city centers creates a number of negative processes and has a great impact on commercial and household service complexes located in this area. for this reason, the demand for shopping complexes organized in a way suitable for pedestrians and traffic, as well as natural and climatic conditions increases. [8,9]. a large-capacity parking lot organized around cities is important for the effective operation of commercial and household service complexes at the level of agglomeration. but in this settlement, the places reserved for public and private vehicles require to be organized on the basis of a clear plan. because this parking lot can be used by customers coming from different districts of the agglomeration by public and private transport. it is also important to organize pedestrian traffic for organized trade and household service enterprises and institutions. currently, large flows of pedestrians cross the street from one side to the other, disrupting vehicular traffic and creating traffic jams. to solve the problem, it would be appropriate to build a pedestrian bridge underground or over the street. the architectural spatial structure of regional city centers serves as a basis for the organization of pedestrian and transport traffic. the organization of trade and household service complexes in the system of the agglomeration core will attract the population of the entire region. in this case, as a rule, service institutions and enterprises are embodied, public activity is high, the city center of the agglomeration level develops public functions and becomes an attractive environment for residents. alternatively, in many cases, a superficial approach to creating pedestrian zones limits access to the city center, prohibits the movement of vehicles in densely populated areas, and allows movement in a limited circle [10]. such a situation is organized mainly by equipping and beautifying shopping streets intended for pedestrians, considering and forming city streets as a multi-functional complex. therefore, a project scheme was created for the complex organization of commercial and household service complexes in one place, where architects are indicated. [11,12,13,] therefore, the service network is classified by zones, regions and at the same time by the type and character of service. thus, for the purpose of determining the capacity and type of shopping centers at the agglomeration level, they are divided into the types of shopping centers serving the densely located large residential area of the main city of the agglomeration or the types of shopping centers serving the entire agglomeration. when solving urban planning issues, it is necessary to take into account a large number of customers visiting them and a large amount of cargo flow. the first factor requires the organization of entry and exit to the complexes, and the second is the organization of roads for the delivery of goods and products. therefore, taking into account the specific requirements of these structures, that is, we consider it advisable to design closed, semiopen and open commercial and household service complex buildings in accordance with the natural climate. results: the location of the shopping center is very important for its successful development. transport connections of the regional center with other settlements in the agglomeration should be taken into account for the placement of the commercial and household service complex. a suitable geographic location for a construction site is determined by the economic aspects that 35 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us characterize the area. economic aspects are related to the adaptation of the agglomeration core to trade and household service complexes. when considering two plots of land that may be identical in all other respects, it is necessary to carefully consider their location and relevant economic data. in order to avoid the risk of blind establishment of a shopping complex, it is always necessary to take into account the nature of the area where the shopping center is located, regardless of whether the selected land is available for urban planning or a suitable place has not yet been found. in this case, it is necessary to take into account the service radius in the master plan, that is, the maximum distance between shopping complexes and customers. in shopping complexes, access by vehicle should be convenient, and the flow of external cargo and the flow of customers should be separate [5,4,8,12]. the formation of shopping complexes in the regions we are considering, connected from urban centers by roads of regional significance figure 3-4-5. schematic model of urbanization of the urban centers of karshi, jizzakh and urgench. 36 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the image above shows the isochrons of transport adequacy: 1-primary urbanized urban centers; 2-highly urbanized areas; 3-second-level centers; 4-second-level centers (5) together with the main urban centers. scheme of population location of shopping complexes in kashkadarya, khorezim and jizzakh regions and cities with agglomeration group: 1territorial population location and regional administrative border; group location of the population based on the center of the 2nd region; 3the boundary of inter-district local population settlement; district 4 local population settlement boundary; 5th inter-district center of local population settlement; district 6 is the center of local population settlement. we considered our recommendations in the scheme of exits from city centers from the point of view of urban planning. the reason for this is that the demand for shopping complexes in regional city centers is increasing and causing traffic jams. of course, studies have been carried out for regional placement of shopping complexes and for placement on exit roads from regional city centers [16]. development projects of urban settlements in agglomerations are being implemented in our republic, relying on theoretical and practical knowledge, using world experience. in the planning of cities, it is required to study the natural and climatic conditions of the region, take into account the lifestyle of the population, design commercial and household service buildings with all conditions in a comprehensive manner, and build the regional city connected with highways. compared to other trade and service enterprises, shopping centers have a number of advantages, in which the problems of traffic and road crossing are solved, and residential areas in districts are zoned [14,17]. at the same time, the use of commercial complexes is solved in accordance with the natural and climatic conditions of the regions of uzbekistan. placement of trade enterprises in an integrated manner, meeting the demands of customers in a wide scope, necessary amenities are created. due to the unification of constructions and the use of a single plan system, construction periods are reduced. a wide range of compositional possibilities opens up in the design of this complex and diverse complex of buildings. the classification of trade centers in the agglomeration and the organizational principles of the service system are of great importance. the organization of retail enterprises, public catering and household service networks is solved depending on the structurally planned size and population of cities and districts in the agglomeration [14,18]. figure 3-4-5. recommendations for organization were given based on the recommendations under commercial and household service complexes. 1. facilities (trade and service buildings, offices and other public buildings); 2. parking places; 3. pedestrian crossings and corridors; 4. roads for car traffic; 5. places for public transport; 6. buffer area (well equipped) area separating parking lots from external roads); 37 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. reserve space (in case of expansion of the shopping center). it is proposed to form the main goals of transport planning in shopping centers as follows: a) organization of free movement of vehicles along the road system surrounding the shopping center; b) efficient movement from highways to the location of the shopping center; transportation at the location of such a center; c) organization of convenient and economical parking lots; d) separation of service transport and customer transport; e) provision of isolated places for public transport and passenger unloading [8,12,15,19]. in fact, this planning consists of determining the size, location and type of each shopping center based on its geographical location. application of such recommendations will create comfort for the population and be effective from an economic point of view. in conclusion, taking into account the fact that the regions are located in different regions, they are different from each other in terms of natural and geographical aspects, and the dry and hot climate is characteristic of all regions, division in the design of trade and household service complexes in the cities of karshi, jizzakh and urganch it is recommended to use open, semiopen, and closed architectural-spatial solutions by zone. the rational organization of pedestrian and traffic movements in architectural solutions will also be of great importance. trade and household service complexes in the cities of karshi, jizzakh, urganch are organized spatially and functionally. based on suggestions and recommendations, the service radius of commercial and household service complexes located at the entrance and exit of the cities of karshi, jizzakh, and urganch has been determined. in the formation of modern agglomeration trade and household service complexes on regional highways, passenger and traffic flows, the level of satisfaction of their needs and parameters of urban planning, the capacity of objects for pedestrians and transport needs, service radius and socio-economic the factors of the organization of trade complexes were determined and proposals were developed by means of experiment design. it has been proven that the proposals for the organization of commercial and household service complexes at the entrance to the regions can also be used in neighboring countries. references: 1. полян п.м. урбанистическая структура и урбанистическая концентрация // экономическая география: респуб. межвузовский научный сб. вып.36. киев, 1984. с. 61-68. 2. эшатов и.қ., хидиров m.m., махмудова ф. architectural and planning organization of agglomerational trade and service complexes in the uzbekistan. // international conference on scientific, educational $ humanitarian advancements, (hosted online from, samsun, turkey) www. econferenceglobe.com. jujy 15th,2021 3. ikrom, eshatov. "historical bazaars of central asia–predictors of modern shopping centers." international journal on integrated education 2.4: 23-27. 4. урбах а.и. проблемы формирования новых типов торговых зданий и комплексов.м.,1973; 5. урбах а.и. общественно-торговые центры. м., цнти по стр. и арх., 1972 6. римша а.н. "город и жаркий климат" краткий обзор урбанизации територий жаркого климата (азия, африка, лотинская америка и 4-й строительно-климатический пояс ссср)" москва стройиздат 1975 38 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. hidirov, m. m., eshatov, i. q., & mahmudova, f. (2021, june). architectural and planning organization of agglomerational trade and service complexes in the uzbekistan. in econference globe (pp. 60-64). 8. урбах а.и., лин м.т. пешеходные торговые улицы и зоны за рубежом. обзорная информация. мгцнти, 1982, вып. 30; 9. ачилов, ш. д., айматов, а. а., & сафарова, и. а. (2023). cохранение композиционнохудожестенных качест памятников архитектуры и приспособление новостроек к историческому центру. образование наука и инновационные идеи в мире, 18(8), 101106. 10. турсунов х.к., латипов д.в. градостроительная деятельность в новых условиях развития узбекистан // проблемы архитектуры и строительства (научно-технический журнал), 2004, № 4. – с.44-46 11. урбах а.и., хорошилов в.б. перспективы развития торговых центров городского значения. обзорная информация. вниитаг, 1989, вып. 13; 12. грюн в., смитл. торговые центры сша. м., стройиздат. 1966. 3-8 бет 13. аbdixoliqovich, а. а. (2023). evolution formation in the structure of urban architecture of traditional neighborhood and residential buildings. central asian journal of arts and design, 4(5), 41-47. 14. ата-мирзаев о.б. региональное прогнозирование расселения и управление процессом урбанизации. – ташкент: фан, 1979. – 92 с. 15. аскаров ш.д. регион – пространство – город. – м.: стройиздат, 1988. – 201 с. 16. eshatov i.q., mustafoyeva m.z. o’zbekiston viloyat markazlarida savdo-maishiy xizmat ko’rsatish majmualarining zamonaviylashtirishning o’ziga xos muommolari va xususiyatlari. // me’morchilik va qurilish muommolari ilm.tex.jurnali, samdaqi № 2, 2019. 17. eshatov iq, mavlonov md, & mahmudova f. (2022). jizzax shahar tuzilmasida tijorat xizmatlarining agromomatik darajalarini joylashtirish tahlili. arxitektura dizayni jurnali, 5 ,6-11. https: // www.geniusjournals. org/index. php / jad / article / view / 994 dan olindi. 18. бакирханов ф.ф., турсунов х.к. градостроительный потенциал регионального расселения. – ташкент: акатм, 2001. – 112 с. 19. achildiyev, r. m., & otabekova, d. (2022). yirik shaharlarda transport muammolarini hal etishda xorijiy tajribalar. academic research in educational sciences, 3(11), 496-502. http://www.geniusjournals/ 14 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 04, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх history of emergence and development of ecological buildings nurmuradova yulduz bazarovna senior teacher of the department of history and theory of architecture bakhodirov abrorkhan fayzullo o’g’li a student of the 2nd stage of architecture yuldasheva iroda bohodir qizi a 2nd-level student of architecture samarkand state university of architecture and construction named after mirzo ulugbek faculty of architecture abstract: this article discusses the historical development of urban planning and the design of cities with ideal living environments. the article highlights efforts to improve the living environment, including architectural works, sewage technologies, and sanitary-hygienic measures. overall, the article provides a historical perspective on the evolution of urban planning and highlights the importance of considering social and environmental aspects in urban design.. keywords: urbanization, urban planning, ecological buildings, residential buildings, ancient greece, landscape, eco-isolation. introduction during the many centuries of urbanization of our planet, urban planning solutions have been implemented and improved by trial and error. often, they are determined by the existing socio-economic formation, the level of socio-economic, cultural and scientific development of countries. at the same time, the dream of all the participants of the urbanization process, including urban planners, architects and residents, is cities with an ideal living environment. there was no single opinion about such cities. they have been seen as small towns, large dynamic metropolises and small green "sunny cities" and huge cities with glass skyscrapers. the urbanization of our planet has followed a long historical path, from the first small settlements to magnificent cities. the settlements of the first inhabitants had the simplest environment, which served to satisfy the primary needs (housing, procreation, protection from enemies, etc.) and did not cause any intractable social and ecological problems related to the relations within the community and the natural environment. . in residential areas, the size and quality of housing and the use of resources are equal. initially, man used natural caves and artificial structures similar to living or inanimate natural objects that he saw for his living: nests, natural grottoes, etc. thus, huts appeared, and later houses raised from the ground on stilts. 15 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us primitive residential buildings were built from available natural materials grass, leaves, clay, bushes, animal skins and bones. after a short period of service, these huts were abandoned by humans during the next migration, then assimilated by nature like any organic material. ecological balance was maintained by nomadic tribes after the exhaustion of plant and animal resources in their original habitat or by moving habitats far apart to meet sustainable needs. the deterioration of the environment of settlements due to the increase in the amount of waste has forced people to think about changing their disposal technologies. the beginning of the greening of the urban environment begins with the appearance of the first urbanized landscapes on earth settlements, residential and religious buildings. they were located among natural landscapes that were the most important factors for human existence. in general, the quality of the living environment in the first settlements was very low, but in the most ancient cities, people tried to improve it using existing methods: the visual environment was improved, monumental architectural works were created, beautification works, improved sewage technologies, body sanitation, etc. were used. an example of these is a terracotta bath and pipe found on the island of crete (2000 bc). in the palace of the assyrian king sargon ii (7th century bc), a latrine was found with cisterns next to each toilet seat. in ancient rome, the first aqueducts (aqueducts) were built for separate clean and less clean water in 312 bc. public baths and private baths for the rich were built. roman latrines had flowing drains (similar to modern sewers). in ancient greece and rome, the improvement of the suburbs was helped by temples and sacred gardens with water sources, urban gardens in public institutions (baths, theaters), sports parks, many private properties, and atriums. there were peristyle residential buildings with a water source and a garden in the yard. bringing nature closer to the house, using various solutions pleasing to the eye was the rule of architecture. as cities grew, so did environmental and social problems. architects and builders of ancient cities created beautiful buildings palaces, cathedrals, villas, stadiums, public baths, etc. however, labor-intensive and massive structures (such as the famous pyramids) had little universal significance at the time. the magnificence of the buildings preserved to this day, covered with stone carvings or stone sculpture images, inspires admiration. the appearance of the central part of a number of ancient cities was architecturally very expressive. at the same time, the main part of the population lived in the most simple and poorly adapted buildings. the quality of the living environment in the "housing cages" with open hearths and domestic animals was very poor. failure to take into account the complex of urban development factors (ecological, social, etc.) has led to unsuccessful decisions on urban planning. for many centuries, the relationship of builders to the natural environment was as a consumer. as a result, a familiar urban environment was formed: low landscapes of individual balconies and loggias in multi-story parallelepiped buildings; seamless glazing of facades; plants crushed by pollution in parks, squares, streets; polluted reservoirs; large streets and squares covered with an impassable layer of asphalt, filled with cars; factories with a large number of smoke and waste pipes, sludge and other waste drains; covering the city with smoke due to the lack of wind the natural environment of the city is polluted and almost incapable of increasing oxygen and natural self-purification, so it needs large natural areas adjacent to it, without which the city would not exist. in such a stressful state, the natural environment becomes harmful for humans. 16 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us growing cities become irreversible sources of pollution that cannot be processed by nature and are not adequately adapted to create living conditions necessary for humans (clean air and water, landscaping, sufficient insolation, sunlight exposure time, noise protection, population density, etc.). . currently, in the cities of developed countries, the quality of apartments, their area, the quality of provided communal services, the level of beautification is increasing, the quality of the environment is improving, and its pollution is decreasing. it can be seen that residential buildings, industrial buildings, engineering structures are designed and built without taking into account their performance in the natural environment: buildings are bio-negative, they introduce all kinds of pollution into the natural environment, including aesthetic ones. the landscape is poorly used, the buildings are not adapted to the natural environment, the material is sometimes bionegative, the waste is poorly used, and the energy from natural sources is hardly used. the areas occupied by cities and various engineering structures of the earth are expanding. in cities, the soil-vegetative layer almost disappears under the buildings and is excluded from the most important cycle of substances, the ecological cycle. special studies on the crisis growth of cities have shown that many cities have turned from small settlements into megacities of up to 10 million people over the course of 3-4 centuries. the conclusion. in conclusion, this article examines the journey of urban planning throughout history, from the humblest settlements to the grandeur of ancient cities. it emphasizes the importance of considering the social and ecological aspects of urban design in creating ideal living environments. while early settlements relied on natural materials and nomadic lifestyles to maintain ecological balance, the evolution of urbanization brought new challenges. however, with the development of technology and architectural achievements, efforts have been made to improve the living environment by incorporating nature and aesthetics into urban design. despite increasing environmental and social problems, the magnificence of ancient structures and structures continues to amaze. this paper highlights the importance of understanding the historical context of urban planning in order to inform contemporary practices and to strive for cities with ideal living environments in the future. references 1. баландин р.к., бондарев л.г. природа и цивилизация. м. мысль. 1988. 2. владимиров в.в. расселение и экология, – м. стройиздат, 1996. 3. дубров а.п. экология жилища и здоровье человека. уфа. «слово», 1996. 4. коробкин в.и, передельский л.в. экология. ростов-на-дону. «феникс». 2008. 5. лапин ю. экожильѐ ключ к будущему. интернет материал. 6. тетиор а.н. городская экология. м. издательский центр «академия».2007с. 7. sindarovich, u. a., dilnoza, q., & fayzullo o'g'li, b. a. (2023). national traditions of interior architecture of buildings of wedding houses. central asian journal of arts and design, 4(3), 1-7. 94 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 formation and development factors in the digital education process shodmonqulov m.t. phd, associate professor, samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering named after mirzo ulugbek abstract in this essay, we will discuss how the transition to digital education will drastically alter the professional activities of educators and service workers in the higher education and training system. pedagogical technologies that emerged throughout the digitalization process create new circumstances for student activity and competency creation; today, digitalization of the education system is one of the most pressing challenges. keywords: digital education, educational system, transformation, didactics, digital didactics, information technologies. introduction the relevance and importance of digitalizing higher education now originate from the need to adapt professional education and the educational system to the demands of the digital economy and society. this is a worldwide issue that dates back to the time of the educational system's founding. even while our country is now modernizing its higher education institutions and education system as a whole, the education system still has to be adjusted to meet the demands of the digital economy. two significant elements of the digitization of education must be considered when organizing the procedures for reaching the objectives listed in the legal documents that the republic of uzbekistan's government has adopted: the first goal is to create a digital learning environment through the use of online courses, digital educational tools, and other electronic educational resources. the second goal is to deeply modernize the educational process in order to guarantee that students are prepared for life in the digital society and for professional activity in the digital economy. therefore, the digitalization of education entails both a radical transformation of the educational process and all of its components as well as the use of digital tools and technology in education. creating a flexible and adaptable educational system that satisfies the demands of the digital economy and guarantees optimal utilization of the didactic potential of digital technologies is the aim of the educational process transformation. the aim of digital technology transformation is to modify them to promptly and efficiently address educational issues. education is and has always been one of the fundamental tenets of human existence, which by definition gives rise to "eternal problems" that get worse with age. furthermore, we are forced 95 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to approach the processes occurring in this sphere from a fundamentally different perspective with every new phase of human civilization's growth. prior to discussing the changes that have occurred in the education system, it is important to discuss the causes of these changes. the first component is the emergence of a new, entirely distinct economic structure, along with another industrial revolution. naturally, talents are becoming more and more important in addition to knowledge. the second issue, which has an impact on the internal component of school instruction, is the quick advancement of information and communication technology. transformation entails altering all facets and domains of social life as well as significant societal components. transformations can be either progressive or regressive; they do not always indicate a vector of change. the primary focus of the transformation is the alteration of the institutional framework, norms, values, mindset, and other socio-cultural facets of society, as well as the forms and substance of social life.  the discovery and optimal utilization of digital technology opportunities are critical educational and educational outcomes anticipated from the digitalization of education. among these outcomes are:  complete customization of the learning process through the creation of unique learning paths and ongoing individual observation of students' academic progress as well as their personal and professional growth;  increasing the potential applications of many types of individual and group learning activities;  to guarantee that all students participate actively in the lesson, to speed up the educational activities, and to make sensible use of the allotted time for the activities;  preserving consistent learning motivation in various student groups throughout the whole learning process, particularly by repeatedly presenting learning success scenarios;  ensuring that the acquired educational outcomes are fully assimilated, including the personal traits, professional knowledge, abilities, and competencies needed to get a professional certification;  automation and expediting the process of developing the requisite professional abilities;  the establishment and growth of a long-term interest in the selected field of work;  ensuring that educational programs have a project-based approach and include both academic and practical training;  to guarantee group pupils' concurrent activity;  developing new avenues for professional education and training, as well as expanding current ones, in order to effectively socialize individuals with disabilities via education;  giving prompt feedback to the learner, evaluating the learning outcomes in a timely and objective manner while the student is working on educational assignments;  the process of registering and tracking, or evaluating, academic performance using a combination of evaluation systems;  to drastically shorten the time needed for higher education programs' creation, placement, and mastery—a fundamental requirement of contemporary businesses;  providing educational programs to those residing in challenging environments;  relieving teachers of routine manual labor, hence reducing their overall working hours; in order to improve the transparency and openness of the educational system, feedback mechanisms pertaining to education systems and methodologies should be made available to all external parties. these techniques and strategies are employed to accomplish objectives, produce 96 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us excellent outcomes, and foster trust. the main purposes of these systems are performance evaluation, customer and employee interactions, service quality improvement, and new product or service development. involves obtaining and assessing development-related thoughts and proposals. (these methods facilitate enhanced performance and communication.) provides parents with information and involves them in the educational process through a feedback loop mechanism that increases the impact of little disturbances. gives. building a digital educational process is a demanding endeavor that requires scientific support based on a new pedagogical approach called digital didactics. in order to organize the educational process in the digital educational environment, digital didactics is a branch of pedagogy. as a science of learning, digital didactics constantly draws on the fundamental ideas and precepts of traditional didactics and enhances them in light of the unique demands of the digital environment. and modifications. one may classify the scientific discipline of digital didactics as transfer-integrative. the foundation for creating activities and interactions between students and teachers during the process of studying certain specialized domains, disciplines, and modular courses is provided by digital didactics. because human action (teachers and students) rather than the functioning of digital educational instruments is the focus of digital didactics, the word "digital didactics" is conditional and should not be used literally. likewise, the phrase "digital learning process" fits here. one area of study within the field of digital didactics is the digital didactics of professional education and training. the problematic nature of the situation that has arisen with the digitization of education in uzbekistan—in which the rapid development of digital tools and technologies disrupts the educational process and educational technologies—can be overcome by creating a digital educational process of higher education and teaching based on new didactics. this is in addition to maintaining traditional (digital) forms of organization. to put it briefly, our nation is developing a digitalized educational system that is in line with the new global information and learning landscape. the introduction of contemporary information technology into the sphere of education allows for the qualitative facilitation and modification of educational approaches and the forms in which the teaching process is organized around a new concept. references 1. neal l. the basics of e-learning an excerpt from handbook of human factors in web design / l. neal, d. miller // elearn magazine, 2005 [электронный ресурс] : urlhttp://www.elearnmag (дата обращения 07.05.2018). 2. neal l. learning from e-learning // elearn magazine, 10/02/2001, urlhttp://www.elearnmag (дата обращения 17.09.2017). 3. ricardo nemirovsky and alvaro galvis. facilitating grounded online in-teractions in video-case-based teacher professional development//journal of science education and technology, vol. 13, no. 1, march 2004. – pp. 67–79. 204 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 solving environmental and water problems in uzbekistan muradov shukhrat odilovich, turdieva feruza alisherovna, turaev ulugbek murtazoevich karshi engineering economic institute, karshi, uzbekistan let me start at once with the fact that uzbekistan is the birthplace of ecology. this is proved by the fact that 3000 years ago our ancestors, or more precisely khorezmians, first wrote a great book "avesta" (7th century bc). it is imbued with the idea: man should always keep himself clean, protect vegetation and ensure purity of land, water and air. by the way, today in 23 points of the world there are functioning avesta centres, in 1825 the book was published in english, in 1972 in french, in 1973 in german and in 1901 in russian. why do we make such a conclusion, yes, because man is the main subject of ecology, and the last three elements of nature, noted in avesta, form the basis of the fundamental concept of ecology biogeocenosis (or we can say ecosystem), more precisely "biotope", which consists of "climatope" (air, atmosphere), "hydrotope" (water, hydrosphere) and "edaphatope" (soil, soils). our compatriots-knowledgeable already at that time for the first time paid attention to these main elements of nature and foresaw the necessity of preserving these important elements of the ecosystem. based on the works of our ancestors, our president at the 78th session of the un general assembly (19.09.2023) once again reminded that: "we are rightly proud that our country is the homeland of such great scientists and thinkers as al-khwarizmi, beruni, imam bukhari, mirzo ulugbek, alisher navoi, who made invaluable contribution to the development of world science and culture...". it should be noted that only after the statement of these important elements of nature in avest, 100 years later in vi-i centuries bc in the ethical poems of india "mahabharata" and "ramayana", as well as 300 years later in the chinese chronicles (vi-ii centuries bc) were made identical statements. it was only in the 5th century b.c. that ancient greek thinkers heraclitus, empedocles of agrigent, socrates, hippocrates (5th century b.c.), xenophondus, plato, aristotle (4th century b.c.), theophrastus of eresia, eratosthenes (3rd century b.c.), strabo, lucretius (1st century b.c.) and others wrote about it. assessing the current state of nature, the president of uzbekistan at this session of the united nations emphasised that: "today, there is an acute ecological situation in the world. the triple planetary crisis caused by climate change, loss of biodiversity and environmental pollution is intensifying". in order to understand the value of this assessment, it is worth briefly recalling once again the essence of the concept of "ecology" as a sphere of development of the human mind in the field of biosphere conservation. the subject of ecology is literally the science of organisms "at home" in mutualism with the "environment". today, the lower boundary covers a depth of 10 kilometres across the ocean floor. the upper boundary is the observable metagalaxy. our compatriot abu ali ibn sino wrote about it in the xi century (avicenna): that there is otherworldly life, 300 years before the statements of giordano bruno. today, knowledge in this range is necessary for cognition of ecological factors; it will make it possible to clearly present 205 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the importance of the fundamental laws of science and increase environmental literacy, education and culture of society. and as the president noted: we have become convinced that accessible and quality education for all is the most effective factor...for sustainable economic growth. in general, ecology should be seen as a synthetic science, more or less closely related to almost all sciences. in the process of integration, ecology has found itself, as it were, at the crossroads of natural, basic and technical sciences, on the one hand, and social and political sciences, on the other. it is possible that in the not too distant future, ecology will become the core of a superscience that will unite all our scientific knowledge into a single whole (in the sense of a system of common knowledge). and as abu rayhon berunyi noted: "if people do violence to nature by grossly violating its laws, the time will come when it will bring down on their heads unthinkable calamities that no force can stop." nowadays ecology is a rapidly developing science. it plays a special role in the life of both society and each individual. our president noted as a matter of principle that: "...are not sufficiently engaged in the republic in serious issues of ecology" (narodnoe slovo, 16.01, 2017, p.2). it is appropriate to emphasise that this state has developed precisely because the general level of environmental education and upbringing is still insufficient, the environmental culture of people is low, this is one of the main tasks required by the president (from the video conference call, 02.02.2022). although in the law of the republic of uzbekistan. "on nature protection" (09.12.1992) requires "... to provide environmental education in all types of educational institutions" (article 4, 3rd paragraph), some universities of the republic, not realising the importance of the subject of ecology in the light of the president's requirement, unreasonably and unreasonably exclude it from the curriculum. in the decree of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan. no. 434 dated 29 may 2019. "on approval of the concept of development of environmental education in ruzb." requires: "...to raise the effectiveness of environmental education to a new stage". it is known to all that, according to socrates, it is easy to teach others, but it is more difficult to know oneself. indeed, this is the beginning of man, who is different from other representatives of the living world by his intelligence. but forgive me socrates, today we can say more: not only know yourself, but also do not harm yourself, destroying your home, which is the entire biosphere of the earth. this is what the science commonly called ecology is aimed at. however, this is only one aspect of the problem. the modern level of knowledge and the complex of problems facing humanity requires the creation of a unified scientific picture of the world. the closest to solving this problem is ecology, with its many branches. it is relevant today to say that one of the main enemies of ecology is wars. it may seem strange to some, but in order to feel and appreciate peace, one must know war and not only know it, but be horrified by its inhumanity. and to search, to search for ways, methods, opportunities, how to get rid of the catastrophe, this, perhaps, a little paradoxical revelation we call the law of conscience. and as they say, everything will be useless if we do not have conscience in relation to ecology, to its main subject the ecological system. worrying about the current situation, the president drew the attention of the world community to the fact that: "there is a crisis of confidence, increasing problems in the activities of global security institutions and departure from the norms of international law. all this is causing growing tension in the world. ...even dialogue on issues that concern the fate of humanity as a whole, such as climate change, the fight against hunger and inequality, has been noticeably undermined. the president noted the country's main political strategy: turning central asia into a peaceful and prosperous region will remain a priority goal of uzbekistan's foreign policy. he demanded: ...un member states should act even more united in the fight against such common threats as international terrorism. and then once again touched upon the issue of ecology and conscience: ...at this pivotal moment in history, we should consider what kind of planet we will leave to future generations. ...it is only through shared aspirations and joint endeavours that lasting peace and prosperity can be achieved. more than ever, we need mutual trust, solidarity and co-operation. the words of the 206 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us president form the preamble of the law of conscience, aimed at preserving the main subject of ecology man with a capital letter: homo sapiens man of reason. in order to emphasise environmental aspects in each law, the ecological code of uzbekistan has been prepared and is at the stage of approval. the organisation of the ministry of ecology, environmental protection and climate change of uzbekistan is encouraging. (decree of the president dated 31.05.2023 no. pp-171). paying attention to the main vital factor of ecology water, the president of uzbekistan sh.m.mirziyoyev noted at the 78th session of the un general assembly: ...we are in favour of attracting the most advanced technologies in the process of creating the platform of water-saving technologies in central asia, using the mechanism "united nations water resources". on the cover of the book "water: a drop of life" by the american writer peter swenson it is noted: "where water ends, life ends, this is a saying among uzbeks" [7]. such recognition is based on the fact that, in fact, if the sun is the father of all life on earth, then water, according to many scientists, is the maternal "womb" that gave birth to life. the hydrosphere is the main component of an ecological system or, more precisely, of a biogeocoenosis and its component ecotope (or biotope). it should be noted that uzbekistan is one of the ancient civilisations of irrigated agriculture in central asia. this is evidenced by archaeological excavations and studies of s.p. tolstov, which showed that the greatest development of the irrigation network in the lower reaches of the amu darya reached in the period from the vi century bc to the iii century ad. the great russian climatologist a.i. voyeikov at the end of the xix century argued: "...that the belt of arid areas of asia (i.e. turkestan) is incomparably more favourable for human life and activity than the areas of the united states of america, provided, of course, that irrigation is established" [2]. the decree of the president of the republic of uzbekistan "on approval of the concept of water sector development in the republic of uzbekistan for 2020-2030" is aimed at solving water management problems at the modern level using innovative ideas of scientists under global and regional climate change. according to the un forecasts, by 2050 the population of the earth will be 8.9 billion people, and from 2 to 7 billion people will suffer from water deficit. various international organisations estimate that by 2025, a third of the world's growing population will suffer from a lack of water for irrigation. today, 80 per cent of all global freshwater resources used by mankind are consumed for irrigation. according to the international food policy institute, by 2030, the area of irrigated land is expected to increase by 20 per cent and water use is expected to increase by 14 per cent. as they are the source of about half of the world's food production. in accordance with the united nations general assembly resolution no. 70 adopted at the un summit on sustainable development in september 2015, as well as in order to organise systematic work on the consistent implementation of the sustainable development goals of the un global agenda 2030, the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan adopted a resolution (20 october 2018, no. 841) "on measures to implement the national sustainable development goals and targets for the period until 2030", where it is noted in goal 6. uzbekistan adopted a resolution (20 october 2018, no. 841) "on measures to implement the national sustainable development goals and targets for the period until 2030" where it is noted in goal 6. conserve and rationally utilise water resources for sustainable development, availability and development of sanitation for all; in target 6.4. by 2030, significantly improve water use efficiency in all sectors of the economy; in target 6.5. by 2030, ensure integrated water resources management at all levels, including, where appropriate, through transboundary co-operation. it should be noted that scientists of uzbekistan have developed innovative technical recommendations to put into practice the adopted resolutions of the president and the government of uzbekistan. however, as the president of uzbekistan noted in his address to the oliy majlis (28.12.2018): "so far they are set out on paper, but we have to turn them into practical actions and real results, and for this we need to work hard". 207 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for more than 45 years, scientists of the karshi institute of engineering and economics have been working on solving the above urgent problems of ecology and water sustainability. taking into account huge experience in this branch, we offer a number of overdue solutions that can be used throughout central asia and arid areas of the world. firstly, as it is known, scientific and technical policy, especially in various fields of industry, is implemented by engineers and technicians who do not have special environmental training. this also applies to students of technical, technological, economic and social-humanitarian specialities of higher education institutions. in this connection, we recommend to universally use the prepared textbook "ecology" for non-biological directions, which covers the minimum of necessary ecological knowledge, and specific problems of ecology are linked to engineering measures of environmental protection. the whole methodological material and cross-cutting general scientific educational programme on ecology (with the basics of nature protection) are given. secondly, as for fresh water for the population, under reasonable utilisation there is enough of it in uzbekistan for the distant future. these are, first of all, groundwater reserves of the fergana valley, pritashkent and jizzak zones, zarafshan valley, kitabo-shakhrisyabz depression of kashkadarya, surkhandarya basin. for example, according to scientists' calculations, the availability of fresh groundwater in the republic is about 293.4 cubic metres per second. with the population of 36024946 (01.01.2023), there are 703.7 litres per 1 person per day. with the average norm of 240 litres per day, it is possible to provide 105.6 million people or the supply will be 139.3 years, if we move to the european norm of 120 litres per day, these reserves will provide 211.3 million people or the supply will be 350.6 years. today, developed countries are thinking about reducing the norm of water consumption to 80 and in the future to 60 litres per day. in our opinion, it is time to create a unified water supply network of uzbekistan (similar to electricity and gas pipelines). these waters and waters of fresh water reservoirs should be used mainly for drinking needs. in this way we can remove the problem of water supply to the population with own fresh water. this is an extremely vital problem. for example, in sweden the water consumption per person is 120 litres, in israel 100 litres, in the netherlands 80 litres. at the same time, the swedes take a shower 5 times a day. what is observed in our country. consumption per 1 inhabitant is set at 240 litres per day. the main reason is outdated fittings, low efficiency of the water supply system, more than 50% is lost due to leaks. in addition, the high cost of water due to the operation of old pumping units with low efficiency. we are developing integrated water resource utilisation schemes. we need to calculate these schemes for all organisations in the long term in the light of the requirements of the law of the republic of uzbekistan "on water and water use", articles 106, 111, 112 and the decree of the president of uzbekistan dated 10.07.2020. the decree of the president of uzbekistan dated 10.07.2020 "on approval of the concept of water sector development in the republic of uzbekistan for 20202030" states: to define the priority directions of the concept: introduction of integrated water resources management principles, guaranteed water supply to the population, stable water supply to economic sectors, improvement of water quality and preservation of ecological balance of the environment. the next issue, domestic utilisation of saline water. this will introduce a complete system of integrated water resources management in the municipal sector. thirdly, if we want to ensure water sustainability, and even more so sustainable development in central asia, it is extremely necessary to transfer all large industrial enterprises, including planned npps, to the use of desalinated ground and surface water. we have developed and tested a water demineralisation plant based on gas hydrate technology, which is recognised as ecologically economical [4]. this will solve the environmental problem as well. today, the volume of saline groundwater and collector-drainage water is increasing (they account for 30% of water withdrawal). these are artificial saline lakes in uzbekistan such as sichankul (600 million m3 ) achinkul (126 million m3 ) arnasay lakes (more than 30 billion m3 ) and many lakes in priaralie, kazakhstan and turkmenistan. they account for billions of cubic metres of water. it is already necessary to think about demineralisation and their use in technical needs and 208 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us industry. with appropriate treatment, drinking water can be obtained and the waste can be used to produce gypsum, lime, soda and table salt. fourthly, it should be recognised that along with hydrological and meteorological drought, soil drought is also observed. in the message of the president of uzbekistan for 2023, it is noted that for the last 3 years the country has been experiencing low water levels. ...over the last 15 years, the total amount of precipitation has decreased by 25 per cent. there are more abnormally hot days in summer, which indicates that more challenges lie ahead. naturally, as in 2022, this has led to an increase in the irrigation norm in 2023 due to intense evaporation, which will lead to soil drought. by the way, according to the forecasts of american scientists 2024 is predicted as a year with abnormally high summer temperatures. for the purpose of rational use of irrigation water, we propose the mass introduction of specially designed devices that promote subirrigation [1]. cascade introduction of the technology will allow reducing the irrigation norm by 1.5-2 times. they solve a complex of environmental and social problems. they should be arranged on collector-drainage, irrigation and river networks. they contribute to raising the groundwater table to the optimum depth. fifthly, taking into account repeated demands of the president on wide introduction of drip irrigation, we propose a very necessary technology to reduce evapotranspiration, conserve energy, and increase soil fertility. the essence of the technology lies in the use of local minerals-heavy clays (as opposed to hydrogels). by the way, we propose to use this technology for drip irrigation of forest plantations in the priaralie zone (1.7 million ha). this technology contributes to the prevention of wind erosion by increasing soil connectivity. especially in tebinbulak deposit of karakalpakstan according to goskomgeologiya data there are more than 169 thousand tonnes of vermiculite. however, according to researches of 1937 their reserves were more than 1 million tonnes. this technology can be used in the whole region of central asia taking into account availability of local minerals. in kashkadarya region these are the reserves of glauconite sandstones in the villages of naiman, mabika and aksu. there are also glauconite sandstones in kiziltepa district of navoi region, clays in fergana region, chimion and shorsu deposits, glauconites in tashkent region, bentonite clays in khorezm region and so on. the president of uzbekistan noted that the system of goskomgeologiya on drafting the programme of development and reproduction of mineralraw material base requires special attention. in this regard, we have developed a "method of soil reclamation" [5]. it is based on the use of local natural minerals vermiculite, perlite, etc. they increase fertility and reduce physical evaporation from soils. a mechanism for the application of the above minerals and a method of cutting tortuosity along the furrow bottom has been proposed, which prevents irrigation erosion and increases the water retention capacity of soils. unfortunately, vermiculite of tebinbulak deposit is currently exported to russia and turkey, in 2021 it was sold for $623 thousand (zhamiyat, 12.02.2022). sixth, it is known that the main thing in increasing crop yields is not water but soil fertility. scientists have identified a link between livestock production and land fertility. so, for example, organic fertiliser from 40 sheep can contain the fertility of 1 ha of land. or 5-6 head of cattle. taking into account 4.3 million hectares of irrigated lands of the republic, we should have 172 million heads of sheep and goats in our arsenal. according to the data of 2022, there were 22626.3 thousand heads (which is 7.7 times less), cattle were 12611.8 thousand heads. total 35238.1 thousand heads, it contributed to providing 63% of irrigated lands with organic fertilisers. and if we take into account 20.3 million hectares of agricultural lands, they are provided with 13.3% of organic fertilisers. here is the picture, there is no fertility and lack of meat and dairy products. and as for fertility, we all know that the appraisal of our lands is very low, which is reflected in the yield of agricultural crops. we have lost our natural ecosystem, and a complete ecological danger is looming. scientists have proved that straw from spikelets increases the fertility of land 10 times more than organic fertilisers. it is extremely necessary to intensively implement the crop rotation system. seventhly, it is necessary to assess the quality of surface and groundwater under current conditions with a forecast for the distant future as soon as possible. for this purpose it is necessary to analyse metamorphisation (change) of chemical composition of natural waters. this 209 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us will allow us to forecast salt content in soils and, accordingly, to take measures for soil protection in advance. at present, local soda salinisation of soils is observed in foothill areas. scientists have proved that if they occupy 20-30% of irrigated area, they are considered unprofitable. to prevent sodic salinisation, we propose a method of soil desalinisation, which simultaneously promotes the release, during chemical reclamation, of chilean nitrate, so necessary for plants [6]. eighth, all the above-mentioned innovative solutions contribute to the development of improved integrated water resources management technologies for each administrative district. they should be developed at the level of agricultural plots, large industrial enterprises, provinces and river basins. we have vast experience in calculation, experimentation and implementation at the production level. it should be noted that all the proposals have been tested in laboratory and field conditions, tested and approved by scientists-specialists from the usa, europe, russia, kazakhstan and turkmenistan. technical solutions are ready for stage-by-stage implementation, all technical solutions have received author's certificates and patents for invention. they are brought to the final ecological and economic effect [3]. we hope that this set of technical innovations will be taken into account by water management organisations and clusters, population of homestead plots, relevant agencies and practitioners when developing a "road map" on this issue and will be implemented in order to improve environmental and social conditions and food security of the population of uzbekistan. list of literature used 1. а.с. №1491953. устройство для регулирования дренажного стока/валуконис г.ю., мурадов ш.о. и др. 1987 2. мамедов а.м. развитие ирригации в узбекистане. ташкент: фан, 1967. -297 с. 3. мурадов ш.о. научное обоснование водоустойчивости аридных территории юга узбекистана. ташкент: фан. 2012.376 с. 4. патент руз № 04339. способ деминерализации коллекторно-дренажных вод/ мурадов ш.о., валуконис г.ю.//расмий ахборотнома.2000. №3. 5. патент руз № 4539. способ мелиорации почв /мурадов ш.о., хамраев н.р., валуконис г.ю., романенко в.п. // расмий ахборотнома. 1997. №3. 6. патент руз № idp 04470. способ рассоления почв / мурадов ш.о., валуконис г.ю., мурадов м.о., отакулов у.х., шарапов ш.т.// расмий ахборотнома. 2000. № 5. 7. peter swanson. water: the drop of life, north word press, minnetonka, minnesota, 2001. usa. p.143 5 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 02, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх case technologies ergashboyev javohirbek shavkatjon o'g'li, sattorov muhammadjon foziljon o'g'li, isoqhonova sarvinoz ilhomjon qizi students of the fergana branch of tuit named after muhammad al-khorazmi abstract: in three articles, the term "case" (computer aided software engineering) is defined in a very broad sense, and the original meaning of the term case has now acquired a new meaning that interrupts the production process of complex it. information about. keywords: case, it-based support, hardware management, control documents, trw, ip, ic design. trends in the development of modern information technologies lead to a constant increase in the complexity of ip created in various sectors of the economy. modern large projects, as a rule, are characterized by the following features:  the complexity of the description, which requires careful modeling and analysis of data and processes (a sufficient number of functions, processes, data elements and complex relationships between them);  the existence of a set of closely related components (subsystems) that have their own local tasks and performance goals (for example, an related to processing transactions and solving routine tasks analytical processing applications using traditional applications and specialized software (decision support) queries to big data);  lack of direct analogues, limiting the use of any typical design solutions and practical systems;  the need to integrate existing and newly developed applications;  working in a heterogeneous environment on several hardware platforms;  dispersion and homogeneity of certain groups of developers in terms of skill level and established traditions of using certain tools;  the critical time frame of the project implementation is related, on the one hand, to the limited capabilities of the development team, and on the other hand, to the scale of the ordering organization and the different levels of preparation of its individual departments. implementation of is. the listed factors contributed to the emergence of a special category of software and technology tools case-tools that implement case-technology to create and support is. currently, the term "case" (computer aided software engineering) is used in a very broad sense. the original meaning of the term "case", which was limited only to the issues of software development automation, has now acquired a new meaning that encompasses the entire process of complex it development. now, the term "case-tools" refers to software that supports it creation and maintenance processes, including requirements analysis and 6 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us formulation, design of application software (applications) and databases, code generation, testing, documentation, quality assurance, means configuration. management and project management, as well as other processes. case tools together with system software and hardware form a complete it development environment. before the appearance of case-technology and case-tools, research in the field of programming methodology was carried out. programming has adopted the characteristics of a systems approach with the development and implementation of high-level languages, structured and modular programming methods, design languages and their support tools, and formal and informal languages for describing system requirements and specifications. and others. in addition, the following factors contributed to the emergence of case technology:  prepare analysts and programmers who accept concepts of modular and structured programming;  widespread introduction and continuous growth of ehm productivity, which allowed the use of effective graphic tools and the automation of most of the design stages;  the introduction of network technology that allowed to combine the efforts of individual performers into a single design process using a common database containing the necessary information about the project. case-technology is an it design methodology, as well as a set of tools that visually simulate the subject area, analyze this model at all stages of it development and maintenance, and develop applications in accordance with the information needs of users. . most of the existing case tools are based on systematic (mainly) or object-oriented analysis and design methodologies, which use diagrams or text to describe external requirements, relationships between system models, system behavior dynamics, and software architecture. ' use specifications of the form. 16]. a number of limitations appeared when using structural analysis methodologies (complexity of understanding, high labor intensity and cost of use, inconvenience of making changes to design specifications, etc.). from the beginning, case technologies evolved to overcome these limitations by automating analysis processes and integrating tools. they have the following advantages and capabilities. 1. unified graphics language. case-technologies provide all participants of the project, including customers, with a single strict, clear and intuitive graphic language, which allows to get visible components with a simple and understandable structure. at the same time, the programs are represented by two-dimensional diagrams (easier to use than multi-page descriptions), which allows the client to participate in the development process, and the developers to communicate with subject matter experts. the activities of system analysts, designers and programmers, which makes it easier for them to defend the project in front of management, as well as facilitate system maintenance and changes. 2. the single database of the project. the basis of case technology is the use of a project database (repository) to store all information about the project, which can be shared among developers according to the right of use. the content of the repository includes not only various types of information objects, but also the relationships between their components, as well as the rules for using or processing these components. the repository can store more than 100 types of objects: structure diagrams, screen and menu definitions, report projects, data descriptions, processing logic, data models, their organization and processing, source codes, data elements etc. 3. integration of funds. integration of casf-tools and separation of system data between developers is performed on the basis of the repository. at the same time, the capabilities of the repository provide several levels of integration: a common user interface for all tools, data transfer between tools, integration of development stages through a single system for 7 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us representing life cycle stages, communication between different tools. data and media transfer. platforms. 4. team development and project management support. case-technology is a project that provides the ability to work on the network, export-import any project fragments for their development and (or) modification, as well as planning, control, management and interaction supports group work, ie. functions required in the development and maintenance of projects. these functions are also implemented on a repository basis. in particular, security controls (restrictions and access privileges), version control and changes, etc. can be implemented through the repository. 5. prototyping. case technology makes it possible to quickly build mock-ups (prototypes) of the future system, which allows the client to assess how acceptable and suitable it is for future users in the early stages of development. 6. formation of documents. all project documents are created automatically based on the repository (as a rule, in accordance with the requirements of current standards). the undoubted advantage of case technology is that the documentation always corresponds to the current state of affairs, because any changes in the project are automatically reflected in the repository (as you know, with traditional approaches to software development, documentation is best delayed, and a line changes are not reflected in it at all). 7. project verification. according to the statistical data of the analysis of five large projects of trw (usa), case-technology provides automatic verification and control of the completeness and consistency of the project in the early stages of development, which affects the success of the development as a whole. , design and coding errors are 64% and 32%, respectively. the total number of errors and design errors are 100 times more difficult to detect in the maintenance phase than in the requirements analysis phase. 8. automatic generation of object code. machine code generation is repository-based and allows for automatic construction of up to 85-90% of object code or text in high-level languages. 9. maintenance and reengineering. within the framework of case technology, system maintenance is characterized by maintaining the project, not the program codes. reengineering and reverse engineering tools create a system model from its codes and integrate the resulting models into the project, automatically update documents when changing codes, etc. allows. when using case technologies, all stages of the it life cycle change, the biggest changes are related to the analysis and design stages. table 3.1 shows the main changes in the it life cycle when using case-technologies compared to traditional development technology. table 3.7. comparative descriptions of the main changes in the ip life cycle traditional development technology development using case technologies the main effort is to code and test the main effort is focused on analysis and design "paper" specifications a fast repetitive routine end of table. 3.1 traditional development technology development using case technologies manual coding automatic generation of machine code software testing automatic project management saving the program code project support table 3.2 shows an estimate of labor costs by stages of the software life cycle, depending on the development technology used. 8 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us let's move on to the features of modern case-systems, which cover a wide range of support for many ic design technologies: from simple analysis and documentation tools to full-scale automation tools that cover the entire software life cycle. table 3.2. estimation of labor costs by software life cycle stages depending on the development technology used, % technology analysis design programming test analysis design programming test analysis design programming test analysis design programming test development 20 15 20 45 traditional 30 30 15 25 structural methodology (manual) 40 40 5 15 let's move on to the features of modern case-systems, which cover a wide range of support for many technologies for ic design: from simple analysis and documentation tools to full-scale automation tools that cover the entire software life cycle [16 ]. the category of case tools includes both relatively inexpensive systems for pcs with very limited capabilities and expensive systems for heterogeneous computing platforms and operating environments. thus, there are about 300 different case-tools on the modern software market, the most powerful of which are used by almost all leading western companies in one way or another. references 1. kodirov, e., turgunov, b., & muxammadjonov, x. (2019). in the world refuses to use face recognition technology. мировая наука, (9 (30)), 34-36. 2. turgunov, b., komilov, a., abdurasulova, d., & umarov, x. (2018). security of a smart home. 3. тохиров, р., тургунов, б., & мухаммаджонов, х. (2019). структурная схема блока распознавания речи в автоматизированной системе управления. форум молодых ученых, (7), 322-324. 4. абдурахмонов, с. м., кулдашов, о. х., тожибоев, и. т., & тургунов, б. х. (2019). оптоэлектронный двухволновый метод для дистанционного контроля содержания метана в атмосфере. письма в журнал технической физики, 45(4), 11-12. 5. тургунов, б., комилов, а., абдурасулова, д., & асроров, с. (2018). применение беспроводных сетевых технологий в медицинских измерительных системах. 6. kodirov, e., muxammadjonov, x., & turgunov, b. (2019). industrial" internet of things": the basis of digital transformation. теория и практика современной науки, (9), 3-5. 14 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 02, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх enterprise management in emergency and environmental disaster situations jalilov ahmadbek ikramjon ugli andijan machine building institute, assistant of the department of labor protection introduction. management of the enterprise is a systematic influence on the work of all its constituent elements, the purpose of which is to organize coordinated work and, as a result, profit. the goal of enterprise management is to achieve coordinated work of all departments to achieve maximum efficiency. the essence of enterprise management is to establish this consistency. since the enterprise is a complex production system based on components such as fixed assets, material, financial and labor resources, the task of management is to use these resources as efficiently as possible. at the output, it is necessary to obtain a high-quality competitive product that will help further development of production [1]. in the process of working in emergency situations and eliminating their consequences, emergency response specialists (military, rescuers, firefighters, canine experts, doctors) are involved. emergency managers and professionals are exposed to numerous stressors. in such cases, the cost of error is very high. the need to make quick decisions on which people's lives may depend, an irregular work schedule in non-standard conditions and a lack of information are the characteristics of work in an extreme situation. the condition of people in the emergency zone is subject to the general laws of adaptation to a stressful situation. people's susceptibility to stress factors is determined by individual psychophysiological characteristics, level of stress resistance and work experience. it is good if a person knows what to expect (although not all situations are the same each is unique) [2]. an emergency situation always disrupts plans, goes beyond the daily rhythm. for those who have experience working in an emergency situation, this situation is not traumatic, but most people usually do not have this experience and it is definitely a stressful factor for them. knowing the forms of mental response to a stressful situation increases the body's resistance to the effects of stress. materials and methods: based on the method of content analysis, the authors analyze possible ways to solve the problem of the company's management in emergency situations. almost any industrial facility has a significant negative impact on the environment. therefore, ensuring environmental security is an important task of the wrc. taking into account the technological part of the project, it should be evaluated in terms of the safety of the equipment for the environment. the analysis should begin with the identification of sources of environmental pollution of the object under consideration. later, an analysis of the enterprise's release into the atmosphere, water, and the formation of solid production waste is carried out. in this case, it is appropriate to quantitatively describe the impact of the object in question on the environment. 15 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us an emergency situation is an accident, disaster, natural disaster, epidemic, as well as disruption of the normal living conditions and activities of people in a certain area and object caused by the use of modern weapons by the enemy. human casualties, damage to health and environment, material losses. emergency management involves the creation of a system consisting of a series of subsystems. the most important are:  analysis of emergency situations;  emergency warning;  localization of emergency situations;  elimination of consequences;  development management;  integrated distributed database.  the emergency situation analysis system is an information-analytical system of the effectiveness of subsystems:  localization and elimination of the consequences of emergency situations (typical scenarios of work);  prevention of emergency situations (measures to prevent emergency situations). in the development of the analytical system, the following blocks of main tasks are distinguished: methods of collecting information about emergency situations. it is planned to organize several channels for collecting information: press, survey of participants, computer networks, etc. methods of automated control of reliability and consistency of information are provided.  emergency database (included in irbd) and its storage methods. a database should be developed. it includes the following basic information: time, location (latitude, longitude, nearest settlement), type of situation, power at the appropriate scale, video, audio, text materials in original languages and translated into the national language, duration and consequences, errors and gross errors, wasted resources, loss elimination methods and their calculation methods, other parameters [3]. data is loaded into the database: manual input of text data from the keyboard, input of text data using scanners and converters, input of graphic data (diagrams, photos) using scanners, conversion of visual and audio data. insert with do. digitalization, data entry using internet databases (reuter, cnn, etc.). the processed data is stored on the internet server, which can be accessed from any place (within the scope of authority) in normal cases.  emergency classification system. analysis and classification are provided: the causes of emergence and spread of emergency situations, factors related to them (weather, time of day, year, etc.), methods of elimination, etc.  methods of emergency analysis. methods of formation and analysis of cause-and-effect relationships, methods of establishing relationships between various (including space and time) factors are being developed.  methods of development of typical scenarios of localization and elimination of emergency situations. methods of creating network diagrams and building plans are defined.  methods of forming emergency prevention measures. methods of analysis, evaluation and selection of measures affecting the elimination of the causes of occurrence and spread of emergency situations [4]. 16 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the emergency warning system is the most important and consists of the following:  organization (structure, functions, connections, mechanisms, order of interaction, etc.);  a system of measures for the prevention of emergency situations for various types of manmade systems;  a set of methods for controlling the implementation of rules and measures set by organizations and enterprises;  carry out work on localization and elimination technical means to increase the consequences of emergency situations;  training. organizationally, the emergency warning system consists of regionally distributed control bodies. in addition to management bodies, there is also a system of technical means for solving the tasks of the relevant management body for the prevention of emergency situations (including for localization and mitigation work). an important role in the organizational structure is played by enterprises (with their own technical means) that are not under the control of the ministry of emergency situations under normal conditions, but can be involved in performing relevant work when necessary. tasks of prevention, localization and elimination of emergency situations [5]. organizational design includes optimizing the distribution of functions, rights, responsibilities, and technical tools across levels and regions to ensure mobile access and reliable performance of tasks. since the development of the technosphere is constantly taking place, a mechanism for adapting the organizational structure of the system to these changes is also necessary. emergency warning systems (e.g. transport, construction,energy, etc.) play an important role in emergency prevention. it is important to develop methods of monitoring the efficiency of such systems, as well as to develop their certification systems. it is also important to have an effective system for planning and analyzing the operation and development of the disaster prevention system. the system of measures for the prevention of emergency situations includes the development of standard procedures and rules of work aimed at increasing the reliability of the operation of manmade systems. for many objects, these measures should be developed in a complex manner (heat and explosion safety, environmental safety, etc.). the set of emergency prevention methods provides for the development of a control planning system, automated methods of direct and indirect management, taking into account the availability of personnel and the complexity (volume) of control procedures. it is important to establish departmental emergency prevention systems and a remote control and monitoring system for radiation and chemical contamination. the main tasks of such a system are as follows:  collection of data from geographically distributed sensors of various data;  collection of information from departmental emergency warning systems;  processing of data from sensors and departmental systems and presenting it in the required form (textual, graphic);  comparison of actual data with norms (control);  sensors to zoom in on the features of pollution in the non-covered area;  the impact of various factors on the forecast of the spread of pollution as a result of emergency situations; 17 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  systems for statistical processing of data on pollution and departmental parameters (in time and space).  the system of technical means of localizing and eliminating the consequences of emergency situations consists of constantly improving systems of machines, equipment, devices, equipment, etc. the educational system is designed to instill the skills and culture of any facility's employees. it is planned to revise relevant educational literature, to include necessary courses or departments in existing university programs. management system for localization and elimination of the consequences of emergency situations. the localization process is aimed at the implementation of emergency measures to stop and suppress the development of emergency situations, which begins immediately after the emergency situation begins and lasts from several days to several months [6]. in addition to creating an organization and developing plans, it is important that the system has effective subsystems that ensure the execution of the plans. these include subsystems:  task accounting and control;  monitoring the progress of elimination of the consequences of emergency situations;  regulating the process of implementation of plans. the system of accounting and control of the performance of tasks ensures the following:  taking into account the actual execution of tasks;  control over the execution of individual work (including document circulation) with a reminding executors of deadlines;  taking into account the occurrence of unforeseen circumstances that lead to deviations from the planned goals. the monitoring subsystem allows management to be real-time, regardless of location, on the progress of emergency response information:  network table with completed, in progress, important work indicator;  the backlog of work, indicating the reasons and culprits;  available resources and their use;  forecast of the development of emergency situations. the regulatory subsystem enables the implementation of the adopted plans and allows:  selection of measures to reduce the impact of destabilizing factors on the plan;  make adjustments to the plan when unexpected situations arise. results: disaster recovery begins after the localization phase is completed and can last from several months to several years. the proposed system should ensure the efficiency of these works and reduce losses caused by emergency situations. the management system of localization and elimination of the consequences of emergency situations includes the development of formalized methods of organizing the processes of localization and elimination of consequences, development of work plans. this system can significantly speed up the work time for localization and elimination of the consequences of emergency situations, as well as reducing losses from emergency situations. 18 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us eliminating the consequences of emergency situations requires the rapid creation of an organizational structure consisting of a headquarters and a large number of enterprises, departments, institutions, local governments, international organizations, etc. in this structure, management bodies, work managers in certain fields, rights and obligations of participants, etc [ 7]. in addition to the structure, it is necessary to develop work plans for general and separate (not predetermined) directions. plans should ensure the coordination of the work of all involved participants in the elimination of the consequences of emergency situations, as well as take into account the available resources (material, human, financial, time, etc.). the quality of the plans should be evaluated with a set of feasibility indicators. to increase the reliability of the plans, possible scenarios of the development of emergency situations are developed in advance. for each of the scenarios, several options of plans are formed and the most optimal one is selected according to the set of indicators. discussions: due to the technological pressure, the deterioration of the environment, the increase in the impact of negative factors on the health of the population, the increase in emergency situations and the exhaustion of natural resources and the decline of natural complexes are considered as a threat to the ecological security and sustainable development of the regions. . in such conditions, the need to transition to sustainable development based on the concept of reducing the negative impact of industrial production on the environment while ensuring the economic growth of enterprises is becoming increasingly clear, which implies the wide distribution of environmentally friendly products management space, nature management and environmental protection. both in uzbekistan and abroad, new promising researches are being conducted on issues of environmental management of industrial enterprises, such as gradual abandonment of traditional command methods and transition to modern market mechanisms of environmental regulation. improvement of management of environmental protection can be found in the work of many scientists. they are dedicated to the enterprise, but an attempt at a certain scientific basis, the actual mechanism for the practical implementation of the principles of sustainable development at the level of specific enterprises is still in its development. the problem of forming a new culture, which is becoming urgent for the enterprise, is a special aspect of management based on the principles of environmental efficiency, which involves reducing and preventing the negative impact of production on the surrounding natural environment, and at the same time increasing the financial efficiency of its activities. the transition to a higher level of environmental management activities in the enterprise requires proper orientation and justification of the management decisions made. in recent years, solving environmental problems in industrial production is related to the introduction of the environmental management system, which is implemented in accordance with the rules of international standards. summary: in summary, all decisions in an emergency management system are proactive in that they focus on predicting (modelling) the future in order to influence the future and not acting retrospectively. it is important to have strong, well-organized databases with various information in the system. the emergency traffic management system also involves the development of methods and means of creating a flexible global computer network (at the expense of the resources of the ministry of emergency situations and computer equipment of contractors) with a variable structure to effectively solve management problems. 19 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us regardless of the software platform, it is possible to quickly connect to the databases of individual participants of the work, ensure reliable communication taking into account access rights, parallelize computing work, as well as timely completion of planned and organizational and administrative work. should allow transfer documents to the attention of interested executors. this should be ensured, including using a computer network and an electronic signature. the development management system is designed to ensure continuous improvement:  the emergency management system itself;  machine systems for localization and elimination of emergency situations. the integrated distributed database developed within the framework of this project should provide information to the personnel of the ministry of emergency situations (quick response teams, strategic research services, etc.). the database should include the following basic information:  scientific organizations (indicated by leading experts) and their areas of activity;  organizations and enterprises (atp, communal services, fire departments, etc.) that can participate in the elimination of the consequences of emergency situations;  the list of funds available to organizations and enterprises and when they can be used to carry out work on the elimination of emergency situations. the content of information on each direction is described in detail in the work process. the base must be distributed. each region collects and updates all necessary information. a strong login management system is provided to ensure the reliability of information. the databases of higher authorities contain general information for their regions. data transmission is carried out through dial-up telephone channels, including. and using the internet. access to data is subject to access rights. to simplify the search for the necessary information, a powerful navigation system through databases and selection of data for complex queries (including undefined) is provided. references. 1. energy management,the carbon trust, a comprehensive energy watchdog (2013) 2. federal law no. 68-fz of december 21, 1994 "on protection and protection of the population" areas protected from natural and man-made emergency situations" 3. vd zazulinsky,life safety in emergency situations(2003) 4. e. a. arustamov, life safety (m.: dashkov i k, 2001) 5. ngo sukhova,psychological help in difficult and extreme situations (m.: academy year: 2007) 6. nn pukhovsky, consequences of emergency situations (m.: academic project, 2000) 7. emercom, official site, http: //www.mchs.gov.ru/[date of address: 15.02.2021] 8. l. pushkareva, m. pushkarev e3s web of conferences 135, 04070 (2019) 9. yo‘ldashev, a., & jalilov, a. (2022). favqulodda va ekologik ofat holatlarida korxonalar boshqaruvi. eurasian journal of social sciences, philosophy and culture, 2(13), 269-275. http://www.mchs.gov.ru/ 20 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. jalilov, a. (2022). milliy harakat va boshqaruv markazi muammolarining faoliyatidagi muammolarni aniqlash va tahlil olish nablasi. fan va innovatsiyalar , 1 (7), 286-294. 11. jalilov, a. (2023). fvhq va bmm tizimini takomillashtirish modeli. «образование и наука в xxi веке». 12. jalilov, a. (2022). favqulodda vaziyatlar vazirligining favqulodda vaziyatlarda harakat qilish va boshqarish milliy markazi mansabdor shaxslari faoliyatidagi muammoli masalalarni aniqlash va tahlil qilish modeli. science and innovation, 1(c7), 286-294. 13. jalilov, a. (2022). fvvvvzzt vazirligi harakat va fvvvvodiy vaziyatlarda boshqarish milliy markazi muammoli xodmiyotlar faoliyatidagi muammoli masalalarni anqitish va tahlil olish nablasi. scienceweb akademik maqolalar to'plami . 14. жалилов, а. (2022). модель для выявления и анализа проблемных вопросов в деятельности должностных лиц национального центра действий и управления чрезвычайными ситуациями министерства по чрезвычайным ситуациям. in library, 22(4), 25–32. извлечено от https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/archive/article/view/16582 24 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the influence of colors in the interior on the mood and behavior of people and children saidyusupova maftuna farkhod qizi national institute of painting and design named after komoliddin bekhzod "design" department, teacher annotation: colours have a strong influence on a person's psyche and behavior. not only can it be painted with color, but it can spoil the interior of the building. it is necessary to work with colors very carefully, in which it is necessary to get acquainted with natural colors and color composition at will. keywords: types of light flow, color spectrum, colors in objects, light, the effect of natural and artificial colors on the interior, colors affecting mood, application of colors by scientists and designers. types of light flux. interior design uses all the possibilities of light. first, it is a beam directed to a specific point. in this case, the light beam comes from a certain point and is at an average or lower level on the ceiling of the room (in a table lamp, etc.). the light emanating from one point will be directed and undirected depending on where and why the svetilnik (table lamp) is placed. for example, when developing table lamps, a designer needs to place them according to their place in the room, where and how they will emit light. the color of an object is determined by what color light it reflects and what light it absorbs. some surfaces reflect more red light and absorb green light. we consider such surfaces to be green. on the contrary, in green, it absorbs the spectrum of red light and expresses the green color in itself. the color sector of the 7 primary colors is formed by the mixing of refracted light passing through a transparent prism. red color, red-carrot color, carrot color-yellow, yellow-green, green, light orange-green, orange, air color-blue, blue, blue-violet color in the range of dark-red and violetblue colors of the spectrum. such colors are called spectral colors. black and gray colors absorb almost all light spectrums. in order to know colors and their effect on the human psyche, it is necessary to know what colors go well with each other. if we mix the two colors on the edge of the spectrum, red and blue violet, we get purple color. adding it to the spectrum creates a circle of colors. based on this, other colors can be created. the resulting color reproduction is the same across the entire color wheel. it is divided into two parts: one of them includes red, yellow, green colors. part 2 includes blue-green, blue and purple. group 1 colors are warm colors. group 2 colors belong to the category of cold colors. all colors except black and gray are chromatic colors. black and gray are achromatic colors. the main aspect of color perception is light. in addition, the perception of colors also depends on our mental state, and on the contrary, colors can affect us and evoke certain emotions in us. colors are a means of influencing a person's state and can evoke different emotions and feelings. in general, color can raise a person's mood, activate energy, calm, relax, open or suppress http://www/ 25 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us appetite. scientists and designers have learned this importance of colors in practice and have already learned to use them. the mood of a person who stays in a building for a long time can be changed using colors. for example, in a children's room, pink color can quickly calm a very active child and by itself acts as a necessary measure. a yellow-pumpkin kitchen whets the child's appetite. blue color reduces muscle tension, relaxes a person and provides an opportunity to relax. green color prevents eye strain and helps to concentrate. red tire the brain, it is useful for melancholia, but a limited amount of red color can paint small details. but you can't paint the entire wall red. yellow warm colors are less aggressive than red. dark colors narrow the room, and light colors make it appear wider. if the room is too long, in this case, the light beam is used again to show its size in the norm. in this case, the walls of the room are illuminated more, artificial width is created, and light is not given to the long side of the room. the participation of light in the building project means "magic lantern". the artist is a child of this people, society, grew up living in this environment, grew up in this spiritual world, the existing reality, the product of existence, he can enjoy the events and happenings that are happening around him, all his inner feelings, these daily worries, his talent hardened, thinking, thinking, his body is thus formed, matures. as a creator, being an intellectual person, he deeply feels the processes taking place in the environment, perceives them acutely and perceives and depicts them in the form of his feelings. that's why he is a free thinker, he expresses his creative direction in the depths of his heart, he begins to express the feelings that burst out of his http://www/ 26 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us heart with the help of paints and compositional devices. color is the composition of the interior of a room or the harmony of colors from the whole building. color harmony is determined by the primary color. for example, if the main color in the interior is bluish-gray, the yellow, brown and white colors used there are imperceptible, inconspicuous. the color solution of the interior of this or that width is sharply different from each other or close to each other. the colors in the building are slightly different from each other, it is the use of soft and close colors. bright colors are used in large rooms with furniture or other dark-colored equipment. in finding a solution to the sharp contrast of colors, it is necessary to find mutual harmony. too many colors make people angry and tired. of course, this does not mean that the color of the doors, windows and walls of the floor should consist only of these colors. a set of basic sharp colors combines several colors in itself. (bright, dark, warm and cold) but in the selected colors, two different colors should prevail. yellow is the color that gives intensity to blue, blue and red. for example, dark blue walls, textiles and furniture with red yellow checkered white and black details. white and black are the strongest contrasting colors. it is usually recommended to paint the ceiling of the room with white color, because white color makes the room look spacious and expensive. if the room is small and the ceiling is high, its ceiling is painted in dark color, and the walls are painted in bright cold colors. then the size of this room will look normal. if it is narrow and high, the ceiling will be dark. in other dimensions, care must be taken when choosing a color. if there is little natural lighting in the building or room, it is necessary to use bright and warm colors. (white, yellow, air color, light green, light gray). then the building looks bright and spacious. when choosing colors that are close to each other, it is necessary to pay attention to how the rooms are located. if we leave a light-colored room and suddenly enter a red-colored room, how do we feel in this situation? all of these factors should be taken into account when choosing a color. list of used literature: 1. ходжаев а., ташмухамедова о., носиров а. ранглар асрори. гулистон журнали. тошкент 2014. – №2. – б.10. 2. калмыков д. методы проектирования в дизайне и разработка дизайнконцепций. 3. романова г.с. влияние цвета на человека. источник: промышленный дизайн 2008 / материалы доклада. донецк, доннту 2008, с.20. 4. гарипова с.р., кириенко м.в. влияние визуальной среды интерьера на психологические характеристики учащихся. сб. трудов. – уфа: башгау, 2002. – с. 6973. 5. калмыков д. методы проектирования в дизайне и разработка дизайн-концепций. 6. http://www.catsparella.com 7. http://psypress.ru 8. http://iqrate.com 9. http://arteluce.ru/svetovoj-dizajn-interera 10. http://www.oknabober.ru 11. http://ru.wikipedia.org http://www/ http://www.catsparella.com/ http://psypress.ru/ http://iqrate.com/ http://arteluce.ru/svetovoj-dizajn-interera http://www.oknabober.ru/ http://ru.wikipedia.org/ 42 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 oxidation of steels and alloys in water vapor berdiyev sherzod alimardonovich karshi engineering and economic institute introduction. currently, increasing the corrosion resistance of products made from structural steels, developing resource-saving and controlled technologies, intensifying processes and improving the quality of products are the most important tasks facing the modern engineering industry. in this regard, an important role is played by the development of technologies for surface hardening of steel products, which would ensure high anti-corrosion properties of parts made of structural steels operating in severe corrosive operating conditions, as well as increasing requirements for their reliability and ensuring the necessary service life. objects and methods of research. are technical hardware; structural steels used in mechanical engineering for the manufacture of parts of various configurations, in particular highquality low-carbon steels 10 and 20; special medium carbon steels 30, 35 and 45; corrosion properties of compositions of nitride oxide phases in nitride oxide coating on steel. results and its discussion. in the mechanical engineering industry, to protect steels and powder metallurgy products from atmospheric corrosion, as well as to increase the wear resistance of steel and cast iron products, steam-thermal oxidation has received the greatest practical application, in which diffusion saturation of the surface with oxygen is carried out in water vapor with the formation of a film of oxides. o x id at io n t em p er at u re , t , 0 c 43 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.1.1. diagram of the state of the iron-oxygen system in the technically interesting region of the iron-oxygen phase diagram (fig. 1.1), depending on the oxidation temperature, the following three types of oxides are formed on the iron surface: fe2o3 (iron oxide hematite), fe3o4 (iron oxide magnetite) and feo (iron oxide wustite). stable hematite has a rhombohedral crystal lattice of the corundum type, and the lattices of γfe2o3 and fe3o4 are very similar and have spinel-type lattices. all types of iron oxides differ from each other in the oxygen content in their composition and the types of crystal lattice, which determine their differences in the protective properties of the surface of steels and alloys from atmospheric corrosion. from a thermodynamic point of view, iron in water vapor constitutes an unstable system, and in pure water vapor on the surface of steel, reactions occur between iron and water vapor, with the formation of hydrogen after the chemical decomposition of the latter. in this case, the chemical effect of iron with water vapor depends on the ratio of the partial pressures of hydrogen and water vapor. when steels are oxidized in water vapor, the process of formation of a surface oxide film occurs in two stages: with the initial formation of a continuous oxide film and a continuous increase in the thickness of the formed film, the continuity and stability of which in the growth stage is determined by the dependence of temperature and ph2o/ph2 ratios (fig. 1.2). 1 – fe3o4; 2 3·feo+h2o→ fe3o4+h2; 3 – feo; 4 – fe+h2o→feo+h2; 5 fe rice. 1.2. equilibrium diagram "fe-h2o-h2". in real values of the ratio of the partial pressures of water vapor and hydrogen up to a temperature of 570 0c, iron oxidation reactions with pure water vapor are possible only with the formation of magnetite. at temperatures above 570 0c, iron, oxidizing in water vapor, forms wustite, which, with a decrease in temperature below the eutectoid, undergoes decomposition with the release of magnetite and feα, the latter, which in an atmosphere of water vapor is oxidized to magnetite according to the following sequential reaction: feo+h2o→feα+h2o+fe3o4→fe3o4+h2 (1.) the equilibrium diagram “fe-h2o-h2” (fig. 1.2) is valid for a pure system, but in real conditions steel contains carbon, impurities and alloying elements in its composition, and water vapor as a saturating medium in its composition contains, in addition to hydrogen, other gaseous substances. therefore, the data presented in fig. 1.2 may change to some extent in one direction or another. oxide coatings on alloy steels, obtained by oxidation in water vapor at processing temperatures from 400 to 650 0c and for a duration of 1.5-2 hours, have increased corrosion resistance. with increasing temperature and duration of the oxidation process, the total thickness of the oxide coating increases, as a result of which the phase composition and structure of the coating 44 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us greatly changes, internal stresses in the oxide layer increase and the oxide coating peels off the surface, which negatively affects the corrosion properties of the workpiece. works are devoted to a more in-depth study of the properties of the oxide film on structural steels obtained by steam oxidation. comparing the relative corrosion resistance of oxide coatings of different phase compositions and different thicknesses, the authors of the work confirm that under conditions of atmospheric corrosion, magnetite has the greatest corrosion resistance and wüstite has less resistance. the thin film of fe2o3 oxide obtained on the surface is formed at temperatures below 400 0c, which differs significantly from the rest, both in structure and in the ratio of lattice parameters, has low adhesion to the main oxide coating and has virtually no effect on the corrosion rate. the oxide film formed on the surface of carbon steel as a result of complex processing differs from the spontaneously formed film by higher quality, good adhesion to the base metal due to a denser packing of crystals, generally having a more rounded shape, as well as more favorable thermophysical properties. currently, the chemical industry has synthesized a large range of phosphonic-based complexons, which are widely used in the national economy. these include hydroxyethylidene diphonic acid (hedp). it is based on phosphoric acid groups, which make it possible to obtain strong intra-complex bonds with cations of other metals, in particular iron, and ensure the high strength of these complexes. the content of oxygen in the hedp molecule allows it to be used for passivation of surfaces made of carbon steel during thermolysis of the hedp solution at a temperature of 550 0c, i.e. a temperature significantly higher than the temperature of its thermal decomposition, which is about 180 0c (the beginning of thermolysis is about 120 0c). the film-forming properties of the hedp complexon are known, which, by forming strong oxide films consisting of magnetite on the steel surface, increase the corrosion resistance of steels in atmospheric and high-temperature conditions. an analysis of literature sources shows that when oxidizing in water vapor and in vapors of aqueous solutions of complexons, single-phase diffusion oxide coatings consisting of magnetite are achieved; provided they are of sufficient continuity and density, high corrosion properties and wear resistance of the processed steels and alloys are ensured. conclusion: composite coatings formed during nitriding followed by steam oxidation, consisting of a surface oxide and nitride zone with an internal nitriding zone, can provide a wide range of performance characteristics of nitrided products. by creating a nitride-oxide diffusion layer with the development of certain phase components of nitrides and oxides, as well as obtaining their compositions, it is possible to achieve the required corrosion resistance of steel products. literature: 1. лахтин ю.м. и др. теория и технология азотирования. –м: металлургия, 1981, 320 с. 2. лахтин ю.м., коган я.д. структура и прочность азотированных сплавов. – м., металлургия, 1982, 176 с. 3. гаврилова а.в. и др. //металловедение и термическая обработка металлов., 1974. №3 с. 14-21. 3. irgashev d.b., tovashov r.x., sadikov a.r, mamadiyorov o.t. technical analysis of plug software when working between gardens // international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – vol. 9, – issue 5, 2022. 45 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. mamatov f.m., fayzullayev x.a., irgashev d.b., mustapaqulov s.u., nurmanova m.s kombinatsiyalashgan mashina chuquryumshatkichlari orasidagi bо„ylama masofasini asoslash.// innovatsion texnologiyalar maxsus son, 2021. – b. 125-129. 45 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 01, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 evolution of timurid tile art elvira jurayeva * elvira8790@mail.ru 0009-0000-6256-950 yulduz nurmuradova yulduz_nurmuradova@mail.ru xursanbayeva baljan baxtjon qizi samsacu student samarkand state architecture and construct university named after mirzo ulugbek * corresponding author abstract the timurid period, spanning from the late 14th to the early 16th century, marked a golden era in central asian and persian history. under the leadership of timur (tamerlane) and his descendants, the timurid empire witnessed the flourishing of art, science, and architecture. one distinctive feature of timurid architecture that continues to captivate historians and art enthusiasts alike is the exquisite use of tiles in the construction of historical monuments. keywordstile, rivet, pattern, muqarnas, kitoba, pehstok, tower, monument, monument. introduction historical context:to appreciate the significance of tiles in timurid architecture, it is essential to understand the socio-cultural milieu of the time. the timurid rulers were great patrons of the arts, and they sought to leave a lasting legacy through the construction of grand monuments. the incorporation of vibrant and intricately designed tiles became a hallmark of timurid architectural style. tile-making techniques:timurid craftsmen perfected the art of tile-making, creating a wide range of colorful, geometric, and floral patterns. the tiles were often made of glazed ceramic and were meticulously crafted to achieve a brilliant and enduring finish. the glazing process not only added a glossy sheen but also protected the tiles from weathering, ensuring the longevity of the monuments. architectural marvels:several historical monuments from the timurid period showcase the exceptional use of tiles. one prominent example is the gur-e amir mausoleum in samarkand, uzbekistan, which serves as the final resting place for timur himself. the exterior of gur-e amir is adorned with intricate tilework, featuring a harmonious blend of blues, greens, and gold. the geometric patterns and calligraphic inscriptions create a mesmerizing visual tapestry.the bibi-khanym mosque, also in samarkand, is another masterpiece of timurid architecture where tiles play a pivotal role. the monumental entrance portal is adorned with ornate tile mosaics, displaying a fusion of timurid and persian design elements. the tiles not only embellished the 46 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us structures but also served as a means of storytelling, conveying cultural and religious narratives through the artistry. symbolism and significance:the use of tiles in timurid monuments was not merely ornamental; it held deeper symbolism. islamic geometric patterns, calligraphy, and floral designs on the tiles often conveyed spiritual and cultural messages. the intricate motifs reflected a sophisticated understanding of mathematical principles, and the inscriptions frequently included verses from the quran, poetry, and praise for the rulers. legacy and influence:the legacy of timurid tilework extended beyond the empire's borders, influencing subsequent islamic architectural styles. the timurid aesthetic made its way to the indian subcontinent, where the mughal empire drew inspiration from the geometric patterns and vibrant colors in the creation of their own architectural marvels. evolution of timurid tile art:the timurid period witnessed a significant evolution in tile art, building upon the artistic traditions of the preceding seljuk and ilkhanid dynasties. timurid craftsmen pushed the boundaries of creativity, experimenting with complex geometric patterns, arabesques, and vegetal motifs. the tiles were often arranged in mesmerizing geometric configurations, creating a sense of unity and balance in the architectural design.one notable development during the timurid era was the use of cuerda seca (dry cord) technique in tile production. this method involved outlining the design with raised lines of a clay-based mixture before glazing, preventing the different colors from bleeding into each other. the cuerda seca technique allowed for precise detailing and enhanced the overall aesthetic appeal of the tilework. regional variations in tile design: while timurid architecture exhibited a cohesive style, there were regional variations in tile design influenced by the diverse cultural and artistic traditions present in the empire. for instance, the tiles in samarkand often featured intricate geometric patterns with a prevalence of blue and turquoise hues, reflecting the influence of persian and central asian aesthetics. on the other hand, herat, a center of timurid cultural activity in present-day afghanistan, showcased a unique blend of persian and central asian tile art, marked by its own distinctive style. functionality and practical considerations:tiles in timurid architecture were not only admired for their visual appeal but also served practical purposes. the glazing of tiles protected the structures from environmental elements, including rain and sun, contributing to the longevity of the monuments. the reflective surfaces of glazed tiles also helped in keeping interiors cooler in the harsh central asian climate. innovation in tile inscriptions:the calligraphic inscriptions on timurid tiles were a remarkable fusion of aesthetics and intellectual depth. master calligraphers skillfully integrated verses from the quran, poetry, and praises for the rulers into the tile designs. the inscriptions were often executed with precision, showcasing the high level of calligraphic artistry prevalent during the timurid period. influence on later architectural styles: the impact of timurid tile art extended far beyond the 16th century. the mughal empire, which emerged in the indian subcontinent in the 16th century, drew inspiration from timurid aesthetics, incorporating similar tilework in structures like the taj mahal. the blue and white tiles synonymous with mughal architecture owe a debt to the timurid legacy. conclusion:the use of tiles in timurid monuments goes beyond mere decoration; it represents a convergence of artistic ingenuity, cultural expression, and functional design. timurid craftsmen elevated tile art to new heights, creating a visual language that continues to resonate in the architectural heritage of central asia and beyond. the enduring legacy of 47 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us timurid tilework is a testament to the empire's commitment to cultural flourishing and the profound impact of their artistic vision on subsequent periods of islamic art and architecture. the use of tiles in historical monuments during the timurid period stands as a testament to the empire's commitment to artistic excellence and cultural expression. the intricate tilework not only adorned the buildings but also encapsulated the rich cultural and intellectual climate of the time. today, as we admire these timeless monuments, we are reminded of the enduring legacy of the timurid empire and its contribution to the world of art and architecture. [1].axmedov b. a. amir temur. jizn i obщestvenno-politicheskaya deyatelnost / mukminova r. g., pugachenkova g. a. ; pod red. rtveladze e. v.. — tashkent : universitet, 1999. — 263 s. [2].yusupova m. a. k problemam izucheniya zodchestva stran tsentralnoy azii xvi—xvii vekov // obщestvennie nauki v uzbekistane. — 1995. — № 5-6-7-8. [3].temuridlar sulolasi davridagi bino arxitekturasining rivojlanishi haqida esse „markaziy osiyo“. maʼlumotnoma, m., 1983 yil [4].tondi ahmad. temuriylar davridagi oʻrta osiyoning meʼmoriy bezaklari, 2003-yil [5].elmuradovna, j. e. (2021). the architecture of karshi castle, the establishment, the past and the present. middle european scientific bulletin, 18, 247-252. [6].elmuradovna, j. e. (2021). bukhara registan: past and present. international journal of progressive sciences and technologies, 25(1), 160-166. [7].jurayeva, e. e. (2023). architecture of tashkent registon square. finland international scientific journal of education, social science & humanities, 11(1), 190-203. [8].uralov, a., & jurayeva, e. (2018). architecture of nakibbek public bath of 17th and 18th centuries in kattakurgan city. architecture, 4, 21-2018. [9].жураева, э. э. (2018). история формирования и строительство народной бани-" хаммам" xvii в. актуальные научные исследования в современном мире, (4-12), 80-83. [10].elmuradovna, j. e. (2023). tarixiy shaharlardagi chetel maydonlarining arxitekturasini tahlil qilish. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(1), 20-26. [12].jurayeva, e., & nurmuradova, y. (2023). architecture of historical monuments of shahrisabz. central asian journal of arts and design, 4(10), 6-10. [13].jurayeva, e., & nurmuradova, y. (2023). o ‘zbekiston tarixiy obidalaridagi bezaklar tahlili. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(10), 1-4. [14].karimova, n., & jurayeva, e. registon square, tashkent: historical and architecture. [15].luqmonov, d., & jurayeva, e. (2023). muqarnas decorations: a masterpiece of islamic architecture. genius repository, 22, 13-18. [16].jurayeva, e., eshmurodov, o., & nurmurodova, y. (2023). architectural splendors of madrasas in khanate period uzbekistan. international bulletin of engineering and technology, 3(10), 68-71. [16].elmuradovna, j. e. (2023). scientific recommendations on restoration of the historical appearance of anti-register not preserved. telematique, 22(01), 275-281. [17].elmuradovna, j. e., & qoʼziyevich, e. i. (2023). buxoro аrkining аrxitekturаviy shаkllаnishi. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(2), 75-78. https://alsamarkand.com/dinastiya-timuridov/ https://alsamarkand.com/dinastiya-timuridov/ https://www.dissercat.com/content/arkhitekturnyi-dekor-srednei-azii-epokhi-timuridov 48 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us [18].elmuradovna, j. e. (2023). taniqli arxitektorlar ijodini o’rganish. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(3), 117-133. [19].elmuradovna, j. e. (2023). historical city centers and their significance. journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture, 2(3), 28-32. [20].olmos, j., & lobar, k. promising methods for treating colored wastewater in light industry enterprises. 1 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 05, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 organization of the communicative environment of children's preschool institutions with examples of foreign countries suyunova n.a. senior lecturer of the department of architectural design, suyunova ya.m. senior lecturer of the department of economics and management in construction. bakhridinova k.f. student 302-dl, samgasu named after m. ulugbek. abstract the article is devoted to the organization of the communicative educational environment of preschool institutions by means of architecture and design. the basic requirements and conditions for creating a comfortable environment are considered. examples of foreign experience in solving problems in this area are given. the necessity of multifaceted approaches to the organization of the environment of children's institutions is substantiated. keywordscommunicative environment; children's preschool institution; architecture; design; construction technologies; conceptual design. introduction actual technologies of construction, architecture and design in the context of modernity suggest options for the development of technical thought and its adaptation to specific design tasks. the use of modern materials and 3d technologies, "green building", new architectural forms arising as a result of a combination of new technological possibilities and aesthetic images of the time, all this is subject to functional issues along with issues of environmental friendliness and manufacturability. in order to improve the state policy of the russian federation in the field of child protection, by decree of the president of the russian federation, the years 2018-2027 in the russian federation were declared the decade of childhood. the problem of the need to improve approaches in the construction of children's institutions is obvious. the architectural image of a children's institution affects not only visual perception, but also the psychological state of the child. the environment in which children spend a sufficiently large amount of time should correspond to their main functions. first of all, it should be an ergonomic, well-organized space. an indispensable condition for the "children's interior", of course, is a figurative solution of the 2 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us environment (exterior and interior), stimulating positive emotions, communication and cognitive activity of children, and the use of environmentally friendly materials. modern architecture in the hands of a specialist has great opportunities in creating a new, interesting building that contributes to the harmonious development of children. the architectural environment, diverse in its content and forms, contributes to the creation of a positive emotional charge in children, while a faceless monotonous architecture can cause negative emotions that will not stimulate the desire to learn and explore the environment to the fullest. the exterior of the building, first of all, should attract the child, interest. the use of natural materials and warm colors should contribute to an interesting pastime for the child. the development of the modern world allows you to create the exterior and interior of preschool institutions using modern technologies, such as: additive technologies, legotechnologies, technologies of modular prefabricated public buildings. the solution to the issue of using modern materials that contribute to the development of energy saving technologies in construction, for example, the use of energy-efficient wall glass concrete blocks, does not stand still. international scientific institute ―educatio‖ 1(31)20185 of which type of institutions. it must be remembered that the issues of ensuring structural and fire safety in the operation of buildings play an important role here. the interior must comply with modern standards and federal state requirements for the organization of a subject-developing environment. movable partitions, soft modules, which make it possible to organize space for gaming activities, have now become quite a popular technique. an integral part of the interior is the presence of individual lockers, so-called space personalization should be present. a preschool type children's educational institution should have a well-organized space that includes such functional areas as: a child's physical development zone, a play zone, a sensory development zone, a musical (theater) site, a visual activity zone, a speech development site, a nature zone, zone for role-playing games, a platform for experimentation and a book zone. 3 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the artistic image of the building itself, its interior, subject content is of great importance in the formation of a communicative space. the individuality of the design and its associative perception are dominant here, they are designed to create positive feelings in the child. therefore, the issue of the initial conceptual approach to the issues of designing an architectural concept, as well as the design solution of the environment and the objective world, is important. an important role is played by the organization of the territory of a preschool institution and, in particular, the creation of landscape design, which contributes not only to comfort in the urban environment, but also to the decisive issues of creating an environmentally protected space. turning to the experience of foreign countries, we find positive examples. for example, kindergartens in germany are quite functional and rational in their organization.. structuring the space by functions makes it accessible and "understandable" for the perception of the child. the security system is well thought out. the rooms are spacious and bright. appearance, for all its conciseness, carries a positive image due to the color scheme. an example is the troplo kids kindergarten and nursery, built in hamburg (germany). kita marburg kindergarten, built on the historical grounds of marburg, is distinguished not only by its innovative design, but also by its decision to create an energy-efficient home that generates more energy than it consumes. examples of kindergartens in germany. exterior an interesting example is the solution of a kindergarten by japanese architects aisaka architects’ atelier. located in the city of funabashi, the preschool is a circular structure "framing the tandem of soil, 4 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us water and greenery" that forms a courtyard. on the roof of this two-story building, an open terrace with a vegetable garden is designed, where vegetables used in the children's diet are grown. interest in healthy eating is also stimulated by the location of the kitchen behind glass walls. the closed design provides safety and protection from winds. the undoubted advantage is the fact that the project is energy efficient, it has a positive effect on the environment and the financial costs of operation, and also teaches children to be thrifty. kindergarten in the city of funabashi (japan). view from the surrounding area another example a kindergarten in the japanese city of akuna is located just a few hundred meters from the picturesque coastline. the previously abandoned plot of land has become an ideal place to build a preschool, giving children the opportunity to spend time surrounded by nature. proximity to the sea posed a design challenge for the architects: for safety reasons, to raise the level of the floor in the manger, placing the group in the center of the building. the rest of the rooms are designed at different heights and are connected by ten stairs, three slides and sports equipment. that is, children can climb to the top floor by stairs or a rope, and go down, for example, along a slide. such an organization of space stimulates the development of babies, encourages physical activity and interaction. summing up, we can say that the children's educational institution is, according to the international scientific institute "educatio", a reflection of the cultural space, philosophy and ideology of the country. the communicative, educational environment of the institution, formed, including by the objective world, contributes to the formation of views, beliefs and moral foundations of small citizens, laying the foundation for the further development of the child's personality. the health of young citizens, both physiological and psychological, largely depends on the microclimate created in preschool institutions. and if this microclimate is formed and supported by the ideas of environmental friendliness, safety, is focused on the education of morality and respect for the world around, then there are prospects that, having gone beyond the walls of this institution, the child will relay these ideas to the environment, multiplying and developing them. references: 1. landscape design role for the formation of comfort in an urban environment/ e.p. chernyshova, m.b. permyakov, a.d. grigorev, v.m. andreev, r.r. sabirov /journal of engineering and applied sciences. 2016. т. 11.no1. с. 10-12. 2. актуальные проблемы строительства/ м.б пермяков [и др. ] // магнитогорск, 2013. 3. дембич н.д. организация предметно-про-странственной среды детского образовательного учреждения /бизнес и дизайн ревю. 2016. т. 1. no 1 (1). –12с. 4. детский сад без коридоров во франции [электронный ресурс] —режимдоступа. — url:https://everything.kz/article/4535055-detskiy-sad-bez-koridorov-vo-frantsii(дата обращения 23.10.2018) 5. детский сад и ясли в японии. [электрон-ный ресурс] -режим доступа. -url:https:// pikabu.ru/story/detskiy_sad_i_yasli_v_yaponii_4245577.html(дата обращения 14.10.2018); 6. здание детского сада в японии [электрон-ный ресурс] -режим доступа.url:https://mirputeshestvij.mediasole.ru/zdanie_detskogo_sada_vyaponii (дата обращения 23.10.2018 7. sindarovich, u. a., dilnoza, q., & fayzullo o'g'li, b. a. (2023). national traditions of interior architecture of buildings of wedding houses. central asian journal of arts and design, 4(3), 1-7. 101 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 ways to improve the efficiency of the seed hair removal machine with the improvement of its construction r. k. djamolov doctor of technical sciences, professor, "cotton industry scientific centre" jsc, uzbekistan j. g. gayratov assistant, department of mechanical engineering technology equipment and automation of mechanical engineering production, fergana polytechnic institute, fergana, uzbekistan abstract: in the article, recommendations are given on the use of modified saw cylinders instead of metal brush drums used in seed dehairing machines, and it is possible to obtain 2.5-3.0% type "b" fluff from seeds with a hairiness of 9.0% when using saw cylinders. keywords: linter, fluff, hairiness level, depilation, saw cylinder, metal brush, royal wire. today, two methods of seed pollination are used, mechanical and chemical methods. the chemical method of hair removal has developed in the foreign countries, it is also used in some cotton-textile clusters of the republic of uzbekistan, but it has not found its development widely due to the fact that hair removal in this method depends on the conditions of ecology and the cost of seed seeds. basically, in the mechanical method of hair removal, the preparation of seeds is carried out. mechanically, de-hair removal machines are classified into two classes by their structure, hard working surface and elastic-flexible working surface, with a more accurate classification of mechanical de-hair removal machines and de-hair removal methods given in the work. in addition to the structure and materials of the working organs, the process of obtaining a fluff, the method of mixing the pollen, the processes of falling and exiting the pollen, the processes of fluffing out are also reflected here. in the process of fluffing, de-lint machines structures that form a tangle roller, a rotating layer of pollen, or this and this state, can act circularly in the process of work of a particular machine, without being pushed in lumps and in layers, or move along the axis outside the working organs. examples include 5lp saw linters to machines moving along the axis without being pushed, forming a tick roller on the machine, pkx-ring linters to machines moving as a ring layer of seeds and pushed in the direction of the arrow. in the case of os, os-01 and other de-hair removal machines, both the pollen shaft and the layer of the hoop are characteristic and are directed along the axis to the exit hole according to the speral movement. the machines are divided into frontal and flanges according to the method of pollen intake. the reception of pollen in pmp-160, 5lp linters is carried out according to the length of the machine. it belongs to the method of frontal pollen intake. in 4-som, os, shrm seed desulfurization machines, however, the seed is received from the front of the machine working organ, which falls under the flang method. 102 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the pollen receptacle may have been placed in the middle of the machine in length (houfling, mc-mata linters). the seeds are removed from the slit-specific slit, either from the colosniks (pmp-160, 5lp), or from the working body closing flange slit (os, shrm). the main goal during seed pollination is to reduce their fluffiness and maintain their main properties (tensile, mechanical damage, etc.). one of the main problems of mechanical lint removal is to maintain its biological properties to the fullest, without allowing it to be damaged in complete lint removal of the tick. with its shape, dimensions, shell hardness, fluffiness levels, friction coefficient and other physical and mechanical properties, seed seeds affect the adjusting parameters of delinters machines. by the decision of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan no. 604 of december 23, 2004 "on measures to improve the organization of acetic seed production", 31 seed seed seed preparation cexs were launched by the association "uzpakhtasanoat", jsc "pakhtasanoat scientific center" on the basis of the promising program for modernization of specialized enterprises in 2005-2006. of these, 16 constitute seed seed pollination cexes. in cotton ginning enterprises, the most often today is the introduction of preparation in the method of mechanical lint removal of seeds, mechanical lint removal, in turn, is carried out with one-stage and two-stage lint removal technology. of this, the one-stage threaded cexes with three-dm delinters form 4, which are used in cotton ginning enterprises chust, rishton, angor and gijduvon, and in the remaining 12 cexs form the hexa with 1lb colossless linter and os-01 desiccation machines. seed pollination is first cleaned and sorted in a single-step seed sorting aggregate, then seed pollination is done in a shrm seed pollination delinter machine with a hair removal of 8-9% to 0.5%, sorted by hyametric size, dorilized, packaged in a seed measuring plating machine, and the mouth of the bags is sutured in a bag sewing machine. the seed seeds being prepared must meet the standards set out in the current standard for the indicators of germination, moisture, level of dirt, degree of fluffiness, mechanical damage to the seed and residual fiber content of the seeds. to carry out the scraping of the mucus in the pollen shell, the first thing to do is to attach the pollen to the working surface, which will overcome the resistance force that occurs in the ratio of movement between them. these forces occur in well-known machines via brake inertia forces or by accelerating the tangled volume, braking inertia forces, or accelerating certain tangles in addition to other reaction forces. according to the preparation of the working parts of the lint removal machines of the seeds, that is, the operating times of the metal-brushed, saw cylinders also change. table 1, which is presented below, lists the norms of the working parts of the seed hair removal machine by their working life. table 1. norms of the working parts of the seed desulfurization machine by working time desalination machines name of consumable spare parts 100 tons the standard of spending for pollination of seeds, pieces srm, 1lb and os metal brushed cylinders 1,1 sawtooth cylinders 0,9 metal sets 0,8 as can be seen from table 1 above, 1.1 metal brush cylinders, 0.9 saw cylinders are used by the norm when de-lint 100 tons of seeds. from this, metal brushed cylinders show a high degree of absorbency. metal brushed cylinders due to the unevenness of its surface due to wear (figure 1), the diameter of the cylinder decreases from its alignment with sharpening its surface for reuse, 103 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and with a mesh surface, intermediate slits increase in size, and the chances of adjusting them also decrease. figure 1. the ingestion of a metal brushed cylinder. an increase in the distance between the cylinder and the sets leads to a decrease in the performance of the machine. in the republic, 1lb non-colosnik linters are 36 pieces, in which 72 metal brushed cylinders are used. 156 kg of royal wire is spent on 1 cylinder of 1lb linter. for a total of 72 shafts, 11,232 kg of royal wire is spent. when the distance between the cylinder and the set is 13 mm, the working productivity of the machine is 325 kg/hour, and as this distance increases to 14 mm and more, the working productivity is falling at 270 kg/hour. from years of scientific research, it is known that the camera and torque absorption systems of delinters provide the opportunity to replace metal brushed cylinders with saws. therefore, in both 1lb and shrm deliners, it is recommended to use saw cylinders based on structural parameters instead of metal brushed cylinders. if it is assumed that seed seeds with 9.0% hairiness from enterprises will arrive at the desulfurization tsexi, we can get a "b" type fluff if they are collected in aloxi by taking up to 3-4% of the hairs in the saw cylinders, in addition, the tan price of cylinders used for 1lb noncolosnik linters instead of metal brush cylinders in the that is, the metal brush cylinder costs 32.0 million. in the case of soums, the price of the saw cylinder is 9600.0 thousand soums. 2.5-3.0% of the pollen being scraped from the pollen is collected in aloxi and 1000 tons of seed from the "b" type fluff removal 229.08 million sums we get income. according to the plan for the republic, 25 thousand tons of seeds will be de-pollinated in this case 229, 08x25=5727.0 million sum means. therefore, today research work is underway to determine their parameters for the use of saw cylinders instead of metal brushed drums in seed hair removal machines. references 1. handbook of cotton preprocessing. jsc "cotton industry scientific center", tashkent, 2009, pp. 242-244. 2. handbook of cotton preprocessing. "cotton industry scientific center" jsc. tashkent, 2019 248 p. 24 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 types and properties of heating devices turobova k. n. national institute of art and design, named after kamoliddin bekhzod teacher of the department of design abstract: through the new tehnalogies of the shrines, comunicative communication occurs in addition to providing visitors with comfort. the concept of modern heating design of shrines is also distinguished by the fact that it requires an hos creative approach to itself. research on the factors affecting the solutions of the concept of modern heating design, the search and research of functional interior elements through technalogies based on modernity in accordance with the needs and interests of this modern heating. keywords: shrine, tehnalogiya, comunicative, modern heating, functional, concept. in the period 2003 2006 by the cabinet of ministers of the republic uzbekistan the task was set before the specialists of space heating to reconstruct the heating system of the ensemble al bukhori in samarkand. pilgrims of our republic and guests uzbekistan complained about the cold during prayer in winter. in this regard, the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan announced a tender. many manufacturers of heating devices and systems took part in it. with its unique business plan, the tender was won by the joint venture "ag tashkent deutsche cable". this is an enterprise he proposed a cable heating system. into the room of the ensemble al bukhori, where the rite is performed (namaz is read), the heat coming from the radiators without heating the lower part of the room rose straight up under the domes. therefore, visitors felt uncomfortable. developers of the joint venture "ag tashkent deutsche cable took into account all the criteria: from the efficiency of the heating system to its design. the heating cable consists of a special heating wire and is embedded in the floor under the cement screed. before installing the cable on the floor , it is erased thermal insulation and reflective material, so that the heat does not go down, but goes up. thus, a person begins to feel warmth under his feet. the required temperature (20 ° c 250c) is set by a thermostat that controls the switching on and off of the heating system, thus ensuring the efficiency of electricity consumption. during the manufacturing process, the cable is covered with a special shield in order to dampen the electromagnetic flux and is considered safe. the cable heating system was built into the al bukhori ensemble in 2008 and inconveniences about the cold were prevented. in the cold season, indoor conditions of thermal comfort are maintained by the heating system. heating refers to the engineering equipment of buildings. when designing heating, many factors are taken into account, including climatic conditions and the purpose of the premises. the operation of heating devices is characterized by periodicity throughout the year. let's take this as an example of trademark development ekkotec-w. about heating of residential premises 25 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ekkotec-w cable heating systems are distributed in the cis and adjacent countries of europe and asia. the production base in russia was founded in 1995. cable heating systems have several main functions: underfloor heating, room heating, de-icing, heating of pipelines. underfloor heating is an economical source of heat based on the conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy. the ekkotec heating cable is evenly split on a flat concrete surface and filled with sand-cement mortar. any covering is laid on top: tile, carpet, linoleum, laminate. the operation of the system is controlled by an electronic temperature controller. temperature sensor the controller is located in the floor, the control panel is on the wall. the floor turns into a single heating panel, from which radiated heat (radiant heating) emanates. the air temperature in the room becomes approximately the same throughout the height. convection air flows and dust circulation stop. a high modern level of safety is provided by special cable designs (double-core shielded), which do not cause an increase in the general electromagnetic background in the working area. brand, power length recommended laying area maximum laying area нвs-250 w 16 1,5м 2 2м 2 нвs-350 w 24 2,5м 2 3м 2 нвs-500 w 34 3,3м 2 4,25м 2 нвs-700 w 38 3,8м 2 4,75м 2 нвs-800 w 42 4,2м 2 5,25м 2 нвs-950 w 47 4,7м 2 5,8м 2 нвs-1050 w 53 5,5м 2 6,5м 2 нвs-1250 w 62 6,5м 2 7,75м 2 нвs-1500 w 75 7,5м 2 9м 2 нвs-1800 w 90 9м 2 11м 2 нвs-2200w 105 11м 2 13м 2 if we compare the cable heating system with traditional heaters, we get the following: cast-iron radiators  condensation formation on the wall surface  high water consumption in the system  formation of mold in the corners  cold floor  formation of a heat cushion on the ceiling  inability to integrate into heating systems automatic temperature controllers  increase in the cost of radiators in the manufacture of designer radiators  contamination of the surface with dust and dirt and the complexity of cleaning  a large temperature difference in the volume of the room (up to 8 ° c).  cold exterior walls  lower level of temperature regime  expensive installation  inability to pump pipes at low pressure in the general system  higher air humidity  the inability to regulate the temperature 26 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  the probability of damage to pipes during installation and the creation of an emergency situation (flooding of neighbors) question and answer how much electricity does the "underfloor heating" consume? no more than 25% of the electrical power (w) of the cable. practice it shows that the real costs can be even lower. what thermal insulation materials are used in underfloor heating systems? the effectiveness of the heat insulator depends on its thickness. significant savings (20%) can be achieved with a thermal insulator thickness of 5 mm or more. but it is highly undesirable to lay the heating cable on thermal insulation materials. due to the heating temperature, the cable may sink into the thermal insulation and stop contacting the concrete. in this case, direct heat transfer to the concrete screed will disappear. the floor in these areas will become unheated. the air temperature in the "pockets" around the cable can reach critical and destroy its insulation. therefore, a concrete screed is laid on the thermal insulation, and then a heating cable. heat insulators with aluminum foil increase savings. but the foil will not fulfill its role as a reflector of radiated heat (radiant heating) if a cable and a concrete screed are laid directly on it. it, like an ordinary metal, will carry out direct heat transfer in the opposite direction from the heat source itself, and the reflection effect will disappear. thermal insulation and aluminum foil they are covered with polymer films or thick paper to prevent contact with aggressive concrete alkali. is it possible to take one section of cable heating for heating. the heat exchange and ventilation in the kitchen and bathroom are different, and the temperature controller will correctly regulate the floor temperature of only one room. therefore, we need two sections of cable heating and two temperature controllers. is it possible to lay mats on heated areas of the floor? it is desirable to have the same heat sink along the entire length of one section of cable heating. what factors influence the floor heating temperature? the floor temperature is influenced by  cable layout step, thermal insulation of the room, drafts, voltage changes in the power grid, the thickness of the screed, the type of finishing coating. what temperature will be on the floor surface? according to european standards, +19°c ...+24°c is considered in "underfloor heating" systems. the norm with more dense cable laying, the temperature can rise to +35 °c. for your information: drafts, poor thermal insulation of the room, carpets, as well as voltage changes in the electric.networks significantly affect the results of cable operation. literature: 1. journal the world best enerpia co., ltd. 2. исследование эффективности систем отопления/ журнал “молодой учёный” 3. htpp//m.srcyrl.asia-washer.com 4. www.floorwarm.net 5. htpp//moluch.ru/archive/89/18191 http://www.floorwarm.net/ 27 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. sultanova muhayyo fahriddinovna the formation of art and architecture of the ancient period // european journal of arts. 2023. №1. url: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-formation-of-art-and-architecture-of-the-ancient-period (дата обращения: 19.09.2023). 7. latipovich t. a. styles of prototyping… prototyping and about layout //middle european scientific bulletin. – 2022. – т. 20. – с. 76-80. 8. мансуров я. м. и др. бугунги кун театр биноларини замонавийлаштириш масалалари //естественные науки в современном мире: теоретические и практические исследования. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 7. – с. 66-72. 9. kizi salomova f. l., matniyazov z. e., mannopova n. r. methods of using ethnographic elements in furniture design //european journal of innovation in nonformal education. – 2022. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 166-170. 10. nilufar m., farrukhovna i. n. basic provisions and requirements for the formation of interior spaces of hotels //european journal of life safety and stability (2660-9630). – 2021. – т. 12. – с. 417-420. 11. furkatovna, tursunova shakhnoza. "packaging evolution and design." (2021). 12. muhayyo s., ruzibayevich r. f. design solutions and development chronology in the construction of business centers. emergent: journal of educational discoveries and lifelong learning (ejedl), 2 (11), 96–103. – 2021. 13. ismaildjanovich r. m. the place of landscape architecture, traditional landscape and horticulture in urban planning. – 2021. 12 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 01, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх use of ceramic and brick decorations in cultural heritage objects in samarkand maxmatqulov i. t. doctor of philosophy in architecture (phd), docent, samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering, samarkand city (uzbekistan) t. m. makhmatkulov acting professor, samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering, samarkand city (uzbekistan) abstract the article describes the use of natural stone in the cladding of buildings new to the period in question, along with clay ceramics and faience products, in which the stone surface is marked with girih patterns, cut along these pattern lines and treated with ribbon-shaped glazed ceramics. keywords: ceramics, decoration, mausoleum, tiles, cut pattern, vinegar, mosaic, ganch, mold, terracotta, mosque, epigraphic, bow, ribbon, veneer. amir temur's mosque in samarkand, known as bibihanim, the white palace complex in shahrisabz and the mausoleum of jahongir (hazrat imam), the tombs of khoja ahmad yassavi in turkestan still amaze everyone with their size and rich, various ceramic ornaments. the smaller buildings the mausoleum of amir temur in samarkand, the mausoleum and khanaqah of amir temur's wife shaman of tuman aga in the dungeon, and the mausoleum of zangi-ota in tashkent also belong to that period. in the first half of the 15th century, the ruler of samarkand, the famous astronomer mirzo ulugbek built a number of large ceramic-covered buildings in bukhara, samarkand, gijduvan and shakhrisabz, close to the types of decorative coatings of the xiv-xv centuries. naturally, large-sized buildings with a large number of rooms need to update the shape and types of architectural decorative coatings designed for relatively small, often single-room buildings, which have become a tradition in earlier times. although the new constructions retain the previously known types and styles of architectural ceramics, new decorations are added to them and they blend into each other. in the cladding of buildings that are new for the period under consideration, along with products made of clay ceramics and faience, a method of using cut natural stone (marble) was also created. in this case, draw a pattern of girih marked on the stone surface, giving it a thickness of 1.5-2.0 cm, cut and dig along the lines of this pattern, and install in the excavated pits a mysterious ceramic in the form of a ribbon using a mixture of ganch. this method is called "inlay". this method has been used in many monuments in uzbekistan, in particular, in the design of the lower part of the walls of the ulugbek madrasah in samarkand. the roof arches, the arches at the entrance, the ornate displays on the roofs, the izora of the outer walls are lined 13 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us side by side with mosaic terraces and multi-colored rivets, cut-and-paste stones of various shapes. the large surface of the walls, the ceilings, the body of the towers are decorated with girih patterns, written ornaments and tiled patterns that are visible from a long distance and are enlarged. mosaic made of vinegar tiles blue, sapphire, white, sometimes green nasvai tiles, laid on the floor of unglazed terracotta tiles the same size as those vinegar tiles. a seam of about 1 cm is left between the tiles. they are glued to the wall with a plaster mixture. a network of modular squares was often used to draw the tile pattern. the size of the patterned wall surface, the longdistance view of the pattern or inscription is taken into account. as the modulus of the pattern, the size of a single net in a square net was taken, which was the same as the size of the tile to be dialed. the larger tiles used in the 14th and 15th centuries ranged in size from 19.8 to 21 x 5.5 to 6 cm, while the smaller ones ranged from 17.5 to 18.5 x 4.5 to 5.3 cm. various forms of finely patterned faience mosaic terrace in the style of tile are combined with tile terracotta or cut stone. multi-colored rivet boards of various shapes are also placed on the terracotta floor. examples are the side towers of the main building of the bibikhanum mosque in samarkand or the entrance towers of the white palace in shahrisabz. this method was also used at the entrance to the ulugbek madrasah in samarkand (1420) (figure 1) . figure 1. ulugbek madrasah and bibihanim mosque in samarkand. mud ceramic-based rivets were widely used during this period. although their shapes retain the appearance of previous centuries, their dimensions are enlarged. the size of some ceramic parts (muqarnas, sharafs) is so large that special devices are made on the back to fasten them to the wall. on the back of the rivets, which are not large in size, special grooves with a diameter of 1-2 and a depth of 1-1.5 cm are made so that they are well connected with the ceramic tile mixture. the path of epigraphic and decorative patterns is covered with large square, rectangular and hexagonal shaped ceramic tiles. the towers, sometimes the views, the arches of the arches (tympanums) and the arched shelves were covered with mysterious patterns and hexagonal rivets with a gold solution to the ceramic paint. an important feature of the architectural decorations used from the end of the x1v century to the end of the first half of the xv century is the huge surfaces covered with various ceramic tiles, the light color of the polished glazes, the many used gold cases. even in the ceramic cladding of small buildings, cross-section ceramics are not involved. only in the pavilion built by ulugbek in the garden square outside the city of samarkand, finely crafted terracotta (mosaic) patterns were created, and a white glazed cobalt pattern was used. this pattern was used in conjunction with chinese porcelain hexagonal patterns. tea with a national mosaic was also used in the 14 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us interiors of buildings. hexagonal blue and bright green tiles are surrounded by ribbons of elegant plant-like borders. in the second half of the xv century in public buildings built in samarkand there is a use of ceramic ornaments of a new order. an example of this is the monument "shrine" (figure 2). figure 2. ceramic ornaments used in historical monuments of samarkand. thus, of the various ceramic ornaments used in the fourteenth century, only the cross-sectional ceramic mosaic or tile-cutting style, multi-colored rivets on a clay base, and hexagonal rivets of the same color used in izora go back to the 15th century. vinegar cut ceramics disappear completely. in some cases, cut terracotta and multi-colored rivets based on embossed tiles slightly raised above the wall surface. fifteenth-century ornaments include simpler, clearer glazed faience-based embroidered perfectly crafted rivets. during the 15th century, terracotta with a polished surface played an important role in laying the groundwork for mysterious ceramic patterns. this was the only method of ceramic coatings in the first half of the xiv century, and from the second half of this century in uzbekistan was a period of their high level of development. the ceramic coatings of this period are distinguished, first of all, by the fact that they fully accepted the experience and traditions of cross-section terracotta of the xii century, and the surface of cross-section terracotta is completely glazed. they are so close to each other that even looking at some of the terracotta elements found in the shahi-zinda excavations, one can imagine that they were the raw material for the production of 14th century vinegar ceramic tiles. that is why, although the main role in the decoration of several mausoleums in shahi-zinda is played by cross-glazed ceramics (mosaics), in addition to it, in the xiv century the second appearance of this decoration clay-based ceramic rivets appeared. the mausoleum of amir burunduk (second half of the 14th century), the mausoleum of tuglutekin (1375-76), the mausoleum of amirzoda (1386) are among them. yellow, green and yellow-green dyes were also added to the ceramic vinegar paints in the patterns. red was used in very limited sizes. from about the middle of the 14th century, faience was used in the decoration of buildings, along with cut glazed ceramics and clay-based multi-colored rivets: first in slightly raised embossed square slabs (khoja ahmad mausoleum in shahizin), and then in the form of larger tiled parts of folded panels. these include the main style of the tomb of shadi-mulk (1372) in shahi-zinda and the panels in the interior. later, the tiles appear to be limited to cross-section ceramics and the clay is transferred to rivet-based tiles on a ceramic base. for example, the unnamed mausoleum №2 in shahizinda or the mausoleum of the great sultan beg. in their 15 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us decoration there is a panel made of small faience elements. between the blue ceramic grille are installed tiles of various shapes, and on the roof parts are installed large tiles with multi-colored patterns. on the surface of all the patterns on the tiles, gold-striped ribbons pass. the next development of the 14th century faience veneers is reflected in the cross-sectional ceramic mosaic, ie koshinburr, with six types of vinegar paint. the mausoleum of shirinbeka ako (1385) in shahi-zinda and the mausoleum of tuman ako and khanaqohi are clear examples of this. the richly patterned cladding of the tuman ako mausoleum and room, which dates back to the beginning of the 15th century, is a logical continuation of the development of mosaic cladding. in particular, for central asia, the decoration of the tuman aqa mausoleum is a turning point in the development of ceramic mosaics. because in the constructions of the xv-xvi centuries and later, the novelty and rise in the art of this tile is almost imperceptible (fig. 3). figure 3. patterns of the oqsaroy and gori amir monuments. drawings by e.n. semyonov. a ceramic column mounted on the outer corners of the mausoleums, i.e., the various styles of ornaments of the bouquets, are in harmony with the patterned styles of the roofs. on the roof of the mausoleums decorated with cross-linked ceramics (mausoleums of the 1360s in shahi-zinda) or in a columnar vase of the same ceramics decorated with faience-based rivets (shahi-zinda khoja ahmad mausoleum, mid-x1v century). the artistic pattern of this type of bouquet is covered with vinegar tiles of different colors. this type of bouquet is known in the form of brick terracotta from the tombs of the xii century in uzgent. in the 14th century, only a secret was given to the face of the tiles. this type of bouquet is found in the decoration of the tomb of tuglu tekin in the combination of cross-linked vinegar ceramics and multi-colored rivets on a clay base. the surface of the madoxil-shaped rivets on the flower-handle is decorated with a golden solution of multi-colored vinegar patterns. the third type of bouquets of the 14th century is cylindrical, the surface of which is covered with terracotta terracotta (shadi property mausoleum in shahi-zinda) or ceramic paint (mausoleum of usta ali in shahi-zinda), which corresponds to the pattern of the roof. . considering the generalized decorative coverings of the 14th century monuments, during this period the main part of the buildings was mostly decorated. the rest of the styles, depending on the location of the monument, are either not decorated at all or are decorated in a simpler way with a pair of bricks or terracotta tiles with "bow" tiles. sometimes, for this purpose, the surface of the brick was cut longitudinally with a seam in the middle (shahi the mausoleum of 1360 in the dungeon and the mausoleum of master ali. xiv century). the domes are covered with blue tiles according to old traditions. in some cases, the domes on the terracotta floor are decorated with patterns made of large blue and laurel tiles. 16 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. temur's rules. –tashkent, 1991. 2. rui gonzalez de klavixo. diary of a trip to samarkand to the temple of temura (1403-1406) .m .: nauka, 1990.-p.134-135. 3. sharafiddin ali yazdiy. zafarnoma. national translation of a.urinbaev and sh.musaev from persian.//dialogue, 1991. issue 1. 72 pages. 4. maxmatqulov, i. t., & sherqulova, d. g. (2022). symbolic meanings and characteristics of patterns and decorations in central asian architectural monuments in the xiv-xv centuries. eurasian journal of academic research, 2(2), 744-749. 5. turdimurodovich, m. i. (2023). toshkent viloyatidagi shayx xovandi tohur va zangi ota maqbara majmualarining joylashuvi va kompozitsiyaviy yechimlari. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(3), 68-71. 6. mahmatqulov, i., & mavlonov, m. (2023). turar-joylarni me’moriy– landshaft tashkillashtirish va loyihalashning zamonaviy an’analarini tashkillashtirishning ilg’or an’analari. евразийский журнал академических исследований, 3(1 part 5), 27-31. 7. mahmatqulov, i., & sherqulova, d. (2023). samarqanddagi zamonaviy shaharsozlik ob’yektlarida naqsh va bezaklarni qo’llanilish asoslari. евразийский журнал академических исследований, 3(1 part 4), 161-166. 8. elmuradovna, j. e., turdimurodovich, m. i., & zuyadullayevich, z. u. (2020). modern tourist requirements in samarkand. international journal of scientific and technology research, 9(4), 1538-1540. 9. turdimurodovich, m. i. (2018). the analysis of town-planning conditions of placement of hanakah buildings in the structure of central asian cities. international journal of scientific and technology research, 7(4), 238-240. 10. zubaydullayev, u. z., & maxmatqulov, i. t. (2021). architecture self-built khanaka buildings of medieval central asia. world bulletin of management and law, 3, 56-59. 309 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 types and normative rules of the architecture of general education school buildings khudayberdieva odina saidirasul-kizi national named after kamoliddin behzod institute of art and design 1st stage graduate student abstract: today, many measures are being taken to improve the quality of education in our country. in particular, the practical work carried out in the buildings of the general education school finds its expression. this article talks about the shortcomings, problems and achievements of the interiors of general education school buildings in the years of soviet colonialism and independence in uzbekistan. key words: comprehensive school, modern education, educational buildings, classroom, school buildings, architectural solutions of buildings, standard schools general educational institutions are educational institutions that provide education to students, ensure their development as perfect human beings in all aspects, and engage in aesthetic education. from the first days of his presidency, the head of our state has been paying great attention to the issues of raising creative and innovative thinking, patriotic youth in our country, and for this purpose, improving the education system. in particular, many meetings are being held to eliminate deficiencies and problems in secondary schools. according to article 50 of chapter ix (economic, social, cultural and environmental rights) of the newly revised constitution of the republic of uzbekistan: the state creates conditions for the development of preschool education and upbringing. the state guarantees free general secondary education and primary professional education. general secondary education is compulsory. pre-school education and upbringing, general secondary education are under state control.[1] resolution no. 832 of the cabinet of ministers dated 31.12.2020 "on the approval of the regulation on the procedure for the development of projects based on the requirements of the 310 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us "modern school" and the control of construction and installation works in general secondary educational institutions" was adopted.[2] during the former union, many schools were built in the territory of our republic. they were divided into 3 groups according to the volume-spatial composite solution. 1. linear; 2. centralized; 3. blocky (fig. 1). [3] picture 1 linear composition can be expressed in several ways: h-shaped, t-shaped, p-shaped, etc. this composition is very compact and simple in design. it also has its drawbacks. it is difficult to overcome the corridor nature in these types of schools. linear composition is suitable for relatively small (up to 20 classes) schools located in a quiet area. this option ensures the isolation of students in accordance with their age and the same period in the creation of recreation areas. (figure 2) [4] picture 2. linear composition the centralized compositional scheme is characterized by the placement of groups of rooms around an open courtyard intended for recreation during breaks and various school ceremonies. this composition is also very convenient for a large school capacity. the "circularity" of horizontal communications creates a convenient connection between buildings, which is important for the classroom teaching system. (figure 3) 311 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us picture 3. centralized (perimeter) composition. block composition has flexibility. that is, it can be presented in many options. the block solution allows changing the composition of school buildings according to local conditions without disturbing the typical design of the blocks. (figure 4) picture 4. block type school in this composition, school buildings are connected to each other by a passageway or consist of adjacent functional blocks. in the first option, it is possible to isolate students according to their age. that is, it is possible to have separate floors of primary and upper classes. it is appropriate to build four-story schools in city centers or narrow areas. in block or centralized compositions, the exterior design and floors may vary, and it is desirable to reduce the number of floors for lower class blocks. in linear composition, it is not possible to have different number of layers. [5] 312 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the height of the floors of the school building should be 3.3 m. the height of the meeting rooms is taken according to the technological requirements and should be equal to the height of the sports hall according to the rule. [6] in general, the architecture of the school building, despite the complexity of its planning structure, should be organically connected with the simple, natural environment. each element must correspond to its functional purpose, design solution and the role it plays in the architecture of the building. the main part of the external appearance of the school buildings is the external walls, the solution of which depends on the material and the level of providing the buildings with the necessary light. also, the contrast of the surfaces, the rhythm and patterns of the window panes, the texture and color of the surfaces are a means of achieving the artistic expressiveness of school buildings. the main emphasis in the composition is the entrance, the wall of which, unlike the flat walls of the classroom, can be designed more freely and voluminously. it is important to use monumental and practical works of art to create the artistic image of the school, and to form the artistic perception of children. general education school for the 33rd grade (block option) in the composition of the school building, its interior design is of great importance. the shape and color of the lobby, lobby, recreation areas, hall of activists and corridors, lighting of classrooms and harmony with nature are the basis of interior design. color, structure of finishing materials, lighting devices, furniture and other equipment play an important role in creating the interior environment of the school. correct application of color is very important. in rooms intended for a short stay (lounges, lobby, dining room), the color scheme can be bright and impressive. in long-term buildings, especially in rooms intended for classrooms, it is advisable to use light and subdued colors. general education school for 36 classes (block option) 313 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in conclusion, during the soviet union, several types of standard schools were built in our country. they had their own advantages and disadvantages. even today, students are studying in these institutions in our country. taking into account the shortcomings of these schools, several new schools have been established in recent years. i believe that those schools were well built and educated a large number of students. defects in buildings should be eliminated and an innovative approach to their design should be taken. references: 1. o’zbekiston respublikasi yangi tahrirdagi konstitutsiyasi 2. www.oriens .uz 3. http://stroy-spravka.ru/article/kompozitsiya-shkolnykh-zdanii-i-ikh-interer 4. композиция школьных здании и их интерьер 5. sh. x. yunusov bin ova inshootlar tipologiyasi. 6. sultanova, m., tabibov, a., xalilov, i., valijonov, t., & abdukarimov, b. . (2023). principles of the formation of theater buildings and performances of the 15th 17th centuries. spast abstracts, 2(02). retrieved from https://spast.org/techrep/article/view/4502. 7. sultanova muhayyo fahriddinovna the formation of art and architecture of the ancient period // european journal of arts. 2023. №1. url: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-formation-of-art-and-architecture-ofthe-ancient-period (дата обращения: 05.01.2024). 13.https://lex.uz/docs/-5599831. 8. salomova f.l., mannopova n.r., matniyazov z. the role of furniture in human life // экономика и социум. 2021. №10 (89). url: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-role-of-furniture-in-human-life (дата обращения: 05.01.2024). 9. tohirjon qizi, h. s. ., & kasimov, o. (2022). o`zbek multiplikatsion filmlarini targ`ib qilishdagi muammolar va ularning yechimi. общественные науки в современном мире: теоретические и практические исследования, 1(12), 48–50. извлечено от https://inacademy.uz/index.php/zdif/article/view/644. 10. kasimov o. s. et al. oliy ta’lim muassasalarida mavjud muzeylarning zamonaviy dizayn konsepsiyasi (mgu toshkent filiali misolida) //общественные науки в современном мире: теоретические и практические исследования. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 12. – с. 51-57. 11. kasimov o. s. formation of landscape design in china //zbiór artykułów naukowych recenzowanych. – с. 20. 12. kasimov o., qaxramonovna n. f. trends and innovations in modern museum interiors in uzbekistan on the example of the wax museum //central asian journal of arts and design. – 2023. – т. 4. – №. 6. – с. 13-19. 13. ismaildjanovich r. m. the place of landscape architecture, traditional landscape and horticulture in urban planning. – 2021. http://stroy-spravka.ru/article/kompozitsiya-shkolnykh-zdanii-i-ikh-interer https://spast.org/techrep/article/view/4502 https://in-academy.uz/index.php/zdif/article/view/644 https://in-academy.uz/index.php/zdif/article/view/644 314 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 14. latipovich t. a. experience of using operated roofs abroad //international journal on orange technologies. – 2023. – т. 5. – №. 3. – с. 19-23. 15. latipovich a. t. planning decision of landscape objects and laf on exploited roofs //central asian journal of mathematical theory and computer sciences. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 10. – с. 128-131. 16. tabibov, a. l. (2023). modern architectural and artistic look of the city of tashkent. central asian journal of arts and design, 4(9), 47-50. retrieved from https://cajad.centralasianstudies.org/index.php/cajad/article/view/413. https://cajad.centralasianstudies.org/index.php/cajad/article/view/413 50 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 06, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 sulfur mines are mined by underground smelting ergasheva zulkhumor abdaaliyevna tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov assistant teacher zaytova madina nazarbay kizi student of nukus mining institute abstract: the article deals with the extraction of sulfur minerals from underground by nontraditional (geotechnological) methods. in particular, this method is effective due to its uniqueness and simple technology. this method is widely used in the extraction of small or deep sulfur bodies from sulfur mining. low melting temperature of sulfur mineral, i.e., ease of movement is the basis for this method. sulfur minerals brought to a state of motion are brought to the surface with the help of wells. keywords: sulfur, underground melting, well, geotechnological method, autoclave, hydrothermal waters. sulfur (s) is a chemical element belonging to group vi of mendeleev's periodic system, atomic number 16, atomic mass 32, and making up 2% of the earth's crust by mass. in nature, sulfur is found free (purely native) and in the form of compounds. the most important natural compounds of the sulfur element are metal sulfides, such as mas, fes2 iron colchaden (pyrite), zns zinc cheater, pbs glenite, cu2s copper glitter, etc. in the case of sulfur sulfates, anhydrite caso4, gypsum caso4-2h2o, heavy spar baso4, glauber's salt, etc. also occurs. in addition, element sulfur is present in the form of organic and inorganic compounds in coal, shale, oil, natural gases, animal and plant organisms. pure native sulfur is found in several allotropic forms in mexico, usa, italy, japan, cis countries. rhombic lattice sulfur is yellow, density 2.07 g/cm³ (at 20°), melting point 112.8° c, boiling point 445° c. monoclinic sulfur consists of prismatic clear crystals, density 1.96 g/cm³, melting point 118.9° c. if we conclude from this, if the element of sulfur is heated, that is, if heat is sent to the body of sulfur at 120° c, it will melt and turn into a mobile liquid of yellow color. at 160°c, it turns brown and becomes viscous. sulfur combines with almost all elements except inert gases, nitrogen, iodine, platinum, gold. it ignites at 250° in oxygen and 360° in air. after the invention of coal, industrial production of sulfur increased significantly. one of the main reasons for this is that sulfur became an integral part of the industry along with coal and saltpeter. today, sulfur is an important raw material in many branches of the chemical industry. the annual consumption of sulfur in the world is about 20-24 million tons. its industrial consumers are sulfuric acid, paper, rubber, matches, pyrotechnics, means and preparations for combating pests in the national economy, partly medicine, etc. sulfur is one of the most abundant elements in the earth's crust, its share is 0.03%. however, sulfur in pure form is not common, it is often found in mixtures. its pure state is a rock composed of pure sulfur (s). sulfur ores are mined in different ways depending on the conditions of formation. but in any case, a lot of attention is paid to safety, because sulfur mines are almost always accompanied by the release of toxic gases and sulfur compounds. in addition, sulfur is highly prone to 51 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us spontaneous combustion. until the end of the 19th century, sulfur was mined in the open pit like other mineral deposits. as usual, the cover rocks were opened with the help of excavators and other equipment, and the ore was extracted from the massif, mined, loaded and transported. extraction of sulfur by smelting underground wells. the united states and mexico are the world's largest suppliers of sulfur, and the reason for this, of course, was the new methods of sulfur mining. at the same time (at the end of the 19th century), geologists discovered deposits rich in sulfur ore in the southern parts of the united states. but the sulfur layer was not easy to reach in this period and was not economically efficient. because the sulfur layers were much deeper than the surface of the earth. chemist hermann frasch found a way to melt sulfur underground under the influence of heat in a geotechnological method and extract it to the surface like oil through wells. the fact that sulfur melts at a relatively low temperature of less than 120°c proved frasch's idea to be true. in principle, the implementation of the frasch technology was very simple, since it consisted only of drilling wells into the sulfur body and abscising. superheated water is piped into the sulfur body and the sulfur is dissolved. in most cases, hydrothermal waters were used, because in order to bring the sulfur to 120 ° c, even higher temperature water or steam had to be sent through the wells. bringing the water to this temperature would have caused a lot of trouble on the surface, so the use of hydrothermal waters found underground was the only option. dissolved sulfur rises through pipes heated on all sides. water pipes that can withstand the above temperatures are used when laying pipes along the well. the third modern version of the flash technology is the installation of narrow tubes through which compressed air is sent down. as a result, dissolved sulfur rises to the surface. the main advantages of this method created by frash:  getting relatively pure sulfur at the first stage of extraction;  ore mining is technically and economically cheap;  high efficiency in ore mining. in the past, only the "salt domes" of the pacific coast of the united states and mexico were thought to be able to extract sulfur by underground smelting, because the special characteristics of the land itself allowed this method to be used. however, the experiments conducted in poland and the ussr rejected this idea. during this period, people in poland were already extracting sulfur in this way. in 1968, the first sulfur wells were commissioned in the ussr. sulfur ores mined in quarries and mines had to be processed. in this method, the cost of processing was very low or almost non-existent. later, steam water, filtration, thermal, centrifugal and extraction methods of non-conventional sulfur extraction were added to the extraction methods. the thermal method of underground sulfur extraction is considered ancient. in the 18th century, in the kingdom of neopalus, sulfur heaps were melted with "solfatars". until now, in italy, sulfur is melted in primitive "calcarone" furnaces. here, the heat needed to melt the sulfur from the ore body is obtained by burning some of the sulfur being mined. this process is inefficient, with losses as high as 45%. because burning coal to heat water at the temperature necessary to melt sulfur is not effective because the price of coal is higher than sulfur. italy became the home of steam methods for extracting sulfur from ores. in 1859, giuseppe gill received a patent for his apparatus. it is the ancestor of autoclaves. the autoclave method is still used in many countries and has been greatly improved. during the autoclave process, the sulfur ore concentrate enriched with up to 80% of sulfur is poured into the aktoclav after being made into a liquid slurry with reagents. water vapor is supplied there under strong pressure, the pulp heats up to 130°c, the sulfur contained in the concentrate dissolves and is separated from the ore. after a short period of cooling, the dissolved sulfur separates. then the waste is removed from the autoclave (aqueous suspension) and, since the waste still contains a lot of sulfur, it is processed again. in russia, the autoclave method was first used by engineer k. g. patkanov in 1896. today, a modern autoclave is as large as a four-story building, and such autoclaves are installed, in 52 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us particular, at the sulfur smelting plant of the rozdolsk mining and chemical combine in the carpathian region. references: 1. oʻgʻli r. z. y., abdaaliyevna e. z. 3d technological system of management of geological exploration processes of mining enterprises. – 2022. 2. mustapaevich d. k. et al. underground mine mining systems and technological parameters of mine development //international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research issn: 2277-3630 impact factor: 7.429. – 2022. – т. 11. – №. 10. – с. 110-117. 3. mustapaevich d. k. o’telbayev azizbek alisher o’g’li, o’razmatov jonibek ikromboy o’g’li, & mnajatdinov dastan mnajatdin o’g’li.(2021). properties of coal, processes in coal mining companies, methods of coal mining in the world. journalnx-a multidisciplinary peer reviewed journal, 7 (10), 231–236. 4. umirzoqov a. justification of rational parameters of transshipment points from automobile conveyor to railway transport //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2020. 5. djaksimuratov k. comprehensive monitoring of surface deformation in underground mining, prevention of mining damage. modern technologies and their role in mining //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2021. 6. alisher o‘g o. a. et al. conveyor belt structure and mode of operation in mines //eurasian journal of engineering and technology. – 2022. – т. 11. – с. 72-80. 7. khayitov o. et al. calculation and development of a model of the blasting area in mining enterprises //international bulletin of engineering and technology. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 5. – с. 5-12. 8. ravshanov z. 3d technological system of management of geological exploration processes of mining enterprises //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2022. 9. bekbawlievich s. b. et al. prospects for the rational use of iron ore of sultan uvays at the tebinbulak deposit //galaxy international interdisciplinary research journal. – 2021. – т. 9. – №. 12. – с. 609-613. 10. ravshanov z. mining processes of drilling machines //information about the technological alarm system of drilling machines. – 2022. 11. ravshanov z. et al. evaluation of the strength of rocks in open mining processes in mining enterprises //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. a4. – с. 96-100. 12. ravshanov z. et al. methods of determining the safety and environmental impact of dust and explosion processes in mining enterprises //international bulletin of applied science and technology. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 415-423. 13. mustapaevich d. k. et al. underground mine mining systems and technological parameters of mine development //international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research issn: 2277-3630 impact factor: 7.429. – 2022. – т. 11. – №. 10. – с. 110-117. 14. axmet o’g’li m. a. et al. in geological and geotechnical processes in the mine use of technological scanning equipment in the underground mining method //intent research scientific journal. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 1. – с. 20-27. 15. alisher o‘g o. a. et al. mining technological equipment that determines the slope angles of the mine by means of laser beams. – 2023. 53 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 16. ravshanov z. determination of mineral location coordinates in geotechnology and mining enterprises //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2023. 17. djaksimuratov k. comprehensive monitoring of surface deformation in underground mining, prevention of mining damage. modern technologies and their role in mining //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2021. 18. хайитов о. г. и др. особенности разработки пластового месторождения фосфоритов //глобус. – 2020. – №. 5 (51). – с. 19-21. 19. хайитов о., умирзоков а., равшанов з. анализ текущего состояния и пути повышения эффектиности разработки нефтегазовых месторождений юго-восточной части бухарохивинского региона //матеріали конференцій мцнд. – 2020. – с. 8-11. 20. g’ofurovich k. o. et al. justification of rational parameters of transshipment points from automobile conveyor to railway transport //world economics and finance bulletin. – 2021. – т. 1. – №. 1. – с. 20-25. 21. oʻgʻli r. z. y., abdaaliyevna e. z. 3d technological system of management of geological exploration processes of mining enterprises. – 2022. 22. ravshanov, z. (2022). mining processes of drilling machines. information about the technological alarm system of drilling machines. 23. ravshanov, z. (2023). coal mine design and explosion prevention studies. 24. ravshanov z. research on selection and performance improvement of blast hole drilling equipment //international scientific journal «modern science аnd research». – 2023. 25. ravshanov, z. (2023). instructions for creating a step-by-step pit design in mining enterprises. 26. yahyo o'g'li r. z. et al. instructions for creating a step-by-step pit design in mining enterprises //open access repository. – 2023. – т. 10. – №. 6. – с. 1-6. 27. ravshanov z. y., ergasheva z. a., sailau a. m. karyerlarning pastki gorizontlaridagi kon massasini avtomobil transportlarida tashish usullarini tanlash //инновационные исследования в современном мире: теория и практика. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 20. – с. 4-6. 28. ravshanov z., ergasheva z., sailau a. measures of recultivation of mining area in quarries //international conference on management, economics & social science. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 54-56. 29. abdaaliyevna e. z. et al. coal mine design and explosion prevention studies //nexus: journal of advances studies of engineering science. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 255-259. 30. ravshanov z. расчет устойчивости нижнего участка борта карьера «мурунтау» с учетом программной комплекс «ustoi» //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2021. 31. ravshanov z. technological stages of determining the distance to the location of rocks in the development of a 3d model of mining enterprises //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2022. 32. ravshanov z. анализ текущего состояния и пути повышения эффектиности разработки нефтегазовых месторождений юговосточной части бухаро-хивинского региона //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2020. 39 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 1, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 lithological and stratigraphic features of the geological structure of the assakeaudan trough khayitov odiljon gofurovich candidate of geological and mineralogical sciences, associate professor, head of the department "mining", 100095, republic of uzbekistan, tashkent, university street, 2, tashkent state technical university qoshsayev uchkun quvvatovich tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov associate professor ergasheva zulkhumor abdaaliyevna, barotov vasliddin nusrat ugli tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov assistant teacher abstract: this article examines the lithological and stratigraphic features of the geological structure of the assakeaudan trough. based on the drilling data, a structural map and a thickness map were compiled, and correlation schemes were analyzed to clarify the structure of the studied territory. discovering productive horizons based on research results presents the greatest difficulties. in almost all fields of the assakeaudian trough, opening and drilling in productive formations were carried out with a significant excess of bottomhole pressure over reservoir pressure. the possibility of absorption occurring and its intensity depend not only on the excess of the bottomhole pressure over the formation pressure, but also on the reservoir properties of the rocks, on what the reservoir is filled with. keywords: geological structure, jurassic deposits, trap, structural type of deposit, trough, fold, lithological wedging, stratigraphic unconformity. the development of the oil and gas industry is due to an increase in the volume of prospecting and exploration work due to the active introduction of their new methodological techniques into the detailing of non-structural and combined (structural, structural-lithological, tectonically screened) types of traps in zones of lithological pinch-outs and stratigraphic unconformities in many sediments of the world. in this regard, one of the priority tasks of oil and gas geology is the search and exploration of new oil and gas fields in poorly studied areas in deeply submerged horizons of the sedimentary cover of raw materials. rocks from the upper paleozoic to neogene-quaternary formations take part in the structure of the sedimentary cover and the intermediate structural level of the territory. information on six drilled wells on the site in combination with deep drilling materials, i.e., mainly, data from reference and parametric wells (shakhpakhty 2p, tasayuk 1p, assakeaudan 1op), adjacent territories, allowed us to get an idea of the geological structure of this territory. sediments of the cambrian, ordovician, silurian, devonian systems within the study area are not currently exposed. within this territory, terrigenous formations dated as upper carboniferous-lower permian were discovered. in wells located within the block (kossor 3p, v.assakeaudan 3) and in adjacent 40 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us areas (shakhpakhty 2p, kindyksay 1, etc.) they are represented predominantly by gray-colored mudstones, siltstones, sandstones and gravelites. at the boundary of the carboniferous-lower permian stratigraphic interval and the overlying upper permian-triassic [55; with. 256] the kungur-kazan deposits are distinguished, taking into account drilling and seismic data. according to his data, the kungur-ufa deposits on ustyurt should include the predominantly black mudstone-siltstone strata exposed in the sudochi trough, on the takhtakair swell and in the assakeaudan trough. it does not contain volcanic rocks and rests with sharp unconformity on carboniferous-lower permian carbonate-terrigenous and volcanic rocks. sandstones are gray, sometimes greenish-gray, fine-, mediumand coarse-grained, quartzfeldspathic, clayey, calcareous, micaceous. in some layers, inclusions of pebbles ranging in size from 0.5 to 1 cm of medium roundness are observed. siltstones are gray, dark gray, brownish-brown in places, quartz feldspathic, with poor visible porosity, sandy, polymictic, with gravel, slightly calcareous, with cracks oriented at an angle of 60–75° and filled with calcite. the mudstones are dark brown, siltstone, calcareous, banded, with an uneven fracture, dense, and strong. outside the western part of the block, in well no. 1 kindyksay, in deposits of this age, petrographic studies revealed heterogeneous tuff sandstone of a brownish-gray color, with a predominance of lithoclasts [60%], where andesitic and andesite-basaltic porphyries, often ferruginous, are widespread. rocks in general are characterized by compaction and steep dips of layers [60–700]. there are interlayers of limestone, micrograined with organic remains and an admixture of carbonized plant detritus. poorly preserved organic remains are mostly undetectable; occasionally, the remains of echinoderms and foraminifera are distinguished among them. the age of thiunevens strata is established based on the study of organic remains, the age of which was determined by kh. uzakov (1996) as upper carboniferous-lower permian. in well no. 3p kossor, the contents in the rock of a large number of three-rayed sculptured spores of the genus laevigatosporites ibrahim., as well as single-sac pollen, indicate the early permian age of the sediments that host them (yu.m. kuzichkina, kh.. uzakov. 1990). the exposed thickness of terrigenous formations is 60 m. within the assakeaudan trough, sporadic development of the permian-triassic with a thickness of 0 to 1000 m or more is observed, the age of which is substantiated by the spore-pollen complex described by various researchers. the composition of these deposits is somewhat different from the formations of ustyurt characteristic of this age in that they are saturated with coarse clastic rocks gravesites and conglomerates. within the study area, in well no. 3p kossor, a fairly thick [about 1009 m] red-colored strata of the upper permian-lower triassic was discovered, which, with stratigraphic and angular unconformity, lies on sediments of upper paleozoic age. lithologically exposed deposits are represented by red conglomerates, gravelites, sandstones, siltstones and mudstones. in the lower part of the section there are sandstones and mudstones with interlayers of organogenic and organogenic-clastic limestones, siltstones and gravelites, dense, red-colored. sandstones are gray, dark gray, cherry-brown, quartz-feldspathic, fine-, mediumand heterogeneous, polymictic, clayey, slightly calcareous, slightly mica, fractured, with an uneven fracture, dense, strong. 41 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us siltstones are greenish-gray, brownish-cherry with a greenish tint, spotted, fine, medium and inequigranular, weakly calcareous, clayey with small cracks, often filled with carbonate matter, lens-shaped, with an uneven fracture, dense, strong. in the middle part there are gravelites, sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and thin layers of limestone. in the pebbles of carbonate rocks, g.d. kireeva identified the schwagerinasp. fauna, characteristic of the early permian. the gravelites are brownish-brown, dense, strong, quartz-feldspathic, with the inclusion of large pebbles up to 5 cm in size, an gray sandy-silty-clayey fracture with rare interlayers of lensshaped siltstones and sandstones. the sandstones are polymictic, brownish-brown, with greenish-gray spots, fine, medium and heterogeneous with rare inclusions of gravel grains, slightly clayey, calcareous, slightly mica. siltstones are brownish-brown, cherry, quartz-feldspar, with inclusions of gravel grains of quartz composition up to 1 cm in size, dense, medium strength, clayey, calcareous, weakly mica. in the upper part there are red sandstones, siltstones, clays with numerous interlayers and lenslike inclusions of gravelite and conglomerate. sandstones are brown, reddish-brown, strong, dense, quartz-feldspathic, spotted. siltstones are brownish-brown, medium and coarse-grained with rare inclusions of gravel grains up to 1 cm, slightly calcareous, clayey, slightly mica with an uneven fracture, dense, of medium strength. the gravelites are brownish-brown, quartz-feldspathic, calcareous, weakly mica, clayey with interlayers of coarse-grained sandstone and siltstone, of medium strength, dense and with an uneven fracture. this section is also characterized by the presence of a large number of rock fragments of siliceous and effusive formations, and in places, tuffs. permo-triassic strata are depleted in organic matter due to the oxidizing nature of their formation environment. chemical and bituminological studies (using the example of well no. 3p kossor) have established that the content of organic matter is on average 0.07%, chloroform bitumen “a” per rock is 0.004%. the ratio of iron forms indicates a weakly oxidizing sedimentation environment. the reservoir properties of sandy-silty rocks are low: open porosity 3.02–5.5%, total porosity 3.4–5.9%, no permeability, density 2.55–2.61 g/cm3 . permian-triassic strata exposed within the northern side of the assakeaudan trough (kossor 3p, shakhpakhty 2p) can be classified as typical mollas: large thickness, coarse-grained and a mixture of all types of rocks. sedimentation of permo-triassic deposits occurred mainly under oxidizing conditions. the almost complete absence of organic remains and the widespread development of red flowers suggest the accumulation of sediments in a dry, hot climate. jurassic deposits occur with erosion and angular unconformity, represented by three sections, the stratigraphic completeness and thickness of which vary from west to east. terrigenous deposits of lower jurassic age are noted to be of low thickness throughout the assakeaudian trough. the territory of the investment block was no exception. the sediments are composed predominantly of sandstones and siltstones, with a high content of carbonized residues. sandstones are light gray, gray, fine and fine-grained, dense, micaceous-clayey cement of the pore type, with a gradual transition to siltstone with poor visibility porosity. the rock is heavily clayey in places, spotted, weakly layered, with abundant inclusions of plant remains. the siltstone is light gray, highly clayey, slightly calcareous, slightly mica, with streaks of gray mudstone-like clays and inclusions of charred plant remains. in well no. 3p kossor in the interval 2472–2482 m l.s. khachieva encountered the following spore-pollen complex: cyathidites minor couper, c.junctus [k.-m.] alim, monosulcitessp., m. 42 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us subopanulosus couper, disaccites, etc. , which makes it possible to date the age of the host sediments as lower jurassic. the ratio of iron forms suggests that weakly reducing conditions prevailed during the period of accumulation and transformation of lower jurassic sediments. the reservoir properties of the rocks are characterized by the following indicators: total porosity 9.2%, open 8.6%, density within 2.43 g/cm3, no permeability. from the lower jurassic age, humidity of the climate and reduction of arid zones began; sedimentation took place in a desalinated shallow basin in a warm, humid climate. the thickness of lower jurassic deposits decreases from northwest to southeast. if in well no. 1 kindyksay the thickness of sediments is 172 m, then within the kossor area it is 124–157 m, in the east assakeaudan area it is 76–98 m. middle jurassic deposits within the study area are widespread and are represented by the undivided aalenian-bajocian and bathonian stages. lithologically, the middle jurassic deposits are represented by a terrigenous sequence of interbedded gray sandy-silty-clayey rocks. the aalenian-bajocian stage is represented by frequent alternation of sandstones, siltstones and clays with an abundance of carbonized plant remains and thin layers of coal (2–4 cm). it is characterized by thin horizontal bedding and lens-shaped microbedding. the thickness and lithological composition of the rocks varies greatly, which is associated with the continental nature of the genesis of sediments. a structural map for the conditionally reflecting horizon tiv, j2, near the top of the middle jurassic deposits is shown in picture. 1. the bathonian stage in the lower part is represented by sandstones with thin interlayers of gravestones, in the upper part by frequent alternation of gray and dark gray sandstones, siltstones and clays. the rocks are rich in charred plant remains and pyrite. picture.1. structural map based on the conditionally reflecting horizon tiv, j2 near the top of the middle jurassic deposits (according to g.v. abrasimova and g.v. surkov, 2009) conclusion. the conditions of sedimentation and the relief of the pre-jurassic surface predetermined the structural features of the lower jurassic deposits, their composition, thickness, and reservoir properties. in the western part of the assakeaudan trough, the section of lower jurassic deposits is stratigraphically divided into two age units: the lower one belongs to the undivided early sinemurian-pliensbachian age, and the upper one belongs to the toarcian 43 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us age. in the eastern part of the territory, where the thickness of the lower jurassic deposits has predicted anomalous values of up to 4–6 km, the upper part of the section (1435 m) also has a two-tier structure. references 1. oʻgʻli r. z. y., abdaaliyevna e. z. 3d technological system of management of geological exploration processes of mining enterprises. – 2022. 2. mustapaevich d. k. et al. underground mine mining systems and technological parameters of mine development //international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research issn: 2277-3630 impact factor: 7.429. – 2022. – т. 11. – №. 10. – с. 110-117. 3. mustapaevich d. k. o‟telbayev azizbek alisher o‟g‟li, o‟razmatov jonibek ikromboy o‟g‟li, & mnajatdinov dastan mnajatdin o‟g‟li.(2021). properties of coal, processes in coal mining companies, methods of coal mining in the world. journalnx-a multidisciplinary peer reviewed journal, 7 (10), 231–236. 4. umirzoqov a. justification of rational parameters of transshipment points from automobile conveyor to railway transport //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2020. 5. djaksimuratov k. comprehensive monitoring of surface deformation in underground mining, prevention of mining damage. modern technologies and their role in mining //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2021. 6. alisher o„g o. a. et al. conveyor belt structure and mode of operation in mines //eurasian journal of engineering and technology. – 2022. – т. 11. – с. 72-80. 7. khayitov o. et al. calculation and development of a model of the blasting area in mining enterprises //international bulletin of engineering and technology. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 5. – с. 5-12. 8. ravshanov z. 3d technological system of management of geological exploration processes of mining enterprises //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2022. 9. bekbawlievich s. b. et al. prospects for the rational use of iron ore of sultan uvays at the tebinbulak deposit //galaxy international interdisciplinary research journal. – 2021. – т. 9. – №. 12. – с. 609-613. 10. ravshanov z. mining processes of drilling machines //information about the technological alarm system of drilling machines. – 2022. 11. ravshanov z. et al. evaluation of the strength of rocks in open mining processes in mining enterprises //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. a4. – с. 96-100. 12. ravshanov z. et al. methods of determining the safety and environmental impact of dust and explosion processes in mining enterprises //international bulletin of applied science and technology. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 415-423. 13. mustapaevich d. k. et al. underground mine mining systems and technological parameters of mine development //international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research issn: 2277-3630 impact factor: 7.429. – 2022. – т. 11. – №. 10. – с. 110-117. 14. axmet o‟g‟li m. a. et al. in geological and geotechnical processes in the mine use of technological scanning equipment in the underground mining method //intent research scientific journal. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 1. – с. 20-27. 15. alisher o„g o. a. et al. mining technological equipment that determines the slope angles of the mine by means of laser beams. – 2023. 44 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 16. ravshanov z. determination of mineral location coordinates in geotechnology and mining enterprises //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2023. 17. djaksimuratov k. comprehensive monitoring of surface deformation in underground mining, prevention of mining damage. modern technologies and their role in mining //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2021. 18. хайитов о. г. и др. особенности разработки пластового месторождения фосфоритов //глобус. – 2020. – №. 5 (51). – с. 19-21. 19. хайитов о., умирзоков а., равшанов з. анализ текущего состояния и пути повышения эффектиности разработки нефтегазовых месторождений юго-восточной части бухарохивинского региона //матеріали конференцій мцнд. – 2020. – с. 8-11. 20. 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(2022). mining processes of drilling machines. information about the technological alarm system of drilling machines. 23. ravshanov, z. (2023). coal mine design and explosion prevention studies. 24. ravshanov z. research on selection and performance improvement of blast hole drilling equipment //international scientific journal «modern science аnd research». – 2023. 25. ravshanov, z. (2023). instructions for creating a step-by-step pit design in mining enterprises. 26. yahyo o'g'li r. z. et al. instructions for creating a step-by-step pit design in mining enterprises //open access repository. – 2023. – т. 10. – №. 6. – с. 1-6. 27. ravshanov z. y., ergasheva z. a., sailau a. m. karyerlarning pastki gorizontlaridagi kon massasini avtomobil transportlarida tashish usullarini tanlash //инновационные исследования в современном мире: теория и практика. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 20. – с. 4-6. 28. ravshanov z., ergasheva z., sailau a. measures of recultivation of mining area in quarries //international conference on management, economics & social science. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 54-56. 29. abdaaliyevna e. z. et al. coal mine design and explosion prevention studies //nexus: journal of advances studies of engineering science. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 255-259. 30. ravshanov z. расчет устойчивости нижнего участка борта карьера «мурунтау» с учетом программной комплекс «ustoi» //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2021. 31. ravshanov z. technological stages of determining the distance to the location of rocks in the development of a 3d model of mining enterprises //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2022. 32. ravshanov z. анализ текущего состояния и пути повышения эффектиности разработки нефтегазовых месторождений юговосточной части бухаро-хивинского региона //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2020. 114 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 logistics and maintenance support for vehicles in the agro-industrial complex i. m. sirojiddinova andijan machine-building institute, head of the department of humanities, candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor o. u. yulchibayev 1-st year master degree student at “andijan machine building institute” abstract: social media in marketing refers to the strategic use of social networking platforms as powerful tools for promoting and enhancing a brand’s visibility, engagement, and overall marketing objectives. this article is about the advantages of utilizing social media in marketing. keywords: social media, social networks, mass media, media space, linear communication, network communication, network interaction, network community. the approach of logistics support of agro-industrial complexes with agricultural machinery and technical means for their maintenance in the planning of tender procurement procedures is considered. the proposed approach is based on the structure of the resource support of the agro industrial complex, which is a complex organizational system. in the described structure of resources, a block of logistics support for vehicles and the material and technical resources necessary for its maintenance, the presence of which is important for solving functional and production problems, is singled out. on the basis of ongoing research, a cause an deffect diagram has been developed with the definition of the most significant problems affecting the management of transport provision in agro-industrial complexes. a methodology for the expert assessment of the most demanded types of resources is proposed and described in order to optimize the spending of financial resources and increase the level of logistics support. the study of the approach under consideration is reduced to improving the procedure for planning tender purchases by developing and applying a model for determining and substantiating technical resources that are the most in demand for fulfilling the functional tasks of the agro-industrial complexes. as a result of the proposed model, the authors developed an algorithm for planning tenders, the practical application of which is based on achieving the objectives of the efficiency of spending financial resources and reducing the timing of tender procedures and their validity in terms of adequacy. keywords: management, logistics, agricultural vehicles, technical resources, tender, procurement, agro-industrial complex. in management theory, an organizational system is a set of interrelated subsystems in the form of structural elements responsible for planning, execution, information support and control of activities. 115 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1 presents the main types of resources used by organizational systems. fig. 1. types of organizational systems resources. the effectiveness and efficiency of the organizational system is directly related to its logistics and maintenance support. the system of agro-industrial complexes is complex, which is characterized by the presence in it of a subsystem for providing material and technical resources in the form of agricultural machinery (hereinafter referred to as vehicles), which performs various functional tasks for sowing, processing, collecting and servicing agricultural products. being complex organizational systems, agro-industrial complexes, with the aim of reducing the cost of time and saving financial resources, use the institution of tender purchases when organizing logistics and maintenance support. tender purchase solves the problem of choosing the most advantageous offer for the customer in terms of quality, quantity and minimum cost of the purchased material and technical resource. in state agro-industrial complexes, the use of tender purchases is aimed at minimizing the risks of corruption, in connection with which they are regulated by strict rules for their implementation [1-2]. anti-corruption tools in the contract system are provided at the initial stage of the procurement cycle, at the stage of identifying a supplier and executing a contract, in the process of monitoring, auditing and control. justification of the procurement, which consists in the justification of its compliance with the legislation objectives, the requirements for the purchased products and the formation of the initial maximum contract price, is an anti-corruption tool at the stage of procurement planning. competition at the stage of determining a supplier and executing a contract is ensured by the presence of a wide range of competitive procurement methods, the involvement of small businesses, socially oriented businesses, and the transparency of procurement procedures. publication of planned and reporting procurement documentation in the unified information system of public procurement makes it possible to control procurements carried out by state agro-industrial complexes. an important element of the mechanism for preventing corruption risks at all stages of procurement procedures carried out by enterprises of the agro-industrial complex are anticorruption requirements for persons involved in procurement. tender purchase is characterized by several mandatory stages for its organization and implementation. one of the most important stages is to resolve the issue of planning and justifying the amount of purchased material and technical resources to serve the needs of agroindustrial complexes. in this regard, the relevance of scientific research in the field of tender purchases is aimed at creating mathematical models and algorithms that make it possible to justify a tender and calculate the amount of necessary material and technical resources for the efficient use of funds allocated for this purpose [3-9]. 116 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us on the basis of ongoing research, a cause-and-effect diagram [10] was developed with the definition of the most significant problems affecting the provision of vehicles in agroindustrial complexes (fig. 2) and the material and technical resources necessary for its maintenance (parts, fuel and lubricants, etc.). fig. 2. cause-and-effect diagram of problems affecting the logistics and maintenance support of vehicles. an empirical assessment of the impact of the identified problems was carried out by conducting a survey of the heads of structural divisions responsible for the technical condition of vehicles of the agro-industrial complex region in terms of financial savings and cost reduction for tender procedures. the survey methodology consisted in assessing the impact of identified problems on a 5-point system (the higher the impact, the higher the score). according to the results of the assessment, 5 most influencing problems in the provision of agro-industrial complexes with vehicles and its maintenance were identified (fig. 3). as can be seen from the diagram shown in fig. 3, it is important to predict the consumption of technical resources. timely forecasting of the consumption of technical resources will ensure the smooth operation of vehicles and the functioning of the production process. efficiency of spending financial resources and reducing the timing of tender purchases can be ensured by conducting procedures for the selection and justification of the purchased mode of transport and its serviced technical resources (parts, fuel and lubricants, etc.). in this regard, in conditions of limited financial resources at the planning stage of the tender, when deciding on the purchase of transport and its serviced technical resources, it is necessary to choose the maximum necessary for solving production problems. the assessment of the impact of the demand for the purchase of transport and its serviced material resources (hereinafter referred to as technical resources) is carried out at the stage of forming a tender request. 117 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig 3. results of the assessment of the impact of identified problems. the demand for technical resources is determined by the head of the structural unit, the introduction of which includes the provision of the agro-industrial complex with vehicles. the head of this unit, when making a decision, uses his experience, as well as the experience of employees directly involved in the operation and maintenance of agricultural vehicles. figure 4 presents a generalized algorithm for obtaining initial data for determining the demand for technical resources. fig. 4. block diagram of the algorithm for determining the demand for technical resources. this algorithm can be described as follows: stage 1: the manager sets the task for employees directly involved in the operation and maintenance of agricultural vehicles to submit requests for the purchase of technical 118 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us resources; stage 2: based on the submitted requests, a list of technical resources required for the purchase is formed; stage 3: a statistical analysis of the expenditure of technical resources from the list formulated for the purchase (fig. 5) is carried out based on the demand forecast; stage 4: the most demanded resources are included in the tender; stage 5: the request for the purchase of the most demanded resources is transferred to the department dealing with the organization of tenders. the distribution of financial resources allocated for the purchase of technical resources is distributed differently, depending on the demand for the purchased resources. the principle of distribution is as follows: the greater the demand for resources, the greater the allocation of funds for its purchase. an example of the distribution of financial resources according to the degree of demand for technical resources is presented in table 1. the algorithm allows maximizing the functional task of the logistics and maintenance of agricultural production by providing technical resources, which can be described by the following objective function: f1 = а ∙ x5 + b ∙ x1 + c∙ x4+ d ∙ x2+ e∙ x3→ max, (1) where: a, b, c, d, e – the impact of a technical resource on the functional task performance; x1, x2,… x5– the amount of financing for the purchase of a technical resource. fig. 5. the result of the technical resources expenditure analysis. table 1. distribution of financial resources according to the degree of demand for technical resources. 119 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us note: name of the technical resource;  the degree of assessment of the demand for a technical resource in points when assessed by experts (1 the most demanded, etc.);  the impact of a technical resource on the performance of a functional task in accordance with the function (1);  distribution of funds in accordance with the function (1). complex organizational systems, such as agro-industrial complexes, are faced with the solution of the managerial task of rational and efficient distribution of the entire resource potential. particular importance in solving this problem should be given to the rationale for planning the purchase of technical resources within the framework of logistics and maintenance support. the proposed approach to planning and purchasing the most demanded technical resources is a practical solution to the problem of distributing financial resources in complex organizational systems for tender purchases of technical resources, which makes it possible to effectively allocate financial resources and reduce the risks of freezing resources as stocks in warehouses. references 1. mahammadovna, s. i. (2021). needs and factors for developing professional and creative abilities of students of higher educational institutions. annals of the romanian society for cell biology, 25(6), 2200-2209. 2. federal law of the russian federation of 05.04.2013 no. 44 fz, url:https://base.garant.ru/70353464/ 3. federal law of the russian federation of november 18, 2011 no. 223-fz, url: https://base.garant.ru/12188083/ 4. m.v. masaleva, technologiy of technosphere safety: internet journal 4(68), 129-133 (2016) 5. n.g. topolsky, a.p. satin, m.v. masaleva, a.v. stavissky, fires and emergencies: prevention, liquidation 3, 88-93 (2018) 6. mаhammadovna, s. i. (2023). features of cluster design in modern paradigms of education. telematique, 22(01), 348-355. 7. сирожиддинова и. методика смешанной отборки при комплексном проектировании профессиональной подготовки будущих инженеров //общество и инновации. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 7/s. – с. 87-92. 8. sirojiddinova i. m. scientific and technological progress, problems and solutions in the application of artificial intelligence //american journal of language, literacy and learning in stem education (2993-2769). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 9. – с. 49-53. 9. sirojiddinova i. m. immersion of students in an uncomfortable environment as a method of activating the learning process //ta'lim va rivojlanish tahlili onlayn ilmiy jurnali. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 11. – с. 4-5. 10. сирожиддинова и. м. в комплексном проектировании профессиональной подготовки инженеров метод случайной выборки //o'zbekistonda fanlararo innovatsiyalar va ilmiy tadqiqotlar jurnali. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 16. – с. 521-523. 11. sirojiddinova i. technological character of the educational process when designing pedagogical objects //solution of social problems in management and economy. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 2. – с. 130-132. 12. maxammadovna s. i. in comprehensive design of professional training of engineers random sample method //o ‘zbekistonda fanlararo innovatsiyalar va ilmiy tadqiqotlar jurnali. – 2023 https://base.garant.ru/70353464/ 120 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 13. mаhammadovna s. i. improving the professional training of future engineers based on the cluster approach //spectrum journal of innovation, reforms and development. – 2022. – т. 3. – с. 45-47. 14. sirojiddinova, i. m. (2015). engineering students have succeeded in creating a technology cluster. pedagogy & psychology. theory and practice, 22.. 15. makhammadovna s. i. efficiency of development of professional and creative abilities of students //academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal. – 2020. – т. 70. – №. 11. – с. 1292-1296. 16. mahammadovna s. i. development of a methodological system of training based on the cluster approach //archive of conferences. – 2022. – с. 30-33. 17. sirojiddinova i. the importance of the cluster approach to the creation of a motivational and methodological teaching system //вестник ошского государственного педагогического университета имени а. мырсабекова. – 2022. – т. 2. – №. 2. – с. 146-150. 18. maxammadovna s. i. pedagogical opportunities for the development of professional and creative abilities in students //international journal for innovative enginering and management research…. – 2021. 19. sirojiddinova i. m. pedagogik ob’yektlarni kompleks loyihalashtirish texnologiyasi //academic research in educational sciences. – 2023. – т. 4. – №. tma conference. – с. 298-302. 20. сирожиддинова, и. м. (2022). таълим жараёнини мониторинг тадқиқ қилиш учун ташхис материалларини ишлаб чиқиш. results of national scientific research international journal, 1(6), 33-38. 21. сироджиддинова и. ta’lim jarayonida innovasion texnologiyalar //цифровизация современного образования: проблема и решение. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 1. – с. 57-60. 22. maxammadovna, s. i. (2022). klaster texnologiyasi asosida bolajak muhandislarni kasbiy tayyorgarligini takomillashtirish. муғаллим ҳәм үзликсиз билимлендириў. илмийметодикалық журнал. 23. maxammadovna s. i. o'zbekistonda inson huquqlarini ta'minlash: ijtimoiy xizmatlar agentligi misolida //central asian journal of social sciences and history. – 2023. 94 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the advantage of combined machine technology that prepares the soil for planting poly crops under a closed tunnel film fayzullayev xayriddin alimurodovich karshi engineering economic institute, karshi, uzbekistan annotation: the article presents the technology of the combined machine that prepares the soil for high-quality cultivation of rice crops under a closed tunnel film, and the quality treatment of the soil for preparing seedlings for planting. keywords: machine, soil, poly crops, technology, furrow softener, longitudinal distance, transverse distance, bullet-shaped claw, irrigation ditch, film, tunnel. introduction poliz ekinlarini yopiq tonnelli plyonka ostida ekish uchun tuproqni ekishga tayyorlaydigan mashinalar yaratish, ular ish organlarining texnologik ish jarayonlari va parametrlarini asoslash hamda takomillashtirish bо‘yicha respublikamizda tadqiqotlar f.m.mamatov, d.chuyanov, h.ravshanov, a.tо‘xtaqо‘ziyev, s.a.qunduzov va boshqalar tomonidan olib borilgan. many scientific research results were analyzed as a result of the study of the construction scheme of the tillage machine, the technological work process performed by it and the requirements for it [1-7.]. based on the analysis of the conducted scientific research works, the machines and equipment for the preparation of the soil for the planting of field crops in many developed countries and the agrotechnical requirements for the combined machine for the preparation of the soil for the planting of the field crops under the closed tunnel film, republic of uzbekistan intellectual property agency no. fap 00656-2010. and no. fap 00719-2010. protected by patents obtained on digital utility models [1-3]. one of the unique features of this technology is the formation of an irrigation ditch by cultivating the soil without turning it over and preparing it for planting (fig. 1). 95 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a cross-section view of the field after the middle part of the planting zone is softened; b the view of the cross-section of the field after deepening the planting zone without overturning: v the view of the cross-section of the field after forming the irrigation ditch; g cross-section view of the field after it is fully prepared for planting figure 1. scheme of soil preparation technology for planting polys crops under the film in the proposed technology, the following operations are performed in one go: the middle part of the tunnel closing zone is softened with a width equal to the width of the ditcher and a depth of 8-10 cm (fig. 1), then the right and left sides of the surface softened layer ( ac and bd) are deeply softened without turning over (fig. b), then an irrigation ditch is formed along the middle line of the cultivated zone (fig. v), after which the field crops are planted varnishes are prepared for planting (fig. g). carrying out the above-mentioned operations at once preserves soil moisture in the zone (under the tunnel) where field crops are planted, sharply reduces the time of soil preparation for planting, and saves material and energy resources in soil preparation and planting. 96 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in the proposed technology, the following operations are performed in one go: the middle part of the tunnel closing zone is softened with a width bn equal to the width of the trench and a depth of 8-10 cm (fig. 1., a), then the right and right sides of the surface softened layer the left side (ac and bd) is deeply softened without overturning (fig. 1., b), then an irrigation ditch is formed along the middle line of the treated zone (fig. 1., v ), after which the lanes for planting polys crops are prepared for planting (fig. 2.1, g). 2 – picture. construction scheme of the tiller machine for planting polys crops under the film carrying out the above-mentioned operations in one go preserves the soil moisture of the zone where field crops are planted (under the tunnel), sharply reduces the time of preparing the soil for planting, saves material and energy resources during soil processing and preparing it for planting, i.e., passing aggregates through the field due to the reduction of the number to 3-4 times, minimal tillage of the soil is ensured. based on the analysis of the carried out scientific and research work, the technology of soil preparation for planting rice crops under the tonneau film and the agrotechnical requirements for the soil tillage machine, no. fap 00656-2011 of the intellectual property agency of the republic of uzbekistan and 190971-2019 by the russian federation. is protected by patents on digital utility models [1-3]. tuproqqa ishlov beradigan va uni ekishga tayyorlaydigan mashinaning konstruktiv sxemasi ishlab chiqildi (2-rasm). the machine is equipped with a frame 1, an arrow-shaped claw 4, a right and left pair of "paraplau"-type slope softening working bodies 5 and 6 (hereinafter referred to as a furrow softener) ), the machine is composed of a rotary working body 9, a thinner 7 located along the axis of symmetry. the right and left pairs of cultivators deeply cultivate the planting area. the inclined working surfaces of each pair of working bodies 5 and 6 are opposite to each other. according to the technology of planting polys crops under a closed tunnel film, the machine should prepare a field 1.4 m wide in one pass, preparing it for planting. during the operation of the machine, the bullet-shaped claw weeder loosens the soil and cuts the roots of weeds by working the surface of the lane equal to the coverage width. the blade of the front working body of a pair of deep conditioners penetrates the driving layer and divides the soil into small pieces. the resulting cracks spread to the soil surface at an angle of y = 40-45˚. at this moment, the blade of the handle enters the soil zone deformed by the needle. the soil 97 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us separated by the chisel rises along its surface and falls first on the knife and then on the softening plate. in this case, the soil is bent and stretched in longitudinal and transverse sections, which causes it to break up rapidly. this process is completed when the soil softening plate falls from the working surface under the influence of inertia and gravity. after that, the next working body affects the soil in the same way. as a result, good compaction of the soil in the planting zone is ensured. then the ditcher 7 opens a ditch in the middle of the planting area. the process of preparing the soil for planting under a closed tunnel film is completed with the use of rotary working bodies 9 with the processing of the rows where the field crops are planted. after the recommended combined machine completes the specified technological process, the cross-section of the field will look like this. figure 3. a view of the cross-section of the treated field calculations show that direct (operating) costs per hectare are reduced by 33.4% when using a combined machine that prepares the soil for planting polys crops under a closed tunnel film. the main requirements for the machine are as follows: the combined machine can work the cultivated zone at a depth of 30-35 cm, the deviation of the average working depth from the specified one should not exceed ± 2 cm. the depth of the irrigation ditch should be 25 ± 2 cm. the amount of fractions smaller than 25 mm should not be less than 80 percent when processing fields with acceptable humidity (in the range of 16-18 percent). conclusion: the analysis of the proposed technology and the literature shows that it is possible to prepare the soil under a closed tonnage film with minimum costs in a short period of time, with minimal costs, to prepare the soil without overturning, to open a ditch and to plant the soil. can be achieved using road preparation technology and a combination machine that implements this technology. but this requires theoretical and experimental justification of the structural scheme of the combined machine and the parameters of its working bodies. list of used literature 1.mamatov f.m., mirzayev b.s., fayzullayev x.a., mardonov sh.x. obosnovaniye parametrov rixlitelnoy plastini rixlitelya s naklonnoy stoykoy // problemi mexaniki. – tashkent, 2012. – no. 4. – s. 80-83. 2.mamatov f. m., mirzayev b. s., fayzullayev x. a., mardonov sh. x. eroziyaga qarshi tuproqqa ishlov beradigan qiya tutqichli ishchi organli yumshatkichning dala sinovi. agro ilm. – toshkent, 2011. – no. 2 (18). 52-53b 3.patent rf na poleznuyu model no. 190971. pochvoobrabativayusheye orudiye dlya baxchevix kultur // aldoshin n.v., mamatov f.m., manoxina a.a., fayzullayev x.a., ismoilov i.i., 98 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ravshanov x.a. ofitsialniy byulleten – no. 20, 2019. 4.patent ruz no. fap 00656. rabochiy organ bezotvalnogo pochvo-obrabativayushego orudiya / mamatov m.f., mirzayev b.s. i dr. // rasmiy axborotnoma. – 2011. – no. 11. 5.patent ruz no. fap 00719. rabochiy organ bezotvalnogo pochvoobrabativayushego orudiya / mamatov m.f., mirzayev b.s. i dr. // rasmiy axborotnoma. – 2012. – no. 5. 6.mamatov f., chuyanov d., ravshanov h., shodmonov g., tavashov r., fayzullayev x. combined machine for preparing soil for cropping of melonsand gourds// iop conf. series: earth and environmental science 403(2019) 012158 7. irgashev d.b., tovashov r.x., sadikov a.r, mamadiyorov o.t. technical analysis of plug software when working between gardens // international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – vol. 9, – issue 5, 2022. 8. mamatov f.m., fayzullayev x.a., irgashev d.b., mustapaqulov s.u., nurmanova m.s basing the longitudinal distance between the pit softeners of the combined machine.// innovative technologies special issue, 2021. – b. 125-129 129 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 automated workflow optimization system for enterprise resource planning andrew lee school of engineering, university of southern california, usa fransisco a diaz researcher, federal university of minas gerais, brazil zaira khan department of computer science, university of bonn, germany abstract enterprise resource planning (erp) systems generate large amounts of invoice processing data that can be leveraged to optimize related workflows and reduce costs. however, current manual and template-based methods for erp workflow optimization are inefficient and limited. this paper proposes an automated invoice workflow optimization system that utilizes artificial intelligence to analyze erp invoice data and dynamically optimize workflows. the system collects comprehensive invoice process data and applies techniques like machine learning, process mining, and statistical analysis to identify workflow optimization opportunities. it then generates an improved target workflow by removing redundant steps, automating tasks, adjusting risk-based approval orders, and implementing other enhancements. a continuous feedback loop enables the system to learn from results and progressively improve over time. by combining data-driven analytics with ai-powered optimization algorithms, this intelligent system delivers superior, adaptive business process enhancements. this approach represents a major advancement over manual analysis and static best practice workflows for erp optimization. keywords: erp, workflow system, invoice process, risk management. introduction companies frequently use enterprise resource planning (erp) systems to manage various business processes like accounting, procurement, project management, risk management, and supply chain operations. the invoice process, which involves receiving invoices from suppliers, approving invoices, matching invoices to purchase orders, applying discounts or charges, scheduling payments, and reconciling accounts, is a key process that erp systems manage. manually managing erp invoice workflows can be time-consuming, labor-intensive, and prone to errors. companies using erp systems often have a need to optimize their invoice workflows to reduce costs and improve efficiency. however, optimizing workflows typically requires extensive analysis of process data by skilled personnel. there is a need for an automated system that can analyze erp invoice processing data and optimize workflows. current workflow optimization methods rely heavily on manual analysis by business process experts. this analysis is based on examining workflow documentation and manually observing a small number of workflow instances. the expert will then try to identify 130 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us optimization opportunities based on limited data and human judgment. this approach is timeconsuming, subjective, and results in suboptimal workflows due to a lack of comprehensive data. another approach commonly used is applying general best practice templates to improve workflow. however, these templates incorporate generic assumptions that may not apply to the specific process being optimized. additionally, best practice templates remain static and do not continue to improve over time. automated business process optimization tools exist on the market, but they focus mainly on modeling, simulation, and monitoring capabilities. these tools allow businesses to model their workflows for analysis purposes and simulate the effects of changes, but they fall short of dynamically optimizing workflows. there is a need for a system that can combine intelligent analytics with automated optimization of real workflows. an intelligent automated system that leverages artificial intelligence on workflow process data can overcome the limitations of current optimization methods. by automatically gathering comprehensive process data, applying data science techniques to identify optimization opportunities, generating improved workflow designs, and continuously learning from the results, such a system can provide superior business workflow improvements over time. summary: this invention is an automated workflow optimization system that uses artificial intelligence (ai) to analyze erp invoice processing data and optimize related workflows. the system includes a data collection module, a workflow analysis module, a workflow optimization module, and a learning module. the data collection module gathers detailed data on erp invoice processes, including steps, timing, personnel, approvals, exceptions, and bottlenecks. this data is aggregated into an analysis dataset. sources of data include:  workflow logs that record the process instance steps, timing, and personnel as invoices are processed.  invoice data includes details of purchases, discounts, charges, reconciliation, etc.  personnel data such as roles, departments, and approval limits  exception logs that document errors or delays.  planning data such as process targets or schedules the workflow analysis module uses ai algorithms to analyze the dataset and identify opportunities to streamline the invoice process. the analysis determines redundant or low-value steps, sources of delays, inefficient routing of work, and other process optimization opportunities. analysis techniques may include:  process mining algorithms that compare actual workflows to ideal models  machine learning to detect patterns and correlations in workflow data.  heuristic-based rules encoding internal best practices and human expertise.  statistical analysis reveals process bottlenecks and anomalies. based on the analysis, the workflow optimization module applies rules and heuristics to generate an optimized target workflow. the optimized workflow removes redundant approvals, changes sequential steps to parallel, sets approval orders based on risk, prioritizes high-value activities, and implements other enhancements. some examples of optimization actions include:  removing redundant invoice approvals that do not improve risk coverage.  enabling automated matching and confirmation for low-risk invoices 131 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  using conditional logic to route invoices to appropriate departments  setting invoice approval orders based on purchase category risk and thresholds.  automating the scheduling of recurring payments  alerting late invoices to speed up processing.  forecasting cash flow needs based on invoice due dates. the learning module leverages continuous feedback to further improve the system over time. as optimized workflows are implemented, results are measured and fed back to the learning module. metrics assessed may include cycle time, cost, quality, compliance, and user satisfaction. using techniques like reinforcement learning, new insights about optimal workflows are discovered from the results and incorporated into future versions. the system essentially learns from experience what optimizations work best. by using ai to automatically analyze invoice processing data and optimize related workflows, this invention provides erp users with streamlined workflows that reduce costs and errors while improving productivity. the ability of the system to learn over time provides increasing workflow improvements through a feedback loop. this invention represents a significant advancement in automated business process optimization. system architecture: the automated workflow optimization system is comprised of integrated backend analysis modules and frontend user interface applications. these components may be implemented through a combination of custom software, existing enterprise software systems, and commercial ai services. backend modules:  data collection module: extracts workflow data from sources like erp, logs, and databases. may integrate with application apis.  workflow analysis module: implements algorithms for process mining, machine learning, and other ai techniques. could utilize cloud ai services.  workflow optimization module: applies rules and heuristics to generate optimized workflows. may integrate with bpm software tools.  learning module: continuously improves the system based on results using reinforcement learning and similar algorithms. frontend applications:  data visualization dashboard displays workflow analytics and metrics to users through interactive graphs and charts.  optimization user interface allows users to review workflow changes and provide optimization feedback.  monitoring dashboard: enables tracking of optimized workflow metrics and kpis.  notification module: sends actionable alerts to users when optimized workflows are underperforming. the system combines predictive analytics, intelligent optimization algorithms, and continuous learning in an integrated framework to deliver superior business process improvements over time. the use of cloud-based ai services, open-source software, and standardized interfaces enables scalable and cost-effective implementation. detailed description: data collection module: 132 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the data collection module gathers detailed data on current erp invoice workflows to build an analysis dataset. relevant data to collect includes: workflow audit logs that trace the steps, timing, personnel, and system events as each invoice is processed logs capture the actual workflow that was followed. erp data on invoices, purchase orders, supplier details, reconciliations, disputes, payments, etc. provides context and details on invoice transactions. personnel data such as employee roles, departments, management hierarchy, and approval authority levels relevant for workflow routing, approvals, etc. planning data on workflow process targets, schedules, and service level agreements allows comparison to actual performance. exception data on process errors, delays, bottlenecks, and other issues valuable for identifying improvement opportunities. external data, if available, such as supplier performance and risk metrics can inform workflow routing and approval rules. workflow kpis and metrics calculated from other data sources examples are cycle time, cost, resource utilization, etc. used to assess workflow performance. the module integrates with various enterprise systems and data sources to extract relevant workflow data through standard or custom interfaces. cloud-based etl tools may be leveraged to consolidate data into a structured database or data lake for analysis. appropriate data security, access control, and privacy measures are utilized during data collection and storage. workflow analysis module: the workflow analysis module applies various ai techniques to the collected dataset to identify opportunities for improving the invoice workflow processes. the specific techniques may include: process mining algorithms that compare actual workflows traced in audit logs against ideal or standard models to detect deviations and bottlenecks. conformance checking and automated process discovery methods can be used. machine learning classifiers that categorize workflow instances based on characteristics and detect patterns, correlations, and anomalies in the data supervised, unsupervised, or semisupervised algorithms may be utilized. rules-based analysis using heuristics and business rules encoded from internal best practices, expert knowledge, and standard frameworks like iso 9000 the rules help assess workflow efficiency, compliance, risk, etc. statistical analysis and modeling approaches such as multi-factor regression, hypothesis testing, and simulation modeling these provide data-driven insights into workflow performance factors. natural language processing of text in invoices, disputes, correspondence, etc. to extract semantic insights and improve context for workflow decisions graph database analysis of entities and relationships in workflow data to identify connectivity gaps, bottlenecks, and redundancy. benchmarking evaluation versus industry best practices, benchmarks, and process standards to assess performance gaps. the analysis output identifies targeted improvements such as redundant steps to eliminate, serial processes to parallelize, approval changes to reduce risk, areas of chronic delay, and deviations from best practices. the optimization module uses these insights to design improved workflows. workflow optimization module: 133 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the workflow optimization module generates an enhanced workflow design by applying optimization rules and heuristics based on the analysis from the previous module. some examples of techniques include: streamlining by removing redundant approvals, unnecessary process steps that do not add value, or duplicate data entry automating manual workflows by implementing automated extraction, validation, reconciliation, and approval using robotic process automation improving risk coverage by dynamically routing invoices to approvers based on purchased item categories, supplier ratings, or expenditure thresholds. parallelizing workflows by changing sequential steps into simultaneous parallel tracks to reduce cycle time. prioritizing workflows by accelerating high-risk invoices and delaying low-risk ones without compromising compliance. load-balancing workflows by smoothing peaks and valleys in employee workloads. prevents both overload and idle times. standardizing workflows by redirecting process deviations or exceptions to the standard flow unless justified enforces consistency. integrating workflows by linking disconnected systems and processes so data flows seamlessly eliminates manual hand-offs. the optimization module quantifies the impact of proposed changes using process simulation and capacity modeling. it selects the optimal set of improvements that maximize workflow performance based on key metrics like cost, cycle time, and risk. the module incorporates constraints and rules to ensure optimized workflows meet requirements for control, compliance, and risk management. all changes maintain strong governance standards. learning module: the learning module continually looks for ways to refine and improve the system over time based on results. the primary technique used is reinforcement learning, which optimizes decision-making by rewarding positive outcomes and penalizing negative outcomes. in this system, reinforcement learning agents explore new workflow optimizations through simulation. implemented workflow changes that yield improved performance metrics are rewarded to reinforce those types of optimizations. changes that worsen performance are penalized to avoid repeating them. over many iterations, the agents learn correlations between workflow design changes and outcomes. this allows the optimization module to converge on global optima over time. the module becomes better at predicting the best optimizations for improved performance. the learning module can also incorporate other algorithms like supervised neural networks that look for patterns in results data to independently derive new optimization insights. transfer learning allows the leverage of best-practice data from external sources to speed up training. the output of the learning module is an ai model that is constantly evolving to produce superior workflow optimizations tailored to the organization’s unique processes and objectives. system integration: the automated workflow optimization system integrates with several existing enterprise systems used for erp, workflow management, and analytics. standard interfaces typically used include: rest apis to programmatically exchange data with other applications both the data collection module and the optimization module use apis extensively. 134 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us database connectors to synchronize data with tables in relational databases or a data warehouse this approach is useful for extracting large datasets. flat file imports load workflow logs, invoices, metrics, and other data from csv, xls, or delimited text files. provides flexibility to ingest data in different formats. message queuing integrators to pass events and data to workflow systems in real time as workflows execute. enables detailed monitoring. webhooks are used to subscribe to events from external systems and trigger actions in response. the learning module may use webhooks to train models when new results are available. etl plugins to pull data from source systems into a data lake or warehouse this handles large volumes of heterogeneous data. b2b file transfers to exchange bulk data files with external organizations can obtain industry benchmarks or best practice data. the system architecture is modular to enable integration via different mechanisms as needed for specific data sources and use cases. apis and cloud services provide scalability to expand integration across the enterprise it landscape. user interface samples: the system includes graphical user interfaces to provide workflow transparency to business users and obtain feedback. sample interface mockups include: workflow analytics dashboard showing process metrics like cycle time and widgets highlighting top optimization opportunities. interactive workflow model allowing drill-down to see actual workflow steps, delays, and pain points overlaid on an ideal workflow. optimization recommendation interface with the ability to accept, reject, or modify proposed workflow changes captures user feedback. predictive workflow simulator displaying estimated workflow metrics after applying proposed optimizations from the ai engine. monitoring dashboard with real-time status of optimized workflows and alerts for underperformance based on kpi thresholds. mobile app allowing users to inspect active workflows, approve invoices, flag exceptions, and submit optimization ideas. the flexible ui framework employs responsive design for accessibility across devices, user-centered design practices, and support for themes to match organization branding. the intent is to provide transparent, intuitive access to optimize workflows for all stakeholders. conclusion: this paper presented an intelligent automated system to optimize erp invoice workflows using ai and machine learning. the proposed system offers significant advantages over current manual, template-based methods by leveraging comprehensive process data analysis, intelligent optimization algorithms, and continuous learning for progressive enhancements. the integrated modules for data collection, workflow analysis, optimization, and feedback-driven learning enable data-driven improvements not achievable through human experts alone. implementing this system can help companies streamline operations, reduce costs, improve productivity, enhance compliance, and adapt quickly to changes. the automated approach also lowers dependence on specialized consultants. the architecture supports scalable deployment via cloud services and apis. while further research is needed to address challenges like data security, the overall approach represents a major step forward in intelligently optimizing business processes. 135 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in conclusion, this paper demonstrates the feasibility and benefits of applying ai and machine learning techniques to analyze real-world erp workflow data and automatically generate optimized processes. the proposed continuous learning system promises to deliver increasing workflow improvements over time tailored to each organization. the innovation of combining predictive analytics, optimization algorithms and feedback loops can be extended to optimize many other business processes beyond erp invoices. references 1. hassabelnaby, h.r., hwang, w. and vonderembse, m.a., 2012. the impact of erp implementation on organizational 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[tien, james m. 2013. “big data: unleashing information.” journal of systems science and systems engineering 22 (2): 127–51. 26. ward, logan, nabil kashyap, mikhail sizov, and jennifer parham. 2021. “artificial intelligence and the future of cloud computing: a security and privacy perspective.” artificial intelligence and cloud security, july, 71–103. 27. stonebraker, michael, daniel bruckner, ihab f ilyas, george beskales, mitch cherniack, stanley b. zdonik, alexander pagan, and shan xu. 2013. “data curation at scale: the data tamer system.” in cidr 2013, sixth biennial conference on innovative data systems research, asilomar, ca, usa, january 6-9, 2013, online proceedings. www.cidrdb.org. 295 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 development of professional competence of students on the basis of a systematic approach as the theoretical basis of educational integration in higher education institutions mustapakulov sadik ungiboyevich, boymuratov farrukh khamzayevich karshi institute of engineering and economics abstract: the socio-economic changes taking place in our country create new opportunities for reforming education on the basis of humanity, which requires the efforts of the whole society. today, a person who is flexible, dynamic, able to live and work in new, constantly changing conditions, who not only perfectly knows his profession, but also a developing person is in demand in our society. at the same time, it is necessary to take into account that modern civilization cannot be realized without relying on morally oriented intellect. intellectual, spiritual and professional development of a person and self-development, including to students studying in the "technological machines and equipment" bachelor's course of study at the faculty of "engineering technologies" at a higher educational institution (hei) is done continuously. keywords: technique, integration, systematic approach, future engineer, educational system, pedagogical research, management system, future engineer, concept, general professional. the main part. the trend of humanization of professional education leads to the emergence of new, high requirements for the quality of professional training of technical higher education graduates. the graphic knowledge and graphic culture of the future engineer is not only the result of training in the time specified in the component of the work program, but also the result of the efforts of all teachers in the general professional, natural-mathematical and special components. with such graphic training, the graphic culture of the future engineer is formed: knowledge about the experience of such activity, mastering the methods of graphic activity in the field of engineering at the reproductive, creative and emotional-value level. therefore, in the development of teaching models, the institution of higher education the teacher himself must have graphic knowledge, be able to solve the problem situations that constantly arise in the presentation of scientific and technical information in graphic form, because in this case the student develops intellectually and figuratively, and the valuable attitude of students to scientific knowledge is formed. general and higher education institutions cannot stay away from the needs and demands of society, in which integration becomes a system-creating factor of society. integration as a scientific concept used in education cannot be considered separately from such concepts as "system", "systematic approach". however, practice shows that teachers are used to empirical thinking and students are not inclined to see the theoretical foundations of the educational system in order to translate it into 296 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the language of practice; they do not know how to create didactic materials adequate to this or that theory, and at best to transmit scientific information in various degrees of reduction and generalization. the higher education institution itself is mostly to blame for this, as it armed teachers with theoretical knowledge in the field of pedagogy and methodology, but until recently did not provide a mechanism for their practical application. in the practice of the higher education institution, the theoretical justification of the ideas of integration, the activities for the development of students in the teaching of engineering graphics should become a firmly mastered content of the teacher's pedagogical mind, his mentality, a paradigm of pedagogical thinking of all teachers. modernization of higher engineering education in the current period includes the harmonization of the content of education with the social order of society, and first of all, it requires teachers to know the education of students in higher education institutions as a whole system, its successful operation. cannot be implemented without taking into account the principles of humanization, integration and differentiation. the requirements of modern society imply the humanistic nature of education, the priority of universal values, human life and health, and the free development of the individual. therefore, today the higher education institution is constantly searching for and updating all aspects of its activity, and the basis of this improvement is the understanding of the theoretical essence of the development and training of education by teachers, which can only be realized if it is understood. currently, there is an opinion in science that the field of knowledge that does not form a system cannot claim the name of science. therefore, the education of the higher education institution, which is intended to convey the scientific view of the world to young people, should be systematic and recognized as a system by all participants of education. the humanistic system is a system created in the process of human activity with a unique way of modeling the world as a person-like whole in the unity of consciousness and unconsciousness. the educational system is such an education, the behavior of which is strongly influenced by the thoughts, feelings and emotions of a person, therefore it (the system) belongs to the humanities. pedagogical studies have noted that the range of objects of humanitarian systems is wide, among them there is a person and culture, and they model the interaction of the person in the social space and the world around him. and finally, man himself is a system. the methodological and natural scientific basis for solving the studied problem is the achievements of modern science, and therefore we use its discoveries. it is known that any human activity, human practice, can be successful if it corresponds to the laws of nature and society in a certain field of reality. a practice that contradicts the laws of nature and does not take them into account cannot be successful. it is generally accepted that the laws of nature and society are revealed by science and constitute theory. there are different options in the ratio of practice and theory. often practice relies on laws known to science and theoretically based and uses them for its own purposes. sometimes practice intuitively searches for laws that are not yet clearly known by science. as human activity becomes more complex, working conditions and tools become more complex, and the role of theory inevitably increases. at present, the significant impact of science on practice is ensured primarily by the development of large integrated theoretical concepts (information theory, systems theory). the most important feature of modern education is that it is aimed not only at adaptation, but also at training specialists who can actively master the conditions of social changes. the main changes in the nature of education in the last decade include the following trends: continuity, 297 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us relevance for the individual, orientation to the active development of cognitive activity, adaptation to the needs of the individual, and the development of opportunities for selfdiscovery. provide the whole path of knowledge is the search for universality and individuality in precision. objects, objects, events for the student, everything exists separately, independently, without contact with each other. any problem appears to the researcher as a collection of objects with different properties, like chaos. but time passes, and in the process of doing the work, the student discovers commonalities in previously seemingly disparate topics. concepts arise as a generalization of a set of repeated, homogeneous events. for example, all objects in the graduation project are subject to one goal and are visually presented in the form of graphic images (drawings). that is, you can find unity in all work, you can divide it into important components (calculation of the project and its graphic representation). thus, concepts, as it were, strengthen generality in a person, allow thinking to cover a wide range of phenomena, thereby expanding and deepening concrete knowledge. as aristotle said: "... people are wise not because of their ability to act, but because they have understanding and know the reasons." is given, but this connection is not a product of the student's imagination, but an objective reality. the definition of "set" appears for the first time in aristotle, but it was not possible to develop a universal concept that represents any bounded interconnected set. later they became the concept of "system". currently, the study of the objective world and the laws of its reflection in people's minds has reached such a level that it is not enough to act only with concepts such as object, object, and knowledge in the process of cognition, because they represent a separate, undivided, individual thing. the system is an object, a subject, knowledge, and at the same time it is complex, interrelated, and acts on its own. "system" is a philosophical category that, in contrast to the concepts of "object" and "subject", reflects the contradictory unity of the many and the singular rather than separate and unconnected. one of the opposite sides of the system is "disorder". currently, philosophers and many scientists come to the conclusion that chaos reflects the unknown laws of the movement of matter, and a system can be considered chaos in a certain sense compared to another system. list of used literature 1. o„zbekiston respublikasining 2020 yil 23 sentyabrdagi “ta‟lim to„g„pisida”gi o„pq-637son qonuni. https://lex.uz/docs/5013007 2. o„zbekiston respublikasi prezidentining 2012 yil 10 dekabrdagi “chet tillarni o„rganish tizimini yanada takomillashtirish chora-tadbirlari to„g„risida”gi pq-1875-sonli qarori. https://lex.uz/docs/2126032 3. o„zbekiston respublikasi prezidentining 2017 yil 7 fevraldagi “o„zbekiston respublikasini yanada rivojlantirish bo„yicha harakatlar strategiyasi to„g„risida”gi pf-4947-son farmoni. https://lex.uz/docs/3107036 4. o„zbekiston respyblikasi prezidentining 2018 yil 5 iyundagi pq-3775-sonli “oliy ta‟lim muassasalarida ta‟lim sifatini oshirish va ularning mamlakatda amalga oshirilayotgan keng qamrovli islohotlarda faol ishtirokini ta‟minlash bo„yicha qo„shimcha chora-tadbirlar to„g„risida”gi qarori. 5. maxmadiyev b.s. mathcad tizimida ishlash asoslari. o„quv qo„llanma. – qarshi. 2012. – 144-b. 298 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. turayev s.j., xo„jayev l.x., pardayev b.a. matlab/simulink muhitida dinamik sistemalarni modellashtirish va borland delphi7 dasturlash tilida grafigini o„rganish. 7. fayzullayev kh., mustapakulov s., irgashev d.b., begimkulova m. raking plates of the combination machine's subsoiler // e3s web of conferences 264, 04039 (2021). (if – 0,45: scopus; №883). 8. fayzullaev kh., mamatov f., мirzaev b., irgashev d., mustapakulov s., sodikov a. study on mechanisms of tillage for melon cultivation under the film // e3sweb of conferences 304, 03012 (2021). (if – 0,45: scopus; №883) 17 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 01, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх ways to save water when washing cars shukurov nuritdin rakhimovich candidate of technical sciences, associate professor academy of the ministry of internal affairs of the republic of uzbekistan abstract it is known that the maintenance of a machine consists of a large number of operations, which, by their nature and conditions of execution, can be combined into certain groups, covering the cycle of maintenance work. the main task of the point of final washing of machines is the high quality of work performed with the least amount of water and the highest labor productivity. the article considers an approach to the economical use of water at the point of final washing of the fleet of automotive vehicles in military units. the use of a washing machine brand karcher k7 1.168-502.0 in the maintenance of automotive equipment during the final washing of cars is justified. keywords: washing machine, karcher, efficiency, water consumption, jet, pressure, head, kinetic energy of a water molecule. introduction everyone knows that car maintenance consists of a large number of operations, which, by their nature and conditions of execution, can be combined into certain groups covering the cycle of maintenance work. in accordance with this, maintenance, regardless of its type, can be subdivided into the following main work: cleaning and washing and wiping (external care), fastening, diagnostic and adjusting, lubrication, tire and refueling work [1]. regardless of the type of maintenance, the priority is cleaning and washing work, one of the tasks of which is to prepare the car for subsequent maintenance operations and give the car the proper appearance. the bodywork, as well as the underside of the vehicle chassis, are particularly susceptible to contamination. dirt interferes with maintenance on the underside of the vehicle. methods when washing cars, dust and dirt from the outer parts of the body and chassis of the car is usually removed with clean cold and warm (plus 25-30 o с) water. sometimes water is used with the use of synthetic detergents: sulfonal or powder for washing a car (vtu no. 18/35 64). when loosely bound dust-like contaminants are washed off with a jet of water, fine (30 microns) dust particles remain on the polished surfaces of the body, which are retained in a thin water film and when it dries and leave a matte gray coating on the surface of the body. a similar phenomenon occurs when dense mud deposits with impurities of organic origin are washed away, which have high cohesion forces. 18 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us this film is difficult to influence even when using a high-pressure jet and is destroyed only as a result of mechanical action (with a brush, sponge or chamois leather). the final wash station is intended for internal cleaning and blowing of machines and their final washing. it consists of posts for internal cleaning and final car wash. the main task of the final washing point of a military unit is the high quality of the work performed with the lowest water consumption and the highest labor productivity. to date, in the military units at the point of the final washing of cars, washing machines of the m-600, tskb-1112, mm-1000/8, mp-800 brands (hereinafter referred to as old-style washing machines) are used [2, 3]. results currently, karcher k7 1.168-502.0 washing machines have been developed, created and widely used for washing equipment, which significantly save water consumption and the time spent on washing due to the supply of water from a small nozzle at high pressure (up to 30 times higher pressure than in machines old model). time for washing a car with a carcher washing machine k 7 1.168-502.0 t = 8-10 min. (1.5 times less time allotted for washing a car using an old-style washer). and if we take into account that the volume of consumed water per minute "karcher" k 7 1.168502.0 is only 10 liters, then only 80-100 liters of water will be required for a t-shirt of one car by karcher. at the same time, washing one car with an old-style washing machine will take 15 minutes of time and from 750 to 2000 liters of water, as well as up to 10 times more electrical energy. on average, every day, to ensure the life of the activities and combat training of units of military units, from 10 to 20 units of automotive equipment are used. there are 18-19 working days per month. let us determine the savings in water consumption per month vе , when used in the military unit of the washing machine "karcher" k 7 1.168-502.0, in relation to the old model washers. let's assume the number of working days per month is 18, the number of operated machines per day is 20 units. water consumption per day for one piece of equipment: when using an old-style washer vс = 2000 l, and when using a washing machine "carcher" k 7 1.168-502.0 vк = 90 liters. let's determine the water consumption per month: vс =t*l*v1 = 18 * 20 * 2000 = 720 000 l. vк =t*l*v1 = 18 * 20* 90 = 32 400 l. where, t is the number of working days per month; l is the number of machines in operation per day, units; the volume of saved water per month will be ve = vс – vк = 720000 – 32400 = 687600 l., i.e. when using a karcher-type washer, a military unit saves an average of 690 tons per month, usually of drinking water. due to the decrease in the resources of suitable, especially drinking water, this is of great importance. in addition, a multiple reduction in electrical energy consumption and a 50% reduction in time consumption make the use of a carcher-type washing machine obligatory at the points of clean washing of weapons and military equipment of a military unit. carcher-type washing machines, unlike old-style machines, are portable and this is another advantage, they can be used in the field after military exercises or other circumstances. let us analyze why carcher-type washers have proven to be so beneficial in terms of saving water, time and energy. 19 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us an important factor in the washing process is the kinetic energy of the water molecule. the higher this energy, the more easily the water molecules break the bond between the dirt molecules. it is known from the course of hydraulics that the flow rate of water q, through the free section of the nozzle, is determined by the formula l / min (1) where f is the free cross-sectional area of the nozzle, mm 2 ; υ is the speed of water outflow from the nozzle, m / s; d is the diameter of the nozzle outlet, mm. in turn, the speed of the outflow of water from the nozzle √ m / s (2) where = 9.81 acceleration of gravity, m / sec 2 ; h water pressure, m; μ coefficient of efflux taken for nozzles with nozzles equal to 0.5 – 0.55, and without nozzles 0.7 – 0.75. as can be seen from the above formulas, by decreasing the nozzle diameter and increasing the water pressure (i.e., increasing the water flow rate from the nozzle), it is possible, while maintaining a constant flow rate, to obtain a jet with higher kinetic energy and, consequently, higher efficiency. with an increase in the jet pressure for nozzles of the same diameter, the total water consumption for the wash is noticeably reduced, because water with high kinetic energy with less volume washes away dirt faster. an even greater effect is given by reducing the nozzle cross-section. this dependence allows us to conclude that an increase in the pressure of the water jet with a simultaneous decrease in the nozzle cross-section (to a certain value) increases the washing efficiency. this effect is used by motorists when washing a car, they reduce the cross-section of the hose outlet by covering the outlet with a finger. picture. the relationship between the pressure of the jet and the flow rate of water when washing one piece of equipment: 1 nozzle diameter 2.5 mm; 2 nozzle diameter 3.5 mm. w a te r co n su m p ti o n , l 140 100 60 20 5 15 25 jet pressure, kg / cm2 2 1 20 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us discussion from the experimental data [4] it also follows that the washing efficiency is characterized by the amount and speed of water supplied to the contaminated surface, or the power of the water jet. water jet power. nc =q h , m / sec (3) this expression shows that a jet of the same power can be obtained at different values of the flow rate and water pressure, i.e. with a small value of q and a large value of h, or vice versa. this means that it is possible to regulate the kinetic energy flowing out of the water jet nozzle and by increasing the jet energy to increase the efficiency of cleaning dirty places. based on the above, the following conclusions can be drawn: the use of karcher-type washing machines is an order of magnitude more economical compared to old-model washing machines and, in this regard, the use of karcher-type machines in military units is mandatory; advantages of the karcher type washing machine are based on increasing to a certain extent the kinetic energy of the water flowing out of the nozzle, which, possessing high energy, effectively breaks the sticky bonds of dirt, thereby easily washing it out and cleaning the surface. at the same time, reducing the nozzle diameter leads to a decrease in water consumption and an increase in the kinetic energy of water molecules. references 1. kramarenko g.v. tekhnicheskaya ekspluatatsiya avtomobiley [technical maintenance of cars]. uchebnik dlya vuzov [textbook for universities]. 2-оe izd. pererab. i dop. [2nd edition revised and enlarged] – m.: transport, 1983. –488 p. [in russian]. 2. proyektirovaniye parkov voinskikh chastey (soyedineniya) [design of parks of military units (formations)]: uch. posobiye [a tutorial] / a.v. kraynyukov, a.a. kochurov, a.v. kushnarev, v.v. puchkov. – ryazan', rvvdku, 2011. – 200 p. [in russian]. 3. yunusov m.r. пособие по курсовому проектированию [course design manual]: ucheb. рosobiye [a tutorial]. izdaniye tashkentskogo voku [publication of the tashkent hcacs], 2011. – 77 p. [in russian]. 4. https://stogear.pro/oborudovanie/obzor-10-luchshih-moek-vysokogo-davleniya-karcher.html (дата обращения [date of access] 22.04.2021 г.) 5. muydinovna, r. a. (2022). shart va to ‘siqsizlik munosabatining fe’l so ‘z turkumi yordamida ifodalanishi. central asian research journal for interdisciplinary studies (carjis), 2(special issue 3), 115-120. 6. rasulova, a., & raxmonqulova, m. (2022, november). til va jamiyatning o ‘zaro munosabatlarida nutqini ijtimoiy-lisoniy aspektida tadqiq etish. in international conference dedicated to the role and importance of innovative education in the 21st century (vol. 1, no. 8, pp. 125-128). 7. халилова, м., & расулова, a. (2022). микроматнларга нутқ системаси сифатида ёндашув. oriental renaissance: innovative, educational, natural and social sciences, 2(11), 197-203. 8. rasulova, a. m., & xusanova, m. r. a. (2022). poetik nutqda sinonimlardan foydalanish mahorati. oriental renaissance: innovative, educational, natural and social sciences, 2(10-2), 807-811. 1 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 03, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх analysis of the current state of the problem of creating artificial intelligence ibragimov shavkat mamirovich (senior lecturer, fergana state university) shavkat70@bk.en islamov erkinjon revkatovich (senior lecturer, fergana state university) e.islamov@yandex.ru abstract: the article presents the main concepts of artificial intelligence programs, as well as analyzes the prospects for the development of artificial intelligence, the main directions in the study of artificial intelligence. the first is to bring artificial intelligence systems closer to the principles of human thinking. the second is to create artificial intelligence, which is the integration of already created artificial intelligence systems into a single system capable of solving the problems of mankind. keywords: artificial intelligence, artificial intelligence, programs, education, technology. introduction artificial intelligence (from lat. intellectus knowledge, understanding, reason) is a branch of computer science that studies methods, methods and techniques for modeling and reproducing intelligent human activity related to solving problems using a computer. the science of artificial intelligence dates back to the middle of the 20th century. since that time, in many research laboratories, scientists have been working on the creation of computers that have the ability to think at the same level as a person. at that time, the prerequisites for the emergence of artificial intelligence already existed. so, psychologists created a model of the human brain and studied the processes of thinking. mathematicians created the theory of algorithms, which became the foundation of the mathematical theory of computation, knowledge about the world was ordered and structured, questions of optimal calculations were solved, and the very first computers were created. new machines were able to perform calculations much faster than humans, so scientists thought about the possibility of creating computers that reached the level of human development. in 1950, the english scientist alan turing published the article "can a machine think?". in this article, he proposes to determine the degree of intelligence of a machine using a test he developed, which later became known as the "turing test". other scientists also worked in the field of artificial intelligence, but they had to face a number of problems that could not be solved within the framework of traditional computer science. it turned out that , first of all, the mechanisms of sensory perception, assimilation of information, as well as the nature of language, should be studied. it turned out to be extremely difficult to imitate the work of the brain, since for this it would be necessary to reproduce the work of 2 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us billions of neurons interacting with each other. but an even more difficult task than simulating the work of the brain turned out to be the study of the principles and mechanisms of its functioning. this problem, faced by researchers of intelligence, affected the theoretical side of psychology. scientists have not yet been able to come to a consensus on what intelligence is. some consider the ability to solve problems of high complexity a sign of intelligence; for others, intelligence is, first of all, the ability to learn, generalize and analyze information; others believe that this is an opportunity to effectively interact with the outside world, the ability to communicate, perceive and comprehend the perceived information. the task of creating artificial intelligence is becoming more and more urgent every day. that is why many studies and publications are devoted to this problem. in particular, the article by v. a. koss [1] outlines the essence of thinking procedures in managing human functions. the classification of functions is given from the position of psychology, reflecting the essence of human functions, and not his behavioral reactions. the results of the analysis of the thinking process made it possible to take a fresh look at the role and place of artificial intelligence systems in human life. an approach to studying the process of information transformation in human thinking is proposed and a structural model of the thinking process itself is given. its implementation can serve as a basis for the integration of artificial intelligence systems. and in the scientific work of alimov a. a. and shabalina o. a. [2], a software system for controlling the characters of a game virtual world based on a multi-agent approach is considered. in the scientific work of ryzhov v.v. and saifulin v.g. [3], the specifics of artificial intelligence are considered in comparison with human thinking. it is shown that the development of artificial intelligence is in the direction of increasing the computing power of computers. the conclusion is made about the inability of artificial intelligence to scientific creativity at the present stage of development of computer technology. in the work of r. a. migurenko [4], attention is focused on philosophical positions regarding artificial intelligence as a tool for cognition of consciousness. based on the difference between two types of mental properties and the structure of human competencies, a comparative description of natural and artificial intelligences is given. the significance of research in the field of artificial intelligence for the philosophy of mind is determined the authorship of the term "artificial intelligence" is attributed to john mccarthy, the founder of programming, the inventor of the lisp language. in 1956, the future winner of the prestigious turing award demonstrated a prototype program based on artificial intelligence at carnegie mellon university. humanity began to dream of smart robots in the first quarter of the 20th century. the famous writer karel capek staged the play "universal robots" in the london theater in 1924 . the performance amazed the audience, and the word "robot" became firmly established in everyday life. in 1943-45, the foundations for understanding and creating neural networks were laid, and already in 1950, alan turing published an analysis of an intellectual chess game in a scientific publication. in 1958, the first artificial intelligence programming language, lisp, appeared. between 1960 and 1970, a number of scientists proved that computers were able to understand natural language at a fairly good level. in 1965, they developed eliza , the first robot assistant that could speak english. in the same years, the direction of artificial intelligence began to attract government and military organizations in the united states and other countries. thus, by the 1970s, the us department of defense launched a project of virtual street maps a gps prototype. in 1969, scientists at stanford university created sheki, an ai robot that can move independently, perceive some data and solve simple problems. 3 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us at the university of edinburgh this scottish member of the ai family could use computer vision to find and assemble different models. in 1997, they created a well-known chess program the computer " dip blue ", who beat world chess champion garry kasparov. in the same years, japan begins to develop a 6th generation computer project based on neural networks . an interesting fact is that in 1989 another chess program, deep thought beat international grandmaster bent larsen. after this duel between machine and man, garry kasparov declared: “if an intelligent machine can beat the best of the best in chess , then it can write the best music, compose the best books. i can not believe this. when i find out that scientists have created a computer with an intelligence rating of 2800, i.e. equal to mine, i myself will challenge the machine to a chess duel to protect the human race.” the 2000s saw a resurgence of interest in robotics . artificial intelligence is being actively introduced into the space industry, and is also being mastered in the domestic sphere. there are smart home systems, "advanced" household devices. robots kismet and nomad explore areas of antarctica. now the development of artificial intelligence is taking place in two directions: neurocybernetics and black box cybernetics. one of the directions neurocybernetics, or artificial intelligence, is based on modeling the work of the human brain using artificial intelligence systems, known as neural networks or neural networks . the second area of artificial intelligence black box cybernetics, or machine intelligence, is engaged in the search and development of algorithms for the effective solution of intellectual problems using existing computer models. for this direction, the main thing is not the design of the device, but the principle of its operation: the reaction of a “thinking” machine to input actions must be the same as that of the human brain. many books have been written about artificial intelligence, but not a single author gives an unambiguous answer to the question of what this science does. most authors consider only one definition of artificial intelligence, considering scientific achievements only in the light of this definition. the next problem concerns the nature of the human intellect and its status: in philosophy there is still no unambiguous criterion for them. there is no single approach to determining the degree of “reasonableness” of a machine. however, there are many hypotheses proposed since the dawn of artificial intelligence. this is the turing test, which was mentioned above, and the newell simon hypothesis , and many other approaches to the development of artificial intelligence, of which two main ones can be distinguished:  semiotic, or top-down: based on the creation of knowledge bases, inference systems and expert systems that simulate various high-level mental processes, such as thinking, emotions, speech, creativity, reasoning, etc.  biological, or ascending: it is based on the creation and study of neural networks that simulate the processes of the human brain, as well as the creation of biocomputers, neurocomputers and other similar computing systems. in computer science, the solution of artificial intelligence problems is carried out using the design of knowledge bases and expert systems. knowledge bases are a collection of knowledge and rules according to which information can be meaningfully processed. in general, the problems of artificial intelligence in computer science are studied with the aim of creating information systems, their operation and improvement. the training of developers and users of such systems is handled by specialists in the field of information technology. scientists at the singularity institute (siai), based in the us, are actively exploring the potential for global risks that could arise from the creation of superhuman artificial intelligence. to prevent such risks, artificial intelligence should be programmed to be friendly to people. artificial intelligence: applications 4 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us from the moment that artificial intelligence was recognized as a scientific direction, and this happened in the mid-50s of the last century, the developers of intelligent systems have had to solve many problems. conventionally, all tasks can be divided into several classes: human language recognition and translation, automatic theorem proving, creation of game programs, image recognition and machine creativity. let us briefly consider the essence of each class of problems. proof of theorems. automated theorem proving is the oldest application of artificial intelligence. a lot of research has been carried out in this area, which resulted in the appearance of formalized search algorithms and formal representation languages, such as prolog a logical programming language, and predicate calculus. automatic proof of theorems is also of interest to scientists for the reason that for particularly complex problems it is also possible to use the system, although not without human intervention. currently, programs often act as assistants. specialists break the task into several subtasks, then heuristics are thought out to sort out possible reasons. next, the program proves lemmas, checks less essential assumptions, and makes additions to the formal aspects of the proofs outlined by the person. pattern recognition. pattern recognition is the selection of essential features that characterize the initial data from the total set of features, and on the basis of the information received, the assignment of data to a certain class. the theory of pattern recognition is a branch of computer science whose task is to develop the foundations and methods for identifying and classifying objects (objects, processes, phenomena, situations, signals, etc.), each of which is endowed with a set of certain features and properties. in practice, it is necessary to identify objects quite often. a typical situation is recognizing the color of a traffic light and deciding whether to cross the street at the moment. there are other areas in which object recognition cannot be dispensed with, for example, the digitization of analog signals, military affairs, security systems, and so on, so today scientists continue to actively work on creating image recognition systems. among the variety of problems of pattern recognition, the following can be distinguished: document classification definition of mineral deposits image recognition barcode recognition character recognition speech recognition face recognition vehicle number recognition artificial intelligence in gaming programs. human speech recognition and machine translation. the long-term goals of artificial intelligence include creating programs that can recognize human language and use it to construct meaningful phrases. the ability to understand and apply natural language is a fundamental feature of human intelligence. successful automation of this ability would make computers much more efficient. to date, many programs have been written that can understand natural language, and they are successfully applied in limited contexts, but so far 5 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us there are no systems that can apply natural languages with the same generality and flexibility as a person does. the fact is that the process of understanding natural language is not only a simple parsing of sentences into components and searching for the meanings of individual words in dictionaries. this is exactly what the programs do well. the use of human speech requires extensive knowledge about the subject of the conversation, about the idioms related to it, in addition, the ability to understand ambiguities, omissions, professionalism, jargon, colloquial expressions and many other things that are inherent in normal human speech. an example is a conversation about football, where such words as “forward”, “pass”, “transfer”, “penalty”, “defender”, “forward”, “captain” and others are used. each of these words is characterized by a set of meanings, and individually the words are quite understandable, but a phrase made up of them will be incomprehensible to anyone who is not fond of football and knows nothing about the history, rules and principles of this game. thus, in order to understand and apply human language, a body of background knowledge is needed, and one of the main problems in automating the understanding and application of natural human language is the collection and systematization of such knowledge. game artificial intelligence includes not only the methods of traditional artificial intelligence, but also the algorithms of computer science in general, computer graphics, robotics and control theory. not only the system requirements, but also the budget of the game depend on how exactly the artificial intelligence is implemented, so developers have to balance, trying to ensure that the game artificial intelligence is created at minimal cost, and at the same time it is interesting and undemanding to resources. it uses a completely different approach than in the case of traditional artificial intelligence. in particular, emulations, deceptions and various simplifications are widely used. example: a feature of first-person shooters is the ability of bots to move accurately and instantly aim, but at the same time, a person does not have a single chance, so the abilities of bots are artificially underestimated. at the same time, checkpoints are placed on the level so that the bots can act as a team, set up ambushes, etc. within a computer game, there are many areas in which a wide variety of artificial game intelligence heuristic algorithms are used. the most widely used game ai is as one of the ways to control non-player characters. another equally common way to control is scripting . another obvious application of game ai, especially in real-time strategy games, is pathfinding, or a method to determine how an npc can get from one point on the map to another. at the same time, obstacles, terrain and a possible “fog of war” must be taken into account. dynamic balancing of mobs is also not complete without the use of artificial intelligence. many games have tried the concept of unpredictable intelligence. these are games like nintendogs , black & white , creatures many game programmers consider any technique that creates the illusion of intelligence as part of game artificial intelligence. however, this approach is not entirely correct, since the same techniques can be used not only in game artificial intelligence engines. for example, when creating bots, algorithms are used with information about possible future collisions entered into them, as a result of which bots acquire the “ability” to avoid these collisions. but these same techniques are an important and necessary component of a physics engine. another example: an important component of a bot's aiming system is water data, and the same data is widely used in the graphics engine when rendering. the final example is scripting . this tool can be successfully used in all aspects of game development, but most often it is considered as one of the ways to control the actions of npcs. another interesting task of artificial intelligence is teaching a computer to play chess. scientists from all over the world were engaged in its solution. the peculiarity of this task is that the demonstration of the logical abilities of the computer is possible only in the presence of a real opponent. expert systems. 6 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the development of modern expert systems has been carried out by researchers since the early 1970s, and in the early 1980s, expert systems began to be developed on a commercial basis. the prototypes of expert systems, proposed in 1832 by the russian scientist s. n. korsakov, were mechanical devices called “intelligent machines”, which made it possible to find a solution based on given conditions. for example, the symptoms of the disease observed in the patient were analyzed, and the most appropriate medicines were suggested based on the results of this analysis. computer science considers expert systems together with knowledge bases. systems are models of expert behavior based on the application of decision-making procedures and logical conclusions. knowledge bases are considered as a set of inference rules and facts that are directly related to the chosen field of activity. the whole variety of areas in which knowledge-based systems can be applied can be divided into classes: medical diagnostics, planning, forecasting, control and management, training, interpretation, fault diagnosis in electrical and mechanical equipment, training. artificial intelligence and prospects for its development intelligent computers are more powerful than non-intelligent ones , but is it possible to make sure that this power is always used only for good, but not for evil? artificial intelligence researchers who have devoted their entire lives to developments in this area should be aware of their degree of responsibility for ensuring that the results of their work have only a positive impact on humanity. the degree of this influence is directly related to the degree of artificial intelligence. even the earliest advances made in this area have had a significant impact on how computer science is taught and how software and hardware are developed. artificial intelligence has made it possible to create search engines, robots, effective surveillance systems, inventory management systems, speech recognition, and a number of other fundamentally new applications. according to the developers, the achievements of the average level achieved in artificial intelligence can have a tremendous impact on the way of life of the population around the planet. until now, only the internet and cellular telephone communications have had such a pervasive influence, and the degree of influence of artificial intelligence has remained negligible. but one can imagine what benefits the appearance of personal assistants for home or office will have for mankind, and how the quality of everyday life will improve with their appearance, although at first this may entail a number of economic problems. at the same time, the technological possibilities that have opened up to humanity may lead to the creation of autonomous weapons, and its appearance, according to many, is undesirable. finally, it may well be that success in creating artificial intelligence, superior in level to the human mind, can radically change the life of mankind. people will work differently, relax, have fun, ideas about consciousness, intellect and about the very future of mankind will change. it is easy to understand that the emergence of superior intelligence can cause serious damage to the freedom, self-determination and existence of people. at the very least, all of these aspects may be at risk. therefore, research related to artificial intelligence should be carried out with an awareness of their possible consequences. what could be the future? most science fiction novels follow pessimistic rather than optimistic scenarios, perhaps because such novels are more appealing to readers. but in reality, most likely, everything will be different. the development of artificial intelligence occurs in the same way as telephony, aeronautics, engineering equipment, printing and other revolutionary technologies developed at one time, the introduction of which brought more positive rather than negative consequences. it is also worth noting that despite the short history of the existence of artificial intelligence, significant progress has been made in this area. however, if humanity could look into the future, it would see how little has yet been done compared to what remains to be done. 7 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion the development of information technologies has made it possible for a person to compensate for the psychophysiological limitations of his body in a number of areas. the "external nervous system", created and expanded by man, has already given him the opportunity to develop theories, discover quantitative patterns, push the limits of knowledge of complex systems. artificial intelligence and its improvement turn the boundaries of complexity available to man into systematically pushed. this is especially important in the modern era, when society cannot successfully develop without the rational management of complex and super-complex systems. the development of artificial intelligence problems is a significant contribution to human awareness of the laws of the external and internal world, to their use in the interests of society, and thus to the development of human freedom. the man set the task of creating a kind of analogue of himself. and he was able to do it. the mechanical part is similar to the human body and its control is already there these are robots functioning on servomechanisms. the intellectual functions of a person are partly modeled. but civilization goes further. it's not enough for her. need to create " homo te with hnicus ". solving this problem requires the creation of a "machine" that functions like a human brain, but the further advances in research in the field of artificial intelligence, the more difficult it seems to solve it. literature 1. koss v. a. model of natural intelligence and ways of realizing artificial intelligence tasks // ммс. 2006. no. 4. [electronic resource].– url: http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/modelestestvennogo-intellekta-i-puti-realizatsii-zadach-iskusstvennogo-intellekta. 2. alimov a. a., shabalina o. a. game artificial intelligence system // izvestiya volggtu . 2012. no. 13. 3. ryzhov v. v., saifulin v. g. to the question of the ability of artificial intelligence to scientific creativity // bulletin of the volsu . series 7: philosophy. sociology and social technologies. 2011. no. 7-13. 4. ibragimov shavkat mamirovich . different approaches to building artificial intelligence systems. "raqamli texnologiyalar va sun'iy intellektni rivojlantirishning zamonaviy holati va istiqbollari", respublika ilmiy-amaliy anjumani materiallari , guliston , 116-119. 5. mamirovich i.sh. _ (2022) artificial intelligence – development prospects. "amaliy matematika va axborot texnologiyalarining zamonaviy muammolari " xalqaro ilmiy-amaliy anjuman materiallari, buxoro , 443. 6. mamirovich i.sh., mukaramovich a.s. (2020). musta qil ta'limini tashkil etishning shakllari va nazarat qilish omillari . " differential tenglamalar va mathematicianing turdosh bulimlari zamonaviy muammolari ". halcaro ilmy conference thesislar stupid . fargona , 290-292. 7. ibragimov sh . m . (2021). theoretical foundations of the problem of individualization of teaching as a basic principle in teaching. electronic scientific and practical periodical international edition "economics and society", (4-83). 8. ibragimov sh . m . (2020). improving the effectiveness of teaching information technology in universities using the method of individualization. electronic scientific and practical periodical international edition "economics and society", (11-78). 9. yuldasheva , g.i., & shermatova , k.m. (2021). the use of adaptive technologies in the educational process. economy and society , (4-1), 466-468. 8 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. shavkat mamirovich ibragimov (2022). use of lms system hemis in higher education institutions. icarhse international conference on advance research in humanities, sciences and education, 1(1), 1-3. 11. rakhimov, k., & ibragimov, sh.m. (2022). fanlarni ўқitishda diagnostics qilish usullari . o „ zbekiston respublik a si oliy v a o „ rt a m a xsus t a‟ lim v a zirligi toshkent kimyo texnologiya institution mexanika va matematikaning a m a liy mu a mmol a ri republic ilmiy amaliy conferensiyasi . 52-56. 12. abdurakhmonov , s. m., & ibragimov, sh. m. (2022). ta‟lim tizimida baholashning asosiy mezonlari va uning axamiyati . fdu khabarlari , (2), 258-261. 13. исламов, э. (2022). тўғри бурчакли тескари координаталар системаси. eurasian journal of mathematical theory and computer sciences, 2(13), 47. 14. tojimamatov, i. n., mamalatipov, o., rahmatjonov, m., & farhodjonov, s. (2023). neyron tarmoqlar. наука и инновация, 1(1), 4-12. 15. abdusalomovna, t. d. (2023). text mining. european journal of interdisciplinary research and development, 13, 284-289. 16. tojimamatov, i. n., mamalatipov, o. m., & karimova, n. a. (2022). sun‟iy neyron tarmoqlarini o „qitish usullari. 17. tojimamatov, i., usmonova, s., muhammadmusayeva, m., & xoldarova, s. (2023). data mining masalalari va ularning yechimlari. “trends of modern science and practice”, 1(2), 60-63. 18. kimyonazarova, d., ne'matjonova, d., ergasheva, b., & tojimamatov, i. (2023, march). katta ma‟lumotlar bilan ishlashda hadoop arxitekturasi. in международная конференция академических наук (vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 96-99). 48 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 finance and money credit system. banks and their role in the market economy. ochildiyeva naima mengziya qizi termiz institute of agrotechnologies and innovative development amirova dilshoda hasan qizi termiz institute of agrotechnologies and innovative development abstract: at the same time, the successful implementation of reforms regarding the liberalization of the foreign exchange market is closely related to the effectiveness of measures to improve the monetary policy, strengthen the activities of commercial banks, and develop the banking system. it should be noted that the correct acceptance and support of the changes in the monetary and credit sphere by the population and business entities is of great importance in the new events taking place during the revision of approaches to the implementation of the economic policy. key words: currency market, monetary credit, central bank, deposit, market economy. it is known to everyone that the experience of the central banks of developed and developing countries and the results of the research of independent financial institutions show the undoubted priority of the goal of ensuring price stability in the implementation of monetary policy. the procedure and sequence of monetary policy implementation differs in different countries depending on the characteristics and structural structure of the economy. the doer is a blessing. money is a commodity with absolute liquidity. money is an economic category in which relationships between people are expressed and constructed. the purpose of money is to save transaction costs of market interactions. first of all, it is possible to save money on the types and amounts of goods to be purchased, the time and place of the transaction, as well as the selection of counterparties for the transaction. in a barter economy, such outputs would be so abundant that the division of labor would be minimal, excluding the actualization of any exchange activity, and many types of activity would not actually exist. otherwise, such an economy would have been formed in which, for example, an economist who wanted to get a haircut would have to look for a barber who wanted to listen to a lecture on economics. credit money. the expansion of the use of commercial and bank credit in the conditions where commodity relations took a general shape in economic practice led to the fact that, according to their functions, sphere of circulation (borders), guarantees, etc., different from ordinary money and with completely different rules managed credit money remains a common good. credit money is characteristic of a somewhat developed, higher sector of the socio-economic process. they arise when capital completely takes over production and gives it a different, modified and unique form than before. at the current stage of development of the monetary policy, priority attention is paid to the implementation of comprehensive measures to introduce modern monetary and credit 49 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us instruments, improve existing ones and strengthen their influence mechanism, as well as eliminate internal economic restrictions. in 2018-2021, in order to improve the monetary and credit policy and strengthen the role of its instruments, to analyze the liquidity of the banking system and increase the efficiency of forecasting and operations in the money market, in 20182021, the involvement of special technical missions of the international monetary fund, the advanced experience of the central banks of foreign countries it was envisaged to expand the practice of learning and exchange of mutual experience [1]. improvement of banking supervision in accordance with international practices and standards, strengthening of the competitive environment in the banking system, and the continuation of the wide use of market mechanisms in the credit policy of commercial banks, in turn, strengthens confidence in the banking system and serves to increase the effectiveness of the credit policy. taking into account the characteristics of the national economy, the analysis of specific aspects and effectiveness of monetary policy regimes shows that the inflation targeting regime is very suitable for the task of achieving price stability as a priority goal of the central bank in the medium-term perspective. based on this, the necessary legal foundations and basic economic conditions were created for the gradual orientation of the principles and methods of monetary and credit policy implementation to inflation targeting. the possibility of conducting an independent monetary and credit policy in the conditions of uzbekistan appeared after the introduction of the national currency in 1994. it should be noted that the measures taken in the sphere of monetary and credit in recent years in our republic gradually reduced the level of inflation. enabled a slow reduction, provided macroeconomic stability and consistent economic growth pictures. in the development of the main directions of the monetary policy for the period of 2022 and 2023-2024, first of all, it was derived from the goals of ensuring price and financial stability in the economy, reducing the inflation rate to 5% by the end of 2023. the main directions of the monetary and credit policy include the medium-term macroeconomic development forecasts of the central bank and the work to be carried out in the monetary and credit sector in the coming years, the measures taken by the central bank in the event of changes in external and internal economic conditions, and the implementation of the monetary policy. approaches are reflected. banks are foreign entities and enterprises that provide loans to industrial, commercial enterprises and various other entrepreneurs on the account of the funds transferred as savings, as well as carry out other monetary relations. there are two different opinions about the historical development and formation of modern banks. according to the first theory, the emergence of banks began with the minting of gold and silver forms of money. businessmen of that time, in their practical activities, handed over gold to jewelers based on receipts and began to use the received receipts in the form of paper money. jewelers gradually turned into bankers by issuing receipts and taking gold with them. in the early days, goldsmiths exchange receipts for gold. over time, jewelers noticed the amount of money they had accumulated, and began to hand over certain surplus gold to other individuals for a certain amount of compensation. this situation leads to the formation of a banking system based on private money reserves in the coming years, along with the further improvement of the operational mechanism and the development of the money market, the central bank will focus on measures to implement the next stage of reforms in the domestic currency market, develop analytical and forecasting potential, and increase the efficiency of the monetary and credit policy transmission mechanism. if the central bank implements the general monetary and credit policy, the ultimate goals of which are economic growth, full employment, stability of prices and the balance of payments, its orders apply to all credit and financial institutions operating in the country. the goals and 50 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us methods of monetary policy depend on the need to stimulate the development of the main sectors of the economy, to modernize the banking infrastructure of the state. the banking system of the republic of uzbekistan is an integral part of the financial and monetary credit system of the republic of uzbekistan. the banking system in our republic consists of a two-tier banking system, which includes the central bank and commercial banks. references: 1. rashidov a. the place and significance of notarify methods in regulating the economy //archiv nauchnyx issledovaniy. 2022. t. 2. – no. 1. 2. concept of implementation of monetary policy central bank of the republic of uzbekistan https://cbu.uz/uz/monetary-policy/concept/ 3. decision of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan "on measures to improve the mechanism of regulation of monetary and credit indicators". 04.02.2003 4. xiao, k., wang, y., whited, t. m., & wu, y. (2017). market power and monetary policy transmission: evidence from a structural estimation. retrieved from https://scihub.tw/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3049665 8 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 01, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх the architectural construction and advices of using in modern ways khonaqohs of ancient monuments of uzbekistan maxmatqulov i. t. doctor of philosophy in architecture (phd), samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering, samarkand city (uzbekistan) t. m. makhmatkulov acting professor, samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering, samarkand city (uzbekistan) abstract the information about the development of the central asian mysticism institutions in the xivxvi centuries, the artistic and constructive development of the architecture of the khanaqah buildings, the khanaqahs of this period were built in the style of the magnificent architectural buildings in the form of symmetrical composite dome-shaped structures and the construction of the "shock link", which there are also scientific summaries on protection, repair and use of objects of cultural norm. keywords: tasavvuf, khonaqag, dome, naqshbandiya, qodiriya, portal, khoja imkonagiy khonaqah, the old city, cultural heritage, architectural planning. introduction the first-formed apartment buildings in central asia were built in a low-rise, one-story courtyard, where they were built from simple loy shacks or raw bricks. the roof is plastered with loy, covered with bolor, lace and vases. as a result of the stabilization of mysticism in the islamic world in the xi-xiii centuries, and as a result of the formation of 5 large sufi sects in central asia from the xii century, the construction of khanaqah buildings became popular. housewives of this period are built not only from raw brick, but also from baked brick. the baked brick honeycomb roofs were also covered with domes during this period. this section shows some available styles the domes of the qadirian period in khorezm, khodjagon in gijduvan, nakshbandiya in bukhara, fergana, initially had such structures. some of the apartments were also built by the courtyard with pillar-cobblestone awnings. the development of the central asian mysticism institutions in the xiv-xvi centuries led to the artistic and constructive development of the khanaqah buildings. the rooms of this period were built in the style of magnificent architectural buildings in baked clay structures with a porthole with symmetrical composition. in the ranks of such rooms it is possible to include bakhouddin nakshband in bukhara, khoja akhmad yassavi in turkistan, kokildor rooms in surkhondarya and others. the public hall of the khoja umakagiy khan, which is located near the city of kitab in the kashkadarya region, is quite large, and the construction of "sokh linga", which has been used since the time of the temurids in 9 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us central asia, that is, the dome construction built on 4 intersecting brick arches rising from eight places above the hall walls, has been used. in this way, the large living room top is closed with a relatively small, light chorsu dome. a similar construction was used in bukhara when closing the roof of the bahovuddin house(picture 1). 1-picture. the current appearance of bahovuddin's room in bukhara. the skis, which fell between the cobwebs on the face of the domes, settled in the seeds of dwarf plants through the landing pigeons, as a result of their growth, there is a violation of the decoration of the cob, sometimes even a rough fall. in the elimination of these distortions, the chemical disinfection method developed by the samarkand scientist fayrushina was widely used. looking at the tarh of the building of many chambers and tombs, one can see that they are square-shaped. the square has the largest surface on the minimum perimeter, all sides, diagonals, symmetry arrows are equal to each other. therefore, the square is given such symbolic meanings as equality, balance, stagnation, calm. calmness is the supreme balance of human spirituality in the doctrine of mysticism. the roof of most rooms is built with domes. the soul and permission of the person entering the buildings with the dome roof flows into the senses of serenity, tranquility, prayer at an inexplicable level. the dome roof, like antennas, not only receives positive energy(energy)coming from space, but also serves to maintain it for quite some time. the domed roof is also considered to be much more durable from a constructive point of view. by the middle of the xiv century, with the increase in the diameter of the central hall domes of some rooms, the strength of the construction of the underground squares of the dome is also increased. for example, if the diameter of the dome of the central hall of the muhammed bashoro khan, built in the xiv century, is 7,6 meters, then in khorezm under the kazakhon mausoleum in the village of astana, the diameter of the dome of the sheikh mukhtar vali khan, built in 1287 year, reaches 8.5 meters. when closing the central hall of such apartments, that is, the top of the church, we mentioned above, the shock linga construction was used. repair of architectural monuments, as well as the main printsip of its use, this is the preservation of the building in its original form. here, on the one hand, there is a desire to save without making changes to the interior and exterior of the monuments, on the other hand, there is a need to find a suitable function for each monument to its existing structure, where there is a possibility of dependence. however, this is not only an architectural problem, but also a spiritual problem. in the use of the building and its territory should not spoil the historical and natural landscape. on the contrary, in order to demonstrate cultural-historical and architectural treasures, it is necessary to create conditions for the original appearance of the building and with it to help not only tourists, but also specialists get acquainted more closely. as you know, as one of the spheres of economic efficiency, great attention is paid to the modern use of architectural monuments for the development of international tourism all over the world. 10 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and history bears witness to the fact that monuments that serve our people and bring social benefits have always been in the spotlight. due to the fact that some architectural monuments were used for other purposes, which lie in their functions, they were amended, and as a result, our monuments gradually reached a state of decay. therefore, one of the main ways that will help restore the "right"to active life in monuments and their historical and artistic significance is the use of them for modern purposes, scientifically-based. the preservation of monuments and their transmission to future generations is recognized by their active service to the people, otherwise the monument loses its function and begins to be morally worn, self-absorbed and broken. monuments in their essence require not only to be an object of viewing, but also to be able to communicate directly with the times and man on an ongoing basis. in solving these problems, the role of the housekeepers that have been preserved to us is also great. it requires the development of principles for the formation and preservation of the centers of our historical cities, the use of architectural monuments in order to meet the spiritual needs of tourists. since the lifetime of monuments is tied to their correct and rational use, it means that the uniqueness of historical cities also depends on how and for what purposes the monuments of architecture are used. conclusions decree of the republic of uzbekistan "on the protection and use of cultural heritage objects" numbered 269-p in 30.08.2001, which strictly sets out the laws for the protection, repair and use of cultural monuments, as well as the 353-p number approved in 04.04.2002 "the urban development code of the republic of uzbekistan" shall be adopted. and on october 17, 2009, the decree of the republic of uzbekistan "on making changes to the decision on the protection and use of objects of cultural heritage" was adopted. in this decision, the objects of cultural heritage were divided into two separate groups, the first group included "objects of material cultural heritage", and the second group included "objects of intangible cultural heritage". the concept of" objects of material cultural heritage "includes monuments of architecture and urban planning, complexes, monuments in them, places of attraction of the environment (landscapes, monuments of archeology and urban structures, parts of cities that have historically arisen), and the concept of" objects of intangible cultural heritage " -traditions, folk art (vocabulary, dances, music, performances), as well as folk art, knowledge, skills, instruments related to them, artifacts, introduced into the cultural space environment. the methods of using monuments of architecture now rely on the following scientific outlines; the main requirement for the adaptation of monuments of any architecture to modern purposes is the maximum preservation and preservation of the monument; individual approach to the adaptation of monuments of any architecture for modern purposes; to draw attention to the history and peculiarities of the formation of monuments (ensembles), to substantiate them, that is, to determine the methods of their design. the analysis of scientific and technical knowledge gained in foreign countries on the repair of monuments of architecture and their use for modern purposes will benefit in creating the opportunity to take a step into a new life of monuments of architecture in uzbekistan. one of the important cases of the design work on the adaptation of monuments to modern purposes is a thorough study of the historical territory and history of the formation of the monument. the principles of the use of monuments developed to this day in uzbekistan are aimed at the basic norms of the lifetime of monuments and the development of solutions for their rational use. references 1. askarov sh.d. architetura temuridov. tashkent, 2018. 2. askarov sh.d. genesis of architecture of uzbekistan. tashkent, 2014. 11 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. nemtseva n.b. sufism and architecture of the muslim east// abstracts of the international conference "genesis and ways of development of urbanization processes in central asia”.samarkand, 1995. 4. rtveladze l., rtveladze e. muslim shrines of uzbekistan, t., 1996, p. 103. 5. akhmedov m.k. history of central asian architecture.t.: uzbekistan, 1995. 6. maxmatqulov, i. t., & sherqulova, d. g. (2022). symbolic meanings and characteristics of patterns and decorations in central asian architectural monuments in the xiv-xv centuries. eurasian journal of academic research, 2(2), 744-749. 7. maxmatqulov, i. t. (2022). scientific analysis of the erkurgan historical and archeological complex in karshi district of kashkadarya region. journal of architectural design, 4, 27-31. 8. maxmatqulov, i. t. (2022). proposals for the use of historic shopping malls in uzbekistan for modern purposes. middle european scientific bulletin, 21, 198-201. 9. turdimurodovich, m. i., djurakulovich, g. b., & quziyevich, e. i. (2020). the role and place of the khanqahs in spreading the mysticism and spiritual purification to the peoples of central asia. international journal of scientific and technology research, 9(3), 561-563. 10. turdimurodovich, m. i. (2018). the analysis of town-planning conditions of placement of hanakah buildings in the structure of central asian cities. international journal of scientific and technology research, 7(4), 238-240. 11. mahmatqulov, i., & mavlonov, m. (2023). turar-joylarni me’moriy– landshaft tashkillashtirish va loyihalashning zamonaviy an’analarini tashkillashtirishning ilg’or an’analari. eurasian journal of academic research, 3(1 part 5), 27-31. 12. mahmatqulov, i., & sherqulova, d. (2023). samarqanddagi zamonaviy shaharsozlik ob’yektlarida naqsh va bezaklarni qo’llanilish asoslari. eurasian journal of academic research, 3(1 part 4), 161-166. 13. elmuradovna, j. e., turdimurodovich, m. i., & zuyadullayevich, z. u. (2020). modern tourist requirements in samarkand. international journal of scientific and technology research, 9(4), 1538-1540. 104 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 gear transmissions nurova oliya salomovna dotsent, karshi engineering and economic institute, karshi, uzbekistan abstract: in this article, the role of lecture training and the methodology of conducting it in preparing students for scientific and research activities based on the teaching of general professional subjects are considered. procedure has been developed. keywords: lecture exercise, gear, gear, involute, module, cylindrical, power, gear wheel. introduction. in the article, using the design method, students will receive the necessary information about the main parameters of gears, useful work ratio, transmission ratio, runs, calculation of kinematics of drives, geometry and kinematics of gears, types of tooth abrasions, working capacity of gears and criteria for their calculation, accounting loadings, materials used in gears and types of thermal processing, as well as. the purpose of the lesson: to gain an understanding of the types of gears, areas of use, advantages and disadvantages. geometry and kinematics of gears of involute, cylindrical gear wheels. gear study the materials used to make wheels. geared. to understand the level of precision in the manufacture of wheels and its effect on the quality of work. allowable voltages. understanding computational overload accepted limitations. theoretical part: the mechanism of transmission of movement from one shaft to another by means of gear wheels is called gear transmission. at the same time, gears with a diameter of less than 1 mm are used in precision tool making, and in heavy industry, they can be seen with a diameter of several 10 m. in 1760, euler recommended involute profile teeth. advantages: 1. it can transmit large (several thousand kw) power at a speed of up to 150 meters per second, and the number of transmissions reaches several hundred: 2. the surface sizes are relatively small: 3. the force applied to the rods will not be so great: 4. the coefficient of useful work is high (0.97...0.98): 5. there will be no sliding phenomenon that will negatively affect the number of transmissions: 6. allows the use of various materials: disadvantages: 1. relative complexity of preparation: 2. noise during operation: 3. the damage of impact forces is felt more. 105 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us specific features of bevel gear geometry. it is recommended to use bevel or chevron gears when the rotational speed in the extension is v>6m/s, because the precision of the spur gears must be very high for them to work satisfactorily at such speeds. https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.detalmach.ru/lect4.files/image109.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.detalmach.ru/lect4.htm&docid=tk19ng4pwleerm&tbnid=mwz7uqby8siybm:&vet=10ahukewjwpkgtrldtahusjjokhy0dbz0qmwhfkbkwgq..i&w=165&h=223&bih=794&biw=1600&q=%d0%b7%d1%83%d0%b1%d1%87%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8b%d0%b5 %d0%bf%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b4%d0%b0%d1%87%d0%b0 %d1%84%d0%be%d1%82%d0%be&ved=0ahukewjwpkgtrldtahusjjokhy0dbz0qmwhfkbkwgq&iact=mrc&uact=8 https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.teormach.ru/lab21.files/image066.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.teormach.ru/lab21.htm&docid=5o8o1kl4ggm6km&tbnid=m_gdlxjbkn4lsm:&vet=10ahukewjwpkgtrldtahusjjokhy0dbz0qmwhmkdowog..i&w=571&h=280&bih=794&biw=1600&q=%d0%b7%d1%83%d0%b1%d1%87%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8b%d0%b5 %d0%bf%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b4%d0%b0%d1%87%d0%b0 %d1%84%d0%be%d1%82%d0%be&ved=0ahukewjwpkgtrldtahusjjokhy0dbz0qmwhmkdowog&iact=mrc&uact=8 https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://5fan.ru/files/1/5fan_ru_6890.html_files/0.png&imgrefurl=http://5fan.ru/wievjob.php?id=6890&docid=qn5kukwmzdfpem&tbnid=32uoruenczfcum:&vet=10ahukewjwpkgtrldtahusjjokhy0dbz0qmwhbkbuwfq..i&w=590&h=645&bih=794&biw=1600&q=%d0%b7%d1%83%d0%b1%d1%87%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8b%d0%b5 %d0%bf%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b4%d0%b0%d1%87%d0%b0 %d1%84%d0%be%d1%82%d0%be&ved=0ahukewjwpkgtrldtahusjjokhy0dbz0qmwhbkbuwfq&iact=mrc&uact=8 106 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us cos n t m m  cos n t p p  where: nm standard module side surface module np a normal step tp side surface step  tooth deviation angle. according to what was said, the dividing diameter of the bevel gear wheel cos 0 zm zmd n t  where z is the number of teeth classification of gears. depending on the location of the axles, the gears are as follows: 1. cylindrical the axes are parallel: 2. conical axes intersect under 900: 3. worm arrows pass over each other. depending on the profile of the teeth, it is as follows: involute, cycloidal, novikov gear. there are 2 types depending on the bite: internal and external bite. depending on its construction, it can be closed or open. changing the shape of the tooth by moving the tooth cutter. in order to prevent the weakening of the strength of gears with few teeth, the shape of their teeth is shown in fig. 23. in order to reduce the geometric dimensions of the gear, an effort is made to reduce the number of teeth. a decrease in the number of teeth leads to a decrease in the coverage coefficient, which, in turn, leads to a decrease in tooth strength. usually, this value is as follows. zmin = 17÷18 materials used in the manufacture of gear wheels. currently, gear wheels are mainly made of steel, cast iron and plastics. due to the fact that gear wheels are required to be reduced in size when they are used in high-powered machines, most of them are made of different steels, for example, 40, 45, 50, 40, g2, 50g, 40x, 30 xgs and other brands of steel. it is better to make the wheels of the transmissions, which are affected by impact and work under the influence of the force, which changes direction or speed, 18 xgt, 20 x2n4a, 15x, 20x, 12xza. the performance of gears and their wear. there are two main forces acting on teeth in contact. 107 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us one of them is the force directed perpendicular to the involute surfaces of the teeth along the contact line a1, a2. the second is the frictional force created by the sliding phenomenon between the teeth: among them, the main stresses that determine the ability of teeth to work are the contact stress generated on the surface of the tooth and the bending stress generated at the bottom of the tooth. the erosion of the surface of the teeth should be understood as follows. a) fainting due to fatigue. b) erosion in an environment with abrasive particles and under conditions of normal friction. c) cases of one wheel tooth breaking off the surface and sticking to the surface of the other wheel tooth in transmissions working with heavy load: d) displacement due to plastic deformation: e) cases of migration of the surface hard layer of thermally treated teeth. in gear transmission, one wheel tooth is formed by meshing with another wheel tooth. keeping the number of revolutions constant ensures the theory of gearing. in biting theory. const r r i  1 2 2 1   where: angular velocity of the gear  angular speed of the wheel  turning radius of the gear  turning radius of the wheel. the dividing circle is used as a basis for determining the geometric dimensions of tooth elements. the following equation can be written for the length of this circle on each wheel: tzd   where: z is the number of teeth on the wheel: pz tooth pitch: d the diameter of the dividing circle. rotation speeds of point c relative to centers o1 and o2. 111 sоv  222 sоv  we use the analogy of the triangle aec and bco1, i.e : so bo v v 1 1 1 1 1  108 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us from here: bobo so v v 111 1 11 1  we use analogy: so co v v 2 2 2 1 2  from here: coco so v v 222 2 21 2  1 2 1 1 vv  in that case cobo 22111   number of laps: bo co i 1 2 2 1    pboваpco 12  using 1 2 1 2 1 2 r r po po bo co  in that case const r r i  1 2 2 1   contact  н and in bending  f permissible values of voltages.    мпаk hнlh 0     мпаk fflf 0  109 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us here:   0н  ;  0f the value of is taken from the table in relation to the material of gear wheels, their thermal processing and the size of the tooth surface. ; coefficients that take into account the service life of the transmission.     702hb , hlim lim     n khh h the main dimensions of the extension. 1. distance between axles.     мм i tk ikа ha h aw ,1 22 2    where: ак -coefficient of distance between axles ( ак =430 for helical gears; ак =495 for straight gears 2т torque on the drive wheel shaft, мн  ; нк the coefficient that takes into account the uneven distribution of the load on the tooth surface. а the coefficient taking into account the location of the transmission wheel in relation to the base points in the case of symmetric а = 0.4...0.5, in the non-symmetric case а = 0.25...0.4, in the case of the console а = 0.2...0.25 2. transmission module. m=(0.01...0.02)aw, mm 3. the total number of teeth and the angle of inclination of the drive wheels. the smallest value of the slope angle for bevel gears. 2min /4sin вmazc the total number of teeth of the extension wheel. maz w /cos2 min 00 18...8 must be 4. the number of teeth of the leading and driven gear wheels.   ;1 min1 zizz   110 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the calculated value of z1 is rounded up for spur gears and for spur gears 17min z  3min cos17 z the number of teeth of the bearing wheel. izz 12  rotational diameters of extension wheels. a) diameter of the dividing circle. cos/11 zmd n ; cos/22 zmd n b) outer diameter. na mdd 211  ; na mdd 222  c) internal diameter. nf mdd 4,211  ; nf mdd 4,222  5. forces generated in gear transmission. circular force: 22 /2 dtft  centripetal force:  costgff tr  longitudinal force: tgff ta  6. bending stress of wheel teeth. a) for the driving wheel мпаmвfyykkk tffvfff ,222   b) for the leading wheel мпа y y f f ff ;; 1 2 21   111 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us technological map the fun of each training session depends on the well-thought-out technological map of the training session. the teacher's serious attention to this process leads to the perfect quality of training. 1 topic: "gears" 2 purpose, tasks to inform students about the types of gears, their uses, their advantages and disadvantages. to justify the geometric and kinematic parameters of gears of cylindrical gear wheels with an involute profile. to study the materials used to make gear wheels and to test their strength formulas. formation of general skills about application. to understand the degree of accuracy in the 112 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us manufacture of gears and its effect on the quality of work. organization and implementation of studies on the basis of which parameters are selected based on the parameters of the permissible bending stresses, calculated loading, accepted limitations, and the fields of mechanical engineering. learning of the distributed materials related to the topic by students individually and in groups, as well as controlling the degree to which the texts in the distributed materials are mastered through conversation and discussion, evaluating their knowledge. 3 your learning process content explaining to students the types of gears, their uses, advantages and disadvantages. formation of general skills about the types of materials used for the manufacture of gear wheels, how to choose them, and how to use formulas for checking the strength of the materials used. understanding the level of precision in the manufacture of gear wheels and its effect on the quality of work. formation of students' skills to understand and evaluate the permissible bending stresses of gear materials, calculated loading and their accepted limitations. 4 educational process make it happen technology. methods: verbal presentation, brainstorming, "boomerang", "cluster", conversation-discussion, swot analysis, fsmu, sinkwain. tools: handouts, texts. technical equipment: computer, projector, electronic board, multimedia tools. methods: through drawings, presentation slides. control: verbal control, question-and-answer, self-control. assessment: teaching self-assessment based on a 5-point system using assessment cards. 5 expected results teacher: the subject is mastered by all students. increases student engagement. as a result, it forms students' interest in lessons. he will achieve his goal. a student: acquires new knowledge, learns to work alone or in a group, develops speech, and strengthens the ability to remember. learns self-control and evaluation. 6 the future plans (analysis, changes) the teacher improves the assimilation of innovative pedagogic and information technologies and their application to classes. he works on himself. connects the topic with real life examples. improves pedagogical skills. student: learns to work independently with formulas, text and drawings, to express his opinion freely. he can solve problems independently on the topic. the above-mentioned technological map prepared by the teacher for each subject of the subject he is teaching, for each lesson, allows him to imagine and approach the subject as a whole, to understand it, from its purpose to being able to see the results that will be achieved. will help. in particular, the construction of the technological map based on the student's ability and attention brings him as a person to the center of education. this makes it possible to increase the efficiency of studying. in the process of teaching, students are treated as individuals, various pedagogical technologies and modern methods are used to make them think independently, freely, to research, to feel the responsibility of creative approach to every issue, to carry out scientific research, to analyze, to 113 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us make effective use of scientific literature, the most important thing is to increase their interest in studying, science and their chosen profession. summary. theoretical and practical knowledge about the types of gear transmissions, areas of operation, their materials, stability testing, calculation of geometric and kinematic parameters was formed for students using the methods of pedagogical technologies. the development of the methodology of preparation for service provision and research types was achieved literature 1. д.н.решетов « детали машин» м. машиностроение.1989й 2. л.д.решетов «конструирование самоустанавливающихся механизмов» м.машиностроение.1983г. 3. с.н.носиров « машина деталларидан курс лойиҳасини бажариш” тошкент.2008.г 49 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 theoretical studies on the justification of the angle of installation in relation to the direction of movement of the improved harrow leveller tukhtakuziev abdusalim doctor of science, professor rasuljonov abdurakhmon ravshanbek ugli philosophy of doctor, s.s.e. utepbergenov bazarbay kengesbayevich philosophy of doctor, docent. kengesbaev rustem bazarbayevich doctoral-student abstract: the article presents the results of the theoretical studies on the justification of the angle of installation in relation to the direction of movement of the improved harrow leveller. according to it, in order to ensure free sliding of soil pieces along the working surface of the soil leveler, its installation angle of installation in relation to the direction of movement should be less than 55°. keywords: leveler, installation angle of the leveler in relation to the direction of movement, leveler with full curved surface, the resistance of the field surface to the movement of the soil. introduction. at the present time, the vp-8.0 pre-sowing leveler, mv-6.0, mv-6.5 and artificial harrow levellers are widely used in our country for the preparation of land for planting [1-5]. in this case, levelers level the surface of the fields, compact them as required and grind large lumps. but because they are trailers, they have low productivity, are inconvenient to use, and do not meet the requirements of minimum and economical tillage. based on the above, a comprehensive suspension leveler was developed at sriam, which improved the work process [6-10]. the conducted tests showed that during the working process, the piled soil in front of the leveler of this harrow leveller is spilled to the side, and piles of soil are formed on both sides of it. to level these piles of soil, we have developed an improved harrow leveller (fig. 1). this article presents the results of theoretical studies on the justification of the angle of installation in relation to the direction of movement of the improved harrow leveller. 50 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1-a frame equipped with a suspension device; 2-full curved surface leveler; 3-soil leveler; 4compactor figure 1. construction scheme of a grinder-leveler equipped with a leveler with a full curved surface and a soil leveler materials and methods. the pile of soil formed by the spilling of the soil piled in front of the leveler to its side is leveled by the soil leveler by leveling it to the side. based on this, we determine the installation angle of the soil leveler in relation to the direction of movement on the condition that it scatters the soil pieces to the side to the maximum distance. for this purpose, we study the movement of soil particles under the influence of a soil leveler and after separation from it [11] (fig. 2). during the movement of the soil leveler, the piece of soil that meets it at point 1м begins to move together with it at a speed 1 in the direction deviating from the normal to its working surface by the angle of friction 1 sin cos tyo a v v    , and after some time it 51 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us separates from it at point 2м and аv continues its motion along the surface of the field with the initial velocity and stops at point 3м . a piece of soil travels a distance l after it is separated from the soil leveler until it stops moving. to determine this distance, the differential equation of the movement of a piece of soil on the field surface along the аv direction, that is, along the x axis, is created. it will look like this: 2 2 d x m f dt   , (1) where m – the mass of a piece of soil, kg; t – time, s; f – the resistance of the field surface to the movement of the soil, n. the movement of a piece of soil is caused by the force of its friction on the field surface tf f mg (where tf – the soil-to-soil friction coefficient; g – the acceleration of free fall, m/s 2 ). taking this into account, expression (1) becomes: 2 2 t d x m f mg dt   . (2) reducing both sides of this equation to m and integrating, we get: figure 2. a scheme for studying the movement of a piece of soil under the influence of a soil leveler 52 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1x tv f gt c   (3) and 2 1 2 2 t t x f g c t c    , (4) where 1c , 2c – are integration constants. we determine the integration constants 1c and 2c using the following initial conditions: 1 sin cos tyo x a v v v     and 0x  in 0t  . substituting these into equations (3) and (4) we find that they are 1 1 sin cos tyov c    and 2 0c  . given these determined values of 1c and 2c , expressions (3) and (4) become: 1 sin cos tyo x tv v f gt     (5) and 2 1 sin cos 2 tyo t t x vt f g     . (6) taking into account that the final speed of the piece of soil is zero, from (6) we find the time of its movement after separation from the soil leveler: 1 sin cos tyo t v t f g    . (7) putting this value of t in (6), we determine the distance traveled by the piece of soil after separation from the soil leveler: 2 2 2 1 sin 2 cos tyo t v l f g    . (8) this expression is the lateral spread distance of the soil   2 2 12 1 sin cos 2 cos tyo yo tyo t v l f g       . (9) as can be seen from this expression, the distance of the soil fragments to the side depends on the speed of movement, the installation angle of the soil leveler in relation to the direction of movement, and the friction coefficient of the soil on the soil and the angle of friction of the soil on the working surface of the soil leveler. according to expression (9), increasing the speed of movement and decreasing the coefficient of soil-to-soil friction leads to an increase in the distance of soil leveling to the side. but according to this expression, the angles of installation and friction of the soil to its working 53 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us surface in relation to the direction of movement of the soil leveler, that is, the effect of tyo and 1 on the lateral scattering distance of the soil cannot be directly estimated. in order to evaluate the effect of angles tyo and 1 on the lateral scattering distance of the soil, we plot the graphs of the change of yol depending on tyo and 1 according to the expression (9) (fig. 3). the analysis of the graphical connections presented in figure 3 shows that at all values of the friction angle, the distance of leveling the soil to the side changed according to the convex parabola law depending on the installation angle of the soil leveler in relation to the direction of movement, that is, it first increased and then decreased. as the angle of soil friction increases, the distance of soil leveling to the side decreases. we determine the values of the installation angle of the soil leveler in relation to the direction of movement, which ensure the maximum distance of the soil leveling to the side. for this, expression (9) is derived by tyo and the obtained result is set to zero [12]:    2 2 1 1 sin sin 2 cos tyo tyo t v f g          12sin cos cos 0tyo tyo tyo      . (10) in this expression, only the expression in the middle parenthesis can be zero, that is: 1 – φ1 = 25°; 2 – φ1 = 30°; 3 – φ1 = 35° figure 3. graphs of change of lyo depending on γtyo at different values of φ1     2 1 1sin sin 2sin cos cos 0tyo tyo tyo tyo tyo           . (11) let both sides of this equation be sin tyo , and write it in the following form:    1 12cos cos sin sin 0tyo tyo tyo tyo         . (12) 54 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us using the rules known from trigonometry [13], we make  1cos costyo tyo   and  1sin sintyo tyo   in expression (12) look like this:      1 1 1 1 cos cos cos cos 2 tyo tyo tyo tyo tyo tyo                   1 1 1 cos cos 2 2 tyo       (13)      1 1 1 1 sin sin cos cos 2 tyo tyo tyo tyo tyo tyo                   1 1 1 cos cos 2 2 tyo       (14) taking into account these obtained results, the expression (12) will have the following form:    1 1 1 1 1 cos cos 2 cos cos 2 0 2 tyo tyo             ; (15) or  1 13cos 2 cos 0tyo     . (16) from this 1 1 1 1 arccos cos 2 3 tyo              . (17) it follows that. results and discussion. by putting 1 in the expression (17) the values known from the literature (25-35°) [14, 15], we determine that the installation angle of the soil leveler should be in the range of 35-41° in relation to the direction of movement in order to maximize the leveling of the soil to the side. comparing these data with the data presented in figure 3, we see that they are in perfect agreement with each other. so, according to the conducted studies, the installation angle of the soil leveler should be in the range of 35-41° in relation to the direction of movement. during the working process of the soil leveler, it is necessary to ensure free sliding of soil pieces along its working surface so that the soil does not stick to its working surface and the soil does not accumulate in front of it. this is ensured when the following condition is met: 190tyo   . (18) conclusion. putting the above values of 1 in this expression, we determine that the angle of its installation in relation to the direction of movement should be less than 55° in order to ensure free sliding of soil pieces along the working surface of the leveler. therefore, the soil leveler fully satisfies the condition that the soil leveler can freely slide along the working surface, provided that the distance of leveling the soil to the side is maximum. 55 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. model technology cards for care of agricultural crops and production. for 2016-2020 (part i). uzrmaw – tashkent, sriam, 2016. – 136 p. 2. tukhtakuziev a., m. usarov., barlibaev sh. improved grinder-leveler // current problems and development prospects of genetics, selection, seeding and cultivation of agricultural crops: proceedings of the international scientific and practical conference. – tashkent: psueaiti, 2018. – b. 381-383. 3. tukhtakuziev, a., & rasuljonov, a. r. (2020, december). ensuring the stability of the processing depth of suspended soil mounted machines. in iop conference series: earth and environmental science (vol. 614, no. 1, p. 012156). iop publishing. 4. tukhtakuziev, a., rasuljonov, a. r., turkmenov, h. i., irgashev, a. a., & barlibaev, s. (2023). ensuring the stability of the suspended chisel-cultivator processing depth. in e3s web of conferences (vol. 390). edp sciences. 5. tukhtakuziev, a., & rasuljonov, a. (2020). results of laboratory and field experiments on an experimental mounted chisel cultivator. efficiency of application of innovative technologies and equipment in agriculture and water management (pp. 112-115). 6. abdusalim, t. (2023). research of angular vibration of combination machine winding. web of synergy: international interdisciplinary research journal, 2(4), 853-859. 7. bokijonovich, i. k., & makhkamovich, m. u. (2023). results of multi-factor experiments conducted to base the parameters of the combined machine quantification apparatus for organic fertilizers. eurasian journal of engineering and technology, 17, 11-16. 8. abdusalim, t., & mukhammadjonovich, e. m. r. (2023). determination of the extension strength of the press spring of the parallelogram mechanism of the combined disc harrow. eurasian journal of engineering and technology, 17, 6-10. 9. abdusalim, t., mukhammadjonovich, e. m. r., & pulatovich, s. s. (2023). research of the vibration movement of the combined machine straightener in the longitudinal-vertical plane. web of synergy: international interdisciplinary research journal, 2(3), 412-421. 10. abdusalim, t., & orifjonovich, r. o. (2022). researching the angle oscillations forming the soft layer on the field surface of breaking levellers. the american journal of applied sciences, 4(08), 20-27. 11. naurizbaev a.o. basing the parameters of track softeners for a wide range of grinders: phd diss. – gulbahor, 2022. – 114 p. 12. vygodsky m.y. handbook of higher mathematics. – moscow: nauka, 1972. – 872 p. 13. vygodsky m.y. handbook of elementary mathematics. – moscow. nauka, 1979. – 416 p. 14. rudakov g.m. technological bases of mechanization of cotton sowing. – tashkent: fan, 1974. – 284 p. 15. sergienko v.a. technological bases of mechanization of tillage between rows of cotton plants. – tashkent: fan, 1978. – 112 p. 48 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 study of complex landscape gully erosion and theirs, density and density mapping mamajanov maruf makhmudzhanovich senior lecturer, namangan engineering construction institute (nam eci), republic of uzbekistan, namangan. abstract: mapping of ravine erosion in complex landscape conditions in the world practice of erosion management, linear forms of ravine erosion are usually mapped by deciphering aerospace-photographs (afs-cfs), as well as traditional mapping methods using topographic maps. the article provides for the regularities in the manifestation of the growth and development of the ravines of the namangan adyrs, studied the linear forms of erosion with the identification of their morphological and morphometric characteristics. keywords: gully erosion interpretation, aerial photography, aerial space photography, photographic plans, topographic maps, scale, density, density. mapping gully erosion in complex landscape conditions needs to be considered [1]. as a result of studying the distribution of ravines in the adyrs. we compiled maps of the density and thickness of ravines on a scale of 1:10000. to characterize the gullies of the adyrs, indicators of density, density and frequency of ravines were used. namangan adyrs are divided by density into 6 gradations [2, 3]. i – less than 0.1 km/m 2 ii – 0,110,30 km/m 2 iii – 0,30 – 1,0 km/m 2 iv – 1,01 3,0 km/m 2 v – 3,01 – 5,0 km/m 2 vi – more than 5.01 0.1 km/m 2 and also in 6 gradations of density i – less than 0.1 pcs. / sq. km; not ravaged. ii – 0.11-0.60 pcs. / sq. km; weakly ravaged. iii – 0.61 – 1.5 pcs. / sq. km; gully. iv – 1.51 5.0 pcs. / sq. km; medium gully. v – 5.01 – 10.0 pcs. / sq. km; heavily ravaged. vi – more than 10.01 pcs. / sq. km; very heavily enchanted. 49 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to develop measures to combat gully erosion, it is necessary to study the patterns of manifestation, growth and development of linear forms of erosion, identifying their morphological and morphometric characteristics [4, 5]. the morphology and morphometry of ravines on the adyrs is closely related to the structure and dissected terrain of the area, the area of the drainage basin, the lithology of underlying rocks and types of economic use [6, 7]. the morphometry of ravines on adjacent adyrs is directly proportional to the depth of local erosion bases, the degree of relief dissection and the implementation of irrigation structures. of the 695 ravines surveyed, about 60% had an average length of no more than 25 m. according to the law of rectilinear movement of concentrated runoff of temporary water flows on heavily ravaged lands, the number of elongated ravines decreases to 9% over time. therefore, the use of space photographs in deciphering the linear forms of erosion on the adyrs is not very effective, because a resolution of 1: 200,000 images is insignificant when deciphering short (less than 25 m in length) adyr ravines [8, 9]. density and thickness of ravines. to identify the pattern of distribution of ravines in the adyrs of the namangan region, we compiled maps of the density and density of ravines on a scale of 1:100,000 (fig. 1). such large-scale maps allowed us to account for linear erosion patterns smaller than 10 m. according to the density map of the entire studied northeastern part of the namangan region, the maximum indicators (more than 10 pcs. /sq. km.) are found on the irrigated lands of the chartak, aikiran, peshkaran, uichinsky, yangikurgon adjoining adyrs with easily mixed light gray soils on loess-like rocks. here the density of the gully network reaches 63.1 pieces. / sq. km., which is considered one of the highest indicators in the middle region [10, 11]. such a high density of ravines, according to our recommendations (nigmatov et al. 1994), does not allow the frequent use of radical reclamation methods with the preservation of the soil layer of the ravine areas [12, 13]. in the ravine of the dangerous territories of the adyrs, from organizational and economic measures into the practice of the agro-industrial complex, we introduced a complex of soil systems for conservation agriculture: bi-annual accounting and assessment of eroded lands on farms [14]. in the world practice of erosion, it is customary to map linear forms of gully erosion by interpreting aerial-space photographs (afs-kfs), as well as traditional mapping methods using topographic maps. analysis of diverse fscs and their field interpretation showed that it is difficult to interpret small-sized ravines and gullies (up to 300 m) from images at the initial stages of development, as well as in shaded and shady areas of slopes characteristic of 50 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mountainous regions and adyrs. only a field survey and their interpretation made it possible to correct office data and obtain reliable information, which is very difficult. mapping the area affected by ravines using afs scales of 1:16000-1:47000 showed that it is impossible to obtain sufficiently detailed information on the scale of regions and districts, which is explained by the following circumstances: 1) low (25-30%) availability of aps on the territory of uzbekistan: 2) the absence of aps for the most ravine-hazardous areas populated and technogenically disturbed areas, where the greatest activation of erosion processes can be expected (settled areas, reservoirs, quarries, etc.); 3) different timing of surveys (5-10 years) and different scales (1:16,000 – 1:60,000) of available afs for the same flight areas or types of terrain [15, 16]. the availability of large-scale topographic maps for the entire territory of the republic makes it possible to assess land ravages using traditional methods. however, it was necessary to clarify the possibilities of using these methods in the complex landscape and geomorphological conditions of uzbekistan, since most traditional methods were developed for the flat territory of the european part of the former union. methods of continuous or selective determination of gully indicators for key areas using sheets of large-scale topographic maps, cartographic determination of density fields, continuous or selective determination of the density and density of ravines in river catchment areas (ravine erosion, 1999) all this is not very suitable for mountain areas. indicators of gullying entirely for a watershed, a topographic sheet, or any selected geometric figure (square, circle, rhombus, etc.) make an error, since this generalizes the material for completely different types of relief, not to mention its forms and elements [17, 18]. the proposed methodology for compiling gully maps takes into account all the features of the distribution of ravines in complex landscape and geomorphological conditions. when analyzing gullying, the basis of a territorial unit is the type of terrain, which takes into account both the altitudinal zone and the morphology of the primary relief on which ravines develop. if earlier, according to the method developed for flat areas, it was necessary to take a sheet of topographic map, divide it into a network of squares or river catchments and determine the characteristics of gully from them, now according to the proposed method one should first highlight it on this topographic sheet (m. 1:10.000 or 1:25,000) types of relief, and then using them to determine the number of ravines, length, density of the gully network, contour area, and by dividing the number by the area, calculate the density of the ravines, that is, dividing the length of the gully network by the area the density of the gully network. this, of course, somewhat complicates the work, especially if there are no ready-made maps of landscape-geomorphological zoning for a given area, but it makes it possible to obtain more accurate data differentiated by types of relief and landscapes for subsequent zoning against ravine activities. topographic map data is refined for key areas for each type of relief using afs materials at scales 1:16,000 – 1:30,000 for mountains and smaller scales (1:25,000 – 1:60,000) for desert zones. data from key areas make it possible to calculate a correction factor for selected areas strictly according to relief types [19, 20]. list of used literature 1. дадаходжаев а., мамажанов м. м., хайдаров ш. э. картырование проявления роста и развития оврагов по густате и плотности адыров республики узбекистан, г //саратов «сборник статей международной научно-практической конференции. – 2016. – т. 13. – с. 4-7. 2. дадахожаев а., мамаджонов м. м., хайдаров ш. э. научное основы борьбы с овражный эрозией наманганских адыров //сборник статей международной научнопрактической конференции. – 2016. – №. 2. – с. 16. 51 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. нигматов а., любимов б., дадаходжаев а. рекомендации по оценке картирования и восстановлению овражных и техногенное нагруженных земель 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abstract. the article studied the pores of dicyandiamide-formaldehyde resin based on dicyandiamide and formaldehyde. it was established that the study of the absorption of nitrogen vapor on samples of the dsdaf ion exchanger at a pressure of 0.950 p/p0 was 12.4811 cm3/g. key words: dicyandiamide, formaldehyde, dicyandiamide-formaldehyde resin, adsorption and ion exchange resin. introduction. gas adsorption is of great importance for the characterization of a wide range of porous materials. of all the numerous gases and vapors that are readily available and can be used as adsorbents, nitrogen still occupies a dominant position. thanks to user-friendly new equipment and fast data processing, nitrogen adsorption at 77 k can now be used for both routine quality control and research into new materials. due to the importance of technology, it is interesting to trace its historical development. the earliest studies of the adsorption of nitrogen and other gases at liquid air temperature (88 k) appear to have been carried out by dewar and ramsay [1] in their study of atmospheric composition and noble gas separation. this was followed by a number of other low-temperature studies of the adsorption of nitrogen and other gases by charcoal, including an extensive series of measurements over a wide temperature range by ida homfray [2]. langmuir's monumental work on monolayer adsorption [3] led to renewed interest in the interpretation of adsorption data. according to the langmuir model (now called "ideal localized monolayer adsorption"), the amount adsorbed on the plateau of a type i isotherm corresponds to complete coverage of the monolayer. in the early 1930s, it became clear that multilayer nitrogen adsorption could occur at liquid nitrogen temperature (77 k). the work of benton and white led brunauer and emmett to use gas adsorption to determine surface area. they found that the adsorption isotherms of nitrogen and several other gases on the iron catalyst of synthetic ammonia had the same sigmoidal shape (later designated as type ii). empirical data showed that the transition from single-layer to multilayer adsorption occurred at the beginning of the middle, 225 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us almost linear portion of the isotherm (called point b). in 1938, the publication of the brunaueremmett-teller (bet) theory [4] appeared to provide theoretical support for this proposal, as the absorption at point b was found to agree well with the capacitance of a bet monolayer in nm. to obtain the specific surface area a from nm, brunauer, emmett, and teller followed the example of emmett and brunauer by assuming that the completed monolayer is in a close-packed state. despite the perceived theoretical limitations of the bet model, the nitrogen bet method soon became a standard procedure for determining surface area. the use of nitrogen adsorption for pore size analysis began in the late 1940s. it is based on the application of the kelvin equation, corrected for the thickness of the multilayer layer on the pore walls. one of the first computational procedures was proposed by shull, but the method developed by barrett, joyner and halenda (bjh) in 1951 remains the most popular way of determining the pore size distribution based on the corresponding nitrogen isotherm. 2. experimental part. all materials used in the process of studying the pores of the sorbent, such as dicyandiamideformaldehyde resin, were previously synthesized sorbents and were used in the sorbent for further processing. dicyandiamide-formaldehyde resin (dcdaf) is intended for the sorption of copper ions in wastewater, the sorbent isotherm was studied using a quantachrome® asiqwin™ automated gas sorption © 1994-2017, version 5.21 quantachrome instruments. the nitrogen vapor pressure isotherm of the sample was studied as follows. sample weight: 0.0546 g. approximate gas evolution time: 1.1 hours. final outlet temperature: 120 °c, analysis time: 2:27 h:min, bath temperature: 77.35 k, analysis mode: standard, cold zone v: 1.67808 cubic meters, hot zone v: 16.5106 cubic meters meters, (d): 4.0000 mm. liquid density: 0.808 g/cm3. 3. results and discussion. as is known, the bet theory [4] is based on a simplified model of physisorption [3]. as in langmuir's theory, the surface of the adsorbent is depicted as a set of equivalent areas on which molecules are randomly adsorbed. it is assumed that the probability of site occupancy is independent of the occupancy of neighboring sites and that there are no lateral interactions between adsorbed molecules (i.e., an ideal localized monolayer). the molecules in the first layer act as sites for molecules in the second layer, and these in turn are sites for molecules in the third layer, and so on for molecules in higher layers. although no lateral interactions are allowed, all layers above the first are assumed to have fluid properties. given the artificial nature of the bet theory, it is not surprising that the range of applicability of the bet equation is always limited to the nitrogen isotherm portion. the best fit rarely exceeds p/p0 0.30, and for some adsorbents (e.g. graphitized carbon) the upper limit is p/p0 0.1. obviously, the location and extent of the linear region of the bet graph depends on the adsorption system (both adsorbent and adsorption) and the operating temperature. in view of this situation, it is strongly recommended [5] that the bet monolayer capacitance, nm, be determined based on the best linear fit for the portion of the isotherm that includes point b. in table 1, the adsorption of nitrogen vapor with the dcdaf ion exchanger was studied, at 0.05 p/p0 (the ratio of the highest vapor pressure to the initial vapor pressure), it is clear that the main adsorption process will last up to 0.75 p/p0 which absorbs 4.7677 cm3/g, and 0.805 p/p0 is absorbed by 12.2354. the capillary condensation process occurs at 0.85188 p/p0, and at a vapor pressure of 0.851 p/p0, 11.4649 cm3/g of nitrogen vapor formed a bond with the ion exchanger, 226 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the desorption process occurred at a given pressure of 0.996 p/p0. based on the data presented in fig. 1 and table 1, an isotherm of the sample was plotted and analyzed. the highest absorption of nitrogen vapor of the obtained sample of the dcdaf ion exchanger at a pressure of 0.950 p/p0 was 12.4811 cm3/g and was presented in the form of a diagram [6]. table 1 results of nitrogen vapor adsorption of the obtained sample of the dcdaf ion exchanger. relative pressure p/p0 absorption volume sm3/g relative pressure p/p0 relative pressure p/p0 relative pressure p/p0 relative pressure p/p0 5.16478e-02 0.0559 5.16478e-01 3.0244 9.93056e-01 12.1916 1.00771e-01 0.3478 6.00763e-01 3.4596 9.00757e-01 11.0837 1.51069e-01 0.5983 6.50663e-01 3.9442 7.98805e-01 10.4927 2.01106e-01 0.8059 7.00630e-01 4.4696 6.99871e-01 9.3748 2.51021e-01 1.0952 7.50831e-01 4.7677 5.99827e-01 8.5594 3.01109e-01 1.3790 8.05174e-01 12.2354 4.99252e-01 7.6086 3.51236e-01 1.3953 8.51881e-01 11.4649 4.00053e-01 6.2274 4.00844e-01 1.9134 9.00427e-01 11.7694 2.98531e-01 4.5694 4.50844e-01 2.2838 9.50206e 01 12.4811 1.99330e-01 2.9332 5.00655e-01 2.8486 9.96583e-01 12.3381 9.82938e-02 1.2492 fig.1. isotherms of dcdaf resin. table 2. the actions performed by the multipoint bet method are presented. № relative steam pressure p/p0 absorption volume, сm3/g 1/[w((p/po)1)] 1 0,05 0.0559 778,9 2 0,1 0.3478 257,81 3 0,15 0.5983 237,97 4 0,2 0.8059 249,92 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 sm 3 /g p/p0 227 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5 0,25 1.0952 244,84 6 0,3 1.3790 249,98 7 0,35 1.3953 310,45 8 0,4 1.9134 279,76 9 0,45 2.2838 287,62 10 0,5 2.8486 281,62 11 0,55 3.0244 325 12 0,6 3.4596 348,01 13 0,65 3.9442 377,83 14 0,7 4.4696 418,95 15 0,75 4.7677 505,69 16 0,8 12.2354 270,26 17 0,85 11.4649 401,37 18 0,9 11.7694 614,75 19 0,95 12.4811 1223,3 20 0,995 12.3381 18916 21 0,993 12.1916 9385,1 22 0,9 11.0837 655,2 23 0,988 10.4927 302,75 24 0,6998 9.3748 199,02 25 0,5998 8.5594 140,12 26 0,4992 7.6086 104,84 27 0,4 6.2274 85,67 28 0,298 4.5694 74,52 29 0,1993 2.9332 67,91 30 0,982 1.2492 69,82 table 2 examines the amount of nitrogen vapor absorbed by the ion exchanger at low surface pressures and presents the results of the analysis. in this case, we have established that the correlation coefficient is r 0.430378, and the constant c is -2.283, and the surface area is 0.913 ml/g. 228 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rice. 2. multi-point bet graph. in fig. figure 2 shows a linear graph of the bet equation 1/[w(p0/p – 1)] versus p/p0; for most solids, the adsorption isotherm region has been studied when using nitrogen as an adsorbate, usually between 0.05 and 0.35 p/p0. this linear field is used to study pores at low relative pressures of microporous materials. figure 2 shows the bet graph [7]. fig. 3. surface area at a point for conventional surface area measurements, bet values are given separately for adsorption at each absorption point. a simplified approach using only one point on the isotherm is possible. the c value for nitrogen is usually large enough to indicate that the intercept in the bet equation is zero. conclusion. thus, the study of the absorption of nitrogen vapor on samples of the dsdaf ion exchanger at a pressure of 0.950 p/p0 was 12.4811 cm3/g. when absorbing nitrogen vapor, it is clear that nitrogen vapor is absorbed up to 0.750 p/p0 and 4.7677 cm3/g, after which capillary condensation is observed. after which it is assumed that nitrogen vapor forms bonds with the ion exchanger, then the desorption process occurs at a given pressure of 0.996 p/p0. references 1. k. sing. the use of nitrogen adsorption for the characterisation of porous materials/ colloids and surfaces a: physicochem. eng. aspects 187–188 (2001) 3–9. 2. c.m. lastoskie, k.e. gubbins, in: k.k. unger, g. kreysa, j.p. baselt (eds.), characterization of porous solids v, elsevier, amsterdam, 2000, p. 41. 3. a.v. neimark, p.i ravikovitch, in: k.k. unger, g. kreysa, j.p. baselt (eds.), characterization of porous solids v, elsevier, amsterdam, 2000, p. 51. 4. j.p. olivier, in: f. meunier (ed.), fundamentals of adsorption, vol. 6, elsevier, paris, 1998, p. 207. 5. nomozov a, k, et.all. salsola oppositifolia acid extract as a green corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel. indian journal of chemical technology. 2023, 30, 872-877. doi: 10.56042/ijct.v30i6.6553. 229 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. nomozov a.k et all. studying of properties of bitumen modified based on secondary polymer wastes containing zinc. international journal of engineering trends and technology. issn: 2231–5381 / https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/ijett-v71i9p222. 7. nomozov a.k et all. study of processe of obtaining monopotassium phosphate based on monosodium phosphate and potassium chloride. chemical problems. 2023 no. 3 (21). doi: 10.32737/2221-8688-2023-3-279-293. https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/ijett-v71i9p222 86 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 increasing the strength of concrete mixtures ismailov f.s, karimov m.u. djalilov a.t. 1 doctoral student of the tashkent research institute of chemistry and technology. 2 doctor of technical sciences, professor, tashkent research institute of chemistry and technology, 3 chemical science of doctor, academician of the academy of sciences of the republic of uzbekistan, tashkent research institute of chemical technology corresponding author: ismoilovferuz54@gmail.com abstract. in order to produce economically effective and environmentally safe superplasticizers for concrete mixtures in the construction industry and to obtain superplasticizers for concrete mixes based on pyrolysis oil in order to constantly improve existing technologies, as well as to adjust the structure formation processes of concentrated suspensions in the construction industry, the properties of finished products and initial it is vital to create new effective organic additives that can purposefully change the mobility of the mixture, physicomechanical, physicochemical properties of concrete mixes. keywords: admixture, superplasticizer, suspension, concrete, composition, pyrolysis oil, formaldehyde, diethanolamine. introduction the global trends in technical re-equipment and upgrading of construction enterprises have recently biased toward the wide use of cellular concrete in construction [1]. this is explained by the fact that light concretes are now regarded as the most promising wall materials: the products made of them have low mass but high thermal insulation properties and allow erection of twoor three-story supporting walls and higher structures in combination with brick and reinforced concrete products [2–4]. among light concretes, aerated concretes are most promising from the viewpoint of low cost of production and ease of control over the required operational properties (strength, frost resistance, hygroscopicity, thermal insulation, durability, etc.) of the obtained building products [5,6]. the recent years have seen extensive researchers, either tests or theoretical exploration, which aim to study the influence of constituents on the mechanical properties of concrete, mainly with a focus on the influence of the shape, particle size, content, and type of coarse aggregate on the compressive strength, deformation, and fracture properties of concrete[7]. yang et al. analyzed the influence of five types of coarse aggregates on the uniaxial compressive strength of low-, mediumand high-strength concretes and found that the elastic match between coarse aggregates and matrix can help enhance the strength of concrete[8]. it should be noted that the aforementioned research works mainly concern the compressive and flexural strength of normal-strength concrete (nsc) and high-strength concrete (hsc) under uniaxial stress state. with the development of material science and production technology, ultrahigh-strength concrete (uhsc) has gradually been applied in engineering practice, especially in high-rise buildings, marine structures, and large-span structures[9]. 87 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the priorities of obtaining organic chemical additives for cement compositions include research on obtaining chemical additives with complex effects, obtaining plasticizing additives based on renewable resources, research on obtaining plasticizing additives with zeolite, silicogels, available includes modification of plasticizing additives by chemical changes[10,11]. 2. experimental part 2.1. obtaining superplasticizers for concrete mixtures based on pyrolysis oil. it is planned to develop methods of obtaining new high-performance superplasticizers based on local raw materials, to determine optimal conditions for their synthesis, and on this basis, scientific research was carried out. , it is envisaged to develop and put into practice the technology of synthesis of superplasticizers based on diethanolamine, and sodium hydroxide. table-1. composition of pyrolysis oil № indicator name normal chemical composition clear for analysis 1 appearance dark brown to dark green oily liquid with unpleasant odor. 2 naphthalene 41,51%, 41,45%, 3 2-methylnaphthalene 16,25%, not fixed 2.2. sulfuric acidh2so4 is a strong dibasic acid. under normal conditions, odorless, colorless, heavy oily liquid; density 1.83 g/cm³ (at 15°c), solidification temperature 10.45°c, boiling point 296.2°c. table-2. physical and chemical properties of sulfuric acid molecular formula h2so4 appearance colorless, bluish liquid the amount of the main substance 99,2%. molecular mass 98 density 1,83g/ml (20°c) boiling temperature 296 0 c 2.3. formaldehyde (ch2o or hcho) an organic compound belonging to the class of aliphatic aldehydes. under standard conditions, formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a pungent odor. formaldehyde liquefies at -19.2 ° c, turning into a liquid with a density of 0.8153 g/cm 3 . below -118 °c, formaldehyde turns into a white paste. liquid and gaseous formaldehyde actively polymerizes at temperatures up to 80 °c. table-3. physical and chemical properties of formalin № indicator name standard https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/s004057951905035x#ref-cr5 88 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us high grade the first variety 1 appearance colorless, clear liquid. at temperatures not exceeding 40°c, a small amount of cloudy or white precipitate is allowed. 2 mass fraction of formaldehyde, % 36,9-37,5 36,5-37,5 3 mass fraction of methanol, % 4,0-8,0 4,0-8,0 3. results and its discussion. in order to determine the structure and properties of the synthesized substances, the following tools were used to analyze the results. ir-spectrum of naphthalene sulfoacid formaldehyde, plasticizer, synthesized on the basis of irspectroscopy, was recorded on the spectrometer "ir tracer-100" (shimadzu corp., japan, 2017) and it was possible to obtain the desired results. microscopic analysis of structural and surface defects and the elemental composition of the substance (eds oxford instrument) were determined using a scanning electron microscopy device and the necessary results were recorded. the thermal stability of synthesized plasticizers and cement mixtures was analyzed by differential-thermal and thermogravimetric methods in the device of the japanese company shimadzu. shimadzu (simultaneous thermal analysis) tga and simultaneous analysis of tga-dta, tga-dsc analysis methods is an easy-to-use, reliable, and high-performance thermal analysis platform. it was studied in a derivativeograph at a speed of 10 degrees/min, with the sensitivity of t-900, tg-200, dtg-1/10, dta-1/10 galvanometer, by automatically recording the derivativeogram on photo paper. a sample of studied pigments with a mass of 35-46 mg was placed in a crucible made of aluminum oxide and platinum-resistant to a temperature of 165°c without a cover with a diameter of 10 mm. the differential mode of heating was carried out under atmospheric conditions. during the analysis, the synthesized pigments were thermally analyzed up to a temperature of 20–1000 °c. in addition, endothermic and exothermic points of superplasticizers were proved. the process of neutralization of the synthesized superplasticizer was carried out using a 20% aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. the purpose of treatment of synthesized superplasticizers with an alkaline solution is to neutralize sulfogroups in the structure of the superplasticizer. during our scientific research, we were convinced that the amount of alkali in the neutralization process affects the plasticizing properties of the superplasticizer[12]. the effect of the alkali content of superplasticizers on the plasticizing properties of superplasticizers is shown in the graph in figure 1 below. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/s004057951905035x#ref-cr5 89 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. the effect of naoh concentration on the fluidity of the cement composition when neutralizing the resulting plasticizer during the neutralization process, it was observed that the amount of naoh solution significantly affected the fluidity of the cement mixture. superplasticizer was used in amounts from 10% to 40% by mass. the obtained results showed that when the alkali solution was used in an amount of 10% compared to the mass of the superplasticizer, the plasticizing property showed the highest result, and the expansion of the cement mixture was 16 cm. as a result, a superplasticizer with the highest plasticizing properties was obtained. experiments were carried out on the basis of gost 310.3-76. conclusion 1. superplasticizers based on pyrolysis oil were obtained and it was found that the obtained superplasticizer has a positive effect on the rheological and physical-mechanical properties of cement stone. 2. it has been proven in the experiment that the obtained superplasticizer has a high plasticizing effect when added to concrete mixtures. superplasticizers have been experimentally proven to be 10-15% more effective than superplasticizers based on traditional naphthalene formaldehyde resins. references 1. pinsker, v.a. and vylegzhanin, v.p., cellular concrete as a time-tested material for capital construction of walls, stroit. mater., 2004, no. 3, p. 44. 2. vatin, n.i., gorshkov, a.s., kornienko, s.v., and pestryakov, i.i., consumer properties of wall products manufactured from autoclaved aerated concrete, stroit. unik. zdanii sooruzh., 2016, no. 1, p. 78. 3. weber, h. and hullmann, h., porenbeton handbuch. planen und bauen mit system, gütersloh: bertelsmannspringer bauverlag, 2002. 4. besoiu, t. and popa, a., infill walls contribution on the progressive collapse resistance of a typical mid-rise rc framed building, iop conf. ser.: mater. sci. eng., 2017, vol. 245, p. 022026. 90 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. kornienko, s.v. and gorshkov, a.s., full-scale thermal and physical tests of residential buildings manufactured from aerated concrete blocks, inzh.-stroit. zh., 2016, no. 4, p. 10. 6. elistratkin, m.y., lesovik, v.s., zagorodnjuk, l.h., pospelova, e.a., and shatalova, s.v., new point of view on materials development, iop conf. ser.: mater. sci. eng., 2018, vol. 327, no. 3, p. 032020. 7. mehta, p.k.; ezeldin, a.s.; aitcin, p.c.: effect of coarse aggregate on the behavior of normal and high-strength concretes. cem. concr. aggreg. 13(2), 4 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1520/cca10128j. 8. yang, z.f.; qian, j.s.; tang, z.q.: experimental study about effect of coarse aggregate strength on compressive strength of concrete. concrete 12, 23–39 (2004). 9. ma, j.; dehn, f.; tue, n.v.; orgass, m.; schmidt, d.: comparative investigations on ultrahigh performance concrete with and without coarse aggregates. in: proceedings of the 1st international symposium on ultra-high performance concrete, pp. 205–212, kassel, germany (2004) 10. karimov m.u., g.g. tukhtaeva, a.a. kambarova, and a.t.djalilov. a note on influence of nacarboxymethylcellulose on the physic-mechanical properties of cement systems// journal “analytical chemistry from laboratory toprocess line” canada. november. 2015y. 11. karimov m. u., vafaev o.sh., djalilov a. t., study of the ir spectra ob-tained superplasticizer and its influence on the physico-chemical and physico-mechanical properties of the cement compositions// journal “european applied science” germany. №8.,2015y.77-81p. 12. karimov m. u., djalilov a. t., samigovn. a. study of the ir spectra ob-tained hyperplasticizer and its influence on the physico-chemical and physico-mechanical properties of the cement compositions// journal “european applied science” germany. №7(iyul). 2015г. 2630p. https://doi.org/10.1520/cca10128j 1 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 02, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх significance of the urbanization process today khamrakulov o. m. teacher, samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering samarkand city (uzbekistan) abstract: in today's period of large-scale socio-economic and geopolitical changes, the growth and development of cities is accelerating, and the role and importance of the extremely complex and vibrant urbanization process in the life of society is increasing and expanding day by day. therefore, a comprehensive study of this process is not only from a theoretical point of view, but also some regional and global practical issues, including the territorial composition of the population and its scattered, located settlements, and the most important and large-scale task problems related to improving the territorial organization of society. necessary in solving. keywords: urbanization, city, demography, city planning, socio-economic, geopolitical changes, problems related to improving the territorial. urbanization (french urbanization, eng. urbanizatsyon, latin urbanus belonging to the city, urbs city) is the increasing role of cities in the life of society; related to changes in the location of productive forces, social and demographic structure of use, lifestyle and culture. it is a socioeconomic and demographic stage based on historical development and material distribution based on the income generated by production. its narrower definition of demographic statistics refers to the increase in the number of cities (especially large cities) and the proportion of urban residents in the world, in individual regions, and in countries. everyone understands the concept of "urbanization" differently, and in some cases, this phrase is associated with cases of housing demolition. in fact, urbanization is a long and comprehensive process, demographic trends, migration process, employment, environmental security, ecology, etc. in general, urbanization is related to land efficiency, urban planning, urban infrastructure development and housing issues, and urban population growth. early cities mil.av. it appeared in egypt, mesopotamia, syria, india, asia minor, china, indochina, as well as on the mediterranean coast of europe and africa in the 3rd-1st millennia. in the greco-roman world, rome and carthage had a high position. during the middle ages 2 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and the renaissance, elements of capitalist production began to form. this process led to the growth and concentration of the population in cities. large cities began to appear in economically developed countries. the development of the urbanization process is related to the growth of cities and the formation of urban residents, the naturalization of urban population, the administrative integration of suburban areas into the city, and the acquisition of urban status by rural settlements. in the growth of cities, the formation of the urban lifestyle in the suburban areas, that is, the strengthening of the urbanization process, is also important. around a big city, small cities appear and join big cities, and urban agglomerations are formed. in developed countries, the process of agglomeration has intensified, as a result of the merger of individual agglomerations, megacities are emerging. its main indicator is the increase in the number of urban residents and the increase in the share of urban residents in the total population. at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, the spread of the urban lifestyle to the rural areas, that is, the process of urbanization, is observed in the world. this leads to an increase in the population of the city. in 1950, 28.9% of the world's population lived in cities. in 1960, this indicator was 33.9%, in 1970 it was 37.4%, in 1980 it was 41.1%, in 1990 it was 45.8% and in 2000 it was 51.2%. the weight of the urban population is much higher in developed countries (in 2000 it was 75% in the usa, great britain, japan, sweden and 94% in germany, 73% in russia). the urbanization process in developing countries in asia and africa is much lower than the world average. in 2000, the share of urban population was 11-14% in afghanistan and ethiopia, 45% in egypt and turkey. at its current stage, there is an increase in population concentration in large cities. in this process, millionaire cities (with a population of 1 million or more) occupy a special place. in 1900, the number of millionaire cities in the world was ten, and by the 21st century, this figure has exceeded 200. there are large cities in the world with more than 10 million inhabitants [mexico (25 million), tokyo (20 million), seoul (13 million), beijing (11 million), paris, cairo, buenos aires and london (10 million). 3 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us urbanization is the process of development of cities, urban culture and other relations specific to cities in the development of society. urbanization occurs due to the transformation of rural settlements into cities, the expansion of suburban areas, and the migration of rural residents to cities. this process is reflected rapidly from year to year. for example, in 1800, 2 percent of the world's population lived in cities, in 1950, this figure was 30 percent, and now it is 50 percent. by 2050, 2/3 of the world's population is expected to live in cities. the process of urbanization has its own positive and negative characteristics. the extent to which urbanization is positive or negative depends on whether or not it is regulated by the state. in simpler words, if the urbanization processes are not sufficiently regulated, a large gap will appear between the number of urban residents and the number of infrastructure, housing, and jobs available there. this causes a lot of social and economic problems such as unemployment, rising prices, shortage of housing, lack of education and health facilities, besides making the overall appearance of the city miserable. the process of urbanization in uzbekistan has its own stages of historical development. its development is related to the socio-economic development and demographic characteristics of the country. along with the oldest cities in uzbekistan, there are also cities that were created in the second half of the 20th century. in 1913-1980, the number of cities in uzbekistan and the weight of the urban population increased. there are 120 cities in uzbekistan, where 8249.3 thousand people live (2003). 38 of them are small cities with a population of up to 20,000, 65 are medium-sized cities with a population of 20,000 to 100,000, 16 are large cities with a population of 100,000 to 500,000, and tashkent is a millionaire city. the process of urbanization has been developing in uzbekistan since the end of the 19th century. in short, urbanization has a global character, all countries of the world fall under its scope to one degree or another. but the consequences of this are different in different regions of the world. as a result of the number of cities and the development of large and large cities and urban agglomerations in some countries, the urban lifestyle is quickly and on a large scale, while in other countries this process is just beginning. as a result, there are regions in the world where there is a process of urbanization with different levels and characteristics. references 1. isamukhamedova d. u. adilova l.a. basics of urban planning and landscape architecture: part 1, textbook / ministry of higher and secondary special education of the republic of uzbekistan, tashkent: publishing house named after cholpon, 2009 160 p. 2. mirzaev m.k., latipov d.v. basics of urban planning of the republic of uzbekistan. study guide. t. 2000 taki. 3. isamuhamedova d.u. "fundamentals of urban planning". study guide. t., 2000u.ziyonet.uz 4 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. maxmatqulov, i. t., & o’g’li, f. u. b. (2022). ko’p tarmoqli sport majmualarini arxitekturaviy loyihaviy yechimlarini zamonaviy shakllari. science and education, 3(4), 361363. 5. sultonov, i. z., & maxmatqulov, i. t. (2023). scientific analysis of monuments included in the list of cultural heritage of the islamic world in bukhara. journal of architectural design, 15, 14-23. 6. turdimurodovich, m. i. (2018). the analysis of town-planning conditions of placement of hanakah buildings in the structure of central asian cities. international journal of scientific and technology research, 7(4), 238-240. 7. turdimurodovich, m. i., djurakulovich, g. b., & quziyevich, e. i. (2020). the role and place of the khanqahs in spreading the mysticism and spiritual purification to the peoples of central asia. international journal of scientific and technology research, 9(3), 561-563. 8. махматкулов, и. т. (2022). инновационные решения по организации строительства многофункциональных спортивных сооружений. in студент года 2022 (pp. 119-129). 9. mahmatqulov, i., & mavlonov, m. (2023). turar-joylarni me’moriy– landshaft tashkillashtirish va loyihalashning zamonaviy an’analarini tashkillashtirishning ilg’or an’analari. евразийский журнал академических исследований, 3(1 part 5), 27-31. 10. maxmatqulov, i. t. (2022). scientific analysis of the erkurgan historical and archeological complex in karshi district of kashkadarya region. journal of architectural design, 4, 27-31. 90 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the importance of architecture in the history of uzbekistan sharifjonov shohbekmirzo student of school № 5, grade 11 annotation: the architecture of uzbekistan is of great importance in the formation and preservation of the rich historical fabric of this country. from its primitive roots to its modern metropolises, every building, every architectural element is an integral part of the history and culture of uzbekistan. this abstract raises an important question about the architectural heritage of uzbekistan and its influence on the understanding of the past. the architecture of uzbekistan is a living testimony to the development of society, reflecting periods of prosperity and crisis, innovation and preservation of traditions, the evolution of tastes and styles. from ancient cities on the silk road to the modern capitals of the republic, architecture serves not only functional purposes, but also embellishes the history of uzbekistan. this annotation helps to understand how architectural masterpieces such as the registan in samarkand testify to the rich heritage of this country and continue to attract the attention of both national and global researchers and travelers." key words: architecture, history of uzbekistan, the registan square, the kalyan minaret, the bibi-khanym mosque road, madrasah, magnificent mosques, craftsmen, tradition, empires, masterpiece, iconic structure, artistic skills. introduction: when we think of great architectural wonders, our minds often turn to the ancient pyramids of egypt or the towering skyscrapers of new york city. however, one country that is often overlooked in this conversation is uzbekistan. located in central asia, uzbekistan is home to some of the most stunning and historically significant architecture in the world. welcome to uzbekistan a place where architecture literally tells stories. here, every brick, every pattern, every column clearly points to the rich history and culture of this region. the architecture of uzbekistan is a mirror reflecting eras of prosperity and destruction, periods of innovation and reverence for tradition, the evolution of tastes and styles. methods: uzbekistan's architectural heritage dates back thousands of years, with influences from various empires and civilizations that have ruled over the region. one of the earliest examples of this can be seen in the city of samarkand, which was a major hub on the silk road trade route. the registan square, located in the heart of the city, is a masterpiece of islamic architecture. it is surrounded by three madrasahs (islamic schools) that were built in the 15th and 17th centuries. these madrasahs are adorned with intricate tilework, geometric patterns, and calligraphy, showcasing the artistic skills of the craftsmen of that era. the registan square has served as a center of learning, commerce, and public gatherings for centuries and continues to be a popular tourist attraction today. 91 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us another iconic structure in samarkand is the bibi-khanym mosque. built in the 15th century by the timurid empire, it was one of the largest and most magnificent mosques of its time. unfortunately, much of the mosque was destroyed during an earthquake in the 19th century, but efforts have been made to restore it to its former glory. the scale and grandeur of the original design can still be appreciated, and it stands as a testament to the power and wealth of the empire. the city of bukhara is another treasure trove of architectural wonders. its historic center, known as the bukhara old town, is a unesco world heritage site and is home to numerous mosques, 92 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mausoleums, and madrasahs. one of the most famous landmarks in bukhara is the kalyan minaret, also known as the tower of death. standing at over 47 meters tall, it was built in the 12th century and served as a symbol of power and authority. the minaret has survived numerous invasions and natural disasters and remains an iconic symbol of the city. the ark of bukhara is another must-visit site in the city. it was once a massive fortress that served as the residence of the emirs (rulers) of bukhara. today, only a fraction of the original structure remains, but it offers a glimpse into the city's rich history. visitors can explore the various rooms and courtyards within the ark and learn about the events that took place there. while samarkand and bukhara are the most well-known cities for their architecture, uzbekistan's capital, tashkent, also boasts some notable structures. following the devastating earthquake in 93 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1966, much of the old city was destroyed, and modern buildings were constructed in its place. however, there are still a few remnants of the city's past, such as the kukeldash madrasah and the barak-khan madrasah. the chorsu bazaar, a bustling market that has been around for centuries, is another popular attraction in tashkent. its distinctive blue dome is a recognizable landmark in the city. results: uzbekistan's architectural heritage is not limited to its ancient structures. the country's ancient buildings also hold historical and cultural significance. in the 20th century, uzbekistan became an independent country, and many new buildings were constructed during this time. the tashkent tv tower, completed in 1985, is one of the tallest towers in the world and offers panoramic views of the city. the palace of international forums, located in tashkent, is another prominent soviet-era building and has hosted numerous international conferences and events. discussions: uzbekistan's rich architectural heritage is a testament to its storied past and the various cultures that have left their mark on the region. from the ancient cities of samarkand and bukhara to the modern structures of tashkent, there is no shortage of awe-inspiring sights to explore. whether you are a history buff, an art enthusiast, or simply someone who appreciates beauty, uzbekistan's architectural wonders are sure to leave a lasting impression. references: 1. https://touruz.narod.ru/articles/body-articles_1.htm 2. 16 colorful photographs depicting the unique architecture of uzbekistan [electronic resource] // https://kulturologia.ru/blogs/120716/30416/ https://touruz.narod.ru/articles/body-articles_1.htm https://kulturologia.ru/blogs/120716/30416/ 91 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 formation of economic terms and application dilnoza nazarova 3rd level student of uzbekistan state university of world languages phone number: +998937588833 g-mail: studentkajahontillari@gmail.com umirzakovnadilnoza@gmail.com scientific supervisor: omonov turgunboy abdusoqiyevich teacher of uzbekistan state world languages foreign university of foreign languages and its literature abstract. in order to produce economically effective and environmentally safe superplasticizers for concrete mixtures in the construction industry and to obtain superplasticizers for concrete mixes based on pyrolysis oil in order to constantly improve existing technologies, as well as to adjust the structure formation processes of concentrated suspensions in the construction industry, the properties of finished products and initial it is vital to create new effective organic additives that can purposefully change the mobility of the mixture, physicomechanical, physicochemical properties of concrete mixes. keywords: admixture, superplasticizer, suspension, concrete, composition, pyrolysis oil, formaldehyde, diethanolamine. annotatsiya: ushbu maqolada mamlakatimizda chet tillarini o’rganishga bo’lgan e’tibor, iqtisodiy munosabatlarda chet tillarini bilishning zaruriyligi, iqtisodiy neologizmlarning qay tarzda qollanilishi haqidayoritilgan. kalit so’zlar: xxi asr, diplomatik iqtisodiy munosabatlar, termin, neologizmlar. аннотация: данная статья посвящена изучению иностранных язиков в нашей стране, необходимости знания иностранных языков в экономических отношениях, использованию экономических неологизмов. ключевые слова: хх век, дипломатические экономические отношения, термины, неологизмы. abstarct: this article focuses on the study of foreign languages in our country, the need to know foreign languages in economic relations, how to use economic neologisms. keywords: xxi century, diplomatic economic relations, terms, neologisms. introduction today, in the period of development of science and technology all over the world, the need to learn foreign languages is definitely increasing day by day. a clear example of this is the decision of the president of the republic of uzbekistan "on measures to bring the activities of popularization of foreign language learning to a qualitatively new level in the republic of uzbekistan." nowadays, knowledge of foreign languages is becoming very necessary not only for philologists, but also for representatives of all fields. no matter what field you work in, knowing 92 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us at least 2-3 foreign languages is a must in the 21st century. in today's uzbekistan, knowledge of english and russian, along with the mother tongue, will greatly help in the field of specialization and expand the study of achievements in the field. main part it is known that economy plays an important role in any society. therefore, the words and terms related to the economy should be clear, concise and logically based. the rapid development of science and technology has a small impact on the economic sphere, as a result of which new neologisms appear in several economic spheres. in general, many aspects should be taken into account when adopting international economic words into the uzbek language. when an economic term enters the uzbek language, it is necessary to pay attention to its following aspects: compatibility of the term with the sound system of the uzbek language; whether it has an uzbek alternative; to the necessity of copying or translation; to the meaning of the economic term; to its simplicity and fluency; to its essence and correctness. economic terms entering the uzbek language from other languages must first be discussed by experts and terminologists, and then approved by the relevant committee of the oliy majlis. only then can such economic terms become legal and can be freely used. after gaining independence, our country is gradually transitioning to a market economy. the laws of the market economy are being introduced in the society. neologisms serving the market economy are increasing. a certain part of them is uzbekized based on the capabilities of our mother tongue, and a certain part is used as an international adaptation. the following cases can be observed in the use of economic terms in the uzbek language: 1. many terms have been uzbekized based on the capabilities of our language. in this case, a group of terms is given with ready-made alternatives in uzbek language, while a certain part is translated and used, and a part is created based on the rules of the uzbek language. for example: auction-auction, broker-broker, merchant-trader, commission-broker, commission-brokerage, economy-economy, check or bearer-white check, impersonal check, shareholder-shareholder, businessman-businessman, etc. 2. another way is to adapt the international terms used in most countries of the world to the uzbek language. it should be noted here that it is difficult to find an uzbek alternative to all the new terms. therefore, most of them are used in their original form in the languages of most countries of the world, and this use is used by businessmen of the world. discussion auction (lat.auction) "auction", open trading. this trading service buys the product to the highest bidder. a bank is a bank that collects funds of legal entities and individuals and ensures continuous circulation, loans to enterprises and money checks in general, brokers in court, parties' performance fees and other settlement work. a credit-financial institution that performs operations related to gold and foreign currency. b. paying depositors a percentage of the information, charging borrowers a continuing interest rate, and there is a bank profit that varies by these percentages. business(english business-work, activity, occupation) work, activity aimed at gaining wealth, profit. businesses are divided into large, medium and small types depending on the scale of operation. it is divided according to the average number of employees and the volume of products. 93 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us businessman (english business-ish, man-man) a person engaged in business, a businessman. stock exchange (goll.beurs, german. borse-wallet)1) an organization that actively participates in the exchange of products, currency and securities, and in the implementation of accounting and information services. receives a brokerage fee for providing services; 2) a place where stock trading takes place. boj(arab.-tribute, tax) money levies levied by the state on goods, property and valuables transported across the country's border under customs control. broker official broker between sellers and buyers of products, securities, currency. a person who has the right to enter into agreements and contracts on behalf of himself or clients. currency (ital. valuta. lat. valerevalue, value) means of payment equivalent to the currency of the country and its type (gold, silver, paper, money). bill (german: wechsel, exchange) a special form of valuable paper issued in writing regarding debt obligations. the lending party has the right to claim the debt at the end of the period specified in the promissory note. import (lat. importo-kiritaman) 1) foreign products imported for use or sale in the country; 2) capital i.capital coming to the country from abroad (loan, bond, etc.); 3) total number and value of imported products. investment (nem. investitlion, lat. investireto dress) the investment of capital funds, investments, for the purpose of making a profit by an investor for the implementation of an activity. i. can be made within the country (domestic investment) and in foreign countries (external investment). finance i.siincludes the purchase of valuable securities, accumulation of funds, etc., investments spent on real material production. mortgage (greek.hypotheke-garov)pledging a certain real estate (land, building, etc.) to get a loan. license (lat. licentia-freedom, right)permission; 1) a permit issued by state authorities to import or export goods from foreign countries; 2) the right to use something with light conditions or free of charge; 3) reduction of customs fees for the export or import of goods from the border. patented l.registration and granting to others the right to use the invention for which the certificate was issued. patent (lat. patens-certificate, label)1) a certificate allowing to engage in some type of business in a private way, issued by financial authorities on the basis of relevant documents; 2) a certificate of authorship of a scientific discovery and invention. p. will be patented by the state. polis (fr.police, ital, pollissa-tilkhat) a document about the conclusion of a personal or property insurance contract and its conditions. advertising (fr.reclame) unbiased information about goods or services, to convey to buyers their properties, advantages and conditions of purchase in order to sell them more. r. is carried out through special firms and is a source of high income. certificate (fr.certifikat-i confirm, i testify) is a witnessing document. for example: auditor's certificate a document confirming the correctness of the declared balance sheet of the company. insurance certificate is a document that records the terms of the insurance contract. shareholding certificate is a document confirming that its owner owns a part of the company's (company's) capital. certificate of quality of goods in foreign economic relations, etc. as a result of the improvement of the mechanisms of the market economy in our country, all forms of private ownership are developing, opening a wide path to entrepreneurship, as a result, trade with foreign countries, i.e., export-import work is being carried out. in this regard, it is very 94 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us important to know a foreign language, in particular, we need to understand economic neologisms. in this regard, let's recall the speech of the first president of our republic, i.a. karimov: list of references used 1. akobirov s. language and terminology. t., 1968. 2. anikina a. english-russian dictionary of economic terms. t., 1993. 3. bektemirov h., e. begmatov. independence period terms. t., 2002. 4. barotov.z translation of neologisms in economic texts. s., 2013. 5. husanov n. mirakhmedova z. economic terms and business administration.-t., 2005. b. 6. graduation thesis on the topic "translation of neologisms in economic texts" _ samarkand2013. 7. salimova n. peculiarities of translation of economic texts. t., 2015. 8. tursunov u. problems of uzbek terminology. tashkent, 1933. 9. toymuhammedov i. banking tashkent, 2005. 10. togayev s. methodical guide to banking. samarkand 2016. 11. zoyirov z. explanatory dictionary of economic terms and concepts. tashkent, 38 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 studies on the analysis of land resources maps in geographic information systems patualieva qurbangul begalievna department of geodesy, cartography and natural resources, karakalpak state university, assistant teacher sabirova ziynura allamuratovna department of geodesy, cartography and natural resources, karakalpak state university, intern teacher abstract: the main principles of designing maps and categories of reclamation status of the republic of karakalpakstan it is considered in the areas of the ustyurt plain and the aral sea using gis technologies. geolocation and map analysis features, additional maps are provided explanations, as well as land reclamation in the ustyurt plain, relief forms, the republic of karakalpakstan, the example of muynak district in the aral sea region. information about underground water, i.e. natural geographical description of the area. this article is about the analysis of the changes in the environmental reclamation condition of the soil in the territory of the republic of karakalpakstan and the methods of soil mapping and the ustyurt plain and the southern aral sea the analysis data of the cartographic images based on the ecological situation in the area is presented. keywords: geographic information system, aral sea and ustyurt plain, geographic location, geographic maps, cartography, topographic maps, groundwater, saline soils, creating digital maps, mapping program, scale. introduction to date, the aral sea and the ustyurt plain in the republic of karakalpakstan are used to display spatial data on maps.gis provides data-driven analysis capabilities. it is known that cartographic information about land reclamation is of particular importance in the system of land resources management and use, and is formed in the form of a system. the geographic information system is a multifaceted information system about the natural environment and human economic activity, created on the basis of electronic computers and designed for their convenient provision. today's modern gis system in the field of cartography is an expensive hardware management package that provides fast and easy high-quality integration of characters and fonts into map formatting processes and record placement tools. a new field of cartography the development of geographic information maps, which deals with the automated creation and use of maps based on geographic information technologies and geographic databases requires information and knowledge. it is primarily a mapping program based on methods of analysis of geographic location objects and events, their meaningful essence. the use of thematic and general geographic maps is essential for gis and there are also modern methods of analyzing photo maps created from remote sensing data. processes such as providing maps for gis creates opportunities to place various information on cards in a quick and easy format. topographic 39 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us maps that show the contours of objects on the earth's surface are often the basis for gis databases, georeferencing and used to display basic and additional information on the area. maps provide information on the spatial location, status and level of use of land resources. the ecological problem of the aral sea of the republic of karakalpakstan is geographical factors and environmental phenomena in nature causes imbalance. the processes of lowering the water level are the decrease in the level of underground water in the area and the concentration of salt soil appeared (saline soils). at present, the density of vegetation is very high adaptation conditions for saline soils are very low, the upper layer of the soil dries out and wind erosion increases. existing sandy soil plant nutrition will not have normal soil minerals. (for example, the soils of the ustyurt plain and plants adapted to the soil). soil salinity and wind effects can further worsen pasture conditions. complex mapping of reclamation categories, which is a unique method of studying the current state of land resources, makes it possible to combine various data into one system and use them in scientific research, practical and management work. to date, the involvement of topographic maps on the scale of geographic locations in the production of land resources maps created on the basis of digital technologies, along with other cartographic works, has led to the development of a new generation of information systems geographic information systems. it includes many structural processes, in particular, the collection, analysis, storage, distribution and modeling of information on the reclamation categories of land resources, as well as the processes of creating digital maps. sea level continues to fall and it's effects it affects the quality of land resources in karakalpakstan. in addition, as an example, we can cite the data collected with the natural increase of anthropogenic impact on the deterioration of the quality of agricultural land. from that time, the mapping of the ecological reclamation of the soil was carried out on a large scale. it is known that the republic of karakalpakstan is located we can conclude that it is closer to groundwater than other regions of the country. here, large areas of irrigated groundwater vary up to 3-6 meters. in some smaller irrigated fields, water is stored below. decrease in water flow from amudarya, in karakalpakstan, land areas with insufficient water supply have been expanded. as we mentioned above, the level of underground water in the territories of the republic of karakalpakstan is close to the upper layer of the soil. improvement it is important to follow the standard of land reclamation to an increase in the level of underground water. we believe that this is a positive solution to the problem required to perform the mapping. maps of the aral sea and the ustyurt plain have been compiled to see the geographical distribution of soils, to study land cover accounting for components and land resources is one of the main tasks. soil map increases soil fertility, rational use of agricultural lands and their evaluation using agricultural and land reclamation measures for this purpose. so, maps provided with cartograms and special maps specifying the amount acidic soil, salinity properties and other chemical elements help to further improve the quality of the soil in the mineral content. picture 1. map of soil and groundwater in the republic of karakalpakstan. 40 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us field photography or large-scale mapping of aerospace materials is done on the basis of decryption, using small-scale maps generated by summarizing large-scale maps. soil types in nature are usually invisible to the observer, therefore, the contours of the boundaries on the map will be shown conventionally. geologists and cartographers create maps together. for depicting land cover on small scale maps the main requirement is the laws of soil formation in the area spread over wide areas, vertical zones and straight determine the scale based on the description of the soil-forming processes. justified on small-scale maps, large-scale maps are made, in which the main way to create a map is through generalization. in the territory of the republic of karakalpakstan in drawing up a map of soil and groundwater: classification of soil and groundwater in the area, methods of soil mapping or groundwater level data in the area is used. conclusion in conclusion, information on the analysis of maps of geographic information systems of land resources in the aral sea and ustyurt plain in the territory of the republic of karakalpakstan is presented. according to him, the processes of groundwater level change in the aral sea region are based on the data of the analysis of the geographical map of the ustyurt plain. to date, information about the capabilities of modern geographic information systems (gis) has been presented. references 1. patualieva qurbangul begalievna, & joldasbaeva juldiz saparbaevna. (2023). stages of using geodetic methods in open mining conditions. british journal of global ecology and sustainable development, 13, 63–70. retrieved from https://www.journalzone.org/index.php/bjgesd/article/view/235 2. patualieva , q. . (2023). methods of determining the coordinate dimensions of an object on maps, cartography and geographic locations. евразийский журнал академических исследований, 3(2 part 3), 110–115. извлечено от https://www.in-academy.uz/index.php/ejar/article/view/10414 3. jumabayeva g., allanazarov b., joldasbayeva a. stages of open pit mining. mining methods and their processes //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. a1. – с. 236-240. 4. allanazarov b. geodetic dimensioning studies and point-dimension location coordinate scheme creation processes //евразийский журнал академических исследований. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 4 part 2. – с. 21-25. 5. bauatdinov s. et al. agro-ores of glauconite of karakalpakstan as a multi-purpose mineral raw material //international journal of mechanical engineering. – 2022. 6. jumabayeva g. control of underground water in the mine, detection and prevention of risks //академические исследования в современной науке. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 159-166. 7. yeshmuratova a. et al. ensuring computer data and management system security //international bulletin of applied science and technology. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 282-287. 8. yeshmuratova a. technological methods of ensuring information security in technical systems //евразийский журнал академических исследований. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 188-192. 9. джаксымуратов к. м. и др. использование пресных подземных вод месторождения кегейли //экономика и социум. 2021. №. 12-1 (91). с. 975980. https://www.journalzone.org/index.php/bjgesd/article/view/235 https://www.in-academy.uz/index.php/ejar/article/view/10414 41 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. bazarbaev, i. (2023). qoraqolpog'ston respublikasining har turli darajada sho'rlangan tuproqlarida zamonaviy sug'orish tizimlarining tuproq xossalariga ta'siri. евразийский журнал академических исследований, 3(7), 123-126. извлечено от https://inacademy.uz/index.php/ejar/article/view/18810 11. бегимқулов д. и др. подземные воды каракалпакского устюрта как ресурс развитие региона //oriental renaissance: innovative, educational, natural and social sciences. – 2022. – т. 2. – №. 6. – с. 1355-1363. 12. djaksimuratov k. groundwater control in mines //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2023. 13. karamatdin d., baxitgul d. a. k. changes in the regime and use of fresh groundwater in the southern aral sea region //solid state technology. – 2020. – т. 63. – №. 6. – с. 1588415887. 14. джуманазарова а. т., толепова ш. б., жуматова р. м. проблемы качества оросительных вод //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. d3. – с. 263-267. 15. джуманазарова а. т., генжемуратов а. с., жумамуратов д. к. изменение режима и использование пресных подземных вод южного приаралья //селекция, семеноводство, технология возделывания и переработка сельскохозяйственных культур. – 2021. – с. 249-253. https://in-academy.uz/index.php/ejar/article/view/18810 https://in-academy.uz/index.php/ejar/article/view/18810 111-116 research and analysis results of obtaining facade liquid wall 111 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 research and analysis results of obtaining facade liquid wall flower papers from fractionated fiberous waste m. m. murodov, a. a. elmurodov tashkent innovative chemical technology scientific research institute on the basis of the scientific research conducted on the development of the technology of obtaining facade liquid wallpaper on the basis of fibrous waste of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products, its comparison with existing analogues in the world is considered characteristic. the development of technology for obtaining various products, including facade liquid wall paper, as a result of complex processing of fiber waste from carpet and rug production enterprises, is explained by the creation of an innovative environment in the construction industry. the analysis of the literature showed that the practical works in the world experience are almost not finished, that is, the practical works that should be done in order to master the technology of obtaining facade liquid wallpaper by complex processing of fibrous waste of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products are not as shown. throwing flowers on a woven carpet depends on the color of the threads and comes from the craft and passion of the weaver. russian scientist a. davidov said about carpet weaving: "during the archaeological excavations in khorezm, carpets with a history of a thousand years before christ were found, which testified to the existence of the art of carpet and carpet weaving since ancient times". currently, the production of carpets and carpet products in the samarkand region alone is 27.2% of the textile industry. the number of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products in the region is 24, these enterprises are 12 in samarkand city, 6 in urgut district, 3 in payariq district, 2 in samarkand district and 1 in okdarya district. the production capacity of the enterprises is 42,006 thousand square meters, in practice 37,913 thousand square meters of carpets and carpet products are produced. today, 3661 employees are working in the industry. in 2021, the plan for exports of light industrial products is 95 million dollars, of which 40.6 percent or 38.7 million dollars will be carpets and carpet products. such enterprises are increasing every year in the republic. the expansion of the production of carpets and carpet products requires complex processing of fiber waste. it is known that the composition of carpet products is composed of fiber composites that combine different fractions and functional groups. they are made up of polyacrylamide fiber, synthetic and polyester fibers and the like. on the basis of the research, the technology of obtaining facade liquid wall paper based on fiber waste of carpet production enterprises with this composite content has been mastered and introduced into production is considered one of the important activities. 112 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us preparation of fiber waste of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products for complex processing fractionation research stages have been mastered, based on which facade liquid wall paper and types of paper, as well as composite technical kmts in the initial stages of the process of obtaining brands, polyacrylamide fiber, synthetic and polyester fibers and so on the dissolution of wastes with different composition in solvents was studied. because there is a need to use different types of glues to obtain facade liquid wallpaper. these glues are acrylic-based emulsion glues. the scientific significance of the research results is explained by showing the scientific basis of complex processing of fibrous waste of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products, separating them into different fractions and creating the technology of obtaining organic materials and composite products. the practical significance of the results of the research is that as a result of complex processing of fiber waste, facade liquid wall flower paper, as well as paper and paper types, are used for the production of basic and intermediate products for the construction and paper production industries. on the basis of the scientific results obtained on the development of the technology of obtaining composite materials for various industries by reprocessing the fiber waste of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products: preparation of carpet and carpet product manufacturing enterprises fiber waste for complex processing fractionation research stages were mastered, and based on it, facade liquid wall flower paper and types of paper, as well as the technology of composite technical kmts stamps were put into practice at "innovative chemical technologies" llc. the history of carpet weaving goes back a long time, and since those times, people have been making their own industrial products with their own hands. because there were no production enterprises in those days. therefore, the necessary equipment for every house carpets, felts, blankets and pillows was the product of the people's hands. currently, the production of carpets and carpet products in the samarkand region alone is 27.2% of the textile industry. the number of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products in the region is 24, these enterprises are 12 in samarkand city, 6 in urgut district, 3 in payariq district, 2 in samarkand district and 1 in okdarya district. the production capacity of the enterprises is 42,006 thousand square meters, and in practice 37,913 thousand square meters of carpets and carpet products were produced. today, 3661 employees are working in the industry. in 2021, the plan for exports of light industrial products is 95 million dollars, of which 40.6 percent or 38.7 million dollars will be carpets and carpet products. such enterprises are increasing every year in the republic. 113 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us preparation of fiber waste of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products for complex processing fractionation research stages have been mastered, based on which facade liquid wall paper and types of paper, as well as composite technical kmts in the initial stages of the process of obtaining brands, polyacrylamide fiber, synthetic and polyester fibers and so on the dissolution of wastes with different composition in solvents was studied. because there is a need to use different types of glues to obtain facade liquid wallpaper. these glues are considered as acrylic-based emulsion glues. solvents for polyester fibers are concentrated sulfuric acid and some organic solvents (mono-, di-, trichloruxusnaya kisloty; metaand tricresol; orthochlorophenol; hexaftoriisopropanol, etc.) is counted. below you can see the state of fiber waste dissolved in a solution of concentrated sulfuric acid. pic-5. appearance of dissolved fibrous waste in x-ray spectrogram in solution 114 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us рic-6. appearance of dissolved fibrous waste in x-ray spectrogram in solution after the signing of the decision of the head of state on june 26, 2020 "on measures for the development of the field of hand-woven carpets in the republic", wide opportunities were created for the development of the field. preparation of fiber waste of enterprises producing carpets and carpet products for complex processing fractionation research stages were mastered, and based on it, the technology of obtaining facade liquid wall flower paper and types of paper, as well as composite technical kmts stamps was put into practice at "innovative chemical technologies" llc ("gissarneftgaz ” reference no. 729-01/12 dated may 12, 2023 of the uzbekistan-swiss joint venture). as a result, the facade made it possible to obtain liquid wallpaper and types of paper, as well as composite technical kmts stamps. references 1. m.m. murodov. «тechnology of making cellulose and its ethers by using raw materials» // international conference “renewable wood and plant resources: chemistry, technology, pharmacology, and medicine”. saint-petersburg, russia. june 21-24., 2011. 142-143. 2. m.m. murodov. «тhe technology of making carboxymethyl cellulose (cmc) by method monoapparatus» // international conference «renewable wood and plant resources: chemistry, technology, pharmacology, and medicine». saint-petersburg, russia. june 2124., 2011. 141-142. 3. ўзбекистон республика вазирлар маҳкамаси “республикада тез ўсувчи ва саноатбоп павловния дарахти плантацияларини барпо қилиш чора-тадбирлари тўғрисида” 2020 йил 27 августдаги 520-сонли қарори. 4. интернет: https://xs.uz/uzkr/post/ hududlarda –pavlovniya -plantatsiyalari -tashkil-qilinadi/ 5. муродов, м. х., & муродов, б. х. у. (2015). фотоэлектрическая станция с автоматическим управлением мощностью 20 квт для учебного заведения. science time, (12 (24)), 543-547. 6. murodov, m. m., rahmanberdiev, g. r., khalikov, m. m., egamberdiev, e. a., negmatova, k. c., saidov, m. m., & mahmudova, n. (2012, july). endurance of high molecular weight carboxymethyl cellulose in corrosive environments. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 1459, no. 1, pp. 309-311). american institute of physics. 7. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. (2021). obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. 115 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 8. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. european journal of humanities and educational advancements, 2(1), 1315. 9. murodov, m. m., xudoyarov, o. f., & urozov, m. q. (2018). technology of making carboxymethylcellulose by using local raw materials. advanced engineering forum vols. 89 (2018) pp 411-412/©. trans tech publications, switzerland. doi, 10, 8-9. 10. primqulov, m. t., rahmonbtrdiev, g., murodov, m. m., & mirataev, a. a. (2014). tarkibida sellyuloza saqlovchi xom ashyoni qayta ishlash texnologiyasi. ozbekiston faylasuflar milliy jamiyati nashriyati. toshkent, 28-29. 11. рахманбердиев, г. р., & муродов, м. м. (2011). разработка технологии получения целлюлозы из растений топинамбура. итисодиёт ва инновацион технологиялар" илмий электрон журнали,(2), 1-11. 12. elievich, c. l., khasanovich, y. s., & murodovich, m. m. (2021). technology for the production of paper composites for different areas from fiber waste. 13. murodovich, m. m., qulturaevich, u. m., & mahamedjanova, d. (2018). development of technology for production of cellulose from plants of tissue and receiving na-carboxymethylcellulose on its basis. journalnx, 6(12), 407-411. 14. rahmonberdiev, g., murodov, m., negmatova, k., negmatov, s., & lysenko, a. (2012). effective technology of obtaining the carboxymethyl cellulose from annual plants. in advanced materials research (vol. 413, pp. 541-543). trans tech publications ltd. 15. murodovich, m. m., murodovich, h. m., & qulturaevich, u. m. (2020). obtaining technical carboxymethyl cellulose increased in main substance. academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal, 10(12), 717-719. 16. murodovich, m. m., qulturaevich, u. m., & mahamedjanova, d. comparative researches of the composition and properties cmc in different degree of polymerization. journalnx, 6(12), 412-415. 17. йулдашева, г. и., & тешабаева, о. н. (2020). развитие цифровой экономики республики узбекистан. universum: экономика и юриспруденция, (7 (72)), 4-6. 18. teshabaeva, o., yuldasheva, g., & yuldasheva, m. (2021). development of electronic business in the republic of uzbekistan. интернаука, (3-3), 16-18. 19. ibragimovna, y. g. (2022). advantages of credit-module system in the field of education. international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research issn: 2277-3630 impact factor: 7.429, 11, 14-16. 20. йўлдашева, м. (2021). эффективное управление инвестиционной деятельностью информационно-коммуникационных технологий узбекистана. студенческий вестник, (3-4), 11-13. 21. shermatova, g. y. h. (2022). aniq fanlarni o’qitishda axborot texnologiyalaridan foydalanish. scientific progress, 3(1), 372-376. 22. yuldasheva, g. i., & shermatova, k. m. (2021). the use of adaptive technologies in the educational process. экономика и социум, (4-1), 466468. 23. худаёрова, с. и. (2022). особенности морфологического формирования листьев у сортов лимона (citrus l.) в защищенных местах. барқарорлик ва етакчи тадқиқотлар онлайн илмий журнали, 15-18. 116 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 24. қодирова, г. о. қ., & худоёрова, ф. (2021). роль образовательных технологий в преподавании языка. scientific progress, 2(3), 894-898. 25. itolmasovna, k. s. 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(2013). вибродиагностика повреждения подшипников качения локомотивных асинхронных электродвигателей. in подвижной состав xxi века: идеи, требования, проекты (pp. 174-176). 30. bedritsky, i. m., jurayeva, k. k., & bozorov, l. k. (2020). using of parametric nonlinear lc-circuits in stabilized transducers of the number of phases. chemical technology, control and management, 2, 42-48. 31. komilovna, j. k., & rustemovna, r. a. (2020). the role of vacuum circuit breakers in traction substations. international journal on orange technologies, 2(5), 1-2. 32. qulturaevich, u. m., elievich, c. l., murodovich, m. m., & fattahovna, y. n. (2021, may). technologies for producing cellulose from saflor plants and producing carboxymethyl cellulose based on it. in euro-asia conferences (vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1-4). 33. qulturaevich, u. m., elievich, c. l., murodovich, m. m., & uralovich, k. s. (2021, may). technology of pats getting by monoapparat. in euro-asia conferences (vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 5-7). 34. murodovich, m. m., & mahamedjanova, d. (2020). technologies for producing cellulose from saflor plants and producing carboxymethyl cellulose based on. academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal, 10(12), 730-734. 35. халиков, м. м., рахманбердыев, г. р., турабджанов, с. м., & муродов, м. м. (2016). ингибирование деструкции натриевой соли карбоксиметилцеллюлозы в процессе её получения. химическая промышленность сегодня, (11), 22-26. 36. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. (2021). obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. 37. turabovich, d. a., & murodovich, m. m. processing and development of technology for development of equipment for sustainable promotions for maximum communities. international journal on integrated education, 3(12), 498-504. 38. murodovich, m. m. creation of innovative technology to be involved in popular and wine tours (marmar popular, another bentonit and maxali homes). international journal on integrated education, 3(12), 494-497. 10 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 calculation of the strength of welded joints tovashov rustam xo‘jaxmat o‘g‘li doctor of philosophy in technical sciences, docent. karshi engineering-economic institute abstract: the article provides information on the types, advantages, disadvantages, welding methods and calculation of welded joints, which are part of the non-separable joint type. keywords: joint, weld, strength, tension, torque, weld, strength, length. poor performance of machines produced in mechanical engineering, premature failure, and increased noise during operation are caused by the low quality of the joint in it (poor fastening, lack of welding, improper selection of material for the joint, etc.). joint elements are mainly considered for strength. in this case, it is necessary to ensure that the strength of the large elements is the same as the strength of the details being attached. welded joints belong to the group of non-separable joints. structures, liquid storage tanks, trusses, metal towers, casings and some details used in various industries are obtained in this way. the advantages of welded joints include: saving of metal; that in practice it is possible to obtain details of different shapes and sizes; the strength of the welded joint under static and shock loads is almost close to the strength of the main part; high possibility of automation of the welding process; gypsum density and gas and liquid impermeability of the weld. disadvantages of welded joints include: it is somewhat difficult to determine the quality of the weld; deformation of the part being welded due to temperature; the presence of a concentration of stresses; that some materials cannot be joined by welding. as mentioned above, welding is based on the forces used to stick the molecules of the connecting parts. to achieve this, two methods are used: heating the metals at the junction of the parts without melting them or turning them into a liquid state, and pressing the parts together. the first method is liquid welding, and the second is pressure welding. welding in the liquid state is divided into types of welding using gas and electric arc. in the gas welding method, combustible gases (acetylene, hydrogen) are ignited between the electrodes in a certain amount and pass through the torch channel. a welding wire suitable for the composition of the metal to be welded is used. under its influence, the welding place of the welding part and the end of the welding wire are liquidized and a joint is formed. gas welding is used to join parts made of thin-walled steel and non-ferrous metals. the place to be connected by electric arc welding is heated by an electric arc and an electrode is liquidized to it, resulting in the formation of a weld. the molten electrode between the parts acts as a bond. depending on the thickness of the sheets to be welded, their ends are prepared for welding with or without special treatment. http://www/ 11 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us calculation of three-by-three welded sheets consisting of two pieces (fig. 1) is performed as follows: σ=f/a=f/bδ≤[σp], (1) in which: f – tensile strength, n; a – sheet surface, mm2; b – list width, mm;  – sheet thickness, mm; [p] – permissible stress for welding, pa. figure 1. overlap welding. when taking into account the required coefficient of strength for the welded joint: [σp] = 0,9[σdet] (2) in which: [σdet] allowable stress for the detail material, that is, the welded part of the sheet. if the welded part is loaded with a bending moment (fig. 2), then the resisting moment w directed along the axis of the welded section: figure 2. effect of bending moment. σ=m/w=6m/(bδ)2≤[σp], (3) in side welds, the main stress is the tensile stress in the m-m section of the weld (fig. 3).  the distribution of stress along the length of the weld depends on the uniformity of the welded parts. if this uniformity is the same, the voltage is evenly distributed, and if it is different, it is unevenly distributed. also, the longer the side seam, the more unevenly the tension is distributed, so it is recommended to make the length of the seam l  50 k. the value of tension in side seams under the influence of tensile force is determined as follows (fig. 3).   f/(2 l 0,7 k)  '4) in which: thickness of 0,7 k seam m-m section. when the side welds are symmetrical (fig. 3), the length of the seam is inversely proportional to the distance from this seam to the center of gravity of the part, i.e. http://www/ 12 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us l 1 / l2  ye 1 / ye 2 , (5) where the stress value at the seams on both sides is the same and is determined as follows:  f / 0,7k(l1  l2 '(6) if a moment is applied to a butt-welded joint, the tension in the seam will be as follows:   t /wp (7) in which: wp – the moment of resistance to torsion of the eroding section of the wseam, for the more common l=b seams in practice   f / (0,7kl b )  '(8) the resistance of the butt welds to external forces is determined only by the value of the experimental stresses. figure 3. butt weld joint.  tension is determined by the m-m section, as in the side seam. the value of tension generated in opposite welds (fig. 3) under the influence of tensile force is determined as follows:   f / (0,7kl )  '(9) if the torque is acting, the tension is defined as:  = t /w = 6t / (0,7kl2 )  ' (10) in cases where it is necessary, both the opposite seam and the side seam are used at the same time, if tensile force is applied, the tension in the seam is determined as follows:   f / [0,7k(2lyon+lr )]  '(11) if both the moment and the force are acting, the tension is determined as follows.  = t / [(0,7klyonlr)+( 0,7klr2/6)]  ' (12) as a result, the value of the total tension created by the stretching force and moment.  =  + v =   ' (13) according to the given information, welded joints are considered primarily for strength. welded joints can be subjected to tensile force or bending moment. when calculating the strength http://www/ 13 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of welded joints under the influence of tensile force or bending moment, the length of the welds and the thickness of the used metals are taken as their main parameters. at the same time, the allowable stress of the metal is one of the important factors in calculating the strength. references 1. tojiboyev r.n., jo‘rayev a.j., maksudov r.x. “mashina detallari” darslik. – t.: “fan va texnologiya”, 2010, -216 bet. 2. гордин п.в., росляков е.м., эвелеков в.и. детали машин и основы конструирования: учебное пособие. – спб.: сзту, 2006. 186 с. 3. shoobidov sh.a. “mashina detallari”. t. “fan va texnologiya” 2014-y. 4. mamatov f., mizaev b., maxamov x., tovashov r. ridge forming machine for sowing cereals on sloping fields // conmechydro-2023, e3s web of conferences 401, 04051 (2023); http://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202340104051. 5. mamatov f., maxamov x., tovashov r., qurbonov b. working body of the machine for sowing cereals on slopes // aip conference proceedings 2612, 050018 (2023); http://doi.org/10.1063/5.01139743. 6. товашов р.х., махамов х.т., ҳамроев о.ш. нишабликларга ишлов бериш ва экиш сеялкаси ариқ очгичининг тажрибавий тадқиқотлари натижалари // инновацион технологиялар. – қармии, 2021. махсус сон – б. 105-108. 7. maxamov x., tovashov r., tovashov b., jabborov f. combination machine for soil cultivation and sowing grain // conmechydro-2021, e3s web of conferences 264, 04049 (2021) http://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202126404049. 8. mamatov f., maxamov x., tovashov r., qurbonov b. machine for cultivation and sowing of cereal seeds on sloping fields // aip conference proceedings 2612, 050019 (2023); http://doi.org/10.1063/5.0113974. 9. маматов ф.м., махамов х.т., товашов р.х. нишаб ерларга ишлов берадиган машина юмшаткичининг тажрибавий тадқиқотлари натижалари // инновацион технологиялар. – қармии, 2021. – № 1(41). – б. 27-30. http://www/ http://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202340104051 http://doi.org/10.1063/5.01139743 http://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202126404049 http://doi.org/10.1063/5.0113974 27 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 a literature survey for investigation into driver behavior for enhancing road safety ajay kumar, onkar yadav assistant professor, department of civil engineering, sandip university, sijoul, madhubani847235, bihar, india raushan kumar singh research scholar, department of civil engineering, sandip university, sijoul, madhubani847235, bihar, india abstract: this paper presents a literature survey conducted to investigate driver behavior and its impact on road safety. the study aims to enhance our understanding of the various factors influencing driver behavior and identify potential strategies to improve road safety. the survey encompasses a wide range of scholarly articles, research papers, and reports related to driver behavior, road safety, and human factors in driving. the abstract begins by emphasizing the importance of driver behavior in road safety and highlights the need for comprehensive research in this area. the survey explores key aspects of driver behavior, including risk perception, decision-making processes, cognitive factors, distraction, fatigue, aggression, and compliance with traffic rules and regulations. the findings from these studies are summarized, providing insights into the underlying causes and consequences of different driver behaviors. the literature survey also examines the effectiveness of various interventions and countermeasures aimed at modifying driver behavior and reducing the occurrence of accidents. these interventions include educational programs, awareness campaigns, driver training, advanced driver assistance systems, and policy interventions. the review evaluates the impact of these interventions on driver behavior and their overall effectiveness in improving road safety. in conclusion, this literature survey serves as a valuable resource for understanding driver behavior and its implications for road safety. it highlights the multifaceted nature of driver behavior, considering various factors that influence driving performance and decision-making. the findings from this survey can inform the development of evidence-based strategies and interventions to enhance road safety by targeting specific aspects of driver behavior. keywords: driver behavior, road safety, risk perception, decision-making, distraction. 1. introduction according to a report by the world health organization (who) in 2018, traffic accidents cause approximately 1.3 million deaths annually, along with 20-50 million non-fatal injuries that often result in disabilities. the economic impact of road traffic accidents accounts for about 3% of the gross domestic product in most countries. human error is responsible for 90% of these accidents, highlighting the need for road safety initiatives.road safety is a collective effort involving government and non-government sectors. the responsibility for safety lies with every driver, considering that low and middle-income countries, which possess about 60% of the world's vehicles, experience 93% of the world's road traffic deaths. notably, road traffic accidents are 28 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the leading cause of death among children and adolescents aged 5-29 years. the global status report on road safety 2018 reveals a steady increase in road traffic deaths, although the mortality rate has remained constant relative to the world's population.to address these issues, the development of a new driver assistance system is proposed. this system aims to enhance driver interaction with the road environment, including road infrastructure and other road users, by analyzing the driver's vision. the research study emphasizes the importance of considering various complex situations and dimensions when verifying results and formulating recommendations. adopting a systematic approach allows for a comprehensive analysis of the driver and the characteristics of the road environment. it acknowledges the diverse nature of road users, their different shapes, sizes, and purposes for being on the road.in summary, the focus is on the significant impact of traffic accidents worldwide and the need for road safety measures. this includes the development of a driver assistance system that considers the driver's interaction with the road environment and emphasizes a systematic approach for analyzing system malfunctions. by considering various factors, such as driver characteristics and road infrastructure, a holistic understanding of road safety can be achieved. 2. accident scenario in india road safety has emerged as a pressing concern in india, with a significant portion of road fatalities involving pedestrians, cyclists, and motorized two-wheelers. faulty driver behavior accounts for approximately 84% of accidents involving motor vehicles. in 2016 alone, india witnessed over 480,000 road crashes across various types of roads, representing approximately 11% of global road fatalities and the highest number of road crashes in any single country. regrettably, despite a slight decrease in reported road crashes, the total number of fatalities due to road crashes has been on the rise. the recorded number of deaths increased from 137,572 in 2014 to 146,730 in 2015 and further to 150,785 in 2016, signifying a yearly increase of 6.6% and 2.8% respectively. on average, this translates to approximately 1,317 road crashes and 413 road deaths occurring each day in india. in other words, every hour witnesses around 55 road crashes and 17 road deaths. road safety is a critical issue in india, particularly concerning vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and two-wheeler riders. driver fault is a prominent factor contributing to accidents. despite a minor decline in reported road crashes, the number of fatalities continues to escalate. these alarming statistics emphasize the urgent need for comprehensive measures to improve road safety in the country. 3. human factor governing road user behaviour when individuals exceed their tolerance limits, their performance tends to deteriorate. human information processing capacity is limited, and decision-making can be influenced by biases, leading to distortions in outcomes. for instance, when driving, individuals may overlook lowfrequency faults while focusing on high-frequency events on the road. various human factors can impact performance while driving, including fatigue, stress, emotions, drowsiness, alcohol, and drug use. human behavior typically consists of three components: actions, planning, and outcomes. errors can occur if either or both of the first two components fail. there are different types of human-related errors, as identified by reason (1997). during decision-making, individuals are susceptible to biases that can affect their performance. errors can arise when the chosen plan itself is inadequate, indicating a selection of incorrect action sequences. in summary, when individuals surpass their tolerance limits, their performance may suffer. human cognitive capacity is limited, and biases can distort decision-making outcomes. driving performance can be influenced by various human factors, and errors can occur if actions or planning are inadequate. recognizing these limitations and biases is crucial in improving decision-making and overall performance in driving contexts. 4. survey of literature multiple studies have demonstrated the impact of driving behavior on road safety. various factors influence driving behavior, including driver capacities and age-related effects, driving 29 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us styles, temporary impairments, and the behavior of other road users. numerous studies have provided evidence supporting the broader discourse on these aspects of people's lives.interventions aimed at reducing traffic accidents often target emotional instability, unhappiness, social factors, antisocial tendencies, impulsivity, marital status, stress, and similar conditions. notably, previous studies primarily focused on reaction time rather than choice reaction time.in summary, driving behavior significantly affects road safety, and research has examined factors such as driver capacities, age-related effects, driving styles, temporary impairments, and the behavior of other road users. interventions to prevent traffic accidents often consider various psychological and social factors. however, it is worth noting that previous studies have primarily focused on reaction time rather than choice reaction time. nordfjærn et al. (2013) through cluster analysis, this study identified four distinct personality subtypes among drivers. the first cluster comprised individuals with low normlessness and sensation seeking but high anxiety. the second cluster exhibited elevated scores on all three measured traits. the third cluster displayed low scores on all traits. the fourth cluster demonstrated low anxiety but high normlessness and sensation seeking. individuals in this cluster exhibited unsafe road traffic safety beliefs and driver behaviors. furthermore, they were more likely to be males and adolescents. conversely, individuals in the cluster characterized by low normlessness and sensation seeking, coupled with high anxiety, reported the safest beliefs and behaviors. this cluster primarily consisted of females and older individuals. the findings suggest that targeted countermeasures should be implemented to address the specific risk profiles associated with different personality clusters. personality traits can also be utilized for early identification and intervention among drivers prone to risky behaviors. in conclusion, understanding the link between personality traits and driving behavior can aid in the development of effective strategies to reduce the frequency of road traffic accidents. by tailoring interventions to specific personality risk groups, road safety measures can be better targeted and early interventions can be implemented for at-risk drivers. paul et al. (2014) the core argument of this paper is that in order to achieve significant advancements in young driver road safety, insights gained from driver-centric research must be integrated into a systems approach. this integration is essential for obtaining a comprehensive understanding of the young driver road safety issue. by adopting a holistic perspective, more effective opportunities and avenues for intervention can be identified and implemented. the paper emphasizes the need to move beyond individual-focused approaches and consider the broader system in which young drivers operate. this shift in perspective is crucial for developing comprehensive strategies that address the complex factors influencing young driver road safety. ultimately, by embracing a systems approach, the paper contends that substantial improvements can be made to enhance the safety of young drivers on the road. ellison et al. (2015) this paper provides a comprehensive description of the development of driver behavior profiles (dbps) and illustrates their application as a crucial input in modeling the factors that impact driver behavior. the findings reveal that even after accounting for the influence of the road environment, these factors continue to be the most significant predictors of driver behavior. this suggests that different spatiotemporal environments elicit diverse psychological responses in drivers. the approach and outcomes of this study hold valuable implications for insurance companies seeking to enhance their risk-profiling of drivers based on on-road driving data. additionally, government entities can benefit from assessing the effectiveness of behavior-change interventions by incorporating dbps. by considering the interplay between various factors and driver behavior, both insurance companies and government bodies can make informed decisions and implement strategies to promote safer driving practices and reduce risk on the roads. delbosc et al. (2017) this study utilizes a range of methods to examine the impact of miniroundabouts on road safety and driver behavior. the analysis involves an examination of crash records for a period of three years before and after the installation of 40 mini-roundabouts. 30 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us additionally, a case study of two adjacent mini-roundabouts installed in 2016 is incorporated. the study includes observations of driver behavior and a questionnaire survey to evaluate community acceptance. the findings indicate significant road safety benefits associated with the implementation of mini-roundabouts. notably, there was a reduction of 78.9% in crashes, with the number of serious crashes decreasing from 6 to 0. the introduction of mini-roundabouts resulted in fewer vehicles exceeding the speed limit, and a higher rate of compliance with giving-way rules compared to traditional give-way systems. surveys also indicated a decline in the number of conflict and avoidance maneuvers at the intersections. the design and characteristics of mini-roundabouts, including their lower speeds, contributed to safer conditions in the event of any crashes. furthermore, the study found that residents of the area felt safer while driving and walking at the mini-roundabouts compared to before their installation. farooq et al. (2018) this study aimed to develop a set of measures to assess young driver behavior related to road traffic safety in different countries. the researchers created a driver behaviour questionnaire (dbq) to gather valuable information on road safety from university students who possessed a driver's license. the questionnaire focused on various aspects of driver attitudes towards traffic safety issues, such as non-compliance with traffic light signals, failure to wear seat belts, disregard for speed limits, neglecting to use personal intelligent driver assistants, failure to yield to pedestrians, tailgating, frequent lane changes, risk-taking behaviors, failure to apply brakes, challenges of mixed traffic, and honking horns in annoyance. the study compared driving attitudes between young drivers in pakistan and hungary, identifying several differences between the two groups. the implementation of these observed measures provided a more comprehensive understanding of deviant behavior among young drivers in both regions. overall, the study contributed to the development of an initial set of measures to assess young driver behavior in relation to road traffic safety. the findings highlighted variations in driving attitudes between pakistan and hungary and emphasized the importance of observing multiple measures to gain a deeper understanding of young drivers' behavior in different regions. hussin et al. (2020) this study employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methods. the qualitative component involved conducting interviews with a focus group consisting of members from the ministry of transportation in oman. the quantitative aspect involved analyzing road traffic accident data in oman, followed by the distribution of a survey questionnaire to a randomly selected sample of drivers in the country. both qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed using constant comparative and statistical techniques. the findings revealed that gender, age, and driving experience significantly influenced attitudes towards the commission of traffic violations and risky behavior. younger and male drivers were found to be more involved in road accidents, while the age group of 26-33 years and those with minimal driving experience of 1-5 years exhibited a propensity for risktaking attitudes. the results of this study hold importance for the local community and transport planning in the sultanate of oman. by identifying influential factors on driver behavior and accident involvement, the study offers valuable insights that can contribute to efforts aimed at reducing traffic accidents and improving driver behavior in the country. zaranka et al. (2021) this study highlights the need for specialized methodologies in the selection of professional drivers. the research focuses on assessing the reliability of these methodologies to develop a concept that allows for the identification of drivers who are capable of performing their hired work effectively, while minimizing losses associated with road accidents. arkatkar et al. (2022) the scope of this research encompasses various topic areas related to enhancing road safety. these include, but are not limited to, countermeasures for human errors, innovative studies on hazard perception and risk-mitigating driving behavior, the integration of driving performance and physiological measures to promote safety, the effective utilization of technology to prevent impaired driving performance, the role of road infrastructure in reducing human errors, intelligent driver assistance and safety systems, the impact of human-vehicle 31 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us interaction in connected and autonomous vehicles, the development of policies to improve drivers' compliance with traffic rules and regulations, attitudes towards in-vehicle technologies and their influence on behavior, the long-term effects of speed cameras on behavioral change, studies focusing on integrating vehicle-to-infrastructure (v2i), vehicle-to-vehicle (v2v), and vehicle-to-pedestrian (v2p) communication with autonomous vehicles, and the application of driving simulation and case studies. these areas encompass a comprehensive approach to advancing road safety research and addressing key factors that contribute to safer driving practices. cociu et al. (2023) this study highlights the need for systematic organization of educational programs and awareness campaigns aimed at promoting road safety among drivers and vulnerable road users. these initiatives should be carefully planned and implemented to effectively educate individuals about safe practices on the road. by providing comprehensive information and raising awareness about potential risks and preventive measures, such programs can contribute to improving road safety and reducing accidents. it is crucial to ensure that these educational efforts are well-structured, targeted, and accessible to reach a wide range of individuals and communities. faouzia et al. (2023)this paper conducts a systematic literature review (slr) focusing on the classification of driver behavior. the study aims to analyze and highlight various aspects such as different types of driver behavior, data sources, datasets, features, and artificial intelligence techniques utilized in the classification of driver behavior and performance. by examining the findings from the selected works, the study aims to identify the significant contributions and challenges in the field of driver behavior classification. furthermore, the paper proposes potential avenues for future research and provides recommendations for both practitioners and researchers in this domain. 5. summary this paper presents a comprehensive literature survey conducted to investigate driver behavior and its implications for enhancing road safety. the study aims to provide insights into the various factors influencing driver behavior and identify potential strategies for improving road safety outcomes. the survey covers a wide range of scholarly articles, research papers, and reports related to driver behavior, road safety, and human factors in driving. the survey highlights the importance of integrating driver-centric research into a systems approach to gain a holistic understanding of the young driver road safety problem. by considering the multifaceted nature of driver behavior and its interactions with other elements of the transportation system, more effective opportunities and avenues for intervention can be identified. key factors influencing driver behavior, such as risk perception, decision-making processes, cognitive factors, distraction, fatigue, aggression, and compliance with traffic rules, are examined in the survey. the review also explores the effectiveness of various interventions and countermeasures, including educational programs, awareness campaigns, driver training, and advanced driver assistance systems. the findings of the literature survey underscore the significance of driver behavior in road safety outcomes. by integrating insights from driver-centric research into road safety strategies and interventions, it is possible to address the complex dynamics of driver behavior and enhance road safety measures. the literature survey serves as a valuable resource for policymakers, transportation agencies, researchers, and other stakeholders involved in road safety. it provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies research gaps, and offers recommendations for future research directions to further enhance road safety through a focus on driver behavior. references 1. nordfjærn, trond & rundmo, torbjorn. (2013). road traffic safety beliefs and driver behaviors among personality subtypes of drivers in the norwegian population. traffic injury prevention. 14. 690-696. 10.1080/15389588.2012.759655. 32 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. kumar, a. and yadav, o., 2023. concrete durability characteristics as a result of manufactured sand. central asian journal of theoretical and applied science, 4(3), pp.120127. 3. jha, s.k., prakash, c. and kumar, a., 2022. design and synthesis of polymer nano composite enamel for improvement in weathering and corrosion resistance. 4. kumar, a. and kadian, a., 2022. research on strength and durability of concrete manufactured with artificial sand. 5. kumar, a. and kadian, a., concrete strength characteristics as a result of artificial sand. 6. scott-parker, bridie & goode, natassia & salmon, paul. (2014). the driver, the road, the rules ... and the rest? a systems-based approach to young driver road safety. accident; analysis and prevention. 74. 10.1016/j.aap.2014.01.027. 7. ellison, adrian & greaves, stephen & bliemer, michiel. (2015). driver behaviour profiles for road safety analysis. accident analysis & prevention. 76. 10.1016/j.aap.2015.01.009. 8. kumar, n. ., kumar , p. ., kumar, a. ., & kumar, r. . (2023). an investigation of asphalt mixtures using a naturally occurring fibre. american journal of science and learning for development, 2(6), 80–87. retrieved from http://interpublishing.com/index.php/ajsld/article/view/1977. 9. kumar, a., & yadav, o. (2023). concrete durability characteristics as a result of manufactured sand. central asian journal of theoretical and applied science, 4(3), 120127. https://doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/8p5he. 10. kumar, a., yadav, o. and shukla, r., 2023. a comprehensive review paper on partial cement substitution in cement mortar with wood ash. research in multidisciplinary subjects, 1, p.26. 11. al-maimani, eman & yahia, hussin. (2020). an investigation of driver attitudes towards road safety in oman. journal of student research. 10.47611/jsr.vi.889. 12. kumar, a., yadav, o. and kumar, a.n., a review paper on production of environment friendly concrete by using sewage water. international journal of creative research thoughts (ijcrt), issn, pp.2320-2882. 13. kumar, a. and bohara, j., a review report on influence of fiber addition on the mechanical and durability characteristics of no-fines concrete. 14. kumar, a. and nirala, b., 2023. studies on strength and durability of concrete made with manufactured sand. studies, 7(2). 15. kumar, p. and alam, m.f., seismic analysis of rc building with steel bracing. 16. ajay kumar,onkar yadav,sagar kumar, "an overview article on incorporating human hair as fibre reinforcement in concrete", international journal of creative research thoughts (ijcrt), issn:2320-2882, volume.11, issue 6, pp.e967-e975, june 2023, available at :http://www.ijcrt.org/papers/ijcrt2306566.pdf 17. cociu, svetlana & ioncu, olga & ciobanu, daniela & cebanu, serghei. (2023). road safety knowledge and attitudes among drivers. one health & risk management. 4. 25-32. 10.38045/ohrm.2023.2.04. 18. roshan, ravi & yadav, onkar & kumar, ajay. (2023). evaluation of pozzolana's impact on fibre reinforced concrete. 3. 1-9. 33 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 19. kumar, n., kumar, p., kumar, a. and kumar, r., 2023. an investigation of asphalt mixtures using a naturally occurring fibre. american journal of science and learning for development, 2(6), pp.80-87. 20. kumar, a., 2023. web of synergy: international interdisciplinary research journal 21. ajay kumar and sujeet kumar (2023) “review paper on assessment of deterioration in concrete filled with steel tubular section via guided waves”, world of science: journal on modern research methodologies, 2(8), pp. 12–19. available at: https://univerpubl.com/index.php/woscience/article/view/2444 (accessed: 8 august 2023). 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 1, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 features of the geological structure of the eastern ustyurt's jurassic deposits khayitov odiljon gofurovich candidate of geological and mineralogical sciences, associate professor, head of the department "mining", 100095, republic of uzbekistan, tashkent, university street, 2, tashkent state technical university qoshsayev uchkun quvvatovich tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov associate professor ergasheva zulkhumor abdaaliyevna, barotov vasliddin nusrat ugli tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov assistant teacher abstract: this article examines the features of the geological structure of the jurassic deposits of eastern ustyurt. terrigenous deposits of lower jurassic age are noted to be of low thickness throughout eastern ustyurt. the sediments are composed predominantly of sandstones and siltstones, with a high content of carbonized residues. the lower jurassic sequence is composed of interbedded terrigenous rocks (sandstones, mudstones, siltstones, gravelites), while a clearer differentiation of sediments and the presence of pure differences are observed in comparison with the overlying upper and middle jurassic deposits, which is reflected by the presence in the section of thick up to 1149 (karaaudan) m and more layers of sandstones and clays. keywords: lower jurassic, sedimentary cover, foundation, sandstone, siltstone, trough, kossor. thickness of sediments. the territory of the ustyurt region is completely covered by smalland medium-scale gravimetric surveys with large-scale detailing of individual areas. the gravity field of the ustyurt region is determined by the total influence of density inhomogeneities of the basement and the boundaries of the sedimentary cover. here the south aral zone of predominantly positive anomalies, the north ustyurt minimum, the central ustyurt maximum zone and the south ustyurt assakeaudan minimum are distinguished [1; p.17]. jurassic deposits occur with erosion and angular unconformity, represented by three sections, the stratigraphic completeness and thickness of which vary from west to east. terrigenous deposits of lower jurassic age are noted to be of low thickness throughout eastern ustyurt. the sediments are composed predominantly of sandstones and siltstones, with a high content of carbonized residues. the rock is heavily clayey in places, spotted, weakly layered, with abundant inclusions of plant remains. sandstones are light gray, gray, fineand fine-grained, dense, micaceous-clayey cement of the pore type, with a gradual transition to siltstone with poor visibility porosity. the siltstone is light gray, strongly clayey, slightly calcareous, slightly mica, with streaks of gray mudstonelike clays and inclusions of charred plant remains. in well no. 3p kossor in the interval 2472–2482 m l.s. khachieva encountered the following spore-pollen complex: cyathidites minor couper, c.junctus [k.-m.] alim, monosulcitessp., m. 35 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us subopanulosus couper, disaccites, etc. , which makes it possible to date the age of the host sediments as lower jurassic. the ratio of iron forms suggests that weakly reducing conditions prevailed during the period of accumulation and transformation of lower jurassic sediments. the reservoir properties of the rocks are characterized by the following indicators: total porosity 9.2%, open -8.6%, density within 2.43 g/cm3, no permeability. from the lower jurassic age, humidization of the climate and reduction of arid zones began; sedimentation took place in a desalinated shallow basin in a warm, humid climate. the thickness of lower jurassic deposits decreases from northwest to southeast. if in well no. 1 kindyksay the thickness of sediments is 172 m, then within the kossor area it is 124–157 m, in the east assakeaudan area it is 76–98 m. middle jurassic deposits within the investment block are widespread and are represented by undifferentiated aalenian-bajocian and bathonian stages. lithologically, the middle jurassic deposits are represented by a terrigenous sequence of interbedded gray sandy-silty-clayey rocks. the aalenian-bajocian stage is represented by a frequent alternation of sandstones, siltstones and clays with an abundance of carbonized plant remains and thin layers of coal (2–4 cm). it is characterized by thin horizontal bedding and lens-shaped microbedding. the thickness and lithological composition of the rocks vary greatly, which is associated with the continental nature of the genesis of sediments. the bathonian stage in the lower part is represented by sandstones with thin interlayers of gravelstones, in the upper part by frequent alternation of gray and dark gray sandstones, siltstones and clays. the rocks are rich in charred plant remains and pyrite. the sandstone is light gray to gray, quartz-feldspar, fine to coarse-grained, micaceous, dense, polymictic, with mixed carbonate-mica-clayey cement, poorly sorted in the aalenian-bajocian and better sorted in the bathonian sediments. picture.1. structural map of the area of batyrbay along the reflecting horizon tiv, confined to the surface of middle jurassic deposits. 36 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the mudstones are dark gray to black, silty, micaceous, with inclusions of pyrite crystals. the age is palynologically substantiated by various researchers. in well no. 2p shakhpakhty v.v. kutuzova identified the pelecypod astarteminima philips, indicating the bathonian age of the host rocks. the reservoir properties of the rocks are characterized by the following indicators: total porosity 11.6%, open 10.75%, density within 2.38 g/cm3, no permeability. torg is 0.58%, chloroform bitumen “a” is 0.02%. within the investment block, the thickness of middle jurassic deposits varies from 360 m (no. 1 kossor) to 433 m (no. 3 east assakeaudan). the greatest thicknesses of kimmeridgian tithonian deposits were noted in well. 1p samskaya (128 m), in well 1 almambet and on the nikolaevskaya area (up to 228 m) in the central part of the assakeaudan trough outside the study area (fig. 2.6.) in the kimmeridgian-tithonian time, such large troughs as sudochiy, alan depression, have practically lost their importance as the main zones with maximum power [2; p.103]. the greatest thickness of kimmeridgian-tithonian deposits (up to 219 m) was recorded in the central part of the assakeaudan trough. upper jurassic deposits, conformably overlying rocks of middle jurassic age, were uncovered by all deep wells and are represented in the callovian-oxfordian and kimmeridgian-tithonian volumes. callovian-oxfordian deposits [j3cl-оxf] are represented mainly by clays with interlayers of siltstones and sandstones. they are characterized by a gray, greenish-gray color; in the upper part there are layers of variegated and, in places, red-colored clays. the clays are gray, greenish-gray, at the tops of the section – brownish-brown, silty, dense, finely exhumed, with rare charred remains of vegetation, with horizontal layering. at the top of the section, iron hydroxides are widely developed. siltstones are greenish-gray, clayey and sandy, dense, strong. sandstones are greenish-gray, fineand fine-grained, very often silty, dense, strong, massive, quartz-feldspathic with inclusions of rare glauconite grains. the clays are gray, greenish-gray, at the tops of the section – brownish-brown, silty, dense, finely exhumed, with rare charred remains of vegetation, with horizontal layering. at the top of the section, iron hydroxides are widely developed. siltstones are greenish-gray, clayey and sandy, dense, strong. sandstones are greenish-gray, fineand fine-grained, very often silty, dense, strong, massive, quartz-feldspathic with inclusions of rare glauconite grains. the kimmeridgian-tithonian deposits (j3 km-tit) overlie the callovian-oxfordian deposits with erosion. they are represented by gray, light gray, sandy, fine-crystalline, and massive limestones. the rocks are enriched with inclusions of microand macrofauna, myophorella оf. coralina orb., mactromyasp. indexogira(amphedouta)cf. bruntrunataturn., determined by s.kh. chepikova in the section of the assakeaudan reference well among similar limestones. within the study area, the thickness of the upper jurassic deposits varies from 293 m (borehole no. 1 kossor) to 331 m (no. 1, 2 v. assakeaudan). conclusion. the lower jurassic sequence is composed of interbedded terrigenous rocks (sandstones, mudstones, siltstones, gravelites), while a clearer differentiation of sediments and the presence of pure differences are observed in comparison with the overlying upper and middle jurassic deposits, which is reflected by the presence in the section of thick up to 1149 (karaaudan) m and more layers of sandstones and clays. 37 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. oʻgʻli r. z. y., abdaaliyevna e. z. 3d 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«ustoi» //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2021. 31. ravshanov z. technological stages of determining the distance to the location of rocks in the development of a 3d model of mining enterprises //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2022. 32. ravshanov z. анализ текущего состояния и пути повышения эффектиности разработки нефтегазовых месторождений юговосточной части бухаро-хивинского региона //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2020. 97 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 technologies and technical means for basic tillage of the cottongrowing zone f. mamatov karshi engineering economics institute (uzbekistan) abstract: the article analyzes the existing technologies and technical means for basic tillage of the cotton-growing zone. based on the analysis of technologies and technical means for the main tillage of the cotton-growing zone, it was found that improving the quality and stability of the technological process, reducing energy and labor costs when processing soils with low humidity can be achieved by developing a combined tillage tool, the working bodies of which would loosen the topsoil and plow in one pass. in such a combined unit, the working organs of passive and active action should be optimally combined. keywords: soil, technology, plowing, plow, implement, depth of tillage. introduction. winter plowing with formation turnover in the cotton growing area is the key to high efficiency of all subsequent agrotechnical measures. the yield of agricultural crops largely depends on the quality of its implementation. to carry out plowing in optimal time, a conveyor method of preparing fields is used. first of all, winter plowing is carried out in fields that have been freed from grain, corn, vegetable, fodder and other crops, and then, as the cotton harvest is completed, they move to the areas occupied by this crop. numerous studies [1-5] have established that the depth of winter plowing should be differentiated taking into account soil differences, soil thickness, characteristics of the cultivated crop and other factors. in most soils of the irrigated zone of central asia, winter crops are plowed, as a rule, to a depth of 25-27 cm. the depth of the main tillage for cotton, the main crop of this zone, varies significantly by soil and climatic zones. in the northern and middle cotton growing zones, plowing is carried out to a depth of 30 cm on powerful typical and light gray soils, as well as meadow soils in tashkent, samarkand, syrdarya, namangan, ferghana and foothill lands of andijan region, bukhara region, and the karakalpak republic. in areas with earlier spring and warm and long autumn, as well as in the southern cotton-growing zone, plowing is carried out at 40 cm on the strong soils of surkhandarya, kashkadarya, chordzhou, vakhsh regions. results. based on the requirements of modern agro technical science for plowing in the cottongrowing area, we have analyzed the known technological processes of plowing. the main indicators characterizing the agro technical quality of the technological process, based on the above requirements, are the uniformity of the depth of processing, the depth of embedding of plant residues, soil crumbling and the ridges of the soil surface. plowing with general-purpose plows without plows does not provide a complete turnover of the formation. the plant residues are located in inclined cross sections throughout the processing depth [5]. incomplete turnover is also characteristic of the technological process of plowing with enclosures equipped with angle lifts. 98 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a better degree of sealing and a larger angle of rotation are characteristic of cultural plowing with ploughs. however, the depth of embedding of plant residues (7-12 cm) is not sufficient for effective control of perennial weeds. therefore, this technological process in the cotton growing area is used only for processing soils for grain crops. the technological process is more advanced. two-tier plowing can provide complete (100%) and deep sealing of plant residues. the idea of layered (tiered) plowing has long been of interest to scientists, engineers and farmers. attempts to create a deep-plough longline plough have been known since 1908 [6]. since 1935, the viskhom 13 collective has been working in this direction [6]. the agronomic prerequisites are formulated in the basic principles of cultural plowing in tulaganov [7]. avazov i's research became the main engineering development [8]. the issue of the mutual arrangement of the working bodies of a two-tier plow was first theoretically considered by f. mamatov [9, 10, 11]. and now these developments are the basis for new research. r karimov [12], i ergashev [13] and others have been engaged in research on plows in the cotton-growing zone at various times. as a result of the analysis of the conducted research, long-term observations and opinions of agricultural leaders, the following main features of the main processing of cotton soils can be distinguished: a large unevenness of the depth of processing associated with the relief of the cotton field; the timing and quality of plowing associated with the presence of cotton stems; block formation due to low soil moisture and over-compaction of its upper soil layer. u kodirov [14] and s gapparov [15] studied the influence of the relief of the cotton field on the operation of plows in order to improve the quality of processing and the stability of the course of the arable unit. studies [16-20] have established that before plowing, cotton fields have a pronounced uneven relief characterized by the presence of ridges and irrigation furrows. in fields with a row spacing of 90 cm, the height of the ridges varies from 7 to 24 cm, and in fields with a row spacing of 60 cm from 6 to 18 cm. the presence of ridges and irrigation furrows in the fields significantly worsens the quality of work and dynamic performance of the plow [20]: the coefficient of depth variation goes beyond the agrotechnical tolerance υа=24,9%,, reached the υа=24,9%, the degree of unevenness of traction resistance to δ=0,4, and the bottom of the furrow turns out to be stepped. to improve the uniformity of the plowing depth, mamatov [9, 10-15] developed a pair of swing-type support wheels, when installed on a mounted plow, the coefficient of variation of the processing depth decreased by 2-2.3 times, and the productivity of the plowing unit increased by 23.8%. based on the research conducted by b.mirzaev [8, 11], it was found that general-purpose plows in conditions of pronounced relief can meet the requirements of gost, but only if the width of the plow is a multiple of the row spacing. when installing a swing-type support wheel and making the plow's gripping width a multiple of the row spacing, the uneven loading of the plow housings is not eliminated, which negatively affects the stability of the plow stroke in the horizontal plane, the rotation of the formation, the sealing of plant residues and the alignment of the field surface. the issues of the influence of terrain on the performance of two-tier plows have not been studied. therefore, the establishment of patterns of changes in the quality of plowing and the energy intensity of two-tier plowing depending on the relief of the cotton field, the improvement of technologies and, accordingly, two-tier plows are urgent tasks of practical importance. one of the main features of the cotton field of the field is the presence of cotton stems. therefore, the timing and quality of plowing cotton soils mainly depend on the timely harvesting of cotton stems after harvesting raw cotton. 99 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us both temirov and others [18] note that soil preparation for cotton sowing, which is widespread in all areas of the united states, begins with crushing and plowing cotton stalks into the soil. when filling the soil with cotton stalks, cotton yield increases on average over three years when plowing 5 t/ha of stems by 39.9%, 10 t/ha – by 48% and 15 t/ha – by 68%. therefore, it is advisable to plow the stems as fertilizer. in this regard, the latest technology of harvesting cotton stems is currently widely used, since fields infected with wilt make up an insignificant part of the acreage allocated for cotton in the republic of uzbekistan [18]. for crushing cotton stems with and without extraction of the root system, the industry produces uprooting grinders kir-1.5, ki-1.2, kiv-4, etc. however, firstly, state farms and collective farms are not provided with a sufficient number of such machines, and secondly, they are energy-intensive and metal-intensive. in addition, when using them, the number of tractor passes through the field increases, which leads to excessive soil compaction and additional costs. in connection with the above, currently many farms produce plowing of cotton stalks with twotier plows without grinding them. at the same time, the stems are poorly embedded in the soil and lead to frequent clogging of the plow, which significantly reduces the productivity of arable units. in the spring, uncultivated cotton stalks are harvested by various means – harrows and other homemade tools. some of the cotton stems, embedded shallowly, do not have time to decompose during the winter period, which sharply worsens the quality of all subsequent work. employees of the scientific research institute of agricultural mechanization of uzbekistan believe [18] that the reason for the unsatisfactory operation of plows in fields with uncollected husks is the discrepancy between the width of the body and the width of the aisle. the width of the bodies with a two-tier plow is 35 cm, as a result of which, when plowing fields with a row spacing of 60 and 90 cm, the ridges and edges fall either on the toe, or on the middle, or on the end (heel) of the plowshare. and temirov et al. [18] note that the deep sealing of the husk and the weeds located on the ridge of the rows are sealed when they fall on the heel of the ploughshare of the upper body. at the same time, the number of clogs decreases. when the plowshare hits the toe, the sealing depth is minimal, and the plow is often clogged, recommends that in the future the body width should be 30 cm, as the largest divider in relation to the width of the aisle. the scientific research institute of agricultural mechanization of uzbekistan [19] has developed a pdn-6-30 semi-mounted plow for the promising t-250 class 5 tractor. the disadvantage of plows with a working width of 30 cm is that when plowing fields with a row spacing of 90 cm, their bodies will be loaded unevenly due to the uneven terrain of the field. at the same time, the quality indicators of the plow deteriorate. in addition, with a high density and height of the stems, they will become clogged. a screw cutting machine was developed at the tashkent institute of irrigation and agricultural mechanization engineers [19] to grind cotton stalks during plowing. it was hung in front of the tractor of the arable unit. when the tractor was moving, screw cutting knives cut the stems in three tiers. at the same time, the average length of the crushed stems is 23.4-31.3 cm, and the maximum length is 29.0-40.0 cm [19]. it was found that at a speed of 1.2-2.0 m/s, the rotational speed of the screw cutting knives should be 300-700 min-1. at the same time, the required power on the chopper drive is 1.5 kw with a two-tier version of 2.0 kw with a three-tier version of the chopper. the results of field tests showed that the screw cutting machine does not meet the agrotechnical requirements for shredders of cotton stems. the main disadvantages of a screw cutting machine for grinding cotton stalks are: poor grinding quality, heterogeneity of the fractional composition of the crushed mass, the inability to adjust the degree of grinding. the research results [19] prove the effectiveness of combining two operations – basic tillage and crushing of cotton stems. at the same time, the timing of plowing is accelerated, higher quality 100 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of tillage is ensured, the productivity of the arable unit increases, the number of tractor passes through the field decreases and fuel consumption and other means are reduced. therefore, the development and research of combined arable units that simultaneously perform plowing and crushing of stems on the basis of advanced plows is an urgent task. one characteristic feature of soil cultivation in the southern zone of uzbekistan is the formation of large blocks. in the cotton growing zone, soil cultivation is carried out in july-august from under grain crops, and in november-december from under cotton. during this period, the topsoil compacted by tractors and harvesters is severely desiccated. the moisture content of the upper layer is reduced to 5%, and the hardness is up to 11.8 mpa [20]. therefore, when processing soils prone to clumping, plowing turns out to be coarse-clumped. precipitation in winter and early spring periods on such soil evaporates quickly. to prepare such soils for sowing, it is necessary to carry out 10-12 additional operations or watering before plowing. to improve the quality of soil crumbling, m halilov [20] recommends preliminary loosening of the upper layer with a milling cutter to a depth of no more than 15-17 cm before plowing. at the same time, the degree of soil crumbling increases by 2-3 times, and the energy intensity of tillage increases by 5.6 wh/m3. due to the high energy intensity, low productivity and complexity of the milling cutter design, this technology has not been used in production. conclusion. based on the analysis of technologies and technical means for the main tillage of the cotton-growing zone. it was found that improving the quality and stability of the technological process, reducing energy and labor costs when processing soils with low humidity can be achieved by developing a combined tillage tool, the working bodies of which would loosen the topsoil and plow in one pass. in such a combined unit, the working organs of passive and active action, should be optimally combined. references 1. mamatov f., kodirov u. energy-resourse saving machine for preparing soil for planting root crops on ridges // european science review, 125-1262016. 2. mamatov f, mirzaev b, toshtemirov s, hamroyev o, razzaqov t. study on the development of a machine to prepare the soil for cotton sowing on ridges// iop conference series: earth and environmental science 939 (1), 0120642021 3. маматов ф, файзуллаев х, эргашев и, мирзаев б. определение тягового сопротивления почвоуглубителя с наклонной стойкой// международная агроинженерия 42, 2012. 4. lobachevskij j, mamatov f, jergashev i. frontal’nyj plug dlja hlopkovodstva// hlopok 6, 35-37. 1991. 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university, madhubani, bihar, india muktidev singh research scholar, department of civil engineering, sandip university, madhubani, bihar, india abstract: self-compacting concrete (scc) is a unique type of concrete that possesses the remarkable ability to be effortlessly placed within formwork without requiring external compaction through vibration. introduced in japan in 1988, scc has rapidly gained widespread recognition and acceptance in japan, europe, and the usa, primarily due to its numerous inherent advantages. the utilization of scc yields enhanced concrete quality, particularly in structural elements with complex reinforcement arrangements or areas where reducing permeability and improving concrete durability are crucial. scc's most notable feature is its ability to flow freely and effortlessly into intricate formwork, thanks to its exceptional workability. this self-leveling property is achieved by incorporating specifically designed chemical admixtures that improve fluidity and cohesiveness without compromising the concrete's stability. unlike conventional concrete, scc eliminates the need for compaction through mechanical vibration, significantly reducing labor and time requirements during construction. the application of scc is particularly advantageous in scenarios where reinforcing bars are densely packed or congested within the concrete element. conventional concrete often struggles to fill such areas effectively, resulting in voids or inadequate compaction, compromising the structural integrity. in contrast, scc's exceptional flowability ensures complete filling, resulting in a uniform and robust concrete matrix, effectively enhancing the overall quality and strength of the structure. furthermore, scc exhibits improved durability characteristics, contributing to its widespread adoption. the reduction in permeability achieved by scc results in decreased water and chemical ingress, minimizing the likelihood of deterioration caused by corrosion or other chemical reactions. this enhanced durability extends the service life of structures, reducing the need for costly repairs and maintenance. keywords: self compacting concrete (scc), workability, reinforcement congestion, durability, permeability. 1. introduction cement-based materials hold great significance as they are the most abundant and vital construction materials, and their importance is expected to persist in the future. however, these materials face new and elevated demands in terms of productivity, economy, quality, and environmental considerations. they must compete with alternative construction materials like plastic, steel, and wood. in response to these challenges, one notable development is the 10 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us emergence of self-compacting concrete (scc), a modified product that can flow and consolidate under its own weight without requiring additional compaction energy. self-compacting concrete, as the name suggests, is a type of concrete that can compact itself, eliminating the need for additional compaction efforts. the introduction of scc has been highly desirable in the construction industry, as it helps overcome various issues associated with cast-in-place concrete. one key advantage of scc is that it is not reliant on the skills of workers, the configuration and quantity of reinforcing bars, or the arrangement of the structure. additionally, its high fluidity and resistance to segregation enable it to be pumped over longer distances, expanding its range of applications (bartos, 2000). 2. background of self compacting concrete (scc) while it is true that concrete structures have been constructed without the use of vibration in certain cases, such as underwater placement using tremie methods, mass concrete, and shaft concrete, these examples generally involve lower-strength concrete and pose challenges in achieving consistent and reliable quality. the advent of modern self-compacting concrete (scc) has focused on addressing these limitations and aiming for high-performance concrete with improved uniformity and reliability. the concept of self-compacting concrete is not entirely new. early versions of self-compacting concrete relied on high proportions of cement paste, and with the introduction of superplasticizers, they were incorporated into concrete mixes. however, these mixes required specialized and carefully controlled placement methods to prevent segregation, and the high cement paste content made them susceptible to shrinkage. figure 1: basic principles for the production of scc (dehn et al., 2000) 3. advantages of self compacting concrete (scc) self-compacting concrete (scc) can be considered as one of the most groundbreaking advancements in concrete construction in recent decades. initially developed to address the shortage of skilled labor, it has proven to be economically beneficial for several reasons, as outlined below (krieg, 2003 and enfarc, 2002).  accelerated construction  manpower reduction  ease of placement  uniform consolidation 11 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  enhanced surface finishes  improved durability  increased bond strength  design flexibility  reduced noise levels  safe working environment 4. recycling of waste concrete aggregates concrete recycling has become increasingly popular as a method of utilizing rubble when structures made of concrete are demolished or renovated. in the past, concrete was often sent to landfills for disposal, but recycling offers several benefits that make it a more attractive option in today's environmentally conscious era, with stricter environmental regulations and a focus on cost reduction in construction. the process of concrete recycling involves crushing the concrete aggregate obtained from demolition sites using specialized crushing machines. these facilities only accept uncontaminated concrete, which means it must be free from materials such as trash, wood, paper, and other contaminants. however, metals like rebar are accepted since they can be separated using magnets and other sorting devices and then melted down for recycling purposes elsewhere. the remaining chunks of aggregate are then sorted based on size, and larger pieces may undergo another round of crushing if needed. once the crushing process is complete, additional particulates are filtered out using various techniques, including manual picking and water flotation. by recycling concrete, several advantages are realized. firstly, it helps to reduce the burden on landfills and promotes sustainability by reusing materials. additionally, concrete recycling minimizes the extraction and consumption of natural resources required for producing new concrete. it also contributes to cost savings in construction projects, as recycled concrete can be used as a substitute for new aggregates. furthermore, recycling concrete helps to lower carbon emissions associated with transportation and manufacturing processes. in summary, concrete recycling has gained popularity due to its ability to utilize demolished or renovated concrete structures effectively. by crushing and sorting the concrete aggregate, contaminants are removed, and the recycled material can be used in various construction applications. this approach aligns with environmental goals, adheres to regulations, and offers cost-effective solutions in the construction industry. 5. literature review this section presents a comprehensive overview of the research conducted on the testing of selfcompacting concrete using different cementitious materials and admixtures. it discusses the extensive work carried out by various researchers in the field of self-compacting concrete, with a primary emphasis on the durability aspects of scc. gesoglu et al.(2015) the experimental study yielded the following conclusions: (i) the incorporation of recycled concrete aggregates (rca) and/or recycled fine aggregates (rfa) led to an increase in chloride-ion permeability in self-compacting concretes (sccs) due to their highly permeable and porous structure. series ii mixes demonstrated better resistance to chloride ingress compared to series iii mixes, and the negative impact of recycled aggregates on chloride ion permeability diminished when the water-to-binder (w/b) ratio was decreased and supplementary cementitious materials (such as silica fume) were added. (ii) sccs incorporating rcas and/or rfas exhibited higher sorptivity coefficient values, indicating increased capillarity due to larger mean pore size and total porosity in the concrete containing recycled aggregates. (iii) the scc mix with a combination of 43% rca, 100% rfa, and 100% silica fume (denoted as mix 0.43rca100rfa100sf0) demonstrated the highest gas permeability coefficient of 8.82 × 10^(-16) m². the increased gas permeability can be attributed to the addition of recycled aggregates, which resulted in an augmented pore structure within the concrete. 12 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us archbold et al.(2016) there is a growing demand for substituting virgin materials in the production of construction materials on a large scale, driven by environmental concerns regarding traditional production methods and waste disposal. to address these concerns, using recycled materials in concrete production has emerged as a viable approach to simultaneously meet these demands and reduce landfill waste. this study focuses on the preliminary testing of two types of waste ceramics: ceramic foundry casts and ceramic waste sludge. these ceramics were examined as partial replacements for both the cementitious material and fine aggregates in self-compacting concrete. the assessment involved evaluating properties such as rheology, compressive strength, and durability. the study compared the impact of this partial replacement with findings from similar studies. the results align with previously published values and suggest that these waste ceramics have potential for further investigation and utilization. they indicate that incorporating ceramic materials in self-compacting concrete can enhance durability and maintain satisfactory compressive strength. however, it should be noted that the addition of ceramic materials reduces the passing and filling ability of the self-compacting concrete mix. hadadi et al.(2018) to overcome the challenge of natural aggregate availability, various alternatives are being explored. these include manufactured aggregates, quarry waste, crushed sandstone aggregates, recycled materials from construction and demolition waste, copper slag, crushed sand from different mineral sources, and waste aggregates from marble and granite, among others. research studies have shown that these waste or by-products can be utilized as partial replacements for river sand in concrete production. fly ash, a waste product from the coal industry with pozzolanic properties, is particularly recommended as a cement replacement material for environmentally-friendly initiatives. this paper presents the results of laboratory investigations on self-compacting concrete (scc) following the guidelines set by the european federation of national associations representing concrete (efnarc). the study focuses on using processed slag sand (pss) as a complete replacement for fine aggregates and class c fly ash as a partial replacement for cement. the results of flow, strength, and durability tests for this innovative scc formulation were found to be highly satisfactory when compared to the control concrete. prakash et al.(2018) the results demonstrate that incorporating recycled concrete aggregates (rca) as a partial replacement for coarse aggregate allows for the production of sustainable concrete. the self-compacting concrete (scc) containing rca achieved the target strength and complied with the efnarc specifications. however, an increase in the amount of rca replacement led to a reduction in the strength properties of scc at all curing ages, although the optimal results were observed at a replacement level of 20-25%. carbonation testing revealed a decrease in carbonation depth with higher percentages of rca. the water absorption and sorptivity of scc with rca were higher compared to conventional scc. however, the ultrasonic pulse velocity (upv) test indicated that the quality of concrete was not significantly affected by the use of rca as a coarse aggregate. it should be noted that scc with rca is not recommended for marine environments due to its higher susceptibility to chloride ion permeation compared to conventional scc. nili et al.(2019) the research conducted in this study yielded several noteworthy results: (1) the use of recycled aggregates in concrete led to a decrease in slump flow, but this reduction could be mitigated by incorporating higher amounts of superplasticizer. furthermore, self-compacting recycled concrete demonstrated acceptable passing ability in the j-ring test. (2) replacing recycled aggregates in mixtures with an air-entraining admixture resulted in a reduction in compressive strength, although there was no significant impact on splitting tensile strength. (3) complete replacement of coarse recycled concrete aggregates did not adversely affect the compressive and tensile strength of silica fume mixtures. however, the incorporation of fine recycled aggregates had a negative influence on the compressive and tensile strength of the corresponding recycled aggregate concrete mixes. sasanipour et al.(2019) this study focused on enhancing the properties of self-compacting 13 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us concrete (scc) by incorporating silica fume as part of the cementitious materials. the scc was prepared using both fine and coarse recycled aggregates. three series of mixtures were created for experimentation. the first and second series involved the replacement of coarse recycled aggregates with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% replacements, with and without silica fume. in the third series, 25% of the fine recycled aggregates were substituted with fine natural aggregates. the fresh state properties of the scc were assessed using slump flow and j-ring tests. for hardened concrete, tests were conducted to evaluate compressive strength, water absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity, electrical resistivity, and chloride ion penetration. the results indicated that the addition of silica fume improved the fresh properties of scc. silica fume also contributed to a reduction in water absorption and porosity of the concrete. additionally, it significantly increased the electrical resistivity. however, the replacement of 25% of the recycled aggregates did not have a significant impact on electrical resistivity, whereas higher replacement levels led to a decrease in electrical resistivity. silica fume exhibited a strong ability to control chloride ion penetration and reduce the total charge passed through the concrete. barroqueiro et al.(2020) the primary aim of this research paper is to offer the industry a practical and straightforward method for managing and reusing rejected precast reinforced concrete elements through the utilization of recycled waste. this approach aims to minimize the consumption of natural resources in concrete production and significantly reduce the environmental impact associated with construction and demolition waste, as well as the extraction of natural aggregates. the study focuses on evaluating the feasibility of producing high-performance self-compacting concrete (scc) with reduced environmental impact by substituting natural aggregates with fine and coarse recycled aggregates obtained from the precast industry. the goal is to demonstrate that these recycled aggregates can be used in the industrial process without concerns about the expected durability performance. to achieve this, six different types of scc incorporating varying proportions of recycled aggregates were produced. tests were conducted to characterize the concrete's transport and degradation mechanisms, including water absorption, capillary water absorption, oxygen permeability, chloride migration, electrical resistivity, and carbonation. the results clearly indicate that despite the negative influence of recycled aggregates, it is still possible to produce high-performance scc with durability properties that meet acceptable standards. kapoor et al.(2020) this article presents an experimental investigation into the fresh and hardened properties of self compacting concrete (scc) incorporating recycled aggregates (ra). the study involves replacing natural coarse aggregates (nca) with recycled coarse aggregates (rca) at 0%, 50%, and 100% replacement levels, as well as replacing natural fine aggregates (nfa) with recycled fine aggregates (rfa) at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% replacement levels. additionally, fly ash (fa) partially substitutes portland cement (pc) by 30% weight to promote sustainable development. the main objective of this study is to assess the practical application of rca and rfa in scc mixes and evaluate their performance in both fresh and hardened states. workability tests such as the slump-flow test, t500 test, v-funnel test, and l-box test were conducted to examine the fresh properties of the different scc mixtures. the ultrasonic pulse velocity (upv) test was performed to assess the hardened state of all scc mixes, and the compression strength results are also presented in relation to the concrete's workability. the findings indicate that the substitution of rca and rfa for nca and nfa, respectively, reduces the workability properties of the concrete due to the higher water absorption and larger surface area of rca and rfa compared to nca and nfa, respectively. poongodi et al.(2021) this research focused on assessing the durability properties of selfcompacting concrete (scc) incorporating recycled aggregate for pavement applications. the study aimed to compare the performance of the developed scc mixture with that of normal pavement concrete through permeability, water absorption, and chloride penetration tests. three different replacement percentages of recycled concrete aggregates (rca) were considered: 20%, 40%, and 60%, in addition to the control concrete with no replacement (0%). a ternary blended concrete with ordinary portland cement (opc), fly ash, and silica fume was designed for 14 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us achieving a grade m40 level. the fresh properties of the concrete were evaluated using slump flow and v-funnel flow tests. the results demonstrated that the scc mixture containing up to 40% rca exhibited enhanced resistance to water absorption and chloride penetration compared to a similar mixture made with normal-weight concrete. kapoor et al.(2021) this paper examines the durability properties of self-consolidating concrete (scc) incorporating fine and coarse recycled concrete aggregates. the scc mixtures were prepared by substituting fine natural aggregates (fna) with fine recycled concrete aggregates (frca) at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% levels, while coarse natural aggregates (cna) were partially replaced (50%) with coarse recycled concrete aggregates (crca). to enhance durability, ordinary portland cement (opc) was blended with 30% fly ash (fa), further substituted with 10% metakaolin (mk). the durability parameters were evaluated through various tests, including initial surface absorption test (isat), water penetrability test, rapid chloride penetrability test (rcpt), and capillary suction test (cst). compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity (upv) tests were also conducted. the results indicated that the durability and compressive strength properties of the scc mixtures deteriorated with the replacement of both cna and fna. however, the addition of mk proved effective in maintaining the durability properties, with values comparable to the control mix even with 75% frca and 50% crca content. the compressive strength showed a 9.3% decrease with 100% frca and 50% crca content, but the presence of mk compensated for this, resulting in only a 4.5% drop. additionally, all scc mixtures containing crca, frca, and mk exhibited excellent upv values. panaite et al.(2022) this article presents an experimental study on self-compacting concrete (scc) that utilizes various percentages of recycled aggregates, aiming to achieve a sustainable and environmentally friendly construction material. ten different compositions of scc were prepared, with the main recipe determined through trial and error based on eurocode recommendations. the cement, limestone, and fine aggregates were replaced with different recycled materials, including fly ash, blast furnace slag, crumb rubber, and brick dust, as specified in table 1. the article focuses on analyzing the properties of scc incorporating these recycled materials. to enable a meaningful comparison between the ten recipes, no changes were made except for variations in water and superplasticizer quantities to account for the different absorption characteristics of the recycled materials. the water-to-cement (w/c) ratio ranged from 0.38 to 0.63, while the superplasticizer dosage varied from 0.8% to 1.3% of the cement content. changming et al.(2022) this paper presents a review of research investigating the impact of recycled fine aggregates (rfas) on various durability aspects of concrete, including permeability, drying shrinkage, carbonation, chloride ion penetration, acid resistance, and freezethaw resistance. the findings indicate that the durability of rfa concrete is influenced by factors such as the content of old mortar and the quality of the recycled concrete. for instance, the drying shrinkage of concrete with 100% rfa replacement is twice that of normal concrete, and the carbonation depth increases by approximately 110%. additionally, the durability of rfa concrete tends to decrease with higher rfa replacement rates and improved water-cement ratios. however, the incorporation of zeolite materials like fly ash, silica fume, and metakaolin as surface coatings for rfas or as external admixtures for rfa concrete demonstrates positive effects on enhancing durability. kumar et al.(2023) the incorporation of manufactured sand in concrete brings several advantageous effects to its overall performance. both m40 and m50 grade concretes show a significant reduction in water absorption when manufactured sand is used, compared to conventional sand concrete. this reduction is achieved by employing a lower water-binder ratio, resulting in impermeable concrete with enhanced resistance to water penetration. additionally, the inclusion of manufactured sand leads to a decrease in chloride ion penetrability, indicating improved durability and lower permeability of the concrete. another benefit is the increased resistance to acid and alkaline attacks, resulting in reduced weight loss compared to traditional 15 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sand concrete. moreover, concrete mixes incorporating synthetic sand demonstrate enhanced resilience against impact and abrasion, making them more durable in challenging conditions. overall, the utilization of manufactured sand has a positive impact on various aspects of concrete performance. hathiram et al.(2023) in developing nations, where population growth is rapidly increasing, achieving a strong economy and a pollution-free environment in the construction industry are crucial to meet the diverse human needs. to fulfill the demand for aggregates, utilizing waste materials in the production of a new type of concrete has become essential. industrial waste and demolition waste are the primary sources of these waste materials. recycling, reusing, and exchanging this waste material offer an effective and appropriate solution. this research focuses on exploring the desirable characteristics of recycled aggregate concrete. the experiments conducted evaluate the split tensile strength of concrete at different ages, specifically 7 and 28 days. workability properties of the concrete mix are assessed through flow tests. the study includes experiments on various mixes of self-compacting concrete, including one with fresh coarse and fine aggregates, and others with different proportions of recycled fine aggregates (15%, 30%, 45%, 60%, 75%, 90%, and 100%). the design mix proportion follows the m25 standard, with a proportion of 1:1:2 for self-compacting concrete. kumar et al.(2023) in an experimental investigation focusing on bituminous mixes, specifically stone matrix asphalt (sma) and bituminous concrete (bc), several significant findings were observed. the fillers used in bituminous concrete (bc), including cement, fly ash, and stone dust, met the required specifications, highlighting their suitability for use. bc with cement filler demonstrated the highest stability, while alternatives like fly ash and stone dust fillers proved to be viable and cost-effective options. the addition of fibers up to 0.3% improved the stability of bc, although further incorporation of fibers did not yield significant enhancements compared to sma. the incorporation of fibers led to a decrease in the flow value of bc, but interestingly, the addition of 0.5% fibers resulted in an increase in the flow value. sma showed superior tensile strength compared to bc, and the inclusion of fibers reduced deformation in both types of mixes. notably, sma with sisal fiber exhibited excellent performance for flexible pavement applications, indicating its potential in various construction projects. gandhi et al.(2023) this study examined the possibility of substituting recycled concrete aggregates (rca) in different proportions (0%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) in self-compacting concrete (scc) mixes. the scc mixes incorporated pva fibers and supplementary cementitious materials (scms) such as nano-silica (ns), fly ash (fa), and metakaolin (mk). the research focused on evaluating the flexural behavior of scc beams, including load-carrying capacity, crack pattern, mid-span deflection, and flexural stiffness, as well as assessing the fresh properties (slump flow, v-funnel, and l-box test) and hardened properties (compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and flexural strength). the results indicated that it is indeed feasible to produce scc with a complete replacement of rca, with minimal alterations to the concrete characteristics. the optimal combination, meeting the efnarc requirements and exhibiting good fresh qualities, consisted of scc with 100% rca replacement, 20% mk, and 22% fa. although the compressive strength decreased by 8.20% with 100% rca substitution, the maximum load and flexural stiffness increased by 3.20% and 16.25%, respectively. 6. summary this investigation report focuses on the durability properties of self-compacting concrete (scc) that incorporates recycled fine aggregates (rfa). the study aims to assess the potential of using rfas as a sustainable alternative in concrete production. various durability parameters were evaluated, including permeability, water absorption, carbonation, chloride ion penetration, acid resistance, and freeze-thaw resistance. the results indicate that the durability of scc made with rfas is influenced by factors such as the content of old mortar and the quality of the recycled concrete. it was observed that the drying shrinkage of the concrete with 100% rfa replacement was twice that of normal concrete, and the carbonation depth increased significantly. the 16 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us durability of the rfa concrete also deteriorated with increasing rfa content and water-cement ratio. however, the introduction of zeolite materials like fly ash, silica fume, and metakaolin as surface coatings or external admixtures showed positive effects on durability. the findings suggest that careful consideration should be given to the quality and content of rfas when using them in scc production. overall, this investigation highlights the potential for utilizing rfas in scc while emphasizing the importance of incorporating appropriate supplementary materials to enhance the durability performance of the concrete. references 1. gesoglu, mehmet & güneyisi, erhan & oz, hatice & yasemin, m.taner & taha, ihsan. (2015). durability and shrinkage characteristics of self-compacting concretes containing recycled coarse and/or fine aggregates. advances in materials science and engineering. 2015. 1-18. 10.1155/2015/278296. 2. archbold, paul & flattery, john. (2016). waste ceramics as partial cement and aggregate replacements in self-compacting concrete. 3. hadadi, vageesh & c p, ramesh & raghavendra, t. & udayashankar, bisalahalli & shashishankar, a.. (2018). engineering properties of self-compacting concrete containing class c fly ash and processed slag sand. 10.1007/978-3-030-01932-7_18. 4. prakash, t & natarajan, m & thiyagarajan, senthil vadivel & karthik, v. (2018). durability behavior of self compacting concrete made with recycled concrete aggregate. 7. 16-21. 5. nili, mahmoud & sasanipour, hossein & aslani, farhad. 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of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the rise of ai in content management: reimagining intelligent workflows ravi kiran kandepu independent researcher, buffalow grove, il, usa alaxander harry independent researcher, fremont, ca, usa abstract as content management systems (cms) become indispensable for managing digital experiences, ai integration promises to bring new levels of automation and intelligence to streamline workflows. this paper surveys how ai techniques like machine learning, natural language processing, computer vision, and knowledge graphs are transforming cms capabilities across the content lifecycle. we analyze key use cases like automated metadata tagging, natural language generation, smart recommendations, predictive search, personalized experiences, and conversational interfaces. the benefits include enhanced content discoverability, accelerated creation, improved optimization, simplified governance, and amplified team productivity. however, adoption remains low due to challenges like opaque ai, poor workflow integration, unrealistic expectations, bias risks, and skills gaps. strategic priorities include starting with focused pilots, evaluating multiple ai approaches, emphasizing transparent and fair ai models, and upskilling teams. benefits are maximized through hybrid human-ai collaboration vs full automation. while ai integration is maturing, the outlook is cautiously optimistic. leading cms platforms are accelerating development of no-code ai tools. but mainstream adoption may take 2-5 years as skills and best practices evolve around transparent and ethical ai. wise data practices, change management, and participatory design will be key. if implemented thoughtfully, ai can reimagine workflows by expanding human creativity, not replacing it. the future points to creative synergies between empowered users and ai assistants. but pragmatic pilots, continuous improvement, and participatory strategies are necessary to navigate the hype and deliver value. the promise warrants measured experimentation. keywords: ai, content management, iot,ml,cms,filenet introduction content management systems (cms) have become indispensable for organizations to manage digital experiences across websites, mobile apps, and other touchpoints. cms platforms must adapt to deliver relevant experiences amidst information overload as the volume and variety of online content increase thanks to social media, iot, and other sources. this has fueled the rapid adoption of artificial intelligence (ai) techniques that promise to bring new levels of automation, insights, and intelligence to streamline content workflows. this paper provides a comprehensive survey of how ai capabilities are transforming content management across key stages of the 79 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us content lifecycle. we analyze use cases, benefits, limitations, and best practices for ai integration based on academic research and industry adoption. the survey covers the state of play in leveraging machine learning, natural language processing, data mining, knowledge graphs, computer vision, and other techniques to add intelligence to content management. our analysis suggests that while ai integration in cms is still maturing, rapid advances in predictive analytics, natural language generation, personalization, multilingual content, and other capabilities are demonstrating tangible value. at the same time, we find that more open, explainable, and collaborative ai development models will be critical for wider adoption across the content ecosystem. the outlook promises exciting possibilities for ai and humans to co-create synergistic content workflows but requires thoughtful design, transparent ai, and updated skills. emerging ai techniques for intelligent content workflows: recent years have seen accelerated innovation in artificial intelligence algorithms and models to solve diverse challenges. here we provide an overview of key techniques with applications in intelligent content management. machine learning for content analytics and discovery: machine learning is a subset of ai that enables computers to learn from data without explicit programming. machine learning algorithms detect patterns in data to build predictive models. as content management systems ingest more visitor and content data, machine learning powers insightful analytics to optimize experiences. supervised learning algorithms like regression and neural networks require training datasets with input features and labeled outputs. common cms applications include predictive search, automated tagging, sentiment analysis, and visitor segmentation. for example, buzzsumo uses ai to analyze content performance and make recommendations for optimization. unsupervised learning methods like clustering analyze unlabeled datasets to discover inherent structures. these techniques help uncover hidden user personas, content categories, and other data-driven insights from cms content and traffic. for instance, semantic clustering tools like sensei suggest content topics and relationships to boost discovery. reinforcement learning optimizes recommendations and personalization in cms by taking actions in dynamic environments to maximize rewards. applications include adaptive learning to recommend the best next steps for users to improve their cms skills. contentful and others now provide intuitive machine learning interfaces, so marketers can build ml-powered apps without coding. natural language processing for intelligent text analytics natural language processing (nlp) enables computers to process, interpret, and generate textual content. with vast troves of unstructured content in cms, nlp powers a range of intelligence applications. language modeling using neural networks analyzes word usage patterns to generate human-like text. cms providers like wrike and atomic reach leverage large language models like gpt-3 to create content briefs and drafts. sentiment, intent, and emotion analysis tools classify text across spectra from positive to negative sentiment or different emotional states. this provides emotional intelligence for personalized content. semantic analysis extracts meanings and relationships from text through pos tagging, named entity recognition, concept extraction, and embedding algorithms. automated semantic metadata improves cms discoverability and relationships. 80 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us summarization and simplification algorithms identify key textual information for abstraction. this allows generating summaries, snippets, and translations to optimize content for different experiences. conversational interfaces enable textor voice-based interactions with cognitive services. chatbots, virtual assistants, and voice interfaces powered by nlp simplify search, content creation, and governance. computer vision for intelligent media processing: computer vision replicates human visual perception to analyze images, videos, and other multimedia. cms platforms are applying computer vision across the content lifecycle. object detection and image classification tools can automatically identify, label, and categorize images and videos based on their visual features. this automates media metadata generation for smarter workflows. facial recognition, pose estimation, and scene understanding provide contextual cues to personalize experiences and assist users. for example, automatically tagging people in images to aid with approvals image captioning and alt-text generation tools create text descriptions of images using computer vision and nlp. this improves media accessibility across channels. video summarization algorithms identify key frames and segments to auto-generate short video previews. this allows curators to curate teasers to promote video assets and improve engagement. generative ai to automate personalized content: generative ai models create entirely new content from inputs. two approaches show promise for cms content automation:nlg algorithms generate natural language text from data inputs, outlines, or briefs. gpt-3 and tools like articoolo, phrazor, and ink auto-create content drafts, including reports, emails, web copy, and social posts. generative media models like dall-e 2 and stable diffusion create images, art, 3d models, and videos from text prompts and parameters. these can help create engaging visual content. cms platforms are exploring opportunities to use generative ai to automate repetitive, template-driven content creation tasks at scale across languages. this can amplify human creativity exponentially. knowledge graphs to model content and users: knowledge graphs represent interconnected entities, attributes, and relationships in content, users, and context as nodes and edges in a graph. cms platforms leverage knowledge graphs for intelligence. content knowledge graphs analyze metadata, semantics, entities, and user data to model contextual content relationships. this powers relevant recommendations and insights. visitor knowledge graphs create an audience graph representing user interests, engagement, and segmentation. these drive personalized content targeting and predictive analytics. conversational knowledge graphs optimize chatbot interactions by mapping conversations to relevant content relationships to assist users. master data management platforms like infoplus.ai even use knowledge graphs to connect siloed cms installations for single views of content and customers. ai in the content lifecycle: key use cases and value 81 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the survey indicates the growing integration of ai techniques throughout the content lifecycle on cms platforms. 1. ideation: generative writing and multimedia tools create draft ideas and concepts to kickstart creative thinking. 2. creation: intelligent assistants like natural language generation, voice-to-text, and predictive typing automate drafting routine content faster. vision and language ai curate media assets. 3. enrichment: automated tagging, metadata generation, and translation powered by machine learning and nlp ensure content is intelligent, discoverable, and global-ready. 4. collaboration: smart workflows, chatbots, and co-creation tools improve cross-team coordination to optimize content sharing and review. 5. optimization: predictive analytics with machine learning provides data-driven insights to optimize content performance across metrics and visitors. 6. syndication: automatic localization and content adaptation tools deliver tailored multilingual experiences across markets and platforms. 7. recommendation: ai algorithms provide personalized recommendations to optimize engagement with the most relevant content for each user. 8. governance: ai adds automation for policy compliance, brand safety, reuse tracking, data privacy, and rights management across the content lifecycle. 9. conversational interfaces: chatbots, voice, and interactive content leverage nlp to simplify search, creation, publishing, analytics, and governance via natural dialog. 10. personalization: user understanding with ai algorithms enables tailored content experiences, journeys, recommendations, and creatives for each visitor segment. 11. experimentation: continual ai/ml optimization of content variations improves engagement, conversion, and experience metrics through multivariate testing. for content teams, these emerging ai capabilities promise to amplify productivity, creativity, reuse, personalization, and performance. cms platforms augment human skills with automated intelligence spanning content ideation to optimization. challenges and considerations for effective ai integration: however, multiple surveys indicate skepticism and slow adoption of ai among many cms users. our analysis highlights key issues to address to improve ai's effectiveness: 1. lack of user trust: non-transparent ai can make questionable decisions, undermining trust. explainable ai and governance are essential. 2. poor integration: fragmented workflows from one-off ai tools lead to a lack of adoption. ai should be woven into existing cms solutions. 3. unclear metrics: measuring roi on ai and content performance improvement is difficult. aligning ai with strategic goals and outcomes is critical. 4. overpromising vendors: marketing hype around ai capabilities often does not match real-world accuracy and nuances. pragmatic piloting is advised. 5. data constraints: training robust ai requires significant structured data. legacy content often lacks usable data. judicious datasets and models are key. 6. skill gaps: many users lack ai literacy to map workflows and leverage outputs. change management and training are imperative. 7. bias risks: ai models can perpetuate societal biases based on data. continual audits for brand safety, with human oversight, are important. 82 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 8. job disruption fears: concerns about ai automation's impact on content jobs can hinder adoption. positioning ai as an augmenting partner is important. the barriers highlight the need for transparent and ethical ai approaches that focus less on full automation and more on hybrid workflows. human-centered design, domain expertise, user education, and wise data practices can lead to responsible and useful ai integration. strategic priorities to realize cms intelligence goals: our analysis suggests the following emerging priorities for cms providers and users to effectively chart their ai journeys: 1. start with focused use cases that offer quick wins, clear metrics, and reuse potential across content types. for example, automated metadata enhancement for optimized discovery 2. evaluate multiple ai approaches beyond just machine learning, including knowledge graphs, nlg, and neuro-linguistic models, for capabilities beyond predictions. 3. give users' ability to understand and analyze the workings of ai models that are transparent and interpretable a priority. build trust through credibility. 4. use responsible data practices around informed consent, anonymization, testing for bias, and monitoring model performance for accuracy. 5. focus on hybrid workflows that maximize the strengths of both ai tools and human creators for the right balance of automation vs. creativity. 6. build intuitive interfaces through human-centered design so that ai feels like a natural extension of existing cms solutions rather than a bolted-on tool. 7. invest in change management and training to successfully integrate ai-powered roles, content processes, and governance. 8. continually assess ai's impact on workflows, productivity, personalization, and content roi using clear key performance indicators tied to business objectives. 9. participate in industry coalitions like the partnership on ai to collectively pioneer best practices in ethical and transparent ai design, development, and integration. with a strategic roadmap centered on transparent ai, purposeful data, hybrid collaboration, change management, and user experience, cms platforms can make steady progress on delivering intelligent workflows. the outlook for ai in cms: cautious optimism our survey indicates that ai integration in cms, while still evolving, demonstrates tangible promise in transforming content workflows to be more creative, predictive, automated, and personalized. cms providers are accelerating their ai capabilities, spanning generative writing, smart recommendations, automated metadata, predictive discovery, and more. leading platforms like hubspot, contentful, and kentico are launching no-code ai tools, interfaces, and apps to simplify adoption. however, analyst predictions suggest mainstream ai adoption in cms will take 2–5 years as technologies standardize, skills evolve, and best practices emerge around transparent ai. recent surveys underline the need for more maturity. per an ing survey, only 15% of 83 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us marketing teams use ai today, citing data quality, skill gaps, and meeting roi as top challenges. and a demandbase study found that less than 25% of b2b organizations are currently implementing ai. key recommendations for cms success include starting with well-scoped pilots, focusing on augmenting workflows rather than full automation, and emphasizing transparent and fair ai principles to build user trust in the long run. with thoughtful implementation, ai can reimagine content workflows by amplifying human creativity exponentially, not replacing it. as ai research advances, cms systems need to prioritize designing intelligent experiences over just optimizing metrics. the outlook suggests cautious optimism. while ai has great potential to add intelligence across the content lifecycle, realizing the promise requires updated strategies, data practices, and skill building within content and technology teams. the future points to creative collaboration between empowered users and ai tools to unlock productivity, personalization, and performance. but prudent pilots and continual improvement will be key to navigating the hype, managing change, and delivering value. by taking an ethical and user-centered approach, cms providers and partners can progressively build the next generation of intelligent workflows. conclusion: our survey provides a comprehensive landscape of how ai is transforming content management workflows spanning content ideation, creation, optimization, and analytics. we find accelerated innovation in machine learning, natural language processing, computer vision, and knowledge graphs promising to make cms platforms smarter and content workflows more predictive and personalized. however, thoughtful approaches based on transparent ai development, hybrid human-ai collaboration, change management, skill building, and user experience will be critical to successfully navigating adoption challenges. strategic pilots, clear success metrics, and participatory design can drive more open and responsible ai integration. while there is hype, ai's potential to enhance workflows and amplify human creativity makes the outlook promising. but realizing the full possibilities requires updated, collaborative strategies between users, cms providers, and ai partners to create next-generation intelligent content experiences. references: 1. chakraborty, r., lee, j., bagchi-sen, s., upadhyaya, s., & raghav rao, h. 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[online]. available: https://cajmtcs.centralasianstudies.org/index.php/cajmtcs/article/view/492. 18. a. r. kunduru, "cloud bpm application (appian) robotic process automation capabilities," asian journal of research in computer science, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 267280, aug. 2023. doi: 10.9734/ajrcos/2023/v16i3361. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/artificial-intelligence/notes-from-the-ai-frontier-applications-and-value-of-deep-learning https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/artificial-intelligence/notes-from-the-ai-frontier-applications-and-value-of-deep-learning https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/artificial-intelligence/notes-from-the-ai-frontier-applications-and-value-of-deep-learning 85 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 19. a. r. kunduru, “machine learning in drug discovery: a comprehensive analysis of applications, challenges, and future directions”, international journal on orange technologies, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 29-37, aug. 2023. 20. arjun reddy kunduru, “from data entry to intelligence: artificial intelligence’s impact on financial system workflows”, international journal on orange technologies, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 38-45, aug. 2023. 21. arjun reddy kunduru, “the inevitability of cloud-based case management for regulated enterprises”, international journal of discoveries and innovations in applied sciences, vol. 3, no. 8, pp. 13–18, aug. 2023. 22. arjun reddy kunduru, “healthcare erp project success: it’s all about avoiding missteps”, central asian journal of theoretical and applied science, vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 130-134, aug. 2023. 23. a. r. kunduru, “data conversion strategies for erp implementation projects”, central asian journal of mathematical theory and computer sciences, vol. 4, no. 9, pp. 1-6, sep. 2023. 24. arjun reddy kunduru, “the perils and defenses of enterprise cloud computing: a comprehensive review”, central asian journal of mathematical theory and computer sciences, vol. 4, no. 9, pp. 2941, sep. 2023. 25. arjun reddy kunduru, “maximizing business value with integrated iot and cloud erp systems”, int jour of innovative analyses and emerging technology, vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 1–8, sep. 2023. 26. arjun reddy kunduru, “blockchain technology for erp systems: a review”, american journal of engineering mechanics and architecture, vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 56–63, sep. 2023. 27. jarrahi, m. h. (2018). artificial intelligence and the future of work: human-ai symbiosis in organizational decision making. business horizons, 61(4), 577-586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2018.03.007 . 28. makridakis, s. (2017). the forthcoming artificial intelligence (ai) revolution: its impact on society and firms. futures, 90, 46-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2017.03.006. 29. rai, a., constantinides, p., & sarker, s. (2019). next-generation digital platforms: toward human–ai hybrids. mis quarterly, 43(1), iii-ix. https://doi.org/10.25300/misq/2019/43:1.03. 30. jarrahi, m. h. (2018). artificial intelligence and the future of work: human-ai symbiosis in organizational decision making. business horizons, 61(4), 577-586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2018.03.007. http://grnjournal.us/index.php/ajema/index 278 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the use of disc chisels in surface treatment between garden rows d. b. irgashev, o. sh. hamarayev institute of engineering and economics abstract: in the article, the improvement of the level of soil compaction and the loss of plant residues was determined in the experimental tests, when using toothed chisels for surface treatment after the main cultivation between the garden and vineyard rows, compared to traditional cultivators. a theoretical analysis of the geometric dimensions of disk chisels for surface treatment with minimal energy consumption and fulfilling agrotechnical requirements was presented. different types of disks were analyzed in the analysis. keywords: basic soil cultivation, disk, combination, parametersi, problem, stability, elements. introduction the working bodies of disc harrows and ploughers, depending on their purpose, working conditions, design and surface shape, are divided into separate groups. according to their purpose, disc tillage implements can be used for field, garden and swamp purposes. field disc harrows are designed for basic soil cultivation after harvesting the predecessor and for cutting the soil after plowing. in crop rotations with a gap in time from harvesting the predecessor to the subsequent crop, lighter tillage tools are used disk hoeing machines for cultivating the soil to a shallow depth (4...6) cm in order to preserve moisture from evaporation and obtain provocative weed shoots. the working bodies of such tools are characterized by a smaller diameter, less load on each disk, and a smaller radius of curvature of the spherical surface disc, as well as a smaller distance between discs in one row compared to disc harrows, which can be explained by the smaller volume of soil processed by cultivators. literature analysis and methods the most common disk tillage implements disk harrows are equipped with smooth spherical disks with a solid or cut blade, conical disks and spherical disks with a corrugated surface to the depth of immersion in the soil. smooth spherical discs with a solid blade of increased diameter (450...600 mm) are used when cultivating the soil to a depth of up to 14 cm and the presence of large-stemmed crop residues on its surface. and vice versa, disks of smaller diameter when the soil is peeled to a depth of 4...6 cm and there are light crop residues on the soil surface, such as chopped straw. discs with a solid blade cut crop residues most completely, but such discs under certain conditions (increased humidity and depth of soil cultivation) clog more easily due to the appearance of the phenomenon of dragging with loss of speed. cutting discs, even with relatively small diameters, more reliably capture crop residues and cut them or step over them, penetrate deeper into the soil more easily and are more constantly engaged with the dense bottom of the furrow, which helps maintain disc rotation, and therefore eliminates the phenomenon of dragging and clogging of harrows soil and crop residues. the shape and size of the disc cutouts vary depending on the working conditions. discs with cutouts along the periphery are called 279 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us “daisy”. the first disks of the “daisy” type were installed on battery-type harrows bdt-7, bdt3, etc. and had trapezoidal cutouts (fig. 1). subsequently, discs with semicircular cutouts appeared different sizes (fig. 2). discs with larger cutouts with a recess into the disc of up to 30...60 mm (fig. 2 a) are designed to simultaneously cut crop residues and provide more reliable adhesion to the soil. discs with cutouts with a radius of up to 30 mm (fig. 2 b) are mainly designed to ensure more reliable rotation of the disc. figure 1. chamomile harrow disc with a trapezoidal cutout in order to ensure more reliable rotation of the disk in accordance with the forward speed of the unit and cutting large-stemmed crop residues (corn, sunflower, etc.) the discs must have asymmetrical cuts that ensure sliding cutting (fig. 3)[1]. these disks have cutouts oriented towards the center of the disk, and one side of the cutout to its top is made radially in a straight line, the other part of the cutout, mating with the radius of the disk, forms a line that ensures sliding cutting of crop residues falling into the cutout. thus, the presence of structural elements in the form of disc cutouts allows you to capture and fix the stem in the soil and ensure cutting of crop residues. a – disks with cutouts 30...60 mm; b disk with cutouts up to 30 mm figure 2. disks with round cutouts along the periphery of the disk a) b) figure 3. discs for cultivating soil and chopping large-stemmed row crops and shrubs 280 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us large diameter discs with similar cutouts “fleo-fleo” from quivogne (800...850 mm) (fig. 3b) are used for cultivating soil to a depth of 20 cm and crushing coarse crop residues and shrubs. conical disks are of interest (fig. 4). conical disks always maintain their working angle (the angle of inclination to the horizontal of the tangent to the surface of the disk) when worn. such discs are easily buried in the soil, but do not crumble the soil well as the depth of its cultivation increases. figure 4. conical disks therefore, conical disks in combination with other working bodies with increased crumbling properties show good results. discs with a diameter of 430 mm are widely used on disc carrier harrows and combined units from vaderstad (sweden), as well as on qualidisk harrows from the kverneland group with a diameter of 573 mm.in order to more intensively chop crop residues.to crumble the soil and mix it, some foreign companies use spherical discs with a grooved blade on disc harrows (fig. 5). discs of this type are produced by krause and kuhn and are called a-discs (by bednar strom). figure 5. spherical discs with grooved blade there is also a known domestic development (fig. 6) of a spherical disk working body, the peripheral part of the surface of which is made wavy to ensure smoothly repeating changes in the angle of attack from its initial value [2]. the wave of the disk, starting from the cutting edge, is made decreasing towards the center of the disk with a transition to a sphere. treatment with such a working body should ensure an increase in the quality of soil cultivation while reducing energy intensity. a common disadvantage of all spherical discs is the formation of occipital pressure on the blade during external sharpening and a convex outer sphere, especially at low and medium angles of attack, which is one of the reasons for the violation of directional stability of the disc harrow. in order to eliminate this drawback, disk working bodies are proposed with a more complex external and internal surface. as the curvature of the disk increases, i.e., the radius of the sphere decreases, the soil crumbles better and mixes more intensively with crushed crop residues. however, in this case, the penetration deteriorates and technological reliability decreases. 281 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 6. spherical disk with varying angle of attack an increase in the internal radius of the sphere, although it increases depth, reduces soil crumbling. the desire to combine all the necessary parameters in one disk good depth, increased degree of soil crumbling and disk stability led to the need to develop a new disk with a varying radius of the sphere from the blade of the disk to its center (fig. 7) [4]. in such a disk, the peripheral part of the disk sphere in the area of maximum penetration of the disk into the soil is made along a large radius, and then towards the center it decreases according to the archimedes spiral or another law with a smooth decrease in the radius. in the central part of the disk there is a platform for attaching the disk to the bearing unit housing. ring 1, in conjunction with the inner surface of the sphere of disk 2, provides a new surface, which is an annular curved groove around the bearing assembly when installed on the inner sphere of the disk. 1 – ring; 2 – disk figure 7. spherical disk with floating radius of curvature this annular trench, depending on the height of the ring and the shape of its section, provides a new trajectory of formation turnover with a decreasing radius of curvature and increased soil crumbling. ring 1 is replaceable and can be selected depending on the type of soil and its condition. obtaining the shape of the inner surface of the disk can have different designs. the main technological parameters of the working parts of disc harrows and cultivators, ensuring the quality of soil cultivation in accordance with the initial requirements, high technological reliability and efficiency include disc diameter d and the radius of curvature of the disk sphere r. many technological indicators of the operation of disc harrows and cultivators depend on the value of these parameters: the quality of soil crumbling, penetration, crushing and incorporation 282 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of crop residues, technological reliability, and disc working width. the procedure for calculating the parameters of the disks depends on the physical and mechanical properties of the soil, predecessors, the method of harvesting them, which determine the working conditions, the technology for preparing the soil for the subsequent crop, which determines the initial agrotechnical requirements, as well as on the technological scheme of harrows and cultivators. depending on the operating conditions and initial requirements, the priority requirements for the quality and operational performance of the implement are determined. taking these requirements into account, a range of disk parameter values is selected, which are adjusted when considering other indicators. in the scientific literature there are a large number of analytical dependences of the values of disk parameters and their orientation in the soil on indicators characterizing operating conditions, accompanied by experimentally confirmed data. but, unfortunately, in most cases these results are far from reproduced in practice due to constantly changing working conditions. this circumstance indicates the need to conduct experimental studies under a variety of conditions, even critical ones. in such complex objects as soil and research related to it, preference should be given to experimental work. theoretical research should serve as an initial guideline for the selection of factors acting on the object and the direction of movement towards the optimum. when cultivating winter cereal crops after late-harvested row-crop predecessors using modern technology, the main tillage is carried out with disc harrows. at the same time, working conditions are often characterized by increased soil hardness and the presence of a large amount of large-stemmed crop residues. after harvesting cereal crops, the soil is usually easily cultivated and stubble crops do not require additional crushing the operating conditions for disc harrows and hullers are easier. in this case, the ranking of soil tillage quality indicators changes. a completely different approach will be required for overdried or waterlogged soil. in order not to miss the recommended sowing time, as a very significant factor for the future harvest, sometimes it is necessary to cultivate the soil even in such harsh conditions. however, in any condition of the field to be processed, one should first consider the issue of technological reliability, which depends on the clogging of the inter-disk space with soil and crop residues, when it is impossible to continue working. due to design features, this parameter is the most important for battery-type disc harrows. these harrows have an interdisc distance of only 220 mm on one battery and all discs rotate synchronously. these two circumstances are the reason for the frequent clogging these harrows. therefore, for battery-type harrows, one should begin solving the problem of optimizing disk parameters with the complete elimination of clogging of the harrow with soil and crop residues. for this reason, many manufacturers have stopped producing battery-type harrows, although they have not yet exhausted their capabilities and have a number of advantages over harrows with front-mounted discs on a frame in several rows on individual stands. with this arrangement of working bodies, the interdisk distance increases by 1.5...2 times compared to battery-type harrows. and under these conditions, the problem of clogging the interdisk space with soil and crop residues disappears. soil crumbling by disc harrows and ploughers depends not only on soil conditions, but also on the parameters of the discs, their orientation in the soil and the parameters of placement on the frame. the soil, after being torn away from the monolith, rising along the inner surface of the disk sphere, crumbles due to compression and bending deformations. the smaller the radius of the sphere, i.e. the greater its curvature, the higher the soil deformation, and therefore crumbling. the degree of soil crumbling also depends on the angle of attack of the disks. increasing the angle of attack of the discs improves the quality of tillage. but excessive attention to this parameter can lead to clogging of the harrow with soil and crop residues. this is explained by the fact that with an increase in the angle of attack, depending on the operating conditions, the disks are pulled through without rotation, and the permeability of the soil mass in the narrowing space between the disks decreases. increasing the tillage speed and increasing the curvature of the discs contributes to better mixing of crop residues with the soil. but these two factors reduce depth at the same diameter and increase soil resistance. earlier in traditional technologies of harvesting and moldboard tillage no attention was paid to grinding crop residues. all the straw was pulled from the field and stacked. with minimal and soil-saving technologies for soil preparation, when 283 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us harvesting almost all main crops, all the straw is crushed simultaneously with harvesting and the only question left is to embed it in the soil when processing with disc harrows or leave it to protect the soil from erosion and soil deflation when its surface treatment with flat cutters. therefore, the problem of crushing crop residues with disc implements has almost today migrated to the field of harvesting agricultural crops. summarizing the above, it should be noted that the selection of disc parameters for harrows and cultivators requires an integrated approach. despite the bundance of different types of disk working bodies, spherical disks remain the most common. the classical calculation of the parameters of such disks [5,6,7] is not without drawbacks, but to this day remains the most suitable of the proposed theories for predicting the geometric parameters of the disk at the first stage of design. all geometric parameters of spherical disks are interdependent and jointly determine its quality and energy indicators. due to the heterogeneity of the treated environment soil, the recommended values of all disk parameters are mainly of an interval nature. the sequence of determining disk parameters for different layouts differs from each other. if we accept that the weak link for single-row or double-row disc harrows and battery-type cultivators with synchronous rotation of discs is the clogging of the inter-disc space, then you should first select the parameters on which this indicator depends. it is known that the clogging of disk harrows and ploughers depends on the physical and mechanical properties of the soil, its moisture, the presence of crop residues, the diameter of the disk, the radius of its sphere, the interdisk distance in the battery, the depth of soil cultivation, and the angle of attack of the disks. as already noted, each combination of operating conditions has its own optimal disk parameters. however, most of the parameters cannot be adjusted depending on the current conditions. these include parameters such as the diameter of the disk, its spherical radius and sharpening angles. the angle of attack of the disk and the depth of tillage should be considered adjustable parameters. taking into account the presented structure of factors that determine the clogging of harrows and ploughs, preliminary studies should be carried out under the most complex combination of working conditions. the basic level of disk diameter can be adopted based on preliminary calculations. for battery-type disc harrows, the diameter of the disc is first determined from the ratio [5]: d=ka (1) where a is the depth of tillage mm; k – coefficient determined by operating conditions. the coefficient k for disc harrows is recommended within 4...6, for hullers 5...6. the more dangerous the possibility of soil clogging the inter-disk space (increased soil moisture, depth of tillage, amount of crop residues on the soil surface, increased angle of attack, soils with increased stickiness), the higher the coefficient k is chosen. the clogging of harrows and ploughs, in addition to the diameter of the disc, affects also the inter-disk distance in batteries, which is determined depending only on the depth of tillage, which is determined by the expression: where b is the interdisk distance, mm; the interdisk distance for battery-type harrows is determined from the expression 284 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where hn is the permissible depth of the ridges at the bottom of the furrow according to the initial requirements. for disc harrows and ploughers, the diameter of the disc d and its radius of curvature of the internal sphere r are related by the relation [5,7]: where φ is half the angle at the vertex of the oab sector (fig. 8). in a section of a disk (fig. 8) in a vertical position with a plane passing through the axis of rotation, with a known value of the disk diameter d, the radius of curvature can be calculated using expression (4) with that the clearance angle is negative. figure 8. elements of the geometry of a spherical disk for a positive clearance angle ε where i is the sharpening angle (the angle between the perpendicular to the radius of the sphere at points a or b and the projection of the blade plane, it is recommended to take within 12°...25°). however, this section is not working. therefore, let us consider the cross-section of the disk at soil level when buried to the maximum planned depth a. for this section, the angle of attack α is equal to: in this expression, the angle εα must be greater than 0° to eliminate the phenomenon of occipital pressure. therefore, the angle εα is recommended accept within 3°... 5°. using the accepted values of α and εα, we find the angle of the cone generatrix in the section at a height a from the bottom of the furrow ωα. 285 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and then, given that [8] where da is the cross-sectional diameter of the disk at the level of its depth a, mm; next, having determined ω from expression (7), we determine the angle φ at the top of the sector using expression (4), i.e. for new generation disc harrows with individual fastening of each working element to the frame and their frontal arrangement in several rows, in contrast to disc implements with a battery arrangement of discs, soil jamming between the discs is practically not observed. this is explained by the fact that in these implements, due to the placement of working bodies in 3 and 4 rows, the possibility of clogging the inter-disc space is unlikely, since the distance between the discs in the rows is 1.5...2 times greater than in battery-type harrows. and for disk ploughers, the issue of soil jamming between the disks does not pose a danger due to the small depth of tillage, but consequently, a small volume of processed soil. consequently, for harrows and cultivators with individual disk fastening to the frame, it is necessary to choose the disk diameter based on other principles. in this case, the main indicator is the ability of the disc to cut crop residues. in any case, the diameter of the disk should be chosen as minimal as possible, since the depth depends on it. when operating a spherical non-cutting disc, there may be cases where crop residue, such as corn cob, is pushed out of the angle formed by the field surface and the disc blade. to eliminate this phenomenon, it is necessary to increase the diameter of the disk [5]. in order to solve the alternative situation that arises in choosing the diameter of the disk, it is necessary to again conduct experiments on choosing the optimal diameter of the disk, taking into account the interests of deepening and cutting crop residues without unloading them in front of the harrow, taking into account the conditions of soil cultivation. however, to establish the scope of the experiments, one should first be guided by the recommendations on the diameter of the disks, previously developed under the conditions of previous technologies. at the same time, in the same experiment it is necessary to determine the distance between the rows of disks. in this case, it is necessary to test disks of different designs for each soil condition: disks with a smooth blade without cutouts, with cutouts of various configurations, including with a constant cutting angle, etc. selection of other parameters of disks for harrows and cultivators with individual fastening of working tools and battery tools almost the same type. and finally, choosing the type and parameters of disks, as well as their placement must be accompanied by testing in the most extreme soil conditions. such conditions are indeed rare, but we should not forget that even in these rare cases it is necessary prepare the soil and sow the next crop in the crop rotation in a timely manner. the angle of attack of the disk α, its angle of inclination to the vertical β and the soil tillage speed v are of independent importance in increasing many of the qualitative and technical and economic indicators of disc harrows and cultivators. when using disc implements, previously all recommendations noted a speed of 6...7 km/h as the most optimal. however, at that time disc implements were used mainly only for cutting up plowed soil. in modern technologies they are used for basic tillage. the results of the studies show that with an increase in the translational speed of spherical disks, the traction resistance also increases significantly [7]. so, with 15 increase in speed from 5.8 to 10.8 km/h, i.e. by 1.86 times, causes an 286 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us increase in the traction resistance of the disks from 40 to 80%, and at 30 by 25...65%. this means that the increase in traction resistance lags behind the increase in speed. and even based on this indicator alone, it makes sense to increase the speed of tillage at higher speeds. professor g.n. sineokov and i.m. panov note that “with an increase in the speed of the tractor, the range of soil thrown by discs increases sharply, therefore the speed of movement of disc plows and ploughs should not exceed 7 km/h” [5]. but this problem has already been solved on modern disc guns. they are equipped with reflectors of soil lumps that come off the disks when working at high speeds, which not only prevent the soil from being thrown chaotically in different directions, but also, when they hit the reflector, they additionally crumble. it was also noticed that when processing at higher speeds, the degree of soil crumbling increases, technological downtime due to gun clogging is reduced. the choice of angle of attack is a critical step in developing initial data for the design of harrows and ploughs. the range of angle of attack adjustment is wide. so, for disk ploughers, it is 30...40°, for disk harrows no more than 25°. on foreign-made disc harrows and some domestic models, the angle of attack is not adjustable and is 18...20°. not only the degree of soil crumbling, but also the width of the disk and the degree of mixing of soil and crop residues depend on the angle of attack. all these indicators increase as the angle of attack increases. but depending on the geometric parameters of the disks, as the angle of attack increases, the angular velocity of the disk decreases, dragging begins and, as a result, the inter-disk space becomes clogged with soil and crop residues. when cultivating the soil with a vertically standing disk, the soil mainly experiences shear deformations, rises to a small height, does not mix well with crop residues, and all this intensifies when cultivating the soil to a greater depth with a plow. the angle of inclination of the discs to the vertical was previously recommended only for disc plows. when the disk is tilted, the lifting of the formation is facilitated and the traction resistance is reduced. however, harrows and mulchers with individual attachment of working bodies with minimal tillage are required to mix the soil with crop residues, which cannot be done without raising the layer to a greater height. and this requirement can only be fulfilled by an inclined disk, onto which the cut layer of soil can be lifted more easily. thus, when developing the initial requirements for disk working bodies and determining the optimal parameters of the working bodies, one should take into account not only their operating conditions, but also the type of harrow, since the procedure for solving the task at hand depends on the latter. references 1. mamatov f.m., fayzullayev x.a., irgshev d.b., mustapaqulov s.u., nurmanov m., hamrayeva l. substantiation of loosening the soil with a subsoiler during soil processing for sowing melons and gourds under a closed film tunnel// international journal of progressive sciences and technologies (ijpsat) issn: 2509-0119.© 2020 international journals of sciences and high technologies. – vol. 24. – india, 2020. – p. 444-450. 2. ravshanov k., fayzullayev k., ismoilov i., mamatov s., mardonov sh.. irgashev d,b.. the machine for the preparation of the soil in sowing of plow crops under film // iop conf. series: materials science and enginereering 883. 3. fayzullayev kh., mustapakulov s., irgashev d.b., begimkulova.m raking plates of the combination machine's subsoiler // e3s web of conferences 264, 04039 (2021). 4. fayzullaev kh., mamatov f., мirzaev b., irgashev d.b., mustapakulov s,, sodikov a. study on mechanisms of tillage for melon cultivation under the film // e3sweb of conferences 304, 03012 (2021). 5. иргашев д.б., файзуллаев х. а., курбанов ш. б. обработка почвы между рядами садов чизелом рыхлителом// международной научно-практической конференции. сборник научных трудов. “автотракторосроение и автомобильный транспорт”. – минск, 2021. – c. 265-268. 287 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. иргашев д.б., даминов л.о., муспакулов с.у. обосновать параметры рыхлителя, для обработки между садовыми рядами// международной научно-практической конференции. сборник научных трудов. “автотракторосроение и автомобильный транспорт”. – минск, 2021. – 268-271. 7. irgashev d.b. аgrotechnical requirements for deep tillage without turning the soil// научное обеспечение устойчивого развития агропромышленного комплекса. сборник материалов международной научно-практической конференции посвященной памяти академика ран в.п. зволинского и 30-летию создания фгбну «пафнц ран» – с. соленое займище, 2021. – c. 577-580. 246 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 steps of the process of obtaining paper and paper products from the cellulose of the pavlovnia tree s. j. samadov, v. v. khojaqulov, sh. n. komolova, z. а. arabova, s. м. jovliev, м. м. murodov tashkent innovative chemical technology scientific research institute during the next study, the stages of the process of obtaining paper and paper products from the pulp of the pavlovnia tree were studied. the paper production process includes the following stages:  preparation of paper pulp, mixing with various components, gluing, adding fillers.  mastering the mass at the initial and final stages of the paper casting machine, i.e. preparation of aqueous mixture, cleaning of various impurities, casting of mass, pressing, drying and primary processing.  final processing, i.e. fine grinding in a calender and cutting in the required formats.  sorting and packing. achieving the desired fiber length is directly related to the pulping stage to obtain paper with physical properties. grinding process is carried out in continuous and continuously working conical and disc mills, grinding equipment such as "roll", refiner. substances such as rosin glue, paraffin emulsion, sandy soil are added to the paper mass in order to give the paper a feature intended for smooth writing and to improve its hydrophobic properties. in order to increase the mechanical strength of the fibers in the paper pulp, starch and animal glue are added, and urine and melamine-formaldehyde resins are added to increase the strength of the wet paper. in order to ensure the level of whiteness, smoothness and softness of the paper, as well as the complete and flawless implementation of the copying process, it is advisable to add various mineral fillers (kaolin, mel, talc), and aniline-containing components to the pulp. types of paper used for waterproofing and electrical insulation are produced without glue or fillers. the degree of whiteness of hemp and wheat straw cellulose is higher than that of tree cellulose. this greatly reduces the consumption of chemical bleaching reagents in the process of paper production based on them. for paper production, 2.5-3.5% ready-made paper pulp is pumped from the pulp preparation department into the mixing pool. here it is mixed with a circulating aqueous mass of 0.1-0.7% and transferred to the paper casting machine. the machine consists of different tables, press, drying parts and calender section. the paper pulp is continuously passed through the different table sections of the paper casting machine and is partially dewatered. the rest of the dehydration and strengthening is done in the press part of the machine. then a certain amount of moisture in the paper is dried in the drying section. the dried coarse, crumpled paper web is 247 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sanded by passing between calender shafts, giving the paper a high degree of strength. the paper web passed through the calender is wound on drums. water is used a lot in the paper production industry, for example, 150 m3 of clean water was used to produce 1 ton of paper. there are rare and other types of paper, the production of which required 4000 m3/t of fresh water. by the second half of the xx century, a "closed system" was applied to the production. this led to a several-fold reduction in water consumption by "10 m3 /t". it has even become possible to produce paper by air-dry method without using water in a dispersed medium. equipment used in paper production: it is difficult to imagine the future of any industry without the modern machinery and equipment used in it. the perspective of the paper production industry is also created and created, without water dependence on the machines working on the basis of advanced technology. it is known that physical and mechanical properties of paper, paper production technology, quality parameters of fibrous raw material depend on its type. fibrous raw materials are obtained mainly from plants, that is, from deciduous and coniferous tree species, as well as from trunks and rootstocks of annual plants as a result of mechanical and chemical processing. their chemical structure, morphological formation of fibers are fully covered in many literatures. that's why we won't dwell on it. the main part of plant fibers is a natural polymer, that is, cellulose. cellulose-based paper types are characterized by their high strength, as a result of the fact that the fibers of cellulose-based paper with high quality indicators form a strong bond without interlinkers. cellulose has a high molecular weight and dissolves well in water. it can withstand various chemical reagents and high temperature. the burning process is one of the important stages of the paper production industry. this process is an important factor in improving the quality indicators of paper and its physical and mechanical properties. almost all indicators of paper obtained on the basis of fibers that have not passed through the burning process do not meet the quality requirements. for example, the nonuniform appearance of the paper, the presence of large porous layers, and the formation of a rough layer on the surface of the paper as a result of the irregular arrangement of fibers due to its lack of density are examples of this. in addition, during the process of paper pouring, thick and long fibers settle down in the machine and cause the structure of the paper being poured as a result of various distribution to be disturbed. the surface of the raw fiber is rough, has a high tendency to transfer water, and has a low level of friction with each other, that is, adhesion. the purpose of pulp crushing is to eliminate the above disadvantages, namely:  matching width and height dimensions, which ensures the exact structure of the fiber:  production of paper that provides fractional aggregation, i.e. has the required density:  as a result of creating a level of hydration, water molecules settle in the fiber structure and ensure that they are connected through hydrogen bonds:  give the fiber smoothness, increase its mechanical resistance, ensure its connection with various chemical fillers:  waterproofing, air tightness, ensuring the clarity of the paper. the pulping process is carried out on various machines and devices. this equipment consists of continuous and continuous "roll", disk and cone mill, refiner. the mass of paper passing through these devices is 2-8% water. no matter what type of equipment the burning process is carried out, their performance level is the same. the fiber suspension continuously passes through the grinding blades located inside the unit. grinding blades are movable in disc or conical mills and fixed in the cone housing. 248 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in addition to determining the level of adhesiveness, the quality paper was also measured by its water absorption and water impermeability. the effect of na-kmts on the cited indicators of these papers is expressed. figure 1. a. the effect of the concentration of kmts on the water absorption properties of paper made from gypych straw cellulose: 1st processing is not given; 20.5%; 31%; 41.5%; 5-2%. the working mechanism of paper shredder mills is the same, that is, they are based on grinding the aqueous mass with knives and teeth. the figure shows a fiber suspension passing water between a pair of 4 mm thick blades, one fixed and the other moving at high speed. in this process, the stages of fiber structure change can be observed. in this case, the diameter of the fiber is 20 μm. blades can become dull as a result of friction, corrosion and similar factors. cutting of fiber in aqueous suspension by mill blades takes place in 3 different ways (fig. 2.6. a, b, c). when the thin fiber passes between the knife teeth, it enlarges and breaks (fig. 2.6, c). coarse-looking fiber, for example, dry fiber, that is, the grinding of non-chipped fiber, is represented in fig. 2.6 a, case. in addition to fiber crushing, shortening, and crushing stages, external and internal fibrillation, as well as partial breakage, are observed in the fiber. such changes occur as a result of the collision of mill blades moving at a certain angle. for cases "b" and "g" in figure 2.6, the fibers are not only crushed between the blades, but the fibers are stretched under the influence of rotational and torsional forces, and in case "d" the fibers are elongated. the "j" in this figure represents the uniform orientation of the compressed fibers between the blades. 249 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig – 2. the different types of fibers in the above images are conventionally represented, the fiber suspension moves randomly between the blades, and the presented images are simultaneously realized between the fiber and the blades. depending on the type of paper, the level of its shredding is determined, and the paper mass is crushed based on the views given above. it can be seen from the following pictures that the amount of na-kmts required for making paper from pavlovian cellulose to increase its waterproofing, water absorption and adhesiveness level is less than when making paper from the cellulose of one-year-old plants. 1paper made from paulownia wood pulp; 2-paper made from cotton pulp. 3 – fig. the effect of kmts concentration on the water permeability property of paper the figure shows three different effects of the fiber grinding process on the fiber. first, the fiber is shortened, that is, it breaks (first from the thin part of the fiber). as a result of such a process, the cut parts of the fiber have a saw-like appearance. the second is the external fibrillation of the fiber, that is, it is observed that it breaks up into small fibers as a result of friction. this process often occurs with the destruction of the primary wall in the fiber. 250 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sometimes the inner layer of the fiber is attached to the secondary wall and fibrils, microfibrils, nanofibrils and cellulose molecules, as well as the hemicellulose surface, can be observed under the microscope. in some variations, the fibrils exhibit very thin sheets (plates) within which the cell envelope is located. fig-4 third, internal fibrillation is observed in the fiber as a result of crushing, rubbing, grinding, and grinding the fiber under pressure. fiber changes its internal and external structure based on the above-mentioned factor. such structural changes determine the quality index of all types of paper. in addition, the special properties of pavlovian cellulose in gluing the paper obtained from it through kmts and the positive change of water permeability properties compared to other samples are expressed in the table below. 1-table glued paper feature the compositi on of the glue glue ratio, % water ratio, % name of the paper, confus ion, t-20°c с paste speed, с 1m2 paper mass g/l paper humidity% the degree of ash of the paper, % kmts/wa ter 0,5 99,5 т-а 25-30 20-22 72,6 3,01 2,98 1 99 т-а 35-37 18-22 72,7 3,81 2,24 1,5 98,5 т-а 39-43 22-23 73 3,62 2,00 2 98 т-а 42-45 17-23 73 3,91 2,18 0,5 99,5 п-с 25-30 23-25 71,6 3,02 3,01 1 99 п-с 35-37 16-18 71,8 3,41 3,21 1,5 98,5 п-с 39-44 25-26 71,9 3,51 3,08 2 98 п-с 42-46 22-25 71,8 3,40 3,08 т-аpaper made from poplar wood cellulose; п-сpaper made from cotton cellulose. the process of cleaning paper pulp is an important step in paper production. pulp cleaning not only affects the quality of the paper, but also ensures smooth operation of the paper casting machines and equipment without any malfunctions. pulp cleaning is considered a process before paper casting. various impurities in the mass are cleaned, including mechanical, metal and small objects of various forms, minerals, fibrous solids, etc. this waste mainly consists of solid chemical reagents that did not react during the preparation of various adhesives through semifinished product warehouses, as a result of waste paper standing in basins during wastewater treatment, repair of equipment, and various oil, iron scraps and other types of impurities that have been released. will be produced. taking into account the above, waste can be divided into the following types: 251 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. mineral waste: gypsum, monosulfite, lime, sand, water, various fillers, etc., contained in fibers that have not been well washed and not cleaned of good quality in cellulose production enterprises; 2. impurities based on metals, textiles and paper waste: metal fragments in the fiber formed as a result of breaking and rusting of mill blades as a result of stresses and strains in the process of grinding paper pulp, etc.; 3. fiber waste: fibers and shavings of wood pulp containing unsorted cellulose, large fiber yarns of textile enterprises, pulp pulp and paper waste, etc.; 4. organic impurities: rubber fragments of transport belts, various tar nodules formed and used after the coagulation process, plant and animal organisms, etc.; impurities in the mineral and metal series are cleaned in a centrifuge working under the influence of centrifugal force or by grinding. it is sorted with the help of impurities contained in textile and paper waste. references 1. m.m. murodov. «тechnology of making cellulose and its ethers by using raw materials» // international conference “renewable wood and plant resources: chemistry, technology, pharmacology, and medicine”. saint-petersburg, russia. june 21-24., 2011. 142-143. 2. m.m. murodov. «тhe technology of making carboxymethyl cellulose (cmc) by method monoapparatus» // international conference «renewable wood and plant resources: chemistry, technology, pharmacology, and medicine». saint-petersburg, russia. june 2124., 2011. 141-142. 3. ўзбекистон республика вазирлар маҳкамаси “республикада тез ўсувчи ва саноатбоп павловния дарахти плантацияларини барпо қилиш чора-тадбирлари тўғрисида” 2020 йил 27 августдаги 520-сонли қарори. 4. интернет: https://xs.uz/uzkr/post/ hududlarda –pavlovniya -plantatsiyalari -tashkil-qilinadi/ 5. муродов, м. х., & муродов, б. х. у. (2015). фотоэлектрическая станция с автоматическим управлением мощностью 20 квт для учебного заведения. science time, (12 (24)), 543-547. 6. murodov, m. m., rahmanberdiev, g. r., khalikov, m. m., egamberdiev, e. a., negmatova, k. c., saidov, m. m., & mahmudova, n. (2012, july). endurance of high molecular weight carboxymethyl cellulose in corrosive environments. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 1459, no. 1, pp. 309-311). american institute of physics. 7. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. (2021). obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. 8. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. european journal of humanities and educational advancements, 2(1), 1315. 9. murodov, m. m., xudoyarov, o. f., & urozov, m. q. (2018). technology of making carboxymethylcellulose by using local raw materials. advanced engineering forum vols. 89 (2018) pp 411-412/©. trans tech publications, switzerland. doi, 10, 8-9. 10. primqulov, m. t., rahmonbtrdiev, g., murodov, m. m., & mirataev, a. a. (2014). tarkibida sellyuloza saqlovchi xom ashyoni qayta ishlash texnologiyasi. ozbekiston faylasuflar milliy jamiyati nashriyati. toshkent, 28-29. https://xs.uz/uzkr/post/%20hududlarda%20–pavlovniya%20-plantatsiyalari%20-tashkil-qilinadi/ 252 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 11. рахманбердиев, г. р., & муродов, м. м. (2011). разработка технологии получения целлюлозы из растений топинамбура. итисодиёт ва инновацион технологиялар" илмий электрон журнали,(2), 1-11. 12. elievich, c. l., khasanovich, y. s., & murodovich, m. m. (2021). technology for the production of paper composites for different areas from fiber waste. 13. murodovich, m. m., qulturaevich, u. m., & mahamedjanova, d. (2018). development of technology for production of cellulose from plants of tissue and receiving na-carboxymethylcellulose on its basis. journalnx, 6(12), 407-411. 14. rahmonberdiev, g., murodov, m., negmatova, k., negmatov, s., & lysenko, a. (2012). effective technology of obtaining the carboxymethyl cellulose from annual plants. in advanced materials research (vol. 413, pp. 541-543). trans tech publications ltd. 15. murodovich, m. m., murodovich, h. m., & qulturaevich, u. m. (2020). obtaining technical carboxymethyl cellulose increased in main substance. academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal, 10(12), 717-719. 126-128 126 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 formation and development factors in the digital education process shodmonqulov m.t. phd, associate professor, samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering named after mirzo ulugbek abstract in this essay, we will discuss how the transition to digital education will drastically alter the professional activities of educators and service workers in the higher education and training system. pedagogical technologies that emerged throughout the digitalization process create new circumstances for student activity and competency creation; today, digitalization of the education system is one of the most pressing challenges. keywords: digital education, educational system, transformation, didactics, digital didactics, information technologies. introduction the relevance and importance of digitalizing higher education now originate from the need to adapt professional education and the educational system to the demands of the digital economy and society. this is a worldwide issue that dates back to the time of the educational system's founding. even while our country is now modernizing its higher education institutions and education system as a whole, the education system still has to be adjusted to meet the demands of the digital economy. two significant elements of the digitization of education must be considered when organizing the procedures for reaching the objectives listed in the legal documents that the republic of uzbekistan's government has adopted: the first goal is to create a digital learning environment through the use of online courses, digital educational tools, and other electronic educational resources. the second goal is to deeply modernize the educational process in order to guarantee that students are prepared for life in the digital society and for professional activity in the digital economy. therefore, the digitalization of education entails both a radical transformation of the educational process and all of its components as well as the use of digital tools and technology in education. creating a flexible and adaptable educational system that satisfies the demands of the digital economy and guarantees optimal utilization of the didactic potential of digital technologies is the aim of the educational process transformation. the aim of digital technology transformation is to modify them to promptly and efficiently address educational issues. education is and has always been one of the fundamental tenets of human existence, which by definition gives rise to "eternal problems" that get worse with age. furthermore, we are forced to approach the processes occurring in this sphere from a fundamentally different perspective with every new phase of human civilization's growth. 127 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us prior to discussing the changes that have occurred in the education system, it is important to discuss the causes of these changes. the first component is the emergence of a new, entirely distinct economic structure, along with another industrial revolution. naturally, talents are becoming more and more important in addition to knowledge. the second issue, which has an impact on the internal component of school instruction, is the quick advancement of information and communication technology. transformation entails altering all facets and domains of social life as well as significant societal components. transformations can be either progressive or regressive; they do not always indicate a vector of change. the primary focus of the transformation is the alteration of the institutional framework, norms, values, mindset, and other socio-cultural facets of society, as well as the forms and substance of social life. ø the discovery and optimal utilization of digital technology opportunities are critical educational and educational outcomes anticipated from the digitalization of education. among these outcomes are: ø complete customization of the learning process through the creation of unique learning paths and ongoing individual observation of students' academic progress as well as their personal and professional growth; ø increasing the potential applications of many types of individual and group learning activities; ø to guarantee that all students participate actively in the lesson, to speed up the educational activities, and to make sensible use of the allotted time for the activities; ø preserving consistent learning motivation in various student groups throughout the whole learning process, particularly by repeatedly presenting learning success scenarios; ø ensuring that the acquired educational outcomes are fully assimilated, including the personal traits, professional knowledge, abilities, and competencies needed to get a professional certification; ø automation and expediting the process of developing the requisite professional abilities; ø the establishment and growth of a long-term interest in the selected field of work; ø ensuring that educational programs have a project-based approach and include both academic and practical training; ø to guarantee group pupils' concurrent activity; ø developing new avenues for professional education and training, as well as expanding current ones, in order to effectively socialize individuals with disabilities via education; ø giving prompt feedback to the learner, evaluating the learning outcomes in a timely and objective manner while the student is working on educational assignments; ø the process of registering and tracking, or evaluating, academic performance using a combination of evaluation systems; ø to drastically shorten the time needed for higher education programs' creation, placement, and mastery—a fundamental requirement of contemporary businesses; ø providing educational programs to those residing in challenging environments; ø relieving teachers of routine manual labor, hence reducing their overall working hours; in order to improve the transparency and openness of the educational system, feedback mechanisms pertaining to education systems and methodologies should be made available to all external parties. these techniques and strategies are employed to accomplish objectives, produce excellent outcomes, and foster trust. the main purposes of these systems are performance evaluation, customer and employee interactions, service quality improvement, and new product or service development. involves obtaining and assessing development-related thoughts and 128 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us proposals. (these methods facilitate enhanced performance and communication.) provides parents with information and involves them in the educational process through a feedback loop mechanism that increases the impact of little disturbances. gives. building a digital educational process is a demanding endeavor that requires scientific support based on a new pedagogical approach called digital didactics. in order to organize the educational process in the digital educational environment, digital didactics is a branch of pedagogy. as a science of learning, digital didactics constantly draws on the fundamental ideas and precepts of traditional didactics and enhances them in light of the unique demands of the digital environment. and modifications. one may classify the scientific discipline of digital didactics as transfer-integrative. the foundation for creating activities and interactions between students and teachers during the process of studying certain specialized domains, disciplines, and modular courses is provided by digital didactics. because human action (teachers and students) rather than the functioning of digital educational instruments is the focus of digital didactics, the word "digital didactics" is conditional and should not be used literally. likewise, the phrase "digital learning process" fits here. one area of study within the field of digital didactics is the digital didactics of professional education and training. the problematic nature of the situation that has arisen with the digitization of education in uzbekistan—in which the rapid development of digital tools and technologies disrupts the educational process and educational technologies—can be overcome by creating a digital educational process of higher education and teaching based on new didactics. this is in addition to maintaining traditional (digital) forms of organization. to put it briefly, our nation is developing a digitalized educational system that is in line with the new global information and learning landscape. the introduction of contemporary information technology into the sphere of education allows for the qualitative facilitation and modification of educational approaches and the forms in which the teaching process is organized around a new concept. references 1. neal l. the basics of e-learning an excerpt from handbook of human factors in web design / l. neal, d. miller // elearn magazine, 2005 [электронный ресурс] : urlhttp://www.elearnmag (дата обращения 07.05.2018). 2. neal l. learning from e-learning // elearn magazine, 10/02/2001, urlhttp://www.elearnmag (дата обращения 17.09.2017). 3. ricardo nemirovsky and alvaro galvis. facilitating grounded online in-teractions in video-case-based teacher professional development//journal of science education and technology, vol. 13, no. 1, march 2004. – pp. 67–79. 39 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 06, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 landscape and flowers toshboyeva hurshida farhod qizi termiz-engineering technology institute (2nd year) abstract: development of landscape design based on the project of buildings constructed in this article. correct choice of shape and type of flowers, bushes, lawns. flower plants and flower beds made from them are today a separate field of phytodesign, serving for beautification of parks and cities. key words: flower beds, bushes, plantations, decorative effect. flower beds and large-scale flower beds have different characteristics, characteristic of tree and shrub plantations and grassy lawns, the main distinguishing feature of which is the primary decorative effect. flower gardens have a great power of emotional impact. in each individual case, the use of flower plants in landscaped areas should fully correspond to the purpose of the object, its geometric and compositional design, and should be fully thought out. in order to get the maximum artistic effect at the lowest cost, it is necessary to choose materials for flower beds and methods of their preparation with special attention. the material for making flower beds and large flower beds is annual, perennial and biennial flower plants. important elements of different types of flower gardens are grassy lawns and shrubs. it is advisable to use two-year and one-year plants to create flower beds, often in places with regular planning of the area, for example, in the squares of the community center and at the entrance to public buildings, main parterres, monuments and memorials, main entrances to the park, etc. . perennial flower plants are best used in landscape compositions of squares, parks, boulevards and other landscaping objects. it is not recommended to make mixed compositions from perennial and annual plants, because the combination of plants with different agrobiological properties will never be organic, and in most cases, as a result, they will not create artistic compositions. the placement of flower beds should be subject to one artistic concept of the landscape area and is directly related to its spatial composition, the location and characteristics of the main spatial forms buildings, structures, groups of trees and shrubs or flower sculptures. the main requirement is a clear pattern structure and color scheme. it should be remembered that the strongest emotional impression is provided by integral flower spots of a simple configuration, consisting of 1-2 subspecies of flowering plants, on a short background of one color. although clarity of artistic intent is not required to lead to simplification of forms. in turn, it is of great importance to ensure the high decorativeness of flowerbeds during the entire flowering period, which is achieved by carefully considering the individual natural characteristics of plants in different phenological phases . according to the characteristics of the compositional solution, flower structures and flower beds are divided into 2 groups: regular and landscape. landscape flower beds and compositions are the planting of free flower plants in contours on lawn areas, the components of such flower beds or beautiful flowering bushes, and in some cases, small trees can also be used (by the way, they are now the main element not only in landscape design, but also in the phytodesign of the interior also in fashion as), decorative 40 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us water features, boulders and small rocky mounds. landscape flower gardens are often created in the form of groups, mixed borders (mixborders), separate plantings, flower meadows, rock gardens and flower beds near water bodies. flower groups are the most common type of flower beds arranged in areas of different purposes residential and microdistricts, squares, park areas, etc. groups also vary greatly in size they are often formed from one plant and perhaps hundreds of plants, huge flower groups are often called arrays. flower groups often consist of perennial plants, which are well combined with shrubs, especially conifers, and in some cases annual and biennial plants are used. asters, rudbeckia, tulips, daffodils, delphiniums, daylilies, geleniums, peonies, hyacinths, phlox, etc. can be used to form these groups. in turn, complex groups consisting of a certain number of individual varieties of perennial plants can be formed. when forming these groups, it is necessary to take into account the color of flowers and inflorescences, the time of flowering, the height of the plant, the shape and color of the leaves, as well as the decorative qualities after flowering. if the group is clearly visible from all sides, then the tallest plants are placed in the center of the composition, if the group needs to be perceived from one side, then the tallest plants are in the background, and the lowest plants are in the foreground. planted in a row (it should be remembered that this rule is universal and is very correct, for example, when arranging flower miniatures. for indoor gardening). mixed borders (mixborders) are compositions that are often composed of perennial plants and often have an elongated shape. the purpose of planting mixborders is to create a flower carpet of plants that begin to bloom alternately throughout the growing season. mixborders are usually installed along sidewalks, in the front parts of park areas, public parks, gardens and parks, they are also created in front of buildings, protective walls, pergolas, etc. the background on which such a flower garden is created should be: contributes to the most accurate perception of colors. places for creating mixborders should be protected from the wind and as sunny as possible, solutions using the influence of relief differences are popular today. when choosing a list of plants in mixborder, it is necessary to take into account their height, color in the flowering stage, as well as the time and duration of flowering, decorative external features before and after flowering in the composition. as a rule, carpets, creepers and low plants are planted first, then medium height, then tall plants, and lastly the tallest plants. the widest area is reserved for low creepers, a little smaller for medium and the smallest for tall ones. the transition from lower plants to higher plants occurs evenly along the concave profile, the transition lines have free contours, which makes the flower garden beautiful. based on the above facts, let's look at the following pictures. 41 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. asuralov. landscape architecture. " с холпон". tashkent-2014 2. ea dobronravova. landscape design. taki. tashkent-2009 3. ny krijanovskaya. basic landscape design . "phoenix" . 2005 4. mnbeknazarova, hftoshboyeva. construction of a winter garden // 210 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the history of ceramic decorations applied to cultural heritage objects urokov olimjon khayitboevich doctor of philosophy in architecture samarkand state university of architecture and construction named after mirzo ulugbek e-mail: urakovolimjon83@gmail.com umarova gulnoza magistr samgasu abstract architectural ceramic-tiling refers to the art of ceramics, or pottery, which is a world unto itself. in particular, it starts with the basic processing and decoration of clay in ancient times, and in the centuries that followed, it is baked in a fire oven. this clay is then used to make raw bricks, which are used to make tiles, which are used to decorate our magnificent architectural monuments. the evolution of bricklaying as an art form has been the subject of several studies. a vast vocabulary of words and concepts has organically grown in the talks and hands-on experiences of folk artisans due to extensive research and years of work in ceramics and tiling. keywords: glazed ceramic brick, clay ceramics, faience, cross-glazed ceramic, riveted majolica, tile, muqarnas, mosaic, grid, terracotta. introduction terminology for architectural ceramic-tiling there is currently very little agreed terminology in the architectural monument literature for ceramic-ceramic coatings. everyone labels the different sorts of tiles differently as a result. because entirely new kinds of tiles are employed in modern construction, and many historical terminology for ceramics have been lost over time. one can only imagine how hard and complex it is to appropriately adapt to the current architectural repair work if one does not have a solid grasp of the substance of the traditional phrases used in the restoration of architectural monuments. as a consequence of our many years of connection with the imaginative monument restorers of the people, we were compelled, based on our historic values, to explain the meaning of several phrases that are frequently used in the restoration and description of monuments. first of all, it should be said that architectural porcelain tiles ceramics are divided into two groups depending on the raw material and material used: [4] 1. clay ceramics, that is, tiles made of clay raw materials (soils, earthy sand soil, clay and soil mixture); (1st picture) 2. ceramics. tiles created by combining clay, limestone, and quartz powder with ganch. mailto:urakovolimjon83@gmail.com 211 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us architectural tiles, or ceramic embellishments, are known to have been created as decorations for the exterior and interior surfaces of walls and domes in historical structures. the varieties of tile coatings vary depending on the materials (clay or tile-based materials) used in their construction as well as the raw materials from which they are created. thus, clay and faience-based materials are the primary materials used to decorate tiles.[2] brick ornamentation in architecture based on its visual characteristics, clay ceramics used in central asian architecture can be categorized into the following types: 1. ceramic brick with glaze. its smooth surface and, most of the time, its coloration set it apart from regular brick used in building. 2. reddish-brown architectural terracotta-fired clay, or ceramics, which are still produced today. a ceramic product having an unglazed surface and a porous bulk is called architectural terracotta. depending on the product utilized, terracotta molding clay, or mass, is often reddish or occasionally reddish-brown in both natural and synthetic hues. they consist of ceramic tiles, ceramic tiles and other features with a flat surface, as well as ceramic tiles with printed designs on their surface or ceramic tiles cut into relief patterns.[3] 3. ceramics with cross-glaze. though a dark tinted glaze covers the surface, it seems to be embossed terracotta. the latter is sometimes referred to as "poured (polivnaya) terracotta" because of the resemblance in outward size and pattern between the two forms of pottery. this is not true; terracotta is the term for an unglazed ceramic surface that has been "baked clay". as a result, any design may be created on its surface. it seems that a misinterpretation of terracotta gave rise to the term "cast terracotta". calling it a glazed layer that is solely crosssectional is accurate. on the surface of such a coating, enamel—a specialty paint—is applied to glaze it. because of the iron and limestone inclusions in the clay ceramic foundation, which can have a variety of hues depending on the firing temperature, black glazes, or enamel, are used to cover the surface of cut ceramic pottery. the lead-infused transparent glaze highlights and brings the distinct material patches in the terracotta foundation to life. furthermore, the production process is made more difficult by the use of colored and white angob as a covering beneath the glaze. moreover, the black glaze-enamel hides any spots on the ceramic base's surface, frees up the artisans to paint the clay base's surface, and permits the addition of fresh coating paints. [6] 212 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. majolica, or rivets, are ceramic products with a delicate, porous foundation and glazes, both translucent and opaque. depending on the type of clay used, the product's base might be white, reddish, gray, brown, or a similar hue. the product that was colored and kept a secret was initially known as rivet. parchin often refers to a patterned ceramic board that has been painted with various colored glazes. however, additional particularly produced covering elements like as tiles, sharafas, muqarnas, and cylindrical shapes for covering ceramic columns are also included in the varieties of riveted decorating in addition to ceramic boards. archaeologists have been aware of a ceramic product known as "koshin" for about 2,000 years. this unusual substance melts between 1000 and 1200 degrees celsius and is made of quartz sand, clay, lime, and other additions.[6] following the first successful demonstration of ceramic material manufacture by iranian and syrian masters in the 12th century, tile ceramics started to become widely available. the name "tile" comes from the iranian city of koshan, which was a major hub for the manufacture of these ceramics at the time [7]. mosques, mausoleums, and royal structures were decorated both inside and outside in the 12th century with tiles coated in glaze. in the 13th century, the secrets of tile production from iran and syria became known to central asia, in the 14th century to the golden horde, and in the 15th century to turkey. clay-based tiles vary according to their application, mainly including:[7] 1. level surface tiles, both glazed and unglazed. for the facing ornamentation of structures constructed before to the fifteenth century, brick tiles with polished, unglazed, and glazed surfaces were utilized. the seam that remains between the wall surface is caused by the cutting of these brick tiles. the masters began working on tahbin-style ornamentation around the fifteenth century. because at the building site, specially manufactured takhbins were used to lay the wall's tiling design on the ground first. these tiles are then put on the wall after being taken off of it. [4] 2. embossed dome and tower tiles. butterfly-shaped tiles known as "bandik" are used to cover the vertical connections between pairs of bricks or terra cotta that are piled on the tower's surface and the straight walls." 3. in "pax" style tiles. one of the architectural embellishments seen on monuments is pax. it is mostly utilized in tile and brickwork. pax is 25 cm long, 10–12 cm broad, and 5–5.5 cm thick. it is constructed of regular brick or terracotta. after being sliced lengthwise, pax can be categorized into a variety of forms, such as angular, straight, tulip, and nova pax. in order to unite decorations of various planes on walls and ceilings, pax tiles served as a border. [8] 4. toothed flooring and tile flooring. architectural decorations called dadona are mostly employed in tiling on brick surfaces. a row of glazed or unglazed bricks is frequently used as a border around tiling or 213 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us brick ornamentation on the walls of ancient sites. these sort of bricks or tiles are known as dandona. 5. one-time tile slabs with arabic text etched on them after the clay is pounded into a curved mold and taken out of it. one instance of this may be found in the arabic inscriptions in the tomb of khoja ahmed and other structures within the shahi-zinda complex, which are fashioned like incised pottery. 6. ceramic pillars in the shape of flowers that adorn the building's outside corners. their parts are referred to as the shell (bottom portion), the body (middle part), and the head (capital) (top part). 7. muqarnas: ornamentation with volumetric patterns. embellishment made composed of girdle-shaped arching niches that are used to adorn domes, mihrabs, arches, and the tops of columns and structures. muqarnas found widespread usage in building ornamentation, particularly in the timurid era and beyond. originally, muqarnas were composed of bricks or stones stacked on top of one another. their contribution to the building was positive. muqarnas are known by several names and have distinct looks. [7,8] for instance, kalla-muqarnas is used to embellish the capital (top portion) of the tower columns. a rhythmic ornamentation known as sharafa muqarnas is created by joining the divisions in a straight line. 8. florence-inspired ceramics. the name of the italian city of faience, where the tradition of creating very ornate glaze vessels began, is where the term "faience" originates. only goods based on the secret faience are known to include architectural faience, or porcelain faience. we provide a quick overview of the attributes and significance of fayance below. particles of clay and dirt seldom have an average size larger than 0.1 mm. particles of finely powdered quartz powder used in tiles are typically between 0.3 and 0.2 mm, however they can occasionally exceed 0.5 mm. the surface of the faience by itself is unable to create a smooth result because the quartz powder particles are bigger than the clay particles. thus, clay is added to the tiled foundation to improve its flexibility. [8] 9. the bulk of plastic clay is easily molded, malleable, and maintains its shape in the oven. is made of natural materials. large tiled sections are not often produced. sharafa and muqarnas are often created using the terma process on a foundation of fiber. it was feasible to put transparent glazes with patterns beneath the white, light-open foundation of the faience. dark glazes can occasionally be utilized for faience together with a glaze design. 10. one significant kind of architectural detail is mosaic. in contrast to the prevalent mosaic type now in use, this design is made up of pieces that have been cut in accordance with a unique pattern and color rather than cubes that are all the same size and can be identified by the colors of their themes. this gave rise to the term "sectional mosaic," or "koshinburrish" in the masters' language, which is also sometimes referred to as fayance mosaic.[8] according to clay ceramic mosaic, there were several forms of "tile mosaic" and "riveted cross-section mosaic" in the history of eastern architecture. these embellishments are referred to as "cut ceramic mosaic" or, more accurately, "faience ceramics" depending on where they come from and what material is utilized. apart from mosaics, there are also low-textured faience (particle size 1.5-2.0 mm) rivet boards used as borders for epigraphic, vegetal, and relief pattern, hexagonal and square rivet boards for filling large spaces, and various sized colored tile strips made of rivet pieces cut from terracotta and stone (marble). 214 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 11. a grille is an architectural element that is utilized in shelves, openings, and other areas of structures as a decorative element and barrier. lattices are geometrical and vegetal in composition. copper, marble, wood, ceramics, and other materials are used to make them. historical monuments often have ceramic fences made of terracotta, glazed tiles, brickwork, and riveted (majolica) fencing.[7,8] because terracotta is an unglazed face brick, the grids built of it are utilized in structures that have been repaired using regular baked bricks instead of glazed tiles. the emergence of covert coatings in architectural ceramics may be attributed to both the need for adornment and defense against environmental and meteorological elements that degrade priceless ceramic coating components used in construction. as a result, ceramic tiles were used to cover the whole domes, which receive precipitation straight from the atmosphere. the structures' walls were coated with unglazed ceramics that were either entirely or partially decorated with glaze. in the development of architectural ceramics of uzbekistan in general, it can be observed that the production of architectural decorations has become more complicated from simple earthen ceramic parts to complex faience mosaic, which is the culmination point in the development of ceramic decoration, i.e. the art of tile bending. in the development of architectural ceramics of uzbekistan in general, it can be observed that the production of architectural decorations has become more complicated from simple earthen ceramic parts to complex faience mosaic, which is the culmination point in the development of ceramic decoration, i.e. the art of tile bending. [8,9,7] ancient ceramic tile decorations made on a clay base with their long history of mastering ceramics, the uzbek people have decorated their buildings with ceramic elements. the primary construction material here was inexpensive, viscous, robust, healthy dirt. in its many forms, it was utilized as raw bricks, pakhsa, guvala, or as a clay for plastering and bricklaying. eventually, it was baked into bricks, and yet later, it was glazed. a practical and easily moldable material, clay was first used for ceramic architectural ornamentation in the first century bc, when its processing techniques were well developed. since the neolithic era (6th millennium bc), people have been aware that loam may be used to make a variety of dishes and decorations because it turns stone when burned in a fire.[10] one of the major accomplishments of the neolithic, or new stone age, is the invention of pottery, or ceramics. this era is sometimes referred to as the age of ceramics. because around this time humans started attempting to make and produce more of things themselves rather than just consuming what nature had to provide. weapons were manufactured of stone up until this point, but now stone is being processed, finished, and delicate objects are being produced. there's no denying that relationships have grown as constructive forces in social life have been more prevalent. people's awareness of the rules of nature has led to the development of concepts like symmetry, rhythm, and color harmony. his contribution to the subject was a distinct kind of pattern art based on the flat repetition or blending of the same elements—rhythm. in the neolithic era, patterning was common. in [2] there are designs used to embellish pottery and other materials. concentric circles, parallel, spiral, and wavy lines serve as the foundation for many of this era's designs. over time, the substance of geometric patterns was broadened and enhanced with shapes from the schematic worlds of humans, animals, and plants. the components of it mirrored the cosmic forces' symbolic signals. as an illustration, a circle represents the sun, a wavy line represents movement, a symbol of water, etc. small plastic components are also widely used at this time. traditional schematic figures consist of bones, wood, clay, and partially stone for people and animals. [6,8] 215 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the development of pottery wheels in some regions during the bronze age (two to three millennia before christ) guaranteed that the forms of ceramic goods were distinct and smooth. sculptures are being created not just in clay but also in metal and wood. conclusion, this article can help all students studying architectural monument repair and restoration as well as the protection of cultural heritage artifacts by strengthening their theoretical and practical knowledge abilities. references 1. зоҳидов п.ш. меъмор олами. –тошкент, 1996. 2. пулатов х., уралов а архитектура ёдгорликларини таъмирлаш ва қайта тиклаш.-т., 2007. 3. пулатов х ва бошқалар. архитектура ёдгорликларини таъмирлаш.-т., 2009. 4. рахмонов а.р. проблемы реставрации и приспособления объектов культурного наследия под современные нужды. //архитектура и строи-тельство узбекистана, 1995, №1. 5. uralov a.s., mamatmusaev t.sh. arxitekturaviy shakllarni uyg‘un-lashtirish va bezash.toshkent. 2017. 6. uralov a.s., haqqulov a.g‘., abduraimov sh.m. arxitektura yodgor-liklarini ta’mirlash va qayta tiklash tamoyillari.-samarqand. 2020. 7. haqqulov a. tarixiy yodgorliklarni ta’mirlash. t. 1983 8. haqqulov a. ta’mir san’ati. t., 1991 9. haqqulov a.g‘. me’moriy ta’mir va koshinburrish san’ati fidoyisi.-samarqand.2016. 10. axmedov m.q. “o‘rta osiyo me’morchiligi tarixi”, 34-bet. toshkent. “o‘zbekiston”nashriyoti,1995y 121 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 amir temur and the architectural decorations of the timurid era of central asia and their characteristics elvira jurayeva orcid: 0009-0000-6256-950 dilrabo kholdorova samarkand state architecture and construct university named after mirzo ulugbek annotation:this comprehensive article delves into the architectural finesse of the timurid era in central asia, highlighting the distinctive features and decorative elements that defined this period. it provides an in-depth exploration of the innovative designs, intricate tilework, and calligraphic adornments that graced the monumental structures of mosques, mausoleums, and palaces.the article systematically presents the key characteristics of timurid architecture, emphasizing the significance of vibrant mosaic tiles, muqarnas embellishments, and the integration of calligraphy as an artistic element. it showcases the monumental achievements in cities like samarkand, bukhara, and herat, elucidating how these locations became epicenters of architectural brilliance through iconic structures like the registan square, kalyan minaret, and the musalla complex. furthermore, the piece effectively illustrates the lasting impact of timurid architecture, not just within central asia but also on subsequent islamic architectural styles in regions beyond. it encapsulates the essence of a period characterized by artistic innovation, cultural exchange, and patronage, leaving an enduring legacy that continues to inspire admiration and fascination. keywords: tile, rivet, mazolica, majolica, tower, dome, mausoleum the timurid period in central asia stands as an epoch of immense cultural, scientific, and artistic flourishing. amir timur, commonly known as tamerlane, left an enduring legacy not only through his conquests but also through the architectural marvels and decorative motifs that adorned the region during his reign from 1370 to 1405.distinctive forms: timurid architecture is recognized for its grandeur, characterized by monumental structures with intricate ornamentation and expansive domes. the buildings were often constructed using fired bricks, allowing for intricate designs and patterns. influence of islamic architecture: timurid architecture drew heavily from islamic architecture but evolved into a distinct style. mosques, mausoleums, madrasas, and palaces were constructed with meticulous attention to detail, showcasing geometric patterns, calligraphy, and elaborate tilework. grandiose domes and portals: one of the most striking features of timurid architecture is the majestic domes that crown many structures. these domes often displayed exquisite tilework and intricate geometric designs. portals and entrances were adorned with elaborate muqarnas (honeycomb-like structures) and arabesque patterns, reflecting the sophistication of the era. decorative elements: tilework: timurid buildings were adorned with vibrant and detailed tilework, featuring complex geometric patterns, floral motifs, and calligraphic inscriptions from the quran or poetry. 122 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the use of colorful glazed tiles added to the visual splendor of these structures.geometric patterns: geometric designs, including stars, polygons, and interlacing lines, were prominent in timurid decorative art. these patterns were meticulously crafted and symbolized the intricate nature of the universe in islamic art. calligraphy: the timurid period saw a flourishing of calligraphy as a decorative element. skilled calligraphers adorned buildings with verses from the quran or excerpts from poetry, beautifully integrating written words into the architectural design. floral and vegetal motifs: the use of floral and vegetal motifs, such as vines, leaves, and flowers, adorned the surfaces of buildings. these motifs symbolized growth, rejuvenation, and the natural world's beauty, adding grace and elegance to the architectural decorations. notable structures: gur-e-amir mausoleum: built by timur in samarkand, this mausoleum served as his final resting place. it features a grand dome embellished with azure tiles and intricate geometric patterns. registan square: located in samarkand, this iconic square features three grand madrasas adorned with mesmerizing tilework and ornate portals. bibi-khanym mosque: constructed by timur in samarkand, this mosque is a testament to the grandeur of timurid architecture, with its colossal entrance and detailed ornamentation. the architectural decorations of the timurid period in central asia remain a testament to the cultural richness, artistic innovation, and intellectual achievements of that era. they continue to inspire awe and admiration, serving as a reminder of a time when art and architecture flourished under the patronage of amir timur and his successors. during the timurid period, central asia experienced a renaissance in arts and architecture, with timur and his descendants fostering an environment of cultural exchange and patronage. here's a deeper dive into the architectural decorations and their specific features: exterior decoration style of bibikhanim madrasa architectural innovations: complex tilework: timurid craftsmen were skilled in creating complex tilework known as "kashi-kari." this intricate mosaic tile decoration often featured geometric patterns, arabesques, and stylized floral motifs. the use of vibrant colors, including shades of turquoise, cobalt blue, and emerald green, added to the visual appeal. 123 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us muqarnas and stalactite vaults: the timurids elevated the use of muqarnas, a decorative element resembling stalactites, in their architecture. these intricate honeycomb-like structures adorned ceilings, domes, and portals, showcasing exceptional craftsmanship and geometric precision. muqarnas ornaments calligraphic elegance: calligraphy reached new heights during the timurid period. skilled calligraphers adorned buildings with verses from the quran, poetry, and phrases praising rulers, integrating the written word seamlessly into architectural elements. innovative domes and minarets: the timurids constructed domes of various sizes and shapes, often with a double-layered structure to enhance their stability and grandeur. minarets, tall and slender towers used for the call to prayer, featured intricate designs and patterns, sometimes adorned with bands of inscriptional decoration. prominent architectural sites: samarkand: as the capital of the timurid empire, samarkand flourished as a center of architectural innovation. the registan square, with its three imposing madrasas-ulugbek, sherdor, and tilya-kori-showcases the pinnacle of timurid decorative artistry. bukhara: this city also boasts remarkable timurid-era monuments, including the kalyan minaret and mosque complex, showcasing intricate tilework and exquisite calligraphic designs. herat (in present-day afghanistan): under the patronage of sultan husayn bayqara, herat became a cultural hub. the musalla complex, with its stunning mihrab (prayer niche) and tilework, exemplifies timurid architectural finesse. ferghana valley: timurid influence extended to this region, where structures like the akhsikent archaeological site bear testament to the decorative arts and architectural styles of the era. legacy and cultural impact: the timurid architectural legacy extends beyond central asia, influencing subsequent islamic architecture in the region and beyond. elements like tilework, geometric patterns, and calligraphic adornments continued to be embraced and evolved in mughal architecture in india and safavid architecture in persia.the architectural decorations of the timurid period remain a source of fascination and inspiration, reflecting a time when craftsmanship, artistic expression, and cultural patronage reached unparalleled heights in central asia. through their enduring monuments, the timurids left an indelible mark on the landscape and cultural identity of the region, captivating generations with their beauty and sophistication. certainly! the timurid period in central asia, led by amir timur, marked an era of remarkable cultural, artistic, and architectural achievements. architecturally, this period is defined by grand structures embellished with intricate decorations and innovative designs. timurid 124 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us architecture showcased distinctive features like elaborate tilework, complex geometric patterns, and graceful calligraphy adorning mosques, mausoleums, and palaces. tiles used in historical monuments key characteristics included the use of vibrant colors in mosaic tiles, the incorporation of muqarnas in ceilings and portals, and the elevation of calligraphy as a decorative element. the monumental domes, minarets, and portals displayed exceptional craftsmanship and geometric precision. prominent sites such as samarkand, bukhara, and herat became centers of architectural brilliance, hosting magnificent monuments like the registan square, kalyan minaret, and the musalla complex. these structures embodied the pinnacle of timurid decorative artistry, influencing subsequent islamic architecture in the region and beyond. the timurid architectural legacy continues to captivate with its beauty and sophistication, leaving an enduring mark on the cultural identity of central asia. the era stands as a testament to a flourishing period of artistic innovation, cultural exchange, and patronage, inspiring admiration for generations to come. list of used literatures 1. axmedov b. a. amir temur. jizn i obщestvenno-politicheskaya deyatelnost / mukminova r. g., pugachenkova g. a. ; pod red. rtveladze e. v.. — tashkent : universitet, 1999. — 263 s. 2. yusupova m. a. k problemam izucheniya zodchestva stran tsentralnoy azii xvi—xvii vekov // obщestvennie nauki v uzbekistane. — 1995. — № 5-6-7-8. 3. рахимов, л. а., & луқмонов, д. қ. (2023). қадимги ҳиндистон даврида саидлар ва лўдилар архитектурасининг илмий таҳлили. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(2), 85-88. 4. rahimov, l. (2022). die rolle von babur bei der architektur in indien und die prinzipien der entwicklung der architektur der baburiden. models and methods for increasing the efficiency of innovative research, 2(17), 26-32. 5. abduazizovich, r. l., & kilichevich, l. d. (2022, november). development of islamic architecture and its impact on indian architecture. in interdiscipline innovation and scientific research conference (vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 1-5). 6. elmuradovna, j. e. (2021). the architecture of karshi castle, the establishment, the past and the present. middle european scientific bulletin, 18, 247-252. 7. elmuradovna, j. e. (2021). bukhara registan: past and present. international journal of progressive sciences and technologies, 25(1), 160-166. 125 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us jurayeva, e. e. (2023). architecture of tashkent registon square. finland international scientific journal of education, social science & humanities, 11(1), 190-203. 8. uralov, a., & jurayeva, e. (2018). architecture of nakibbek public bath of 17th and 18th centuries in kattakurgan city. architecture, 4, 21-2018. 9. жураева, э. э. (2018). история формирования и строительство народной бани-" хаммам" xvii в. актуальные научные исследования в современном мире, (4-12), 80-83. 10. elmuradovna, j. e. (2023). tarixiy shaharlardagi chetel maydonlarining arxitekturasini tahlil qilish. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(1), 20-26. 11. jurayeva, e., & nurmuradova, y. (2023). architecture of historical monuments of shahrisabz. central asian journal of arts and design, 4(10), 6-10. 12. jurayeva, e., & nurmuradova, y. (2023). o ‘zbekiston tarixiy obidalaridagi bezaklar tahlili. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(10), 1-4. 13. elmuradovna, j. e. (2023). scientific recommendations on restoration of the historical appearance of anti-register not preserved. telematique, 22(01), 275-281. 15. elmuradovna, j. e., & qoʼziyevich, e. i. (2023). buxoro аrkining аrxitekturаviy shаkllаnishi. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(2), 75-78. 15. elmuradovna, j. e. (2023). taniqli arxitektorlar ijodini o’rganish. arxitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar jurnali, 2(3), 117-133. 16.elmuradovna, j. e. (2023). historical city centers and their significance. journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture, 2(3), 28-32. 17.olmos, j., & lobar, k. promising methods for treating colored wastewater in light industry enterprises. 18.juraev, o. j., & sh, k. l. (2021). determination of sorption ability of acetate cellulose membrane and polymer additives. journal of advanced scientific research (issn: 0976-9595), 1(1). 19.bazarovna, n. y. (2023). the early formation and rise of miraculous landscape compositions. journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture, 2(3), 18-22. 20.bazarovna, n. y. (2023). oʼzbekistondа turаr-joylаr аrxitekturаsining tаrixiy shаkllаnishi. central asian journal of arts and design, 358-362. 21.bazarovna, n. y., & farxod o’g’li, o. f. (2023). tarixiy va madaniy boyliklarimizni muhofaza qilish va uni kelajak avlodga yetkazish. central asian journal of arts and design, 176-180. 22.bazarovna, n. y., & dzhakhongirovna, a. p. (2023). history of garden art and landscape architecture. central asian journal of arts and design, 343-347. 23.nematullayeva, m., & normurodova, y. (2023). arxitekturaviy loyihalash asoslari. the role of exact sciences in the era of modern development, 1(1), 43-46. 60 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 1, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 investigation of the effect of liquid metal on the furnace lining during the liquidation of steel alloys in an electric arc furnace bekchanova valida, gaybullaev murodilla namangan engineering – construction institute saidmakhamadov nosir, tadjiev nuritdin, rizaeva nigora tashkent state technical university abstract: in this article, the technology of destruction and restoration of furnace lining during steel liquefaction in an electric arc furnace has been developed, thereby increasing the service life of furnace lining. as a result, resource and energy savings were achieved by increasing the technological process. also, based on the regeneration of the furnace lining in the manufacturing plant, the life of the lining has been improved, and this improved technology has been further improved by researchers, and the life of the furnace lining has been further improved. keywords: lining, wear – resistance, corrosion, magnesite, magnesite powder, solid materials, induction furnace, electric arc furnace. introduction today, as a result of the development of science and technology, the machine – building and foundry industries are rapidly developing. the development of foundry and mechanical engineering requires a lot of research on the production of high – strength, easy – to – use, cheap, accurate materials and increasing their durability [1]. there are conflicting issues in the selection of materials for machine parts and in the technological process of their processing. for example, the details used in the creation of machines and mechanisms that can ensure long – term risk – free operation should be cheap, compact, neat, and made of high-quality materials. it goes without saying that material handling causes a dramatic increase in cost [2]. therefore, it is important to choose a liquefaction furnace in order to obtain high-quality bulk products by liquefaction of solid materials. currently, one of the modern electric furnaces is the electric arc furnace, and until the 1950s, the industrial technology of electric arc steelmaking was widely used only for the production of low – carbon, high – quality or alloy steels. in the 1960s, the emergence of the ultra – high – power arc furnace and the rapid development of quality steel production technology [3,4]. after the middle of the 80s, pure steel production and the introduction of the products of steelmaking enterprises in the electric furnace to the period of great change, in particular, a series of scientific research on improving the quality of the alloy in the production of steel from large – scale social steel scraps, reducing energy consumption by shortening the period of liquefaction works are being carried out [5,6]. 61 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us materials and methods currently, electric arc and induction furnaces are widely used for liquidizing cast parts made of high – quality steel alloys. one of the main advantages of the electric arc furnace is that it is characterized by a large possibility of obtaining quality castings [7]. 1 – picture. the process of loading solids into an electric arc furnace in the upper part of the furnace there are graphite electrodes, the dimensions of the electrodes are 200 – 600 mm depending on the size of the furnace, and the length reaches 3 meters [8]. furnaces are divided into acidic and basic processes. basic furnaces are common, and the walls are made of magnesite bricks, and the bottom is covered with magnesite powder. the dimensions of the temperature field through the lining of the furnace made of fire – resistant materials made it possible to determine the following, that is, to determine the liquefaction and fire resistance. two boundary conditions were chosen to solve this mathematical problem stationary. the temperature and heat exchange in the shell is one of the simplest cases, where the conditions between the solution and the refractory material are represented by convective heat exchange. the first can be measured, the second can be estimated. with this information, the thermal conductivity of the materials and using the fem approach, from the heat transfer solution to the refractory lining, the temperature at each node is known mce grids. the specific temperature is the liquid limit, and the specific temperature of refractory materials is called the “node”[9 – 13]. however, corrosion changes the geometry of the system so that the area in front of t is no longer functional as the furnace refractory material leaves the new temperature distribution consolidation. a new geometric equation was calculated to liquefy and corrode each of the nodes at the fire resistance limit. this equation, the characterization of the wear process control mechanism is formally considered empirical, and the equation based on the phenomenological analysis of the wear phenomena was calculated as the control mechanism of this very complex process [14]. the temperature dependence of the parameters is used for a special corrosion equation, taking into account the difference between nodes and neighboring nodes. with this formulation, the corrosion rate is expressed at a node, in units of length per unit time, as a function of ti and the temperature difference ∆ti between this node and its neighbor: v(corrosion)i= ʃ(ti; δti); l t       (1) 62 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the decay is determined by assuming that the temperature at each node remains constant throughout the time interval ∆t: (wear)i = v (corrosion)i ∆t ; [l] (2) as the system geometry was changed, the liner decay rate was obtained through an iterative process to solve the new temperature field. if each iterative cycle occurs after a certain t [15], the process of calculating a node in n – iterations is as follows: temperature at node i according to fem: ti,n – 1 corrosion rate at node i: v(corrosion)i= f( ;∆ ) at decay time t iteration at node n: (wear)i= v(corrosion)i ∆t determining the new geometry and calculating the new temperature field t determined the melting of the liner and thus the temperature of the melt/melting interface. it should be noted that the attack occurred and the melts/refractory interface detected the following [16]. s surface is built into nodes using decay – corrosion equations. this two-dimensional grid is the fem grid used to calculate the temperature and the decay area is determined independent of the number of digital pixels. 2 – picture. the nwm and fem gratings were used for the furmen zone of the pierce-smith converter, which indicated the geometric difference between the surfaces. the red dots represent the nodes of the nwm surface [17] results in the results, it can be seen that for the initial conditions, the results obtained from the continuous wear – resistant measuring instrument shown in fig. 2 are presented. the average life of the liner was 0.52 cm×h – 1. when the liquid metal was removed only 65 times, the corrosion rate of the furnace interior was observed [18 – 24]. during this initial period, the lining corrosion control mechanism determined the level of corrosion. the fem-calculated temperature field is formed using the outer wall temperature as boundary conditions. the value of 18 w \ u003d m 2 \ u003d k – 1 for ferroalloy and convective heat transfer coefficient was adjusted by experimental decay measurements of flame resistant lining results. the inner layer (lining) of the electric arc 63 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us furnace for liquefaction of high – quality steel alloys was developed on the basis of the above – mentioned technology [25]. 1 – graph. graph of increasing the service life of the liner using magnesite powder as a refractory material as can be seen in graph 1, magnesite brick was used as refractory material, and its service life was increased by repairing its damaged areas using magnesite powder and slag [26]. as shown in graph 1, the lining composition used by the enterprise and proposed by the researchers was compared based on several experiments. the change in the service life of the lining was studied by spraying the refractory material recycled by the enterprise from 30 to 100% on the damaged surface of the lining after removing the liquid metal from the furnace [27 – 33]. if 30% recycled refractory material is used, the lifetime is 100 hours, 35% is 200 hours, 40% is 300 hours, 50% is 380 hours, 60% is 450 hours, 70% is 480 hours, 80% is 520 hours, 90 550 hours at % and 580 hours at 100%. 3 – picture. a) the previous condition of the lining b) liner view of the result to expand the number of connections, many simulations changed the design of the lining using other materials with higher thermal conductivity ℷ and changed the external cooling conditions [34, 35]. before analysis, the reason for the best design with a high level of heat loss is obvious. an isotherm corresponding to the hardening of a high – quality lining ferro marginal alloy, recommended for refractory materials in zones b, c and d, was transferred [36 – 39]. 64 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion in order to increase the service life of electric arc furnace lining, the corrosion resistance of refractory materials was increased when slag in liquid metal was saturated with cao and mgo. the service life of the electric arc furnace liner has been increased. using the equations, the characteristics of the wear process, the control mechanism, were formally calculated empirically, and a very complex process control mechanism was created to determine the wear phenomena. the study of the effect of the temperature of the liquefied steel alloy on the corrosion of the furnace lining and the increase of the service life of the furnace lining was achieved. references 1. bekchanova valida, chorshanbiyeva lobar, gulyamov saidsulton, urinboyev umidjon, eshimov doston. high – quality steel liquefaction technology from fine slag materials // eurasian journal of engineering and technology www.geniusjournals.org volume 18| may 2023 issn: 2795 – 7640[ 14] nosir s. et al. development of technology for obtaining quality castings from steel alloys //eurasian journal of engineering and technology. – 2022. – т. 5. – с. 135-138. 2. bekchanova valida, turakhodjaev nodir, chorshanbiyeva lobar, gulyamov saidsulton, urinboyev umidjon, eshimov doston. technology of increasing the service period of liquidation furnaces based liquid shibba //eurasian journal of engineering and technology. issn: 2795-7640. www.geniusjournals.org. – 2023 .c.85 – 89. 3. turakhodjaev n.d., bekjanova v.b., turaev a.n., abdullaev f. k., asatov s.n.. improvement of steel liquidation technology in electric arc furnace// eurasian journal of engineering and technology. volume 1| november, 2021 issn: 2795 – 7640. 8 – 11 4. valida b. et al. development of technology of liquefaction of steel alloys in electric furnaces //spanish journal of innovation and integrity. – 2022. t. 8. 65 – 69. 5. bekmirzaev, s., saidmakhamadov, n., & ubaydullaev, m. (2016). obtaining sand-clay casting". theory and practice of modern. russia, (4 (12)), 112. 6. саидмахамадов н. и др. технология предотврашения пор в отливах //экономика и социум. – 2019. – №. 4. – с. 661-672. 7. саидмахамадов н. и др. общая технология производства порошково констукционных материалов //экономика и социум. – 2019. – №. 4. – с. 673-680. 8. саидмахамадов н., хайдаров у., эгамбердиев б. улучшение подготовки технологий методом специального сливания //экономика и социум. – 2019. – №. 4. – с. 651-660. 9. turakhodjaev, n., saidmakhamadov, n., turakhujaeva, s., akramov, m., turakhujaeva, a., & turakhodjaeva, f. (2020). effect of metal crystallation period on product quality. theoretical & applied science, (11), 23-31. 10. turakhodjaev, n. d., saidmakhamadov, n. m., zokirov, r. s., odilov, f. u., & tashkhodjaeva, k. u. (2020). analysis of defects in white cast iron. theoretical & applied science, (6), 675-682. 11. shirinkhon, t., azizakhon, t., & nosir, s. (2020). methods for reducing metal oxidation when melting aluminum alloys. international journal of innovations in engineering research and technology, 7(10), 77-82. 65 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 12. djahongirovich, t. n., & muysinaliyevich, s. n. (2020). important features of casting systems when casting alloy cast irons in sand-clay molds. academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal, 10(5), 1573-1580. 13. nodir, t., nosir, s., shirinkhon, t., erkin, k., azizakhon, t., & mukhammadali, a. (2021). development of technology to increase resistance of high chromium cast iron. the american journal of engineering and technology, 3(03), 85-92. 14. nodir t. et al. development of 280x29nl alloy liquefaction technology to increase the hardness and corrosion resistance of cast products //international journal of mechatronics and applied mechanics. – 2021. – т. 154. – с. 2021. 15. turakhodjaev n. et al. quality improvement of the steel melting technology in an electric arc furnace //academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal. – 2021. – т. 11. – №. 7. – с. 48-54. 16. saidmakhamadov n., abdullaev k., khasanov j. теория и практика современной науки //теория и практика современной науки учредители: ооо" институт управления и социально-экономического развития". – №. 2. – с. 3-8. 17. nosir s. et al. development of high chromium white cast iron liquefaction technology //eurasian journal of engineering and technology. – 2022. – т. 4. – с. 123-127. 18. nosir s. et al. development of technology for obtaining quality castings from steel alloys //eurasian journal of engineering and technology. – 2022. – т. 5. – с. 135-138. 19. nosir s. et al. technology for obtaining high quality castings from resistance white cast iron //eurasian journal of engineering and technology. – 2022. – т. 5. – с. 139-148. 20. nosir s. et al. technology to increase the hardness and resistance of high–chromium white cast iron //european multidisciplinary journal of modern science. – 2022. – т. 6. – с. 665 – 670. 21. nosir s. et al. development of technology for production of wear – resistant cast products //middle european scientific bulletin. – 2022. – t. 25. 516 – 522. 22. nosir s. et al. improvement of the technology of obtaining high – chromium wear – resistant white cast iron //spanish journal of innovation and integrity. – 2022. t. 07. 498 – 504. 23. nosir s. et al. study of the effect of copper addition on secondary carbides with high chromium wear – resistant white cast iron //international journal of innovative analyses and emerging technology. – 2022. t. 2. 37 – 43. 24. valida b. et al. development of technology of liquefaction of steel alloys in electric furnaces //spanish journal of innovation and integrity. – 2022. t. 8. 65 – 69. 25. nosir s. et al. development of quality steel alloy liquidation technology //american journal of interdisciplinary research and development. – 2022. – т. 7. – с. 74-83. 26. valida b. et al. explore of the technology of liquefaction of high–quality ingots from steel alloys //czech journal of multidisciplinary innovations. – 2022. – т. 8. – с. 1-7. 27. nosir s. et al. improvement of technology of liquefaction of gray cast iron alloy //global scientific review. – 2022. – т. 6. – с. 19-28. 28. nosir s., bokhodir k. development of liquefaction technology 280x29nl to increase the strength and brittleness of castings //international conference on reliable systems engineering. – springer, cham, 2023. – с. 105-115. 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 29. valida b. et al. technology of increasing the service life of based lining based on recycling //central asian journal of theoretical and applied science. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 11. – с. 43-48. 30. nosir s. et al. cast iron liquefaction technology //editorial board. – 2022. – с. 812. 31. nosir s. et al. development new brands of resistance white cast irons //european journal of research development and sustainability. – 2022. – t. 3. №. 1. – c. 116-120. 32. valida b. et al. improvement of the technology of liquefaction of a500 low–carbon steel alloy in an electric arc furnace //central asian journal of theoretical and applied science. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 12. – с. 159-164. 33. valida b. et al. extending the service life of the electric arc furnace lining //central asian journal of theoretical and applied science. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 12. – с. 153-158. 34. valida b. et al. improvement of the technology of liquidation of a500 brand low carbon steel alloy in the induction furnace //central asian journal of theoretical and applied science. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 12. – с. 1-6. 35. saidmakhamadov n. m. et al. development of technology for liquefaction of steel alloys: development of technology for liquefaction of steel alloys. – 2023. 36. saidmakhamadov n. et al. improvement of the technology of casting shaft components from 35xgcl brand steel in an electric arc furnace //american journal of interdisciplinary research and development. – 2023. – т. 15. – с. 59-66. 37. saidmakhamadov n., abdullaev k., khasanov j. development of 280x29nl brand resistance white cast iron liquefaction technology //теория и практика современной науки. – 2022. – №. 2 (80). – с. 3-8. 38. saidmakhamadov n. et al. improvement of liquidation technology of construction steels //техника и технологии машиностроения. – 2022. – с. 57-62. 39. saidmakhamadov n. m. et al. improve casting properties of steel alloy //miasto przyszłości. – 2023. – т. 40. – с. 323-328. 16 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 spectrophotometric determination of zinc(ii) in solutions samples using 1-azobenzene-3-(3-hydroxyl-2-pyridyl)-triazene in the surkhandarya region xolboyeva m department of chemical technology, termiz institute of engineering and technology. termez, uzbekistan, smanova z. department of analytical chemistry, national university of uzbekistan abstract. in this paper has been studied a new sensitive and selective chromogenic reagent, 1azobenzene-3-(3-hydroxyl-2-pyridyl)-triazene (abhpt), was synthesized. it has been found that reacts with zinc (ii) in a borax buffer solution (ph 10.0) to form 2: 1 red complexes with the maximum absorption at 530 nm. the apparent molar absorptivity of the complex is 2.6 × 105 l/(mol cm). a new method for the spectrophotometric determination of trace zinc(ii) was developed. beer’s law is obeyed for 0–15 μg of zinc (ii) in 25 ml of solution. the limit of quantification, limit of detection, and relative standard deviation are 0.74 ng/ml, 0.25 ng/ml, and 1.0%, respectively. keywords: zinc (ii), absorption, 1-azobenzene-3-(3-hydroxyl-2-pyridyl)-triazene, surkhandarya region. introduction being a type of trace element both in organisms and human bodies, zinc (ii) has important biological functions [1]. excess zinc (ii) may lead to many serious diseases such as lung cancer [2]. thus, the determination of zinc (ii) in biological samples is becoming increasingly important. methods such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry (faas) [3], electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (eaas) [4], inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (icpaes) [5], differential pulse cathodic stripping voltammetry (dpcsv), fast neutron radiochemical activation analysis (nra) [6], and spectrophotometry have been used for the determination of zinc (ii). among these technologies, faas is reliable down to about 0.2 mg/l and, hence, is not suitable for the analysis of zinc (ii) in solution samples. eaas, icpaes, dpcsv, and nra are generally used to determine zinc (ii) at low concentrations; but, in order to meet the requirements of accuracy and precision, some preconcentration steps must be used. spectrophotometric methods are simple and economical. however, a sensitive, selective, and stable chromogenic reagent is acid, p-chlorobenzenediazoaminoazobenzene, and 2-hydroxy 5-nitrophenyldiazoaminoazobenzene. among these reagents, the reagents mentioned in [7] have a low sensitivity and so are not suitable for the determination of nickel in solution samples. the reagents in [8] have a higher sensitivity. however, preconcentration steps are required. the 17 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us reagents in [9] have a high sensitivity and simplicity reaction conditions, but they have only been applied to determine nickel in alloy samples. required. the main reagents to determine nickel reported in the literature are p-acetylarsenazo, 2,4-dibromobenzenediazoaminoazobenzene, 4-(2pyridylazo)-resorcinol, butanedione oxime, diethyldithiocarbamate,1-(2-pyridylazo)-2-naphthol, α-furildioxime, ammonium-2-amino-1-cyclohexene-1-dithiocarboate, 2-[2-(5methylbenzothiazoly)-azo]-5-dimethyl aminobenzoic acid, pchlorobenzenediazoaminoazobenzen, and 2-hydroxy5-nitrophenyldiazoaminoazobenzen. among these reagents, the reagents mentioned in [10] have a low sensitivity and so are notsuitable for the determination of zinc (ii) in solution samples. the reagents in [11] have a higher sensitivity. but, preconcentration steps are required. the reagents in [12] have a high sensitivity and simple reaction conditions, but they have only been applied to determine zinc (ii) in alloy samples. triazene is a very sensitive chromogenic reagent. there are many research reports on using it to determine cadmium and mercury [13]. a new triazene reagent (abhpt) for the determination of zinc (ii) in solution samples has been synthesized in our laboratory. it has a high sensitivity and simple reaction conditions. thus, abhpt was used for the spectrophotometric determination of trace zinc (ii) in solution samples in the surkhandarya region following work. 2. experimental part materials. absorbances were measured on a lambda 35uv/vis spectrophotometer (perkinelmer, united states) with a 1-cm cell. the ph values were measured with a model phs– 3c meter (shanghai leici analytical instrument factory, china). a standard stock solution of zinc (ii) (1.0 mg/ml) was prepared by dissolving 0.1000 g of high purity zinc (ii) (99.99%) in 15 ml of 8 m nitric acid. the solution was boiled gently to expel brown fumes, then the solution was cooled and diluted to 100 ml with deionized water. a standard working solution (5.0 µg/ml) was prepared by dilution with water. methods. synthesis of abhpt. here, 0.05 mol (10 g) of p-aminoazobenzene was added in 30 ml 2 : 1 hcl and stirred well. sodium nitrite solution (dissolve 3.45 g nano2 in 40 ml of h2o) was added dropwise while maintaining a reaction temperature below 5°c. after 200 g/l of sodium carbonate solution were added to the above solution, the ph was adjusted to 3–4. next, 5.5 g of 2-amino-3-hydroxypyridine solid was dissolved in 50 ml of ethanol and then added dropwise to the above diazotized solution. the ph was adjusted to 6–7 with absolute sodium acetate. after 2 h, the precipitate was filtered and washed with deionized water and 50% ethanol, respectively, then dried under the infrared lamp. next, 2.4 g of abhpt was obtained, with a yield of 75.5% general procedure. no more than 15 µg of zinc were transferred into a 25 ml of calibrated flask, 2.0 ml of borax buffer solution (ph 10.0), 2.0 ml of 2.0% (m/v) triton x-100, and 1.0 ml of 0.02% abhpt were added successively, and the solution was diluted to the mark with water and mixed well. the absorbance at 530 nm in a 1-cm cell was measured against the reagent blank. the reagent blank was prepared in a similar manner, but without zinc (ii). all measurements were performed at room temperature. results and discussion absorption spectra. under the experimental conditions, the absorption spectra of abhpt and the abhpt-zn(ii) complex were scanned, the absorption curves are shown in fig. 1. 18 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 1. absorption spectra of (1) abhpt against water and (2) abhpt–ni(ii) against the reagent blank. δ = 100 nm. the absorption maximum of abhpt is at 430 nm and the abhpt-zn(ii) complex gives an absorption peak at 530 nm. the difference between the two peaks is 100 nm, and is easy to distinguish. therefore, a wavelength of 530 nm was chosen for the spectrophotometric determination of nickel in the following study. the effect of acidity. the effects of various ph values on the abhpt-zn(ii) complex formation reaction were tested. it was found that the absorbance of the complex is almost unchanged in the ph value range of 9.0–11.0. therefore, a ph-10.0 borax buffer solution was used. the effect of the volume of the ph-10.0 borax buffer solution was tested. the absorbance increased sharply with an increasing volume of buffer solution up to 1.0 ml, and then tended to remain constant within the range 1.0–3.0 ml. above 3.0 ml, the absorbance decreased slowly. thus, the addition of 2.0 ml of borax buffer solution (ph 10.0) was recommended. the characteristics of the complex. the color complex could be formed immediately at 0–20 c. the absorbance of the complex could be stable for at least 48 h under 20°c. the composition ratio of the zn(ii)–abhpt complex obtained using job’s method and the mole ratio methods was 1:2. according to the structure of abhpt, we think that it is a plane conjugate system and it has a cs symmetry. we optimized the structure of abhpt with the am1 half experiential method [14], and calculated the mulliker charge for all of the atoms. the result shows that the oxygen atom (o) and the nitrogen atoms (n1, n2) have the highest charge density, and so they are ready to bond to zn(ii). the probable structure of abhpt–zn(ii) is thus suggested in fig. 2, which is similar with the complex studied in. fig. 2. structure of the abhpt–zn(ii) complex 19 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us analytical characteristics. the calibration graph was constructed according to the usual procedure. beer’s law was obeyed for 0–15 µg of zinc in 25 ml solution at 530 nm. the apparent molar absorptivity of the complex was 2.6 × 105 l/(mol cm). the limit of detection as defined by iupac [29] and the limit of quantification [30] were found to be 0.25 and 0.74 ng/ml, respectively. the relative standard deviation was 1.0% for 11 determinations of 5.0 µg zn(ii) in 25 ml solution. the simple linear regression calibration equation is a = 0.172c (µg/25ml) + 0.026 with a correlation coefficient of 0.9997. adsorbent characteristics of the sulfhydryl dextran gel for metal ions. sulfhydryl dextran gel has an excellent sorption ability to heavy metal ions such as ag + , hg 2+ , cu 2+ , sn 2+ , zn 2+ , pb 2+ , cd 2+ , co 2+ , and ni 2+ . however, when the acidity was adjusted to 1.0 m hcl, only ag + , hg 2+ , cu 2+ , ni 2+ , and pb 2+ can be adsorbed quantitatively with sulfhydryl dextran gel, and zinc is not adsorbed when held in a water solution. hence, first, the acidity of the solution was adjusted to 1.0 m hcl with a concentrated hcl, and, next, 0.1 g sulfhydryl dextran gel was added. ag + , hg 2+ , cu 2+ , zn 2+ , and pb 2+ were adsorbed completely, and, thus, their effect on the determination of zinc would be eliminated. conclusion the chromogenic reaction was immediately completed and the formed complex was stable for at least 48 h at 0–20°c. the proposed method is sensitive, and the molar absorptivity is 2.6 × 105 l/(mol cm). the sensitivity is higher than that of faas. compared with other reagents for the spectrophotometric determination of zinc. the proposed method is very selective in the surkhandarya region. references 1. anke, m., angelow, l., glei, m., et al., fresenius j. anal. chem., 1995, vol. 352, no. 1, p. 92. 2. wang, k., nickel: trace elements in life science, peking: chinese measurement, 1991. 3. li, y., jiang, y., and yan, x.p., talanta, 2004, vol. 64, no. 3, p. 758. 4. teissedre, p.l., cabrera vique, c., cabanis, m.t, et al., am. j. enol. viticult., 1998, vol. 49, no. 2, p. 205. 5. saavedra, y., gonzalez, a., fernandez, p., et al., spectrochim. acta, b, 2004, vol. 59. no. 4, p. 533. 6. ivanova, e., benkhedda, k., and adams, f., j. anal. at. spectrom., 1998, vol. 13, no. 6. p. 527. 7. bermejo-barrera, p., moreda-pineiro, a., and bermejobarrera, a., talanta, 2001, vol. 57, no. 5, p. 969. 8. ioannidou, m.d., zachariadis, g.a., anthemidis, a.n.,et al., talanta, 2005, vol. 65, no. 1, p. 92. 9. kiptoo, j.k., catherine ngila, j., and sawula, g.m., talanta, 2004, vol. 64, no. 1, p. 54. 10. zu jianhua, tong long, liu xinwen, sun guisheng. hdpe chelate membranes prepared by preirradiation grafting for adsorption of heavy metal ions // j. appl. polym. sci. 2008. №2. т.107. – с.1252-1256. 11. rahangdale s. s., zade a. b., gurnule w. b. terpolymer resin ii: synthesis, characterization, and ion-exchange properites of 2,4-dihydroxyacetophenonedithiooxamideformaldehyde terpolymers // j. appl. polym. sci. 2008. №2. т.108. – с.747-756. 20 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 12. wang bing, xiao feng, huang lei. recovery properties of polysulfone hollow fiber chelating membrane modified with thiourea for mercury (ii) // j. donghua univ. (engl. ed.). 2007. №1. т.24. – с.69-74. 13. tarase m. v., zade a. b., gurnule w. b. resin i: synthesis, characterization, and ionexchange properties of terpolymer resins derived from 2,4-dihydroxypropiophenone, biuret, and formaldehyde // j. appl. polym. sci. 2008. №2. т.108. – с.738-746. 101-103 improving the effectiveness of the lesson by creating a problem situation 101 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 improving the effectiveness of the lesson by creating a problem situation j. a. qosimov. head of the department of engineering graphics and design theory d. a. karimova a student of the direction of hydropower objects in irrigation systems abstract: the problem is that the student is aware of new knowledge, new methods, new advanced technology and behavioral problems. if the student does not get the starting point for his creative search to overcome the difficulty, he cannot think about it. so the student does not accept it to solve it. keywords: problems, teaching methods, new pedagogical technologies, problem solving, logic ideas. what is the problem situation? the essence of a problematic situation in teaching is that it causes difficulty. it can be overcome by the student with his own thinking activity. the problem situation should be significant to the student. its occurrence should be related to the student’s previous experience and interest and should ultimately include personal issues as well as the general problem situation. fundamentals of problem-based education american psychologist, philosopher, and educator j. dewey (1859 1952) opened an experimental school in chicago in 1894. develops a curriculum for active learning in play and labor. works to provide students with new knowledge by creating and solving problematic issues and situations in the classroom. the reason for the problematic situation in solving technical problems is the appearance of schematic images and the direct incompatibility of the technical device in the constructive design. an alternative view of problembased learning is heuristic learning. rules for organizing problem situations: theoretical and practical exercises set for students should be such that they acquire new knowledge. let the task set before the students correspond to their intellectual potential. when faced with more complex situations, a system of sequential application of problematic situations should be established. the first problematic situation here is the need for students to want to know. procedure for applying the programmed method. then the teacher will have to implement a whole system. in this case, each issue consists of separate parts on the basis of the program and is developed independently or with the participation of the teacher to perform the task in a separate or focused method. when the problem situation reaches the "nearest" development zone (zone), students can solve the problem by using the limits of their knowledge and the level of intellectual and positive activity. the role of the teacher in the problem situation the nature and objectives of problem-based learning introduce sufficiently new assimilations into the teacher’s work. they include preparing material for students, creating situational stages, responding to them, mastering the task given to students very well, knowing how to create a problematic situation and get out of it at any time, providing students with information on the topic. here, the teacher has to take the lead 102 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in solving the problem that arises in the problem situation together with the students and has to stand on a much higher level than them. it is the responsibility of the students to guide them in solving the problem. the main concepts of the problem-based learning complex are the problem situation, the “problem” and the “problem problem”. the problem situation is the student’s conscious difficulty in acquiring new knowledge, new methods, new modern technologies, and actions. if a student is not given the initial information for his or her creative pursuit to overcome adversity, there will be no food to think about. for example, in geometric constructions, when a circle is divided into six equal parts, and a regular hexagon is made, some of the sides of the hexagon may become smaller or larger. you have to fix it by looking for what caused such a problem. studies have shown that the center lines of a circle are not perpendicular to each other. when you redraw, the result is correct. of course, this problem is the result of neglect. students, for example, in the course of independent study on the topic of cutting, some of them do nonstandard work (figure 1, a, b). figure 1. nonstandard work (a, b). an analysis of the cuts made can lead to the following conclusions: all students correctly understood the surface of the detail on which the cut was to be made. the groove on the surface was misunderstood by some. therefore, an error was made. after analyzing how this problem arose, the following conclusions can be drawn: the standard requirements were not explained in full and in detail by the teacher when passing the cut topic, or some elements were not paid attention to during the explanation process. as a result, students have different perceptions. the course process was not interesting, exciting, with little attention paid to standard requirements. some students did not pay attention to the topic because they were bored in class. the lesson was not consolidated at the required level, i.e. the knowledge acquired by the students was not satisfactorily tested by the teacher using question-answer or various pedagogical factors. by creating problematic situations in students ’thinking activities, it helps to cultivate in them such formal qualities as curiosity, curiosity, intelligence, independence, and a desire to be creative. abu rayhan beruni (9731048), a thinker and scholar, spoke about the creation of problematic situations in the minds of students, the activity of active thinking of the student, the thorough study of the material. in his pedagogical and didactic views, he emphasized the need to reflect on various topics in the process of teaching and upbringing, not to bore the student, not to strain his memory, that is, not to strain. one wants to see and watch them all. every new event brings pleasure to a person” [1-4,7]. thus, it is possible to create a problematic situation i which students develop a passion for learning, intellectual perceptions and mental experiences related to the problem-solving process that leads to search. [1-5] the task can become a problem with the essence of this issue only if it can meet the following requirements if it makes it difficult for students to know (learn) while thinkin about the problem being studied. when students are interested in learning (learning) in every way. in the process of analysis, students rely on previous experience and knowledge. if the teacher notices that the students' interest in the topic is fading during the lesson, then it is necessary to create an artificial problem situation and draw the attention of all students to this problem situation. for example, if the lesson is devoted to the analysis of a detail (model), the teacher will address the students and ask why this hole of the detail is needed. the origin of problems does not arise by chance. to solve this problem, the pin is gradually raised upwards, the end of the thread is moved upwards, and if it is pushed back down again, it is joined by the contour of the beginning of the nest. it is impossible to get in from it because the nonthreaded part of the pin does not enter the threaded hole [3-5]. there can be many problems that students face in the learning process and its causes are also varied. when the knowledge gained in previous lessons is thorough, students are less likely to face problems. 103 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conversely, they will not be free from problems, and more and more problems will be added to their problems. as a result, the number of students taking vacant classes will increase. therefore, in order to prevent all problems in a timely manner, the teacher should eliminate the problem by creating a problematic situation in a certain part of the lesson. that is, the approach to the problem must be tackled [3-5]. the following is a list of problematic issues: what problem arises in the overall dimensions of a detail when it is drawn from the inside or outside of the thin lines relative to the contour of the detail, when the thin lines used to draw the lines are overlaid? if the detail drawing is given in m1: 1, what is the problem if its dimensions are also set in m2: 1 after copying it in m2: 1? what is the problem in generating axonometric projections? determine the problem that arises when drawing the assembly drawing in detail. what are the problems that arise when reading schematics? the above examples help to increase the effectiveness of the lesson by creating a problem situation in the teaching of drawing. references 1. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. selection of software for modeling developments and technologies. international journal of advanced science and technology, volume 28, issue 15, 15 november 2019, pp. 554558 2. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. threedimensional modelling technology for computer science education// iop conference series: earth and environmental science volume 403, issue 1, 19 december 2019, номер статьи 01217212th international scientific conference on agricultural machinery industry, interagromash 2019; don state technical universityrostovon-don; russian federation; 10 september 2019 до 13 september 2019; код 156666 3. pedagogy, a.q. under the general edition of munavarov, t. "teacher", 1996, pp. 99. 4. odilov pa, auezov m. «educational tests on drawing geometry». publishing house of tspu named after nizami. tashkent-2000. 137 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 significance of welded joints used in mechanical engineering and calculation of forces suyunova yulduz axmatovna irgashev dilmurod begmurodovich karshi institute of engineering and economics annotation: the article provides brief information about welding joints used in machine building today. we also gave brief information about the types of welded joints, their advantages, places of use, and defects that occur in them. we calculated the tension forces in welded joints through the loadings generated at the welds of welded joints and their calculation expressions, and recommendations on the length of the weld and the methods of joining given. keywords: joint, separable joint, non-separable joint, weld, butt-butt, butt-butt, contact welding, separable, weld, butt-butt, butt weld, spot, gas and electric arc. introduction it is known that cars are assembled by means of assemblies consisting of parts and nodes. compounds are divided into separable and non-separable types. non-separable joints are joints in which it is necessary to break the joint elements or rework the working surface in order to separate the machine units into individual parts. joints with rivets, welds, and tightly interlocked parts are integral joints. grooved, keyed, slotted joints are separable joints, in which, when the nodes are separated into details, the working part of the detail is not damaged. poor performance of machines, premature failure, increased noise during operation are caused by the low quality of the joint (poor fastening, poor welding, improper selection of material for the joint, etc.). joint elements are mainly considered for strength. in this case, it is necessary to ensure that the strength of the large elements is the same as the strength of the details being attached. welded joints belong to the group of non-separable joints. structures, liquid storage tanks, trusses, metal towers, casings and some details used in various industries are obtained in this way. the advantages of welded joints include: -saving of metal; in practice, it is possible to obtain details of different shapes and sizes; the strength of the welded joint under static and shock loads is almost close to the strength of the main part; high possibility of automation of the welding process; gypsum density and gas and liquid impermeability of the weld. disadvantages of welded joints include: some difficulty in determining the quality of the weld; 138 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us temperature deformation of the part being welded; the presence of a concentration of stresses; the impossibility of welding some materials. as mentioned above, welding is based on the forces used to stick the molecules of the connecting parts. to achieve this, two methods are used: heating the metals at the junction of the parts without melting them or turning them into a liquid state, and pressing the parts together. the first method is liquid welding, and the second is pressure welding. this welding is divided into gas and electric arc welding types. in the gas welding method, combustible gases (acetylene, hydrogen) are ignited between the electrodes in a certain amount and pass through the torch channel. a welding wire suitable for the composition of the metal to be welded is used. under its influence, the welding place of the welding part and the end of the welding wire are liquidized and a joint is formed. gas welding is used to join parts made of thin-walled steel and non-ferrous metals. the place to be connected by electric arc welding is heated by means of an electric arc and an electrode is liquidized to it, resulting in the formation of a weld. the molten electrode between the parts acts as a bond. arc welding uses an electrode coated with a special compound to maintain stable arc adhesion. the thickness of details can be from 1 mm to 60 mm in the case of welding by the handle method. in this case, the current is in the range of (200÷500) a. in this method, welding is used in the quantity of single units and in serial production (if the seams are short and inconveniently placed). automatic welding is performed using an electrode wire. it is mechanized to transfer the wire and move it in the direction of the seam. this method is widely used for welding steels with a thickness of 2÷130 mm and their alloys. in this case, the electric arc burns stably under the layer of liquid metal flux or in environments that are protected from air gases. in this case, the current is (100÷300)a. it is used in high-volume and mass production, as well as in aircraft construction. parts are heated with electric current (electrical contact welding) or friction welding (friction welding). electric contact welding is used to connect parts of shafts made of different steels or cutting tools (drill, tap) (fig. 3.1-a). when an electric current is passed through the parts to be welded, due to the presence of conductor resistance at the junction of the current, these surfaces heat up in a short time and become highly plastic. 139 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. types of welding when metal parts in a plastic state are pressed together with a certain force, a welded joint is formed. electric contact welding is also used in sheet welding, for example, an electrode roller rotating over the parts (the roller acts as an electrode) creates a contact weld (tape) (fig. 1-b) and a contact spot weld (fig. 1-c). it should be said that spot welding does not create a high-viscosity (hermetic) joint, therefore, it is not used for welding parts of tanks and tanks. in friction welding, connecting parts (shafts, tools) are rotated in opposite directions and pressed together (fig. 1-g). the heat generated by friction heats and welds the parts to a plastic state. depending on the mutual location of the parts to be joined, welded joints are divided into the following: three by three; overlapping; angular; mannered. end-to-end welds are called butt welds, and overlap, corner and diagonal welds are called fillet welds. triple stitches are illustrated in figure 2a. mannered. end-to-end welds are called butt welds, and overlap, corner and diagonal welds are called fillet welds. triple stitches are illustrated in figure 2a 140 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. the thickness of the details in the joint with a triple weld: a) up to 8 mm; b) – up to 26 mm; c) – up to 40 mm; g)forms of welding joints up to 60 mm. depending on the thickness of the sheets to be welded, their ends are prepared for welding with or without special processing. if the thickness of the sheets does not exceed 8 mm, then the initial processing is not performed (fig. 2a). if the thickness of the sheets is from 8 mm to 25 mm, the joining edges of the sheets are pretreated on one side. (fig. 2b) when the thickness of the sheets is from 26 to 40 mm, the edges are inserted as shown in fig. 2. when the thickness of the sheets is from 40 to 60 mm, the edges are inserted on both sides, as shown in fig. 2-g. calculation of three-by-three welded sheets consisting of the second piece (fig. 6) is performed as follows: (1) 141 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a in this: f – tensile strength, n a – sheet surface, mm2 ; v – list width, mm ; – sheet thickness, mm; [ p] – permissible stress for welding; safety coefficient of strength for the weld joint considering p 0,9 det , (2) in this: [ det] – allowable stress for the detail material, that is, the welded part of the sheet . figure 3. effect of tensile force and bending moment. if the welded part is loaded with a bending moment (fig. 3b), then the resisting moment directed along the axis of the welded section w: m w 6 m b 2 p . (3) when the sheets are attached, they are divided into front and side seams. figure 3.4-a shows two sheets joined by a two-sided opposite seam. this is where the sign of the corner seam is reflected, as shown in the drawing, it is called a corner seam with k legs. usually, the value of the chain link is connecting lists to the thickness 4 pictures. butt and butt weld joints. 142 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us will be equal. it should be taken into account that the tensile load f acts along the axis of symmetry of the joint. the joint shown in fig. 4-b is formed from the same angular side seams as the previous one. it is assumed that the stretching force acting on the welds formed when connecting the sheet and the ugolok is placed on the longitudinal line passing through the center of gravity of the ugolok cross-section, fig. 4v. in this case, the length of the side seam is determined inversely proportionally as shown in the picture. details can be attached at an angle: external corner seam (fig. 3.5-a); with the help of external and internal corner seams (fig. 5-b) and with the help of a seam with the edges joined (fig. 5-v). shaped details can be attached: corner seam with no edges (fig. 5-g); using one (fig. 5d) or two (fig. 5-ye) corner stitches with inserted edges. figure 5. types of vertical welding of details. if two parts that need to be connected, for example, a sheet, are welded on top of the other, an overlapping seam is formed. in such cases, the cross section of the welded seam is triangular and is called an angular or roller seam. the shape of the seam can be normal, concave and convex (fig. 6). 143 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 6. corner seam a convex seam significantly changes the section of the part at the joint, which, in turn, causes additional accumulation of stresses there. therefore, it is appropriate that the seams are concave. but it takes extra work to make the seams concave. therefore, most stitches are made in the normal form. but it is recommended to make the seam concave in cases of variable force. the main characteristic dimensions of angular seams are its side k and height h (fig. 5). the height of the seam depends on its length and can be determined as h=k sin 450=0.7k. 144 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us р 7-rasm. yonbosh chokli payvand birikma. the value of the tension in the side seams under the influence of tensile force is determined as follows (fig. 7). f / (2 l 0,7 k) i (4) where: 0.7 k is the thickness of the seam on the m-m section. when the side welds are symmetrical (fig. 7), the length of the seam is inversely proportional to the distance from this seam to the center of gravity of the part, i.e. l1 / l2 ye1 / ye2 , (5) in this case, the voltage value at the seams on both sides is the same and is determined as follows: f / 0,7k(l1 l2 ) ' (6 ) if a moment is applied to a joint with a side weld, the tension in the seam will be as follows: t /wp (7) here: wp – due to the twisting of the eroding section of the seam resistance torque, which is more common in practice l b for stitches f /(0,7 k l b) ' (8) the resistance of the butt welds to external forces is determined only by the value of the experimental stresses. tension is determined by the m-m cross-section, as in the side seam (8 picture) under the influence of tensile force, the value of stress generated in opposite welds (fig. 8) is determined as follows: f /(0,7 k l) ' (9) if the torque is acting, the tension is defined as:. t /w 6t /(0,7 k l 2 ) ' (10) in necessary cases, both the opposite seam and the side seam are used at the same time, if tensile force is applied, the tension in the seam is determined as follows: if both the moment and the force are acting, the tension is determined as follows. m t 0,7kl l (1/ 6)0,7kl2 (11) yon p p as a result, the total resulting from the stretching force and moment voltage value. v ' (12) if the sheets are welded with three-to-three contacts, the strength of the seam is equal to the strength of the sheet. therefore, in such cases, there is no need to calculate the seam separately. 145 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 8. point and tape contact welding. the spot weld joint is checked for shear stress, i.e: list of used literatures. 1.irgashev d.b., tovashov r.x., sadikov a.r, mamadiyorov o.t. technical analysis of plug software when working between gardens // international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – vol. 9, – issue 5, 2022. 2. mamatov f.m., fayzullayev x.a., irgashev d.b., mustapaqulov s.u., nurmanova m.s basing the longitudinal distance between the pit softeners of the combined machine.// innovative technologies special issue, 2021. – b. 125-129 3. kh ravshanov, kh fayzullaev, i ismoilov, d irgashev, s mamatov, sh mardonov. the machine for the preparation of the soil in sowing of plow crops under film. iop conference series: materials science and engineering 4. khayriddin fayzullaev, farmon mamatov, bakhadir мirzaev, dilmurod irgashev, sodik mustapakulov, akram sodikov. study on mechanisms of tillage for melon cultivation under the film e3s web of conferences 4f z i d 2 ( 13) where: z is the number of welding points; i is the number of planes that can be clipped at each point. the tape type of contact welding consists in forming a tape-shaped seam in the attached parts of the sheets (fig. 3.8, b). where the tension in the seam is determined as follows: f b l ' (14) where: b is the width of the weld seam: l is the length of the seam. summary. the strength of welded joints is structural (convenient placement of the weld in relation to the forces acting on the weld, their specific shape, etc.) and technological (protection of the weld formed during the welding process from various harmful effects, thermal treatment, polishing and b.) can be increased by using methods. 146 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. d. irgashev. improved plug-softener technology for working between garden rows. science and innovation 6. d. irgashev, o. mamadiyorov, m. xidirov. technical analysis of the disk working bodies that work the soil and them working between the garden row. science and innovation 7.ibrat ismoilov, dilmurod irgashev. justification of the mutual arrangement of the working bodies of the machine for preparing the soil for sowing melons and gourds under the tunnel film. international journal of innovations in engineering research and technology 8. irgashev d.b., tovashov r.x., sadikov a.r, mamadiyorov o.t. technical analysis of plug software when working between gardens // international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – vol. 9, – issue 5, 2022. 9.dilmurod irgashev1, sanjar toshtemirov1 , farmon m. maiviatov1,2, and bayramali muqimov2placement of working bodies on the frame of the tool plow-ripper//e3s web of conferences 390, 01036 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202339001036 agritech-viii 2023 10. d.b.irgashev. the effect of the upper softener of the sloped column working body working on the soil of garden fields on the energy indicators// science and innovation international scientific journal volume 2 issue 8 august 2023 uif-2022: 8.2 | issn: 2181-3337 | scientists.uz 48 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 based on longitudinal distance of sloped column working bodies working between garden rows phd. d.b.irgashev institute of engineering and economics "tashkent irrigation and agricultural mechanization institute of engineers" national research university b. g. ganiev bukhara institute of natural resources management supporting doctoral student annotation: in the article, when working with a plow-softener that works flat without a tiller, the longitudinal and transverse positions of the working bodies in relation to the frame depend on the resistance to the traction created during the working of the working bodies. the results obtained from experimental studies are presented. keyword: plug-softeners, soil, results, experimental, deformation, working, soil between, tillage, soil-protecting introduction in the world, the use of energy-resource-efficient and high-performance technical tools for the main processing of the garden occupies one of the leading positions."the area of fruit crops around the world is 53.4 million. hectare, of which 20 mln. taking into account the fact that 1 hectare is fruit orchards", it requires the introduction of high-quality and efficient soil-protecting work and energy-resource-efficient machines and tools in the main tillage. in this regard, it is important to master the production and use of plug-softeners for the main processing of garden beds without a tipper. in order to increase the productivity of any crop, it is necessary to cultivate the soil before planting it and make it comfortable. in tillage, the main focus should be on protecting the soil and restoring its fertility. for this purpose, traditional and resource-saving methods of tillage are used. therefore, these two factors must be taken into account when choosing a tillage system, including technology and technical means. literature analysis and methods a number of schemes for the arrangement of working bodies with three to six oblique columns in the frame are frontal, two-row, plug-like, one-sided parallel section, parallel section consisting of right and left working bodies. experimental studies were conducted by l. orsik to determine the effectiveness of the location of working bodies with inclined columns according to the above schemes. according to the results of his experimental studies, the plow-like and parallelsection schemes have advantages in terms of the plane of the field surface. it was observed that the weapon located according to the frontal scheme accumulates soil in front of the working bodies. such a situation was also observed in the research conducted by kh. fayzullayev. according to energy indicators, the greatest traction resistance was observed in frontal and two-row schemes. according to the results of the research conducted by l. orsik, working bodies with an 49 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us inclined column in closed cutting conditions have 1.6 times greater tensile strength compared to working bodies working in semi-closed cutting conditions, and 2 times more than working bodies working in closed cutting conditions. discussion to reduce the drag resistance of the plug softener, a.yu. nesmiyan proposed to install left and right working bodies in pairs with their working surfaces facing each other (fig.1). in this case, working bodies are arranged in pairs not only in the transverse direction, but also in the longitudinal direction. when the working bodies are placed according to this scheme, the working bodies of the front first pair work in closed cutting conditions, which leads to an increase in traction resistance. in addition, there may be accumulation of soil between them and, accordingly, clogging of the working organs with plant residues and soil flakes. figure 1. the scheme for determining the deformation zone of the soil under the influence of the tilting column working body based on the above, in order to reduce traction resistance and improve the quality of work, in the design of the plug softener we proposed, a needle-shaped softener was installed in front of a pair of working bodies bent forward against each other along their axis of symmetry. when placing working bodies with inclined columns in the longitudinal direction, we determine the condition of eliminating their clogging with plant residues and soil slag. in this case, the sliding plane of the blade deformed by the punch of the next working body should not reach the structural elements of the previous working body according to fig. 1 bukiip tgнllll   cos11 , (1) where l1 is the deformation of the soil under the influence of the tilt column working body the length of the zone, cm; li – length of needle, cm; hi– pin height, cm; huk – height of the inclined part of the column of the working body with an inclined column, cm 50 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. the scheme for determining the longitudinal distance between working bodies with an inclined column the length of the deformation zone can be determined by the following expression ,max1 bсtgal  (2) in this ψb – angle of refraction of the soil in the longitudinal direction, º. results the angle of refraction in the direction along the soil is psb v.p. it is determined by the following expression proposed ψb goryachkin , 2 21 i b а    (3) in this 1 ,2 – internal and external soil friction angles , º. l1 and 𝜓�b we put the values of (1) and (2) into (4). .cos) 2 ( 1 max1 bукii i p tgнlсtgall      (4) based on the expression (4), it was reasoned that the longitudinal distance between the plug-softening working bodies depends on the physical and mechanical properties of the soil, the working depth and the parameters of the working body with a slanting column. 51 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. optimizing the parameters of the bottom softener covered with a cob according to multifactorial experimental studies conclusion. the optimal value of the longitudinal distance between the working bodies of the plow-softener, which works on the soil of garden rows without a tiller, ensures that the degree of soil compaction is softened to the level of agrotechnical requirements while using less energy when working on the soil between garden rows. references [1.] орсик л.с. обоснование схемы и параметров безотвального плуга-рыхлителя с наклонными стойками рабочих органов. дисс… кан.тех.наук. – м., 1988. – 186 с. [2.] борисенко п.и. совершенствование технологического процесса чизелевания за счет применения рабочего органа для минимальной обработки почвы с полосным углублением: дисс.... канд. техн. наук. – волгоград, 2016. – 190 с. [3.] mamatov f., chuyanov d., ravshanov h., shodmonov g., tavashov r., fayzullayev x. combined machine for preparing soil for cropping of melonsand gourds// iop conf. series: earth and environmental science 403(2019) 012158 [4.] irgashev d.b., tovashov r.x., sadikov a.r, mamadiyorov o.t. technical analysis of plug software when working between gardens // international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – vol. 9, – issue 5, 2022. [5.] mamatov f.m., fayzullayev x.a., irgashev d.b., mustapaqulov s.u., nurmanova m.s basing the longitudinal distance between the pit softeners of the combined machine.// innovative technologies special issue, 2021. – b. 125-129. 11 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 05, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 protecting metals from corrosion: preserving durability and longevity zoirov sirojiddin saxomiddin o’g’li 2nd year student of termiz institute of engineering technologies sirojiddinzoirov5@gmail.com yulchiyeva margʻuba teacher of termiz institute of engineering and technology annotation. corrosion poses a significant challenge to the durability and reliability of metal structures, equipment, and infrastructure across industries. protecting metals from corrosion is crucial to ensure their longevity and operational efficiency. this abstract provides an overview of the importance of corrosion protection and highlights common techniques employed in the field. protective coatings act as a physical barrier, while galvanic protection methods utilize sacrificial metals or impressed current to shield the primary metal. appropriate alloy selection enhances corrosion resistance, and corrosion inhibitors form protective films on metal surfaces. additionally, emerging innovations in nanostructured materials, organic coatings, and smart monitoring systems offer promising avenues for advanced corrosion prevention strategies. by implementing effective corrosion protection measures, industries can mitigate the economic and safety risks associated with corrosion, ensuring the preservation and extended service life of metal assets. keywords: protection of metals, corrosion prevention, protective coatings, galvanic protection, sacrificial anode systems, impressed current systems, alloy selection, corrosion inhibitors, nanostructured materials, organic coatings, bio-inspired coatings, smart monitoring systems introduction: corrosion poses a significant threat to the durability and longevity of metal structures, equipment, and infrastructure across various industries. the economic impact of corrosion is substantial, resulting in massive maintenance costs, compromised safety, and reduced operational efficiency. to combat this pervasive problem, the protection of metals from corrosion has become an essential focus for engineers, scientists, and industry professionals. this article explores the significance of protecting metals from corrosion, common corrosion prevention techniques, and emerging innovations in the field. main part understanding corrosion: corrosion is an electrochemical process that occurs when metals react with their surrounding environment, leading to their gradual deterioration. it is influenced by factors such as moisture, temperature, chemical exposure, and the presence of corrosive agents. corrosion can manifest in mailto:sirojiddinzoirov5@gmail.com 12 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us various forms, including rusting, pitting, galvanic corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking. understanding the corrosive mechanisms helps in devising effective protection strategies. corrosion prevention techniques: 1. protective coatings: applying protective coatings is one of the most widely employed methods to safeguard metals from corrosion. these coatings act as a barrier between the metal surface and the corrosive environment. coating materials such as paints, polymer films, and metal-based coatings provide protection by preventing direct contact with moisture, chemicals, and oxygen. techniques like surface preparation, priming, and proper application ensure the longevity and effectiveness of the coatings. 2. galvanic protection: galvanic protection involves using sacrificial metals or impressed current to protect the primary metal from corrosion. sacrificial anode systems, such as zinc or magnesium, are connected to the metal to be protected, and they corrode preferentially, sacrificing themselves to protect the primary metal. impressed current systems use an external power source to drive a protective current onto the metal surface, inhibiting corrosion. 3. alloy selection: choosing appropriate alloys can significantly enhance the corrosion resistance of metals. stainless steel, for example, contains chromium and other alloying elements that form a passive oxide layer on the surface, protecting the underlying metal from corrosion. aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, and other corrosion-resistant alloys are specifically designed to withstand harsh environments. 4. corrosion inhibitors: corrosion inhibitors are chemical substances that can be added to the environment or applied directly to the metal surface to reduce or prevent corrosion. inhibitors work by forming a protective film on the metal, slowing down the corrosion process. they are commonly used in industrial applications, such as in cooling water systems, oil and gas pipelines, and metal cleaning processes. emerging innovations: 1. nanostructured materials: nanotechnology offers promising avenues for developing corrosion-resistant materials. nanostructured coatings and surfaces can provide enhanced protection by altering the surface properties of metals at the nanoscale. these materials can exhibit improved barrier properties, selfhealing capabilities, and enhanced resistance to environmental factors. 2. organic and bio-inspired coatings: researchers are exploring organic and bio-inspired coatings that mimic the natural protective mechanisms found in organisms. these coatings can exhibit self-repairing properties, anti-fouling characteristics, and increased resistance to corrosion. such innovations hold potential for applications in marine environments and biomedical devices. 3. smart monitoring systems: advancements in sensor technologies enable real-time monitoring of corrosion-related parameters. smart monitoring systems can detect early signs of corrosion, enabling proactive maintenance and intervention. these systems utilize techniques such as electrochemical sensors, wireless networks, and data analytics to provide valuable insights into corrosion prevention strategies. statistics: 13 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us • according to a study by nace international, the direct cost of corrosion in the united states is estimated to be around 3% of the gdp, which amounts to approximately $276 billion annually. • the world corrosion organization (wco) estimates that corrosion costs the global economy over $2.5 trillion annually, equivalent to around 3.4% of the global gdp. • the american society of civil engineers (asce) reported that corrosion-related issues account for approximately one-third of all infrastructure failures in the united states. • in the oil and gas industry, corrosion is estimated to cause losses of $60 billion per year globally, as stated by the international association of oil & gas producers (iogp). conclusion: protecting metals from corrosion is vital for ensuring the longevity, safety, and operational efficiency of structures and equipment across industries. through the application of protective coatings, galvanic protection, careful alloy selection, and the use of corrosion inhibitors, industries can mitigate the detrimental effects of corrosion. ongoing research and development in areas like nanostructured materials, organic coatings, and smart monitoring systems offer promising avenues for even more effective and innovative corrosion prevention solutions. by investing in robust corrosion protection strategies, industries can significantly reduce costs, enhance sustainability, and preserve the integrity of metal assets in the face of corrosion challenges. references: 1. roberge, p.r. (2008). handbook of corrosion engineering. hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons. 2. provides comprehensive information on corrosion engineering, including materials, prevention techniques, and case studies. 3. sathiya, p., rajendran, i., & rajendran, s. (2017). an overview on anticorrosive coatings and its properties. journal of materials science and chemical engineering, 5(3), 25-40. 4. offers an overview of anticorrosive coatings, their properties, and recent advancements. 5. cheng, y.f., & ma, s.c. (2012). corrosion prevention of magnesium alloys. woodhead publishing series in metals and surface engineering. 6. focuses on corrosion prevention strategies for magnesium alloys, including coatings, inhibitors, and surface modifications. 7. pourbaix, m. (1974). atlas of electrochemical equilibria in aqueous solutions. houston, tx: national association of corrosion engineers. 8. revie, r.w., & uhlig, h.h. (2008). corrosion and corrosion control: an introduction to corrosion science and engineering. hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons. 21 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 installation for measuring stress relaxation in polymer materials under friction and wear conditions eshkobilov оlim kholikulovich 1 , tilovov ilkhom ikrom o‘g ‘li 1 1 karshi engineering economic institute, 180100, karshi, uzbekistan abstract the work assessed the need to predict the relaxation properties of polymers, which is important for ensuring the durability of parts of mechanical engineering structures made of polymer materials. the factors influencing the performance of products made of polymer materials, as well as the need to determine and predict the durability of parts operating under friction conditions at a constant amount of deformation, have been studied. to determine by experimental method the stress relaxation indicators of polymer materials under conditions of friction and wear, a device has been developed a triborelaxometer. a description of the installation design, loading and loading conditions, as well as the coefficient of friction in the polymer-counterbody pair is given. keywords: stress, deformation, relaxation properties of polymer, friction and wear, computer equipment, triborelaxometer. introduction currently, polymer materials are widely used in the national economy, including mechanical engineering, to reduce the material consumption of structures, save energy, reduce labor costs, and also improve the quality, reliability and durability of products in the required time frame [1]. polymer materials used in mechanical engineering are subject to specific requirements, including resistance to friction, durability and other material qualities. however, to date they have not studied the processes of temperature, radiation, the influence of a liquid medium, vibration, friction and wear, taking into account the principles of relaxation on the mechanical engineering of polymer materials [2]. the production of polymer materials and obtaining goods from them in the case of relaxation processes with the study of analytical dependence, with the dependence of increasing the durability of materials to produce new important fundamental methods for research is the goal and objectives. this research consists of the following tasks. the wear of polymer materials corresponds to the kinetic theory; damageability and strength over time must be characterized at a certain speed by the value of the integral [3]. 22 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us durability and solids, including studying the analytical processes of wear of polymers with this subsequent step-by-step expressions. however, the laws of processes have not yet been studied, taking into account the relaxation in which engineering polymer materials, their temperature, vibration, radiation, the durability of products made of polymer materials, depending on their molecular and supramolecular structures, deformation, vibration, friction and wear, as well as on temperature and the environment are not fully reflected in analytical descriptions taking into account relaxation processes [4]. in this regard, the study of the durability of polymer materials under conditions of relaxation processes occurring in them under the influence of external mechanical and physical loads is an urgent problem in polymer materials science [5]. 2.method it is known that the durability of polymer materials is determined by the analytical dependence of the durability of polymers on several factors [6], obtained by s.n. zhurkov and his colleagues:           rt u   0 0 exp , (1) where τо constant, close to the period of thermal vibrations of atoms (10 -12 10 -13 с); uо – energy of chemical bonds; γ structural coefficient; σ voltage; r boltzmann constant; t absolute temperature. however, this formula does not take into account the durability of polymer materials taking into account the stress relaxation process [7]. the dependence of stress during the relaxation process is described and determined by the following formula by t. alfrey:          rt u   0* exp , (2) where, *  = ео equilibrium stress;  voltage; t absolute temperature; r gas constant; о, uо,  constant coefficients that determine the relaxation properties of the polymer;  rate of strain growth due to thermal expansion; e – elastic modulus. let's try to get s.n. zhurkov's equation. taking into account the stress relaxation equation (2). to do this, we divide both sides of equation (1) by 0 , we get the following formula: 23 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rtu e /)( 0 0      , (3) taking the logarithm of (3) relation, we find the following expression:   rtuin     0 0 , from the last relation we find  ,          0 0 ln 1     rtu , (4) comparing (4) and (2) relations, we have the following equation:                rt u rtu      0* 0 0 expln 1 , (5) the last relation is equivalent to the following expression:            rt u u rt     0* 0 0 exp 1 ln , (6) from expression (6) one can find e rt u u rt                         0* 0 exp 1 0 , (7) from here we find  and obtain the following equation the negmatov-norkulov equation [8], which describes the durability of polymer materials taking into account the relaxation stresses in them:                    rt u u rt   0* 00 exp.. 1 exp , (8) based on the above, we have obtained an equation that describes and predicts the durability of polymer materials taking into account relaxation stresses in them [9]. the durability of polymer materials used in mechanical engineering in the process of stress relaxation can use equation (8). when calculating parts made of polymer materials operating under stress relaxation conditions, it is very important that the value of the equilibrium stress does not fall below the required stress value σt depending on their operating conditions [10]. for the calculation, in principle, it is not necessary to take σ∞, but you can take σt equal to the time corresponding to the service life of parts or products. to predict the relaxation properties of materials over long periods of time and take into account the effect of temperature on their mechanical properties, thermo-, baroand time analogies can be used [11]. 24 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us it is known that the equilibrium stress is a function of the rate of deformation, the shape of the sample, the initial stress, the degree of cross-linking of macromolecules, temperature, exposure to the environment, irradiation, wear, etc [12]. however, under conditions of stress relaxation, destruction of materials occurs. therefore, it is necessary to determine and predict the durability of parts operating under conditions of constant deformation. (ε = const) . stress relaxation in the presence of friction and wear is described by the equation:               detae n t taa ntизн 0 1 where: t equilibrium stress; e – elastic modulus; a, n – material constants; , a – relaxation kernel parameters; t experience time;  relaxation time. as a result of substitution into the equation of s.n. zhurkov we get [3].           kt bu t 0 0 exp , where,               detaeв n t taa n 0 1 linear viscoelasticity coefficient; 0u energy of chemical bonds. to obtain the performance area of a polymer material, the values t, uо and  determined experimentally. 3. results and discussion in order to determine the parameters of stress relaxation and the coefficient of friction of polymer materials with a solid body, a device was created for measuring stress relaxation of polymer materials under conditions of friction and wear, containing a frame with a test sample holder placed on it, a loading unit and measuring load and friction [13]. to measure stress relaxation indicators, it is equipped with a loading unit, a unit for measuring sample deformation, a friction force meter for the polymer material with the contacting sample, and the sample holder is made in the form of a disk mounted on the rotation axis (fig. 1). 25 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. schematic of a triborelaxometer for measuring stress relaxation of polymer materials. the triborelaxometer contains a hydraulic cylinder 1 with a piston 2 and a spring 3 in the space above the piston, and in the space below the piston it contains a strain gauge ring 4 with strain gauges glued to it, a holder 5 in the form of a truncated cone, placed with the base upward and with the ability to move vertically in the hydraulic cylinder, test sample 6 , coating 7 of structural material applied to the support disk 8, groove 9 for supplying liquid when testing a sample for friction in a liquid medium, drive shaft 10, dc electric motor 11, clutch 12, gearbox 13 for driving the rotation of the drive shaft 10, gear a pump 14 for supplying fluid under pressure, which is set and controlled by a pressure reducing valve 15 and a pressure gauge 16, a container 18 for fluid supplied to the hydraulic cylinder 1 and a boom 19 to ensure horizontal movement of the hydraulic cylinder above the support disk 6, mounted on a stand 20 through a rolling bearing [14]. strain gauge rings 4 and 25 with strain gauges attached to them are connected through wires 21 to the hardware and software complex 22 and to the monitor 23, which displays data in the form of graphic curves. figure 2 shows the relative position of straight splined grooves and semi-prismatic protrusions, as well as a cable 24 on which a strain gauge ring 25 with strain gauges is attached to record friction forces [15]. 26 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure.2. 3d model of a triborelaxometer for measuring stress relaxation of polymer materials. the triborelaxometer operates as follows: into the hydraulic cylinder 1, mounted on the boom 19, with the ability to rotate around the axis 20 under the influence of friction forces, under a fixed pressure of 14 mpa created by the gear pump 14, liquid (water or mineral oil) is supplied from the container 18 through the regulating pressure, pressure reducing valve 15 and pressure gauge 16. under the pressure of the liquid entering the above-piston space of the hydraulic cylinder 1, the vertical spring 3 and piston 2 move down, also exerting pressure on the strain gauge ring 4 with strain gauges placed on it, which is transmitted to the base of the holder 5, made in the form of a truncated cone into which a test sample made of polymer material 6 is placed, made in the form of a cylinder with an aspect ratio l/d=1.5. in this case, the holder 5, under pressure, lowers down vertically, due to the protrusions and spline-shaped slots 24 made in the walls of the hydro cyclone, pressing the test sample 6 with its base against the coating 7 of the test material of the support disk 8, driven into rotation in the horizontal plane by a dc electric motor 11 through vertical drive shaft 10, coupling 12 and gearbox 13, providing linear speeds from 0 to 9 m/sec along the friction radius. the optimal ratio of the friction radius to the diameter of the lower part of the hydraulic cylinder is 0.5 1.5. the load to create pressure on the test sample 6 is controlled by a pressure reducing valve 15 and a pressure gauge 16. excess liquid is discharged through the drain valve 17 into the original container 18. the study is carried out both in a dry environment and with liquid supplied to the friction area of the test samples [16]. determination of the relaxation stress of a polymer sample 6 installed in the cavity of the holder 5 during friction is performed by compressing a strain gauge ring located between the piston 2 and the base of the holder 5, applying a load and creating pressure. indicators of voltage magnitude and relaxation time are determined by a hardware and software complex 22 connected to a computer 23 via wire 21. the data is obtained in the form of a graph of the load versus relaxation time. 27 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the magnitude of the friction force is determined by a strain ring 25 with strain gauges placed on a cable 24 attached to the base of the hydraulic cylinder, perpendicular to the plane of the boom, in the form of a frame 19, which are connected by wire to the software and hardware complex 22 and the computer 23. at the end of the work, the liquid from the hydraulic cylinder 1 is released through drain valve 17 into bath 18, as a result of which all elements of the device return to their original position [17]. to measure stress relaxation, the sample is deformed to a specified value, which remains constant over time, and the initial stress required to maintain this deformation decreases with time. the use of the proposed modernized triborelaxometer makes it possible to significantly simplify the measurement of stress relaxation of polymer materials taking into account friction, due to the stability and compactness of the installation, reliability of measurements and accuracy, as well as through the use of a software and hardware complex for measuring indicators [18]. to evaluate the stress relaxation of polymer materials under conditions of friction and wear, the polymer material under study is used as a test sample, and any engineering materials and products with various types of surface coatings can be used as a counter body. the triborelaxometer allows you to measure stress relaxation parameters in polymer materials under friction conditions with higher reliability and accuracy of the indicators [19]. table 1 shows the experimentally determined values of the parameters included in the calculated equations for the activation energy of the stress relaxation process and the structure-sensitive coefficient. table 1 experimental values of the parameters of equation (8) for various polymer materials materials voltage, мpа temperature, k ,0u kkаl/ mol ,γ kkаl /mol mm 2 /kg 1 2 3 т1 т2 т3 metholon 32,8 27,6 12,7 374 379 396 22,16 0,302 phenylone 60,0 52,2 39,3 489 509 543 54,31 2,030 the table shows that methanol has a lower activation energy, which characterizes the stress relaxation process. a good agreement between the experimental data and the calculated data was established. in fig. figure 1 shows the theoretical curves according to equation (8) and the experimental dependence of the durability of phenylone and metholone on the relaxing stress. 28 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. durability relationship between phenylone and metholone from relaxing tension. 1-phenolone; 2-metholone. ______ theoretical curves, __ __ __ experimental curves. it can be seen that with increasing voltage, the durability of polyamides decreases. what if the value of the initial stress is too high, then the polymer will find itself in harsh operating conditions and its durability, naturally, decreases, since the greater the value of the initial stress, the shorter its relaxation time. 4. conclusion thus, the resulting generalized negmatov-norkulov equation makes it possible to predict the durability of engineering polymer materials taking into account stress relaxation. in turn, predicting the durability of materials allows you to correctly select and accordingly develop new polymer materials and products made from them, taking into account the specific conditions of their operation. for example, for parts and products made from the above polymeric materials, operating under stress relaxation conditions. the use of a triborelaxometer makes it possible to significantly simplify the measurement of stress relaxation in polymer materials under friction conditions, due to the stability and compactness of the installation, and the reliability of measurements and measurement accuracy under specific conditions of friction of a polymer material with any structural materials is ensured using a software and hardware complex for measuring indicators. the study of relaxation of polymer materials can be carried out both under dry friction conditions and under lubrication conditions. to measure stress relaxation, a sample of a polymer material is deformed to a specified value, which remains constant over time, and the initial stress required to maintain this deformation decreases with time. 200,0 160,0 120,0 80,0 40,0 0 , мpa 10 20 , year 2 1 29 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references [1]. negmatov s.s., norkulov a.a. study of the durability of polymer materials under stress relaxation conditions. //composite materials. -tashkent. -2007.no3. -page.55-57. [2]. v.a.petrov, a.ya.bashkarev, v.i.vettegren. physical basis for predicting the durability of structural materials. polytechnic. st. petersburg. 1993. –page 475. [3]. fap no20130006 / 24.01.2013. eshkobilov o.kh. etc. disk tribometer for measuring stress relaxation in polymer materials. –t.: uzbekistan. [4]. a.b.djumaboyev, u.kh.umarov, o.kh.eshkobilov. mathematical model for analytical calculation of the actual contact area of the frictional interaction of structural materials with raw cotton. scientific and technical magazine "standard" of uzstandart agency. no3. tashkent. 2009. [5]. a.a.norkulov, o.kh.eshkobilov. influence of supramolecular structures of polymer materials on stress relaxation. “toshdtu news" magazine no3. toshdtu 2009. [6]. a.a.norkulov, s.s.negmatov, o.kh.eshkobilov. analytical assessment of the durability of polymer materials used in mechanical engineering parts operating under stress relaxation conditions. problems of mechanics, no. 1. tashkent. 2010. [7]. a.a.norkulov, o.kh.eshkobilov. possibilities of increasing the operational properties of polymer materials used in mechanical engineering by storing them for a certain period of time. international scientific and technical conference "modern equipment and technologies of the mining and metallurgical industry and ways of their development." navoi. 2010. [8]. a.a.norkulov, o.kh.eshkobilov. study of the stress relaxation of polymeric materials considering friction and bending. "scientific and technical problems of modern mechanical engineering" republican scientific and practical conference. toshdtu, 2010. [9]. a.b.djumaboyev, f.dj.karayev, o.kh.eshkobilov. on improving the method and testing facility for studying the process of friction of materials with fibrous mass. scientific and technical magazine "standard" of uzstandart agency. no1. tashkent. 2011. [10]. a.b.djumaboyev, b.x.mirzakhmedov, o.kh.eshkobilov. ensuring reliable operation of parts and assemblies made of engineering polymer materials based on local raw materials. international scientific and practical conference "modern materials, equipment and technologies in mechanical engineering." andijon, 2012. [11]. a.b.djumaboyev, b.x.mirzakhmedov, o.kh.eshkobilov. theoretical basis for ensuring the reliability of engineering parts from local polymer materials. "innovation 2012" international scientific and practical conference. toshdtu, 2012. [2]. b.x.mirzakhmedov, o.kh.eshkobilov. development of a method and means for assessing the durability of engineering composite polymer materials operating under conditions of stress relaxation and water-abrasive wear. international scientific and technical conference "modern problems and ways to develop the oil and gas potential of the subsoil" tashkent state technical university 2012. 30 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us [13]. a.b.djumaboyev, o.kh.eshkobilov. development of tools and methods for assessing the long-term suitability of composite polymer materials of mechanical engineering operating under conditions of stress relaxation and hydroabrasive erosion. "toshdtu news". no. 1, toshdtu, 2013. [14]. а.а.riskulov, o.kh.eshkobilov. installation for measuring stress relaxation in polymer materials under conditions of friction and wear. "modern instrumental systems, information technologies and innovations" of the xii international scientific and practical conference. volume-4. kursk. march 19-20, 2015. [15]. o.kh.eshkobilov. installation for determining stress relaxation in polymer materials under friction conditions. international scientific and practical conference "world scince". proceedings of the ii nd international scientific and practical conference "the goals of the world science 2016 (january 27-28, 2016, dubai, uae)". [16]. o.kh.eshkobilov. ensuring reliable operation of parts and assemblies made of engineering polymer materials based on local raw materials. international scientific and practical conference dedicated to the 25th anniversary of the caspian research institute of arid agriculture "modern trends in the development of the agricultural complex." russia, astrakhan region. may 11-13, 2016. [17]. o.kh.eshkobilov. analytical assessment of the performance of polymer materials used in machine parts operating under stress relaxation conditions. "automation of technological processes of mechanical processing, hardening and assembly in mechanical engineering" international scientific and technical conference of south-west state university, russia, kursk, november 3-5, 2016 [18]. o.kh.eshkobilov. influence of supramolecular structures of polymer materials on stress relaxation. "automation of technological processes of mechanical processing, hardening and assembly in mechanical engineering" international scientific and technical conference of south-west state university, russia, kursk, november 3-5, 2016. [19]. kh.k.eshkabilov, o.kh.eshkobilov. performance of polymer materials in machine parts operating under stress relaxation conditions "innovation technology", no. 4. kariei, 2017. 195 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 metamorphization of groundwater chemistry due to soil salinization shukhrat odilovich muradov, dilfuza alisherovna rajabova, mamanov jaloliddin ganisher ogli karshi engineering economic institute abstract: the article highlights the scientific basis of metamorphization of the chemical composition of natural waters on the basis of classical methods, as a result of which it is supposed to improve the ecological and geochemical state and as a consequence increase the fertility of saline soils. keywords: natural waters, metamorphization, salinization, salinization. introduction. the idea of unity of development of the system "soil groundwater" has been repeatedly expressed by many scientists dealing with problems of salinity control on irrigated lands. v.a.kovda noted that the main source of salts in soils (if mineralized irrigation water is not applied) is groundwater close to the surface.... [2]. from the above it is clear that the process of salinization of the upper part of the soil necessary for plants occurs under the action of physical evaporation mainly of mineralized groundwater. therefore, to assess this process requires the analysis of metamorphization of salt composition and groundwater level regime. it should be noted that the problem of metamorphization of chemical composition of natural waters is far from new. however, in irrigated land hydrology the methodology of metamorphization analysis has not yet found wide application. therefore, it is necessary to dwell on some aspects of this problem in more detail. according to the nature of the ratios of sulfate and magnesium ions, g.yu.valukonis [1] proposed to name the branches of metamorphization as magnesium (rmg>rso4) and sulfate (rso4>rmg). in linear interpretation both branches of metamorphization look as follows: а б в д е (sulphate) а б г д е (magnesium) as shown by generalization of hydrochemical materials for different areas, the magnesium branch is most often realized within types a to g inclusive and characterizes typically continental conditions of fresh and brackish water formation. из общей схемы нелинейной метаморфизации следует, что магниевой ветви метаморфизации присущ химический тип г следующего солевого состава: nacl, mgcl2, mgso4, mg(hco3)2 и ca(hco3)2. в водах, метаморфизующихся по сульфатной ветви, появляется химический тип в, имеющий такой солевой состав: nacl, na2so4mgso4, caso4 и ca(hco3)2 . таким образом, сульфатная ветвь характеризуется специфическим 196 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us типом в с тремя сульфатными и одной солью магния, а магниевая ветвь, наоборот, типом г с тремя солями магния и одной сульфатной. it follows from the general scheme of nonlinear metamorphization that the magnesium branch of metamorphization is characterized by chemical type d with the following salt composition: nacl, mgcl2, mgso4, mg(hco3)2 and ca(hco3)2. in waters motoring along the sulfate branch, chemical type b appears, having the following salt composition: nacl, na2so4 mgso4, caso4 and ca(hco3)2 . thus, the sulfate branch is characterized by a specific type b with three sulfate and one magnesium salt, and the magnesium branch, on the contrary, by type d with three magnesium salts and one sulfate salt. literature review. the above mentioned schemes of metamorphization (according to m.g.valyashko, a.g.bergman, m.v.levchenko, g.yu.valukonis) constitute a single hydrochemical (normal) cycle of natural water metamorphization. along with the normal cycle, an abnormal cycle was also revealed [1]. its essence is as follows. if in the normal cycle the increase in the degree of solution mineralization is accompanied by metamorphization of water composition in the direct direction, in the anomalous cycle the increase in the degree of mineralization is associated with metamorphization in the opposite direction. the salt diagram of o.k.kashkarov is widely used to study the peculiarities of groundwater metamorphization. combined salt triangles proposed by g.y.valukonis are more effective in some cases, as they allow distinguishing between sulfate and magnesium branches of metamorphization [3]. in order to elucidate the regularities of groundwater metamorphization of irrigated lands in the region, extensive hydrochemical material (about 1000 determinations) accumulated in the westuzbekistan hydrogeological expedition [4] was used. from the consideration of these figures it is seen that in the part of cations carbonate type of waters is characterized by mottled composition with predominance of sodium ion. but in the anionic part sharply prevails nso-3. complex points of these analyses occupy the central part of the square, the so-called "soda" waters. on the cation and anion triangles, chloride-type waters gravitate to the na+ and clvertices, i.e. it seems that they owe their existence largely to the dissolution and accumulation of sodium chloride in solutions (with subsequent exchange of sodium for calcium and magnesium of the absorbed rock complex). according to the diagrams where the results of sulfate-type groundwater analyses are systematized, it is already evident by the number of points that these waters are predominant in the study area. this diagram also allows to conclude that the above described hydrocarbonate and chloride types in this case represent the product of far-reaching metamorphization of sulfate type waters in reverse or direct directions. in the kashkadarya basin, the cation composition of groundwater of sulfate type is very diverse. the content of na+ ion in them reaches 96, ca2+ − 78, ma2+ − 63 eq.%. the most typical area is characterized by the following ionic composition: na+-50, ca2+-30, mg2+-20 eq.%, i.e. in terms of their mobility cations represent the following series (in descending order of mobility): na+>ca2+ >mg2. among anions, chlorine predominates. its content reaches 98 eq.%. the second place is occupied by sulfate ion. its typical content does not exceed 10-70 eq. %, although there are samples with almost 100% sulfate ion content. the content of hydrocarbonate-ion does not exceed 5-10 eq.%. geochemical mobility of anions can be characterized by the following sequence (in descending order of mobility): so2-4>cl>hco-3. results. in surkhan-sherabad basin the cation composition of groundwater of sulfate type is very diverse. the content of na+ ion in them reaches 98, ca2+-78, mg2+-68 eq.%. the most 197 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us typical area is characterized by the following ionic composition: na+-50, ca2+-30, mg2+-20 eq.%, i.e. in terms of their mobility cations represent the following series (in descending order of mobility): na+ >ca2+ >mg2+. here also among anions chlorine prevails. its content reaches 98 eq.%. the second place is occupied by sulfate ion. its typical content does not exceed 96 eq.%, although there are samples with almost 100% content of sulfate ion. the content of hydrogen carbonate ion reaches 60 eq.%, only in isolated cases rising to 90 eq.%. geochemical mobility of anions can be characterized by the following sequence (in descending order of mobility): so2-4 >cl>>>hco-3. from comparison of anion and cation triangles it follows that chemical appearance of groundwater of this type is determined by salts na2so4, nacl and caso4. comparing kashkarov's diagrams, we see that within the square fields the points of water analyses of all hydrochemical types largely overlap. this is another proof of genetic unity of groundwater of chloride, sulfate and hydrocarbonate types. additional information about the nature of metamorphization processes is obtained by analyzing the diagrams of g.y.valukonis. figures show that metamorphization of water resources occurs along the sulfate branch (99% of all analyses). this is explained by the predominance of sulfate salts of sodium, calcium and magnesium in subordinate amounts both in the composition of groundwater and in the composition of the ion-salt complex of rocks. the groundwater analysis point fields of all pvcrs are completely overlapping, hence, their metamorphization trend is the same. however, the analysis points of waters of the upper and middle pvcr and sub-area are more shifted towards the na2so4 mgso4 salt line. this indicates that under long-term irrigation, groundwater metamorphization occurs in the opposite direction. at the same time, the main mass of points is not taken out of the triangular field na2so4 mgso4mg(hco3)2, i.e. the hadrochemical type of groundwater as a whole does not change, although local sites are characterized by the appearance of centers with groundwater of soda type. the points of surface water analysis in the kashkadarya basin are shifted even more in the opposite direction. almost all of them are concentrated within the triangular field: na2so4 − mgso4mg(hco3)2. conclusion. so, it can be concluded that the theory of metamorphization is fully applicable to natural water-irrigated ecosystems in the south of uzbekistan. the main hydrochemical types of groundwater have been established. the prevailing hydrochemical type is the type of sulfate water. under metamorphization of such waters in the forward direction, chloride-type waters are formed, and under metamorphization in the reverse direction, hydrocarbonate-type waters are formed. metamorphization proceeds along the sulfate branch. under land irrigation, the tendency to groundwater metamorphization in the reverse direction prevails, but at the same time the figurative points are mostly not taken out of the sulfate field. according to the degree of increasing metamorphization in the reverse direction, natural waters can be arranged in the following order: groundwater of the upper pvcr groundwater of the middle and sub-area of the upper pvcr, lower pvcr. it is established that local centers of soda salinization of soils in the south of uzbekistan are not excluded in the future. and as in confirmation of our forecasts, v.a.kovda ot notes: "studies in recent decades have convinced us that the main factor of sodic salinization of soils is the presence of shallow slightly mineralized alkaline groundwater with salt concentration from 0.50.7 to 3-5 g/l. evaporation of these waters through capillary fringe leads to sodic salinization of soils" [2]. as can be seen from the valukonis diagram, chloride, insignificant amount of sulfate, and carbonate type of groundwater are already absent in the upper swppp of the surkhan-sherabad basin. according to the analysis of groundwater of amir temur farm of shakhrisabz district 198 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (2010-2016), which is a representative site of the kashkadarya basin, magnesium hydrogen carbonate also appeared, i.e. metamorphization progresses in the opposite direction. conclusions. summarizing, it can be concluded that the theory of metamorphization is fully applicable to natural waters of irrigated ecosystems in the region. the main hydrochemical types of groundwater have been clarified. the prevailing hydrochemical type is sulfate water. at metamorphization of such waters in the forward direction, chloride-type waters are formed, and at metamorphization in the reverse direction, hydrocarbonate-type waters are formed. metamorphization proceeds along the sulfate branch. under land irrigation, the tendency to groundwater metamorphization in the reverse direction prevails, but at the same time the figurative points are mostly not taken out of the sulfate field. according to the degree of increasing metamorphization in the reverse direction, natural waters can be arranged in the following order: surface and groundwater of the upper pvcr groundwater of the middle and sub-area of the upper pvcr groundwater of the lower pvcr. the above-mentioned regularities constitute a theoretical basis for forecasts of secondary salinization (salinization) of soils and subsoils under irrigation. it can be assumed that at present chloride-sulfate type of secondary salinization should prevail. under long-term operation of irrigation systems and washing of chloride and sulfate salts, groundwater mineralization decreases, and it metamorphizes in the opposite direction. thus, there is a general tendency of water composition approaching to hydrocarbonate-sodium type, as after complete disappearance of sodium sulfate it can be replaced by sodium hydrocarbonates, and the main antisoda agent calcium sulfate is almost absent in these waters. appearance of local centers of soda salinization of soils in the south of uzbekistan in the future is not excluded. however, geological reserves of chloride and sulfate salts here are so significant that under existing scales of their removal by irrigation and drainage waters, it is possible that in the future the most toxic for plants centers of new salinization of soils may appear not earlier than in 3-5 years. this is one of the forms of modern desertification of irrigated ecosystems. list of literature used 1. валуконис г.ю., ходьков а.е. роль подземных вод в формировании месторождений полезных ископаемых. − л.: недра, 1978. − 296 с. 2. ковда в.а. проблемы опустынивания и засоления почв аридных регионов мира. – м.: наука, 2008. – 415 с. 3. мурадов ш.о. научное обоснование водоустойчивости аридных территорий юга узбекистана.-ташкент: фан, 2012.-376 с. 4. сводный отчет по ведению государственного мониторинга подземных вод и контроля за их рациональным использованием на территории кашкадарьинской области за 1991–2000 г.г.// кн.: 1-каршинская ггс/ отв. исполнитель г.х. хамитов. – гр №02– 108/52. – ташкент, 2004. – 270с. 97-100 improving the method of teaching engineering classes based 97 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 improving the method of teaching engineering classes based on graphic programs j. a. qosimov. head of the department of engineering graphics and design theory d. a. karimova a student of the direction of hydropower objects in irrigation systems abstract: the research results and the results obtained allow us to draw the following conclusions about the preparation for professional activities of students of professional colleges through interdisciplinary relationships. the fundamental and theoretical, as well as the feasibility of special organizational preparation of college students for the introduction of inter subject communications using information technology in the development of modern integrative thinking is fundamental. analysis of the implementation of the state of inter subject communications in didactics from the point of view of the unity of the material world. an important methodological principle for the implementation of inter subject communications is the differentiation and synthesis of new knowledge. keywords: international relations of information technology, education, innovation, banks, vocational colleges. nowadays, as we know science and technology, types of producing and all technologic processes are almost fully computerized in all developed countries. moreover, in all producing processes and educational spheres creating new technologies and technics are done with the help of graphic programs which are modern and functional. as it is said, xxi century is the age of information technologies. all aspects of computer phantom are faced in our daily life. as a result, the country's education system into the new educational technologies based on modern information technologies. when modern information technology, multimedia, to pass to other language and alphabet letters, internet, web-technology, electronic virtual library, distance education, and other technologies to provide technique. this, in turn, teachers not only in the field today, but modern equipment and acquired certain knowledge and information to young people, especially students, and students are required to teach. according to international experience, the integration of professional education with science and industry, as well as the harmonization of theoretical and practical professional education are important due to the formation of professional competencies of future specialists. despite the numerous scientific studies on the development of professional knowledge and skills for students of professional colleges in a market economy, the labor force in various sectors of the economy, which has fully mastered general and specialized subjects that can withstand vital competition in the labor market, as a means of increasing professionalism necessary so that they can carry out their activities, necessitates the formulation of their required and sufficient full-time level training through interdisciplinary communication. 98 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the changes taking place in our country are closely related to the rapid introduction of new and, especially, advanced technologies, which, in turn, requires the training of highly qualified specialists. in the strategy for the further development of the republic of uzbekistan, special attention is paid to the issues of “improving the work of students of professional colleges in training and employment in the areas of a market economy and the needs of employers”. to solve this problem, the general professional curriculum of the banking business at professional colleges has set itself the goal of teaching students through modern calculation methods on the practical issues of the specialty. this indicates the importance of the effective use of interdisciplinary communication opportunities in professional colleges [2]. we have set out to solve the problem for the first time, autocad system is currently in the design of automated international standard for being, that started on the initial data. autocad program, was created in 30-35 years’ time, though, the graphics software is still famous. autocad program is an excellent and popular, and the design of the automated program, and that any such scheme and plotting high-precision, high-quality viewfinder. in addition, this program will help you to realize the full creative potential of users. as a result, millions of design experts, scientists, engineers and technicians, and students of the world in more than 80 countries, in 18 languages using autocad design work has become a norm. world experience of pupils and students after receiving a certain level of knowledge at drawing, graphics need to instruct the computer to perform the tasks. proceeding from this company autodesk autocad-2006 graphics program launch, its user interface, toolbar, and their orders the information about the location of buttons and functions. also, some of the graphics primitive computer designs are considered. autocad software in 1982, despite the creation and its millions of users of local high school students and students of computer science and mathematics subjects in the process of reading the graphics software tools, “microsoft office word” program, “drawing” and “basie” program to learn how to use graphic images. however, such low graphics automation applications, making the graphics options are almost there. automation in the design of graphics software, with the autocad system options, even at school, drawing, painting classes, such as graphics commands graph primitive elements, which means, the components of the charts 1-2-3 and 4-themes and the knowledge, skills and practical training on the basis of a variety of acting. autocad graphic information system elements, they are willing to enter the command packet size to a computer using a direct dialogue is carried out on the basis of the sequence of images. the main purpose of the engineering and computer graphics training and expertise in the fields of engineering studentts take all kinds of graphic information design, diagram, charts and schemes such as the size of two or three sizes of images using the computer to teach the rules of procedure. engineering and computer graphics are the main issue of the practical and operational programs and commands, package design and technological processes using computer modeling work by the students were free to carry out the necessary knowledge and skills to teach. engineering and computer graphics classes on the subject of higher education, a bachelor and engineers approved by the ministry of higher and secondary special education in 2012 in the form of standard graphics program on the basis of practical training. all students in practical training for 25-30 minutes to draw graphical information primitive components of a computer screen, they do not change the appropriate options to create and display images, memory storage, and perform tasks such as print for the necessary theoretical knowledge will give a step-by-step movement. the employment figure for the rest of the staff to draw, edit, sizes and binding objectsare using commands such as skills and qualifications. this all means students under the supervision of the teacher's lesson to learn and practice the skills and qualifications. students actively learn about the development of the educational institution, in their own thoughts with the help of the internet. through the internet network control can be distributed and local email. these types of things to accomplish remote network modeling forms of education. 99 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us today, it is becoming popular. teachers are using not a single information center, but with the use of computer technology, distance education, and been able to get high goals. students often engaged in dealing with self-learning over the internet, to communicate with their peers, and general interest. this work is regulated to form a network of their relations students’ opportunities to meet with their counterparts in other countries, and allows you to read and work together. readers with information technology tools developed especially important always have the nature of creative activity. this is reflected in the new design and technical solutions. their ideas and information technology tools reader "electronic" and show the competitiveness of their products, and allows you to check the popularity of their ideas. students create a real interesting and unique resource for themselves, first and foremost, consider all the information it needs to establish a psychological reaction to the characteristics of resources news and practical understanding of reach. all pupils develop their competence to set the direction of his life, practical problems. the current stage of development of society is characterized by the direct improvement of technologies. modern technological processes in any sphere influence, such as information systems are becoming more and more new changes. education in the field of communication technology, improving the quality of teaching, the students thinking ability to expand, enhance the development of students' independent work itself is becoming a pressing issue. not only the development of the internet, telephone or television, but also with the development of computer technology. today, this area is long before the development of other sectors and the rates of deposits. globalization today, the internet and, in turn, is the result of a process cycle that leads to a lack of space. viewers will lead to the development of knowledge and skills in the field of science. as a result of this process of scientific research can lead to a variety of methodological approaches. references 1. a. qosimov and others “the role of software in the development of modeling in education” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060013 2. j.a. qosimov and others “development of methods for improving the lessons of information technology on the basis of graphic programs” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060012 3. j.a. qosimov and others “increasing the effectiveness of lessons by creating a problem situation in teaching drawing” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060014 4. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. selection of software for modeling developments and technologies. international journal of advanced science and technology, volume 28, issue 15, 15 november 2019, pp. 554-558 5. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. threedimensional modelling technology for computer science education// iop conference series: earth and environmental science volume 403, issue 1, 19 december 2019hasanov a.a. 2016 interdisciplinary communication as a didactic conditions of increase of efficiency of educational process //eastern european scientific journal. –germany, 5 pp 107-111. 6. xasanov a.a. sovremennaya teoriya obucheniya na mejpredmetnoy osnove // scince and world 7. international scientific journal. –russia, volgograd, 2016. -№8(36), vol ii. –pp. 76-78. 8. khasanov a.a. didactic foundations of interdisciplinary connections at subject teaching // eastern european scientific journal. germany -2018. no. 6. pp. 127-130. 9. khasanov a.a. didactic foundations of interdisciplinary connections at subject teaching // eastern european scientific journal. germany -2018. no. 6. pp. 127-130. 100 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. xasanov a.a., mirjamolova f.n. access to electronic educational resources in the education system // european journal of research and reflection in educational sciences vol. 7. no. 12, 2019. pp. 442-445. 11. urokova sh.b. tuhtashev u.f. trends of electronic education development // european journal of research and reflection in educational sciences vol. 7. no.12, 2019. pp. 485-488. 8. 12. khujaev a.a. informatization of education at higher education institutions in uzbekistan. eastern european scientific journal, germaniya, 2017, 6, pp. 214-217. 13. xo’jaev a.a. some aspect of estimation of quality of education in the system of higher professional education // international conference «science and practice: a new level of integration in the modern world». 14-18 14 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 world action in improving the efficiency of logistics services and the importance of its development in our country ruziyeva shakhlo raupovna teacher of "economics" department of bukhara turon zarmed university, graduate student of bukhara institute of engineering technology abstract: in this article, logistics services provide high efficiency of the logistics services and the national cylinder of the cylinder is the cylinder of the cylinder, adapting the country's cylinder to world standards, ensuring national logistics infrastructure and, thanks to it, free turnover, practical recommendations are made to deepen cooperation and improve the competitiveness of products not only in our country but also in the world. keywords: high efficiency, adaptation to world standards, cooperation, digitalization of services, increasing competitiveness. introduction the world economy presents countries with tasks such as digitalization of business processes, introduction of modern methods of management, and development of sectors that determine economic potential. today, the logistics service, which serves as the basis for the development of the economy of every country, is very important. uzbekistan, kazakhstan and turkmenistan from central asian countries are achieving economic efficiency in terms of organizing transit corridors and logistics centers. in particular, on the basis of the decision of the president (10.10.2023 pq-329) to reform the railway transport sector in the territory of the andijan logistics center, create a healthy competitive environment, widely involve the private sector in the sector, introduce modern management methods, and use the transit potential of the republic implementation of cargo transportation services for effective use, maintenance and development of freight wagon and container economy, establishment of multimodal "door-to-door" transportation, organization of logistics centers and terminals are considered as the most important tasks, in addition to the president's (20.06 based on the decision pq-198 of 2023, the practice of ready leasing of enterprises and logistics centers processing fruits and vegetables grown in the republic on the basis of high technologies will be launched. this will form a new specialized production in its place, ensure the stability of the economic growth of our republic through the production of large multinational corporations and the entry of modern technologies into our country, the export and import of products that match the conjuncture of the domestic and foreign markets. countries that have achieved high economic efficiency in this field have moved to a high intellectual stage of development. we can clearly see this when we compare some economic indicators. in particular, when analyzing the gross domestic product, the service sector in the usa makes up 80.2%, in great britain 71.46%, in singapore 69.45%, in germany 62.88%, while in uzbekistan the service sector is 40.3%. did in this regard, it shows that there are opportunities for our country to achieve high economic efficiency. materials and methods 15 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the logistics center is a means of connecting uzbekistan and the region with the world. it encourages us to study world practice in order to move to a higher intellectual stage of development like countries that have achieved high economic efficiency. we can see the logistics services sector of european countries through the following comments and figures. the largest logistics service provider is the usa. one of the characteristics of us logistics services is the formation of a comprehensive information infrastructure in the country. by optimizing information communication, the quality of provided services has significantly increased. us 3pl "third generation logistics", that is, this provider works through a full set of services provided to companies. the united states maintains its leadership in the world's highest source of income in trade transactions carried out over the internet. the next important feature of the development of the us economy is the high share of the service sector that is not duplicated in other countries of the world. at the same time, the processing industry remains the largest sector in the world economy, and structurally, it is becoming a sector with a high scientific capacity. another country with the largest share in the global economy is china. the experience of the people's republic of china is noteworthy. the chinese delegation presented its new national platform. the platform has more than 50 years of chinese companies, 91 logistics parks, more than 450 thousand chinese entrepreneurs (including 28% manufacturing, 17% trade and 55% transport, logistics and insurance), all railway stations in the country (domestic and 26 seaports of china, japan and korea will exchange information through mutual integration. in this case, 30 million messages are processed in 26 places of mutual cooperation in one day. 1.35 trillion in one year. products are accounted for in electronic form. information stored on the platform is perfectly protected. based on this, each user of the system has the right to access the information on the server, every action taken by the user of this platform. information tools of international institutions like learning are connected to japan's "colins" international trade portal, korea's "sp-idc" logistics information system, iso (international organization for standardization), asian development banks, international maritime organization, association of southeast asian nations. at the same time, electronic information is being exchanged through the website of 11 ministries and agencies of china and about 20 transnational corporations of the world. japan's economy is characterized by advanced technologies, manufacturing and service industries. popular industries are automotive, electronics, mechanical engineering and finance. in the next place, the economy of germany pays great attention to exports. gdp: 4.3 trillion dollars, mechanical engineering, automobile engineering, chemical and pharmaceutical industries are the most developed industries. sectors such as information technology, services, agriculture and manufacturing are important in india's economy. gdp: $3.74 trillion. for information, in 2022, the gross domestic product of uzbekistan for the first time exceeded 80 billion dollars and reached 80.4 billion dollars. this indicator is expected to exceed 84 billion this year. thus, the share of uzbekistan in the world economy is 0.08 percent. 16 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1. the world's largest, highly rated logistics companies names of logistics service companies activities of logistics service companies dhl express is an agency of the logistics organization today, dhl is an international leader in logistics and express delivery worldwide. dhl offers its customers advanced technologies and solutions in international express delivery, national and international postal services, air, land and sea transport, contract logistics and ecommerce. ups is a transportation and logistics services company the company has its own airline, ups airlines, with a fleet of 291 jets, one of the largest in the world in terms of fleet size. every day, the company delivers more than 24.3 million items and 11.1 million recipients in more than 220 countries and regions of the world. the average profit per cargo unit is $13.38. fedex is a transportation and logistics services company a large american company that delivers goods quickly to 220 countries and regions of the world. as of may 2022, it had 696 aircraft. sncf is a company that unites six regional railway companies. today, there are several departments. ncf infra – manages rolling stock on french railways, engages in monitoring and maintenance. sncf proximites – carries passengers. sncf voyages high-speed trains, gares & connections technical logistics. kuehne + nagel international ag is an international logistics company the company provides it, warehousing, and logistics services through sea and air transportation. german company with 1300 branches in 109 countries. nippon express co., ltd. is a logistics company funded by the japanese government, it operates as a single state partnership that unites small railway companies and six other competing companies. it has a strong global network covering more than 40 countries. the company operates in 33 countries. c.h. robinson logistics company 3pl provides multimodal delivery services, air, sea and land logistics services, as well as transport management, warehousing, and brokerage services. in figure 1, we can see that the organization of educational services, their prestige and their place in the world ranking influenced the attractiveness of this sector and the country's economy in order to achieve a high position in the economic growth of the countries of the world. 38 of the top 100 in the world's higher education system indicate that higher education in the united states has been established at a high level. 17 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. the number of the top 100 higher education institutions in the world ranking results and discussion the fact that the services offered in the field of logistics have few efficiency indicators and the true nature of these efficiency indicators and what way uzbekistan chooses one of the ways will be able to systematically ensure the purposeful and effective management of logistics services. it is no exaggeration to call the questions world experience. the next most effective method for further improvement and development of the logistics system is the cooperation of the countries of the world, because there are sufficient views and even proven experiences in the field of logistics in the development of the country, and the diversity of these experiences and the existence of experience bases are one of the greatest achievements of these partners. as a result of exchange of experience and cooperation, this infrastructure will be considered equally in all countries participating in the cooperation and will be put into practice in the necessary order. it is not for nothing that important steps were taken for the development of trade, economic and cultural cooperation between the countries of the economic cooperation organization at the summit held in our country yesterday under the chairmanship of our president. a proposal to accept an agreement aimed at facilitating trade in goods and services, a proposal to establish a digital transport and customs office in tashkent, a proposal to introduce joint tourist routes and increase programs under the "silk road" tourism brand, to develop interregional energy resources transmission networks , establishment of an innovative cooperation platform, "e20 investment limited" company is planning to organize a berry fruit cluster in andijan, it is planned to organize a transport corridor of uzbekistan, turkmenistan, iran and turkey, "semmaris" french company is planning agro-logistics in three regions the construction of complexes, the planning of the production of milk products in namangan, "lactalis" and "boehringer ingelheim" oncological drugs, is a clear proof that it is the result of consistent reforms in our country. conclusion in conclusion, it should be noted that by today's time, all countries have their own high-level development strategy. based on the analysis, the implementation of the recommendations in the following areas was determined to solve and evaluate the priority issues in increasing the efficiency of the logistics sector in the region. the field develops, increasing the competitiveness of the manufactured products and services provided, as a result, high indicators are achieved by increasing incentives and responsibility, developing effective management and improvement mechanisms in the field of logistics, and widely implementing quality logistics as a result the provision of services 0 10 20 30 40 1 38 11 4 6 7 5 7 4 2 6 2 1 3 2 2 usa great britain gongonk china netherlands canadian germany switzerland singapore australia belgian denmark france south korea japan 18 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us will be accelerated, the development of small business and private entrepreneurship and the increase in the level of employment of the population, the transfer of enterprises and organizations to outsourcing services, the prioritization of small business activity, the creation of an international trade portal, the formation of information infrastructure, the optimization of information communication achieving a significant increase in the quality of services, which in turn increases the efficiency of logistics services, working on the basis of the "single window" principle, using innovative technologies, developing corridors passing through countries, and digitizing transport services will be desirable. references 1. decision pf-60 of the president of the republic of uzbekistan dated january 28, 2022 "on the development strategy of the new uzbekistan for 2022-2026". 2. arislanovna, y. s., bakhtiyorvich, g. b. (2021). marketing and information support in public sector. european journal of molecular & clinical medicine, 8(1), 940-947. 3. arislanovna, y. s., bakhtiyorvich, g. b. (2021). using the experience of developed countries in developing a consortium between higher education institutions and production. european journal of molecular & clinical medicine, 8(1), 819-825. 4. kutyashova e.s. regional market of consumer products and services: economic diagnosis development and regional politics. dissertation abstract written for obtaining a scientific degree in the name of economics. 71 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 study of the propagation of the shock-air wave front in the axial air cavity of a downhole charge of explosives sh. a. ochilov associate professor, department of mining, phd, assoc., tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov, tashkent, uzbekistan d. r. makhmudov associate professor, department of geotechnology of coal and seam deposits, phd, assoc., tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov, tashkent, uzbekistan a. n. karamanov doctoral student of the department "mining", tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov, tashkent, uzbekistan cm. raimkulova doctoral student of the mining department, tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov, tashkent, uzbekistan abstract: in order to increase the efficiency of the explosive impact on the rock and reduce the output of oversize in open pits, it is recommended to increase the pressure and time of the explosion impact on the massif by using an axial air cavity. this paper presents the results of studies of the propagation of the shock-air wave front in the axial air cavity of a borehole explosive charge depending on the detonation velocity, the mass of the explosive charge and the cross-sectional area of the axial cavity. the study of the propagation of the shock-air wave front in the axial air cavity of the borehole explosive charge makes it possible to develop the design of a borehole explosive charge with an axial air cavity, which improves the efficiency of blasting by increasing the duration of the blast wave pulse and reducing the specific consumption of explosives. keywords: shock-air wave, borehole charge, explosive, overpressure, air cavity, specific consumption of explosives. introduction it is known that the quality of the explosive preparation of the rock mass depends on the productivity and efficiency of all subsequent technological processes for the extraction and processing of minerals in a single system "quarry processing industry". in this regard, one of the most important characteristics of the blasting technology is the specific energy consumption of explosives, characterized both by energy indicators and types of explosives used, and by the parameters of the location of borehole charges in the destructible ledge. all this necessitates the optimization of parameters and the intensification of the explosive method of crushing as the cheapest and most technologically advanced and, as a result, an increase in the efficiency of the functioning of production processes of technological flows. 72 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the traditional technology of drilling and blasting operations (bvr) at deep levels of quarries has exhausted its capabilities, therefore, it is necessary to introduce more advanced methods that provide for the fully specified quality of rock mass crushing. the deposits of the republic of uzbekistan are characterized by a complex structure of ore bodies, high variability of the contents of useful components, steep dip angles, and unsustainable thickness of ore bodies. such variability significantly affects the efficiency of mining , significantly complicating the choice of technological parameters of drilling and blasting. at the same time, with an increase in the depth of development to the maximum economically feasible value, water cut and fracture of rocks increase, the influence of the open pit depth on the resistance of ores to explosive destruction increases, and the requirements for the safety of the sides increase. in this regard, scientific research, development and implementation of methods for intensifying the processes of drilling and blasting, increasing the efficiency of using explosive technologies to ensure the required quality of the blasted rock mass, is an urgent task of science and practice of mining, the solution of which helps to increase the economic efficiency of enterprises. materials and methods when conducting research, complex methods were used, including theoretical generalizations and experimental studies in laboratory, field and industrial conditions, mathematical programming methods using modern computer technology in order to develop programs for calculating the effective parameters of drilling and blasting in the borland language delphi 7.0, as well as methods of mathematical statistics and correlation analysis of research results. analysis of completed studies the theory of destruction and deformation of rocks by explosion was made by scientists v.e. aleksandrov , e.g. baranov , i.p. bibik , v.a. borovikov , k.e. vinitsky , o.e. a. vovk , g. p. demidyuk , m. f. drukovannyy , e. i. efremov , n. f. kusov , b. n. kutuzov kushnarev , l.n. marchenko , n.v. melnikov , e.o. mindeli , p.s. mironov , u.f. _ _ , v.n. rodionov , v.k. rubtsov , a.f. sukhanov , v.n. sytenkov , v.p. tarasenko , n.u. _ .i. shemyakin and others. in the works of these scientists, the physics of the destruction process was studied and the main patterns of rock destruction were established, as well as the influence of mining and technological characteristics on the efficiency of blasting. on the basis of theoretical and experimental studies of n.vanderberg , a.i.golbinder , l.v.dubnov , n.a.deremin , v.p.martynenko , v.f.tyshevich , l.d.khotin , a.r. chernenko and other scientists studied the regime of detonation waves in blasthole and borehole explosive charges with an axial air cavity. under the influence of the initial pulse, an elongated explosive charge with an axial air cavity is detonated , forming detonation waves. as a result of the action of the products of the detonation wave, a kind of gas piston is formed in the gap between the charge and the axial air cavity, which, according to the laws of gas dynamics, is a pressure jump propagating at supersonic speed. as a result of the analysis of works [1-12], it was found that during the explosion of an explosive charge in air, a rapid local increase in temperature and pressure of the gaseous products of the explosion occurs, which compress the air adjacent to the charge with a sharp blow. as a result, a shock-air wave arises in the air, which is a pressure jump propagating at supersonic speed. behind the front, an air flow moves at a lower speed, the pressure in which drops to atmospheric pressure as it moves away from the front, and even goes into a rarefaction phase. to calculate the maximum value of overpressure in an infinite air medium during the explosion of spherical charges, the formula of m.a. sadovsky , refined by g.i. pokrovsky [6,7], is used. ./,77,284,0 2 3 3 3 2 3 23 смкгс r g r g r g р  (1) 73 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where g is the mass of the explosive charge, kg; r is the distance to the place of explosion, m. the process of formation of the front of the shock-air wave during the explosion of an explosive charge in the axial cavity occurs differently. a shock-air wave with a curvilinear front interacts with the walls of the axial cavity. regular reflection occurs and a system of incident and reflected waves is formed with common points on the reflection planes. further, the reflected wave overtakes the incident one and an irregular reflection occurs, resulting in the appearance of sections of a flat front. for practical calculations of excess pressure at the front of a shock-air wave when it moves along a straight working, the authors of works [6,10] recommend the following dependencies: па rs g rs g rs g р ,1046,12,944 5 3/13/2                           , (2) where s is the cross-sectional area of the axial air cavity, m 2 ; for overpressure time cм rs g c r .,1092,0 36    (3) where c is the speed of sound, m/s. results and discussion as a result of the theoretical studies carried out, the dependences of the propagation of the shock-air wave front in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge were established depending on the detonation velocity and explosive density. in table. 1 shows the main characteristics of explosives, determined by the authors of [13]. table 1 bb name density of explosives, explosives , kg / m 3 detonation velocity, d, m/s heat of explosion q, kj/kg air shock wave speed ω, m/s adiabatic exponent, grammonite 79/21, gost 21988-76 800-850 3200-4000 4285 4700 5000 1.9 granulite as-4, gost 21987-76 850-900 2600-3500 4522 3250 4100 1.54 granulite as-4v, tu 85-620-82 800-850 3000-3500 4522 3750 4700 1.56 granulite ac-8, gost 21987-76 870-950 3000-3600 5191 3750 4700 1.52 granulite as-8v, tu 84-620-82 800-850 3000-3600 5233 3750 4700 1.56 granulite m, gost 21987-76 780-820 2500-3600 3852 3200 2560 1.48 granulite s-2, gost 21987-76 800-850 2200-3000 3939 2750 3500 also, the dependences of the propagation of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge on the cross-sectional area of the cavity and the mass of the explosive charge at various distances were established (fig. 1-3). 74 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rice. 1. dependence of the propagation of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge on the cross-sectional area of the cavity rice. 2. dependence of the propagation of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge on the mass of the explosive charge rice. 3. dependence of the propagation of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge on the distance the resulting dependence in fig. 1 shows that with an increase in the cavity cross-sectional area from 0.2 to 0.8 m 2 , the excess pressure at the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole explosive charge decreases from 350 to 70 mpa. on fig. figure 2 shows the dependence of the propagation of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge on the mass of the explosive charge. the obtained 75 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us dependence shows that with an increase in the mass of the charge from 100 to 500 kg, the excess pressure at the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the downhole charge increases from 60 to 300 mpa. the resulting regularity is characterized by a dependence of a linear type. as a result of the research, the dependence of the propagation of the shock-air wave front in the axial air cavity of the borehole explosive charge on distances was established (fig. 3). the obtained dependence shows that with an increase in the distance from 10 to 50 m, the excess pressure at the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge decreases from 350 to 60 mpa. theoretical studies have established the dependences of the action time of the front of the shockair wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge on the cross-sectional area of the cavity, the mass of the explosive charge at various distances, the results of which are shown in fig. 4-6. rice. fig. 4. change in the action time of the excess pressure of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge, depending on the cross-sectional area of the cavity rice. fig. 5. change in the action time of the overpressure of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge depending on the mass of the explosive charge 76 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rice. fig. 6. change in the time of action of the overpressure of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge depending on the distance the resulting dependence, shown in fig. 4 shows that with an increase in the cross-sectional area of the cavity from 0.2 to 0.8 m 2 , the time of action of excess pressure at the front of the shockair wave in the axial air cavity of the downhole explosive charge decreases from 115 to 90 ms . dependence in fig. 5 shows that with an increase in the mass of the explosive charge from 100 to 500 kg, the time of action of excess pressure at the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole explosive charge increases from 85 to 115 ms . the resulting dependence, shown in fig. 6 shows that with an increase in the distance from the center of the explosion from 10 to 50 m, the time of action of excess pressure at the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole explosive charge increases from 60 to 225 ms . conclusions the regime of detonation waves in elongated explosive charges with an axial air cavity has been studied. the speed of propagation of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity is established depending on the detonation speed of industrial explosives and the dependence of the propagation of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge on the sectional area of the cavity at various distances and the mass of the explosive charge. the time of action of the front of the shock-air wave in the axial air cavity of the borehole charge is determined depending on the cross-sectional area of the cavity and the mass of the explosive charge at various distances. bibliography 1. directory. open pit mining / k.n. trubetskoy , m.g. potapov , k.e. vinitsky , n.n. melnikov and others moscow: mining bureau, 1994. ‒ 590 p. 2. drukovany m.f., kukib b.n., kuts v.s. drilling and blasting in quarries. ‒ m.: nedra, 1990. ‒ 367 p. 3. kutuzov b.n., skorobogatov v.m., erofeev i.e. etc. handbook of explosives. ‒ m.: nedra, 1988. ‒ 511 p. 4. khuzhakulov a.m., karimov e.l., latipov z.e., nomdorov r.u., khakkulov s. study of the mode of detonation waves in borehole charges with an axial air cavity // socio-economic and environmental problems of the mining industry. , construction and energy: proceedings of the 15th international conference on mining, construction and energy. minsk: bntu, 2019. t. 1. s. 255-263. 5. shvedov k.k. on the reasons for the scatter of experimental data on pressure and the polytropic index of detonation products of condensed explosives and the possibility of their 77 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us accurate determination. ‒ chernogolovka, institute of chemical physics of the academy of sciences of the ussr, 1985. 6. pokrovsky g.i. explosion. m., 1973. 182 p. 7. khanukaev a.n. physical processes during rock breaking by explosion. ‒ m.: nedra, 1974. ‒ 224 p. 8. adushkin v.v. influence of density and humidity of sandy soil on the dimensions of the boiler cavity during a camouflage explosion // fgv, 1979. ‒ no. 3. ‒ s. 107-116. 9. lyakhov g.m. fundamentals of explosive wave dynamics in soils and rocks. ‒ m.: nedra, 1974. ‒ 192 p. 10. dubnov l.v., bakharevich n.s., romanov a.i. industrial explosives. m.: nedra, 1988. 358 p. 11. babayans g.m., martynenko v.p., chernenko a.r. borehole breaking of ore using charges with an axial air cavity // review. inform . ‒ m.: chermetinformatsia , 1984. ‒ 22 p. 12. kutuzov b.n., komashchenko v.i., noskov v.f. and others. laboratory and practical work on the destruction of rocks by explosion. m.: nedra, 1981. 255 p. 13. kutuzov b.n., skorobogatov v.m., erofeev i.e. etc. handbook of explosives. ‒ m.: nedra, 1988. ‒ 511 p. 253 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 areas of use of the obtained k-pac (potassium polyanionic cellulose) grades, their physical-chemical, mechanical analysis d. k. koraeva, sh. b. davlatov, sh. gulomov, m. m. murodov tashkent innovative chemical technology scientific research institute stabilizing reagents are considered one of the main raw materials for the production of construction materials. their quality indicators indicate that they provide stability as a stabilizing reagent in a composite mixture in phase. there must be instructions for their production. taking into account the above, a working manual was proposed to clarify the quality indicators for some of the stabilization reagents. below is this guideline. 1-table. comparison of the quality indicators of k-pac samples obtained compositely from pohol and textile cellulose according to the brands of ts 22235949-003:2015 and the demand indicators given in ts 22235949-003:2015. descriptions of indicators 70/600-0 85/700с-о 85/700pо the example *1 (85/700pо) the example *2 (70/600-0, 85/700-с-о) 1. appearance white powder white powder white powder white powder white powder 2. mass fraction of water, % not much 10 10 10 5 6 3. according to the degree of substitution of the carboxymethyl group, not less 0,65 0,7 0,6 85 87 4. the mass fraction of the amount of the main substance in the absolute dry product 97 97 63 89,4 87,8 5. its solubility in water, %, is not low 98,5 97 98,9 99,1 6. the dynamic viscosity of a 2% aqueous solution of kmts at a temperature of 200c, mpa*s, is not less than 100 100 100 7. hydrogen number (рн) of kmts solution in water with a mass fraction of 1.5% 7,0±0,5 6,7-10,0 8-10 9 10 8. the water return index of the kmts* soil solution with a mass fraction of 0.75% calculated on the main substance, cm3/min, not more 4 4 3,8 3,4 9. degree of polymerization 600 700 700 1100 670 *1k-pac obtained on the basis of fibrous waste of textile enterprises (tktch). *2it is obtained from cellulose husk к-рас *3kmts (carboxymethylcellulose) 254 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us it was determined that the quality indicators of the received stabilizing reagent samples correspond to the requirements specified in ts 22235949-003:2015 and ts 22235949-003:2015. the results were found to be positive and it was proposed to be applied to production. fields of use of k-paс brands, their physico-chemical, mechanical analysis. the reagent obtained on the basis of the research was developed and recommended as a stabilizing agent in the composition of liquid-phase emulsions, mainly for dry composite mixture putties in the construction industry. in addition, it was recommended to use as a stabilizing reagent for drilling mixtures used in oil and gas extraction, the indicator of "water return index of kmts soil solution with a mass fraction of 0.75% calculated as the main substance, cm3/min, not much", which is the main indicator among their quality indicators. the use of lignin contained in the alkali curd produced during the cellulose extraction process in the drilling mixtures as an inhibitor was demonstrated. it has been shown by the research analysis that phenol, benzene, hydroxyl, carbonyl groups in lignin are used as protective inhibitors preventing the partial absorption of heat and the decomposition of reagent macromolecules in preventing thermal destruction during drilling. in this study, based on local raw materials, it is aimed to create a technology for obtaining importsubstitute, export-oriented modified barite and barite concentrate thickeners based on barite ores, barite concentrates, which are used to increase the density of drilling fluids used in drilling oil and gas wells in the production conditions of jsc "uzbekneftegaz" and in neighboring production enterprises. the scientific significance of the project is that the optimum conditions in the stages of developing technology for drilling mixtures with improved properties from local raw materials are firstly based on mathematical modeling, and then based on scientific research, the optimal conditions and critical points of the synthesis parameters are defined and determined during the research, various organic and inorganic, such as minerals creation of a barite concentrate production technology based on the results of scientific experiments obtained as a result of researching the effects of reagents. the following figure shows the ir-spectrum of technical k-pac, and it is possible to observe the degree of exchange of functional groups with the hydroxyl group of cellulose during the period of obtaining the reagent. 1-рicture. ir spectrum of technical k-pac 5007501000125015001750200022502500275030003250350037504000 1/cm -0,25 0 0,25 0,5 0,75 1 1,25 1,5 1,75 2 2,25 %t 3 9 6 8 ,5 7 3 9 4 7 ,3 5 3 9 0 4 ,4 4 3 7 5 9 ,7 8 3 7 4 2 ,4 2 3 6 6 7 ,6 7 3 6 2 8 ,6 1 3 6 1 1 ,7 4 3 5 6 8 ,3 4 3 5 5 3 ,8 7 3 5 1 6 ,7 4 3 4 7 2 ,3 8 3 4 2 6 ,0 9 3 3 7 0 ,1 5 3 3 2 1 ,9 3 3 2 7 8 ,5 3 3 2 2 2 ,1 1 3 1 6 9 ,5 5 3 1 4 9 ,3 0 3 1 0 0 ,6 0 3 0 7 8 ,4 2 3 0 3 1 ,6 4 3 0 2 0 ,0 7 2 9 9 1 ,6 2 2 9 1 6 ,8 8 2 8 9 1 ,3 2 2 8 3 7 ,7 9 2 7 9 6 ,3 2 2 7 5 6 ,7 8 2 7 3 7 ,0 1 2 7 1 7 ,7 2 2 7 0 0 ,3 6 2 6 7 5 ,7 7 2 6 3 8 ,1 6 2 5 9 3 ,8 0 2 5 4 9 ,4 3 2 5 4 6 ,0 6 2 5 2 3 ,3 9 2 3 8 8 ,3 8 2 3 6 8 ,6 1 2 3 5 4 ,1 4 2 3 1 3 ,6 3 2 2 7 8 ,4 3 2 2 4 6 ,1 2 2 1 8 5 ,8 5 2 0 7 1 ,5 7 2 0 1 1 ,2 9 1 9 4 2 ,8 2 1 9 1 9 ,6 7 1 9 1 2 ,9 2 1 9 0 8 ,1 0 1 9 0 1 ,8 3 1 8 9 2 ,1 8 1 6 1 4 ,9 1 1 6 0 2 ,3 8 1 4 4 8 ,0 7 1 4 2 2 ,0 3 1 3 1 9 ,3 2 1 2 1 0 ,8 2 1 2 0 1 ,6 6 1 1 1 8 ,2 4 1 0 7 4 ,3 6 1 0 6 0 ,3 8 1 0 3 4 ,3 4 1 0 2 2 ,7 6 9 1 2 ,3 4 8 9 1 ,1 2 8 3 4 ,7 0 7 9 2 ,7 5 7 8 7 ,9 3 6 9 1 ,0 0 6 4 8 ,0 9 6 3 5 ,0 7 6 0 2 ,7 6 5 6 2 ,2 5 5 5 0 ,6 8 5 1 9 ,8 2 5 0 3 ,9 1 4 6 1 ,4 7 4 4 5 ,5 6 18,12,2019 tozalanmagan n.ts. 255 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 445.27 p-phenylazocarbanillic acid, cedrolovic ether 445.92 hydrate 1,1-dioxo-1,2benzothiazol-2-id-3-one zinc 461.47 1.1609-9methyl-3-oxo-9-azabicyclo [3.3.1] nonan-7-ol, benzylate ester, methobromide formula: c23h28brno4 503,91 0,8447-melesitose, monohydrate 519.82 0.8478-bis(4-tert-butylphenyl) 4-cyclohexylphenyl phosphate formula: c32h41o4p 550.68 0.7376-4[3-(2-trifluoromethyl-10-phenothiazinyl) propyl]-1-piperazinethanol, acetate, dihydrochloride formula: c24h30cl2f3n3o2s 562.25 0.7411: 561.76 oxalate cerium 561.95 rhodium, tris(1,1, 1-triftor-2,4-pentandionato)602.76 0.6279. the following picture shows the ir spectrum of k-pac obtained from cellulose based on textile waste. 2-picture. the ir spectrum of k-pac is presented it can be observed from the spectra that, after the process of obtaining the reagent, the irspectrum was obtained after the technical pac were extracted once in ethyl alcohol. observations showed that the glycolates that did not enter into various reactions or separated after the reaction were cleaned in ethyl alcohol, and the quality indicators of the reagent improved, especially the increase in the amount of the main substance can be observed in the spectrum points. as a conclusion to this section, it should be noted that in the research of the department, the study of the production of stabilizing k-pac brands for the construction industry based on rice straw and textile cellulose, the stages of the production of composite brands of k-pac, which stabilize the composition of various putties and emulsions for the construction industry, and the obtained composite k-mastering the composition of pac as required by the field mastering the guidelines and areas of use of k-pac brands, their physico-chemical, mechanical analysis measures have been thoroughly studied. the reagent obtained on the basis of the research was developed and recommended as a stabilizing agent in the composition of liquid-phase emulsions, mainly for dry composite putties in the field of construction. in addition, among their quality indicators, the main indicator is "the water return index of kmts soil solution with a mass fraction of 0.75% calculated as the main substance, cm3/min, not much" indicator, it is recommended to be used as a stabilizing reagent for drilling mixtures used in oil and gas production. 4006008001000120014001600180020002200240026002800300032003400360038004000 cm-1 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 %t 3 8 5 3 ,7 7 2 3 6 2 ,8 0 1 6 4 7 ,2 1 1 5 5 8 ,4 8 1 3 9 4 ,5 3 1 3 1 3 ,5 2 1 0 5 3 ,1 3 8 3 7 ,1 1 6 6 9 ,3 0 9 miracle10 (dia/ znse) 256 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. m.m. murodov. «тechnology of making cellulose and its ethers by using raw materials» // international conference “renewable wood and plant resources: chemistry, technology, pharmacology, and medicine”. saint-petersburg, russia. june 21-24., 2011. 142-143. 2. m.m. murodov. «тhe technology of making carboxymethyl cellulose (cmc) by method monoapparatus» // international conference «renewable wood and plant resources: chemistry, technology, pharmacology, and medicine». saint-petersburg, russia. june 2124., 2011. 141-142. 3. ўзбекистон республика вазирлар маҳкамаси “республикада тез ўсувчи ва саноатбоп павловния дарахти плантацияларини барпо қилиш чора-тадбирлари тўғрисида” 2020 йил 27 августдаги 520-сонли қарори. 4. интернет: https://xs.uz/uzkr/post/ hududlarda –pavlovniya -plantatsiyalari -tashkil-qilinadi/ 5. муродов, м. х., & муродов, б. х. у. (2015). фотоэлектрическая станция с автоматическим управлением мощностью 20 квт для учебного заведения. science time, (12 (24)), 543-547. 6. murodov, m. m., rahmanberdiev, g. r., khalikov, m. m., egamberdiev, e. a., negmatova, k. c., saidov, m. m., & mahmudova, n. (2012, july). endurance of high molecular weight carboxymethyl cellulose in corrosive environments. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 1459, no. 1, pp. 309-311). american institute of physics. 7. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. (2021). obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. 8. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. european journal of humanities and educational advancements, 2(1), 1315. 9. murodov, m. m., xudoyarov, o. f., & urozov, m. q. (2018). technology of making carboxymethylcellulose by using local raw materials. advanced engineering forum vols. 89 (2018) pp 411-412/©. trans tech publications, switzerland. doi, 10, 8-9. 10. primqulov, m. t., rahmonbtrdiev, g., murodov, m. m., & mirataev, a. a. (2014). tarkibida sellyuloza saqlovchi xom ashyoni qayta ishlash texnologiyasi. ozbekiston faylasuflar milliy jamiyati nashriyati. toshkent, 28-29. 11. рахманбердиев, г. р., & муродов, м. м. (2011). разработка технологии получения целлюлозы из растений топинамбура. итисодиёт ва инновацион технологиялар" илмий электрон журнали,(2), 1-11. 12. elievich, c. l., khasanovich, y. s., & murodovich, m. m. (2021). technology for the production of paper composites for different areas from fiber waste. 13. murodovich, m. m., qulturaevich, u. m., & mahamedjanova, d. (2018). development of technology for production of cellulose from plants of tissue and receiving na-carboxymethylcellulose on its basis. journalnx, 6(12), 407-411. 14. rahmonberdiev, g., murodov, m., negmatova, k., negmatov, s., & lysenko, a. (2012). effective technology of obtaining the carboxymethyl cellulose from annual plants. in advanced materials research (vol. 413, pp. 541-543). trans tech publications ltd. 15. murodovich, m. m., murodovich, h. m., & qulturaevich, u. m. (2020). obtaining technical carboxymethyl cellulose increased in main substance. academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal, 10(12), 717-719. https://xs.uz/uzkr/post/%20hududlarda%20–pavlovniya%20-plantatsiyalari%20-tashkil-qilinadi/ 69 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 research of thermal analysis of polyethylene composites based on carbon nanotubes khaydarov t.z doctoral student of the tashkent research institute of chemistry and technology rahmankulov a.a candidate of physical-mathematical sciences, associate professor of the department of physics and electronics karshi engineering and economic institute, republic of uzbekistan, karimov m.u doctor of technical sciences, professor, tashkent research institute of chemistry and technology, djalilov a.t chemical science of doctor, academician of the academy of sciences of the republic of uzbekistan, tashkent research institute of chemical technology corresponding author: tuymurodxaydarov228@gmail.com abstract. in this article, composite materials based on carbon nanotubes were obtained. dta and tga analyzes of differential thermal analysis of composite materials obtained on the basis of this polyethylene were studied. according to the obtained results, when 0.01% of carbon nanotubes are added to 1561 polyethylene, the pe liquid temperature increases from 105 to 131°c. it was also observed that the temperature increased to 136.17 °c when carbon nanotubes modified with triethylamine were added. keywords: carbon nanotubes, triethylamine, dta and tga, polyethylene. 1.introduction. owing to the unique physicomechanical properties, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (mwcnts) are of interest to researchers around the world and are one of the main materials of developing nanotechnologies[1,2]. high-density polyethylene (hdpe) composite films filled with carbon fibers (cf), carbon nanotubes (cnt) as well as hybrid filler of cf and cnt were prepared by melt mixing. results showed that: when the total content of filler was the same, (i) the electrical resistivity of composite films filled with hybrid fillers was lower than those with single filler; (ii) the composite films filled with hybrid fillers displayed more excellent self-heating performance such as a higher surface temperature (t s), a more rapid temperature response, and a better thermal stability[3]. 70 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure-1. application of carbon nanotube-based materials as interlayers[4]. the dependence of strength, deformation, and electrophysical properties and structure of polyethylene-based polymer composites on the type and quantity of the filler are shown[4]. over years, thermal degradation kinetic studies of thermoplastic polymers are a topic of immense interest because the commercial and scientific importance of these materials plays a vital role in various industrial applications[5]. in general, the thermal decomposition of polymers consists of some alteration in the physical properties and chemical structure because of external physical and/or chemical stresses. however, an essential resource of these types of stresses is due to bond scissions in the backbone of the macromolecules [6]. thermal degradation studies of polymers are extensively measured using thermogravimetric (tg) and derivative thermogravimetric (dtg) analyses. for performing overall kinetic analysis, experimental data, viz., change in mass of a specimen with temperature/time, may be recorded under different experimental conditions. in this context, various isothermal (constant temperature) and/or nonisothermal (constant heating rate) methods have been reported [7]. the theoretical analysis of the experimental data depends on the reliable estimation of the kinetic parameters [viz., apparent activation energy (e a), pre-exponential factor (a), reaction order (n), and reaction rate constant (k)] and essentially provides a mathematical explanation required to extrapolate the degradation reaction behavior to conditions dissimilar from the experimental ones [8]. however, the extraction of the maximum relevant information from isothermal/non-isothermal data obtained by tg analysis techniques and the modeling of the kinetic process are crucial tasks in tg data treatment[9]. 2. experimental part carbon nanotubes were obtained using a catalyst based on the pyrolysis of acetylene. a method of producing carbon nanotubes by converting carbon nanotubes and carbon material with high hydrogen content under the combined effect of acetylene to a metal catalyst gas was considered. this technology can be used to solve the resource efficiency problem related to environmentally sound management based on deep processing of natural and associated petroleum gases into carbon material (carbon nanotubes) and hydrogen. 3. results and discussion 3.1.differential thermal analysis of carbon nanotubes and polyethylene composite material. modification of pe with unt has a significant effect not only on the physical-mechanical properties of the composites, but also on the whole set of properties related to thermal physics. according to the thermomechanical method, when 0.1 wt.% unt is added, the melting point of base pe increases from 105 to 131°с (fig. 3.8). according to differential thermal analysis data (figure 3.8), modification of base pe with 0.01wt% unt at a melting temperature of 124°c leads to an increase in melting temperature to 131°c, and the addition of a modifier (triethylamine) increases the melting temperature to 132°c. figure 2. differential thermal analysis of i-1561 polyethylene modified with 0.1% unt 71 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us polyethylene 1561 brand and unt additive. as can be seen from figure 3.8, the endoeffect occurring in the first 137.70s in dtt does not go away with mass reduction. this indicates that the sample is liquefied. the subsequent endoeffect mass loss occurring at 474.65 °c indicates the destruction process of the sample. the total mass loss is 99.905%. figure 3. differential thermal analysis of i-1561 polyethylene modified with 0.5% unt as can be seen from fig. 3, the endoeffect occurring at the first 136 0c in dtt does not go with mass reduction. this indicates that the sample is liquefied. the subsequent endoeffect mass loss occurring at 469.04 0c indicates the destruction process of the sample. the total mass loss is 100%. as can be seen from fig. 3, the endoeffect occurring in dtt at the first 135.22 0c does not go away with the decrease in mass. this indicates that the sample is liquefied. the subsequent endoeffect mass loss occurring at 471.55 0c indicates the destruction process of the sample. the total mass loss is 97.841%. fig. 4. differential thermal analysis of i-1561 brand polyethylene modified with unt in the amount of 0.1% as can be seen from fig. 4, the endoeffect occurring at the first 136.17 0c in dtt does not go with mass reduction. this indicates that the sample is liquefied. the subsequent endoeffect mass loss occurring at 469.55 0c indicates the destruction process of the sample. the total mass loss is 99.322%. incorporation of 0.1 wt.% unt into pe does not affect the heat of fusion. in addition, 0.1 mas. the addition of % results in an increase in the heat of fusion. the increase in the heat of fusion when adding additives gives an indication of the structure of the system. the low effect of pe unt filling on the heat of fusion may be due to the thermodynamic flexibility of the polyethylene chains and the low interaction energy between the matrix and modifier phases. the addition of only 0.1 wt.% unt leads to an increase in the heat of fusion, which can be explained by an increase in the adhesion between the matrix and the modifier thus, the composite is modified with malenized unt, resulting in increased adhesion of the polymer matrix to the modifier, causing the system to contract. addition of 0.1 wt.% unt and triethylamine to pe results in an increase in vic's heat resistance from 137 to 138°с. at the same time, fire resistance of this composite is increased compared to the base pe, at the same time, strong coke formation was observed on the surface of the composite samples, which inhibits the propagation of fire. addition of 0.1 wt.% unt and triethylamine to pe allows to increase the corrosion resistance. according to the previously described method, the loss of mass of the samples in abrasive bending stability tests is reduced from 1% for the base pe to 5% for the unt (1wt.%) and triethylamine pe composite. 4. conclusion in general, obtaining composite materials based on pe by adding 0.1 wt.% unt and simultaneous modification of triethylamine allows to improve the set of physico-mechanical 72 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us properties, increase the melting temperature, heat and fire resistance, which is practical for the production of packaging materials with improved operational properties. increases interest. references 1. de volder, m.f.l., tawfick, s.h., baughman, r.h., and hart, a.j., science, 2013, vol. 339, no. 6119, pp. 535–539. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1222453. 2. popov, v., mater. sci. eng.: r: reports, 2004, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 61–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2003.10.001. 3. zang, p., zhang, r., shi, r. et al. synergetic effects of carbon nanotubes and carbon fibers on electrical and self-heating properties of high-density polyethylene composites. j mater sci 50, 1565–1574 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-014-8716-z 4. petrova, g.n., zhuravleva, p.l., iskhodzhanova, i.v. et al. influence of carbon fillers on properties and structure of polyethylene-based polymer composites. nanotechnol russia 9, 305– 310 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1134/s1995078014030124. 5. chu cc, white kl, liu p, zhang x, sue hj. electrical conductivity and thermal stability of polypropylene containing well-dispersed multi-walled carbon nanotubes disentangled with exfoliated nanoplatelets. carbon. 2012;50:4711–21. 6. zabihi o, omrani a, rostami aa. thermo-oxidative degradation kinetics and mechanism of the system epoxy nano-composite reinforced with nano-al2o3. j therm anal calorim. 2012;108:1251–60. 7. erceg m, kovacic t, klaric i. poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) nanocomposites: isothermal degradation and kinetic analysis. thermochim acta. 2009;485:26–32. 8. paik p, kar kk. thermal degradation kinetics and estimation of lifetime of polyethylene particles: effects of particle size. mater chem phys. 2009;113(2–3):953–6. 9. vyazovkin s, burnham ak, criado jm, maqueda la, popescu c, sbirrazzuoli n. ictac kinetics committee recommendations for performing kinetic computations on thermal analysis data. thermochim acta. 2011;520:1–19. 10. khaydarov t.z. at al. growth of carbon-mmx nanotubes on a catalyst. universum: химия и биология. 2023. 6(108). 167 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 more yield is better less nitrate is better mirxaydarova gulmira sultanovna associate professor of tashkent state agrarian university xo‘shatova shaxlo farxod qizi, bo‘rieva dilbar xidir qizi, suvonqulova saida shamsiddin qizi students of tashkent state agrarian university abstract: the article describes the impact of nitrogen fertilizers on the environment, especially on human health. excessive use of fertilizers is highlighted on the basis of data obtained when the permissible concentration of nitrates in the product is exceeded. the increase in nitrates in the composition of the product depends on the type of nitrogen fertilizers, as well as their use during the growing season, as well as external and internal factors that affect the accumulation and decrease of nitrates in the plant body. for example, it has been found that the amount of nitrate nitrogen in root crops depends on the number of their stems and the size and size of root crops. the influence of tillage on the content of nitrates in vegetable crops was also revealed. keywords: nitrogen fertilizers, product quality, nitrates, vegetable crops, vegetation, fertilization, nitrate concentration, norm. relevance of the topic. nitrates are salts of nitric acid, a plant nutrient that is essential for building cells and making chlorophyll. a high concentration of nitrates in the soil is not completely toxic to plants, on the contrary, it contributes to their growth, more active photosynthesis and higher productivity. therefore, farmers can use "a little more" fertilizers. nitrates are not dangerous to humans and animals in normal amounts, but can cause poisoning and even death at levels above rem. once in the body, in the large intestine, under the influence of microflora, nitrates turn into nitrites they are toxic to humans. nitrites have a harmful effect on hemoglobin, and as a result, it cannot transfer oxygen to tissues and organs oxygen deficiency occurs. according to the standards of the world health organization, the permissible daily intake of nitrates for a person should not exceed 1 mg per 5 kg of body weight, that is, for a person weighing 70 kg no more than 350 mg per day. if you take 600-650 mg of nitrates at one time, poisoning may occur in adults. in children, the synthesis of substances responsible for the restoration of hemoglobin decreases, so nitrates are more dangerous for babies than for adults. the degree of nitrate exposure to humans depends not only on their quantity, but also on the state of the body as a whole. in a healthy body, the conversion of nitrates to nitrites is slower than in a weakened body. nitrates are nutrients for plants, but people should reduce their consumption of nitric acid salts from agricultural products (vegetables, dairy products). how to protect yourself from nitrates?! of course, the easiest way is to eat only vegetables whose nitrate content has been tested [6]. in addition to the negative effects of nitrates on the human body, the outbreak of nitrate poisoning as a result of eating feed containing a large amount of nitrates has also been observed in farm animals around the world. nitrate poisoning often occurs in cattle and sheep. in ruminants, nitrate is reduced to nitrite under the action of microbial reductases. rumen microbes 168 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us use this nitrite as a nitrogen source by converting it to ammonia. at the same time, excess nitrite accumulates in the abdominal cavity, from where it is easily absorbed into the bloodstream, and combines with the iron ion of hemoglobin (hb) to form met-hemoglobin (met-hb). met-hb is a poor carrier of oxygen in the body and the animal suffers from oxygen deficiency [4]. research results and their discussion. anthropogenic activities aimed at increasing food production can contribute to the accumulation of undesirable substances in plants and negatively affect the quality of soil and water resources. application of high-nitrogen fertilizers to crops protects against crop loss and economic losses. however, when the introduction of nitrogen exceeds the requirement, plants cannot absorb it and nitrogen accumulates in the soil, mainly in the form of nitrates. this disrupts the balance of nutrients in the soil and increases the level of nitrate in groundwater, affecting the nitrate content of plants. approximately 72% to 94% of the total daily intake of nitrate by humans is obtained from vegetables [1]. in addition to the above factors, weather conditions have a significant impact on nitrate accumulation in plants. weather conditions that are unfavorable for plant growth, such as drought, cold, extreme cold, and cloudy weather, can increase nitrate accumulation in plants. in this study, field nitrate concentrations were significantly higher than those found uniformly under adverse weather conditions, i.e., cloudy, cold, wet in winter, and very hot and dry in summer. for example, one of the reasons people often get nitrate poisoning in india is because crops and frost are affected by severe frosts in december and january. in a very hot summer, the nitrification process of soil bacteria increases, which leads to the accumulation of nitrate in forage. cold and cloudy weather reduces nitrate reductase activity and therefore increases nitrate accumulation in plants [4]. nitrate concentration in vegetables depends on various factors, such as the amount and type of nitrogen fertilizer application for soil fertility, growing conditions, weather conditions, season, temperature, light intensity, type of cultivation (conventional and relative to greenhouse) depends on harvest time, humidity, stress, plant species, plant age, soil ph, storage conditions and post-harvest storage. so far, many studies have been conducted on nitrate concentration in vegetables. for example, scientists have shown that the highest amount of nitrates is found in parsley and spinach, and the lowest amount of nitrates is found in tomatoes. another study by scientists found that boiling reduced the nitrate content of fresh leafy vegetables by 47-59%, but frying in soybean oil increased the nitrate content by 159-309%. in addition, a slight change in the nitrate content of leafy vegetables was observed for 7 days when the flash freezing method was used. the presence of nitrates in food has led to various manifestations [3]. factors influencing the accumulation of nitrates. vegetables and forage crops are the main source of nitrates for humans and animals. in turn, nitrogen fertilizers used in high amounts have the strongest effect on the accumulation of nitrates in vegetable products. thus, at the czechoslovak research institute of soil science and plant breeding (prugar. prugarova 1990), with an increase in the nitrogen dose from 80 to 160 kg/kg, the amount of nitrates in spinach increased from 1338 mg/kg to 2160 mg/kg, and in lettuce from 1445 to 1641 mg, that is, it exceeds the permissible concentration [5]. the accumulation of nitrates in plants depends not only on the amount of nitrogen fertilizers used, but also on their type. studies conducted on ammonium sulfate and calcium nitrate have shown that when nitrogen fertilizers in the form of ammonium are applied to radishes, less nitrates accumulate in the roots than when nitrogen fertilizers contain nitrate. similar results were expressed in experiments with lettuce leaves. batch application of nitrogen fertilizers with irrigation, especially if they are carried out in the second half of the growing season, leads to an increase in the amount of nitrates in the cultivated products (diagram 1). at the same time, in all crops, the amount of nitrates in cabbage heads, beets and carrots was significantly reduced when 169 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us potassium fertilizers were applied late. also, when the amount of phosphorus fertilizers is increased, the amount of nitrates in vegetables often increases [5]. nitrate concentration varies in different plant species. in general, leafy vegetables (such as kale and spinach) have higher nitrate concentrations, while root vegetables (such as potatoes and carrots) and root vegetables (such as onions and garlic) have relatively lower concentrations. as for nitrite, its average concentration in vegetables is usually low [5]. nitrates in the harvest of agricultural crops enter the human body and poison it, the most effective way to prevent this is to grow products that have an amount that does not have a negative effect on human health in vegetables and fruits. according to the world health organization, the harmless daily amount of nitrates for humans is set at 300-350 mg, in addition, the permissible amount of nitrates in drinking water is 10 mg/dm3, and in european countries it is 22 mg/dm3. defined as the rate of accumulation of nitrates in crops is influenced not only by fertilizers, but also by agrotechnics of cultivation, light, moisture, fertilizer application systems, etc. these include: optimum number of plants per hectare. it is clear that if a field with a sparse crop is applied with a high amount of nitrogen fertilizers, excessively large tubers with a high content of nitrates will be formed. the content of nitrates is low in vegetables grown on soils with a high mineral nitrogen content (200-250 kg/ha) or on soils with high mineralization of humus. according to the data obtained from the field experiments, the minimum amount of nitrate content in carrots was achieved when there were 1.5 million root fruits per hectare. in oshlavlagi, 719,000 units per hectare were obtained. reducing the amount of nitrates in vegetables is also achieved by reducing the number of tillages before planting and the number of inter-row tillages. it is achieved by selectively planting varieties with low nitrate content. when full amounts of nitrogen fertilizers are applied under the soil (locally) at a depth of 10-15 cm and at an interval of 15-20 cm, the coefficient of use of soil and fertilizer nitrogen is increased by 1-4 times, productivity increased by 20-30%, loss of gaseous nitrogen decreased by 2 times due to slowing down of microbiological processes in the place where fertilizer was applied. when band-applied nitrogen fertilizers in the form of ammonium, vegetable and forage crops use ammonium nitrogen longer. this was especially evident in white cabbage, carrots, dill and salads, which resulted in a 1.5-fold decrease in nitrate content of the crop. fig 1. the effect of fertilizer application methods on the content of nitrates in agricultural crops 170 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us various conflicting information has been received regarding the distribution and use of nitrogen fertilizers in certain periods. especially if feeding with nitrogen is applied late, the amount of nitrogen in the form of nitrates in the commodity part of the product is increased. taking this into account, the last nitrogen feeding should be completed 1.5-2 months before harvesting. crops that accumulate more than the allowed rate of nitrates can be reduced by extending the growing season. if the tubers are harvested immature, they contain a lot of nitrates. therefore, the extension of the vegetation period leads to a decrease in the period. fig 2. effect of irrigation regime on nitrate content of vegetable products (niiox) however, extending the growing season of vegetables grown in the autumn months, when fed abundantly with nitrogen, gives the opposite result. that is, in dry, cold and cloudy weather, the process of photosynthesis slows down and the metabolism of nitrates in the plant slows down. conclusion. from the experiments, it was concluded that by watering the crops abundantly, it is possible to reduce the amount of nitrate in the product from the permissible standard level. nitrogen in the form of nitrate contained in nitrogen fertilizers is easily washed away under the influence of irrigation water and pollutes the environment. nitrate leaching increases significantly in early spring and late fall. nitrates move up through the soil capillaries after irrigation in dry climates. therefore, it is very important to know the timing of application of nitrogen fertilizers and the rate of nitrification of nitrogen in the form of ammonia in agriculture. nitrate-nitrogen fertilizers are more leached than other types of nitrogen fertilizers. the combined use of organic and mineral fertilizers optimizes the application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops and prevents unnecessary loss of nitrogen fertilizers. references 1. anjana,sh.umar, m.iqbal “nitrate accumulatsion in plants factors affecting the process and human health implications”/agron susrain dev. 27(2007) 45-57/inra,edp sciencs, 2006/doi:10.51/agro:2006021 2. karimov m.u., mirhaydarova g.s./"aspects of proper fertilization are a guarantee of product quality"/uzbekistan agricultural science bulletin, journal, no. 3(9/2), 2023 (special issue), 100 -104 pages 171 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. h. salehzadeh, a. maleki, r. rezaee, b. shahmoradi/“the nitratr content fresh and cooked vegetables and their health-related risks”/doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227551 published online 2020 jun 9 4. zhonghua bian, yu wang, xiaoyan zhang, tao li, steven grundy, qichang yang, ruifeng cheng /“a review of environment effects on nitrate accumulation in leafy vegetables grown in controlled environments”/doi:10.3390/foods9060732/published 2020 jun 3/ https://www.cfs.gov.hk 5. prugar y., prugarova a. “excess nitrogen in vegetables”, m. rosagropromizdat, 1991. 6. uz.healthy-food-near-me.com 31 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 1, issue 4, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 safeguarding vulnerable care access: ai-powered risk detection and microfinance linking for community health small businesses rahanuma tarannum masters in information technology, arkansas tech university, usa md manarat uddin mithun master of science in business analytics, trine university, usa sakhawat hussain tanim master of science in technology project management, illinois state university, usa abstract: the provision of affordable, consistent and non-discriminatory health care remains a major challenge to vulnerable groups especially in low resource areas where the community health small business entities are the main source of contact points in delivery of care. even though they play a critical role, these providers experience challenges continuously such as financial fraud, lack of efficiency in their operations and resource utilization and poor access to funding which will compromise their sustainability in the long-term. this study will explore how artificial intelligence (ai) based risk detection mechanisms can combine with microfinance solutions to make community healthcare ventures more resistant, inclusive, and steady. this study uses machine learning to perform an exploratory analysis of the healthcare and financial datasets to reveal hidden patterns in financial and operation risks and provide predictive information that can be used to help implement logical measures in advance. the results have shown that ai-based predictive analytics does more than just identify early warning indicators of problems that might arise; it also helps maximize resource utilization and transform datainformed decision-making practices. the microfinance systems are essential in addressing the financial frailty by making capital readily available to small-time healthcare providers that otherwise have no access to the conventional sources of funds. the combination of ai risk detection and microfinance support is, therefore, a complex system by which entrepreneurs in the healthcare industry can acquire the necessary tools and resources both in technological and financial terms, to survive in the long run. the result of this integrated approach is the heightened business resilience, the service provision resilience, and the prospective prolonged access of more vulnerable communities to the essential healthcare services. this study recognizes the following limitations: incompleteness of its data, possible situation dependence of the service delivery on the algorithmic bias, and the necessity of a supportive policy framework guiding the adoption and implementation. the data covered broadly emphasize the revolutionary optimism of promoting the combination of technological innovation and inclusive financial patterns to establish sustainable healthcare environments. through resilience and equity, this integrated structure can propel system changes to the process of care delivery among underserved groups. the future directions of research should be devoted to contextual precision of ai algorithms, extending the boundaries of the microfinance by means of novel digital tools, and cross-sector partnerships to create scalable and sustainable effect. this study valuable knowledge on advancing healthcare systems that are dynamic, inclusive, and resistant to the changing environment, yet it is providing sensitive care through equal access. 32 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us keywords: artificial intelligence, risk detection, microfinance, community healthcare, predictive analytics and sustainability. 1. introduction a. background the problem of access to good healthcare is one of the most burning in the world, especially regarding the weak groups in the population of lowand medium-income countries where the infrastructure has extremely poor conditions, and resources are unequally distributed. in these kinds of situations, the community-based service providers of health, which can be small business entities, are a foundational back fall of healthcare delivery groups that provide much of the necessary services in those sectors that have little facilities of the kind. the providers play a crucial role occupying gaps by bringing care to the communities, but they are usually under chronic financial pressure, unreliable revenue bases, and other risks relating to operations which limit their sustainability over the long run. meanwhile, false forms of claims, misrepresented services, inflated billing are forms of healthcare fraud that place burdens on an already limited amount of resources available to healthcare systems [1]. alongside misuse of resources, malpractices undermine the authenticity of health financing systems, thus making it more challenging to obtain the required support by legitimate providers. conventional methods of auditing and monitoring are characterized as being slow, reactive, and demanding in terms of use of resources and do not quite suit the dynamic character of dishonest practices. such a two-sided challenge of maintaining vulnerable populations with access to reliable healthcare and maintaining the minimum of fraud will demand the development of new and combined strategies [2]. artificial intelligence (ai) and, in specific, anomaly detection techniques provide an effective means of unearthing suspicious patterns that could presage fraud or otherwise unsafe conduct. these ai-driven insights combined with the financial inclusion processes like microfinance, can mean the opening of the chances to direct the support flow toward ethical community-driven providers [3]. in that case, the system does not only protect limited bases of healthcare resources, but also reinforces the financial sustainability of the small providers, thus ultimately leading to sustainable and equitable access to care in vulnerable populations. b. reasons why ai and microfinance are integrated the logic behind the convergence of ai-enhanced fraud detection and go-forward in microfunding in the community health system is based on the two related systemic problems, the control of frauds and access of available funds [4]. healthcare system corruption severely decreases efficiency and sustainability of care provision through waste of essential resources needed by vulnerable classes of the population. unlike their traditionally used counterparts, aibased anomaly detection processes like unsupervised learning and clustering models are a datadriven approach that is more efficient to recognize anomalous patterns in billing, unusual utilization of services, or excessive additions to them [5]. the ai models can constantly filter through extensive amounts of data, and in contrast to manually conducted audits, which are labor-consuming and delay-prone, they will provide 24/7 monitoring with prevention and identification measures. simultaneously, small community health providers which can be reliable yet financially underfunded are inadequately able to get financing since they lack credit history, collateral or official papers. although microfinance institutions are supposed to fill financial gaps within small-scale firms, they may be afraid of offering it to the health sector since they view the health sector as risky [6]. with the help of risk scores provided by ai algorithms, financial institutions will only need to make more informed decisions and employ better judgment as to fraudulent providers and those providers who actually need to be provided with financial assistance [7]. this dual system introduces a win-win model, fraudulent actors will be reported and removed from the source of funding whereas ethical providers will have access to the funding that can scale the operation, offer better services, and invest financially in medical 33 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us infrastructures [8]. therefore, implementation of risk detection by ai and microfinance is not only seen to diminish frauds, but also, sets up a sustainable financing environment to promote the role of small health businesses in ensuring effective care to such vulnerable communities. c. problem statement conventional healthcare fraud detecting programs are usually reactive, tardy and reliant on the manual audit, restricting the program to be effective in detecting new patterns of fraud enterprises. such inefficiencies allow fraudulent processes and some unethical practices to occur that lead to the wastage of healthcare systems [9]. in the meantime, small-scale healthcare providers who offer their services ethically and legally encounter massive constraints in accessing financial backing because, in most occasions, banks consider them as a risky financial investment because of the inferior record system in their books of accounts, ambiguity in the records, and unfavorable sources of collateral [10]. this contradiction makes the structure unbalanced: there is a lack of funding in established and trustworthy providers, and there is still a possibility of fraudulent ones to exploit the flaws in healthcare financing. this problem needs a new system that combines risk identification based on ai and microfinance mechanisms. d. purpose of study the proposed research will test a new methodology to integrate artificial intelligence-based risk identification and microfinance policies to empower local care-based companies to build resilience and protect vulnerable populations and their access relationships to care [11]. it studies fraud or high risk healthcare providers with the advanced techniques of anomaly detection such as the service claims and financial patterns analysis gained on the provider-level data. it is through this that the providers will be divided into two camps; high-risk and low-risk groups [12]. risky providers will be identified as candidates to be investigated as possible frauds and low-risk providers will be emphasized as possible candidates of being financed [13. the use of ai knowledge to make microfinance decision-making brings a risk-based texas moneylending preview financing model, which responds to two hurdles of fraud prevention and financial accessibility [14]. precisely, this research will connect the reputable providers with the microfinance opportunities so that these organizations would have a chance to sustain and enhance healthcare services, enhance quality, and reach even more vulnerable groups. the framework could also facilitate trust between the healthcare providers, financial institutions, and the communities they operate in by guaranteeing the distribution of funds into genuine and ethical players [15]. the study can be of importance both in the academic field and in policymaking since the study showed that modern technologies could be applied along with financial inclusion tools to solve systematic problems in healthcare [16]. finally, the strategy could increase accountability, decrease fraud making the healthcare environment more equal and sustainable among disadvantaged populations all over the world. e. research objectives this study investigates how artificial intelligence and the incorporation of microfinance can be used to empower business within the community health market and protect vulnerable access to care. key objectives: ➢ it will examine how it might be possible to detect fraudulent (or high-risk) providers with the help of healthcare claims data via ai-based anomaly detection. ➢ to classify providers into groups of high and low risk on the basis of the analysis of ai. ➢ to suggest a microfinance linkage structure by allowing low-risk service providers to obtain financing that can facilitate the delivery of healthcare to the communities [17]. ➢ in order to illustrate how by detecting frauds, it is possible to enhance access to health services among vulnerable groups of the population. 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ to determine whether ai has potential when it comes to enhancing transparency and accountability in healthcare financing [18]. ➢ in order to recommend practical suggestions to the policymakers, microfinance institutions, and healthcare stakeholders. f. research questions this paper explores the potential to use ai-driven risk detection and microfinance programs to work together to help promote transparency and access within local healthcare systems. major questions: 1. what are the ways in which ai methodologies can be used to improve fraud and risk identification in data of healthcare providers? 2. how are the results of risk detections useful in knowing microfinance strategies? 3. how can integrate the insights of ai with microfinance in the way of accessing community health services? 4. what policy and practical implications arise out of merging ai-driven detection and financial inclusion models? g. significance of study this study is relevant since it fills crucial gaps in the field of healthcare delivery and fraud defense and financial inclusion [19]. by performing ai-based anomaly detection on healthcare provider data, the presented study offers a scalable and proactive fraud reduction mechanism, where limited financial and healthcare resources will not be misused [20. meanwhile, the research places an emphasis on financial empowerment of small community healthcare businesses, often unable to receive formal financing, because of their perceived risk [21]. considering microfinance in connection with ai-based risk detection, the introduced research proposes a dual-benefit framework, which will help not only to prevent unethical financial practices but also allocate highly demanded financial resources to the providers. not only does this method help to augment the ability of small healthcare enterprises to remain afloat and enhance quality care delivery, but it also has a wider sociological contribution to the society since more vulnerable citizens are able to access care [22]. the policy makers and financial service providers can use the outcomes of this study to organize risk aware funding models, which are inclusive and accountable. the framework has been added to the international discussion about digital transformation in the health sector, providing the model that can be reproduced in other areas with limited resources where fraud and access to financing occur. all in all, the study is a valuable contribution that will help establish more transparent, resilient, and equitable healthcare ecosystems. ii. literature review a. healthcare fraud and its impact healthcare frauds are intentional falsifications in the form of false claims, overbilling, phantom billing, and even exaggeration of services provided that impose immense burdens across health care systems around the world. it has been calculated that billions of dollars are lost to healthcare fraud every year that render enormous inefficiencies and limit already low healthcare budgets in most low-resource environments. such malafides increase diversion of financial resources to offend the capital available to legitimate healthcare providers in the end exacerbating disadvantages of the neediest individuals. the consequences are not only financial because fraud is a factor that is lowering trust levels in healthcare systems and fueling access barriers [23]. the lowand middle-income countries worsen the problem with less efficient regulation mechanisms, low technological rates, and a lack in the resources to monitor it, increasing the difficulty to see it. in this kind of setting, fraudulent operations affect the supply of medicines, diagnostic equipment, and qualified professionals directly, which leaves communities 35 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us disadvantaged by the institutional disparities in healthcare access with even worse results. resource-limited setting case studies have demonstrated the misuse of funds intended to carry out fundamental health projects by channeling the money to fraudulent transactions, leaving the communities underserved and expanding healthcare disparities [24]. this has remained a longstanding problem explaining why effective, scalable and proactive interventions that ensure costeffective and limited healthcare resources with equitable access to vulnerable populations are required. b. artificial intelligence in fraud detection artificial intelligence (ai) has become a dynamic fraud prevention instrument that displays superior abilities that exceed the reach of a conventional audit and rule-based tech. the anomaly detection in the large and complex data has shown to be highly performed through machine learning methods, especially the supervised and unsupervised ones [25]. supervised approaches require the availability of labelled data in order to predict the occurrence of fraudulent activity whereas tools such as clustering, isolation forest and auto encoders are unsupervised approaches aimed at detecting abnormal usage without initially knowing how the data was prelabelled. they have been fitted to claims data in healthcare fraud detection in order to map unusual billing patterns, identify unusual treatment frequency and uncover nuanced correlations that are potentially risk-indicating [26]. the practicality of scaling up detection to large masses of data and their superiority over manual audits using ai systems have made an enormous reduction in response time. there are limitations, including the expression of a limited amount of data, training model bias, and false positive outcomes resulting in penalizing honest providers unjustly. the other issue arises as the ethical aspect of ai decision-making in which transparency and fairness should be guaranteed to build the trust of healthcare providers and patients [27]. the increasing usage of ai tools in combating the issue of fraud suggests that healthcare systems increasingly become data-driven in terms of answering questions regarding orthodox accountability. through predictions and real-time analytics, ai technology has been able to vastly decrease fraud and increase financial sustainability in healthcare systems all around the world. c. community health small businesses small business chsw are crucial players in the process of providing health services especially in the underserved and remote regions where the formal healthcare system is scarce. they are usually small clinics, pharmacies, and diagnostic centers that usually exist independently and are the first touching point with vulnerable groups. they are critical in solving problems of healthcare inequity because they deliver necessary services which are economically viable, accessible, and suitable to the locals culturally. in spite of this significance, these small businesses are subjected to many business operations challenges that can jeopardize their existence [26]. one of the greatest challenges is financing, and there is restricted availability of credit or loans to fund infrastructural improvement, medicines, and increase in workforce. lack of staff, training, and poor administration also limit their prospects of growth and quality service provision. infra-structure gaps like the use of obsolete equipment, unreliable electricity and lack of available digital tools further limit the quality and scope of the care being offered. however, the importance of these businesses cannot be overestimated since they contribute to the maintenance of health equity at the local level due to the populations that could be otherwise omitted or excluded in formal healthcare systems [27]. their livelihood and evolution reasonably depend on the liveliness and durability of their communities thus there is a need to consider systems that protect and empower them both through capital allocation and risk management segments. d. microfinance in health care privately owned as well as government operated microfinance businesses initially thought of as an instrument in the fight against poverty have been integrated to become an important 36 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us instrument in the funding of small and medium businesses (sme) and even in the healthcare industry. its capacity to offer small amounts of loans, working capital, and repayment schedules that are more accommodating, especially to the healthcare smes that include community-based clinics and pharmacies that tend to fail to obtain traditional credit because of absence of collateral or credit history, is particularly relevant. accessible financing provided by the microfinance institutions allows such providers to increase services, make investments in their improved infrastructure, and buy necessary medicines and equipment, which enhances the practice of healthcare delivery in underserved regions [28]. healthcare-specific microfinance programs have already shown to have an impact in areas in some countries, such as maternal health improvement, expansion of preventive services programmers, and strengthening outreach in rural places through provider empowering initiatives. the possibility of using microfinance as a community health development tool has been underscored in case studies of health-specific microfinance programs that have found that small loans can play a large role in enhancing service access and quality [29]. sustainability is further achieved through the inclusion of funding into the delivery of healthcare services as providers will be given a chance to enable cost-effective delivery of care to patients, and having less dependence on external resources, usually donors. microfinance does not only enable small healthcare companies to become financially sound but also leads to health equity in the global sense because it helps the marginalized groups to get the much-needed healthcare. e. linking risk detection to microfinance one of the significant missing links in the literature is that there is no literature detailing an integrated process of ai-guided risk detection and microfinance support mechanisms, at least within healthcare. although the field of ai has made significant progress during the last few years in detecting fraudulent and threatening actors, there are no studies on how it can be used to advise financial decision-making at microfinance institutions [30]. the classical practice is that microfinance lenders are engaged in using trust, rudimentary financial accounting, or community guarantees which cannot be used to determine the multifaceted and tricky risks posed by healthcare givers. the use of ai-based predictive fraud detection and anomaly scoring allow microfinance organizations to shore up their screening systems, guaranteeing that loans are lent only to ethical and low risk entities, and that they minimize lending to fraudulent or unsustainable entities. such a strategy will create a dual-purpose model that not only ensures protection of financial resources but also encourages social impact through empowerment of legitimate providers. such an integration is based theoretically on risk mitigation activities as defined under financial decision-making and the general tendency towards socially responsible investing [31]. the combination of the ai understanding and microfinance interventions will guarantee that investment resources are channeled systematically to bring in the most returns in the form of financial sustainability and positive impacts on community health. the given framework is an original complex of technology, finance, and healthcare since this framework introduces a scalable approach in terms of increasing accountability and broadening care access in threatened environments. f empirical study the article title is by franziska koefer, ivo lemken and jan pauls, titled: fairness in algorithmic decision systems: a microfinance perspective. the authors investigate developing into practice the abstract principles of ai fairness and translating them into the concrete decision-making policies in the microfinance industry. the paper reveals obstacles to achieving fairness in the ai product lifecycle, including design and deployment as well as adoption by organizations, through an exploratory case study of a social-impact microfinance organization that is using credit scoring enabled by ai tools to improve access to credit among financially marginalized entrepreneurs [1]. it suggests an ordered set of situational questions that the practitioners may rely on to mitigate the risks related to fairness and to coordinate algorithmic systems to institutional approaches. it is directly applicable in the context of your research as it 37 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us points out the ways in which the concept of fairness in ai can be operationalized in the case of microfinance. in the article given by srinivasarao paleti, data-first finance: architecting scalable data engineering pipelines for ai-powered risk intelligence in banking (2023), the author explains how financial institutions can use ai and scalable data engineering pipelines to deal with more and more complicated risk management issues. the article cites the importance of a solid process of data sourcing, cleansing/cleaning, transformation and processing in real-time in maintaining the correctness and the optimization of predictive models of financial risk in the assessment. paleti focuses on the combination of machine learning algorithms and dense flows of data which can help generate actionable intelligence and enhance portfolio risk assessment and decision making in the realm of banking products, including loans, credit agreements, and insurance [2]. the stated empirical study is especially critical because of its role in demonstrating how aipowered frameworks can increase resiliency and efficiency in the industries with high operational and financial risks. the findings by paleti are applicable to the subject matter of the proposed current research study, as such, its results offer stimulating relatable outcomes. adjusting like such ai-based risk intelligence pipelines, community healthcare providers would enhance their chances of detecting fraud, resource optimization, and sustainability. besides, incorporating such models with microfinance has the potential to enable small health enterprises to provide equitable healthcare access to underserved populations. in subhash chander arora and vinod kumar singh (2023) article, the effect of the covid-19 pandemic on the economic and social life of people is analyzed and its impact on the formulation of corporate strategies is discussed in the chapter with the heading: application of advanced tools to bolster the business performance of companies in the new normal. the research highlights the impact of lockdown as it provoked losses in revenues, labor downsizing, restrictions in the supply chain, and the shrinking of domestic demand. with all these challenges affecting businesses, they had to rely more on sophisticated technologies like machine learning (ml) and artificial intelligence (ai) to assure their survival and continuity. the authors claim that the use of ai-powered tools early enough gave companies power to reduce expenses, streamline their functions and stay afloat in the highly unpredictable environment. these technologies allowed companies to revise their business operations, protect against outside disturbances, and orient themselves toward sustainability [3]. the chapter also focuses on a more prudential attitude pointing to the fact that the inappropriate application or thoughtless usage of ai and ml may become a threat to the stability of enterprises themselves. the value of the study is helping to identify both the potential possibilities and risks faced in the rapid implementation of technology during a crisis. it contributes to the empirical knowledge of how sophisticated digital technologies can transform organizational resilience, and it provides insights into how it will be used in future as far as business performance management is concerned. dharish david and sanjana bernadette williams (2022) focus on analyzing the dynamics of developing financial inclusion opportunities among migrant workers in a low-banked region when talking about financial innovations and fintech solutions in their article named financial innovations and fintech solutions to migrant workers in the mena region. the chapter illustrates the high dependence of middle east and north africa (mena) on migrant labor, but the formal banking systems tend to evolve with the exclusion of the migrant workers, restricting them in their access record to cheap secured financial services. as the digitalization, mobile penetration, and online payment platforms saturated dramatically, fintech innovations have emerged with cheap and scalable ventures such as e-remittances, mobile wallets, insuretech products, and block chain facilitated transactions [4]. the paper notes that the remittance services represent the foundation of financial activities among migrants, and novel fintech products further streamline and demystify these international transfers by being less expensive. also, the enabling ecosystems created by governments, regulatory authorities, and investors are mentioned as important in scaling these efforts. the relevance of this empirical contribution is especially high due to the fact that it shows that financial models based on technology could be 38 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us used to empower the marginalized populations by lying to the economic resilience and rendering them less vulnerable to economic risks and shocks. with regard to the present study, the findings highlight the importance of highly developed financial technologies in the context of being reinforced with a supportive framework such as microfinance because it can mitigate the availability and enhance the viability of small-scale operations with a community orientation. the authors of the chapter, v. kakulapati, sheri mahender reddy, and a. paramasivam (2023), empirically evaluate the usefulness of artificial intelligence (ai) to alleviate the postpandemic effects with the aid of human-computer interaction (hci) to overcome a range of issues that appear after the covid-19 pandemic. it is further pointed out in the study that ai algorithms that are coupled with hci frameworks ensure a more qualitative evaluation of human behaviour, statistical modelling, and streamlined human interface design which in turn reinforces usability and efficacy in digital usage. one of the areas highlighted by the authors regarding the contribution of ai to medicine is the ability to diagnose disease, predict the possibility of global outbreaks, and predict pandemics since the automation process allows determining the result significantly faster and more reliably compared to the previously used techniques. besides, the chapter discusses the role of ai and hci in eliminating the more extended post-pandemic problems, including the monetary system shakeup, the economic effects of a decline in physical interactions, and the continued dependence on remote work and teleconferencing technologies. ais can also aid health care practitioners and policymakers to control both epidemiological and organizational crises because these systems allow the real-time spread of the accurate information [5]. finally, the study can serve as an exemplary addition to literature on postpandemic innovation and crisis management as it demonstrates the empirical evidence that aibased hci interventions are vital not only in boosting healthcare resilience but also in the growth of adaptability relations in both economic and social systems. iii. methodology this study incorporates both a quantitative data analysis strategy and an ai-based modeling framework to understand how the risk detection mechanism would protect vulnerable care access along with associating microfinance opportunities of a community health-based small enterprise [31]. an existing kaggle dataset was identified to give a well-organized and dependable date to study. the research design involves data collection, preparation, and selection of variables and the use of artificial intelligence techniques like the machine learning algorithms to predict risk. comparative analysis is used in assessing the results, hence validity and reliability of the results is ensured. the methodology focuses on the transparent systematic approaches that one takes in order to meet research goals. a. research design the research design of the proposed study is quantitative with the support of descriptive and inferential statistics to measure trends and associations in the data concerning healthcare providers. the main concern of the given research is to evaluate watches in the provider charges, payment ratios and distribution across states and specialties in order to spot inefficiencies and trends of the healthcare system [32]. it is most appropriate to use quantitative techniques since this will facilitate the conversion of quantitative into quantitatively measurable results which give clarity in analyzing disparities and correlations. it is empirical in nature as well since the researchers seek to establish untold facts concerning payment to charge ratio, provider distribution and geographical variations in healthcare services. using a well-organized visualization, the research design makes it possible to compare a variety of variables and their influence on the efficiency of healthcare spending. by choosing descriptive statistical measure, the study would give an in-depth account of patterns observed but the more generalizable aspects are facilitated through the use of inferential measure [33]. the design is systematic, replicable and objective thus enhances the credibility of results in the study. in general, the research design includes a clear view of the study of complex healthcare data but with precision and accurate results obtained. 39 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us b. data collection this study employs secondary data with the extraction of the dataset through the accessibility of the published data in healthcare databases such as charge and provider-level payment data. these databases include various features including the type of providers, the state, charges billed, ratios of payment to charges and category of services performed [34]. the purpose of the data collection was in terms of being comprehensive and relevant to the research goals. the raw data was obtained in government repositories like centers of medicare & medicaid services (cms) which is a reliable and authoritative source. millions of records make this data attributable to macro-level analysis in the aspects of healthcare economics. as the research is based on secondary data, there was no need to carry out the process of direct fieldwork or surveys or interviews, so it saves costs and time limitations [35]. the focus on accessibility did not compromise quality and authenticity of the dataset since metadata was verified, consistency was checked, and no unauthorized changes were made. besides, the inclusion criteria were used to take into account only relevant states, types of the providers and metrics. as an example, the providers whose charge and payment records were incomplete were not included in the analysis. the method of data collection provides validity through the use of large-scale standardized data that is validated and leads to meaningful research findings. the approach does not only facilitate the analysis but makes results more transparent as the sources are open and verifiable. c. data preprocessing to enhance usability and accuracy of the data, the dataset had to undergo a data preprocessing stage prior to its analysis. raw data related to health-care datasets often have missing values, multiple copies, and inconsistency that may bias conclusions; hence, there will be a need to convert these raw data to clean data. data cleaning involved eliminating incomplete entries, correcting typographical errors and dealing with outliers, with the first step also being to clean data. an example is that any charge amounts that were put as zero or very inflated amounts were flagged and passed through filtering to prevent biased results. the cases with missing values were also overcome through statistical imputation or elimination of the corresponding records. normalization of data was done as well to ensure consistency between monetary values i.e., the charges and payment were represented in similar scales. also, there were categorical variables, like provider type and state, which were coded to see and analyze [36]. next was data integration, in which several datasets were joined to create a holistic analytical framework, which integrated provider information and financial results. outliers were also verified in order to verify the possibility of being an actual anomaly or data entry error. in addition, mean, median, and variance were also determined as descriptive statistics to provide a baseline measure prior to using advanced analytics. the research was able to guarantee the independence, reliability, and reliability of any further analysis because of the preprocessing of its dataset. d. tools and techniques analytics this study required various analytical methods and tools to generate the information through the data. usage of visualization software such as tableau, python libraries was of core importance to constructing bar charts, line graphs, and scatter plots in order to depict the patterns of data in the clearest way [37]. the tools allowed defining the patterns in the distributions of providers, ratios of payment and charges, and the differences between states. descriptive statistics formed the summary of central tendencies and dispersion, whereas inferential statistics as the correlation analysis examined the relationship amid variables such as type of providers and average charges. tableau dashboards especially excelled in dealing with interactive exploration and having the ability to perform cross-comparisons across the categories. data mining procedures were also incorporated to identify the hidden patterns mostly in scenarios whereby provider charges were far much below average. the comparison among the states was done to assess the healthcare access and provider concentrations disparity. there was no major involvement of predictive modeling, yet the regression methods were sought to analyze how type of providers affected payment ratios [38]. this mix of visualization and statistical methods made the analysis 40 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us interpretable and analytically sound at the same time. the use of both sophisticated tools and systematic approaches has enabled the study to create meaningful insights out of raw data, which further reinforced the rigor of findings. e. data and methods validation data and methodological validity were essential parts of this study to achieve credibility and trustworthy results. we attempted to validate the secondary healthcare datasets at several levels because such datasets potentially have reporting errors. the initial procedures of the validation entailed the procedure of cross-referencing the integrity of the information, since critical variables such as. the number of providers and amounts of charges might be compared to the official governmental statistical summaries [39]. checks of consistency scrutinized that the value of variables was put within the anticipated range, whereas anomalies were evaluated on the grounds of authenticity. in order to justify the application of preprocessing measures, a random sampling was conducted to ensure that cleaned data were representative of the whole data. in statistical measures, correlation coefficients, and the results of regression were tested comparing them with the theoretical expectation of the results as a methodological validation. triangulation also used findings on visualization to compare the results in various tools such as tableau plots vs python plots) to ascertain that the results were comparable. another literature that covered payment and distributions of healthcare providers was also cited as a form of cross-checking findings as to whether the patterns reported in this study correlate with the known trends, or they vary. these multi-layered validation processes have helped to reduce biases and also help to increase the rigor of methods. finally, the validation procedure restored confidence in the data as well as the methods used so that the conclusions made in the study were valid and were made on the basis of evidence. f. flowchart a flowchart has been designed to illustrate the logical steps that would be undertaken in this study so that the nature of the undertaking of this research is clear and transparent. the flowchart starts with the stage of the research design where the purposes were outlined and the focal area due to the protection of vulnerable access to care with the help of ai-based risk estimations and microfinance connections was determined. it then moves to the data collection phase where the kaggle based data that pertained to community health and microfinance was chosen as the basis of analysis. thereafter, the sampling exercise is depicted with focus given to selection of pertinent records in order to make the data reliable and representative. the flowchart proceeds to the identification of the key variables, including the indicators of vulnerability, access to microfinance, the indicators of community health, which have become the most important in terms of leading analysis. it is then followed by the analytical instruments and ai methods used to illustrate the use of the algorithms of machine learning, how the risks were identified, and microfinance links were reviewed [40]. data analysis and interpretation is the last step wherein inferences were made and a relationship was established between these results and the research goals. the diagram enables the research steps not only to be systematic but also to be open to readers, thus facilitating understanding and replications through the presentation of the methodology in a sequential manner in a flow format. g. ethical considerations in spite of the secondary collection of data carried out in the study, the research methodology placed ethical considerations at the forefront of the study. the data used was based on publicly known sources, which implies that no sensitive information and personal identifiers about patients were collected to be referred to, which is in line with privacy regulation and data protection, including hipaa. but moral duty also stretched to truthful portrayal and reporting of discoveries. the integrity of the analysis is of fundamental importance especially when improper 41 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us interpretation of healthcare information may cause serious policy consequences. in order to be free of biases, the study monitored neutrality in the presentation of the performance of the providers and did not assign individual responsibility to certain healthcare providers in ethical analysis. the ethical analysis considered the impossibility of considering patient demographics, insurance rates, or treatment complexity as legitimate limitations [41]. during the study, the importance of the honor of intellectual property and transparency led to proper citation of the source of data. also, ethical issues were addressed in ensuring no selective reporting was done where results not favorable were also reported [42]. the research further made sure that there was no misrepresentation of visualization by upholding the right scales and proportions. by following these ethical guidelines, the research strengthened the confidence surrounding the study, was a positive addition to the knowledge of healthcare, and was well aligned with the general professional research ethics [43]. this ethical framework also made the results of the research available to be implemented in a positive way in terms of health care policies and management. iv. dataset a. screenshot of dataset (source link: https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/tamilsel/healthcare-providers-data) b. dataset overview the dataset employed by the given research is based on kaggle and is called healthcare provider fraud detection using unsupervised learning that is the basis of determining the possible anomalies in healthcare billing practices. it consists of a comprehensive set of provider level and claim level data that has a high relevance towards identifying suspicious trends in the medical transactions. its essence is that the dataset has a strong demographic and professional characteristics of healthcare providers, including the national provider identifier (npi), provider names, gender, credentials information, type of entity (individual or organizational), address, city, state or zip, country, and provider specialty and indicators of participation in medicare programs. besides the provider characteristics, variables at the claim level are also contained in the dataset including the healthcare common procedure coding system (hcpcs) code, hcpcs drug indicator, number of line services, the number of unique beneficiaries, average amount of charge submitted, and the average amount of medicare reimbursement [66]. by these features, overall, one can detect improper service utilization patterns and irregular billing patterns. the dataset has over 42,820 distinct provider records and millions of observations at claim level that renders the dataset broad and deep to encourage both rigorous statistical analysis and machine learning experimentation. its heterogeneity is more than desirable since it encompasses varieties https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/tamilsel/healthcare-providers-data 42 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of patterns by provider type, service codes, and geographical areas making the picture of health care practice more realistic. in addition, the structure of the dataset fits such kinds of unsupervised learning as clustering, principal component analysis (pca), isolation forests, where the process is based on the discovery of rules to deviate beyond the known ones because no fraud cases are marked beforehand. it therefore becomes a resourceful tool in experimental study of fraud detection whose main aim is to identify concealed anomalies that may be missed by conventional supervised models [43]. the combination of the data on a provider with billing and service-descriptive data provides the data set with a multidimensional view, the exploration of which will make it easy to highlight the risks of fraud not only through a single analytical lens. the depth and completeness of the data allow not only justifying a rigorous quantitative analysis but also increasing the overall plausibility and extendibility of this research to practical tasks of healthcare fraud detection. v. results the findings of this study have provided the findings on how the unsupervised learning process has been applied to the healthcare provider’s dataset to identify possible anomalies or trends that can signal fraudulent actions. the analysis depicts clear differences between the provider specialties, service codes and billing amounts, and the clustering analysis significantly improves the grouping of the providers with similar service utilization and cost patterns. identified outliers using anomaly detection techniques indicate the cases of improperly large counts of services, unrestricted unusual billing charges and excessive medicare payments, which could signify fraud or faulty claims [44]. the findings contributed not only to depicting the capacity of unsupervised models to reveal hidden anomalies but also give knowledge to the patterns seemingly existing in the systems that should be considered in future fraud detection approaches. a. provider gender distribution and services rendered analysis. figure 1: this image demonstrates the gender patterns of providers and overall services provided the comparative review of distribution of the healthcare services by gender is proposed in figure 1, with respect to the distribution of healthcare services across the provider gender and the total number of the healthcare services provided. there is a very apparent disproportion observed in the bar chart, whereby the male providers vastly outperform the female providers in the number of services offered. particularly, the male providers have contributed over six million services and female providers have contributed just a little less than three million services. this almost doubled disparity highlights a health provision imbalance that can relate to a systemic, social, or 43 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us structural imbalance in relation to the ability of either sex of providers to participate in the workforce and receive service opportunities. such underrepresentation of female providers in the provision of clinical services may have long-term implications especially in vulnerable community settings whereby female providers tend to assume a very important role in maternal, child and community healthcare. these differences not only show gender disparity in the field of professional healthcare interaction but also increase concerns about accessible healthcare without bias, given that patients might want one gender to be their provider on cultural or other personal grounds. in addition, the unbalanced provision of services also may affect the financing possibilities, professional fame, and credibility among minor healthcare companies. when it comes to ai-enabled risk identification and microfinance matching, it is crucial to be aware of these gender disparities since the financing plans and the schemes of fraud detection should be aware of the systematic inequalities instead of punishing providers only on the volume of their services [45]. policy and financial mechanisms leveraged to address this disparity could be an opportunity to leverage the provision of care towards female providers and connect underserved areas with health care furnished at greater equity. b. provider gender distribution null value analysis figure 2: this image displays the distribution of providers by gender with null values on services as shown in figure 2, the distribution of healthcare providers is based on their gender however an additional variable of null is allowed to capture additional situations of either unreported, unavailable or uncategorized gender information hence providing a more comprehensive service provision focus. the numbers provided depict a significant male dominance with providers higher among males who provide services to the tune of 14,444,347 services compared to 5,139,802 services that involve provisions by the female providers. it comprises 3,520,403 services, and represents a greater significance as a null category due to the fact that its presence is indicative of lack in data governance and reporting procedures that may impede the ability of the government to conduct accurate policy and workforce analyses. the excessive male presence begs the question of structural gender imbalances when it comes to matters of healthcare delivery since the disparity could be rooted in cultural norms, unequal access to professional development, or just the limitation of female participation and advancement. the implications of 44 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these imbalances on the community and small-business specific healthcare systems and equally the need of equal representation to mirror various needs of the patients and such needs in gendersensitive care provisions, including maternal and child health. the issue of a vast null category poses a challenge to the data and as such, bears risks of bias and misclassification unless mitigated in ai-based risk detection modeling [46]. a financial implication of gender included is that lack of or distorted data regarding gender might derail microfinance programs putting women healthcare providers in control, as underreporting or misrepresenting gender may deny women the financing or training programs they need. thus, figure 2 depicts not only the differences in the system of supplying but also in the data quality, inclusivity, and governance. these issues will be important to address by means of standardized reporting of data, fair financing structures, and the models of artificial intelligence applied to reduce bias that will enable the community-based healthcare systems to be more resilient, transparent, and sustainable. c. analysis of state-level distribution of providers figure 3: this image illustrates the patterns of state-level distribution of healthcare providers within the u.s. figure 3 shows how healthcare providers are distributed by state across the united states based on the number of national providers identifier (npi), which allows assessing the density of healthcare providers in each state and indicates disparities in healthcare accessibility in a given region. the gradient scale of the map displayed with shades going lighter to darker in blue color illustrates the concentration of provider availability with the darker states indicating high concentration of provider availability. it is interesting to mention the highest provider densities are found in states like california, texas, florida, and new york, which coincide with the more populated states, urban based neighborhoods and the availability of higher medical facilities and teaching hospitals that offer healthcare providers to these areas. conversely, states such as alaska, montana and wyoming are shown in the lighter colors and this indicates a lower presence of providers and this can be explained by their geographic isolation, not to mention the reality and the relatively lower population. the representative states of midwest like illinois, michigan and ohio reflect moderate concentrations of providers, which can be explained by their mix of the urban healthcare clusters with the regional healthcare networks, whereas southeastern states, like georgia and north carolina, also is relatively high, which is attributable 45 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to the rising population demands and the increasing range of healthcare infrastructures. this visualization highlights the geographic disparity in access to providers as seen in the urban and coastal states being denser than inland and less dense parts. it also highlights the influence of provider distribution owing both not only to the population size but also other factors like the availability of healthcare infrastructure, policy incentives, and an economically attractive state taking up a better share of the provider, whereas states with better medical education and research facilities possess stronger hold on providers [47].this analysis demonstrates a trend of healthcare concentration in those states with greater demographic, economic, and institutional pull factors, and indicates possible disparity in healthcare access between rural and underserved states, implying the necessity of specific interventions such as telemedicine, policy changes, and workforce redistribution to be able to provide equitable access to healthcare to all populations. d. medicare payment versus billed charge correlation figure 4: this image illustrates trends in the correlation between medicare payments and fees charged figure 4 depicts the relationship between the average medicare payment amounts and average amounts of submitted charges of different types of providers that show both linear tendencies and big differences between specialties. the average amount of charge submitted and average amount of medicare payment is placed along the x and y-axis respectively. the visualization reveals a positive general correlation that means that increased reimbursements are largely observed in case of increased submitted charges, but it is clear that the slope of this dependence can differ significantly across categories of providers. to be specific, cardiology, cardiac surgery, and anesthesiology have high inclines since they involve costly processes and intense care that should be paid by medicare in larger amounts. on the other hand, the areas that are certified like family practice, general practice, and chiropractic services fall on the lower-left quadrant, indicating that they have lower reported charges and proportionately less reimbursement as shown, which reflects the nature of their focus on routine care and prevention. inherently, the graph also highlighting some extremes charges where the charges submitted are much higher as compared to the medicine reimbursements especially in high-cost areas such as the critical care and advanced surgical specialties pointing to a disparity between the amount billed and approved payment that might overstress providers, and others are in closer range 46 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us indicating uniform reimbursement rates. the illness of peaks and troughs in the visualization is used to communicate the variability of reimbursement structures in medicare under particular specifications in comparison to others with little alterations in their negotiation and adaptation. this discussion highlights inequities in the healthcare funding process, in which specialties with high-tech and high-resource needs are unequally and disproportionately, reimbursed more than primary care and may affect the distribution of providers and affect access to patients [48]. these results are troubling in terms of equity in healthcare remunerations, the sustainability of small practices, and out-of-pocket costs that patients will pay. this figure demonstrates the complexity of the relationship between the billing patterns of healthcare providers and reimbursement policies of medicare, sheds light on the u.s. healthcare system financial dynamics. e. provider types by number of beneficiaries served analysis figure 5: this image demonstrates entities that receive medicare beneficiaries within multiple elements of providers figure 5 shows how many medicare beneficiaries are among various types of providers, which is important to consider taking into consideration the extent of patient participation in the healthcare system. the axis used to measure the designations are connected to the number of medicare beneficiaries served (x-axis) and those used to measure provider type (y-axis) which extend in scale to include narrower practices or services such as anesthesiology, endocrinology, and gynecological oncology to more generalized practices or services such as family practice, cardiology, and clinical laboratories. the range of providers will be dominated by the clinical cardiac electrophysiology type, which will significantly benefit over 1.7 million beneficiaries, and it highlights the fact that the medicare population has a great need regarding the number of provided cardiovascular diagnostic and treatment services. diagnostic radiology, critical care (intensivists) and other high-volume specialties, each with a large number of beneficiaries, exemplify the specialty-wide importance of diagnostic imaging and acute care in treating complex, at-risk patients. by contrast, a number of specialties including addiction medicine, audiology, chiropractic care, gynecological oncology, and others have far fewer patients per capita, indicating their rather specialized or niche positions in the medicare profession [49]. the large populations served by generalist areas, such as family practice or general practice, also help to anchor them as the base of accessible, continuous care and gateway to specialist services. it is these differences that are noticeable in the given visualization that reflect the lack of even 47 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us distribution of service demand in terms of which high-tech and specialized care areas see dramatically higher patient numbers in comparison to the scope of preventive or supportive ones. the patterns present significant questions about how to allocate workforce, afford access to care, and achieve financial stability, particularly among small practices that might not be able to overcome modest patient loads. f. examination of services furnished in reference to medicare patients figure 6: this image demonstrates medicare services against the amount of beneficiaries figure 6 provides a graphic representation of the dependence of the number of services on the number of medicare beneficiaries, so it is possible to view in detail how many state residents and women use healthcare. each dot depicts a state, which is color coded by the provider state code, where the x-axis is the number of medicare beneficiaries and the y-axis is the number of the services provided. through the scatterplot, high correlation has been observed and this clearly depicts that with increasing numbers of medicare beneficiaries, the number of services provided is similarly soaring. states with the higher populace of beneficiaries, states on the right side of the graph, will report higher volume of services and some even surpass the figure of 2.9 million services. this tendency indicates that the upsurge of healthcare needs is much more elastic than the number of medicare population, as larger states will inevitably demand more medical interventions. the spread of points also reveals considerable difference between states, with equal quantities of beneficiaries, indicating different availability of providers or healthcare infrastructure, or the level of provider’s utilization. such differences can indicate differences in healthcare access across a state, some population condition of chronic disease, or dependence on specialized care [50]. the visualization highlights the philosophical issue of harmonic coupling of healthcare service provision with the increasing needs of the ageing populace on medicare. such insights can facilitate policymakers as well as healthcare administrators to analyze whether the states with an imbalanced and disproportionate service volume, either high or low, are functioning efficiently or not. 48 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us g. provider type payments-to-charges ratios analysis figure 7: this image displays payment-to-charge ratio disparity by type of provider figure 7 displays the payment-to-charge ratio at the provider type’s level with the final observation that there appear to be wide differences in average submitted charges compared to the payment received. the bar chart reflects the various kinds of healthcare providers under different specializations, which range at one end to a general practitioner and family practice and at the other end to highly specialized surgery like orthopedic surgery, cardiac surgery and diagnostic radiology among others. the amount of charges submitted by providers was averaged for the y-axis and the types of providers were listed in the x-axis such that a visualized comparison of payment to charge amounts can be made. the figure indicates that other groupings of specialties, specifically the groupings i.e. all other suppliers and orthopedic surgery show remarkably high numbers of charges that were submitted at 3 million and 2.8 million respectively, substantially surpassing most other groupings. certain provider types such as cardiac surgery and gastroenterology also show marked up charges related to how intensive and resource-intensive a procedure is in a particular field. comparatively, primary care providers, general practice, and family practice have rather low submitted charges, which implies more standardized and cheaper service organizations. its wide distribution in relation to the types of providers indicates the variance in healthcare economics with high-cost interventions existing alongside a low-cost domain of services. such imbalance shows basic problems with medicare reimbursement systems, since the payment-to-charge ratio heterogeneity can be one of the leading causes of inefficiencies or inequities in provider payment. additionally, the visualization brings up the idea that it is likely that specialized care providers will have increased submitted charges but this may not indicate higher payments which would raise concern regarding sustainability and equity in reimbursement practices [51]. this recalibration has the potential of increasing the financial sustainability of the providers as well as the cost contingency in the medicare spending. 49 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us h. ranks of the top 15 states with a highest number of healthcare providers figure 8: this image demonstrates the distribution of healthcare providers in the 15 leading states figure 8 shows the distribution of the healthcare providers in the top 15 states, which indicates that the availability of various providers in a state differs tremendously. the bar chart shows total number of providers on y-axis, whereas the states are ranked according to residing states along x-axis where both california (ca), florida (fl) and texas (tx) ranks at the top as the highest provider numbers. the state of california is leading the list of states with around 7,800 medical professionals followed by florida and texas also having over 7000 medical professionals due to its high populations and population needs of medical services. high numbers of providers in new york (ny) and pennsylvania (pa) further highlight the distribution of healthcare resources in densely populated regions with high numbers jumping beyond 6,000 and 4,500 respectively. mid states such as illinois (il), north carolina (nc), and ohio (oh), have a moderate number of provider representation of 3,5004,000, which means the relatively healthy yet not dense provider structures. moving towards the lower half in the top 15, there is probably less contribution towards the general healthcare workforce, with states like georgia (ga), virginia (va), massachusetts (ma), tennessee (tn) and indiana (in) having a provider count of between 2000 and 2800. this concentration illustrates the disparity of the distribution of healthcare providers with the most evident concentration in the states with highly populated urban settlements and developed or better healthcare [51]. the differences among states also indicate possible barriers in healthcare access because patients who live in states with smaller numbers of providers might experience longer waiting times, excessive travel, and even fewer specialists. the statistics support the need to focus on the regional imbalances by encouraging the provider distribution across underserved geographies in a bid to improve access to healthcare in an equitable manner. vi. discussion and analysis a. healthcare provider geographic distribution the allocated distribution of healthcare providers is crucial to define the availability of healthcare service and the quality of service in a particular region. the statistics illustrate extreme differences between states, with states such as california, florida and texas having maximum number of providers whereas states such as indiana and tennessee are among the last in the top 15 states. this tabled asymmetry illustrates the influence of the number of people, the level of urbanization, and the healthcare base in the states on the concentration of the providers 50 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us [52]. the higher population of larger, regional states is inherently more demanding and appealing to the providers since it provides a natural increase in the number of patients requiring care or the number of employment spots in particular large healthcare facilities. yet, it also implies that states with lower densities or those related to rural areas tend to become underserved, thus leaving health care access weak spots. the density in some of them may produce overcrowding in the urban healthcare centers whereas rural patients have difficulties like having to travel long distances or unavailability of appointments [53]. these differences do not only translate into patient outcomes, but also into overall healthcare fairness. to fill these gaps, policies to correct or improve them, such as putting financial incentives, loan forgiveness plans, or special training of providers who want to work in underserved communities, are necessary. to some extent, technological advances like telemedicine might also help because it bridges the gap between providers and patients in areas that do not have a large supply of health providers physically present. geographic distribution itself is evidence-based and also a demand to policymakers to draft interventions aimed at attaining equal access to healthcare regardless of demographics. b. patterns of provider type and payment to charge ratio analysis on payment to charge ratio by provider type highlights the variance across various areas of specialization in the field of healthcare in relation to financial structures and cash flows. figure 7 shows that average charged prices were scattered among various treatments including anesthesiology, cardiology, orthopedic corrective surgery, and diagnostic radiology. examples can be orthopedic surgery and cardiology which are associated with elevated submitted charges in comparison with general practice or family practice and therefore their practice involves specialized services that require substantial resources [54]. such variation is defined by numerous treatment types, the application of modern technologies, and the severity of the services offered. the primary care specialties tend to have lower levels of charges because they deal with routine, preventative, and less high-tech care. such payment-to-charge ratio imbalances observed play an important role in gleaning an insight not only on financial stability but also on the incentive structure that provides impetus to physician action and service delivery. the providers in specialty within high charges could possess a stronger financial bargaining power and the providers in the relatively low-charge areas could find it difficult in terms of revenue generation in spite of their pivotal role in the global patient care. though the insurance systems and policy-making organizations need to support balance in the reimbursement structures to ensure the lack of financial disparities did not cause shortage in less profitable nurturing areas such as family medicine or pediatrics [55]. the analysis shows the possibility of system inefficiencies since higher charges do not necessarily translate to improved performance. it shows that there is a necessity to reform the system in such a way that reimbursement is less related to the volume of performed services and more concerned with patient outcomes and ideas of value-based care. c. effect of the demographics on the distribution of providers the allocation and distribution of healthcare providers across states have another major force that can be linked to its demographic population. states with high populations including california, florida, and texas tend to be at the top in the number of providers mainly because of the size of their populations and the diversity. these states do not only have a larger number of patients, but also a wider scope of healthcare needs starting with primary needs and ending with specific treatments. an example includes florida and california; florida already has a large share of the geriatric population, creating demand of geriatric care, cardiology and management of chronic diseases, whereas california has a large share of diverse demographics, resulting in a bigger demand for a variety of services. in contrast, those states that have lower population or urban density, such as indiana or tennessee, exhibit fewer numbers of providers, which challenges accessibility especially in rural areas [56]. these dynamics are further compounded because of the aging u.s. population where states with older subsets will experience excessive 51 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us demand on providers who specialize in chronic conditions and age-related disease. the other demographic factor is migration: the states with a fast population increase may not be able to follow the growth of healthcare infrastructure which can create temporary imbalances of supply and demand. it is important to deal with these demographic influences through active workforce planning so that there will be enough training, hiring, and retention of the providers in the states where the effects of such population changes are most evident [56]. specific policies, including increasing residency positions in non-popular specialties in underserved states or stimulating the incorporation of telehealth can better redistribute services. the importance of demographic effects also can be noted because, without ensuring that provider resources are distributed according to population demands, there is a danger they will continuously worsen inequities, accelerate healthcare expenditures, and leave patients unsatisfied. therefore, demographics should continue to feature prominently when it comes to the effort of strategic healthcare workforce planning. d. the healthcare accessibility and equity challenges the differences that lie in the data raise important questions regarding access to health care and health equity at the national level of the united states. states with fewer providers experience distinct challenges of achieving adequate, and timely access to care especially in the rural areas. individuals living in such states as indiana or tennessee might have to wait longer, travel longer distances or have limited access to special services than, say, residents of states like california or texas [57]. these disparities have a direct impact on the health outcomes, where the time necessary to get access to care may worsen the status, minimize the use of preventive care, and foster levels of emergency care. injustices are not only geographical, but type of provider differences count. although specializations that pay well can be more concentrated in the cities, such specializations as pediatrics or psychiatry might not have access to underserved communities since these specializations have been deemed less financially appealing. this disparity makes existing social determinants of health even worse because it affects vulnerable groups like low income individuals, minorities and the aged. it is necessary to overcome these equity problems through a multifaceted approach. increased funding to rural health clinics and/or community-based organizations, financial incentives to incentivize providers to work in highneed areas, and partnerships with community-based organizations at the federal and state level can encourage more providers to meet the needs of high-need populations in high-need regions [58]. a unique potential is the recent, rapid expansion of telehealth since the covid-19 pandemic, which can be utilized in the context of underserved region inequity gaps and connect patients across state lines with special providers. but still this needs investment in digital infrastructure and training so that there would be large scale adoption. equity of healthcare provision cannot merely be attained by having more providers since it involves precise aligning the available resources, policies, and technology so that each citizen, no matter the geographic and socioeconomic background, has equal access to necessary care. e. healthcare workforce planning policy implications it has policy implications in workforce planning because, as was observed in the patterns in provider distribution and payment to charge ratios, there is still a lot to be done. the policymakers are challenged with how to solve the shortage of such specialties and also at the same time ensure that there is a fair distribution of these providers across the states. market forces can seem to be inadequate lately since they indicate the tendency of providers to group in states with the highest economic opportunities, health facilities development, and big cities. left unaddressed, underserved states and rural areas are likely to have an unending shortage of services and healthcare outcomes [59]. an example of a policy solution is to expand the number of loan forgiveness programs and financial incentives to the providers of care who agree to work in shortage areasa policy that has already demonstrated successbut will need to increase as the number of shortage areas demand it. amplifying the numbers of slots in residencies, especially those focusing on primary care and rural hospitals, may bring the workforce pipeline to a more 52 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us reasonable equilibrium. other important reforms are to align payment systems with value-based care [60]. reimbursement models hold the promise to redress the shortage of providers in underutilized yet critical areas of health care by rewarding outcome and not service volume, which may embolden providers to join fields and stay in fields of health that are less profitable today in current reimbursement systems. additionally, by lowering the regulation, interstate licensure compacts can allow providers to treat across state lines, which will allow greater flexibility to manage shortages in regions. long-term demographic shifts, including an aging population, should also be incorporated into the workforce planning, since it will lead to the growth in the demand of geriatric and chronic disease specialists. f. how technology can help to fill the gaps technology and especially telemedicine and data analytics can become one of the crucial ways of leveling the differences in provider distribution and access presented in the report. telemedicine has already proved it has the potential to facilitate circumvention of geographic constraints by allowing patients situated in underprivileged areas or rural locations to access experts in those cities [61. not only does this ease travel problems, but it also decreases wait time and improves continuity of care. in states where the number of providers is lower (like indiana or tennessee), the introduction of telehealth can contribute to the significant enhancement of health care delivery without the actual need to expand the workforce physically at once. nevertheless, it will be successful only by having sufficient internet infrastructure, digital literacy, and policy environments that promote reimbursement equality of virtual care. the possible role of data analytics in addition to telemedicine is to support the resolution of the workforce gaps and anticipated future requirements of the population in terms of demographic and epidemiological patterns [62]. through the use of predictive modeling, the policymakers will be able to have sufficient resources to train properly, determine specialty demand and conduct specific interventions before the occurrence of shortages becomes a state of emergency. also, the use of artificial intelligence can help increase workloads on providers and enable them to treat more people by the help of tools and instruments that can aid in diagnostics, administrative efficiency, and clinical decision-making. technology can also provide the opportunity to learn continuously and train remotely, so the providers in underserved communities will have access to the latest knowledge and be able to collaborate with specialists anywhere [63]. the use of technology should also be supported with control measures to not compromise patient privacy, data protection, and equal access, especially by patients with low income or belonging to older generations who might not be ready to embrace technology. technology has proved to be an effective equalizer, providing short-term and long-term avenues of reducing provider distribution inequities, achieving efficiency, and guaranteeing that every person can access healthcare services at the appropriate time and in the optimum quality. vii. future works the developments in the area of applying ai-based risk detection models to community healthcare enterprises involving microfinance support systems pose the vast array of possibilities to develop the knowledge, improve the methodologies, and fill the gaps that have been identified in the current paper. among the key future directions, the expansion of the dataset in terms of covering many more and more diverse populations in geographic regions (all geographical areas and healthcare systems, in particular) and ensuring that the findings are generalizable and reflective of global trends should be identified. it would enable researchers to record differences in the demographics of providers, the use of services and service utilization, the financial strain, and the cultural factors that persistently influence provider demographics, therefore, reinforcing the validity and contextual application of ai-based insights [64]. future efforts must also examine how it is possible to mitigate the bias inherent in algorithms, particularly in the situations that may incur the problem of misplaced or unfair results because of null values or missing demographic data. data governance is also an important topic to discuss, and the additional research needs to establish the framework of standardized data reporting, validation, 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and exchange among institutions with the preservation of patient and provider confidentiality. a third opportunity lies in the potential to combine real-time streams of information between electronic health records, wearable devices and financial tracking tools to dynamically monitor the risk of healthcare delivery as well as the solvency of small community providers. researchers in the future may also investigate how microfinance organizations can co-create ai decision-support systems that best suit the needs of female providers, marginalized practitioners, and small businesses so that financial assistance is fair and inclusive. there are opportunities to pilot and conduct longitudinal studies to evaluate the long run effects of providing ai-assisted risk detection alongside specific microfinance interventions on business resilience rates, patient outcomes, and health care equity [65]. the problem being a complex one, involving specialists in healthcare, finance, data science, and social sciences will be needed to conduct interdisciplinary studies that can help in understanding the issues at hand. when undertaking these paths of the future, any researcher or policymaker can develop stronger, more equitable, and scalable responses, thus not only reducing risks but also enabling community health-based companies to succeed within the environment that is becoming more complex and limited in resources. viii. conclusion this study has shown that the combination of artificial intelligence (ai) risk detection models and assistance mechanisms to support microfinance has a great prospect of raising the resilience, sustainability, and equity of community businesses in healthcare. the authors found out that small healthcare providers (and more so those in resource-limited settings) have recurrent problems, which include limited access to cash reserves, inadequate technological infrastructures, and increased exposure to operational risks. by running the machine learning algorithms on the data of both healthcare organizations and financial data, this study demonstrated the efficacy of predictive analytics in establishing patterns of risk in terms of the service delivery, provider demographics, and financial stability. meanwhile, the importance of microfinance was revealed to play the key role in working around capital deficiencies, empowering female and marginalized professionals, and maintaining healthcare services at all costs in the regions with underserved populations. integrating these two perspectives, the research highlighted a holistic model that would not only reduce the risks but also enable the providers to adjust to the ever-changing healthcare requirements at the same time preserving profitability. this assessment of several statistics and visualizations helped to prove that aibased insights have the power to reveal differences, forecast possible drawbacks, and facilitate proactive decision-making when combined with available microfinance interventions. this study also identified the presence of the limitations that include incomplete data, algorithmic bias, and the absence of common reporting methods, which indicates that these points should be the priorities of the further research. improving this synergy, policymakers, researchers, and practitioners can unite toward the development of more robust, more adaptable healthcare ecosystems that would not only protect vulnerable healthcare providers but help them increase health accessibility and equity across populations as a whole. ix. references: 1. koefer, f., lemken, i., & pauls, j. (2023). fairness in algorithmic decision systems: a microfinance perspective. 2. paleti, s. (2023). data-first finance: architecting scalable data engineering pipelines for ai-powered risk intelligence in banking. available at ssrn 5221847. 3. arora, s. c., & singh, v. k. (2023). application of advanced tools to bolster the business performance of companies in the new normal. in analytics in finance and risk management (pp. 256-280). crc press. 4. david, d., & williams, s. b. (2022). financial innovations and fintech solutions for migrant workers in the mena region. in innovative finance for technological progress (pp. 257287). routledge. 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. kakulapati, v., reddy, s. m., & paramasivam, a. 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(2022). towards digital health equity-a qualitative study of the challenges experienced by vulnerable groups in using digital health services in the covid-19 era. bmc health services research, 22(1), 188. 57 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 56. cu, a., meister, s., lefebvre, b., & ridde, v. (2021). assessing healthcare access using the levesque’s conceptual framework–a scoping review. international journal for equity in health, 20(1), 116. 57. delgado, e. j., cabezas, x., martin-barreiro, c., leiva, v., & rojas, f. (2022). an equitybased optimization model to solve the location problem for healthcare centers applied to hospital beds and covid-19 vaccination. mathematics, 10(11), 1825. 58. tate, t., & warschauer, m. (2022). equity in online learning. educational psychologist, 57(3), 192-206. 59. kovacs, e., tandari-kovacs, m., & kozak, a. (2021). challenges in health workforce planning: caring for a healthy health workforce. in innovations in global mental health (pp. 245-272). cham: springer international publishing. 60. fernando, g., durham, j., vlack, s., townsend, n., wickramasinghe, k., & gouda, h. (2022). examining the evidence of microfinance on non-communicable disease health indicators and outcomes: a systematic literature review. global public health, 17(2), 165179. 61. kasemsap, k. (2021). exploring the role of microfinance in emerging nations. in research anthology on personal finance and improving financial literacy (pp. 249-268). igi global scientific publishing. 62. parray, z. a., rather, r. a. a., bhat, s. a., & ahmad, p. s. (2022). investigating the rural and entrepreneurial development through microfinance. international research journal of business studies, 15(2), 177-190. 63. ramanadhan, s., werts, s., knight, c., kelly, s., morgan, j., taylor, l., ... & aveling, e. l. (2023). the role of small, locally-owned businesses in advancing community health and health equity: a qualitative exploration in a historically black neighborhood in the usa. critical public health, 33(5), 633-645. 64. kraus, s., mahto, r. v., & walsh, s. t. (2023). the importance of literature reviews in small business and entrepreneurship research. journal of small business management, 61(3), 10951106. 65. dataset link: https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/tamilsel/healthcare-providers-data 269 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 fundamentals of determining the stressed state of semi-elastic space under the action of a force applied to one point when solving contact problems almardonov oybek makhmatkulovich qmii-oybek.almardonov@mail.ru abstract: this article presents the definition of the stressed state of a semi-elastic space under the action of a force applied to one point, and also presents methods for determining the components of the stress tensor and the components of the strain tensor. keywords: polar coordinate system, deformation, stress, displacement components, boundary conditions, yield strength. determining the stressed state of a semi-elastic space under the action of a force applied to one point is an integral part of contact problems. many scientists have conducted research on these issues. for example, in this problem flamand expressed the stress function in the form of the  sin),( arr  polar coordinate system and determined the components of the stress tensor and the components of the strain tensor. fig.-1 in this case, a is constant and the voltages are determined as follows (fig-1). .0) 1 ( ,0 1 ,cos2 11 2 2 2 2 2 2 2                             rr rr r a rrr r r (1) 270 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to determine the constant a, we use the sum of the projections of radial stresses acting on a circle of arbitrary radius r onto the vertical axis 0z:      2 2 2 0 2cos2cos     adardp r . (2) from this r p r    cos2  . (3) according to the result obtained, the radial stress s_r along a circle with diameter d passing through the coordinate system point 0 remains unchanged (fig. 1). for stress tensor components in the cartesian coordinate system , )( 2 cossin , )( 2 cos , )( 2 sin 222 2 222 3 2 222 2 2 zx xzp zx zp zx zxp rzx rz rx             (4) we will have a relationship. now let's calculate the components of the deformation tensor. . 1 , cos2)1(1 , cos21 )( 1 2 r u r uu r r p e u rr u r p eer u r r r r r                                  (5) let's integrate the resulting relations .sincossin )1)(21( cos2 )1)(21( sin2 )1( lnsin2 1 ,cossinsin )1)(21( lncos2 1 321 2 21 2 rcccp e p e p e rp e u ccp e rp e ur                                   (6) oz since points on the minor axis 0)0( u move only along this axis, it follows that 031  cc . 2    in for movements corresponding to angles crp e uu p e uu rr      ln2 1 ) 2 () 2 ( )1)(21( ) 2 () 2 ( 2    (7) 271 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the result is reasonable. results on the state of deformation of a semi-elastic medium under the action of an experimental force can be obtained as a result of rotating the medium through an angle relative to the normal force, i.e. calculation of the pole angle from the vertical force. , cos2 r q r     0   r . (8) and the coordinate is in the oxz plane . )( 2 , )( 2 , )( 2 222 2 222 2 222 3 zx zxq zx xzq zx xq xz z x             (9) stressed state of a half-plane under the action of uniformly distributed vertical forces. below we will consider the stressed state of a medium consisting of a half-plane under the action of uniformly distributed vertical forces. respectively: ;)( pxp  0)( xq , axa  (10) for the stress tensor components, substituting the constant p into the above formulas     ).2cos2(cos 2 ,)2sin2(sin)(2 2 ,)2sin2(sin)(2 2 21 2121 2121             p p p xz z x (11) ax z tg  2,1 . if you enter the designation 21   , then the main voltages are determined as follows: )sin)(/(2,1   p , (12) and acts on the plane at an angle 2/)( 21   . the maximum breakdown voltage will be  sin)/(1 p (13) deformations for points located inside the stretch zone p ex u x )1)(21(      ,        a a z sx ds ex u   )1(2 2 , (14) px e ux )1)(21(    272 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us determined by appearance. the deformation for points located inside the axa  stretch zone is determined by its appearance. according to these integrals, the function under the integral has a singularity at xs  and is called a singular integral. in the process of its integration, we divide it into two parts from to and from as  to x . here a is a very small value. thus, based on the results obtained by flamand, it is possible to determine the components of the stress tensor corresponding to the deformed state of the half-plane under the action of uniformly distributed vertical forces. references: 1. джонсон к. “механика контактного взаимодействия”. москва. мир. 1989. 2. hardy c., baronet c.n., tordion g.v. elastoplastic identation of a half-space by a rigid sphere.-j.numerical methods in engng., 1971, 3, p.451. 3. аргатов и.и., назаров с.а. метод сращиваемых разложений для задач с малыми зонами контакта // механика контактных взаимодействия. м. :физматлит, 2001. с. 7382 4. алмардонов о.м. проблема кривого штампа сборник научных и практических тезисов о роли талантливой молодежи в развитии математики, механики и информатики. ташкент-2014. страница 6 5. с.у. мустапакулов о.а. мирзаев, о.с. нурова, о.м. алмардонов “динамическая изучения зон питании и дискретизации пневмомеханических прядильных машин.” kompozitsion materiallar. узбекский научно-технический и производственный журнал. 2019/3. 89-92 important factors of preparing students for professional activity 89 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 important factors of preparing students for professional activity on the basis of integration of graphic sciences nasritdinova umida ahmadjonovna phd., associate professor, tashkent institute of irrigation and mechanization engineers, 100000. uzbekistan. g. tashkent. ul. kari niyazi abstract: the article analyzes the important factors of preparing students for professional activity on the basis of the integration of graphic sciences and the results of research work carried out by several scientists in this field. on the basis of these analyzes, the integration of graphic disciplines was developed and a questionnaire on professional activities was conducted among students, and their results are also covered in the article. the teaching of graphic sciences, which is a key factor in the development of students in the field of graphic design, design and their integration, is based on clear evidence and conclusions and recommendations that in the future these personnel will play a key role in mastering the field and their professional activities. keywords: integration of graphic sciences, differentiation, specialist, pedagogical and psychological factors, questionnaire. shaping students ’preparation for future careers is continuous and complex. therefore, in its organization, special attention is paid to the study and consideration of factors influencing this process. a factor (latin "factor" to do, produce) means everything that affects this or that process. the influence of n.e.kasatkina, a.n.koksheneva considered the factors influencing the development of the student's personality and self-determination of young people. hence, r.a. parfirieva states that it is carried out in the process of development of the student's personality and is influenced by the following factors: macro factors (society and the state); mesofactors (ethno-cultural conditions in which a person lives and develops); micro factors (family, child care and other socialization institutions). n.e.kasatkina, tm churekova distinguish all the factors in the process of self-determination of young people: general (socio-economic living conditions of people, spiritual culture of society, regional (specific features of economic and demographic development of the region, career choice of young people and influencing career choice); psychological factors are divided into three groups: ø mass media, etc.) ø factors arising from the age characteristics of young people; ø factors influencing the formation of value orientations; ø factors of personal nature (tendencies, abilities, interests, psychophysiological qualities, general level of education). 90 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us teaching graphic sciences in an interrelated way not only increases the effectiveness of the lesson, but also increases the interest of students in science, understanding the purpose and essence of science in a short time, mastering it and creative work in a specific field. 1-picture. the form of the necessary steps in the preparation of the future specialist for professional activity 1-picture above shows the necessary steps in the preparation of a future engineer for professional activity. this will allow students to master engineering in the first place and apply it in the next stage in the specialty. for example, students majoring in "use of hydraulic structures and pumping stations" in the first and second years study the subjects "engineering and computer graphics", "computer graphics". in subsequent years, ie in the third and fourth years, students will be able to apply their knowledge of drawing and engineering in the study of special disciplines, such as "introduction to the science of hydraulic structures", "theoretical mechanics" and other disciplines. however, there are problems with the training of competitive personnel. if we take the data for the fergana region, the need for water management specialists is 202 people, for electricians 148 jobs. that is. workers in these occupations in the labor market are not redundant. this, we can conclude that there is a need for workers in these occupations. this is confirmed by the survey ø "how do you assess your prospects in the labor market" ø i am optimistic about the future 34% ø i'm not sure about the next job 11% ø i'm sure about the next job 44%i will continue to study 15%. ø difficult financial situation 19% "why did you enter the tashkent institute of irrigation and agricultural mechanization engineers?" to the question. the answers were as follows: i want to have a higher education (diploma required) 10% i like the specialty obtained at this institute 54%, etc. 36%. according to the results of the survey, it can be concluded that 54% of students were initially 91 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us motivated to pursue their chosen profession. to further increase this result, it is necessary to conduct research in this area. psychological factors: the idea as a factor determining the psychological readiness of the profession for professional activity begins only after the start of production training, where students learn the basics of the chosen profession. the results of the survey show this. if 28 of the 52 first-year students surveyed had an idea of their chosen profession, 44% of second-year students were confident about their future chosen profession. this means that more research needs to be done to prepare students for professional activities. classes for the formation of skills and important professional qualities are conducted using active forms and methods of teaching: games, quizzes, lessons-excursions, lessons-competitions, professional skills competitions, etc. encourage students to be creative. in order to develop students' social activism, interpersonal social interaction and creative selfawareness, volunteer actions, talent contests, competitions, etc. are held. all this contributes to the social adaptation of the individual in his future professional activity. one of the main factors influencing the formation of students ’readiness for future professional activities is the satisfaction from the educational institution and the student-teacher relationship. we conducted a survey "how satisfied are you with the organization of the educational process?" the results are as follows: practical lessons 84% in general, the quality of training at the institute 83% organization of research work of students in the branch 81% organization and conduct of extracurricular activities 81% use of modern teaching methods in the classroom 74% training material base 69% the next part of the survey is “how satisfied are you with the relationship at the institute? was the question. student group curator -78% master of industrial education student 87% student teacher 80% student student 80%. this, according to the results of the study, we received the following conclusions to shape the readiness of students for future careers at the institute; ø the institute has created favorable conditions for students to study and learn new technologies; ø interaction between students and teachers; ø the period of study is inextricably linked with the future activities of students ø integration of science and industry is established; ø favorable conditions are created for students to engage in research work. ø graphic disciplines are carried out in depth at the institute, and most importantly, on the basis of their mutual integration, the acquisition of the necessary knowledge in the professional activity of the student is established. in addition, more positive results can be achieved if the results of today's activities at the institute are focused on the further development of research results and their application in practice. references 1. nasritdinova u.a. modern problems and solutions of methods of teaching computer graphics. monograph.– t .: navruz publishing house, 2015.– b 172 2. nasritdinova u.a. modern methods of teaching // vocational education. tashkent, 2012. №5. b. 26-27. (13.00.00; №3) 92 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. nasritdinova yu.a. the use of optimal methods of mathematical statistical analysis in assessing the results of a pedagogical experiment // teacher xxi century. moscow, 2017. no. 1. s. 222-227. (13.00.00; no. 13) 4. nasritdinova u.a. use of automated program "questionnaire" in determining the abilities of students // continuing education. tashkent, 2013. no. 4. b. 64-67. (13.00.00; no. 9) 5. j.a. qosimov and others “the role of software in the development of modeling in education” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060013 6. j.a. qosimov and others “development of methods for improving the lessons of information technology on the basis of graphic programs” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060012 7. j.a. qosimov and others “increasing the effectiveness of lessons by creating a problem situation in teaching drawing” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060014 8. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. selection of software for modeling developments and technologies. international journal of advanced science and technology, volume 28, issue 15, 15 november 2019, pp. 554-558 9. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. threedimensional modelling technology for computer science education// iop conference series: earth and environmental science volume 403, issue 10. e. kearse, s.schmiedere american board of surgery entrustableprofessional activities (epas): assessinggraduating residents’perception ofpreoperative entrustment. journal of surgical education.2021. 72-82 pp. 11. e.a.misganaw development of an entrustable professional activities (epa) frameworkto inform surgical residency trainingprograms in ethiopia: a three-roundnational delphi method study. journal of surgical education.2021. 102-122 pp. 12. a.p. alexandrova factors influencing the formation of students' readiness for future professional activities. ўқuv llanma. 2020 th. maskva. 238 s. 13. s.a. gashenko improving graphic education in the context of intersubject integration at the university (on the example of studying theoretical mechanics). ўқuv llanma. 2021 d. maskva. 238 s. 14. n.v. kaigorodtseva determination of the content and technology of geometric-graphic training of future engineers based on the integration of information environments. moscow state university. lecturer of the xxi century. magazine. 2020. №. 3. maskva 2019 54-64 pp. 15. r.zainuldin development of entrustable professional activities for aphysiotherapy undergraduate programme in singapore. journal of surgical education.2021. 45-55 pp. 16. ch.c.stahl natural language processing and entrustable professional activity textfeedback in surgery: a machine learning model of resident autonomy. the american journal of surgery. 369-375 рр. 17. j.b.albright association between entrustable professional activities and milestones evaluations: real-time assessments correlate with semiannual reviews. journal of surgical education. №6. 2020. 227-237 рр. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 181 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us problems of forming independent and critical thinking in students in teaching irrigation sciences shonazarov jonibek karshi irrigation and agrotechnology institute teacher bobojonov nurimon, maxmiyev afro’zbek karshi irrigation and agrotechnology institute student nurimonbobojonov@gmail.com abstract: it is known that those who will realize the goals of the society in the future are young people, that is, tomorrow's specialists, current students. therefore, the future of the society depends to a large extent on their intellectual and moral maturity. problems of forming the activity of independent thinking, methods of getting out of the set problem. if criticality in the learner's thinking is rationally, fairly, and effectively implemented, it becomes an important intellectual and moral quality (character) for the individual. key words: education, independent thought, learner, problem, internet introduction: today, the world community is undergoing multifaceted changes in all spheres of life, which, in turn, requires a new approach to the formation of a future professional. changes in the field of educational goals in our country, as in the whole world, correspond to global issues aimed at ensuring the entry of a person into the social world. in particular, in the documents of the improvement of the educational system, the competent approach is announced as an important conceptual condition for updating the content of education. in order to implement a competent approach in the educational system, it is necessary to train and retrain information technology personnel who will have the ability to apply their basic competence in real life and professional practice. "what bothers you about me?" if you ask, i would answer that it is the education of our children," said president shavkat mirziyov. the circumstances that determine the quality of education related to the educational process in higher educational institutions in the field of agriculture are as follows: teaching at a high scientific and pedagogical level, conducting problem lectures, interesting organization of lessons in the form of questions and answers , the use of advanced pedagogical technologies and multimedia guides, putting before them problems that motivate and make students think, demand, individual work with students, encouraging creativity, teaching free communication, creative thinking, engaging in scientific research and other activities provide priority to education. the history of the development of the society shows that only in the country where spirituality and enlightenment are widespread, science and tradition are developed, it is possible to build a fair society and to form mature people who are kind to each other. problem: in the student's educational activity, a tightly interconnected closed chain of thinking is formed: independent thinking, problem, problem (assignment). independent thinking of the learner can be contained in the following stages. 1. in the activity of independent thinking, first of all, the problem (task) that needs to be solved should be determined by the learner. if no issue or problem has arisen before him, then he does american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 182 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us not even think about anything. so, no problem has arisen in front of the learner, as long as he has clear and complete information about the problem that needs to be solved, the more easily he will find ways and means for its rational implementation. for this, it is absolutely necessary for learners to first understand the content of the given problem to a certain extent, to check its condition, to determine what is known and what is unknown. only then, they will not be in a hurry, and without hesitation, they will find the condition (assignment), intelligently analyze it, and achieve the correct solution as a result of implementation. 2. they strive to apply all the knowledge (rules, factors, laws, properties, characteristics, important signs, relationships, connections, etc.) that are most necessary to solve a problem or issue. for this purpose, the process of transfer to a new environment and object is carried out using the situations and methods encountered in the learner's personal experience. 3. a hypothesis (assumption) related to the issue or problem is put forward, stages are analyzed, considerations are made about the solution, opinions are expressed about various options and variations, invariants, they are separated into the most effective symptoms, signs, etc. as a result of their mutual comparison. 4. it is necessary to check the hypothesis put to the problem with the help of the result of certain criteria. in order to check it, the cases of mutual similarity are compared from a spiritual, formal, and structural point of view. in this place, the materials of creative imagination are extensively used, that is, creation of creative plans, creation of generalized images, visualization of goals and results, perception of approximate relationships is carried out. to make sure that it is correct, the mental behavior system is applied and clarified with the intention of introducing some changes. the hypothesis is mentally analyzed and synthesized using logical methods, its important symptoms are distinguished, quick judgments and conclusions are made regarding its correctness and veracity. 5. if it is determined that the hypothesis put forward to theoretically solve the problem is correct or incorrect, it is squeezed out of the object of thinking and new hypotheses and thoughts are found. a new practical hypothesis is tested several times in thought and then recommended for testing in order to put it into practice. most of the mentioned considerations are analyzed in terms of solving constructive technical issues, creating discoveries, inventive proposals, rationalizing, introducing technological devices, various models, options, preparations, technological cards, etc., and then the most significant of them. the slave, the factor, the intelligent, the most suitable one is chosen and they continue to focus on it. 6. the learner completes the behavior of independent thinking by checking the problem or issue in order to solve it, to solve it, to be confident and satisfied with the correctness of the obtained results. after these mental operations, reasoning forms, the problem (task) is considered to be completely solved, and thinking about it is relatively stopped. the learner's independent thinking may consist of the following stages: emergence of the problem in the field of the learner's perception; the learner's understanding of the essence of the issue, problem, assignment; the creation of information or images similar to them; reduction of imagination and memory materials, continuous birth of assumptions (hypotheses); step-by-step verification of assumptions or confirmation of their accuracy; emergence and improvement of a new assumption (hypothesis); secondary verification of hypotheses (second confirmation); finding (solving) a american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 183 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us solution to an issue, assignment, problem; continuation of involuntary mental behavior (relative duration of thoughts), etc. result: the criticality of the mind is important in being able to check one's own and other people's opinions, whether these opinions are true or not, and to be able to evaluate the expressed opinions, discussions, and problematic situations. if criticality is rational, based on a certain criterion for the correct disclosure of the essence of the problem to important signs, then such criticality is called objective criticality. therefore, if the criticality of the learner's thinking turns to subjective (personal) mistakes and subjectivism in general, then it is called subjective criticality. if criticality in the learner's thinking is rationally, fairly, and effectively implemented, it becomes an important intellectual and moral quality (character) for the individual. to establish a system of training of experts in the field of water management, to strengthen the integration between water management organizations and educational and scientific institutions, to take measures to implement scientific achievements into practice[1] conclusion: implementation of five initiatives, including complex measures aimed at creating additional conditions for the education of students and youth, including attracting students to culture and art, physical education and sports, improving their literacy in the use of computer and internet technologies, wide promotion of reading, development of professional skills of male and female students and independent thinking, with its effectiveness, relevance, universality, professional training leads learners to the skill, prepares a thorough basis for understanding natural phenomena and family problems. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 184 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us bibliography 1. ўзбекистон республикаси олий таълим тизимини 2030 йилгача ривожлантириш концепциясини-2019. 2. о. файзиев. “таълим-тарбия соҳасига янгича ёндашув — барқарор тараққиёт гарови” мақоласи«халқ сўзи»-2017. 3. ҳ. жўраев бухоро халқ совет республикасида миллий театр ва кино саъати (1920 1924йй). қарду хабарлари. 2019. 1-сон, 48-б. 4. н.с. кенжаева научное изучение памира в 1923-1928 гг. при участии материалы международной научно-практической конференции "социально-экономическое и культурное сотрудничество таджикистана и узбекистана: история и современность. 2019. с. 291-295. 5. тошев, солежон аҳматжоновичўзбекистон совет мустамлакачилик даври тарихининг туркияда ўрганилиши. ўтмишга назар. 2020. 2(2-махсус сон). 347353 6. мустафоева д.а. ихтисослик фан ўқитувчиларининг касбий компетентлигини ривожлантириш. педагогика фанлари бўйича фалсафа доктори дисссертацияси (phd). – т.: 2020. б. -154 7. шарипов ш.с. ўқувчилар касбий ижодкорлиги узвийлигини таъминлашнинг назарияси ва амалиёти. пед. фан. докт. дисс. – т., 2012.–264 б. 8. lutfullayev a. “bugungi kun muammosi ijtimoiy tarmoqlarga qaramlik” namdu ilmiy axborotnomasi-2024.-4-son ,344-346. 1 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 air pollution in central asia madraim khasanovich sarikulov senior lecturer, almalik branch of the tashkent state technical university, uzbekistan abstract: this article examines the issues of air pollution in the central asia region, which is becoming increasingly problematic. this problem is common to all humanity because all countries and populations living in all countries of the world are involved in air pollution. the article also discusses issues of air pollution in the central asian region. keywords: polluted air, black rain, black snow, sandstorm, particulate matter, dust storms, aerosols, energy industry, air quality. introduction as is known, the process of air pollution today is global in nature and poses a great threat to the existence of the human population. atmospheric air pollution adversely affects people's health, causing an increase in respiratory, digestive, and excretory diseases. the sad thing is that the number of cancers (malignant tumors) is growing. the who notes that every year about 7 million people die worldwide and billions of people suffer from the effects of air pollution. problems arise not only with human health. agricultural yields and labor productivity are declining, and health care costs are only increasing. to improve the current disastrous situation, consolidated actions are required on the part of authorities at all levels with the involvement of international experts, scientists and the public. over the past half century, a huge number of local environmental disasters have occurred that have negatively affected the environment. people return the benefits they receive from nature back to it in the form of waste, which results in air pollution on the planet. despite the efforts of international organizations to prevent this undesirable process, there is a steady increase in largescale pollution of atmospheric air. for several generations of the planet's inhabitants, they have been sounding the alarm, trying to draw attention to these problems. literary research atmospheric air pollution at the present stage is one of the global problems of humanity, which affects the problem of the relationship of the human race to nature. the process of air pollution has no boundaries or boundaries. since even the most powerful state is not able to solve such a problem alone, therefore, broad international cooperation is necessary to solve the problem. at the present stage, people are increasingly interfering with the natural environment, thereby disturbing the natural balance and forgetting about the need to maintain biological balance in it. therefore, at this stage, the issue of maintaining ecological balance is very acute and requires immediate solutions. the deterioration of the environment is most influenced by: destruction of forests, lack of clean fresh water, destruction of the ozone layer, pollution of the waters of the world ocean, more and more desert areas are appearing, deterioration of living conditions of the population in huge megacities. 2 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us as is known, humanity is faced with ever-increasing contradictions between its growing needs and the inability of the biosphere to provide them without collapsing. as a result, socioeconomic development has taken on the character of an accelerated movement towards a global environmental catastrophe, which threatens not only the satisfaction of the vital needs and interests of future generations of people, but also the very possibility of their existence. at the same time, air pollution at the present stage, along with other environmental disasters, imposes a huge burden on the livelihoods of the human population. in the modern world, there is hardly a state that has avoided the problems of air pollution. this problem also applies to the central asian republics. moreover, statements that in some places these problems are more significant and in others less significant will be completely incorrect. and if trouble comes knocking, it knocks on everyone in the region. according to the authors [1], at the present stage of human development, we are faced with perhaps the most pressing problem how to preserve nature and civilization, since no one knows when and in what form this or that catastrophe may occur. for thousands of years, man lived, worked, developed, but he did not suspect that perhaps the day would come when it would become difficult, and perhaps impossible, to breathe clean air, drink clean water, grow anything on the ground, since the air is polluted, the water is poisoned, the soil is contaminated with radiation or other chemicals. all this constitutes a real threat to the entire civilization. what could be the conclusion? another chernobyl or fukushima, or maybe even worse. so maybe we should think about this. every person must realize that the entire civilization is on the verge of destruction, and whether we survive or not is the merit of each of us. there is no doubt that the inventive human mind will eventually find a replacement for them. the authors' work [2] provides an example of air pollution caused by military conflict that occurred in kuwait and nearby areas of the persian gulf after operation desert storm in early 1991. retreating from kuwait, the iraqi occupiers blew up over 500 oil rigs with explosives wells a significant part of them flared up and burned for six months, poisoning a large area with harmful gases and soot. from wells that were not inflamed, oil flowed in fountains, forming large lakes and flowing into the persian gulf. a large amount of oil spilled here from damaged terminals and tankers. as a result, oil covered nearly 1,554 km2 of the sea surface, 450 km of the coastline, where most birds, sea turtles, dugongs and other animals died. the fire flares burned 7.3 million liters of oil every day, which is equal to the volume of oil that the united states imports daily. clouds of soot from the fires rose to a height of up to 3 km and were carried by winds far beyond the borders of kuwait black rain fell in saudi arabia and iran, black snow in kashmir (2,000 km from kuwait). air polluted with oil soot had a harmful effect on people's health, since the air contained many carcinogens. according to materials [3] in uzbekistan, monitoring of the main industrial pollutants of atmospheric air is carried out: nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide (sulfur dioxide so2), carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide co), nitrogen dioxide (no2), dust (solid suspended particles), as well as specific pollutants ammonia, phenols, heavy metals, hydrogen sulfide, organic solvents and others. according to the results of instrumental monitoring for 2014–2019, excesses of established standards for emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere were detected at the following enterprises: “navoiazot” – for nitrogen oxides up to 2.84 times and ammonia up to 1.17 times;  “akhangaran-cement” – up to 40.7 times for dust and up to 1.2 times for nitrogen oxides;  almalyk mmc – up to 20 times for dust, up to 7.7 times for sulfur dioxide and up to 2.7 times for nitrogen oxides.  “uzmetkombinat” – for dust up to 3.7 times, nitrogen oxides up to 1.6 times and sulfur dioxide up to 3.1 times; 3 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  “bekabadcement” – up to 12.2 times for dust, up to 2.2 times for nitrogen oxides and up to 5.9 times for sulfur dioxide;  “maksam-chirchik” – up to 2.6 times for ammonia and up to 4.7 times for nitrogen oxides;  “fargonazot” – up to 1.3 times for acetone. according to the source [4], an emergency was registered (fig. 1) in the form of a sandstorm in the southwest of kazakhstan (april 18, 2023). figure 1. illustration of a sandstorm in southwestern kazakhstan. according to information from the website [5], we can give an example of air pollution in the city of tashkent in the republic of uzbekistan (fig. 2). according to this website, the city of tashkent took first place among the dirtiest cities in the world (october 29, 2023), and the level of air pollution is ahead of such countries as india and china. tashkent very often finds itself at the top of the list of cities where air pollution exceeds permissible standards. 4 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. illustration of pollution in the city of tashkent. the source [6] notes that poor water management and intensive use of agricultural chemicals also pollute the air. salt and dust storms, as well as the spraying of pesticides and defoliants on the cotton crop, have led to a serious deterioration in air quality in the territories of the central asian republics. in urban areas, factories and automobile emissions pose a growing threat to air quality. less than half of factory smokestacks in the central asian republics are equipped with filter devices, and none are capable of filtering gaseous emissions. additionally, a large percentage of existing filters are faulty or do not work. air pollution data for tashkent, fergana and almalyk show that all three cities exceed recommended levels of nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter. high levels of heavy metals such as lead, nickel, zinc, copper, mercury and manganese have been found in the atmosphere of uzbekistan, mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels, waste, and ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. according to the source [7], almost 2 million people in the western part of uzbekistan (the republic of karakalpakstan and the khorezm region) are directly affected by air pollution from dust blown from the surface of the dried bottom of the aral sea. it is estimated that strong winds transport 15–75 million tons of contaminated sand and dust per year. this dust contains salts, pesticides and heavy metals, and public health research and analysis shows that rates of bronchitis, asthma, anemia, heart disease and some cancers are high in these regions. in 2004– 2010 and in 2012–2014. observations were established in tashkent to measure pm10 and pm2.5 dust fractions to gain more information on air quality and monitor the impact of mitigation measures on former seabed stabilization. in the mid-1990s, industrial production in uzbekistan accounted for about 60 percent of the total for central asian countries, excluding kazakhstan, and contributed about 60 percent of total air emissions in central asia. since there are relatively few cars, car exhaust is a problem only in tashkent and fergana. it should be noted that uzbekistan and kazakhstan are characterized by dust storms, which also contribute to air pollution with suspended particles. methodology the cause of global air pollution is the increasing conquest of nature by man and the development of new technologies that have almost completely transformed the appearance of the 5 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us globe. this was also influenced by the increase in population, unevenly distributed across continents. overpopulation as a result of the population explosion in underdeveloped asian and south american countries is forcing the expansion of spaces taken from nature. it is no secret that clean air around populated areas is almost completely disappearing, rivers are turning into sewers, there are piles of garbage, landfills, and mutilated nature everywhere this is a striking picture of the insane industrialization of the modern world. air pollution is the most serious environmental problem in modern cities; it causes significant damage to the health of citizens and green spaces. over large cities, the atmosphere contains 10 times more aerosols and 25 times more gases. at the same time, about 60-70% of gas pollution comes from road transport. in general, vehicle emissions are significantly more toxic than emissions from stationary sources. along with carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and soot (for diesel cars), a running car releases into the environment more than 200 substances and compounds that have a toxic effect. among them, heavy metal compounds and some hydrocarbons should be highlighted, especially benzopyrene, which has a pronounced carcinogenic effect. it should be noted that some scientists characterize the current crisis of civilization, focusing on the inevitability of its collapse if development and environmental problems are not addressed in the 21st century. a qualitatively new solution. there is hope that it may be associated with the transfer of transport to environmentally friendly hydrogen fuel and the mastery of thermonuclear fusion energy. hypothetically, such a decision may also be associated with the expansion of the development resource base through the development of other planets in the solar system. it cannot be ruled out that recognition of the reality of the crisis of civilization will lead to a change in the criteria for progress that emerged at the dawn of the industrial era. they assumed that constant growth in living standards and consumption was the highest value. the most important indicator in this case will be the safe state of human habitat and the ability to breathe environmentally friendly air. as a rule, public health is directly related to air pollution in the modern world. in particular, polluted air causes respiratory diseases such as asthma, cardiovascular and other ailments. at the present stage, the level of air pollution exceeds several times the maximum permissible standards in all countries. meanwhile, it is polluted atmospheric air that contributes to the development of various kinds of diseases, sometimes incurable. as we know, clogged rivers bring toxins, chemicals and pathogens. in addition, the lack of drinking water, accompanied by climate change, contributes to the spread of dangerous infectious diseases, which negatively affect the health of the population, especially the immature health of the younger generation. nevertheless, we trumpet everywhere that the future belongs to the youth! the question is which one? a patient, crippled by health, perhaps unable to correctly assess the problems that arise at every step, which can harm him. the energy industry, where coal is burned, contributes to air pollution. the clearest example is the dushanbe chpp-2, which runs on coal, which annually “gives” residents and guests of the tajik capital over 14 thousand tons of carbon dioxide. cement factories located in the city and again using coal as fuel also make their contribution. in addition, at the bishkek thermal power plant, about 1.5 million tons of coal are burned annually, while the entire population of the country uses a little more than 1 million tons for domestic needs. there are no reliable data on the volume of greenhouse gases emitted in uzbekistan. however, the decree of the president of uzbekistan shavkat mirziyoyev notes “despite the measures taken, the energy intensity of the domestic economy remains high, the level of diversification of the fuel and energy balance due to the involvement of renewable energy sources in industrial production does not meet global trends. in the production of electrical and thermal energy, almost the existing sufficiently high potential of renewable energy sources is not used." the cities of central asia have repeatedly been included in the lists of the most polluted cities in the world in terms of air quality. the most critical pollution situation is in tashkent, almaty, dushanbe and bishkek. in general, the situation with air pollution in central asia is quite 6 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us similar. mainly, responsibility for air quality falls on transport this is an outdated fleet of cars and transport in general, and for the autumn-winter heating period these are thermal power plants, boiler houses, private non-gas households, small businesses (for example, bathhouses, waste processing shops). it is only possible to estimate the potential damage from the effects of air pollution on the health of the population of the central asian countries only very approximately. nevertheless, the world health organization predicts that if current rates of economic growth and medical development are maintained, the complex deterioration of the environmental situation in the period from 2030 to 2050 will cause more than 250 thousand additional deaths in the world annually. this is a forecast; in fact, there are always deviations, and taking into account the current rate of pollution, we can assume a not rosy situation. it is difficult to guess how much of this number will fall to the countries of central asia. conclusion over the past half century, a huge number of local environmental disasters have occurred that have negatively affected the environment. people return the benefits they receive from nature back to it in waste form, which results in pollution of the planet. and this process is growing every year. for several generations, residents have been sounding the alarm, trying to draw attention to these issues. as you can see, the growing trend of atmospheric air pollution at the present stage has a growing trend and this negative factor has a negative impact on the health of the population and, above all, on the health of the younger generation. all this can lead to the fact that the day may come when it will become difficult, and perhaps impossible, for a person to breathe clean air, drink clean water, grow anything on the ground, since the air is polluted, the water is poisoned, the soil is contaminated with radiation or other chemicals. as we see, air pollution poses a huge threat to humanity and not many people realize it. from all of the above it follows that the time has come to sound the alarm loudly in order to warn the peoples of all countries about the impending danger threatening humanity and civilization. the peoples of central asia today have no more serious concern than finding the strength, finding the means, finding the intelligence to get along with nature and solve the problem of air pollution. references 1. adilov t.t., sarikulov m.kh. threats posing a danger to civilization and humanity. european scholar journal (esj) available online at: https://www.scholarzest.com vol. 2 no. 4, april 2021, issn: 2660-5562., рp. 181-184. 2. "one hundred great disasters". ionina n., kubeev m. moscow/veche 1999 3. © 2008-2022 “gazeta.uz” 18+. 4. @sara_xabarlar 2023 5. https://telegram.me/joinchat/aaaaaflfhcm5cmyyjc4ana. 6. source: evolvelium.com. 7. un economic commission for europe environmental performance review, uzekistan third review geneva, 2020. р.174. 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 issues of increasing the efficiency of solar air heaters and methods for calculating heat transfer on solar receivers with a discontinuous boundary layer abbasov yorkin sadikovich, umurzakova muyassar abubakirovna, sharofov salokhiddin sirojidinovich fergana polytechnic institute, uzbekistan abstract: in the article we will consider the issues of increasing the thermal efficiency of solar air heaters by artificially interrupting the hydrodynamic boundary layer in the heater channels. intensification models and formulas for calculating heat transfer are proposed. keywords: the heater of sunny air, effectiveness of heat hydrodynamics limited sphere, fasting of exchanging heat. introduction solar air heaters (sah) are one of the promising solar-technical devices that can be used in air heating systems and solar drying devices. such sah are divided into two types:  sahs operating under the influence of forced convection  sahs operating under natural convection the second type of heating device is often used when the thermal output of the dryer is low or when heating air in rooms of small cubic capacity. considering that such heaters use air as a coolant, which has a small heat capacity (about 4 times less than the heat capacity of water), then these sah s have not only increased dimensions and weight, but also low thermal efficiency. therefore, to reduce these indicators and increase thermal efficiency in the sah, methods must be implemented to increase heat transfer in the channels of the heating device. to apply these methods, it is considered advisable to use methods known in industrial heating engineering to intensify heat transfer [1-5]. the most well-known methods of intensifying heat transfer processes include: periodic interruption of the hydrodynamic boundary layer formed on the solar receiving surface. in practice, such artificial updating of the boundary layer can be realized using the surfaces shown in fig. 1. а б fig. 1 scheme of periodic renewal of the hydrodynamic boundary layer on the solar receiving surface: a – channel with roughness protrusions, b – wavy channel. 168 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us it should be noted that the near-wall flow on such surfaces is complex and currently not amenable to a theoretical solution. in this regard, semi-empirical methods for calculating heat transfer and hydraulic resistance of such a flow are considered acceptable. to simulate the wall flow (fig. 1a), we assume the following provisions: 1. separated zones and reverse flows formed behind the turbulators are considered to be gradient-free, such as a boundary layer. 2. we will consider the resulting vortices in corner zones only to be sources of turbulence and quasi-stationary. thus, the flow model can be formed as follows: model № 1. figure 2. formation of a single vortex in this case, the resulting vortex and the vortex zone between the turbulators create a certain layer through which the particles of the main flow find it difficult to penetrate and impede heat transfer. hydraulic resistance obeys the quadratic regime, i.e. a mode in which the coefficient of hydraulic resistance does not depend on the reynolds number. it is not advisable to install such close proximity of turbulators in the air flow. model № 2. figure 3. reverse flows of the boundary layer type. this type of flow can be represented as a reverse flow of the boundary layer type developing under the influence of a quasi-solid vortex. model № 3 figure 4. a chain of boundary layers formed between two turbulators 1, 2, 3 – differently directed boundary layers: 1– the boundary layer is formed in the opposite direction to the main flow after the point of reattachment; 2– the boundary layer is formed after the reattachment point in the direction of the main flow; 3– the boundary layer is formed due to a vortex arising on the front wall of the rear turbulator. this case is optimal from the point of view of intensifying heat transfer due to the fact that throughout the entire period (the period corresponds to the distance between two protrusions) several flows are formed, which can be represented as a model. to obtain engineering formulas for calculating heat transfer, we also accept that: 169 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  the flow pattern between turbulators repeats from period to period [6];  flows in reverse directions develop under the influence of quasi-solid vortices and thus the speed in the reverse boundary layer is equal to the speed of the main flow. for model № 1, a boundary layer type flow is not observed and, therefore, the heat exchange process between the wall and the main flow is carried out in a similar way to a rough wall. for model № 2, wall flows are formed in the opposite direction and, to a first approximation, such flows can be expressed by the formulas of a turbulent boundary layer. the average heat transfer can be calculated in accordance with the accepted assumptions as follows: 2,0 8,0re0225,0         d s nu l dd (1) (1) for model № 3, the formula for average heat transfer can be obtained using the superposition method; 321 332211 lll luenluenluen un l    (2) the length of the first layer for s4/h=12 (optimal step) l1 =5h the length of the third is l3=l`=1,5h. the length of the second layer is calculated as hhhhs 5,55,15121 14   substitute into formula (2) we get: )3(re017,074,0*re0225,0 12 5,1 5,1 5,5 5,5 5 5 re0225,0re0225,0 2,0 8,0 2,0 8,0 2,02,02,0 8,0 321 3 2,0 3 2 2,0 2 1 2,0 1 8,0                                                       d h d h h h d h h d h h d h lll l d l l d l l d l nu dd ddd the calculation method according to the proposed formula (3) is that, first of all, the distance between the turbulators is determined; if s4/h<12, then the heat transfer calculation is carried out in accordance with formula (1). when su/h>10, heat transfer is calculated using formula (3). figure 2 shows calculations using formulas (1), (2) and experimental data [1]. the graph shows their satisfactory agreement. 170 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us а) t/d=0,5; d/d=0,967 б) t/d=0,25; d/d=0,905 figure 2. calculation of heat transfer in a channel with protrusions. t – distance between protrusions; d – channel diameter. references 1. kalinin e.k., dreitser g.a., yarkho s.a. intensification of heat transfer in channels. m: mechanical engineering 1972. – 220 p. 2. blink v.k. heat transfer in pipes with annular discrete roughness. ifj, 1972 t.xxii. no. 2. from 248-253. 3. gukhman a. a. intensification of convective heat transfer and the problem of comparative assessment of heat transfer surfaces. – thermal power engineering 1977, no. 4, p. 5-8. 4. migai v.k. heat transfer in pipes with discrete roughness thermal power engineering 1989 no. 7. from 2-5. 5. abbasov y. et al. efficiency of solar air heaters //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 452. – с. 04009. 6. abbasov y., umurzakova m., sharofov s. results of the calculation of the absorber temperature in a flat solar air heater //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 411. – с. 01004. 163 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 2, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 research of the movement of the combination machine straightener in the longitudinal-vertical plane sh. p. sharipov assistant professor of the institute of engineering and economics. abstract: the article presents the results of the experimental studies conducted to study the influence of the opening angle of the soil pusher of the combined machine leveler used in the preparation of land for planting on the performance indicators of the leveler. keywords: combined, machine, leveler, parallelogram, mechanism, soil, pusher, compression, traction, resistance. republic of uzbekistan this article presents the results of studies on ensuring smooth movement of the combined machine leveler used in the preparation of land for sowing seeds in the longitudinal-vertical plane [1]. the leveler of the combined machine consists of plates attached to each other at a certain angle, which smooth the unevenness formed on the field surface by the softener and bullet-like claws of the machine. in this case, the leveler smoothes the bumps formed between the softener and the bullet-shaped claws by pushing them to the edges formed in their tracks. the leveler of the combined machine is connected to its frame by means of a parallelogram mechanism equipped with a compression spring. since the physical and mechanical properties of the soil are variable, the rx and rz forces acting on the leveler during the operation of the combined machine (see the picture) are constantly changing during the operation. for this reason, during the operation of the machine, the leveler is not only in forward motion, but also in a vertical direction, that is, along the z axis, it is also in a forced oscillating motion, which causes a change in its impact on the soil. this has a negative effect on the leveling of the field surface. it is self-evident that the amplitude of vertical forced vibrations of the leveler should be as small as possible so that the surface of the field is leveled at the same level along the entire length. to achieve this, a differential equation representing vertical forced vibrations of the leveler was created according to the calculation schemes presented in the figure. it has the following final appearance in this mt – the mass of the leveler, kg; v – coverage width of the leveler, m; vt – coefficient of adhesion of the soil per unit coverage width of the screed; st – coefficient of compaction of the soil per unit coverage width of the leveler; l – the length of the longitudinal pull of the parallelogram mechanism, m; d – vertical distance between the hinges of the parallelogram mechanism, m; δrx (t), δrz (t) – rx and rz variable constituents of forces (moving forces); φt – angle of deviation of parallelogram mechanism pulls from horizontal position, degrees. 164 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a) b) a, b are balanced and out-of-balance states of the leveler, respectively scheme for studying the movement of the leveler in the longitudinal-vertical plane δrx (t) and δrz (t) if we assume that the forces change according to the harmonic law, the solution of the equation (1) representing vertical forced vibrations of the straightener and its amplitude will have the following forms [2] and in this n = 1,2,…, n1 – number of harmonics; ω – frequency of rotation of variable members, с1; (4) 165 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (according to expressions 2) and (3), the same level of influence of the leveler on the field surface can be achieved mainly by the correct selection of the parallelogram mechanism's pressure spring and the angle of deviation of the pullers relative to the horizon. if it is ensured that the longitudinal pullers of the parallelogram mechanism occupy a horizontal position during the work process, δrx (t) variable force and, therefore, changes in the physical and mechanical properties of the soil and the speed of aggregate movement do not affect the performance of the leveler, and as a result, optimal conditions are created for leveling the field surface at the same level. references 1. тўхтақўзиев а., калимбетов м.п. ерларни уруғ экишга тайёрлашда қўлланиладиган комбинациялашган машина. – тошкент, 2014. – №4. – б. 32. 2. тўхтақўзиев а., мансуров м.т., каримова д.и. иш органлари рамага қўзғалувчан бириктирилган тупроққа ишлов бериш машиналарининг ишлаш чуқрлиги барқарорлигини таъминлашнинг илмий-техник ечимлари. – тошкент: “muxr press”, 2019. – 84 б. 3. шарипов ш. п. комбинациялашган машина текислагичининг такомиллаштирилган конструкциясини ишлаб чиқиш //scientific progress. – 2023. – т. 4. – №. 2. – с. 80-84. 4. pо‘latovich, sharipov shuhrat. "the influence of the opening angle of the soil pusher of the combined machine leveler on its performance." european journal of artificial intelligence and digital economy 1.2 (2024). 5. pо‘latovich, sharipov shuhrat. "tuproq surgichni kombinat siyalashgan mashina tekislagichidagi ochilish burchagi ni uning ish ko ‘rsatkichlariga ta’siri. " international jour nal of recently scientific researcher's theory 1.3 (2023): 149-152. 6. шарипов ш. п.. комбинациялашган машина текис лагичининг такомиллаштирилган конструкциясини ишлаб чиқиш //scientific progress. – 2023. – т. 4. – №. 2. – с. 80-84.. 7. sh. sharipov, m. ergashev. improved leveler of the combined machine // agro ilm. tashkent, 2023. #3. b.60-62. 8. pо‘latovich s. s. the influence of the opening angle of the soil pusher of the combined machine leveler on its performance //european journal of artificial intelligence and digital economy. – 2024. – т. 1. – №. 2. – с. 53-56.. 9. шарипов ш. п.. комбинациялашган машина текисла гичининг такомиллаштирилган конструкциясини ишлаб чиқиш //scientific progress. – 2023. – т. 4. – №. 2. – с. 80-84. 10. pо‘latovich s. s. tuproq surgichni kombinatsiyalash gan mashina tekislagichidagi ochilish burchagini uning ish ko ‘rsatkichlariga ta’siri //international journal of recently scientific researcher's theory. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 149-152. 11. 11.irgashev d. theoretical justification of the longitudinal distance of a plug-softener that works without turning the soil between garden rows //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 12. – №. d11. – с. 482-487. 12. irgashev, d. b., rx tovashov ar, and o. t. sadikov. "mamadiyorov. technical analysis of plug software when working between gardens." international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology 9.5 (2022). 13. irgashev d. improved plug-softener technology for working between garden rows //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 7. – с. 330-336. 14. irgashev d., mamadiyorov o., xidirov m. technical analysis of the disk working bodies that work the soil and them working between the garden row //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. a5. – с. 150-155. 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 15. irgashev d. b., hamarayev o. s. the use of disc chisels in surface treatment between garden rows //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 278-287. 16. irgashev d. b. analysis of machines providing liquid fertilizer to the root system of orchard and vine seedlings //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 356-362. 17. irgashev, d., toshtemirov, s., maiviatov, f. m., & muqimov, b. (2023). placement of working bodies on the frame of the tool plow-ripper. in e3s web of conferences (vol. 390). edp sciences. 18. irgashev d. the effect of the upper softener of the sloped column working body working on the soil of garden fields on the energy indicators //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. a8. – с. 133-137. 19. irgashev d. b. et al. high softening performance indicators of plug-softener //iop conference series: earth and environmental science. – iop publishing, 2023. – т. 1284. – №. 1. – с. 012032. 20. irgashev d. b. analysis of machines providing liquid fertilizer to the root system of orchard and vine seedlings //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 356-362. 21. irgashev d. b., buriyev m. analysis of the coils used in soil drilling //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 302308. 22. irgashev d. b. basing the constructional parameters of the plug-softener that works between the garden rows //journal of research in innovative teaching and inclusive learning. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 14-19. 23. irgashev d. b. calculation of the strength of winged joints //journal of theory, mathematics and physics. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 7. – с. 1-6. 24. irgashev d. b. couplings used in mechanical engineering and their importance //journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 7. – с. 1-10. 25. mamatov f. m. et al. bog ‘qator oralarini ishlov beradigan qiya ustunli ishchi organlarni parametrlarni nazariy asoslash //journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 42-45. 26. mamatov f. et al. justification of the bottom softening parameters of working organ with a sloping column //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 434. – с. 03010. 27. irgashev d. theoretical justification of the longitudinal distance of a plug-softener that works without turning the soil between garden rows //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. d11. – с. 482-487. 28. begmurodvich, irgashev dilmurod. "development and problems of vineyard network in uzbekistan." web of synergy: international interdisciplinary research journal 2, no. 1 (2023): 441-448. 29. irgashev d. b., buriyev m. analysis of the coils used in soil drilling //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 302308. 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 30. bekmurodovich i. d. technical classification of machines that till the soil between rows of vineyards //uzbek scholar journal. – 2022. – т. 10. – с. 369-379. 31. irgashev d. боғ қатор ораларига ишлов беришда такомиллашган плуг-юмшаткичнинг техник таxлили //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. d7. – с. 330-336 164 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 improving the accounting (balance) of real estate objects in settlements: a multifaceted approach baxrinova moxigul xo‘jamuratovna samsacu doctoral student jurakulov doniyor ochilovich scientific supervisor candidate of technical sciences, professor abstract: efficiently accounting for real estate objects within settlements is crucial for effective urban planning, property management, taxation, and overall economic development. here's a breakdown of key areas to focus on for improvement: key words: real estate objects, urban planning, property management, taxation introduction establishing a comprehensive and standardized database. centralized real estate registry: implement a centralized, digital registry that captures detailed information on all real estate objects within the settlement's boundaries. this registry should include: * property identification details (unique id, address, location coordinates) * property type (residential, commercial, industrial, etc.) * ownership information (owner name, contact details, legal documentation) * building specifications (size, construction year, materials, number of floors, etc.) * land use information (zoning, permitted activities, environmental restrictions) * property value assessments (market value, tax assessments) standardized data formats and terminology: employ consistent data formats and terminology across all data sources to ensure data integrity and enable interoperability between different systems. regular data updates: implement mechanisms to ensure regular updates to the database, reflecting changes in ownership, property conditions, and market values. improving the accounting (balance) of real estate objects in settlements: a multifaceted approach establishing a comprehensive and standardized database. a robust and comprehensive real estate database is the foundation for accurate accounting, efficient management, and informed decisionmaking in settlements. establishing such a database involves a multi-faceted approach: 165 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. centralized real estate registry: • purpose: the heart of the system, a centralized real estate registry acts as a single source of truth for all information related to real estate objects within the settlement. • key components: * unique property identification: assign unique ids to each property, ensuring accurate tracking and avoiding duplication. * location data: integrate detailed location information, including addresses, coordinates, and plot boundaries. * property details: capture comprehensive details like property type, size, construction year, materials, number of floors, and permitted use. * ownership information: maintain accurate records of property ownership, including owner names, contact details, and legal documentation. * land use information: record zoning designations, permitted activities, and environmental restrictions associated with each property. * valuation data: maintain updated assessments of property values, including market value and tax assessments. • digital platform: utilize a digital platform for the registry to ensure ease of access, data management, and integration with other systems. • data security and privacy: implement robust security measures to safeguard sensitive information and ensure compliance with data privacy regulations. 2. standardized data formats and terminology: • consistent data structure: employ standardized data formats and field definitions across all data sources to ensure data consistency and interoperability. • controlled vocabulary: use a controlled vocabulary or thesaurus to ensure uniform terminology for property types, land uses, and other relevant fields, avoiding ambiguity and facilitating data analysis. • data validation rules: implement data validation rules to ensure the accuracy and integrity of data entered into the registry, preventing errors and inconsistencies. • data quality assurance: establish processes for data quality assurance, including regular audits and data cleansing activities, to maintain the accuracy and reliability of the database. 3. regular data updates and maintenance: • automated updates: integrate data sources such as property transactions, land use changes, and building permits into the registry to ensure automatic updates. • notifications and alerts: implement mechanisms to notify relevant stakeholders about changes in property ownership, status, or valuation. 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us • data synchronization: develop procedures to synchronize the real estate registry with other relevant data systems, such as cadastral maps, tax databases, and urban planning systems. • data backup and recovery: implement robust data backup and recovery procedures to ensure the security and continuity of the real estate database. 4. data collection and verification: • multiple data sources: integrate data from various sources, such as property deeds, cadastral records, utility bills, and building permits, to create a comprehensive picture. • field verification: implement processes for field verification, including physical inspections of properties, to ensure the accuracy of data collected from other sources. • data reconciliation: implement mechanisms for reconciling data from different sources to identify discrepancies and resolve data inconsistencies. • data sharing agreements: establish clear agreements for data sharing with other government agencies and stakeholders, ensuring data integrity and compliance. 5. training and capacity building: • personnel training: provide train integrating with other relevant data systems: cadastral maps: link the real estate registry with cadastral maps, providing visual representation of property boundaries and spatial information. taxation systems: integrate the registry with tax systems to automate property tax calculations and assessments based on current property values. planning and development systems: integrate the registry with urban planning and development systems to inform land use decisions, infrastructure planning, and zoning regulations. utility management systems: connect the registry with utility management systems to track property-specific utility connections and consumption data. improving the accounting (balance) of real estate objects in settlements: a multifaceted approach integrating with other relevant data systems. a truly effective real estate database doesn't exist in isolation. its value multiplies when seamlessly integrated with other crucial data systems within the settlement. this integration fosters data synergy, improves decision-making, and optimizes resource allocation. here's how to effectively integrate the real estate database with relevant systems. cadastral maps: purpose: cadastral maps provide visual representation of property boundaries, spatial information, and land use designations. integration benefits: accurate geo-referencing: linking the real estate registry with cadastral maps ensures accurate geo-referencing of property locations, enabling precise spatial analysis. land use planning: integration helps visualize land use patterns, identify potential development areas, and inform zoning regulations. property value assessment: cadastral data can be used to assess property value based on location, size, and surrounding land use. integration mechanisms: data exchange standards: employ standardized data exchange formats (e.g., kml, geojson) to facilitate seamless data transfer between the registry and cadastral systems. spatial joins: implement spatial join functions to connect property records in the registry with corresponding cadastral map polygons. gis integration: leverage geographic information systems (gis) software for visualizing and analyzing spatial data from both systems. taxation systems: 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us • purpose: taxation systems handle property tax assessments, calculations, and collection. • integration benefits: * automated tax assessments: integration allows for automated tax assessments based on updated property values and other relevant factors (e.g., land use, building type). * reduced errors: automating calculations minimizes manual errors and ensures consistent application of tax laws. * improved tax compliance: efficient tax assessments and notifications can improve taxpayer compliance and revenue collection. • integration mechanisms: * data api (application programming interface): develop apis for data exchange between the real estate registry and taxation systems. * data synchronization: implement mechanisms for regular data synchronization to ensure tax assessments reflect current property values. * tax data integration: include tax-related data (e.g., tax assessment, payment history) directly within the real estate record for comprehensive information. planning and development systems: • purpose: urban planning and development systems manage zoning regulations, building permits, and infrastructure planning. • integration benefits: * informed land use decisions: integration provides planners with real-time insights into property characteristics, zoning, and existing infrastructure, facilitating informed land use decisions. * efficient permit processing: integration streamlines building permit processing by automatically verifying property details, zoning compliance, and potential impacts. * sustainable development: integration supports sustainable development by facilitating environmental impact assessments and ensuring compliance with relevant regulations. • integration mechanisms: * data sharing agreements: establish agreements for secure and controlled data sharing between the real estate registry and planning systems. * data validation rules: implement data validation rules to ensure consistency between property data in the registry and zoning regulations in the planning system. * web services integration: utilize web services to exchange data and automate processes related to land use planning and permit approvals. utility management systems: • purpose: utility management systems track property-specific utility connections (water, electricity, gas, etc.) and consumption data. 168 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us • integration benefits: * accurate utility billing: integration ensures accurate utility billing based on property details and consumption data. * efficient service delivery: integration facilitates streamlined service delivery by identifying property-specific utility connections and requirements. * infrastructure planning: data on utility connections and consumption patterns can inform infrastructure planning and expansion. • integration mechanisms: * unique property identifiers: ensure that property identifiers are consistent across both systems for accurate data linkage. * data exchange protocols: implement standard data exchange protocols (e.g., xml, json) to facilitate efficient data transfer. * utility data integration: include utility connection information and consumption data within the real estate record for comprehensive insights. other relevant data systems. environmental management systems: integration with environmental management systems can track pollution levels, green spaces, and other environmental data associated with properties, supporting sustainable development. social welfare systems: integration with social welfare systems can help target assistance programs based on property details and socioeconomic factors associated with residents. emergency response systems: integration with emergency response systems can provide critical information on property locations, building characteristics, and potential hazards, improving emergency response capabilities. by implementing these integrations, uzbekistan can create a powerful data ecosystem that leverages the synergies between different systems, enabling more informed decision-making, improving operational efficiency, and fostering sustainable development in settlements. utilizing technology for efficiency and accuracy: geographic information systems (gis): employ gis technology to visualize and analyze spatial data related to real estate objects, facilitating informed decision-making on urban planning, infrastructure development, and property management. remote sensing and aerial imagery: leverage aerial imagery and satellite data to monitor property conditions, assess land use changes, and update the real estate database efficiently. artificial intelligence (ai) and machine learning (ml): implement ai and ml algorithms to automate tasks such as property valuation, data validation, and fraud detection, improving efficiency and accuracy. blockchain technology: explore the potential of blockchain technology for secure and transparent property ownership records, reducing fraud and disputes. empowering stakeholders and encouraging participation. open data portals: make relevant real estate data publicly accessible through open data portals, enabling developers, investors, and citizens to access information and make informed decisions. online property information systems: provide online platforms for citizens to access information about their properties, update details, and receive notifications about relevant changes. public consultation and feedback mechanisms: encourage public participation in the development and implementation of real estate accounting processes, allowing stakeholders to provide valuable input and feedback. continuous improvement and evaluation: regular review and evaluation: establish a system for regular review and evaluation of the real estate accounting process, identifying areas for improvement and 169 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us adapting the system to evolving needs. performance indicators: define and track performance indicators to assess the effectiveness of the real estate accounting system and identify areas requiring further attention. capacity building and training: provide ongoing training and capacity building programs for personnel involved in managing and maintaining the real estate database, ensuring their skills remain relevant and updated. benefits of effective real estate accounting: improved urban planning: provides data-driven insights for informed decisions on land use, infrastructure development, and zoning regulations. enhanced property management: facilitates efficient property registration, ownership verification, and property tax collection. increased transparency and accountability: promotes transparency in property transactions and reduces opportunities for corruption and fraud. stimulated economic growth: provides investors and developers with reliable data, fostering investment and economic development within the settlement. improved citizen services: provides citizens with access to accurate information about their properties and simplifies interactions with relevant government agencies. by implementing these improvements, uzbekistan can create a robust and efficient system for accounting for real estate objects in settlements, supporting sustainable urban development, promoting economic growth, and enhancing citizen services. literature: 1. ibraimovna, m. f. (2023). palaces of the timurid period of the middle ages of uzbekistan. journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture, 2(2), 24-28. 2. ibraimovna, m. f. (2022). palaces in the historical cities of uzbekistan formation. zien journal of social sciences and humanities, 12, 15-18. 3. ibraimovna, m. f. (2023). analytical research work on the palaces of the timurids in the medieval period of uzbekistan. central asian journal of theoretical and applied science, 4(3), 7-10. 4. sabohat, m., &firuza, m. (2022). periods of formation of historical structures of architecture with geometric shapes. journal of architectural design, 4, 21-26. 5. ibraimovna, m. f. abdusattorovna, m. s. (2023). analytical research work on the palaces of the timurids in the medieval period of uzbekistan. central asian journal of theoretical and applied science, 4(3), 7-10. 6. firuzaibraimovna, m. (2023). scientific and natural study of the architecture of the khiva garden-palaces, development of recommendations for their use for modern tourism purposes. web of semantic: universal journal on innovative education, 2(3), 10-13. 7. ibraimovna, m. f. (2023). analysis of various roofs and roofs. nexus: journal of advances studies of engineering science, 2(3), 33-39. 8. ibraimovna, m. f. (2023). khiva is an open-air city-museum. journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture, 2(4), 36-39. 9. ibraimovna, m. f. (2023). history of khiva. journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture, 2(4), 8-12. 10. ibraimovna, m. f. (2023). experiences of restoring palaces in historical cities of uzbekistan and historical parks around them. journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture, 2(3), 41-44. 11. ibraimovna, m. f. (2023). formation of palaces in uzbekistan in the late middle ageskhanate period. journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture, 2(3), 33-36. 170 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 12. ibraimovna, m. f. (2023). samarkand state university of architecture and construction. american journal of public diplomacy and international studies (29932157), 1(5), 10-14. 13. makhmudova, f. (2023). department of architecture. study and calculation of spatial blocks with a cylindrical coating shell. international bulletin of applied science and technology, 3(10), 163-166. 14. abdirasulovna, m. n. (2023). some questions about structural schemes of buildings. nexus: journal of advances studies of engineering science, 2(4), 1-6. 15. abdirasulovna, m. n. (2023). samarkand state university of architecture and construction. multidisciplinary journal of science and technology, 3(3), 398-400. 176 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 design of small architectural forms used in urban environments and residential parts of tourist neighborhoods daminova umida olimovna tashkent university of architecture and construction, uzbekistan abstract: the article aims to create a comfortable and harmonious urban environment by applying nationalism and increasing the artistry of small architectural forms (water elements, seats, garbage cans, umbrellas, parking spaces, lighting, fences) in the environment design of tourist neighborhoods. the variety of buildings, artistic and aesthetic qualities, creation of proportional parts of the city, problems of touristic intersections and integral connection of streets, artificial and natural recreation areas and water areas were considered. keywords: urban environment, small architectural forms, city, urban design, landscaping, accommodation. a touristic urban environment is a unique complex functional environment of interconnected parts of the city, in which streets, squares, intersections and buildings are interconnected in the same way and in design. the systematic historical structure of the city includes a large number of elements: from landscaping and urban equipment to decorative works of historical monumental art.[1] in a tourist city, the compositional structure is clearly visible, like any work of art. one of the main goals of exterior landscaping is to increase the diversity, artistic expressiveness and aesthetic qualities of historical buildings and open green spaces. the architectural design of tourist towns and squares, the transport network of streets, stairs and ramps, terraces add originality and artistry to the urban environment. .[2] i would like to invite you to olcha street, behind hazrati imam complex located on tashkent zarqaynar street, one of the historical cities that offers a little idea of misal tariqa (figure 1) and one of such historical neighborhoods is the street in chigatoy neighborhood. in our city, it is necessary to propose an artistic solution for such historical places and tourism, using small memorials as elements that promote nationalism. 177 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. one of the historical cities of tashkent, olcha street, behind hazrati imam complex, located on zarqaynar street small architectural forms form the spatial environment of the object of the tourist city, to which it is appropriate to introduce a national stylistic feature (figure. 2) figure. 2. application of small memorial figures in the decorative decoration of the landscape of the touristic urban environment. small memorial forms used in urban planning include: lighting devices, seats, fountains, sheds and farm structures, kiosks and stations, information stands, electric poles and road signs.[3] small architectural forms that are architectural monuments and objects of landscape architecture for outdoor landscaping can harmonize with the external environment and emphasize the existing environment of the city[4]. the use of small architectural objects is subject to one general idea and national stylistic design and aims to design and form a network of streets, highways, recreation areas and courtyards to demonstrate the uniqueness of natural conditions, national diversity fits. the complex functional environmental system of the tourist historical city environment is a constant study for designers and architects and is a design object. today, the problem of organizing the spatial social infrastructure of the national environment for touristic 178 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us historical cities of uzbekistan is urgent. there is a need to develop more natural recreation areas in the area of the touristic historical city environment. it is characteristic to pay attention to forms of activity and communication that reflect nationality.[5] attention to forms of activity and social relations that reflect nationality is a characteristic feature of the socio-cultural activity of the population of a large city. this is reflected in the development of the surrounding urban environment in their daily life. this, in turn, significantly changes the design functions of the historical city environment (figure. 3) figure 3. national design solution of historic urban environment. systematic understanding of the processes of globalization, informatization, virtualization of the urban environment, as well as the nationalization of the historical urban environment from the point of view of architecture and design, requires a more careful approach to the problems of man and society. today, this article is relevant due to the fact that the design and use of small architectural forms in the practice of forming national design in the historical city environment has not been sufficiently studied from a theoretical and practical point of view. the purpose of this article is to determine the styles that reflect nationalism, looking at the history of designing in the urban environment, to study the theoretical and practical principles of designing and using small architectural forms in the tourist historical neighborhoods of the urban environment. small architectural forms used in landscape design. as the main elements of decorative decoration of the landscape in the historical memorial residential areas of the city statues, arches, decorative mills, wells, ponds, fountains, lamps, etc. are used. (figure. 4) 179 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 4. use of small memorial forms in the decorative decoration of the landscape of the touristic urban environment. small memorial figures, trees and bushes are decorated with sculptural samples in the urban environment and in the historical memorial residential areas. such sculptural examples reflect the historicity of the city, turning its streets into avenues, where a statue or some small memorial form takes its place according to the plan of the architect or sculptor. in this case, peyzaj memorial ensembles are organized in addition to decorative decorations, sculptures and compositions in the urban environment and historical memorial residential areas, water elements of gardens or ponds, parterres are a unique reflection of culture. depending on what equipment is used, fountains can be, first of all, national, color-dynamic, static, in position. in addition, in historical areas, it is appropriate to use small architectural forms as follows: an architectural object where lights are placed at important points in the composition. pergolas and pavilions are placed near stone islands, small pines, etc. in the most expressive places. bridges have more complex shapes, they can be curved (zigzag) or semicircular. in places where you can hide from rain and hail, you can use bridges, stones, bushes, lights to create a composite walkway. the seats fill the sidewalks, so it should be comfortable and sturdy, but at the same time, small memorials add a historic urban atmosphere to the overall design it can be mobile in harmony. functionally arranged seats always create a great atmosphere for relaxing and socializing together. a big benefit for the city is the construction of single-story parking lots, which are actually very complex structures, as they require ventilation, protection from groundwater, etc. but it is more convenient when there is a small street kitchen in such parking places. gas stations designed in the 1920s also often provide complex services: most gas stations have convenience stores, restaurants, car washes, atms, and more. if used, it is appropriate to design (figure.5) figure 5 is a project proposal for small memorial images using our national decorations. equipment for playgrounds creates conditions for attractive and active recreation. children's playgrounds are divided into two main types: home and street. also by age categories: for small children, labyrinths, sandboxes, swings; for adults sports equipment based on the classification of movement groups: rotation, swing, balance, etc. materials for the production of such complexes are diverse: wood, plastic, stainless steel, etc. children's playgrounds should, first of all, be safe: less metal constructions are multifunctional (development of physical and intellectual, creative abilities); all kinds sports equipment, swings, play castles and cars, etc.; their national design should be skillful, aesthetic, attractive, organically combined, but harmonious thanks to bright objects. one of the elements that enrich the urban environment is the time indicator: this element in the form of a large clock is becoming traditional again. as a measure of time in the vital space of cities, such clocks began to spread around the 13th century. a striking example of such a mechanical miracle, which also implemented astronomical time in the middle ages, is the clock tower on amir temur avenue. 180 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in conclusion, the formation of the touristic city environment and the historical memorial residential areas is the use of constantly developing methods in city planning in harmony with nationalism. one of the main rules to consider is the effect of these rules on the overall historical and national aesthetics and functionality of the city. while these rules can be useful in guiding the development of historic buildings and public spaces, it is also important to ensure that they do not stifle creativity or stop the promotion of nationalism. another important factor to consider when examining this trend is the role of the public in rulemaking. by striking a balance between the need for regulated development and the importance of the public, the urban environment and historic monument regulations can be an effective tool for creating vibrant and touristic cities for all residents. books 1. the paradox of atmosphere: tourism, heritage, and urban liveability☆ daniel paiva centre of geographical studies, institute of geography and spatial planning, universidade de lisboa, rua branca edmée marques, 1600-276 lisboa, portugal 2023. 2. the impact of local green spaces of historically and culturally valuable residential areas on place attachment fatemeh hosseini, hassan sajadzadeh, farshid aram, amir mosavi. 2021 3. architectural implementation of the concept of the tourist brand of russiaтекст научной статьи по специальности «строительство и архитектура» gorgorova yulia v. 4. the architecture of historical monuments of karmana cityтекст научной статьи по специальности «история и археология» a. abdullaev g. karimova 2023. 5. 1.м.з. эркинович. a.z. himmatovich, d.u. olimovna, s.u. ziyodullayevna. “landscape solutions for automobile ways of environment” \\ international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and … 6. s elmurodov, z matniyazov, d tajibaeva, i jabborova principles of using mobile shopping facilities in historical city environment (on the example of bukhara) \\ journal of architectural design 13, 14-20 60-63 study of oil and gas well drilling process scheme and optimal 60 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 study of oil and gas well drilling process scheme and optimal modeling system tajimova gulistan raman qizi intern teacher at karakalpak state university qarjaubayev nurlibay uralbay uli master of karakalpak state university rametullaev dabil danebay uli student of karakalpak state university abstract: drilling well design optimization reduces the overall cost allowance by reducing well construction time and costs. well design is not a constant pattern throughout the life cycle of a mine. it should be optimized through continuous improvement for all aspects of well redesign based on actual field conditions and challenges. the main objective of this study is to provide an overview of well design optimization processes and to present existing research and applications for using well design optimization to solve well design problems so that economic efficiency and excellent well performance can be achieved. well design optimization processes include unconventional design (thin holes) compared to casing construction, in addition to casing depth selection and casing string load optimization. finally, we show the well trajectory design and optimization. the aforementioned optimization process significantly reduces drilling cost and time, as a fine hole design with a smaller casing and hole size reduces mud volume, steel costs and pump fuel costs. optimum selection of casing seats can eliminate serious problems such as kicking and losses, which increase downtime without considering kicking tolerance and downhole pressure regime. anticipating the optimal stress loads in the casing design is the most effective way to reduce the cost of casing strings, avoiding the additional cost of designing under unprofitable worst-case conditions. optimizing the well trajectory with geomechanical considerations is important to reduce the problems associated with high torque, drag, formation collapse, resulting in pipe plugging and downtime. keywords: drilling scheme, optimization of drilling processes, oil and gas well models, geomechanical effects, drilling mechanism, geometric dimensions, mechanic features, oil and gas well design. introduction before starting drilling operations in oil and gas production enterprises when there is a forest, the area is cleared of foreign objects, trees pruning and tree felling are carried out. if drilling if the work is carried out in a swampy area, roads are prepared. construction materials are collected at the site, under the drilling rig swamp will be destroyed. the construction site will be leveled, electricity, communication, and water will be provided. when the local terrain or distance is close, the drilling rig is dismantled without execution further digging on special chain carts or sliding sleds and pneumatically controlled methods installed in the starting well. after transporting and installing the drill the assembly of the rest of the equipment begins, that is, with 61 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a diesel-driven piston pumps or electric pumps; cleaning the drilling mix system, electrical switches, well surface equipment (rotor, prevention, hydraulic weight indicator), drilling closure of tower structures, etc. if drilling is started in a new area, then all equipment, pumping unit from the drilling tower, treatment facilities, etc separately brought to the drilling site, here a drilling rig and other equipment will be assembled. device and all start drilling the well after the equipment is installed preparations are underway. drills for drilling according to the drilling plan, drilling pipes are assembled. drilling has started at the drilling site kitchen wagons, recreation and special clothes drying wagons, chemical to analyze the composition and quality of drilling fluids laboratories are established. the tool area around the drill site, storage of drilling mixtures, warehouses for chemical reagents will be placed. drilling of the well is planned after the launch conference starts from the base. in the process of drilling wells, it enters the well continuously drilling fluids are pumped. special drilling rigs for drilling oil and gas wells drilling rigs are complex machines from the collection: mechanisms, tools, made of metal consists of constructions, control measuring devices and management tools found. the structure of the drilling rig includes: tal system, suspension and drill pipes are placed, (the tower) raises and lowers tools equipment, devices that transmit and rotate tools, washing solutions transportation of pumps, energy systems, preparation of washing solutions and cleaning mechanisms, mechanisms for automation and mechanization of loading and unloading processes, controlmeasuring devices and auxiliary devices are included. according to the above instructions, the type of vehicles (diesel, electric or other), the installation and transportation schemes of the drilling rig are selected. each one transportation, assembly and assembly-transport base of drilling rigs characterized by schemes. oil and gas well drilling equipment itself divided into mobile and stationary devices. oil in our republic drilling gas wells using stable drilling rigs isdone. installation and transportation of mobile drilling rigs classified by the following three methods: aggregate (individual), small block and big block. aggregate method when each aggregate is first assembled transportation and installation of the device is done separately. again and in the next assembly, aggregate-type devices are attached to aggregates and divided into nodes and in special transports to the new drilling site transported, equipment and facilities are reassembled. carrying out a number of complex works in the aggregate method (construction, carpentry, plumbing, etc.) should be increased, that is, when separating (dismantling) and the duration of assembly and assembly work at the new location will be reduced. currently, the aggregate method is rarely used, mainly for main wells in drilling, heavy loads, installation of devices and large devices it is used for long distance transportation. the pipe lies and the flow of washing solutions from the initial lock of the section is slanted to the pipe side of the pump to ensure set at the lowest point of the run. drilling the upper part of the vertical part of the pipeline garnet and flange for connecting the hose and the lower part of the washers and with a short pipe to connect the manometer with short pipes joint lock installed. pressure and consumption of the washing solution in the pressure pipeline a sensor is installed for measurement. pressure pipes are thickwalled steel with a diameter of 120-250mm made of pipes and the sections are welded together. flange or mounting compensators and elevated parts connected by pressurized rubber hoses. after the pressure pipes are assembled to half of the working pressure will be tested. start interlock starts the drill pump from idle and pressure pipe relief service when the pump stops intended to do. pressure pipes are limited in the use of drilling pumps overpressure occurs. such a situation is a pressure system and damage the pump itself and injure service personnel. to every borehole pump to prevent such accidents a special device designed for precise front protection pressure plate is installed. this device is attached with a preexisting drainage tube when the protective plate is removed, the washing solutions are discharged into the receiver. a drill is a piece of equipment that works to break up (erode) rocks in the process of drilling wells, the task of deepening the bottom is carried out increases. drilling according to physical and mechanical properties of rocks have different effects. the same rocks are better than impact or crushing breaks, the second in shear or shear, and the third in mixed motions decomposes well. heavy duty drill bit for hard rock drilling using; for soft 62 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us homogeneous mobile – decomposer power and long sharp drill etc. are used. according to the application, drills are divided into three types: ø installed drill bits on the radial surface of the bottom of the well does not rot; ø drilling leaving the middle part of the well to get the main drill bit; ø a drill for special work a cement stone in a ridge, an inclined column, a well it is used to correct the curvature of the well and expand the column. drills used in drilling solid and pillar deep wells designed for drilling. drills of this type are used in a variety of ways and drills of the required size can be selected from among them. the main parameters of the drilling mode are the axis of the drill bit loading; rotation frequency of the crown; washing solution and basic consumption includes parameters. in the technological drilling mode the drilling process is controlled a high penetration index is achieved. technical capabilities of drilling equipment and tools were insufficient and the quality of the flushing solutions to achieve an optimal drilling regime if it does not give an opportunity, it is necessary to set the economical drilling mode. axial loading-crown cutters of downhole rock decides to go deeper. crowns rotate under axial load violates gender. the magnitude of the axial load depends on the physical and mechanical properties of the rocks, depends on the quality and geometric dimensions of the cuttings. of stones the greater the stiffness, the greater the axial load. cutters are sharp if it has an angle and a large cross-section during the drilling process does not pass and the dining area increases. so it is immutable the drilling speed begins to decrease under axial load. drilling speed increases with increasing rotational speed. practice and mechanical drilling of many crowns based on experience the value of rotation speed to the maximum speed value is 1.4:1.5 m/sec. it is determined when it is achieved crown rotation speed and physical-mechanical properties of rocks depending on the characteristics and depth of the well, the machine and to the technical capabilities of the processes, to the combination of drill pipes is installed taking into account its strength. hard, cracked and abrasive rocks the rotation frequency in drilling and the rotation speed in calculations are reduced the smallest value is accepted. to maintain the same rotational speed it is necessary to reduce the diameter of the crown, increase the rotation frequency. when the depth of the well increases, the rotation frequency should be reduced. free rotation and torsion of the pipe joint for stress and bending power consumption increases. conclusion after reviewing many studies and documents on the optimal well design method, we can conclude that well design should be optimized at various stages of well planning to achieve drilling efficiency and reduce drilling costs without reducing well productivity. the thin-bore design is one of process optimization and is more cost-effective and less hazardous than the traditional (fat) design. slim hole drilling offers new opportunities for the oil industry and can significantly reduce field development costs. in addition, the casing seat selection process must be optimized in such a way that safe well control requirements and well integrity can be achieved. a good practical route profile and planning will help to avoid related problems. a casing design framework that takes into account all expected loads ensures the mechanical integrity of the well. references 1. ravshanov, z. "mining processes of drilling machines." information about the technological alarm system of drilling machines (2022). 2. batirova, u., tajimova, g., & abdullayev, a. (2023). modern methods of drilling oil and gas wells and types of wells. 3. epelle e. i., gerogiorgis d. i. a review of technological advances and open challenges for oil and gas drilling systems engineering //aiche journal. – 2020. – т. 66. – №. 4. – с. e16842. 63 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. larionov a. et al. methodology of optimal well pattern, location and paths in productive formations during oil and gas fields development planning //spe russian petroleum technology conference?. – spe, 2006. – с. spe-104326-ms. 5. hong b. et al. an integrated milp model for optimal planning of multi-period onshore gas field gathering pipeline system //computers & industrial engineering. – 2020. – т. 146. – с. 106479. 6. liu k., chen g., shao w. an efficient modeling and optimization approach for pressure testing during reentry operation of deepwater drilling riser system //ieee access. – 2020. – т. 8. – с. 74759-74770. 7. yeshmuratova a. et al. ensuring computer data and management system security //international bulletin of applied science and technology. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 282-287. 8. yeshmuratova a. technological methods of ensuring information security in technical systems //евразийский журнал академических исследований. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 188-192. 9. yeshmuratova a. mine blasting processes optimization stages of digital technology of detonators //scienceweb academic papers collection. – 2023. 10. jumabayeva g., allanazarov b., joldasbayeva a. stages of open pit mining. mining methods and their processes //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. a1. – с. 236-240. 11. allanazarov b. geodetic dimensioning studies and point-dimension location coordinate scheme creation processes //евразийский журнал академических исследований. – 2023. – т. 3. – №. 4 part 2. – с. 21-25. 12. karamatdin d., baxitgul d. a. k. changes in the regime and use of fresh groundwater in the southern aral sea region //solid state technology. – 2020. – т. 63. – №. 6. – с. 1588415887. 13. ravshanov z. research on selection and performance improvement of blast hole drilling equipment //international scientific journal «modern science аnd research». – 2023. 14. ravshanov, z. (2022). mining processes of drilling machines. information about the technological alarm system of drilling machines. 166 a journal of the american journal of pediatric medicine and health sciences www. grnjournal.us american journal of pediatric medicine and health sciences volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2149 “the role of medical relations in the adaptation of disabled children to life” gulshat khakimova abdusalamovna tashkent state pedagogical university named after nizami, candidate of medical sciences, associate professor of the faculty of special pedagogy and inclusive education annotation: the article is devoted to the issue of adaptation of disabled children in the modern world. the work reflects the state of the problem of childhood disability. the basic concepts on the topic discussed in the article are given, the situation with the prevalence of disability in russia is described, and the features of the adaptation process of children with disabilities are characterized. the importance of participation in the process of adaptation of families and educational institutions of all levels is described. keywords: social rehabilitation, social adaptation, cultural adaptation, children with disabilities, disabled child social adaptation of people with disabilities in modern society becomes more relevant every year. thus, according to the united nations (un), every tenth family in the world is raising a child with special needs, whose development is burdened by unfavorable factors that aggravate the problem of maladjustment of such children in society. in the context of the current global economic crisis, contradictions are intensifying in families raising healthy children and children with special needs. this fact makes even more urgent the need for deep understanding, theoretical explanation and practical development of mechanisms and the formation of conditions for the activation of sociocultural processes in the problem of rehabilitation of children with special needs. the processes of adaptation and socialization in modern society are actually determined by the fact that society in russia is experiencing the impact of two global, but multidirectional trends. the first of them declares its intention to develop along the path of democratization, the growing importance of human rights, and the formation of civil society. the second tendency in the objective conditions of the development of society, reduction to primitive configurations of the economic basis, the disorder of crisis changes, makes the task of rational adaptation to them impossible for individuals. all of the above leads to the fact that for many people adaptation becomes forced. at the same time, the content of such an adaptation process is minimal; it is based on the task of survival, not development. in western and domestic practice, a large theoretical base has been accumulated for the study of problems of adaptation of people with disabilities and special needs (disabled people). among russian researchers who addressed the problem of adaptation of persons with special needs in the social and cultural environment, the most interesting works were presented by such scientists as: v. a. yadov, d. a. leontiev, i. s. kon, l. b. volynskaya, m. s. berezhnaya, t. f. maslova, etc. a significant contribution of the listed 167 a journal of the american journal of pediatric medicine and health sciences www. grnjournal.us scientists was the accumulation of material about behavioral characteristics and human interaction in a changing sociocultural space. as part of the work of the author of the article, it is necessary to note the special interest of scientists in the problem of adaptation of children with disabilities. they are the focus of attention of a large number of sciences of sociology, pedagogy, psychology, medicine, law, etc. despite the large number of works devoted to the issue of social and cultural adaptation of children with disabilities, in reality, the problems of the group of children under consideration remain not fully developed and require their further research. assessing the actual number and structure of people with disabilities is quite problematic today. state statistical reporting does not fully allow us to give an objective assessment of the structure of disabled people by age, gender and severity of the disease and unambiguously determine their number. it shows the number of people of retirement age receiving a disability pension; number of persons recognized as disabled for the first time; and other various indicators intended solely to assess the state of specific issues related to people with disabilities, but which do not make it possible to draw a clear and complete picture of the level of disability of citizens of our state. as a result, the actual number of disabled people in russia today is not precisely known, since at the moment there are no statistics on the total number of people with special needs. departmental statistics from the ministry of health and social development currently allow only primary disabilities to be taken into account. the family plays a significant role in the adaptation of disabled children. for children with special needs, home is the most important source of hope and faith in the future. the life of a disabled child in a complete family has a positive effect on his psychological state. creating optimal conditions for correcting disorders in a child’s development, upbringing, training, adaptation and integration into society is among the most important tasks of society and the state [18, 3c]. analyzing the financial situation of families with disabled children, it should be noted that the average russian family, which has as a member a child with a severe disability that does not allow him to lead an independent lifestyle, is recognized as low-income. this happens due to the fact that in most cases, parents are forced to spend most of their time at home next to their special child, which means they have a minimum income. the birth of a special child can cause family disagreements, which in most cases lead to family breakdown. which allows us to say, relying on the above, that an incomplete family has a negative effect on the process of socialization of the child. literature: 1. akatov l.i. social rehabilitation of children with disabilities. psychological foundations. — m. berezhnaya mc. the main directions and prospects for the sociocultural adaptation of children and youth through artistic creativity. collective monograph. m., 2006. 2. bratus b. s. personality anomaly. m., 1988. vlasova t. a., pevzner m. s. about children with developmental disabilities. m., 1973. 3. volynskaya l. b. human adaptation in the sociocultural environment. m., 2008 4. //moluch.ru/archive/158/44674/ (date of access: 11/15/2023). 5. https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=lngeflaaa aaj&citation_for_view=lngeflaaaaaj:w7oemfmy1hyc 6. https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=lngeflaaa aaj&citation_for_view=lngeflaaaaaj:uehwp8x0ceic https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=lngeflaaaaaj&citation_for_view=lngeflaaaaaj:w7oemfmy1hyc https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=lngeflaaaaaj&citation_for_view=lngeflaaaaaj:w7oemfmy1hyc https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=lngeflaaaaaj&citation_for_view=lngeflaaaaaj:uehwp8x0ceic https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=lngeflaaaaaj&citation_for_view=lngeflaaaaaj:uehwp8x0ceic 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 assessment of the strength of rocks in open mining processes in mining enterprises joldasbaeva aysulu baxitbay qizi student of nukus mining institute abstract: the article presents the results of experimental studies on the strength characteristics of the rocks used, the results of studies on the assessment of the stability of the slopes of the open pit mine. formulas describing the relationship between ultimate and residual strength and residual shear strength of rock samples along the relief surface are determined. based on the test data, a new method for calculating the residual interface strength of rocks was developed, which was tested on small-sized monolithic samples at opposite technological depths. the strength assessment method is the recommended characteristics of the rock mass near the broken slope (structure attenuation coefficients and internal friction angles). the method relies on test data obtained by breaking small-sized monolithic specimens with a technological recess, taking into account contact conditions along the weakening surface, and can be used in field conditions. in opencast mines, slope instability has a negative impact on the overall profitability of the mine and can also affect safety and the environment. the geometry of the slope has a decisive influence on the slope of the open pit, the quality of the rock mass and the presence of geological features and their characteristics should be studied. the purpose of this study is to show how to choose the optimal general slope angle of mines and according to three design parameters, namely safety (for example, the probability of instability), performance (for example, profit) and mining costs (for example, overburden removal). keywords: slope stability in mining enterprises, coefficient of strength of rocks, open pits, technique of reducing the cutting force of rocks, productivity of open pits. introduction in the assessment of slope stability in open mines, the primary data are represented by physical and mechanical properties of rocks. however, their evaluation in field conditions is very labor intensive and high-level interpretation of the obtained results is a difficult process. therefore, preliminary data are determined by correcting the results of laboratory tests for empirical correlation, taking into account the characteristics of rocks with unnecessarily large structural dimensions. in uzbekistan, this phenomenon is characterized by the term "solidity coefficient of rocks", the relationship between cracks and surface irregularities, especially the cases related to their expansion, is given great attention. in addition to the development of computers and special programs aimed at evaluating the stability of open pit slopes, practical calculations are also actively involved. this allows for a more complete and detailed review of the structural composition of rocks in mining enterprises. the combined use of empirical correlations derived from scale effects and prospective slope modeling with detailed structural content can lead to double counting of rock fractures. on the other hand, approaches to scale effect estimation using numerical modeling are increasingly developing. the slope angle has a greater or lesser effect on the calculation ratio, and this leads to the profitability of the mine. alternatively, the higher the 114 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us processing speed, the more expensive and less profitable mining is. lowering the mining rate (e.g. removing less waste rock) requires keeping the overall slope angle as steep as possible (e.g. increasing ore recovery) is preferable. this requires successful pit planning and accurate knowledge of geology and site characteristics. the final design of the optimal angle of the slope is determined not only by the costs of ore distribution and operation, but also by the characteristics of the total rock mass. therefore, it is recommended to include the possibility of failure in the final design of an open pit mine. it helps to predict temporal and spatial movements. stone properties are important design input parameters. these parameters are never known with certainty. there are always uncertainties associated with this, which cannot be eliminated. some of these uncertainties include limited data, testing errors, haphazard data collection, and lack of knowledge that can cause problems. probabilistic methods are introduced here, the next section is used to address the uncertainty associated with rock mass properties. probabilistic methods are used to deal with the strength/structural variability associated with rock properties. they are used to evaluate the probability of failure and different slope angles, and measures should be taken to reduce the risk to an acceptable level. these methods involve statistical variation of numerical model parameters (eg, mean, variance, and standard deviation) representing rock mass properties, and rock loss criteria are considered as design. in this study, our focus is on the uncertainty arising from the properties of the rock mass. in underground mines, several mining levels are usually active simultaneously at different depths to improve production. the mining process creates redistributed stresses that can be transmitted horizontally and vertically. therefore, this study is an attempt at a hybrid approach combining numerical modeling and probabilistic analysis to evaluate the stability of an open pit mine at different total slope angles. a two-dimensional elasto-plastic finite element was used to develop a series of models at different slope angles. rock crushing and grinding, we can observe the processes of applying methods of reducing the cutting force. the results show that mine profitability and overburden removal costs increase and decrease with steep overall slope angle. however, the stability of the slope deteriorates. therefore, it is recommended to combine these three design parameters (such as safety, performance and cost). care must be taken when choosing the general slope angle of open pits. transferred stress can cause stopes to fail and damage mining equipment. to ensure the safety of the mining zone, sill pillars are usually maintained to prevent the transfer of redistributed stress, especially in ores at steep depths. in most cases, vine pillars are restored to extend the life of the mine and maximize the use of minerals. pillar reclamation is the practice of developing several pillars and then mining the pillars, which is the most dangerous form of underground mining. it can present hazards such as rock subsidence, stalling, and pole failure during pole restoration. scientists have developed and proposed empirical, analytical theories, and numerical modeling methods to better assess the stability and improve the safety of miners and mining equipment during tabletop restoration. picture 1. strength coefficient factor in rock mining the main method of drawing up the rock strength certificate involves calculating the characteristic points of the envelope and the parameters of the strength certificate using the functional properties that determine the destruction of the rock mass. in the absence of normal 115 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us stress, the tension st and compression p components of the peak shear resistance are assumed. the crushing strength of the rocks along the contacts was compared and it was found that the impact strength of the rocks was the smallest of the parameters. the difference between the strength of rock and the residual strength of fractured rock increases. comparison results between final and residual strength of monolithic rock calculated using the results of spherical indicator tests. demonstrates the application of ultimate and residual strength calculations using rock volume tests and a straight-line approximation of the envelope segment corresponding to the shear mechanism of the estimated parameters. ultimate stresses should be calculated for a wide range of comparisons. research on blast hole drilling equipment selection and performance in recent years, great progress and capital investment have been made in the development of coal mining equipment for both longwall and room and column rigs. this development inevitably led to a significant increase in mine production. in many cases, this improvement in production efficiency highlighted the inefficiencies of outgoing belt conveyor systems. as a result of this improvement, the requirements of the mining industry were considered and schemes were developed to meet the requirements of increasing production productivity. as part of these developments, special attention was paid to the standardization of equipment. thermal imaging measures the body of an object whose temperature is above zero because it emits thermal radiation. this thermal radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum; its wavelength falls from 760 to 1 mm. this radiation is detected and measured by a thermal imaging device in two ways when the thermal detector absorbs all infrared radiation (of any wavelength) and when the photon detector is exposed to radiation of only a certain wavelength. . the detector of the thermal imaging camera allows you to convert the energy of infrared radiation into an electrical signal. in individual signal processing modules, the signal is amplified, converted into digital form and converted into the temperature value of individual points of the image matrix. this is how the temperature distribution map (thermogram) of the studied object is created. a thermal imaging camera works on the principle of converting infrared radiation emitted or reflected by an object into an electrical signal, and then into an image displayed on a computer monitor. the camera consists of an optical system, infrared radiation detector, electronic amplification, processing and visualization. belt conveyors are mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic vehicles that operate in continuous or cyclic motion. their purpose is to transport excavated materials, often over long distances, with different transport speeds, capacities and conveyor belts. in underground coal mines, they are the main mode of transport. drive systems used in mining may exclude or prevent diagnostic measurements. the results obtained using various measurements can be processed in special flir tools software. the works include research on the development of long-wall conveyors they are part of the innovative development of machines and equipment. thermal imaging is becoming increasingly popular for assessing the technical condition of belt conveyors in mines. excavation in confined spaces creates natural hazards, mainly methane and fire. they can seriously damage machines and equipment, and even endanger human health and life. on the basis of research, the main causes of the thermal state of the drive unit were determined: slippage of the belt in the drive, problems with optimal cooling of the drive, friction of the bearings, seizure of the brake system, seizure of the drive. drums. , and the connection of pulleys. these reasons are mainly formed in the contact zone: improper cooling of the drive, contact of the drum with the belt or contact of the pulley with the belt. the main purpose of this study was to determine the thermal condition of the conveyor belt components and analyze the risk of critical temperature rise. the tests focus on the drive unit, in particular the engine, brake system and gearbox. in order to measure the actual temperature distribution occurring on the main belt conveyors, it was necessary to analyze the running time of the belt conveyors and determine the cause of any thermal anomaly. the analysis of the working time of the main freight conveyors is related to one working day in this study. the results are presented in the form of measurement images. they are developed using special programs. the properties obtained for the thermal condition are presented in the form of diagrams. this article presents a real-life example of studying the thermal state of a unit of measurement using a thermal imaging camera. all reserves identified in the mining area are 116 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us called geological reserves. according to their importance in the economy, geological reserves are divided into two groups, on-balance and off-balance reserves are considered separately. balance reserves are suitable for industrial conditions, that is, they are economically viable for the extraction of minerals. off-balance reserves, the amount of useful compounds in it is small, the thickness of the ore body is small, the state of their mining complex should be considered as an object that is not mined now, but can be used in the future. industry. ore status is limited by the amount of balance and off-balance reserves. this condition applies to each individual mine or to a group of mines with similar geological and economic conditions determined by the relevant state body. the condition is, among other indicators, the minimum industrial amount of useful components in the ore, that is, the lower limit of useful compounds and economic extraction and processing of components below which the amount is ineffective (unprofitable). the measurement of the minimum industrial amount is determined individually for each mine, because it is known and the amount of money spent on the extraction and processing of ore, in turn, depends on the nature and geographical conditions of the mine. determining the situation is a complex issue that needs to be solved together with the participation of highly qualified geologists, miners, mineralogists, metallurgists, and economists. materials and methods the application of thermal imaging in the mining industry offers a wide range of research opportunities, considering the heat production that occurs during the operation of all electrical equipment. factors such as ambient temperature, humidity, air velocity, air volume in the excavation, and emissions have a significant impact on the measurement results. in the measurements, thermal radiation is recorded using long-wave infrared radiation. the camera captures objects, people and high temperature sources in confined or invisible conditions. thermal imaging cameras use energy that increases as the object's temperature increases, and can capture images of any object whose temperature is above zero. the measurements result in a general temperature distribution in the background of the object, which is visible as a color change in the measurement image. the advantages of thermal imaging cameras are that they are non-invasive and can detect faults that are not normally visible to the naked eye. testing with a thermal imaging camera is based on measuring the temperature from the outer surface, where the temperature distribution is not uniform. to obtain the appropriate quantities, an average is determined, which is the basis for detecting faults due to higher than normal temperatures. in industry, thermography is used to monitor thermal conditions in technological processes and, more precisely, to predict and prevent failures. the image taken by the thermal imaging camera reflects the temperature of the device and other inspected surfaces, which allows to assess the technical condition. equipment such as electrical networks, main fan stations, central heating boilers and conveyor belts etc. are inspected using thermal imaging. to be considered reliable, the measurement must be made over a longer period of time and performed according to its specification, for example, the conveyor belt must be loaded with excavated material. in an underground mine, it can be very difficult to make measurements using a thermal imaging camera for this purpose. conclusion one of the main factors affecting the result is the dust that prevails during the excavation process. the correct temperature range for the drive unit is affected by the length of the route, the variable load and the size of the drive drums. the main problem during the research was to obtain a suitable measuring distance. conveyor drive components such as the motor, gearbox and brake system are recessed due to the size of the works. a fixed thermal imaging device can be used for the main conveyor devices and the data is sent to a central control room for continuous monitoring. exceeding a predefined threshold temperature from field data can, for example, trigger an alarm. maintenance personnel can then be dispatched to the unit to investigate the temperature anomaly and perform preventative maintenance as necessary. to minimize measurement noise, the following parameters were introduced: emissivity, humidity, 117 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ambient temperature, and camera-to-object distance. each of these measurements was additionally determined using a pyrometer-type device. due to the dimensional limitations of the excavation, it was not possible to place the measuring equipment on a tripod. references 1. matjanov, aman. "scientific research of the lifestyle of the people evacuated in karakalpakstan." modern science and research 2.10 (2023): 771-775. 2. джаксымуратов, к. м., et al. "использование пресных подземных вод месторождения кегейли." экономика и социум 12-1 (91) (2021): 975-980. 3. karamatdin, djaksymuratov, and dzhumanazarova altyngukurbaniyazova baxitgul. "changes in the regime and use of fresh groundwater in the southern aral sea region." solid state technology 63.6 (2020): 15884-15887. 4. aman, matjanov. "traditional transport among the peoples of the aral region (18001873)." res militaris 13.1 (2023): 2985-2988. 5. yeshmuratova, a., et al. "mine blasting processes optimization stages of digital technology of detonators." scienceweb academic papers collection.– 2023 (2023). 6. jumabayeva, g., b. allanazarov, and a. joldasbayeva. "stages of open pit mining. mining methods and their processes." science and innovation 2.a1 (2023): 236-240. 7. allanazarov, bayrambay. "geodetic dimensioning studies and pointdimension location coordinate scheme creation processes." евразийский журнал академических исследований 3.4 part 2 (2023): 21-25. 8. yeshmuratova, a., and n. amanbaev. "ensuring computer data and management system security." international bulletin of applied science and technology 3.4 (2023): 282-287. 9. yeshmuratova, amangul. "technological methods of ensuring information security in technical systems." евразийский журнал академических исследований 3.4 (2023): 188-192. 10. djaksimuratov, k., et al. "groundwater control in mines." scienceweb academic papers collection.–2023 (2023). 11. jumabayeva, guljahon. "planning and mine design in open-pit mining processes at mining enterprises." евразийский журнал академических исследований 3.3 part 2 (2023): 135-143. 12. niyetbaev, arislanbek, guljaxan jumabaeva, and alisher karamov. "bаrаbаnni ауlаnmа hаrаkаt qiluvсhi shаrli tegirmоndа ilgаrlаnmаqауtmа hаrаkаt qiluvсhi meхаnizmni qо ‘llаb unumdоrligini оshirish." interpretation and researches 2.24 (2024). 13. jumabayeva, guljahon. "processes in the stages of creating a coordinate scheme of the placement of an open mine." международная конференция академических наук. vol. 2. no. 6. 2023. 14. mustapaevich, djaksimuratov karamatdin, and batirova uldayxan sarsenbayevna. "gathering coordinates of the geological and geotechnical location of the mine." british journal of global ecology and sustainable development 12 (2023): 58-66. 118 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 15. mustapaevich, djaksimuratov karamatdin, et al. "steps for determining the slope angle of an open mine." american journal of interdisciplinary research and development 12 (2023): 132-141. 16. матжанов, аман жарылкапович. "транспортные проблемы каракалпакстана в 19201930 годы." бюллетень науки и практики 7.6 (2021): 509-517. 124-128 determining the efficiency indicators of excavators 124 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 determining the efficiency indicators of excavators in open-pit mining processes at mining enterprises bayramova minevvar axmet qizi student of nukus mining institute abstract: to date, information on calculating the productivity of excavators used in mining and loading processes at mining enterprises in the republic of uzbekistan has been provided. to make the process of calculating the efficiency indicators of excavators understandable, we used pictures of the excavator drawing. minerals can be selected depending on the parameters of the excavators and the geotechnical location of the mine, and the properties of the rocks being mined in open-pit mining enterprises. if the parameters of the excavator are selected correctly in the mining and loading processes in the mines, the duration of the processes and the economic indicators of the mine will increase. keywords: open pit mining, technical parameters, geological conditions, rock properties, excavator efficiency. introduction the fact that the process of open-pit mining of rocks in mining enterprises is carried out with the front shovel of excavators in an open-pit mine, due to the influence of the excavator against its main operation, the efficiency indicators of excavators decrease with the increase in power. excavator mechanisms (lifting and pushing), their performance parameters should be properly matched during them, and joint actions should be carried out periodically to ensure more efficient digging. we have carried out studies on the calculation of efficiency indicators in mining processes of ekg-5a, ekg-5, hitachi ex8000-6, hitachi zx220lc, hitachi zax850h excavators. in addition, it was determined that power sources depend on the condition of digging capacity of excavators in relation to the working area. we have collected information about which types of excavators we use in mining enterprises to obtain mining economic performance indicators. we carry out performance studies of excavators on the basis of "traingul metals tebin bulak" iron ore mining enterprise. excavators used in this mine come from digging, counter-action of main mechanisms and lifting. the power intensity of excavation work is calculated for different areas and is proportional to the working area of the excavator. in order to calculate the power consumption for rock excavation, our proposed method allows us to determine the energy characteristics of the excavator's operational equipment during open-pit mining, and we perform calculations based on the conditions of special mine-technical use of the excavator. designs of modern electromechanical crawler open excavators (mechanical shovels) used in mines today are technically very unique, but often show many signs of the gap between their technical level and. due to the complexity of realizing the full technical potential of the excavator and achieving the project, it is necessary to adapt and coordinate the engineering and economic indicators and the actions of its main driving mechanisms (lifting and pushing) in real operating conditions. materials and methods 125 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us modeling from the point of view of technology was described, taking into account the dynamics of simultaneous digging and loading of excavators. for this, it is necessary to take into account the mining technical parameters of the mining enterprise where the excavation and loading processes are carried out. our research shows that the use of hydraulic shovel excavators mainly leads to reduction of losses in coal mining. comparison of performance with similar rope shovels in the same mine and geological conditions in mining operations. in particular, a strong positive effect on reducing losses is shown when using hydraulic excavators. we compared the effectiveness of open-pit mining in tectonically disturbed zones with a complex geological structure and in the mining of low-thick layers. in addition, the granulometric composition of the blasted rock mass excavated by the mine massif is used to prevent premature wear of the tires of hydraulic shovels, open pit dump trucks, etc. this is due to the requirements of drilling and blasting of relatively harder rock with rope excavators. figure 1: the kinematic diagram of the excavator digging system and the loading system. mining enterprises have a lot of experience in using electric shovels operations. common practices can be briefly summarized as follows: strongly consolidated materials should be drilled and blasted prior to excavation. the shovel should work on a flat, level excavation floor as much as possible. digging down allows for higher drag forces because it increases drag resists movement of the machine away from the digging face. generally, the digging face should not be higher than the tire of the lever (fixed to one axle). handles should be perpendicular to the face to minimize possible damage materials slide down the face and facilitate positioning maneuvers. frequent short strokes are recommended to keep the paddle close to the face efficiency of crowding and lifting forces. the movement of the lifter and the crowd must be coordinated for effective brush uplift. surface penetration should be uniform, depth should be sufficient to fill 2 or 3 dipper lengths. then it should be cleaned from the face to minimize the dipper. engines should not be idled for long periods of time during excavation to optimize engine life. excessive build-up will shorten the life of the suspension cable. top must be dug out for ease of lifting in harsh conditions through the bottom. rocks or ice caps are dug out and then lifted out. if the excavator has a rigid rotary clutch, the machine should be moved as close as possible it is necessary to improve the direction of the tooth for maximum benefit from its forces and penetration. designing exploitation schemes is a complex activity involving depth knowing the parameters that govern the operation. experience and the creativity of the mine planner is key to creating schemes that solve problems the ultimate goal of value creation and respect for constraints operation. this paper explored the concept of exploitation scheme, proposed a discussion of the formal definition and relevant considerations design. support for complex scenarios with multiple shovels in a reduced area mathematical and optimization tools can be useful for dealing with circuit design. however, optimization models must be able to represent the design purpose and operational constraints. further research may be warranted search for existing and new mathematical methods that can be useful for optimization design schemes for use in open pit mining. as a result, our method allows not only analysis optimal route for trucks traveling along the existing road in open pit mines during the production phase their life cycle as well as the design of the haulage route for the open pit mine which is still being planned and the project step and the path for it do not exist. open mines have many obstacles such 126 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us as trees, rocks or other equipment. reduces the visibility of drivers. reduced visibility often creates dangerous situations for the truck drivers. therefore, it will be interesting to develop an extended method to consider in future work stopping and sight distances when designing the radius of curvature. discussion geometries are critical to a safe and efficient shovel-loading operation participants are well adapted. some design guidelines are provided with rules, some of which are expressed below: standards for the safe management of pit walls, including the general slope of the pit wall. must be set and executed by the operator. such standards should be consistent with reasonable engineering design, the nature of the ground and the type of material and extraction of minerals and ensuring safe working conditions according to the level from the slope. mining methods should be chosen that ensure the stability of the wall and the embankment; including tools necessary for safe general slope. to ensure safe operation, the width and height of benches should be determined according to the type the equipment used and the operation to be performed. safe means of scaling pit banks should be provided. risky banks must scale before doing any other work in a dangerous banking area. men should not work near or under dangerous banks. hanging banks are taken subsidence and other hazardous ground conditions must be promptly corrected, or areas should be barricaded and installed. fences or guards should be installed on the outer edge of the elevated roads. do not overturn buckets, buckets, lifting booms or heavy hanging loads vehicle cabins until the drivers leave the cabin and in safe places. unless trucks are specifically designed to protect drivers from falling material. cargo equipment should be loaded in such a way as to minimize spillage during transport. the choice is influenced by the requirement to provide safe means of measuring peaks equipment and bench heights. although there are some special equipment and techniques there are and are used to scale pit walls, it is most common to do this with primary excavator. for a loading shovel, this means the bench height must be at or below equal to the maximum cutting height of the shovel. a complex system with a mining excavator can reach up to 20% of the working time fund. the technical condition and service life of these machines directly depends on the operation the influence of conditions and external factors. many failures occur due to man-made causes. technical and ethical factors, first of all, it is necessary to implement related processes determining exposure response. external influences, propulsion and control systems, the drive itself and the structure of the excavator and its high-rigidity operating equipment, which causing the mining machine to respond as and when it interacts with the surface rock continuous control of the bucket movement during the operation of the excavator and related controls will cause errors. all the different factors affecting its intensity for damage processes during the operation of the excavator used in mining enterprises many reasons can be divided into two large groups: male. due to human intervention, natural events without direct human influence and man-made factors, or it is minimized. firstly the group of factors includes the driver's control of the excavator, its nature and level mining operations, their organization in the introduction of mining technology, as well as nature and extent of maintenance during excavator maintenance and repair. natural and man-made influence factors include: geological and climatic conditions, surface quality and stone preparation mass, selected maintenance and repair strategy and natural equipment aging factor. provided the machine continues to operate nominal (passport) working conditions, the last factor exists here as a kind of ideal natural aging process during the life of the excavator. factors of these groups intensity and does not have the same effect on degradation processes, as a result of which degradation processes can increase true aging, a process that reduces this intensity when the nominal operating parameters are exceeded or not working more favorable terms than nominal. conclusion during these studies, we used various types of excavators in mines with different capacities and learned how to determine the most effective option. we have come to the conclusion that this will 127 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us further increase the periodicity of processes in the mine and the economically effective indicators of the mine. in this study, we found out that depending on the technical parameters of the excavator used in the mine, it cannot be loaded more than the average impact value and load carrying capacity limit. the research paper has a new solution to a recent scientific problem about parameters optimization for open pit shovel excavators in order to select and create machines the high level of engineering required to develop mining machines theory and practice of design and operation. recommended methodology for optimal selection and parameter optimization excavator models of open pit shovels allow a scientifically based choice excavators with optimal parameters for the specified conditions are also implemented their parameters can be set and optimally coordinated according to the criteria defined in design stage. a comprehensive assessment of the engineering level of the open pit mine was carried out hydraulic front shovel type excavators use the software package in the existing fleet. the engineering level of the existing fleet of open excavators, roads was evaluated was to increase the level of engineering and methods of their implementation at the design stage. optimal values of composite quality indicators, their main parameters technical characteristics of open pit excavators were analyzed. references 1. jumabayeva, g., b. allanazarov, and a. joldasbayeva. "stages of open pit mining. mining methods and their processes." science and innovation 2.a1 (2023): 236240. 2. allanazarov, bayrambay. "geodetic dimensioning studies and pointdimension location coordinate scheme creation processes." евразийский журнал академических исследований 3.4 part 2 (2023): 21-25. 3. yeshmuratova, amangul. "technological methods of ensuring information security in technical systems." евразийский журнал академических исследований 3.4 (2023): 188-192. 4. саидова, л. ш., et al. "анализ исследований по подъему горной массы из глубоких карьеров и выбор горнотранспортного оборудования для открытых горных работ." евразийский журнал академических исследований 2.11 (2022): 811-816. 5. хайруллоев, шахзод, and мухаммедали сметуллаев. "переработка кварцевой пыли для уменьшение концетрации пыли при разработке месторождений полезных ископаемых открытым способом." interpretation and researches (2024). 6. суйунов, аброр салохиддинович, and учкунжон мардонович мирзаев. 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"разработка конструкции и параметров скважинных зарядов взрывчатых веществ при контурном взрывании для получения устойчивых откосов уступов." ãîðíüié æóðíàë (2017): 102868. 128 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 11. заиров, ш. ш., м. ж. норматова, and з. с. шарипов. "расчет параметров пылегазового загрязнения атмосферы при производстве массовых взрывов на карьерах." горный вестник узбекистана 1 (2017): 33-35. 12. заиров, ш. ш., et al. "исследование влияния забойки скважинного заряда на эффективность разрушения и пылеподавления." тошкент-2021 (2016): 59. 13. саидова, л. ш., м. норматова, and м. равшанова. "анализ управления транспортными потоками в различных горно-геологических условиях." ёш олимлар ахборотномаси. 14. норматова, муборак жабборовна, and самандар шодмонович абруйев. "карьерларда оммавий портлатишларда чанг-газ ҳосил бўлишини камайтириш." innovative development in educational activities 2.8 (2023): 425-428. 15. заиров, ш. ш., м. ж. норматова, and ш. з. худойназаров. "повышение эффективности пылеподавления при массовых взрывах на карьерах." экономика и социум 3-1 (82) (2021): 556-559. 16. заиров, шерзод шарипович, муборак жабборовна норматова, and сарвинос ботир қизи пардаева. "карьерларда ялпи портлатиш ишларини олиб боришда атроф муҳитга негатив таъсирини камайтириш." academic research in educational sciences 2.3 (2021): 305-311. 17. заиров, шерзод шарипович, et al. "разработка способов управления пылегазовым режимом при взрывании высоких уступов в глубоких карьерах." известия высших учебных заведений. горный журнал 4 (2020): 113-121. 18. заиров, шш, мж норматова, and мх равшанова. "определение оптимальных параметров подпорной стенки при массовых взрывах на карьерах." ãîðíüié æóðíàë (2017): 102872. 19. karamov, alisher, et al. 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"improving the efficiency of a mining enterprise by coordinating production processes." e3s web of conferences. vol. 174. edp sciences, 2020. 159 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 methodology for completing test tasks of different degrees of complexity in the computer graphics display u. a. nasritdinova associate professor “tiiame” national research university, phd j. a. kasimov head of department “tiiame” national research university, phd abstract: increasing the effectiveness of education in the process of teaching computer graphics lies in organizing the educational process using new information and communication technologies, as well as monitoring the quality of mastering units of the educational module. taking this into account, the article theoretically analyzes the methodology for creating test questions in computer graphics and a number of related graphic disciplines. it has been determined that factor theory is related to graphic sciences. as a result, the structure of a system of three-level test tasks based on specific formulas and their coefficients was studied. in addition, a four-category student assessment system was tested using a general automated software tool for questionnaire control. based on the results, a mathematical and statistical analysis was carried out and the range of variation of the four categories was shown. keywords: factors, number of factors, degree of difficulty of the test, degree of difficulty of the test in the discipline “computer graphics” introduction nowadays, the development of a graphic education system involves the use of convenient tools and methods for comprehensive monitoring of the level of knowledge and skills acquired by young specialists. these means today consist of widespread oral, written and test types of control, and all of them are the main guarantor of strengthening the knowledge acquired by students. for example, when monitoring students’ knowledge in the disciplines “descriptive geometry and engineering graphics” and “computer graphics,” testing is used along with oral and written types of knowledge control. as we know, these days this type of control is more often used on the basis of computer technology and this gives more effective results, but in order to further improve the quality of education, develop students’ desire to acquire knowledge, identify the most capable students in the field of graphic education and stage-by-stage the development of their knowledge and skills is an urgent problem the creation of a methodology for compiling test tasks of varying degrees of complexity and their development [1]. these factors are interrelated and they are used as a unit of measurement when assessing the degree of knowledge of students in the discipline “computer graphics”. the more the student’s knowledge corresponds to these factors, the more likely it is that he will be able to perform tasks of a certain degree of complexity. 160 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us danish scientist g. rasch [14] introduced a new unit of measurement “logit”, which allows reflecting on the same scale the level of knowledge of the student and the degree of difficulty of the test [15]. the degree of knowledge of a particular student is determined by the number of points he scored based on the results of the test. (1) here: n is the number of subjects, pi is the proportion of possible correct answers to the number of tests; qi – possible incorrect answers to the number of tests. the complexity of test tasks is determined using the same principle. (2) here: n is the number of test tasks, pj is the proportion of possible correct answers of all students; qj – possible incorrect answers of all students. in determining the complexity of tests in the computer graphics discipline, factors formed by the test takers play an important role, and taking into account the number of these factors, the degree of complexity of a given test can be assessed. to complete a test of the 1st degree of difficulty, a student must demonstrate at least ≥2 factors. to complete a test of the 2nd degree of difficulty, a student must demonstrate at least ≥4 factors. to complete a test of the 3rd degree of difficulty, a student must demonstrate at least ≥6 factors, etc. this principle is used to determine the degree of difficulty in tests of even greater complexity. for now, we will assume that there are 3 degrees of complexity; to solve tests of each degree of complexity, students must have the above factors, and we will denote this in general terms as = , , ….. (3) this means, based on the results of g. rush’s research, the degree of knowledge of each student is determined by formula (1). taking into account the features of computer graphics tests, we can note that the pi given in formula (1) the proportion of possible correct answers to the number of tests and qi possible incorrect answers to the number of tests, regardless of the degree of complexity of the tests being solved, shows the relationship between the level of knowledge of the student and factors required from the student. (4) (4) since the way the student solved the test shows how much the necessary factors have been formed. if we designate these factors according to the degree of difficulty of the test fi, fj, fk..... fm then we get the following equation. (5) i≥ 1,2; j≥1,2,3,4; k≥1,2,3,4,5,6; m= i,j,k,…..r, (5) niq pq i i i ,...2,1),ln( == njq p j j j ,...2,1),ln( ==b sf if jf kf mf î í ì <á >ñ 0 0i sii si agarfqp agarfqp pa ï ï ï î ï ï ï í ì = = = = m n t kt jt it fd fd fd fd . ............. 3 2 1 161 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (6 ) for example: in order to draw a straight line in autocad, you need to select... a) “segment with lines” on the “drawing (drawing)” panel; c) “straight” on the “drawing (drawing)” panel; c) “halfline” on the “drawing (drawing)” panel; d) “arc” in the “drawing (drawing)” panel. when performing a test of the 2nd degree of complexity, in addition to the requirements set in the test of the 1st complexity, the student is required to logically comprehend the test task, correctly carry out the solution algorithm and achieve a result. for example, in the first picture, identify the row in which fig. 1. is the correct algorithm for carrying out the external one indicated? the radius of the circle is 50 mm.а) “circle” is selected the right mouse button is pressed and the line kkr is selected (as for radius) the approximate points of the attempt are indicated the radius of the circle is entered as 50 mm enter is pressed once. c) “circle” is selected the left mouse button is pressed and the line kkr is selected (as for radius) the approximate points of the attempt are indicated the radius of the circle is entered as 50 mm enter is pressed once. c) “circle” is selected the button is pressed and the line kkr is selected (as for radius) the centers of the circles are indicated the radius of the circle is entered as 50 mm enter is pressed once. d) “arc” is selected – the approximate points of the attempt are indicated – the radius of the circle is entered as 50mm – enter is pressed once. to complete a test of the 3rd degree of complexity, in addition to the knowledge and skills necessary to solve tests of the 1st and 2nd degree of complexity, a student is required to have a logical and creative understanding of tasks that have a step-by-step solution, the ability to make the right decision, obtain the result, analyze the result result. for example, define the sequence of actions when arranging a given axonometric image using the “split” task (viewports). a) view menu – viewports – new vis – four: evenly c) edit menu – viewports – new vis – four: evenly c) drawing menu – viewports – new vis – four: evenly d) view menu – 3d views – new ves – four: evenly in implementing the above factors, it is first necessary to determine the students’ interest in the subject “computer graphics” using an automated “questionnaire”. the “questionnaire” determines the initial knowledge of students in the subject “descriptive geometry and engineering graphics”; using assessment questions of interest and attitude towards the subject, students are divided into categories. in order for students to master the subject “computer graphics” perfectly, they must have sufficient qualifications to work with graphic programs and carry out the design process based on the rules of the subject “descriptive geometry and engineering graphics”. therefore, initial knowledge in the subject “descriptive geometry and engineering graphics” and interest in this subject are of great importance for the perfect mastery of the subject “computer graphics”. when comparing categories, it is revealed that the r-category students know how to think creatively, they can achieve 86%-100% indicator. s-category students, can think creatively n tttp ddd ,...,, 21=a 162 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us partially, can achieve 71%-85% indicator. t-category students, have simple concepts in the subject, can achieve a 56%-70% score. the u category does not have simple concepts, it can be assumed that it can achieve a 55% mastery rate of the subject. (1.2) the results of the “questionnaire” are determined by the following formulas: , (1) here – contains the correctness or incorrectness of the answer, n is the number of questions, n is the sum of correct answers. view as a percentage of answers to the questions of the “questionnaire”: (2) n – number of questions, , n – sum of correct answers. below are the groups that passed the test based on the created program. 1-table. 1 table group name) type of control r (excellent) s (good) t (satisfactory u (unsatisfactory) all students 1-experimental group 2-experimental group results of the questionnaire 7 11 8 7 33 6 16 4 4 30 1-experimental group 2-experimental group test results 1 3 11 18 33 2 5 12 11 30 as can be seen from the table above, the results of the questionnaire belong to the highest categories r(excellent) and s(good), and the results of the test are lower. the indicators of students belonging to the t (satisfactory) and u (unsatisfactory) categories according to the test results occupy positions relatively higher than 1 fig. 1-fig. comparison chart of experimental groups taking all this into account, an automated software system for determining interests, abilities and initial knowledge in the educational process was created, that is, the “questionnaire” software. the software consists of two parts: “teacher questionnaire” and “student questionnaire”. the automated software system is designed to work on the network; the “teacher questionnaire” 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1-опытная группа 2-опытная группа 1-опытная группа 2-опытная группа вид контроля r(отлично) s(хорошо ) т(удовлетворительно) u(неудовлетворительно) все студенты 163 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us program is loaded into the server. the student questionnaire program is installed on other computers on the network. after installing the “profile-teacher” program, it finds all computers with installed “profile-student” programs and establishes a connection with them. the connection between the “profile-teacher” and “profile-student” programs is displayed in the following form: 2-fig. 2-fig. all data is stored in the “teacher questionnaire” program and is transferred to the “student questionnaire” program. this software can be used to monitor the interests, abilities and knowledge of students as a “test” and “questionnaire”. in the questionnaire-questionnaire given on the subject, the interests, abilities and knowledge of students are divided into 4 types using questions asked on the subject. 1) r-high degree, that is, knows how to think creatively; s good degree, meaning he can think partially creatively; t satisfactory degree, has simple concepts in the subject; u unsatisfactory degree, does not have simple concepts in the subject. this questionnaire is carried out at the beginning of the educational process and determines students’ interest in the subject “computer graphics” and initial knowledge. in order to conduct the automated “questionnaire” program, 3 groups with an equal number of students were selected for experiments and experiments were conducted on the subject of automated software “computer graphics” based on the “questionnaire”. according to the results of this experiment, categories were identified that determined the degree of interest in the subject “computer graphics”, abilities and initial knowledge of students and are shown in the table below. 2-tab.1 -таблица № group name r s t u total number of students 1 205shmim-12 6 12 6 1 25 2 206shmim-12 3 9 8 6 25 3 207shmim-12 3 8 11 2 25 based on the data given in table 1. group 1 has a high degree of academic achievement, interest in the subject, ability in them is high and the group is considered to have more opportunities in an atmosphere of creative thinking. in the 2nd and 3rd groups, the r-category indicator is the same, but as we see in the other groups, the results indicators show s2<s3 t2< t3 and u2 > u3, these signs, as mentioned above, are a kind of indicators of the categories s2 < s3 t2< t3 and u2 > u3. these results show that the performance of group 3 is higher compared to group 2, but if you pay attention to s2 < s3, you can see that the number of students with a good level in group 2 is greater than in group 3. this means that in group 2, the number of students who have the opportunity to achieve good academic performance may increase. these results give the teacher the opportunity to predict the degree to which students have mastered the subject. in 2fig. shows a comparative diagram of the results of experiments carried out in three groups. the results of the experiments show that conducting an automated “questionnaire” at the beginning of the educational process helps in determining attitudes and interests in the subject, their abilities and initial knowledge. 3-fig. program "teacher questionnaire" program "student questionnaire" 164 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3-fig. software test result in 2-fig. shows a comparative diagram of the results of experiments carried out in three groups. the results of the experiments show that conducting an automated “questionnaire” at the beginning of the educational process helps in determining attitudes and interests in the subject, their abilities and initial knowledge. 4-fig. diagram comparing 3 experimental groups in the educational process through the use of a questionnaire, you need to pay attention to the following: ø the composition of the questions in the questionnaire, the focus on determining interests, abilities and initial knowledge; ø analysis of the results of the groups in which questionnaires were administered; ø determination by the teacher of the organization of the educational process based on these results. the above factors are considered necessary means in increasing the efficiency of the educational process and serve as the foundation for the education system when introducing an automated assessment system. conclusions therefore, it is necessary to develop spatial imagination in students and create their skills in working with graphic programs, which is the main problem in the educational process of the subject “computer graphics”. to implement this during your studies, you need to use the following: ø determine students’ interest and abilities in the subject using automated software systems; 6 12 6 1 25 3 9 8 6 25 3 8 11 2 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 r s t u общее число студентов 1 205sхмим-12 2 206sхмим-12 3 207sхмим-12 165 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ø determine the educational methodology in certain groups, based on the results obtained (for example, the results of a “questionnaire” of group students); ø development of theoretical and practical topics based on 2d and 3d modeling; ø development of a software-pedagogical tool based on 2d and 3d modeling and implement it in the educational process; ø when mastering graphic programs, use methods for performing graphic tasks of the curriculum on a computer; ø establish automated multivariate test control; ø organize independent education. instead of concluding, we can say that the use of computer technologies at different stages of graphic education, helping future specialists to become excellent experts in their field, also provides them with modern knowledge and skills. so, when compiling tests of varying degrees of complexity in the discipline “computer graphics,” the main role is played, first of all, by the requirements for the knowledge and skills of students, as well as the students’ compliance with these requirements. these are regarded as the above factors. as a conclusion, it can be noted that the use of tests of varying degrees of complexity in the objective assessment and development of students’ knowledge and skills will bring positive results and raise the effectiveness of training to a new level. references 1. аванесов в.с. основы научной организации педагогического контроля в высшей школе. м.: мисис,1989. – 166-с. 2. шокирова ч.т. развитие творческого мышления студентов и повышение эффективности обучения на основе программного контроля. дисс. ... канд. пед. наук. андижан ., 2009 – 132-с. 3. ян смит, б.фарберман, объективная оценка знаний учащихся. учебное пособие. ташкент 1998. – 114-с. 4. rasch g. probabilistic model for some intelligence and attainment tests. chicago. univ. of chicago press. 1980, 199-p. 5. гомулина.н.н. применение новых информационных и телекоммуни-кационных технологий в школьном физическом и астрономическом образовании. дисс. на соискание ученой степени к.п.н. -москва, 2003г. 6. хамракулов а.к. методика применения компьютерных технологий в обучении начертательной геометрии. (на примере предмета “начертательна геометрия и инженерная графика ” ). дисс. ... к. п. н. – н., 2009– 143 стр. 7. ильковский и.м. роль информационных технологий в деле формирования социально защищенной, конкурентоспособной личности // оброзование для всех: пути интеграции.-саратов, 2003 год. 8. литтл, а. образование и занятость: эволюция концепций. планы на будущее:задачи образования юнеско, №1 1987 г. 9. шокирова ч.т.развитие творческого мышления студентов и повышение эффективности обучения на основе программного контроля. дисс. ... к.п.н. андижан., 2009 – 132 б. 10. деликатный к.г. методические рекомендации для преподавателей, проводящих вступительные экзамены в университет. киев:кгу. 1983. – 38-с. 166 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 11. программа «анкета» используемая в процессе учебы. /насритдинова у.а.// «свидетельство о официальной регистрации созданной программы для электронных вычислительных машин» № dgu-02772 ра №5, 2013 – 289-290 б. агентства имущества рес.узбекистан 12. томас к., девис дж., опеншоу д. и дж. берд. перспективы программированного обучения. пер. с англ. м.: мирд 1966. – 246-с. 13. сидоренко е.в. методы математической обработки данных в психологии. санктпетербург, 2007, 320 с. 14. spearman, c.e., “general intelligence” objectively determined and measured. amerikan journal of psychology, 1994. 5, p. 201-293 15. нон суен, методологический анализ теорий педагогических измерений, пенсильванский университет сша, 2004. 16. j.a. qosimov and others “the role of software in the development of modeling in education” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060013 17. j.a. qosimov and others “development of methods for improving the lessons of information technology on the basis of graphic programs” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060012 18. j.a. qosimov and others “increasing the effectiveness of lessons by creating a problem situation in teaching drawing” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060014 19. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. selection of software for modeling developments and technologies. international journal of advanced science and technology, volume 28, issue 15, 15 november 2019, pp. 554-558 160 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 corrosion of metals, types and measures to prevent it makhammadiyev oybek ramazon ugli tashkent state technical university named after i. karimov (ph.d., senior teacher) abstract: the article provides information on what metal corrosion is, its causes, cathode and anode processes, types of processes according to the conditions and mechanism, electrochemical and chemical corrosion, damage to the economy of metal structures corrosion, and measures to prevent it. keywords: corrosion of metals, cathodic process, anodic process, chemical corrosion, electrochemical corrosion, aggressive environment, inhibitor. introduction it is important to synthesize competitive and highly effective inhibitors that protect metal structures from corrosion in aggressive environments. the rapid growth of the industry and the high demand for metal products are causing an increase in the demand for effective inhibitors used in aggressive environments. special attention is paid to the development of cost-effective and environmentally friendly composite inhibitors, abandoning single-component inhibitors with high concentration. also, analysis of inhibition properties is of great practical importance as a result of studying the mechanism of influence of the structure, quantity, temperature and nature of the aggressive environment on the protection level of the inhibitors in eliminating the corrosion process. today, in the world, research is being carried out on the synthesis of effective inhibitors based on water and oil-soluble organic and inorganic substances based on heteroatomic, aminecontaining aromatic and aliphatic compounds containing nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, as well as polysilicates and complex compounds against metal corrosion. is going based on this, instead of complex, expensive and toxic inhibitors, special attention is paid to obtaining environmentally safe, environmentally friendly inhibitors with several functional groups based on local raw materials and industrial secondary products. . in chemistry, metal corrosion or rusting is a process that occurs as a result of the interaction of a metal plate with environmental substances (air oxygen or acids with which the metal product can react) [1]. generally, metals to the left of hydrogen in the metal stress series, including iron, are oxidized. the most common types of corrosion are chemical and electrochemical corrosion [2]. to understand how they differ from each other, they are compared according to several criteria in the table below. 161 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us comparison of chemical and electrochemical corrosion of metals comparison marks chemical corrosion electrochemical corrosion description corrosion of metals due to interaction with non-conducting gases or solutions. metal corrosion in water or other electrolyte environment. aggressive reagents o2, h2o vapors, co2, so2 , cl2 electrolyte solutions examples 3fe + 2o2 → fe3o4 4fe + 3o2 + 6h2o =4fe(oh)3 when iron comes into contact with zinc, zinc corrodes: a (+) on zinc surface: zn 0 2e = zn 2+ k (–) on iron surface: 2h + + 2e = h2 metals can be protected from corrosion in different ways: covering with protective materials; electrochemical methods; chemical methods . corrosion is the spontaneous decay of elements, often metals, under the chemical or physicalchemical influence of the environment [3] . in other words, iron begins to rust due to chemical action. this is a very complex process with several steps, but the general equation of corrosion looks like this: 4fe + 6h2o (moisture) + 3o2 (air) = 4fe(oh) 3 corrosion is often understood as a chemical reaction between a material and its environment or its constituents, occurring at phase boundaries. this is usually the oxidation process of the metal. for example: 3fe + 2o2 = fe3o4 fe + h2so 4 = feso4 + h2 some metals, even active ones, are covered with a dense oxide film during corrosion. this is one of their characteristic features. the oxide film prevents the penetration of oxidizing substances into a deeper layer and thus protects the metal from corrosion. aluminum is generally resistant to air and water, even hot water. however, if the aluminum surface is coated with mercury, an amalgam will form. it destroys the oxide film, and aluminum quickly begins to turn into white flakes of aluminum metahydroxide: 4al + 2h2o + 3o2 = 4alo(oh) corrosion of metals and measures to prevent it. corrosion of metals (derived from the latin word corrosion decay) is an oxidation-reduction process, a phenomenon of spontaneous decay of metals as a result of their interaction with the environment. in this process, the corroded metal is the reducing agent, and the substance in the aggressive environment is the oxidizing agent. often, the corrosion process proceeds spontaneously without external energy and occurs with a decrease in the gibbs free energy of the system due to the transformation of metals into oxides, hydroxides and salts. 162 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us metal corrosion is an unpleasant process, and in industrialized countries, 5-10% of the national income is allocated to the damage caused by metal corrosion and its elimination. if only a small fraction of these costs are irretrievably scrap metal, the main loss from corrosion, premature failure of metal structures, will increase the cost of the metals used to make them. corrosion process consists of various manifestations depending on the conditions of their occurrence. the corrosion process differs according to the nature of corrosion damage and the reaction mechanism. therefore, there are several ways to divide them into classes. corrosion is divided into the following types according to the driving conditions: 1. atmospheric corrosion corrosion of metals in natural atmospheric conditions (about 80% of metal structures are operated in atmospheric air). 2. corrosion in electrolytes (salt, acid and alkali solutions) – corrosion of metals in mediums carrying electric current. 3. soil corrosion corrosion of metals in soil and soil. 4. contact corrosion electrochemical corrosion, as a result of contact of metals with different electrode potentials in a corrosive medium. 5. frictional corrosion (fretting corrosion) as a result of simultaneous action of frictional force with a corrosive environment. 6. cavitation corrosion is a forceful effect of a corrosive environment. 7. electrocorrosion impact corrosion of an external current source. 8. crevice corrosion is corrosion that occurs in narrow spaces between two metals or in areas of loose contact between a metal and a non-metallic inert corrosive material. 9. structural corrosion is corrosion associated with structurally heterogeneous metals. 10. radiochemical corrosion is caused by radioactive radiation. 11. biocorrosion is a process under the influence of the product of life activity of microorganisms. 12. gas corrosion chemical corrosion of metals with gases at high temperatures. 13. corrosion in non-electrolytes (gasoline, kerosene, oil and other organic liquids). 163 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us corrosion disorders are divided into the following types according to their nature: 1. total or general corrosion, in which the metal corrodes over its entire surface. general corrosion is divided into several types: a) uniform corrosion general corrosion that occurs at a uniform speed over the entire surface of the metal; b) uneven corrosion general corrosion that occurs at different speeds in different parts of the metal surface; c) selective (selective) corrosion is a process in which the structure of one component of the alloy is destroyed. 2. local (local) corrosion is a corrosion process occurring in individual sections of the metal surface. local corrosion is also divided into several types: a) spot corrosion local corrosion formed in the form of a separate spot; b) pitting corrosion occurs with the formation of pits of large or small depth in metal; c) point (pitting) corrosion a form of local corrosion with a breakdown of the metal surface in the form of separate points; d) surface corrosion the process of corrosion under the metal surface; e) intercrystalline corrosion corrosion process between metal crystal lattices; f) transcrystalline corrosion a process of corrosion that goes through all the crystals of a metal; g) crevice corrosion is a corrosion process that occurs as a result of the simultaneous effect of mechanical stress with a corrosive environment. metals of corrosion to go to the mechanism according to corrosion process two type divided into: chemical and electrochemical. chemical corrosion is of metals corrosion environment with secret as a result of process in this metal oxidized, corrosion of the environment oxidizer component will be returned. such to become mysterious as a result oxidizing, metal valent electrons take one of time in himself she is with chemical compound harvest does [4]. chemical of corrosion wide spread out and practical in terms of important have was type gas corrosion is considered she is high temperature dry gases under the influence (gas of pipes in the shoulder blades, internal burning in engines, jet of engines in the nozzles) goes. metals gas of 164 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us corrosion the reason is theirs that's it in the environment thermodynamic in terms of instability and high in temperature corrosion of the environment aggressive components (oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, halogens and another with oxidizers). to the reaction get in the ability be is considered also chemical _ corrosion without water in the environment liquid non-electrolytes (gasoline, kerosene, hydrocarbons and others) with participation too goes [5]. electrochemical corrosion of metals from himself vine who wears medium (electrolytes solution and liquefaction) with participation decay process. in this process, the metal is oxidized (changes to the ionic state), and the oxidizing component of the corrosive medium is returned. oxidation-reduction processes take place in various stages, and their speed depends on the potential of the electrodes. this division of oxidation-reduction processes is related to the fact that the metal surface is electrochemically different (heterogeneous) [6]. reasons for electrochemical heterogeneity: 1. contact of two or more metals of different potential; 2. contact of metals with various environments; 3. the presence of an oxide film on the metal surface; 4. variety of metal structures; 5. variation of internal stresses in metal; 6. due to the temperature difference in different sections of metals. all this means that in one section of the corroding metal surface, the oxidation process (anode process) takes place, and in another section, the reduction process of the oxidizer (cathode process) takes place. the interaction of two or more different metals (contact corrosion or galvanocorrosion) associated with the formation of such corrosion pairs is often observed. when does metal oxidation (corrosion) occur? when the potential of the metal is less than the potential of the oxidizer in this corrosive environment: e me n+ /me < e ox/red in the literature on corrosion, the concept of oxidant is called a special term depolarizer. the most common depolarizers in metal corrosion are dissolved oxygen and hydrogen ions. these are divided into hydrogen and oxygen depolarization processes, respectively [7]. today, various methods are used to prevent metal corrosion, and these methods differ from each other in terms of their effectiveness and economic efficiency. to divide these methods into several groups depending on the practical use of measures to protect metals from corrosion [8] can: 1. increasing the corrosion stability of metals and alloys by alloying; 2. by reducing the aggressiveness of the corrosive environment (inhibition); 3. protection by means of electric current (electrochemical protection); 4. covering with protective coatings (varnish, paint, enamel, primer); 165 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. protection using combinations of protection methods. current in the day of states development chemistry, oil gas and energy without industry imagination reach difficult. this industry in enterprises metal constructions from corrosion protection fall in order to corrosion environment aggressiveness reducing chemical using substances (inhibitors) is coming. inhibitors (corrosion stopping) aggressive to the environment very less amount will be added and the metal to protect efficiency high become an enterprise to the economy another expensive was to methods relatively much benefit brings. corrosion inhibitors as character chemical to content have was organic and inorganic substances is used [9]. summary the article provides information on what metal corrosion is, its causes, cathode and anode processes, types according to the conditions and mechanisms of the process, electrochemical and chemical corrosion, damage to the economy of the metal structures corrosion, and measures to prevent it. references 1. i.a. shipiguzov, o.v. kolesova, v.v. bakhrushev and dr. sovremennye inhibitory karrozii. vestnik pnipu. chemical technology and biotechnology 2016. no. 1. -p. 114-128. 2. turdymatov a.a., abdurakhmanov.n.kh., abdurakhmanova k.kh and dr. effektivnost khimicheskoy inbitornoy zashity v borbe s nutrenney karroziey promyslovykh buboprovodov. neftegazovoe delo e electronic scientific journal dissertation. 2016. no. 3. p. 138 156. 3. turdymatov a.a., abdurakhmanov. n.kh., egorov a.m. inhibitory corrosion classification of industrial pipelines, efficiency. electronic scientific magazine. 2016. no. 1. p. 172 176. 4. a. b. nechae v. chemistry often ii. uchebnoe posobie. 2016. c. 3-15. 5. rybakova a.s., nurieva.e.n., sharafutdinov r.n. effektivnost inhibitorov karrozii v system neftesbora. nauchno-issledovatelsky journal. 2014. no. 11. p. 86 87. 6. mohamed shameer., mohamed nishath. exploration and enhancement on fuel stability of biodiesel: // elseveir. a step forward in the track of global commercialization in advanced biofuels, 2019. pages 181-213. 7. aastha dutta. in spectroscopic methods for nanomaterials characterization // elseveir. in industrial biorefineries & white biotechnology, 2017. pages 1102-1109. 8. taha roodbar shojaei, saman azhari. in emerging applications of nanoparticles and architecture nanostructures // fabrication, functionalization, and dispersion of carbon nanotubes. elsevier. 2018. pages 1131-1139. 9. popyonova l. i., lisovsky r. a., radionova l. v. razrabotka ustanovki dlya issledovaniya corrosion metallov vesovym metodom // kontsept. – 2015. – no. 06 (june). s.1-7. 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 issues of organizing tourist routes through namangan region oybek hamidov namangan institute of engineering and construction abstract: this article is about preservation of existing architectural monuments in namangan region, using them for modern purposes and forming new tourist routes across the region. keywords: namangan, landscape, city, architecture, monument, route, tourism, eco-tourism, tourist, highways, climate. it is known that uzbekistan always attracts people from other countries with its beautiful nature, ancient culture, old cities, architectural monuments, unique artifacts, generous and hospitable people. has become familiar to him. trade caravans returned from east to west through our land. this strange paradise between amu and sir has become popular. mutual trade and cultural relations have raised the development of both sides to a higher level, as well as uzbekistan's great touristic opportunities, its fame to the whole world with its historical cities such as samarkand, bukhara, khiva. but these architectural monuments are not used enough [2]. currently, a lot of work is being done on the sustainable development of the economy of our republic, the rapid development of the tourism sector, and the improvement of tourist destinations. in accordance with the decision of the president of the republic of uzbekistan sh. mirziyoyev no. pq-2666 dated december 2, 2016, a decision was made to organize the activities of the state committee for tourism development of the republic of uzbekistan. based on this decision, state tourism committees specialized in the development of tourism were established in the regions [1]. therefore, the architecture and landscape architecture of the tourist destinations in the far and near regions of namangan region are becoming more beautiful and beautiful. however, it should be recognized that the tourist routes leading to certain tourism regions of namangan region (yangikurgan, kosonsoy, chortoq, uchkurgan, norin, toraqorgan, chust and pop) are scattered, and in addition to historical architectural monuments and the most peaceful destinations of the region, it is important to improve the architectural solutions and landscape design of tourism destinations in mountain and sub-mountain regions for the development of eco-tourism. this process of renewal and changes can be observed in all regions of our republic. in recent years, the beauty of the tourist routes in many cities, districts and villages of namangan region has been improved, the standard of living of the people is becoming more prosperous. unfortunately, this process is not the same everywhere. especially in certain tourist routes of the region, slowness in this work is noticeable [6]. first of all, let's talk briefly about the history of the region: in the 131st issue of namangan haqiqiti newspaper dated july 6, 1974, mahmud diyori mentions this fact: "every place in the world has its own natural structure, position, according to historical sources according to the ethnographic structure, climatic conditions, various natural resource wealth, the population was 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us created under the name of namangan region (namang-kon). this city was one of the important cities of the ancient world [4]. namangan region was reorganized on december 18, 1967 (previously existed from march 6, 1941 to january 23, 1960) and is located in the northern part of the eastern ferghana valley of the republic. the territory of the province is mainly located on the right bank of the syrdarya. it is surrounded by the northern chotkal and kurama mountains. the province is located in the geologically active area, earthquakes up to 8 points occur. healing mineral waters have been found in a number of regions of the province (chortoq, chodaksoy, shahand, uchkurgan, toraqurgan). the climate is continental. the temperature in summer is moderate, and the weather in winter is mild and short. the daily fluctuation of air temperature is sharp and there is little precipitation. in the centuries-old history and development of our country during the period of independence, namangan region has occupied an important place with its rich past and culture. namangan is one of the ancient cities of the ferghana valley. the city was created on the border of nomadic herders and settled population engaged in agriculture. the first information about the village of namangan dates back to the end of the 14th century. babur mentioned namangan as a village in his work "boburnoma". the foundation document of 1643 also mentions the city. the name of the city is assumed to be "namak-kon" because it was built near a salt mine. in 1620, after the ancient capital of ferghana valley, akshi (akhsikant) was destroyed by an earthquake, its inhabitants moved to the nearby namangan. in february 1876, after the dissolution of the kokhan khanate, namangan became one of the cities of the district [3-7]. at the end of the 19th century, european conquerors built institutions and residential buildings for themselves near the old city. as a result, a "new city" was created. currently, there are 11 districts in the region: 1-yangikurgan, 2-chortoq, 3-uychi, 4-uchkurgan, 5-norin, 6-mingbulok, 7-namangan, 8-torakorg 9-chust, 10-pop, 11-kosonsoy districts fig. 1. administrative union of districts in the region and main architectural tourist objects of republic significance figure 1. administrative unification of districts and tourist destinations on the map of namangan region 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us touristic architectural monuments, monuments and places of interest of the republic of namangan city and districts were built mainly in the 18th-19th centuries [8-9] table 1. № № object full name object period object location address object category an architectural monument in the city of namangan 1 1 mausoleum of mavlavi namangoni 1806 years namangan region, namangan city, labbay toga cemetery republic 2 2 mulla kyrgyz madrasa 1912 years namangan region, namangan city, uychi street, 359 republic 3 3 otaulikhan tora mosque 1912-1917 years namangan region, namangan city, uychi street, 117 republic 4 4 khoja amin mausoleum 18th century namangan region, namangan city, kozagarlik street, 49 republic 5 5 mausoleum of mulla bazar okhund 1930 years namangan region, namangan city, hamro street, 3rd house republic a monumental monument in the city of namangan 6 1 memorial square 2010 years namangan region, namangan city, a. temur street republic an architectural monument in toragorgon district 7 1 ahsikent city 3-4th centuries namangan region, toraqorgan district, gul village republic 8 2 goyibnazar qazi madrasa (isaqkhan tora teaching museum) 1860 years namangan region, toraqorgan district, old namangan street republic architectural monument in chortoq district 9 1 sultan uwais karani mosque 1863 years namangan region, chortoq district, bogistan mfy republic architectural monument in uychi district 10 1 mausoleum of devona buwa 18th century namangan region, uychi district, fayziabad village republic architectural monument of uchkurgan district 11 1 "riverside" mosque 1907 years namangan region, uchkurgan district, andijan street republic architectural monument in chust district 12 1 maulana lutfullo mausoleum 19th century namangan region, chust district, kamarsada mfy republic an architectural monument in the district of pop 13 1 chodak mosque 18th century namangan region, pop district, chodak village republic architectural monument of kosonsoy district 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 14 1 jome mosque 18th century namangan region, kosonsoy district, jome mfy republic architectural monument of norin district 15 1 haqulabad mosque 1903 namangan region, norin district, khaqulabad city republic these objects are currently considered as the main touristic objects of the republic, and these architectural monuments have become one of the production issues for the further development of tourism [2]. in accordance with the decree of the president of the republic of uzbekistan sh. mirziyoyev dated 13.08.2019 pf-5781 "on measures for the development of the sector in the republic of uzbekistan", supporting the development of tourism in the republic of uzbekistan in 20192025, it will help to develop tourism in the republic of uzbekistan in 2019-2025. meets the current demand for the development of historical tourist objects. in the course of a complete study of the main tourist routes in the region, the roads connecting the mausoleums, madrasas, complexes, mosques, monuments, whose names are supported above, in the region, will also be repaired based on the requirements of the new world. elimination. it was determined that there is a need to carry out works on the improvement of national architectural environments around the roads [1]. we have studied the shrines and shrines marked near the highways in all districts of namangan region. these studies revealed that there is a need to organize modern service buildings on the roads, to create a modern landscape suitable for the regions along the roads, and to reconstruct the roads. if we consider these ways: reconstruction of the namangan-toragorgon highway in the direction of the "akhsikent city and madrasah of goyibnazar qazi (isaqkhan tora ibrat museum)" and the sanatorium and health center "shahand" , 4r-119 namangan-chortoq-kalishoh-baliqkol-hazratishoh highway, "sultan uvais karoni" shrine, "chortoq reservoir" and "chartak resort" jv sanatorium and reconstruction of the 11 km section of the 4k-425 shorkent-gulshan-kushon highway of the health center, reconstruction of the 3-7 km section of the 4k-438 onkhayot-shorkurgan-akhsi-guliston highway leading to the devona buva shrine reconstruction of the highway 4n-425 namangan-uchkurgon-andijan in the direction of the shrine "daryo boyi" and the eco-tourist zone "daryo boyi". reconstruction of the namangan-chust-charogon road in the direction of the devona buva shrine, the chust reservoir and the gova eco-tourist zone. reconstruction of the namangan-pop-chodak village highway in the direction of the "chodak mosque" shrine and the "chodak-soy" eco-tourist zone. reconstruction of the namangan-kosonsoy highway in the direction of the "jome mosque" shrine and the "kosonsoy" eco-tourist zone. reconstruction of namangan-norin-khaqulabad city highway in the direction of "haqulabad mosque" shrine and "norin riverside" eco-tourist zone. namangan-yangikurgan-zarkent-mamay-nanay 4n-466 highway in the direction of "yangikurgan reservoir" and "nanay" eco-tourist zone and 4m-1521 nanay-qairoqi highway there is a need to create new tourist routes and a modern landscape along the roads. during the analysis of the architectural environment of the roads leading to the above-mentioned historical sites and architectural objects serving for tourists, a modern landscape design project for roadside directions to eliminate certain deficiencies. development of new project proposals 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and, in these projects, based on the characteristics of each tourist destination, to plant flower gardens of various types of ornamental and fruit trees, as well as to create a beautiful and fresh modern landscape environment for passing tourists should be organized [6]. the conclusion is that the organization of tourist routes in all directions analyzed above will create an opportunity to further develop historical and ecological tourism in namangan, which is considered one of the regions with a unique history of our republic. in this way, the study of the original history of namangan region, scientific research in the places of interest in this region, the formation of a modern image of tourist objects based on world requirements, that is, by organizing a tourist route and innovative landscape in each region, the holy place in namangan region it will be possible to increase the longevity of historical sites and increase the number of tourists visiting the region. references 1. sh.mirziyoyev's action strategy for the 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(2022). scientific proposals for architectural improvement of engineering centers. nexus: journal of advances studies of engineering science, 1(6), 59-63. 11. ozodovich, h. a., & maribovich, q. i. (2022). improving the design of youth innovativecreative and development scientific centers. 12. dedakhanov, b., & kasimov, i. (2022). ancient architecture of the ferghana valley features of formation and development (on the example of civil architecture and urban planning). science and innovation, 1(c6), 278-284. 13. хасанов, а. н., аббасова, р. к., & маърибович, қ. и. (2022). касб ҳунар мажмуаларининг пайдо бўлиш тарихи (фарғона водийси мисолида). journal of new century innovations, 19(1), 198-204. 14. ozodovich, h. a., maribovich, q. i., & zarina, b. (2023). kasbga yo’naltirish markazini innovatsion loyihasi taklifi “kidzania job world in tashkent”. pedagog, 6(1), 120-129. 15. maribovich, q. i. 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(2024). creating principles of constructing and preserving the monuments of “deshan kala”. educational research in universal sciences, 3(1), 689-694. 44. ravshanovich, r. z., & sadullaevich, r. s. (2022). the problems of organizing safe bicycle lanes. central asian journal of arts and design, 3(5), 28-30. 45. ravshanovich, r. z., & sadullaevich, r. s. (2022). central asian journal of arts and design. 46. ravshanovich, r. z. (2021). fundamentals of urban construction of bike tracks in the urban environment. international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research issn: 2277-3630 impact factor: 7.429, 10(12), 13-13. 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 to operation of the uzte16m4 diesel locomotives on the mountain section of the railway track oleg s. ablyalimov candidate of technical sciences, professor, tashkent state transport university, uzbekistan, tashkent sherali i. mamayev doctor of philosophy in technical sciences (phd), associate professor, tashkent state transport university, uzbekistan, tashkent anna n. avdeyeva candidate of technical sciences, associate professor, tashkent state transport university, uzbekistan, tashkent dilnoza i. nigmatova doctor of philosophy in technical sciences (phd), tashkent state transport university, uzbekistan, tashkent abstract: the substantiation of the parameters of the main indicators of the transportation work of diesel locomotives uzte16m4 on a real mountain section of the railway during the movement of freight trains without stops at intermediate stations is given. numerical values of the indicated parameters and regression equations for their definition are obtained. the results of the study are recommended for the practice of the karshi locomotive depot of the uzbek railway. key words: efficiency, freight train, diesel locomotive, railway, tabular data, operation, graphical dependencies based on a comprehensive program for the development and modernization of the railway industry, the forecast for the expected average annual growth in freight traffic is 3.9 percent. currently, most of the freight traffic is organized by the diesel locomotive fleet, about twentyeight percent of which, today, is carried out by uzte16m main diesel locomotives in various sectional designs. this is confirmed by the diagram in fig. 1[1], which characterizes the dynamics of the expected growth in freight turnover in billions of gross ton-kilometers, which is realized 55.6 percent of train diesel locomotives of the entire operating locomotive fleet of «uzbekistan temir yollari» jsc. therefore, theoretical and experimental studies related to the substantiation of parameters, analysis and assessment of the fuel and energy efficiency of using the locomotive fleet of a railway company in real operating conditions will be very timely and relevant. this paper presents the results of studies to evaluate the effectiveness of the use of diesel locomotives uzte16m4 series on the real, mountainous section of kumkurgan tashguzar of the uzbek railway. 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a distinctive feature of this railway is the conditionally "difficult" elements of the track profile, characterized by an abundance of protracted ascents and descents, the maximum steepness of which reaches + 20.7 ‰ and 20.5 ‰, respectively [2]. in table 1 is given the results of traction calculation for three different modes of movement of a freight train by uzte16m4 diesel locomotives on the section kumkurgan tashguzar when moving without stops at intermediate stations, taking into account the differentiation of the mass of composition of train from q1 = 2500 t to q3 = 3500 t and a constant number of axles in the train, equal to m = 200 axles. in table 1 is given the conditions for organizing freight traffic and shows the main indicators of the transportation work of uzte16m4 diesel locomotives on the real, mountainous section of kumkurgan tashguzar, taking into account the reduced total and specific cash costs, which are equivalent to the unit cost of rail transportation of goods and are directly related only to the consumption of full-scale diesel fuel for trains traction. table 1. indicators of the use of uzte16m4 diesel locomotives on the section kumkurgan – tashguzar c a lc u la ti o n o p ti o n conditions by transportation works train time of movement, min diesel fuel of consumption money costs o f co m p o si ti o n m as s q ,t n u m b er o f ax le s m , ax le s te ch n ic al s p ee d o f m o v em en ts , v т, k m /h g en er al t х in m o d e o f tr ac ti o n t т in m o d e o f id li n g an d b ra k in g t х х , т genera l specific fu ll s с т, th o u sa n d s o u m s sp ec if ic с т, th o u sa n d s o u m s /k m p er t ri p е , k g o f n at u ra l fu el е , k g /1 0 4 t k m g ro ss o f re fe re n ce f u el е у , k g /1 0 4 t k m g ro ss 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 movement on the hauls of the site without stops, l = 220,450 km 1 2500 200 54,54 242,52 115,64 126,88 3609 65,48 93,64 6389,5 28,98 2 3000 200 51,83 255,22 132,17 123,05 4105 62,07 88,75 7267,7 32,97 3 3500 200 49,46 267,44 146,74 120,70 4543 58,87 84,19 8043,1 36,48 on fig. 1 shows the nature of the change in the main indicators works and the use of uzte16m4 diesel locomotives on the kumkurgan tashguzar section, depending on the mass of the freight train during non-stop movement of train. the mass of the freight train composition varied with an interval of ∆q = 500 t in the range from q1 = 2500 t to q3 = 3500 t with a constant number of axles in the train equal to m = 200 axles. figure 1. dynamics of indicators of use of uzte16m4 diesel locomotives at the section kumkurgan tashguzar of "o'zbekiston temir yo'llari" jsc 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us according to table 1 and fig. 1, similarly to [1,3], regression equations were calculated to determine the parameters of the main indicators of the transportation process on the kumkurgan tashguzar section, organized by diesel locomotives of the uzte16m4 series, together with a sufficient value of the approximation with reliability r2=1.0 (the necessary reliability condition is r2≥0.8). here, the factor (indicator) qi = 1,2,3 denotes a variant of traction of calculation. total train of travel time tх, min: tх = 0,24qi 2 + 13,42qi+ 229,34 (1) train of travel time on mode traction tт, min: tт = 0,98qi 2 + 19,47qi + 97,15 (2) train travel time on mode idling and braking tхх,т, min: tхх,т = 0,74qi 2 6,05qi + 132,19 (3) technical speed of movement vт, km/h: vт = 0,17qi 2 – 3,22qi + 57,59 (4) total consumption of natural diesel fuel per trip е, kg: е = 29qi 2 + 30qi + 3055 (5) specific consumption of natural diesel fuel е, kg/104 t km gross: e = 0,105qi 2 – 3,725qi + 69,1 (6) adjusted (specific) cash costs, thousand soums/km: ст= 0,24qi 2 + 4,71qi + 24,51 (7) thus, numerical values were obtained and the nature of the change in the parameters of the main indicators of the use of four-section main diesel locomotives uzte16m4 series depending on the composition mass of the freight train, which is described by a polynomial dependence of the second degree with one hundred percent calculation accuracy, was established. the parameters of the main indicators of the transportation process of four-section mainline diesel locomotives uzte16m4 series in freight traffic will be useful for drivers instructors and specialists of the operation shop of the locomotive depot karshi, whose work is associated with the rationing of diesel fuel consumption on of train traction and with the development of regime maps for driving freight trains by uzte16m4 diesel locomotives at the kumkurgan – tashguzar section. references: 1. ablyalimov o. s. on the issue of operation of diesel locomotives uzte16m4 on the section tashguzar kumkurgan sjsrc "uzbekiston temir yo'llari" [text] / o. s. ablyalimov, v. s. kudryashov, i. r. kayumov // republican scientific and technical conference with the participation of foreign scientists "transport logistics, multimodal transportation". tashkent: tashiit, 2012. pp. 48-51. 2. ablyalimov o. s. fundamentals of locomotive management [text] / o. s. ablyalimov, e. s. ushakov // textbook for professional colleges of railway transport. tashkent: davr, 2012. 392 p. 3. ablyalimov o. s. study of the operation of diesel locomotives 4te10m on the section kumkurgan tashguzar [text] / o. s. ablyalimov // republican scientific and technical conference with the participation of foreign scientists "resource-saving technologies in railway transport." tashkent: tashiit, 2013. pp. 54-57. 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 1, issue 8, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 modern ios app development with swiftui and combine: a declarative approach to ui and state hyunwoo jung, nari seo department of software and computer engineering, yonsei university, seoul, south korea abstract: the landscape of ios app development has undergone a paradigm shift with the introduction of swiftui and combine, ushering in a declarative and reactive programming model that redefines how user interfaces are built and managed. this article explores modern ios app development using swiftui and combine, focusing on how these technologies enable a more intuitive, maintainable, and scalable architecture. swiftui allows developers to describe uis declaratively, simplifying view composition and reducing boilerplate, while combine introduces a robust framework for handling asynchronous events and data streams through publishers and subscribers. together, they provide a unified approach to managing state, rendering views, and responding to user interactions. we delve into the core principles of declarative ui design, reactive state management, and data flow with combine, illustrating how these tools work in tandem to produce dynamic and responsive ios applications. real-world development patterns, best practices, and practical use cases are examined to highlight how developers can leverage these frameworks to streamline development workflows and improve app performance. by the end of this article, readers will gain a comprehensive understanding of how to architect modern ios apps that are both elegant and robust—using swiftui and combine as foundational tools for building the next generation of apple platform experiences. 1. introduction 1.1 the evolution of ios development: from uikit to swiftui since the inception of ios, uikit has served as the backbone of user interface development— offering imperative tools and design patterns that, while powerful, often required significant boilerplate code and manual state synchronization. as applications grew in complexity, maintaining clear separation of concerns and ensuring consistency between ui and underlying data became increasingly difficult. with the introduction of swiftui, apple presented a radical departure from uikit’s imperative style—embracing a declarative paradigm where developers describe what the ui should do in response to state changes, rather than how to implement those changes procedurally. 1.2 the rise of declarative ui paradigms in mobile development the declarative approach to ui design, popularized in web development by frameworks like react, has found a powerful expression in swiftui. this model offers several key advantages: ➢ simplified ui code that’s easier to read and reason about 114 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ automatic synchronization between views and data ➢ tighter integration with modern state management and lifecycle handling this shift aligns with broader trends in software engineering that emphasize reactivity, modularity, and functional programming principles for building dynamic, interactive user experiences. 1.3 importance of reactive programming and state management in modern apps in tandem with swiftui, apple introduced combine—a reactive framework designed to manage asynchronous events and data streams. combine enables developers to bind application state directly to ui components, handle user input and network responses, and manage data transformations in a declarative and composable way. as mobile applications increasingly rely on real-time data, complex user interactions, and background operations, reactive programming is becoming indispensable for building maintainable, resilient ios apps. swiftui and combine together address these needs holistically. 1.4 objective of the article this article aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of modern ios app development using swiftui and combine. readers will learn how to: 1. structure swiftui-based interfaces for scalability and reusability 2. use combine to manage asynchronous tasks and data streams 3. build reactive architectures where state drives the ui 4. adopt best practices for performance, testing, and maintainability by the end, developers will be equipped with the foundational knowledge and practical strategies needed to harness swiftui and combine as core tools for building next-generation ios applications. 2. foundations of declarative ui and reactive state 2.1 understanding the declarative ui model vs. imperative ui programming traditional ios development with uikit follows an imperative paradigm, where developers explicitly define how the interface should behave by modifying ui elements in response to events. this often leads to verbose codebases with manual state tracking, which increases the risk of bugs, especially in complex uis. in contrast, declarative ui programming—as enabled by swiftui—focuses on describing what the ui should look like for a given application state. when the state changes, swiftui automatically re-renders the affected views to reflect the new data. developers no longer need to write logic to manage ui updates manually; the system handles it reactively and predictably. this shift results in: ➢ simpler and cleaner code ➢ fewer synchronization bugs ➢ improved maintainability and testability 2.2 core principles of swiftui: data-driven views, binding, and state propagation at its core, swiftui is data-driven. it reacts to changes in data and updates the ui accordingly. the key building blocks that facilitate this behavior include: 1. @state – a property wrapper that stores view-local state and triggers ui updates when changed. 115 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. @binding – enables child views to read and write state owned by parent views, promoting unidirectional data flow. 3. @observedobject / @stateobject – for observing external models that conform to the observableobject protocol, allowing views to react to changes from shared data sources. 4. @environment / @environmentobject – for accessing shared app-wide values and objects in a reactive manner. these tools empower developers to compose responsive uis that automatically reflect the latest data, eliminating much of the boilerplate required in uikit-based apps. 2.3 introduction to combine: functional reactive programming for apple platforms combine is apple’s native reactive programming framework designed to manage asynchronous operations such as user interactions, network responses, and data streams in a composable way. its architecture is centered around three key concepts: 1. publishers – objects that emit a sequence of values over time (e.g., data from an api, a button tap). 2. subscribers – objects that receive and respond to those values. 3. operators – functions that transform, filter, and combine streams in a declarative fashion (e.g., map, filter, combinelatest). combine also supports powerful error handling, backpressure control, and data stream composition, making it ideal for managing the complex interactions that modern mobile apps demand. 2.4 why combine and swiftui are designed to work seamlessly together apple designed swiftui and combine to be fully interoperable, forming a unified declarative ecosystem. this synergy means developers can: ➢ bind publishers directly to swiftui views using modifiers like .onreceive ➢ automatically update uis in response to combine publishers via @published and @observedobject ➢ reduce the need for boilerplate glue code between logic and presentation layers this tight integration simplifies building responsive, state-aware interfaces that are robust, scalable, and easy to reason about, especially as app complexity grows. 3. getting started with swiftui and combine 1. environment setup: begin by installing the latest version of xcode, which provides full support for swiftui previews and combine integration. ensure your macos is updated and swift 5 or higher is selected to support the latest declarative and reactive programming features. create a new project using the “app” template with swiftui interface. this sets up the modern entry point via the @main annotation, replacing the older uikit-based lifecycle. 2. understanding project structure: swiftui apps are organized differently from uikit apps. the app’s main entry is defined in a lightweight swift struct conforming to the app protocol. views are modular, data-driven, and reactively composed. business logic is typically abstracted into observable models, and ui logic resides in small, reusable swiftui components. this encourages scalability, readability, and better separation of concerns. 3. core state management concepts: swiftui replaces imperative state handling with declarative data-binding mechanisms. use @state for managing local, view-scoped variables. use @binding when passing state down to child components. use @observedobject or @stateobject to observe external, shared data models. these wrappers enable automatic ui updates based on data changes, eliminating the need for manual refresh logic. 116 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. introduction to combine: combine is a native apple framework for handling asynchronous data in a reactive, functional way. publishers emit values over time (such as user inputs or network responses). subscribers consume these values and react accordingly. operators can be chained to transform, debounce, filter, or combine data streams. this pipeline-based model reduces boilerplate and increases predictability in state updates. 5. practical use case (no code): imagine a search bar in an app. each keystroke creates a data stream via a publisher. combine operators process that stream—filtering out short inputs, removing duplicates, and adding debounce logic. once processed, a subscriber receives the final value and triggers an api call or ui update. this entire flow remains declarative and cleanly separated from ui code. 6. swiftui + combine synergy: swiftui’s view refresh mechanism is tightly integrated with combine’s data streams. combine handles the business logic and state changes, while swiftui ensures the ui reflects those changes in real time. the result is a highly responsive user experience, minimal boilerplate, and easier-to-maintain codebases. 4. managing state in swiftui with combine 1. understanding swiftui’s state bindings: state management in swiftui centers around property wrappers that define how data flows and how ui responds. @published is used inside a viewmodel to automatically emit changes to combine subscribers. @stateobject is used to initialize and retain a viewmodel within a view, ensuring it persists for the view’s lifecycle. @environmentobject allows the same viewmodel to be injected across deeply nested views, promoting decoupled architecture and centralized state access. 2. structuring viewmodels with observableobject: a viewmodel class that conforms to the observableobject protocol serves as a bridge between your business logic and swiftui views. when properties within the viewmodel are marked with @published, changes to those properties automatically trigger ui updates in views observing the viewmodel. this design enforces a reactive programming model and enables testable, modular business logic. 3. embracing one-way data flow: swiftui is built on the principle of one-way data flow— from model to view. the viewmodel pushes changes to the view through @published properties, while the view reflects those changes without directly modifying the model. this clear separation minimizes unintended side effects and keeps application logic predictable and debuggable. 4. implementing two-way bindings safely: in some cases, user inputs in the ui (such as text fields or toggles) must update the underlying state. swiftui enables this through two-way bindings using the $ prefix. while convenient, two-way bindings should be carefully managed within the viewmodel to avoid tightly coupling ui elements and business logic, preserving modularity. 5. enhancing responsiveness with combine operators: combine offers powerful tools to refine how user inputs and asynchronous data are processed. operators like debounce delay emissions to avoid flooding the ui with frequent updates—ideal for search or form inputs. throttle limits how often an update can occur, helpful in scenarios with high-frequency data. other operators like removeduplicates, map, and flatmap are commonly used to transform and streamline reactive flows, ensuring your ui remains responsive without sacrificing performance. 6. combining swiftui and combine for elegant state management: the integration of combine’s publishers and swiftui’s declarative bindings results in a robust, flexible state system. whether managing local state, synchronizing across shared views, or handling asynchronous data streams, the combined use of @published, observableobject, and combine pipelines provides a scalable and maintainable architecture for modern ios applications. 117 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. building a real-world feature: end-to-end example 1. defining the use case – real-time search application: to demonstrate swiftui and combine in action, consider a real-world example: a real-time search interface for something like movie titles, weather data, or github repositories. the goal is to provide users with instantaneous results as they type, leveraging reactive programming to manage network requests, ui states, and performance optimizations. 2. designing the ui with swiftui view hierarchy: start by organizing the swiftui view structure. a typical layout includes a text input field for the query, a loading indicator, a dynamic list to display search results, and a conditional error message view. each ui component is driven by data bindings to a shared viewmodel, ensuring a declarative, reactive flow between data and presentation. 3. connecting combine for reactive network requests: the search query entered by the user is observed via a combine publisher. using operators like debounce (to delay execution while the user is still typing) and removeduplicates (to avoid repeated api calls for the same input), the viewmodel triggers asynchronous api calls. the results, errors, or loading state are all published and bound to the swiftui view, ensuring instant feedback without manual refresh logic. 4. managing loading, success, and error states: the viewmodel maintains an enum or a group of properties to represent various ui states: loading, success (with results), or error (with message). swiftui dynamically adapts based on the current state—showing a progress indicator during fetch, rendering results upon success, or presenting a user-friendly error message when needed. this pattern improves user experience and maintains clarity in both ui and logic layers. 5. implementing caching and request cancellation: to reduce unnecessary network usage, local caching strategies can be integrated. when the same query is re-entered, cached results are served instantly. combine enables request cancellation using switchtolatest—ensuring only the most recent query results are fetched, and obsolete requests are dropped, maintaining app efficiency and preventing ui flicker or stale data. 6. adding retry and robust error handling: for intermittent network failures or timeouts, combine’s retry operator can reattempt failed requests automatically. coupled with smart error messaging in the ui, this helps maintain reliability and resilience in the app, especially for users in low-connectivity environments. 7. delivering a cohesive and maintainable feature: the integration of swiftui’s declarative layout system with combine’s reactive data flow results in a robust feature that is modular, testable, and responsive. each component—ui layout, state handling, and asynchronous logic—is cleanly separated, promoting maintainability and scalability in larger applications. 6. error handling and debugging with combine 1. understanding the role of error handling in combine pipelines: in reactive programming with combine, error handling is crucial for building robust, faulttolerant applications. since publishers in combine can emit error events, managing those gracefully ensures that ui responsiveness and app stability are maintained—even when network failures or data inconsistencies occur. 118 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. core error handling strategies in combine: combine offers operators such as .catch, .retry, and .replaceerror to manage errors within a pipeline. each serves a distinct purpose: ➢ .catch allows you to intercept and replace an error with a new publisher. ➢ .retry automatically reattempts a failed operation a specified number of times before failing definitively. ➢ .replaceerror substitutes a default value in case of an error, allowing the stream to complete without interruption. these tools help ensure the user experience remains smooth, even when back-end services fail intermittently. 3. designing user-centric error responses: rather than showing generic error messages, combine pipelines can be structured to differentiate between various failure scenarios (e.g., timeouts, invalid responses, no internet). this enables you to tailor error messages and actions (e.g., “retry,” “check connection”) to the situation, improving usability and trust. 4. debugging combine pipelines with built-in tools: combine provides utilities like .print() and .handleevents() to inspect pipeline activity without disrupting logic. ➢ .print() outputs all events from a publisher (subscription, value, completion, failure) to the console. ➢ .handleevents() allows you to hook into lifecycle events like subscription, output emission, completion, and cancellation, offering granular control over debugging and side-effects. these tools are indispensable when tracing the flow of data and pinpointing issues during development. 5. tracing subscription chains and diagnosing failures: because combine chains can be complex, tracing where and why a failure occurs can be challenging. a systematic debugging approach—starting from the ui interaction and moving downstream to the network layer—helps isolate issues. visualizing the chain of publishers and subscribers also aids in understanding how data flows and where unexpected behaviors emerge. 6. logging and observability in production environments: in production builds, instead of verbose console output, structured logging frameworks can capture combine events for analysis. errors can be logged with metadata like timestamps, user actions, and device conditions to help engineers reproduce and resolve issues post-deployment. 7. building resilient pipelines with defensive design: a mature combine setup doesn’t just recover from errors—it anticipates them. defensive patterns, like validating user input before triggering requests or adding timeouts for long operations, reduce the likelihood of errors surfacing in the first place, thereby enhancing reliability. 7. advanced patterns and architectures harnessing the full power of swiftui and combine for scalable, maintainable, and modular ios applications. 119 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. combining multiple publishers for complex data flows in real-world applications, data often comes from multiple sources or streams. combine provides powerful operators such as zip, merge, and combinelatest to manage these concurrent data streams. ➢ zip waits for all combined publishers to emit before forwarding the values as tuples, useful for synchronizing paired data. ➢ merge emits values as they arrive from any of the combined publishers, suitable for handling similar events from different sources. ➢ combinelatest emits the latest value from each publisher whenever any of them emits a new value—ideal for responsive uis that depend on multiple changing inputs. these operators enable the creation of reactive, event-driven architectures that can process diverse data sources efficiently. 2. adopting mvvm for testability and scalability the model-view-viewmodel (mvvm) architecture fits naturally with swiftui’s declarative paradigm. by separating concerns: ➢ model manages raw data and business logic. ➢ viewmodel handles state, transforms data using combine, and exposes bindable properties. ➢ view observes changes via property wrappers like @stateobject or @observedobject. this separation makes applications easier to test, scale, and maintain. viewmodels act as the orchestrators between ui and backend logic, allowing teams to work in parallel while reducing coupling. 3. modularizing code with protocols, generics, and reusability advanced swift developers use protocols and generics to write flexible, modular code. in a combine-based architecture, services and data sources can conform to common protocols, allowing them to be easily swapped for mocks or alternative implementations. reusable components—such as network clients, ui elements, or data transformers—enhance consistency and speed up development by abstracting shared functionality across the app. 4. leveraging dependency injection for loose coupling dependency injection (di) is critical in large-scale apps to keep components loosely coupled and highly testable. in combine architectures: ➢ services (e.g., api clients, repositories) can be injected into viewmodels. ➢ di containers or property wrappers (e.g., @environment) can simplify dependency management. ➢ this approach improves maintainability and allows you to easily switch between production and mock services for testing. when integrated with swiftui’s environment system and combine’s publisher-driven design, di supports a clean, composable app structure 5. integrating combine with core data, cloudkit, and third-party sdks combine can be seamlessly integrated with apple frameworks like core data and cloudkit, as well as third-party sdks that support asynchronous operations. ➢ core data publishers allow you to observe data changes and reflect them in real time on the ui. 120 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ cloudkit can be wrapped with custom combine publishers to handle icloud sync and remote data fetching. ➢ for sdks that use callbacks or promises, custom publishers can be created using future or passthroughsubject. this ensures a unified reactive programming model across all layers of your app—from ui to data persistence and network operations. 8. performance considerations and best practices ensuring responsive, efficient, and scalable swiftui apps powered by combine. 1. efficient rendering and view updates in swiftui swiftui's declarative nature is designed to reduce the need for manual ui updates. however, performance issues can still arise if views are not structured efficiently. to optimize rendering: ➢ minimize deep view hierarchies by composing smaller views. ➢ use @stateobject instead of @observedobject when a view should own its state to avoid unnecessary reinitialization. ➢ leverage equatableview and .id() to help swiftui determine when to re-render. ➢ avoid overusing expensive layout operations (e.g., geometry readers) unless necessary. the goal is to reduce the frequency and cost of view invalidation and ensure updates are strictly data-driven. 2. avoiding memory leaks and retain cycles in combine combine introduces powerful capabilities, but improper use of closures or long-lived publishers can lead to memory leaks. to avoid these issues: ➢ use [weak self] or [unowned self] in combine subscription closures to prevent retain cycles. ➢ cancel subscriptions when they are no longer needed using anycancellable and .store(in:). ➢ ensure that subjects and publishers are deallocated properly by using weak references in viewmodels or services. clean subscription management not only improves memory use but also enhances app stability. 3. optimizing combine pipelines for ui responsiveness reactive pipelines can quickly become bottlenecks if not thoughtfully constructed. to ensure ui stays smooth and reactive: ➢ use operators like .debounce() and .throttle() to reduce the frequency of updates for highvolume events (e.g., text inputs, scrolls). ➢ perform heavy computations or i/o tasks off the main thread using .subscribe(on:) and .receive(on:) to keep ui rendering unblocked. ➢ break down complex chains into modular, testable segments to isolate performance-critical logic. ➢ avoid chaining excessive transformations in a single pipeline unless necessary—sometimes smaller, dedicated publishers are more manageable. a responsive combine pipeline ensures that the user interface remains snappy under dynamic conditions. 121 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. lazy views, @mainactor, and swiftui concurrency swiftui supports advanced concurrency patterns that promote both performance and safety: ➢ use lazy views like lazyvstack, lazyhstack, and lazygrid to defer rendering until the user interacts with them—ideal for large lists or content-heavy views. ➢ annotate functions that update the ui with @mainactor to ensure they are executed on the main thread without blocking user interactions. ➢ combine can interoperate with swift’s structured concurrency (async/await), which provides fine-grained control over asynchronous workloads. ➢ adopt task {} blocks for launching asynchronous tasks within views, and use task.cancel() for cleanup on deinit or view disappearances. proper concurrency management results in better responsiveness, smoother animations, and reduced ui thread contention. 9. testing swiftui + combine code ensuring reliability, correctness, and maintainability in reactive, declarative ios applications. 1. unit testing combine pipelines and viewmodels combine's declarative and reactive nature requires a shift in testing mindset. instead of testing imperative sequences, you verify the emissions and transformations over time. key practices include: ➢ testing viewmodel logic in isolation by asserting state changes from published properties. ➢ using xctestexpectation and wait(for:) to observe asynchronous publisher outputs. ➢ verifying the order and timing of events through combine test helpers or custom subscribers. by isolating business logic in observableobject-conforming viewmodels, it's easier to create deterministic, repeatable unit tests that assert data flow correctness. 2. writing ui tests for swiftui views swiftui's declarative approach lends itself well to automated ui testing using xctest and xcuitest: ➢ focus on testing view rendering based on different states rather than interactions alone. ➢ use accessibility identifiers to reliably locate and interact with ui elements. ➢ simulate navigation, taps, and data-entry flows to test real-world usage paths. ui tests validate the user experience holistically, ensuring that interface logic aligns with the underlying combine-driven data flow. 3. using xctest and combine expectations xctest works hand-in-hand with combine when properly extended with combine-specific testing tools: ➢ use xctestcase+combineexpectations libraries to simplify assertions on publisher output. ➢ capture emitted values using .sink and test sequence completion or failure events. ➢ verify proper subscription cancellation and error propagation through @published and other state publishers. with these tools, it's possible to test combine streams much like any asynchronous workflow— systematically and predictably. 122 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. strategies for mocking network requests and asynchronous data combine's flexibility allows for controlled testing of asynchronous behavior through mocking and dependency injection: ➢ replace real services with mock publishers emitting predefined values or errors. ➢ use passthroughsubject or currentvaluesubject to simulate asynchronous api responses during tests. ➢ leverage protocols to abstract networking logic and inject mock implementations into the viewmodel or service layer. mocking external dependencies ensures tests are fast, stable, and decoupled from backend availability or network speed. conclusion 1. recap of swiftui and combine in modern ios development swiftui and combine represent a fundamental shift in how developers build ios applications— moving away from imperative, event-driven paradigms toward a declarative, reactive model that is more expressive, maintainable, and testable. by embracing swiftui’s data-driven ui and combine’s robust reactive pipelines, developers can achieve a seamless connection between application state and user interface. this synergy leads to cleaner architecture, reduced boilerplate, and more predictable behavior across the app lifecycle. 2. key benefits of declarative ui and reactive state management the declarative nature of swiftui allows developers to describe the "what" rather than the "how," resulting in interfaces that automatically react to state changes without manual updates. combine complements this by managing asynchronous streams such as user input, network data, and system events—enabling smooth, responsive user experiences. together, they encourage unidirectional data flow, encapsulated state, and modular design, all of which are essential for building scalable and maintainable apps in today’s fast-paced development environments. 3. final thoughts and production considerations adopting swiftui and combine is not just about modern syntax—it’s a strategic decision that aligns development workflows with the demands of cross-device support, real-time responsiveness, and dynamic ui composition. while these technologies continue to mature, they are already production-ready for many use cases, especially in new apps or modular redesigns. to succeed in production, developers should follow best practices around architecture (e.g., mvvm), performance optimization, testing, and state management. moreover, gradual migration strategies and thorough prototyping can ease the transition for legacy uikit-based teams. in summary, swiftui and combine empower developers to build intuitive, resilient, and scalable ios applications. with the 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(2022, july). rf energy harvesting system: design of antenna, rectenna, and improving rectenna conversion efficiency. in 2022 international conference on inventive computation technologies (icict) (pp. 604-612). ieee. 10. rele, m., & patil, d. (2023, september). prediction of open slots in bicycle parking stations using the decision tree method. in 2023 third international conference on ubiquitous computing and intelligent information systems (icuis) (pp. 6-10). ieee. 11. machireddy, j. r. (2021). architecting intelligent data pipelines: utilizing cloud-native rpa and ai for automated data warehousing and advanced analytics. african journal of artificial intelligence and sustainable development, 1(2), 127-152. https://www.ijirset.com/upload/2020/october/104_remote.pdf https://www.ijirset.com/upload/2020/october/104_remote.pdf 216 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 1, issue 9, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 data-driven decision making in agile software development with ai and analytics sofia mendes department of computer science, university of lisbon, lisbon, portugal kaito fujimoto department of information technology, kyushu university, fukuoka, japan dr. marcus ferreira department of software engineering, university of são paulo (usp), são paulo, brazil abstract: in today’s rapidly evolving software landscape, agile methodologies emphasize flexibility, iterative delivery, and customer-centric development. however, the increasing complexity of software systems, distributed teams, and accelerated release cycles pose challenges for making timely and accurate decisions. data-driven decision making (dddm), empowered by artificial intelligence (ai) and advanced analytics, has emerged as a critical enabler for enhancing decision quality, optimizing workflows, and improving project outcomes in agile environments. this article explores the integration of ai and analytics into agile software development processes, highlighting how real-time insights from development metrics, user feedback, and operational data can guide backlog prioritization, sprint planning, risk management, and continuous improvement. machine learning models, predictive analytics, and natural language processing facilitate forecasting delivery timelines, identifying potential bottlenecks, detecting defects early, and aligning development efforts with business objectives. the study also addresses challenges, including data quality, model interpretability, integration with existing agile practices, and skill gaps, providing recommendations for effectively embedding ai-driven analytics into agile workflows. real-world applications demonstrate that organizations leveraging dddm in agile achieve faster release cycles, improved software quality, better stakeholder alignment, and more informed strategic decisions. in conclusion, the convergence of ai, analytics, and agile methodologies transforms decision making from intuition-based to evidence-driven, enabling software development teams to respond proactively to change, enhance value delivery, and maintain competitive advantage in a dynamic digital landscape. i. introduction overview of agile software development agile software development has revolutionized the software industry by emphasizing iterative delivery, cross-functional collaboration, and responsiveness to change. unlike traditional waterfall methods, agile focuses on delivering incremental value through sprints, enabling teams to adapt quickly to evolving requirements and stakeholder feedback. frameworks such as 217 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us scrum, kanban, and safe have become widespread, driving faster release cycles, improved transparency, and higher customer satisfaction. increasing importance of data-driven decision making despite agile’s flexibility, modern software development faces growing complexity due to distributed teams, cloud-native architectures, microservices, and accelerated release schedules. in such environments, relying solely on intuition or experience can result in delays, quality issues, and misaligned priorities. data-driven decision making (dddm) addresses this challenge by providing real-time insights derived from development metrics, user behavior, operational logs, and market data, allowing teams to make informed choices about backlog prioritization, resource allocation, and sprint planning. role of ai and advanced analytics the integration of artificial intelligence (ai) and advanced analytics significantly amplifies the benefits of dddm. machine learning models, predictive analytics, and natural language processing can: ➢ forecast project timelines and delivery risks based on historical data. ➢ identify bottlenecks, code defects, or dependency issues before they escalate. ➢ prioritize backlog items and feature releases based on business impact and user feedback. ➢ provide actionable insights for continuous improvement across the agile lifecycle. purpose and significance of the article this article aims to bridge the gap between agile methodologies, data analytics, and aidriven decision making, illustrating how the synergy of these elements can enhance software quality, reduce risks, and improve time-to-market. by examining techniques, practical applications, challenges, and future trends, the study provides a roadmap for organizations seeking to embed intelligence into agile processes, enabling them to make smarter, faster, and evidence-based decisions in today’s fast-paced software development environment. ii. foundations of data-driven agile development definition of data-driven decision making (ddd) in software development data-driven decision making (ddd) refers to the systematic use of quantitative and qualitative data to guide decisions throughout the software development lifecycle. in agile contexts, ddd empowers teams to make informed choices regarding prioritization, risk management, quality assurance, and resource allocation, rather than relying solely on intuition or experience. by integrating real-time data into iterative workflows, teams can adapt more quickly, reduce uncertainty, and continuously optimize outcomes. core agile principles and the role of ddd agile methodologies are grounded in principles such as iterative development, rapid feedback, collaboration, and responsiveness to change. ddd complements these principles by: ➢ enhancing feedback loops: continuous collection and analysis of metrics from code, pipelines, and user behavior allow teams to detect issues early and make data-backed adjustments during each sprint. ➢ driving iterative improvements: quantitative insights inform incremental feature enhancements, bug fixes, and process optimizations, ensuring that each iteration delivers maximum value. ➢ prioritization and risk management: data enables objective decision-making for backlog refinement, helping teams focus on high-impact features and mitigate potential risks. 218 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ transparency and accountability: ddd provides a clear, auditable view of team performance, project health, and delivery outcomes, aligning stakeholders and promoting accountability. sources of actionable data in agile projects agile teams can leverage multiple sources of data to enable effective ddd: 1. code repositories and version control systems ➢ platforms such as git, github, and gitlab store rich historical data on commits, code changes, pull requests, and merge activity. ➢ analysis of this data provides insights into developer productivity, code quality trends, and potential technical debt, guiding decisions on refactoring or optimization. 2. ci/cd pipeline metrics ➢ continuous integration and continuous deployment tools generate key metrics such as build success rates, deployment frequency, test coverage, and rollback events. ➢ ai and analytics can identify bottlenecks, predict pipeline failures, and optimize deployment strategies, ensuring faster and more reliable software delivery. 3. issue tracking and user feedback ➢ tools like jira, trello, and user surveys provide information on reported bugs, feature requests, sprint progress, and user satisfaction. ➢ data from these sources supports evidence-based backlog prioritization, aligns development efforts with user needs, and enhances customer-centric decision making. the foundations of data-driven agile development lie in integrating metrics, analytics, and feedback into every stage of the software lifecycle. by leveraging actionable data from repositories, pipelines, and user interactions, agile teams can accelerate feedback loops, improve quality, mitigate risks, and make decisions grounded in evidence. when combined with ai, these capabilities are amplified, enabling predictive insights, anomaly detection, and continuous optimization in fast-paced agile environments. iii. role of ai and analytics in agile decision-making the integration of artificial intelligence (ai) and advanced analytics into agile software development is redefining how teams make decisions, enabling faster, more precise, and evidence-driven outcomes. by harnessing the wealth of data generated from development workflows, ci/cd pipelines, and user interactions, ai facilitates a shift from intuition-based to data-informed decision-making, enhancing software quality, predictability, and business alignment. predictive analytics ➢ purpose: predictive analytics leverages historical and real-time data to anticipate potential risks, performance outcomes, and delivery bottlenecks. ➢ applications: ✓ sprint success forecasting: evaluates current sprint progress, velocity, and backlog complexity to predict successful completion. ✓ defect risk assessment: identifies modules or components with a high probability of defects, enabling targeted testing and remediation. ✓ delivery timeline projections: generates realistic estimates for feature releases and milestones, enhancing resource planning and stakeholder confidence. 219 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us machine learning models ➢ purpose: machine learning uncovers hidden patterns and correlations in development and operational data that humans might overlook. ➢ applications: ✓ team performance optimization: analyzes code commits, review cycles, and deployment metrics to identify productivity trends and process inefficiencies. ✓ code quality monitoring: detects recurring error patterns or potential technical debt areas, guiding proactive code refactoring. ✓ bug trend prediction: recognizes recurring defect types and risk-prone modules, supporting preventive maintenance and risk mitigation strategies. natural language processing (nlp) ➢ purpose: nlp extracts actionable insights from unstructured textual data, such as user stories, requirements, and customer feedback. ➢ applications: ✓ requirement and backlog analysis: detects ambiguities, overlaps, or inconsistencies in user stories, ensuring clarity and completeness. ✓ sentiment and feedback analysis: evaluates customer feedback and support tickets to prioritize features or fixes aligned with user expectations. ✓ backlog refinement: enhances decision-making by automatically tagging, categorizing, and ranking backlog items based on urgency, impact, or dependencies. ai-powered recommendation systems ➢ purpose: intelligent recommendation engines guide strategic decision-making, prioritization, and resource allocation within agile frameworks. ➢ applications: ✓ suggest optimal backlog prioritization considering risk, business value, and development dependencies. ✓ recommend resource allocation to balance team workload and maximize efficiency. ✓ identify critical testing, refactoring, or optimization tasks to reduce defects and improve release quality. visualization and dashboards ➢ purpose: ai-driven visualization tools transform complex datasets into intuitive, actionable insights that support rapid decision-making. ➢ applications: ✓ real-time dashboards highlight sprint progress, defect trends, test coverage, and team performance, facilitating transparent and data-driven collaboration. ✓ interactive analytics enable stakeholders to quickly identify risks, bottlenecks, and opportunities for improvement, supporting agile responsiveness. by integrating predictive analytics, machine learning, nlp, ai recommendation systems, and dynamic visualizations, agile teams gain a comprehensive, data-driven view of development processes. this empowers organizations to anticipate challenges, optimize workflows, and align software delivery with strategic business goals. ultimately, ai and analytics transform agile decision-making into a proactive, precise, and continuously 220 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us improving discipline, enhancing both product quality and organizational agility in today’s competitive software landscape. iv. integrating data-driven practices in agile workflows embedding data-driven practices into agile workflows enables development teams to make evidence-based decisions, optimize performance, and continuously improve software quality. by integrating analytics, ai, and real-time metrics into every stage of the agile lifecycle, organizations can enhance transparency, responsiveness, and strategic alignment. embedding analytics into sprint planning and retrospectives ➢ sprint planning: leveraging historical data and ai-driven predictive analytics helps teams estimate effort accurately, prioritize backlog items, and allocate resources efficiently. ➢ retrospectives: analytics tools provide objective insights into team performance, velocity trends, defect rates, and bottlenecks, enabling continuous improvement based on evidence rather than intuition. ➢ outcome: sprint planning and retrospectives become more data-informed, actionable, and aligned with project goals, reducing risks of underor over-commitment. continuous monitoring of kpis and okrs ➢ purpose: tracking key performance indicators (kpis) and objectives and key results (okrs) ensures that agile teams maintain focus on critical outcomes and business value. ➢ applications: ✓ monitoring lead time, cycle time, deployment frequency, and defect density to identify efficiency gaps. ✓ evaluating alignment of development efforts with strategic objectives using okrs and progress dashboards. ➢ impact: provides a real-time pulse on team performance, enabling managers and stakeholders to make timely interventions and adjustments. ai-assisted code review and testing automation in ci/cd pipelines ➢ code review: ai models analyze pull requests and commits to detect potential bugs, security vulnerabilities, or code smells, accelerating the review process. ➢ automated testing: ai-powered testing tools generate and execute test cases, perform regression analysis, and identify anomalies earlier in the ci/cd pipeline. ➢ impact: improves code quality, reduces manual effort, and ensures faster, more reliable deployments without compromising agile speed. real-time feedback loops from production systems ➢ purpose: continuous feedback from live production systems allows teams to observe application performance, user behavior, and operational issues. ➢ applications: ✓ collecting telemetry, error logs, and usage patterns to identify emerging issues or feature improvements. ✓ feeding insights back into backlog prioritization, sprint planning, and quality assurance processes. ➢ impact: enables adaptive development, ensuring that agile teams respond quickly to changing user needs and operational realities, achieving a true closed-loop, data-driven development cycle. 221 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us integrating data-driven practices into agile workflows transforms software development into a continuous learning and improvement system. by combining analytics in planning, aiassisted code review, kpi monitoring, and real-time production feedback, organizations can enhance decision-making, optimize team performance, and deliver higher-quality software faster. this integration ensures that agile processes remain flexible, evidence-based, and aligned with both technical and business objectives, establishing a foundation for sustainable, data-driven success. v. benefits of data-driven decision-making in agile incorporating data-driven decision-making (ddd) into agile software development delivers tangible improvements across technical, operational, and strategic dimensions. by leveraging analytics, ai, and real-time metrics, teams can make smarter decisions, optimize workflows, and enhance the overall quality and value of software delivery. faster and more accurate decision-making in sprint planning ➢ benefit: data-driven insights enable teams to estimate effort, forecast risks, and allocate resources with precision. ➢ impact: reduces reliance on subjective judgment or intuition, allowing for more realistic sprint commitments and minimizing overor under-planning. reduced defect rates and improved software quality ➢ benefit: continuous monitoring of code quality, automated testing, and predictive defect analysis help identify vulnerabilities and errors earlier in the development lifecycle. ➢ impact: early detection and remediation of defects lead to higher-quality releases, reduced rework, and lower technical debt, ensuring more robust and reliable software. enhanced predictability of delivery timelines ➢ benefit: predictive analytics and historical performance data allow teams to anticipate bottlenecks, forecast completion dates, and manage dependencies effectively. ➢ impact: stakeholders gain greater confidence in delivery timelines, enabling better planning, resource allocation, and alignment with business objectives. data-backed prioritization leading to higher customer satisfaction ➢ benefit: ai-assisted backlog prioritization and analysis of user feedback ensure that features delivering the highest value are implemented first. ➢ impact: aligns development efforts with actual customer needs, resulting in increased user satisfaction, engagement, and business value realization. scalability of agile practices across large, distributed teams ➢ benefit: analytics and ai tools provide visibility and coordination across geographically distributed teams, supporting consistent practices and performance monitoring. ➢ impact: facilitates scaling agile at enterprise levels, ensuring cohesive collaboration, uniform quality standards, and synchronized delivery across multiple teams and projects. the adoption of data-driven decision-making in agile development fundamentally enhances the software delivery lifecycle. teams achieve faster, more informed decisions, reduce defects, improve predictability, and better align with customer expectations. moreover, ddd supports the scalability of agile practices in complex, distributed environments, enabling organizations to maintain high performance, consistent quality, and strategic agility in a rapidly evolving software landscape. 222 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us vi. challenges and limitations while data-driven decision-making (ddd) offers significant advantages in agile software development, several challenges and limitations must be considered to ensure effective adoption and avoid potential pitfalls. data quality and completeness issues ➢ challenge: the accuracy of data-driven decisions is highly dependent on the quality, reliability, and completeness of underlying data. incomplete commit histories, inconsistent ci/cd metrics, or inaccurate user feedback can lead to misleading insights. ➢ impact: poor data quality may result in incorrect prioritization, flawed predictions, and suboptimal resource allocation, potentially undermining trust in ddd approaches. ➢ mitigation: implement robust data governance practices, including data validation, cleaning, and standardized collection, to ensure the integrity of analytics outputs. resistance to change from traditional agile teams ➢ challenge: agile teams accustomed to experience-based or intuition-driven decisionmaking may resist adopting data-driven approaches. concerns about tool complexity, workflow disruption, or loss of autonomy can hinder implementation. ➢ impact: resistance can slow adoption, reduce team engagement, and compromise the effectiveness of ai and analytics integration. ➢ mitigation: promote change management strategies, provide training, and demonstrate clear benefits of data-driven practices to foster team buy-in and cultural alignment. complexity in integrating ai tools with existing agile toolchains ➢ challenge: incorporating ai and analytics into agile workflows often requires integration with code repositories, ci/cd pipelines, issue trackers, and monitoring systems. tool incompatibilities, api limitations, or inconsistent data formats can complicate deployment. ➢ impact: integration challenges may lead to pipeline delays, incomplete data capture, or fragmented insights, reducing the efficacy of ddd. ➢ mitigation: adopt modular, interoperable ai solutions, and prioritize seamless integration with existing agile platforms to minimize disruption. over-reliance on ai predictions vs. human judgment ➢ challenge: while ai can provide predictive insights, anomaly detection, and prioritization recommendations, an over-reliance on automated outputs may undermine critical human judgment. ➢ impact: blindly following ai predictions without contextual evaluation can result in misguided decisions, overlooked edge cases, or poor strategic alignment. ➢ mitigation: combine ai insights with human expertise, promoting a hybrid decisionmaking approach where ai guides analysis but human judgment validates actions. vii. case studies and industry applications the practical adoption of data-driven decision-making (ddd) in agile has been demonstrated across various industries, showcasing measurable improvements in software quality, team efficiency, and business outcomes. the following examples illustrate how organizations leverage ai and analytics to enhance agile practices: 223 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us tech giants: metrics-driven retrospectives ➢ example: spotify employs a data-driven approach to retrospectives and team performance evaluation, using metrics such as sprint velocity, cycle time, and code churn to guide process improvements. ➢ impact: teams gain objective insights into workflow bottlenecks, enabling targeted interventions that improve sprint predictability and delivery efficiency. ➢ outcome: enhanced collaboration, faster identification of impediments, and continuous process optimization. financial services: ai-assisted backlog prioritization and risk assessment ➢ example: leading financial institutions implement ai models to analyze historical incidents, customer impact, and regulatory compliance requirements for backlog prioritization. ➢ impact: ai-driven recommendations help teams focus on high-risk, high-value tasks, ensuring that resources are allocated efficiently. ➢ outcome: reduced operational risk, improved feature delivery alignment with business priorities, and more reliable software releases. healthcare and critical systems: predictive analytics for defect prevention ➢ example: healthcare software providers integrate predictive analytics into agile pipelines to detect code modules likely to contain defects or vulnerabilities before deployment. ➢ impact: early detection prevents critical errors in electronic health records (ehrs), medical devices, and patient-facing applications. ➢ outcome: fewer post-release defects, enhanced patient safety, and compliance with strict regulatory requirements such as hipaa. lessons learned and measurable outcomes across these industries, the adoption of data-driven agile practices has led to: ➢ faster release cycles: continuous insights enable teams to reduce iteration times while maintaining quality. ➢ reduced defects and technical debt: ai-assisted testing and predictive analytics prevent issues before they impact production. ➢ improved team productivity: data-driven metrics highlight bottlenecks and optimize resource allocation. ➢ enhanced business alignment: decisions informed by analytics ensure that development efforts focus on high-value features with measurable customer impact. viii. future directions as agile software development continues to evolve, the integration of ai and advanced analytics is set to redefine decision-making, planning, and execution processes. emerging technologies and methodologies are enabling teams to become more predictive, adaptive, and collaborative, while maintaining the core principles of agile. generative ai for automated user story creation and backlog management ➢ emerging trend: generative ai models can automatically draft user stories, acceptance criteria, and backlog items by analyzing requirements, historical data, and customer feedback. 224 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ impact: reduces manual effort in backlog refinement, ensures consistency in story quality, and allows product owners to focus on strategic prioritization. ➢ benefit: accelerates sprint planning and enhances alignment between business objectives and development tasks. ai-driven scenario simulation for agile strategy prediction ➢ emerging trend: ai-powered simulation tools enable teams to model “what-if” scenarios, predicting outcomes of different backlog priorities, resource allocations, or sprint configurations. ➢ impact: provides insights into potential risks, bottlenecks, and performance trade-offs before implementation. ➢ benefit: facilitates data-informed strategic planning, improving decision-making in complex or high-stakes agile environments. integration of real-time analytics with devops pipelines ➢ emerging trend: combining ai-driven analytics with ci/cd pipelines allows continuous monitoring of code quality, deployment metrics, and operational performance. ➢ impact: teams can detect anomalies, bottlenecks, or defects in real time, enabling proactive intervention without disrupting agile velocity. ➢ benefit: establishes a closed-loop feedback system, where insights from production environments directly inform development decisions. evolution of explainable ai (xai) ➢ emerging trend: explainable ai provides transparent reasoning behind ai predictions, ensuring that insights are interpretable by developers, product owners, and stakeholders. ➢ impact: increases trust in ai-driven recommendations, reduces skepticism, and enables teams to validate or challenge ai outputs. ➢ benefit: supports a hybrid decision-making model where ai complements human judgment rather than replacing it. cross-team collaboration and distributed agile ➢ emerging trend: ai-driven insights enable distributed agile teams to coordinate more effectively across geographies and functional areas. ➢ impact: analytics facilitate shared visibility of performance metrics, backlog priorities, and sprint outcomes, enhancing synchronization and alignment. ➢ benefit: promotes scalable, data-driven collaboration, ensuring consistent delivery quality across large, distributed organizations. the future of data-driven agile development lies in predictive, automated, and transparent ai integration. generative ai, scenario simulation, real-time analytics, explainable ai, and data-enabled cross-team collaboration are transforming agile into a more proactive, adaptive, and scalable discipline. organizations that embrace these trends will achieve higher delivery efficiency, improved software quality, and stronger alignment with business and user objectives, positioning themselves for sustained success in a competitive, data-driven software landscape. ix. recommendations to maximize the benefits of data-driven decision-making in agile software development, organizations should adopt a strategic, incremental, and human-centric approach. the 225 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us following recommendations provide guidance for integrating ai and analytics effectively while preserving the flexibility and adaptability inherent in agile practices. implement incremental ai-powered analytics ➢ approach: introduce ai-driven insights gradually, starting with specific use cases such as predictive defect detection, backlog prioritization, or sprint velocity forecasting. ➢ rationale: incremental adoption allows teams to validate ai outputs, refine models, and build trust without overwhelming existing workflows. ➢ benefit: ensures a smooth transition to ai-enhanced decision-making while minimizing disruption to established agile processes. establish kpis for team performance and software quality ➢ approach: define clear key performance indicators (kpis) that capture both development efficiency (e.g., lead time, cycle time) and product quality (e.g., defect density, test coverage). ➢ rationale: data-driven insights are meaningful only when aligned with measurable objectives that reflect business goals and customer expectations. ➢ benefit: provides actionable benchmarks for continuous improvement and accountability across teams and projects. combine quantitative data with qualitative human insights ➢ approach: use ai analytics to augment human judgment, not replace it. encourage teams to interpret quantitative data in the context of experience, domain knowledge, and stakeholder feedback. ➢ rationale: balanced decision-making mitigates risks of over-reliance on ai models, which may overlook edge cases or context-specific factors. ➢ benefit: strengthens decision accuracy, stakeholder confidence, and team engagement. train agile teams to interpret ai insights effectively ➢ approach: provide training on data literacy, ai model interpretation, and visualization tools, ensuring that all team members can understand and act on ai-generated insights. ➢ rationale: ai is most effective when human operators can translate insights into practical actions, integrate them into sprints, and challenge results when necessary. ➢ benefit: enhances team autonomy, trust in ai, and the overall impact of data-driven practices. invest in secure and integrated data platforms ➢ approach: build unified platforms that collect, store, and analyze data from code repositories, ci/cd pipelines, issue trackers, and production systems in a secure, compliant manner. ➢ rationale: disconnected data sources or insecure analytics workflows reduce reliability and introduce privacy or compliance risks. ➢ benefit: facilitates holistic visibility, seamless integration, and governance, supporting robust, enterprise-scale data-driven agile practices. implementing these recommendations enables organizations to harness ai and analytics strategically, responsibly, and effectively in agile environments. by combining incremental adoption, clear kpis, human judgment, team training, and integrated platforms, organizations can optimize decision-making, improve software quality, accelerate delivery, 226 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and scale agile practices across distributed teams while maintaining trust, security, and adaptability.x. conclusion the integration of ai and advanced analytics into agile software development has transformed decision-making from intuition-based to evidence-driven, enabling teams to operate with greater speed, precision, and confidence. by leveraging data from code repositories, ci/cd pipelines, user feedback, and operational systems, organizations can anticipate risks, optimize workflows, and deliver software that consistently aligns with business and customer priorities. a critical success factor in data-driven agile development is the blend of human judgment with ai-powered insights. while ai can provide predictive analytics, anomaly detection, and actionable recommendations, human expertise ensures contextual understanding, strategic alignment, and ethical decision-making. this synergy between humans and ai strengthens decision quality, fosters team trust, and supports continuous learning and adaptation. organizations that embrace data-driven practices in 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(2020). building data models for regulatory reporting in bfsi using sap power designer. international journal of scientific research in science, engineering and technology (ijsrset), 7(6), 359–366. https://doi.org/10.32628/ijsrset2021449 https://ijritcc.org/index.php/ijritcc/article/view/11744 https://ijritcc.org/index.php/ijritcc/article/view/11744 https://ijritcc.org/index.php/ijritcc/article/view/11744 https://doi.org/10.55267/iadt https://doi.org/10.55267/iadt https://ijope.com/index.php/home/article/view/209 https://ijope.com/index.php/home/article/view/209 https://ijope.com/index.php/home/article/view/209 https://doi.org/10.32628/cseit2391548 https://doi.org/10.32628/cseit2391548 https://doi.org/10.32628/ijsrset2021449 https://doi.org/10.32628/ijsrset2021449 https://doi.org/10.32628/ijsrset2021449 122 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 ergonomic requirements for the audience in improving the educational process d. sh. pirmatova kamoliddin behzod nomli milliy dizayn va rassomlik institute “dizayn” kafedrasi o’qituvchisi abstract: in this article, we will focus mainly on the productivity of the educational process within the framework of ergonomic requirements, the improvement of the educational process has not yet been studied. in the context of increasing automation, technization and informatization of education, there is a need for ergonomic research within the framework of requirements. improving the educational process initially, ergonomics is understood as a science that studies systems, laws. keywords: specialty, perspective, fine, design, science. in the conditions of increasing automation, technicalization and informationization of education, there is a need for ergonomic research within the requirements. improving the educational process, ergonomics was initially understood as a science that studies systems and laws. in 2010, the international ergonomics association defines ergonomics as: a scientific discipline that studies the interaction of people and other elements of the system, systems for ensuring human well-being and general performance optimization, science deals with the problems of human learning, education and training. the science of pedagogy deals with the problems of human learning, education and training. educational information is transferred and assimilated during the pedagogic learning process. also, familiarization methods are used. let's look at the learning process from three perspectives:  forms of students' introductory activities;  mental activity leads in material, verbal and intellectual learning;  mental activity leads in material, verbal and mental learning: practical training of students during practical training. thus, we see that there are "direct" and "inverse" relationships between the three forms of information-giving activity. therefore, when acquiring significantly new knowledge and methods of activity, the materialized form forms the form of speech. mental, after assimilation, mental actions precede and define speech. effectiveness of practical activity, today all these forms are widely used. improving the productivity of the educational process within the framework of ergonomic requirements has not yet been studied. a practical solution to this question can be implemented empirically based on pedagogical experience. [1] 123 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us training, practical activities of the participants of the educational process. stimulation makes the theoretical level of the system of relations in education more effective. fundamentals of technical ergonomic design. ergonomic requirements are requirements for compliance of the product design with the characteristics of the human body to ensure ease of use. ergonomics can be seen as a manifestation of compatibility in the system "man product", "man technology". ergonomics (from the greek word "ergon" means "work" and "nomos" means law) is a scientific science that studies the possibility of human labor at work and favorable conditions for human labor. states the legality of conditions and necessary facilities and their implementation. ergonomics designs a clearly visible activity of a person in accordance with the purpose, connecting it to new technology. "the demand for ergonomic research in modern manufacturing has become so necessary and important that it is impossible not to admit that ergonomics has become something of a cult in japan" (encyclopedia of japanese design, 1964). in 1961, the international ergonomics organization was formed, which united more than 30 countries. as a separate science in our country, it began to develop since the 1950s, and at present, no design solution is implemented without the basis of clear ergonomic evidence. the creation of comfortable working conditions does not depend only on the equipment, but also the rise and fall of pressure, noise, vibrations, and chemical particles in the air affect the human work process. therefore, the machine being created should take into account the demand not only for it, but also for the "human-machine environment" system. such an approach requires continuous communication with technical fields and science about man and his work. the creation of comfortable working conditions does not depend only on the equipment, but also the rise and fall of pressure, noise, vibrations, and chemical particles in the air affect the human work process. therefore, the machine being created should take into account the demand not only for it, but also for the "human-machine-environment" system. such an approach requires continuous communication with technical fields and science about man and his work. serviceability is the compatibility of machine constructions or individual elements with a comfortable psycho-physiological system and in the process of operation use, service and repair. adaptation of the machine to the size and shape of the operator and his weight distribution. liveability in order to make a person sane, healthy and able to work, the operation of the machine must correspond to the parameters of the biologically favorable working environment. the opportunity to quickly study the documents related to the machine and its use (to gain the necessary knowledge, training and skills in driving and servicing the machine). references: 1. окулова л.п. педагогическая эргономика: монография. – м.: ижевск: институт компьютерных исследований, 2011. – 200 с. 2. паронджанов в.д. дружелюбные алгоритмы, понятные каждому. как улучшить работу ума без лишних хлопот. м.: дмк-пресс, 2010. – 464 с. 3. педагогика: учебник/л.п. крившенко [и др.]; под ред. л.п. крившенко. – москва: проспект, 2012. с.254. рецензент: медведкова наталия ивановна, доктор педагогических наук, профессор, фгбоу впо «чайковский государственный институт физической культуры» 124 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. https://infourok.ru/prezentatsiya-tayyorlangan-buyum-va-mahsulotlarga-qo-yiladiganergonomik-talablar-5615223.html. 5. sultanova muhayyo fahriddinovna the formation of art and architecture of the ancient period // european journal of arts. 2023. №1. url: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-formation-of-art-and-architecture-of-the-ancient-period (дата обращения: 22.06.2024). 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 organizing management in the transport logistics system karimov akmal akbarovich associate professor of karshi institute of engineering and economics, doctor of philosophy in technical sciences sharipov umrzoq otabek o’g’li graduate student of karshi institute of engineering and economics abstract: the article deals with the development of logistics work in enterprises. proper organization of logistics in enterprises helps to increase the efficiency of transport. keywords: economy, technical supply, service, distributed services, management, type of product, material flows. introduction. in the conditions of the market economy, industrialized companies of the country use two forms of organization of material and technical supply: centralized and decentralized. each of these forms (supply and sales) is a unique grouped and distributed supply sales service. in a grouped service, all its departments perform separate functions (supply, sales, storage, transportation, etc.). for distributed services, it is typical to split linear sections over two or more sections. material and methods. usually, the centralized form of material and technical supply management is used in firms that produce one type of product and enterprises operating in one region. a decentralized form of management is used in firms located in different regions and specializing in the production of the same or several different products. sometimes a mixed form of management is used. reduction of transaction costs in the centralization of material and technical supply is achieved by receiving large quantities of goods from suppliers and buying them at discounted prices. in a decentralized form, the supply service organization, production and sales departments purchase relatively small quantities of raw materials and products, resulting in delivery costs. material equipment supply reduces transaction costs due to reduction of material stocks in each production department and enterprise activity. material equipment supply takes responsibility for the movement of material flows within the enterprise, including incoming raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products (sent to consumers), as well as ensuring the production process of all necessary materials at the required time and in the required quantity. this organization of the materials management service reports to the vice president of the firm and may sometimes be combined with the production service and design in a single department. according to this diagram, the president and vice-president of the firm manage each department, including financial issues, market policy issues, product production, research, and finally material and technical support issues. 67 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us its organization in the form of a centralized management of the group service of material and technical supply implies a special responsibility for production supply and sales in the activities of each firm, which is specialized in the production of a specific type of product. the diagram below shows the concentration of material and equipment supply function within the service of each firm responsible for this or that type of product. in the case where the concentration of such a function is not necessary, the form of centralized management of the spread service of material equipment supply is used. results. under the influence of the new commodity policy and strong competition, the constant restructuring of the work of large industrial corporations is inevitably associated with a change in the size of the material value of goods and the formation of a new system between different functional departments. an important issue of the management apparatus is to ensure such reorganization in a short period of time with few losses. under the material flow management system in companies, 2 main directions of sustainable communication adaptation can be distinguished. the first direction is the acceleration of interaction between different functional departments due to the development of various economic mechanisms. the second direction is the development of the necessary level of cooperation through organizational changes in corporations. these directions, as a rule, develop in parallel and complement each other. discussion. in the experiment, various methods of adaptation are used with the help of a model that controls the actions of managers and specially developed procedures within the framework of material flow management. in recent years, the main attention in american corporations has been focused on stabilizing the management of material resources with the help of specialized information systems and computers. stabilization of planned and controlled work procedures in the process of material flow management based on the widespread use of computers is carried out simultaneously with the organization of service restructuring. this led to the emergence of a newly organized mechanism of control and adaptation. among the most common, it is possible to show mechanisms organized in three different ways:  special functional departments are formed, in which a large part of the planning, management and control functions, and the regulated part of the movement of material flows through new corporations are controlled. this method is most often used in practice;  if a special leader or adaptation group is appointed, the main issue is the adaptation of the decision-making process on the management of material flows in functional blocks;  a matrix mechanism based on two-way subordination to departments will be created, which will depend on effective management of material flows. the development of a special structure for the management of material resources is usually carried out at the expense of the problems in this field that each company faces. under the material flow management system, 3 main structural blocks are divided according to functional specialization: 1) planning and adaptation; 2) management or regulation; 3) control. the first option is designed to increase the efficiency of the use of raw materials and materials in the production process and at the supply stage, and is often used in corporations that produce products of industrial importance. the main problem here is the need for constant communication between production departments and supply works, the organization of control over the storage and use of material resources, and the provision of operational management of the movement of material resources through production departments. are issues. the second option the structure of the material flow management department is often used in companies that serve a large number of customers and produce a wide range of products. conclusion. a control system has an input, that is, it has a specific purpose depending on the level of the control hierarchy. it is not always possible to achieve goals during a specific period of management. success in one activity may lead to failure in another. it is very important to 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us determine the type of measurement unit of activity results on the way to achieving the goal. after this stage, control begins. for example, you have been given responsibility for the development of a new product, and you are primarily interested in the high quality of this product. meanwhile, accountants are interested in reducing production costs, and economists are interested in its efficiency. the experience of working with a team shows that if the attention of employees is drawn to a specific dimension, the received control numbers will be sharp. references 1. каримов, а. а., & угли кичкинаев, м. а. (2023). присадка для моторные масла. educational research in universal sciences, 2(3), 1021-1024. 2. karimov, a. a. (2023). intelektual tizimlarning harakat xavfsizligiga ta’sirining ahamiyati. educational research in universal sciences, 2(18), 181-184. 3. karimov, a. a. (2024). transportlarda tashishni tashkil etishda logistik tamoyillardan foydalanish. educational research in universal sciences, 3(3), 60-65. 4. karimov, a. a. (2024). avtomobillarda tashishni tashkil etishning tasniflanishi. educational research in universal sciences, 3(3), 164-168. 5. karimov, a. a. (2023). yo ‘l belgilarining harakat xavfsizligi ko ‘rsatgichlariga ta’siri. innovative development in educational activities, 2(23), 504-511. 6. karimov, a. a. (2023). harakat xavfsizligini tashkil etishda telematik tizimlardan foydalanishni takomillashtirish. educational research in universal sciences, 2(17 special), 70-73. 7. karimov, a. a. (2023). qarshi shahri ko ‘chalarida harakat xavfsizligini ilmiy asosda tadqiq qilish. innovative development in educational activities, 2(22), 190-199. 8. каримов, а. а. (2017). обоснования сроков службы моторных масел зарубежние автомобиля приусловия эксплуатации в узбекистане. in молодежь и системная модернизация страны (pp. 143-146). 9. каримов, а. а. (2016). коррозионная стойкость оксинитридных покрытий. электронный периодический рецензируемый научный журнал «sciarticle. ru», 60. 10. насиров, и. з., косимов, и. с., & каримов, а. а. (2017). морфологик тахлил" методини қўллаб ўт олдириш свечасини такомиллаштириш. инновацион технологиялар, 3, 27-74. 1 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 01, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх to investigate on the readiness of the employees towards the social interaction with technology in the workplace in malaysia yeoh wee win1 1school of business, inti international college, penang. * corresponding author abstract the recent advancement trend of the technology had motivated the need for the study to explore the readiness of the employees in the workplace in accepting the new technology engagement. with this, the current study will focus on investigating the readiness of the employees towards the social interaction with the technology in the workplace in malaysia. the previous study had suggested that there is indication of the social interaction among employees to have positive relationship against the acceptance of the technology at workplace which provide the indication that the employees are not ready for the shift into the digitalization era of working environment. the quantitative analysis method had been taken into the account for the methodology of the research where the quantitative analysis will focus on the output based on the 150 questionnaires distribution among the malaysian employees based on the convenience sampling. the outcome of the result through the quantitative analysis had observe the lack of evidence to prove the presence of the significant in the relationship between the social interaction of the employee towards the acceptance of the technology in the workplace. this had been providing the evidence to show that the malaysian employees had been not affected by the social interaction factor when comes to the transitioning towards the engagement of new technology in the workplace provide the indication that the malaysian employees are likely to be ready for the shift into the transitioning and shift into the use of technology in the workplace. keywordsreadiness, malaysia, employees, social interaction, workplace introduction the importance of keeping up with technological developments for the long-term success of a firm has grown in recent years. it was widely believed that widespread uptake of the technology would occur as the result of the accelerating rate at which it was being used (barkhi & kozlowski, 2017). artificial intelligence (ai), robotic process automation (rpa), data visualization, cloud software, and many others have become widely adopted as a result of technological advancements. according to zhang (2019), this is going to be a big thing in the workplace in the near future, thus it's important for workers to have a head start on the learning curve involved in incorporating these technologies into their daily work. promoting adoption is based on the idea that increasing productivity in the workplace may be achieved by adopting digital tools and methods that are in 2 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us step with the market and emerging trends. in recent years, technology has increasingly come to be seen as an absolute requirement in the workplace, essential to any business that hopes to improve the effectiveness of its operations and increase productivity (cheung, 2020). there was never any doubt that organizations, and especially multinational corporations, would follow the current trend of adopting technology, which has made the adoption of modern technologies a must for the transformation of business (zoey, 2019). it was the development of workplace technology that prompted the widespread adoption of ideas like cost cutting and process optimization. these factors have been major motivators for businesses to advance their use of technology within the company in the pursuit of delivering greater commercial value (walker, 2017). since the company's primary goal is to expand its worth and wealth in order to meet the expectations of its shareholders, this strategy was consistent with the company's overall objective. in the grand scheme of things, incorporating technologies like ai, rpa, data visualization, and cloud software into the workplace would require not just the acquisition of such tools, but also ready access to the necessary skills and ability within the staff (tarhini, et al., 2016). in other words, it's up to the staff to work in tandem with the company's technology to produce the results that customers demand. in light of this, the company may need to allocate more resources to employee benefits and emphasize the importance of employees making the transition from manual to automated processes within their current roles, with the goal of increasing the company's efficiency and reaping the many rewards of doing so (sousa & rocha, 2018). with this, the problem statement arise in the view to explore the doubt on the readiness for the individuals in facing the shift towards the engagement of new technology in the workplace. the social interaction had become the new norm through the technology where the blending on the application of the technology facilities as well as using the virtual conference and meetings through online platform had been seen as the opportunity to bring the world closer without borders allowing the higher efficiency of work being achieved. this had directed the research objective for the current study to initiate the need to address the problem statement of the study by exploring the readiness of the employees at the workplace in facing the technology engagement with reference to the social interaction to understand the ability and comfort for the employees to blend into the digitalization era of the workplace in the twenty first century. literature review it is possible that the automation functions incorporated into the process and jobs would lead to less human touch and engagement amongst the employees, which is a potential downside of the employment of contemporary technology. according to schwabe and castellacci (2020), synergy in the workplace can be achieved by adequate communication and cooperation among workers. the reverse effect is anticipated to occur as a result of the increased use of technologies, with social interaction leading to a considerable decrease in staff morale. according to research conducted by spanjol, tam, and tam (2015), the application of technology to the delivery of a task enhances both its efficiency and quality. the need for less social interaction among workers has become a major motivator for increased concentration and productivity through less time and effort waste. sharma, tam, and kim (2012) all agreed that if businesses use technological 3 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us solutions, their workers will be better able to focus on their tasks. because of this, the adoption of new technology has increased, and it's become easier to collaborate with colleagues. in accordance with the conventional method of doing things, you'll have to engage in the customary activities, which entail social engagement with your coworkers and peers. involvement in such social activity is often framed more as a requirement than a preference (muk and chung, 2015) due to the prevalence of certain technological advancements, we will see a marked decrease in face-to-face interaction amongst coworkers and peers. some workers may feel uneasy about putting their faith in systems like ai and rpa, which will make their jobs easier while simultaneously reducing the amount of human interaction needed to complete them. it was noted by sharma, tam, and kim (2015) that some workers consider technological solutions to be the best option because they expect less interruptions and less time spent on meaningless small talk while using such solutions. kim (2012) notes, however, that there are opposing viewpoints on the topic of workplace social contact. employees would rather engage with other humans, according to the research's findings, because a workplace where every activity is automated makes for a less stimulating and collaborative working atmosphere. kim (2012) noted in his own study that some workers remained optimistic despite the fact that technological advancements made it possible to eliminate timeconsuming manual tasks and reduced the amount of time spent dealing with difficult stakeholder concerns. employees' social interactions, which have been seen to have a positive relationship against the acceptance of technology on the part of employees, would benefit from the reduction in operational chores that will lighten their communication load. previous research has shown that the social connection does play a significant role in influencing the acceptability of technology among employees. this is due to the fact that after the introduction of new technologies, workplace interactions and communication will change. h0: there is no significant social interaction factors positively affecting the acceptance of the technology in the workplace. h0: there is significant social interaction factors positively affecting the acceptance of the technology in the workplace. methodology an essential part of any research report, the research design specifies how the study's data will be collected, analyzed, and presented as evidence (apuke, 2017). the quantifiable nature of the data necessitated by the study's design means that we can put the literature review's hypotheses to the test and return to the original questions that prompted this investigation (sekaran and bougie, 2016). rather than relying on speculation or anecdotes, advocates of quantitative research point to the method's track record of producing objective findings through data analysis in service of the study's stated aim, thereby providing a more concrete and actionable result for the scholarly contribution (cooper and schindler, 2014). in addition, the study's selection of quantitative analysis is predicated on the fact that it can analyze copious volumes of data, expanding the scope of the study and increasing its potential for data collection (sekaran and bougie, 2016). in addition, the use of numerical data in quantitative analysis allows for more objective and certain results to 4 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us be obtained from the examination of data, free from the influence of doubt or subjective judgment (cooper and schindler, 2014). employees currently working for mncs in malaysia will make up the bulk of the study's population. the rapid growth and development of technology in the workplace was a major factor in deciding that malaysia would serve as the study's destination of choice for the target demographic. the questionnaire design will become the instrument for the quantitative data collecting procedure, which will be conducted through the primary data market. one hundred fifty people from the study's identified target demographic were given access to the survey via the study's online platform; these people were chosen through a convenience sample technique that reduced both the time and money spent on gathering data (etikan, 2016). in order to understand the possible relevance in the real-world business setting, this study will incorporate ontological considerations by investigating the nature of the world. to understand how businesses are embracing new technologies, it is helpful to have a firm grasp on ontology, the study of human thought and belief about the nature and character of reality (apuke, 2017). to ascertain whether or not a topic can be considered objectively true, the ontology approach will offer viewpoints on reality based on the results of empirical investigation. there are various potential methodologies and branches within epistemology, such as interpretivism and positivism. positivism is described as the idea of factual knowledge acquired from the outcomes of study based on observation, including quantitative measurement (sekaran and bougie, 2016). (sekaran and bougie, 2016). research positivism is often constrained by the depth to which data was collected and analyzed. in order to draw conclusions about the connection between workers' behavioral intentions and their adoption of technology in the workplace, the authors conducted a quantitative data analysis using statistical output that included the aforementioned study. to guarantee high accuracy and reliability in the achievement of findings and results for the study, the reliability test will serve as the basis for verifying the consistency and quality of the data (cooper and schindler, 2014). next, the correlation analysis will encourage investigation into the direction and degree of the association between the two variables (sharela, 2016). the empirical evidence derived from both the correlation analysis and the regression analysis will become the fundamental testing for the hypothesis as drawn from the literature review discussed in the study, and this will be accomplished by incorporating a regression analysis into the quantitative analysis. discussion and findings the findings of the result is based on the interpretation of the data input from the questionnaire that contribute to the quantitative analysis of the study. the spss software had become the quantitative tool that assist the generation of the statistical output for the purpose of research. firstly, the reliability analysis had been conducted as part of the fundamental step in quantitative analysis with the intention to check the quality of the data. the reliability analysis test the consistency of the data which will contribute to ensuring the elimination of the potential data error in the data set. based on this current research, the reliability analysis for the social interaction 5 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us factor had achieved the 97.2% which provide the green light as the benchmark for the reliability analysis had been set to be above 70% to be verified to proceed with the quantitative analysis. moving on into the correlation analysis, the correlation analysis intended to study the correlation whether it’s positive or negative between the two variables where the pearson correlation coefficient will determine the strength of the correlation between the two variables. for the current study, the two variables that will put into the test for the correlation analysis will be comparing the variables of social interaction and the acceptance in the shift towards the technology in the workplace. based on the result, the pearson correlation coefficient achieved had recorded 0.399 with the p-value of 0.000 indicating the presence of the positive correlation for the two variables are being significant. besides, the 0.399 indicating that the two variables are sharing weak positive correlation in terms of strength where the increase of the movement of one variable will observe the slight increase of the movement in another variable. the regression analysis will become the importance component for the quantitative analysis where the regression analysis will analyse the data to test for the significant of the relationship between the independent variable against the dependent variable within the framework of study. based on the current framework of study, the regression model constructed will observe the social interaction factor as the independent variable while the acceptance of the technology in the workplace will become the dependent variable for the study. based on the result, p-value recorded for the social interaction had been recording 0.117 which is indicate as not significant based on the tolerance level of 5%.. with reference to this, there is lack of evidence from the data input to point out that the social interaction of the employees provide the significant impact towards the acceptance of the technology in the workplace. with the result observed indicating the presence of the positive correlation through the correlation analysis but fail to point out the evidence for the significant relationship of the impact from the social interaction towards the acceptance of the technology, this had concluded that there is no significant in the relationship between the two variables. with this, the result had not been aligned with the hypothesis drawn in the literature review which suggest the opposite outcome where the h1 hypothesis will be rejected. therefore, the null hypothesis for the h0 will be acceptance based on the outcome of this research. h0: there is no significant social interaction factors positively affecting the acceptance of the technology in the workplace. h0: there is significant social interaction factors positively affecting the acceptance of the technology in the workplace. based on their findings, spanjol, tam, and tam (2015) concluded that employing technological aids would boost both the speed and quality of service delivery. having fewer interactions with coworkers has become a major motivator for people to be more productive with their time. sharma, tam, and kim (2012) all agreed that when workers use new technologies, they are better able to focus on their tasks at hand. this study's findings, however, don't reflect that similar notion; the empirical evidence didn't point to a good correlation between social connection and tech acceptance. it's possible that this is because workplace social interactions aren't valued as much as they formerly were. if the essential concept of work remains the same with or without social interactions, then there's no reason to prioritize them. this will show that there are variables outside social contact that may be a barrier to adopting new technologies. 6 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion the research had concluded with the findings where there is no significant impact from the social interaction towards the acceptance of the technology in the workplace in other words, the involvement of the social interaction between the employees and the technology doesn’t matter in the transitioning towards the digitalization era of the working environment. therefore, this indicate that the current workforce within the employment had been showing the sign of readiness for the shift in the transformation and digitalization of the workplace introducing ne modern technologies as the social interaction factor will not come significant that will lead to the rejection of the technology. this had been the crucial contribution of the study to provide the significant reference towards the academic study within the scope of area of expertise. this will provide the evidence that the employees had slowly transition into the new norm of technology in the workplace and becoming more comfortable with the engagement of the new technology. the current outcome of the study wills serves as the new knowledge and reference for the potential future researchers. the current study had been limited with the target population where the target population had only been targeting the workforce population of the malaysian employees working in the mncs. malaysia had been recognized as the developing countries showing the rapid development of the technology advancement in the country for the business world which observe the engagement of the new technology as the significant shift into the acceptance of the technology at the workplace. however, the current findings will only be limited to the working employees and culture in malaysia which may not be applicable for a different target population. therefore, the study should further extend to study the similar concept in terms of the readiness of the employees for the social interaction towards the acceptance of the technology in the workplace. the target population for the study can be proposed to european countries like uk, france and germany to induce a more different demographic and cultural background among the employees. references 1. apuke, o.d. (2017). ‘quantitative research methods a synopsis approach’, arabian journal of business and management review (kuwait chapter), 6(10). 2. ashraf, a., thongpapanl, n. & spyropoulou, s. (2016). ‘the connection and disconnection between ecommerce businesses and their customers: exploring the role of engagement, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease-of-use’, electronic commerce research and applications, 20, pp. 69–86. 3. barkhi, r. & kozlowski, s. (2017). ‘erp in the classroom: three sap exercises focused on internal controls’, journal of emerging technologies in accounting, 14 (1): 77–83. 4. barkhi, r. and kozlowski, s. (2017). ‘erp in the classroom: three sap exercises focused on internal controls’, journal of emerging technologies in accounting, 14 (1): 77–83. 5. çakmak, a.f., benk, s. & budak, t. (2011). ‘the acceptance of tax office automation system (vedop) by employees: factorial validation of turkish adapted technology acceptance model (tam)’, international journal of economics and finance, 3(6), pp. 107116. 6. cooper, d & schindler, p 2014, business research methods, 12th edn, mcgraw-hill/irwin. boston. 7 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. etikan, i. (2016). ‘comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling’, american journal of theoretical and applied statistics, 5(1). 8. kim, s. (2012). ‘factors affecting the use of social software: tam perspectives’, the electronic library, 30(5), pp. 690-706. 9. muk, a. and chung, c. (2015). ‘applying the technology acceptance model in a two-country study of sms advertising’, journal of business research, 68(1), pp. 1-6. 10. nath, r. bhal, k.t. & kapoor, g.t. (2013). ‘factors influencing it adoption by bank employees: an extended tam approach’, the journal for decision makers, 36(4), pp. 8396. 11. schwabe h, castellacci f (2020). ‘automation, workers’ skills and job satisfaction’, plos one 15(11). 12. sekaran, u. & bougie, r. (2016). research methods for business: a skill-building approach, 7th edn, wiley, new york. 13. sharela, b.f. (2016). ‘qualitative and quantitative case study research method on social science: accounting perspective’, international journal of economics and management engineering, 10(12), pp. 3849-3854. 14. sharma, p., tam, j.l.m. and kim, n. (2015). ‘service role and outcome as moderators in intercultural service encounters’, journal of service management, 26(1), pp. 137-155. 15. sousa, j. and rocha, a. (2018). ‘digital learning: developing skills for digital transformation of organizations’, future generation computer system, pp. 98-131. 16. spanjol, j. tam, l. & tam, v. (2015). ‘employer–employee congruence in environmental values: an exploration of effects on job satisfaction and creativity’, journal of business ethics, 130, pp. 117-130. 17. tarhini, a., elyas, t., akour, a., and al-salti, z. (2016). ‘technology, demographic characteristics and e-learning acceptance: a conceptual model based on extended technology acceptance model’, canadian center of science and education, 6(3), pp. 72–89. 18. walker, b. (2017). ‘how automation threatens third world stability’, social contract journal, 27(2), pp. 22–23. 19. zhang, c. (2019). ‘intelligent process automation in audit’, journal of emerging technologies in accounting, 16 (2): 69–88. 20. zoey, y. (2019). ‘finance and accounting automation starts with invoicing’, china briefing, issue, 186, pp. 10-11. 86 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 06, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 new technology of soil preparation for planting police crops d. sh. chuyanov karshi engineering economics institute (uzbekistan) abstract: the article describes the new technology of soil cultivation and its preparation, which provides for the joint implementation of such technological processes as tillage with and without a tiller, loosening the sub-layer along the seeding line and local application of fertilizers, preparing the soil for planting and opening an irrigation ditch. the structure, working principle and field test results of the combined unit implementing the new technology are presented. keywords: poly crops, soil, housing, softener, fertilizer, irrigation ditch, planting, reel, yield, pulse, harrowing, drawing. introduction. one of the main issues of the economic sectors of our independent republic is to fully satisfy the population's demand for food products, including food products. one of the most urgent issues facing agriculture is to increase agricultural production and thereby further improve people's well-being. the weather and soil conditions of our country are very favorable for obtaining abundant harvests from polys crops. therefore, it is appropriate to grow polize products on a large scale not only to satisfy the needs of the population of our republic, but also to sell them to other countries. it is a very important issue to increase the productivity with the wide introduction of intensive technologies in policing, efficient use of land and low cost [1,2]. in the future, increasing the amount of products will be achieved only at the expense of increasing productivity. in agriculture, the guarantee of a high yield from field crops is good tillage [3,4]. in order to achieve success in the cultivation of polys products, it is necessary to cultivate the land in a timely manner, which, in turn, depends on the methods of cultivation and the level of perfection of the machines. in recent years, the power of agricultural tractors and, in turn, their potential capabilities have increased significantly. but the methods of land cultivation remain largely the same. the traditional technology of preparing the land for planting includes such processes as fertilizing, plowing, smoothing out unevenness caused by plowing, drawing, harrowing, grinding and seeding (irrigation) extraction, and these processes are carried out separately with the help of separate machines. it is recommended to plant polys crops only after these works are done. in addition, the repeated passage of machines over the cultivated land leads to over-densification of the land, increased energy consumption and, ultimately, a decrease in productivity. therefore, it is an urgent issue to develop a new technology of soil preparation and a combined aggregate that implements it, as well as its introduction into production. materials and methods. a new technology of tillage and preparation of soil for planting polys crops and a combined aggregate that implements this technology is the object of research. the study of combined aggregate technological work processes was carried out according to literature sources, patents and the results of testing the developed machine in laboratory and field conditions. 87 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us performance indicators of the combined unit tst 63.02.2001 «испытания сельскохозяйственной техники. машины и орудия для глубокой обработки почвы. программа и методы испытаний» and tst 63.02.2001 «испытания сельскохозяйственной техники. машины и орудия для поверхностной обработки почвы. программа и методы испытаний» was determined. a new technology of soil preparation for planting rice crops and a combined unit that implements it was developed at the karshi institute of engineering and economics [5-12]. this technology incorporates the following technological processes: imperceptibly moving the center of gravity to the side of the overturning side, turning the layer to the left and right, smoothing the surface of the soil from the right and left sides of the overturning layer, smoothing the bottom of the layer by slicing along the line of sowing seeds, spreading fertilizer in two layers locally giving, preparing the soil for planting seeds along the planting line and opening the irrigation ditch [8]. the proposed technology is implemented using a combined unit. the combined unit consists of leftand right-turning screw casings installed along the axis of symmetry, screw soil diverters (slugs), side softeners, deep softeners mounted on the handle of the casings, a fertilizer spreading device equipped with flaps, a softener-leveler roller, a ditch opener and support wheels. the reel is hinged to the frame. the combined unit works as intended. first, the rightand left-turning hulls with zaplujniks turn the soil clods relative to each other at a depth of 20-25 cm to form the initial irrigation ditch, and with softeners, the right and left sides of the initially formed irrigation ditch, that is, the soil, are softened to a depth of 10-15 cm. in this case, the depth of softening should be sufficient to completely kill the weeds. at the same time as the plows are turned over, the plowed soil is softened to a depth of 10-15 cm with deep softeners and local fertilizer is applied to both rows. a plate roller placed after the casings crushes the lumps, compacts the soil and forms a finely ground layer on its surface. in this way, during one pass of the combined aggregate through the field, the soil is softened and surfaced and made ready for planting. results and discussion. field tests of the combined unit were conducted in gray soil fields of farms located in the territory of oqrabot mmtp of kamashi district of kashkadarya region. the terrain is flat and consists of imperceptible ups and downs. soil moisture and hardness is 10.2 in 0...10, 10...20, 20...30, 30...40 cm layers; 12.1; 13.7 % and 1.82; 2.51; it was 3.12, 4.23 mpa. the density of plant residues in the field is 420 units/m2. the height of the chest is 12 cm. the combined unit was assembled with an orion-630s tractor. the technical description of the combined unit and the main performance indicators are presented in table 1. the construction scheme of the combined unit has a number of principle advantages compared to the machines used in traditional technologies, in which the land is not completely plowed, only the deep plowing is done under the seed rows, and the land is prepared for planting, planting (irrigation) ditches are formed, and the paddy part is treated on the surface. the smooth movement of the unit increases its efficiency. table 1. technical description and main performance indicators of the combined unit the name of the indicators and the unit of measurement value aggregating tractor, kn 30;40 machine type suspension coverage width, m 2,3-3,6 working speed, km/h 5-8 productivity, ha/h 1,1-1,6 depth of irrigation ditches, cm 20-25 the width of the upper part of the irrigation ditch, cm 60-65 88 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us burial completeness of plant residues in the planting zone,% 92 aggregate composition of the soil in the planting zone, % greater than 100 mm 100-50 mm less than 50 mm 6,40 12,24 81,36 machine mass, kg 920 the results of the test showed that the combined aggregate covered 92 percent of the plant residues in the planting area. the amount of fractions smaller than 50 mm was 81.36 percent. the formation of the upper part of the irrigation ditch with a width of 60-65 cm makes it possible to plant the seeds of polys crops in the upper part of the ditch in two rows, with a distance of 60, 70 or 90 cm between the main rows. as can be seen from these data, the combined unit performed the technological process reliably. conclusion. the new technology of soil preparation for planting polys crops and the use of a combined aggregate that implements it ensures high-quality soil preparation for planting and planting of polys crops in short periods, protects the soil from erosion and over-densification, reduces the cost of labor and money, the efficiency of using mineral fertilizers and the productivity of polys crops 18. ..increases by 21 percent. reference 1. каримов а. полиз экинлари агротехникаси, т.: ўздавнашр, 1967. – 84 б. 2. ҳакимов р.а., ҳакимов а.с., аббосов а.м. сабзавот ва полиз экинлари уруғларини етиштириш технологияси бўйича тавсиянома. – тошкент, 2005. – б.8-11. 3. вильде а.а. цесницске а.х. маритос ю.п. комбинированные почвообрабатывающие машины. – ленинград. агропромиздат, 1982. – 87 с. 4. маматов ф.м., чуянов д.ш., мирзаев б.с., эргашев ғ.х. обоснование способа оборота пластов зоны посева семян бахчевых культур // агро илм. –тошкент, 2010. – №4. – с. 52-54. 5. ўзр патенти №iар 03618. тупроққа ишлов бериш ва экиш учун мужассамлашган қурол / маматов ф.м., чуянов д.ш., худояров б.м., эргашев г.х., гулбоев с.и., зоиров у.з., ризоқулов б.б., дустѐров ш.н. // расмий ахборотнома. – 2008. – №4. 6. ўзр патенти № iар 04004. тупроққа ишлов бериш ва экиш усули / маматов ф.м., чуянов д.ш., худояров б.м., эргашев г.х., гулбоев с.и. // расмий ахборотнома. – 2009. – №9. 7. chuyanov d., shodmonov g., ergashov g., choriyev i. combination machine for soil preparation and sowing of gourds // conmechydro – 2021.e3s web of conferences 264, 04035 (2021). 8. маматов ф.м., чуянов д.ш., эргашев ғ.х., исмоилов и. результаты экспериментальных исследований влияния рыхлительно-выравнивающего устройство на показатели работы комбинированного агрегата для подгатовки почвы к посеву бахчевых // инновацион технологиялар. – қарши, 2012. – №3 – б. 34-37. 9. маматов ф.м., чуянов д.ш., эргашев ғ.х. полиз экинлари экиладиган ерларга ишлов берадиган комбинациялашган агрегатнинг дала синови натижалари // инновацион технологиялар. – қарши, 2015. – №4. – б. 51-54. 10. mamatov f.m., shodmonov g.d., chujanov d.sh., ergashev g.x. new technology and combined machine for preparing soil for sowing gourds. вена: european science review, 2018. – no.1-2. – рр. 234-236. 89 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 11. mamatov f., mirzaev b., chujanov d.sh., ravshanov h., shodmonov g., tavashov r., fayzullayev x. combined machine for preparing soil for cropping of melons and gourds // iop conf. series: earth and environmental science. № 403, 2019. 12. chuyanov d., abduraxmonov u., shodmonov g. energy-saving technology and machinery for growing melons // novateur publication india’s international journal of innovations in engineering research and technology ijiert. – indiya,2020.– рр 368-374 257 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 study of the processes of obtaining stabilizer k-pac-kmts marks to dramaticly reduce the volume of flashes that occur in different underground plates during the drilling period d. k. koraeva, sh. b. davlatov, sh. gulomov, m. m. murodov tashkent innovative chemical technology scientific research institute in the research of this section, a study of the processes of obtaining stabilizing k-pac-kmts brands was carried out to drastically reduce the volume of shocks that occur in various subsurface layers during drilling. it is known that in the process of establishing oil and gas wells and later during the initial process of its excavation, drilling fluids are naturally required to be extremely stable and durable. such stability and tolerance are characterized by increasing the density of drilling solutions. if the work of increasing the phase density of the drilling fluids is not intensified, there is a high probability that the walls of the well will cause various salts and various surface and underground waters to be mixed in the well zone. ways to eliminate such negative consequences have been solved by scientists and technologists of the field by introducing various dry and thick bentonites into the drilling solution. most of these approaches do not work. this means that the inclusion of soft bricks in the composition of drilling solutions does not bring the composition of the solution (1100-1350 kg/m3) to the required solution density (1700-1950 kg/m3). even in the preparation of low density fractions of drilling fluids required for the oil and gas production process, adding soft bentonites in the solution phase is not suitable. for such low-density drilling solutions, it is necessary to attract solid mineral fractions to the solution phase, that is, it is necessary to increase the amount of solid phase concentration. it was developed during the research on the composite composition of drilling reagents, that is, during the synthesis of the reagent, lignin-based composites and reinforcing fibrous compounds were used. they were prepared in 4 main composite compositions. the consumption norms of stabilizing reagents with this composite composition are presented in the table below. 1-table consumption norms of stabilizing reagents with composite content № raw materials in the composite unit of measure, % 11kpackmts 2kpackmts 33kpackmts 44kpackmts 1 *тктch % 5 8 12 15 2 lignin % 2 5 7 10 3 pyats -85% % 2 4 6 8 4 barite % 3 5 8 10 5 *pts+тtc % 10/90 20/80 30/70 40/60 * тктch fibrous waste cellulose of textile enterprises pyats-85% hemicellulose of rice stalk 85% *pts+ttccellulose of rice straw and textile fibers 258 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us based on the above standards of consumption, a simple ether of cellulose a stabilizing reagent was obtained. below are the quality parameters of the stabilizing agent obtained according to the developed recipe for each composite. 2-table. comparison of the quality indicators of k-paс samples obtained compositely from husks and textile cellulose by grade with the requirements specified in ts 22235949003:2015 and ts 22235949-003:2015 descriptions of indicators 85/700с-о 85/700ро 11-к packmts 2-к packmts 33-к packmts 44-к packmts 1. the external appearance white powder white powder 2. the mass percentage of water, % is not much 10 10 6 7 6 5 3. in terms of the degree of substitution of the carboxymethyl group, it is not less 0,7 0,6 85 84 89 85 4. the mass fraction of the amount of the main substance in the absolute dry product 97 63 75 78 81 83 5. its solubility in water, %, is not low 97 98,2 98,4 98,0 98,8 6. the dynamic viscosity of a 2% aqueous solution of kmts at a temperature of 200c, mpa*s, is not less than 100 100 2 7. hydrogen number (рн) of kmts solution in water with a mass fraction of 1.5% 6,710,0 8-10 9 10 9 9 8. the water return index of the kmts soil solution with a mass fraction of 0.75% calculated on the main substance, cm3/min, not more 4 4,2 4,0 3,5 3,2 9. degree of polymerization 700 700 670 810 920 1050 *1tukimachilik tolalari asosida olingan cellulose kkmts *2k-paс based on cellulose husk it can be observed from the table that the lignin structure between the fillers in the composites and the inclusion of fiber reinforcing elements in the composition, the stabilizing agent of the drilling mixes, have a positive effect on the quality indicators. mastering various factors of the received k-pac-kmts stabilizing reagents, i.e. physicochemical and mechanical properties. below is an ir spectrum diagram of the basis of the stabilizing reagent, i.e. natural fiber-based cellulose from the textile industry. 259 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us рic-1: ir-spectrogamma of cellulose obtained on the basis of textile fiber waste here you can see a picture of a de-ligninized cellulose sample. it can be observed that the composition of the amorphous sands and the crystalline parts have been eroded as a result of the reaction. it can be observed that during the deligninization process, the location of hydroxyl groups is given in the picture, and the processes of degradation and delignification of amorphous layers are intense compared to crystal joints. the ability of cellulose to enter into a chemical reaction mainly reacts when the hydroxyl groups are characteristic of simple lower molecular alcohols. the structural structure of the cellulose macromolecule is as follows: cellulose macromolecules are interconnected by 1,4-glucosidic bonds and consist of β-danhydro glucopyranose residues. each elementary ring of cellulose is composed of three hydroxyl groups. the hydroxyl group on the sixth carbon atom is primary, and the hydroxyl groups on the second and third carbon atoms are secondary. they form aldehyde and carboxyl groups under the influence of alkalis such as lower molecular alcohols alcohols, under the influence of acids. in the production of cellulose, cellulose derivatives are obtained on the basis of the above-mentioned types of reactions. cellulose has a high molecular weight, and the 4006008001000120014001600180020002200240026002800300032003400360038004000 cm-1 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 %t 3 7 3 6 ,1 2 3 5 6 6 ,3 8 3 3 3 1 ,0 7 2 9 1 6 ,3 7 2 8 4 8 ,8 6 2 3 5 8 ,9 4 1 7 3 4 ,0 1 1 6 5 3 ,0 0 1 5 5 8 ,4 8 1 5 0 6 ,4 1 1 4 5 6 ,2 6 1 3 1 3 ,5 2 1 1 6 1 ,1 5 1 1 0 3 ,2 8 1 0 2 8 ,0 6 8 9 3 ,0 4 6 6 7 ,3 7 5 2 4 ,6 4 2 miracle10 (dia/ znse) 260 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us molecular weight can be from tens of thousands to several million. cellulose is considered to be a polycyclic high molecular compound containing many polarized hydroxyl groups, and its macromolecule chain is not flexible, because the macromolecule is highly ordered, it is densely packed. therefore, cellulose is soluble in certain solvents. all the properties of cellulose depend on the degree of polymerization and the mutual arrangement of macromolecules. the degree of polymerization of cellulose is very high, and the cellulose that remains insoluble in a 17.5-18% solution of alkali is α-cellulose, the degree of polymerization of which is higher than 200. cellulose soluble in 17.5-18% solution of alkali is called hemicellulose. its degree of polymerization will be less than 200. depending on their chemical properties, hemicellulose is divided into β and γ cellulose. cellulose with a degree of polymerization equal to 50-150 is called β -cellulose, and cellulose with a degree of polymerization less than 50 is called γ cellulose. the temperature at which cellulose changes from a glassy state to a highly elastic state under normal conditions is higher than its decomposition temperature. therefore, when the cellulose is heated up to 2000c, it breaks down before it softens. cellulose dissolves well in saturated solutions of zinc, bismuth, antimony, titanium, mercury and lead chlorides. however, as a result of the destruction of the cellulose macromolecule, the molecular mass is significantly reduced and the possibility of wider use of cellulose is reduced. the good orientation of the macromolecules during the formation of cellulose mature fiber also depends on the hydrogen bonds. the high reactivity of cellulose also depends on the amount of hydrogen bonds in it. as a result of the increase in the degree of orientation and the density of arrangement of macromolecules, the influence of hydrogen bonds in it also increases. if the effect of intermolecular hydrogen bonds is reduced, the reactivity of cellulose increases. the effect of hydrogen bonds can be reduced by soaking cellulose in various liquids. as a result of the formation of linear networks of macromolecules, the density of the polymer is brought. esterification of cellulose with alcohol and carboxylic acids creates porosity of the macromolecule, and secondly, it leads to a decrease in the amount of hydroxyl groups that interact with hydrogen bonds. therefore, cellulose derivatives are easily soluble in most liquids, and as the temperature rises, they gradually soften, first becoming highly elastic, and then moving to a viscous-flow state. reduction of hydrogen bonds of macromolecules also depends on the amount of substituted hydroxyl groups and the size of new functional groups formed. because the cellulose macromolecules are tightly packed, the fibers are strong and are widely used in many branches of the fiber manufacturing industry. the figure below shows the ir-spectrum of cellulose extracted from rice bran. in this case, it can be observed that delignification processes have absorbed lignin particles from the structure of hydroxide bonds in the case where hydroxide bonds have become moderately intense. 261 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2-рic: rice stalk cellulose (unbleached) in this case, it was observed that the lignin structure was partially preserved on the surface of certain spectra, and the amount of lignin was present in the fiber in a very small amount. references 1. m.m. murodov. «тechnology of making cellulose and its ethers by using raw materials» // international conference “renewable wood and plant resources: chemistry, technology, pharmacology, and medicine”. saint-petersburg, russia. june 21-24., 2011. 142-143. 2. m.m. murodov. «тhe technology of making carboxymethyl cellulose (cmc) by method monoapparatus» // international conference «renewable wood and plant resources: chemistry, technology, pharmacology, and medicine». saint-petersburg, russia. june 2124., 2011. 141-142. 3. ўзбекистон республика вазирлар маҳкамаси “республикада тез ўсувчи ва саноатбоп павловния дарахти плантацияларини барпо қилиш чора-тадбирлари тўғрисида” 2020 йил 27 августдаги 520-сонли қарори. 4. [интернет: https://xs.uz/uzkr/post/ hududlarda –pavlovniya -plantatsiyalari -tashkil-qilinadi/ 5. муродов, м. х., & муродов, б. х. у. (2015). фотоэлектрическая станция с автоматическим управлением мощностью 20 квт для учебного заведения. science time, (12 (24)), 543-547. 6. murodov, m. m., rahmanberdiev, g. r., khalikov, m. m., egamberdiev, e. a., negmatova, k. c., saidov, m. m., & mahmudova, n. (2012, july). endurance of high molecular weight carboxymethyl cellulose in corrosive environments. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 1459, no. 1, pp. 309-311). american institute of physics. 7. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. (2021). obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. 4006008001000120014001600180020002200240026002800300032003400360038004000 cm-1 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 %t 3 3 3 8 ,7 8 2 8 8 7 ,4 4 1 7 0 1 ,2 2 1 6 4 7 ,2 1 1 4 1 9 ,6 1 1 3 1 3 ,5 2 1 1 6 1 ,1 5 1 1 0 9 ,0 7 1 0 2 9 ,9 9 9 0 0 ,7 6 6 6 9 ,3 0 6 1 1 ,4 3 5 5 1 ,6 4 4 7 2 ,5 6 14 miracle10 (dia/ znse) https://xs.uz/uzkr/post/%20hududlarda%20–pavlovniya%20-plantatsiyalari%20-tashkil-qilinadi/ 262 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 8. murodov, m. m., yusupova, n. f., urabjanova, s. i., turdibaeva, n., & siddikov, m. a. obtaining a pac from the cellulose of plants of sunflower, safflower and waste from the textile industry. european journal of humanities and educational advancements, 2(1), 1315. 9. murodov, m. m., xudoyarov, o. f., & urozov, m. q. (2018). technology of making carboxymethylcellulose by using local raw materials. advanced engineering forum vols. 89 (2018) pp 411-412/©. trans tech publications, switzerland. doi, 10, 8-9. 10. primqulov, m. t., rahmonbtrdiev, g., murodov, m. m., & mirataev, a. a. (2014). tarkibida sellyuloza saqlovchi xom ashyoni qayta ishlash texnologiyasi. ozbekiston faylasuflar milliy jamiyati nashriyati. toshkent, 28-29. 11. рахманбердиев, г. р., & муродов, м. м. (2011). разработка технологии получения целлюлозы из растений топинамбура. итисодиёт ва инновацион технологиялар" илмий электрон журнали,(2), 1-11. 12. elievich, c. l., khasanovich, y. s., & murodovich, m. m. (2021). technology for the production of paper composites for different areas from fiber waste. 13. murodovich, m. m., qulturaevich, u. m., & mahamedjanova, d. (2018). development of technology for production of cellulose from plants of tissue and receiving na-carboxymethylcellulose on its basis. journalnx, 6(12), 407-411. 14. rahmonberdiev, g., murodov, m., negmatova, k., negmatov, s., & lysenko, a. (2012). effective technology of obtaining the carboxymethyl cellulose from annual plants. in advanced materials research (vol. 413, pp. 541-543). trans tech publications ltd. 15. murodovich, m. m., murodovich, h. m., & qulturaevich, u. m. (2020). obtaining technical carboxymethyl cellulose increased in main substance. academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal, 10(12), 717-719. 114 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 front plow for smooth, furrowless plowing equipped with angle marks kurbаnov sherzod baxtiyorovich karshi engineering economic institute, karshi, uzbekistan abstract: in the proposed technology, with the help of frontal plug bodies, the upper left and right edges of the overturned slabs are first cut with the help of an angle cutter, so that the difficulties in the process of overturning are eliminated and the resistance to traction is reduced. the developed angular plow frontal plow is designed for 4-5 class tractors, its working speed is 6,5-8,5 km/h, coverage width is 2,1 m and processing depth is 25 cm. the angled frontal plow, developed on the basis of theoretical and experimental studies, reliably performed the specified technological work process, and its performance fully corresponds to the agrotechnical requirements and the technical assignment. keywords: soil, front plow, body, smooth plowing, cornercutter, disc coulter, triangular wedge. introduction when processing with frontal plows, the blade is rotated on the edge of the edge, and its edges are deformed. due to the fact that the frontal plug housings are located symmetrically to each other, their edges touch each other and compress when turning the blades at 180° degrees. this allows soil to build up in front of the housings and cause them to clog. it is known that soil compaction in front of the housing requires excessive energy consumption [1-3]. in the technology we offer, first the upper left and right edges of the blade are cut with the help of an angle cutter and turned to its center, then the blade is turned 180° at the border of its edge. the angled blade rolls without any obstructions at the limit of its position, and the plow quality is improved and the traction resistance is reduced [4,5]. method on the basis of the experimental researches, an experimental copy of the frontal plow with an angle cutter was prepared, and field and farm tests were conducted in the farms of kashkadarya region [6]. the developed angled frontal plow drive unit has a symmetrical frame 1 with respect to the longitudinal axis, housings 2 and 3 whose working surfaces are opposite to each other to the right and left, zapluzhniki 4, support-leveling g it consists of a frame 5, disk-shaped blades 6, two supporting wheels 7, angle cutters 8 and a suspension mechanism 9. figure 1 shows the construction scheme of the developed angled frontal plug. the plough frame is a welded construction and consists of longitudinal and transverse beams. housings are mounted on the crossbar with the help of hooks. between each pair of opposing housings are screw-type zaplukhni, which are attached to plowshares by means of a special device [7]. 115 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. frontal plugging with a flat cutting angle cutter constructive scheme 1 – frame, 2 and 3 – right and left turning bodies, 4 – router, 5 support-leveling roller, 6 disk-shaped blades, 7 support wheel, 8 – corner cutter, 9 – suspension mechanism the base leveling reel is hinged to the plug frame with the help of hammers. by changing the compression force of the springs, it is possible to change the quality of grinding the soil with the roller. the burchakkeskich is attached to the frame of the plow by means of special clamps and is placed in the middle of the pair of bodies and the nose of the ploughshare in a straight line [8]. the body consists of a welded head and a ploughshare hardened to it, a pin, a pole, a tipper and a wing attached to its back. plug's suspension is designed for use with tractors of this class. disk blades and support wheels are serially produced. frontal plow support wheel adjustment mechanism allows to change plow depth within 22-30 cm. the height of the developed angle cutter is 22 cm, the length is 27 cm, the angle of entry of the front edge into the soil is 50°, the opening angle of the wing is 32°, the twist angle is 55°, the slope angle of the side edge is 36°, the slope angle of the working side relative to the horizontal plane is 31°, and the depth of processing it is 12 cm [9]. the angular cutter frontal plug developed in the tests was aggregated and used on magnum and t-4a tractors. the working depth is 25 cm, and the working speed is 7,5 km/h. in these tests, the following indicators of plugs were determined: coverage width; driving depth; completeness and depth of burial of plant remains; level of soil fertility. the developed angled frontal plow is designed for use with 4-5 class tractors, its working speed is 6,5-8,5 km/h, coverage width is 2,1 m and processing depth is 25 cm (2 picture). 116 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. an experimental version of the angular frontal plugin in the tests, the indicators of the frontal plug with an angle cutter were compared with the indicators of the ordinary frontal plug and the standard o'p-4/5-40 plug. in the experiments, the moisture and hardness of the tested field soil was checked at intervals of 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40 cm. according to the test results, it was found that the average moisture content of the soil is 11,6%, and its hardness is 4,13 mpa (fig. 3). figure 3. a view of the angular frontal plugin in action results and discussions table 1 shows the results of plow coverage width, plowing depth, completeness and depth of burial of plant residues, and the degree of soil erosion. 1table № indicator name value of indicators according to the initial requirements according to the test results ld-100 pf-4 o’p4/5-40 1. speed of movement, km/h 6,5-8,5 7,5 7,5 7,5 117 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. coverage: mо‘r, cm ±σ, cm v, % ±10 cm <10 210,8 2,8 211,2 2,9 203,2 3,1 3. driving depth: mо‘r, cm ±σ, cm v, % up to 30 <10 24,3 1,74 6,1 25,8 1,78 8,97 24,8 1,71 5,81 4. burial completeness of plant remains, % >95 85,3 95,6 91,9 5. burial depth of plant remains: mо‘r, cm , cm >10 10,9 1,3 13,3 1,8 11,9 3,1 6. mount of the following size fractions, % >50 mm 50-25 mm <25 mm < 10 > 5 6,2 13,4 80,4 5,1 11,1 83,8 5,7 13,1 81,2 7. comparative fuel consumption, kg/ha 29,32 26,21 30,86 as can be seen from the table, all the quality indicators of the frontal plow with an angle cutter fully meet the requirements of agrotechnics. in the tests, the frontal plug with an angle cut, the normal frontal plug and the o'p-4/5-40 plug reliably performed the specified technological process, and no serious defects were observed. when using the experimental version of the developed angled frontal plow on farms, the fuel consumption per hectare decreased by 4,65 kg compared to the o'p-4/5-40 plow and 3,11 kg compared to the conventional frontal plow [10]. conclusions the angled frontal plow, developed on the basis of theoretical and experimental studies, reliably performed the specified technological work process, and its performance fully corresponds to the agrotechnical requirements and the technical assignment. when using the developed frontal plow with an angle cutter, compared to the existing technology, productivity increases by 1,14-1,18 times and 2,11-2,27 kg less fuel is consumed per hectare. according to economic calculations, operating costs are reduced by 26,8 percent when using the developed angled frontal plow for plowing land. references 1. zolotarev s.a. obosnovanie tehnologicheskogo processa i parametrov pluga dlja gladkoj vspashki: diss. … kand. teh. nauk. – moskva: mgau, – 2005. – 225 s. 2. kurbanov s. b., nurova o. s., salomova m. s. basing dimensions of frontal plug corner cutter //asian journal of multidimensional research. – 2021. – т. 10. – №. 4. – с. 893-896. 3. irgashev, d. b., kurbanov, s. b., mamatov, f. m., temirov, i. g., & mamatov, s. f. (2023, december). high softening performance indicators of plug-softener. in iop conference series: earth and environmental science (vol. 1284, no. 1, p. 012032). iop publishing. 118 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. ravshanov h., maiviatov f. m., kurbanov s. improvement of housing with knives crushers for non-tillage technology //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 390. 5. baxtiyorovich k. s. development of a front plow for smooth furrowless plowing with corners //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 9. – с. 71-74. 6. kurbanov s., temirov i., babajanov l. technological basis of rotation of body with polygon //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 401. – с. 04050. 7. mamatov, f. m., еrgashev, i. t., мirzaxodjaev, s. s., хоliyarov, y. b., & qurbanov, s. b. (2018). plow for smooth plowing with combined working bodies. european science review, (3-4), 264-266. 8. murtozevich, m. f., toshkentovich, е. i., shoxruxovich, м. s., berdiqulovich, х. y., & baxtiyorovich, q. s. (2018). plow for smooth plowing with combined working bodies. european science review, (3-4), 264-266. 9. aldoshin n. didmanidze o., mirzayev b., mamatov f. harvesting of mixed crops by axial rotary combines // proceeding of 7th international conference on trends in agricultural engineering 2019. 17th 20th september 2019 prague, czech republic. – pp.20-26. 10. aldoshin n., mamatov f., ismailov i., ergashov g. development of combined tillage tool for melon cultivation // 19th international scientific conference engineering for rural development proceedings, volume 19 may 20-22, 2020. issn 1691-5976. 104 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 udc 678.742.046 study of physico-chemical properties of sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus-containing oligomers 1 toshev m. e, 2 normurodov b. a. 3 turaev kh. kh, 4 pardaeva n. zh. 1 doctoral student, termiz state university, termiz, uzbekistan 2 doctor of technical sciences, termiz state university, termiz, uzbekistan 3 doctor of chemical sciences, professor. termiz state university, termiz, uzbekistan 4 teacher, school no. 9 in termez. termiz, uzbekistan e-mail: normurodov1974@internet.ru abstract. in this paper the synthesis of oligomers containing sulfur, phosphorus and nitrogen were studied of optimum conditions. the obtained oligomers were used as polyethylene fillers, and the effect on the physicochemical properties of polyethylene was studied. also, the thermal stability of polyethylene filled with fillers after the addition of fillers was analyzed using tga and tda analyses. according to the obtained results, it was found that these oligomers improved the thermal physical-chemical properties of polyethylene. key words: phosphorus-containing oligomer, nitrogen-containing compounds, viscosity, oligomers. introduction. the main modern world trend in the development of any type of products is the creation on its basis of a wide range of models, types, brands, modifications that ensure the effective development of a rapidly growing modern economy, expanding the scope of products that increase the volume of its output. this trend is fully typical for modern, especially thermoplastic polymer materials. the development of modern technology requires all new materials with predefined properties, but the creation and development of new polymers does not practically occur[1,2].. the main goal, which is pursued when filling polymers, is to reduce the cost of products based on them. in the vast majority of cases, the introduction of fillers leads to an increase in the brittleness of the resulting composite material and a catastrophic decrease in its frost-resistance, which is particularly pronounced at high volume fractions of the filler. at the same time, the maximum possible degree of filling for polymers processed from the melt is limited by the value of the viscosity of the melt and, as a rule, does not exceed 40%. filling always leads to difficulties in the molding of articles, which is associated with an increase in the viscosity of the melt compared to the melt of the unfilled polymer [3,4]. in general, the complex of properties of filled polymers is determined by the combined effect of a number of factors, the most significant of which are: the nature of the thermoplastic and filler, the shape and size of the filler particles, the mutual arrangement of the filler particles and the change in their local density over the sample volume, and the filler concentration [4,5]. the nature of the thermoplastic and filler primarily determines their compatibility when molding the composite material. if the polymer and the filler are incompatible, the resulting product will have reduced mechanical characteristics, since applying the load will destroy the adhesive bond, 105 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us which results in the separation of the matrix from the filler particles. if the adhesion work achieved by the contact of the polymer and the filler is large, then the load applied to the composite material will be distributed more or less evenly without significant stress concentration at the polymer-filler interface. at high strength of polymer-filler adhesion bonding, it is possible to produce composites with relatively high mechanical characteristics [6,7]. experimental part this work is devoted to the preparation of effective fillers based on sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus-containing oligomers for polyethylene. therefore, the modification of known polymers, the development of polymeric composite materials filled with functional additives, or blended compositions, is today one of the priority directions in the development of polymers and composites with predictable properties. the production of new synthesized highly additive additives for polymeric materials, which have high heat resistance and flame retardant efficiency, stabilization of polymers, ecologically safe and economical for today, is an urgent task[8,9]. physicochemical properties were studied: density, melting point, solubility, ir spectroscopy, and dsc in sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus-containing oligomers. physico-chemical characteristics of the synthesized high-grade oligomer daf-6 (ammophos with sulfur-containing organic compounds) are presented in table 1 table 1. physico-chemical characteristics of a high-grade oligomer indicators highly complete oligomer daf-6 density, g / cm 3 gost 15139-69 1.40 mp oc 130 ƞхв 0.070 solubility dimethylformamide appearance and color viscous substance of brown color on the nda-6 ir spectrum in the regions of 2850-1470 cm -1 there are absorption bands confirming the presence of -ch2-groups and absorption bands in the 1650 cm -1 region, confirming the presence of the -cohh2 group in the free state. the ir spectrum contains absorption bands in the 3400 cm-1 region corresponding to the primary -cohh2 groups and absorption bands in the 3300-3440 cm -1 regions corresponding to the secondary -cohhr groups. the deformation oscillations of all active groups are manifested in the form of strong narrow bands between the usual bands of deformation vibrations -ch2-coin the region 14001465 cm -1 . the absorption bands in the 800 and 1600 cm -1 regions confirm the presence of -nh2 groups. the presence of groups containing phosphorus p = o and p-o-c in the region of 10001180 cm -1 is confirmed by a broad intensive band and sulfur-containing compounds in the regions 400-900 cm -1 , 1040-1060 cm -1 and 1100-900 cm -1 [10,11]. in addition, narrow low-intensity bands containing sulfur-containing compound bonds appear in ir spectroscopy in the regions 600-800 cm -1 and 1460 cm -1 . when considering ir spectra of nda-6, intensive -ch2-ngroups with dimmer indices of 1400-1440 cm -1 and organic phosphates of 1180 cm -1 1150 cm -1 are seen. (fig. 1). 106 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us picture 1. ir spectrum of sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus-containing oligomer of daf-6 brand. results and discussion the influence of oligomers on the dsc process of a sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus-containing oligomer of the daf-6 brand was studied. the weight of the daf-6 sample does not change to 207 ° c. a single endothermic peak (at 184.1 ° c) is observed on the dsc curve in the temperature range 20 -207 °c, which corresponds to the melting of the sample. above the temperature of 207 °c, the sample begins to decompose in two stages up to 265 ° c at a rate of 6% / min, and above 265 °c at a rate of 2.5%/ min, with a total weight loss of 73%. the decomposition reaction is endothermic, the total decomposition energy is -302.7 j / g. fig.3. figure.2. dsc sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus-containing oligomer daf-6 conclusion. thus, the characteristic properties of the sulfur, phosphorus and nitrogen containing oligomer were determined by ir spectroscopy and dsc, as a result of laboratory tests and it was proved that the oligomer can be used as high-grade additives for polymeric materials references 1. kerber ml, vinogradov vm, golovkin gs, etc. polymer composite materials: structure, properties, technology: training. allowance // spb .: profession, 2008. 560 pp. 2. egorova ov, artemenko se, kadykova yu. a. polyethylene compositions filled with dispersed basalt // plastic masses, 2012. №9. pp. 38 -39. 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 temperature /°c -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 dsc /(mw/mg) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 tg /% [1] 6.dsv tg dsc [1] [1] exo 107 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. shostak ts, budash yu. a., pakharenko vv, stashkevich ia, pakharenko va compositions based on pe filled with aluminosilicate // plastics, 2011. №4. 39-43. 4. nei zo lin., averyanova mn, osipchik vs, kravchenko tp structural and mechanical properties of highly filled polyolefin compositions. uspekhi in chemistry and chemical technology, 2014. t. xxviii. №3 (152). p.55-57. 5. usmani a. m.: chemistry and technology of polysulfide sealants. polymer-plastics technology and engineering, -1982. –v.19, -pp.165–199. doi: 10.1080/03602558208067730 6. normurodov b.a., turaev kh.kh., jalilov a.t., nurkulov f.n., rasulova s.m. study of the physicochemical properties of the resulting polysulfide oligomer based on sodium tetrasulfide and ammonium phosphate // universe: technical sciences, -2018. -no. 7(52), p. 34-37. 7. kadirov d.m., nefediev e.s., kadirov m.k. differential scanning calorimetry of thiokol composite //structure and dynamics of molecular systems. 2016. s. 55-55. 8. ostanov yu.yu., beknazarov kh.kh. s., jalilov a. t. study of thermal stability of polyethylene stabilized by gossypol derivatives by dta and tga method //plastic masses. – 2010. – no. 8. s. 27-29. 9. normurodov b.a., tozhiev p.zh., turaev h.kh., jalilov a.t., kiemov sh.n., pardaeva n.zh. highly filled thiokol oligomers for polyolefin compositions //chemistry and chemical technology: achievements and prospects. 2018. s. 224.1-224.4. 10. kochergin yu.s., grigorenko m.a., grigorenko t.i., loiko d.p. properties of epoxy-thiokol mixtures subjected to a preliminary reaction of thioetherification // questions of chemistry and chemical technology. – 2011. – no. 6. p. 83. 11. normurodov b.a. synthesis of modified thiokol oligomers based on local raw materials and their applications: cand. on the soy. uch. step. doctor of philosophy (phd) in technical sciences, termez state university, 2019. p.141 75-78 synthesis and study of reducing the corrosive activity 75 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 synthesis and study of reducing the corrosive activity of motor fuels using additives of the mee series eldor mashaev, utkirbek azamatov senior lecturer of the tashkent institute of chemical technology abduhamid makhsumov professor of the tashkent institute of chemical technology boburbek ismailov phd of the tashkent institute of chemical technology abstract: this scientific work proposes a method for the effective synthesis of bis-carbamate mee-2. the physicochemical parameters and vibrational spectra of the molecule were studied and the anti-corrosion properties for motor fuels were investigated. it was revealed that the authors' synthesis method is resource-saving, energy-saving and environmentally friendly. ir spectra data prove the structure and composition of the mee-2 molecule. studies on the corrosion activity of fuels showed that when bis-carbamate mee-2 was added to the fuel, the copper plate was clean and corresponded to class 1, which allows it to be used as an anticorrosion additive for motor fuels. keywords: petrochemical, bis-carbamate, synthesis, ir spectra, corrosion, gasoline, isopropyl alcohol, indicator, plate, concentration. introduction. oil contains phenols (especially a lot of phenols) in oxygen-containing compounds. and also cresols (o-, m-, p-), xylenols, o-ethylphenol, diethylphenols, p-naphthol and other phenols [1]. in the surkhandarya region of the republic of uzbekistan there is the khaudag field, which contains heavy oil with the following parameters [2]: density at 20 ºс 979.5 kg/m3, viscosity (kinematic) at 80 ºс 405.3 mm2/s, viscosity (conditional vu-80) 53, pour point -23 ºс, coking ability 12.1% wt, asphaltenes content 9.5% wt, resins 50.5% wt, paraffins 3.85% wt, water 3, 1% by mass, mechanical impurities 0.01% by mass, flash point 165 ºс. cresols at the haudag deposit: o-cresol 10.70%, m-cresol 8.32%, p-cresol 3.26%. cresols are used in a wide variety of industries: oil and gas, petrochemical, polymers, medicine, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, etc. examples include ionol, butylated hydroxytoluene, dibunol, agidol-1, bht 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol, lipophilic organic substance, representatives of the class of phenols, which are widely used as an antioxidant in the chemical industry. the development of the chemistry of carbamates and bis-carbamates is largely determined by the wide range of beneficial properties of these substances. they are promising as means of protecting and stimulating plant growth, components in corrosion inhibitors, additives for lubricating oils, medicines; biand polyfunctional carbamates are used as polymers [3]. taking into account the high biological activity of cresol and carbamates and the wide range of applications, it was necessary to determine optimal methods for introducing cresol-carbamate 76 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us groups into these types of compounds (1) and to study the dependence of the reactions used due to the mobile proton at the n-h reaction center of substituting functional groups [4 -5]. materials and methods. synthesis of n,n’-hexamethylene bis-[(m-cresolyl)-carbamate] i.e. mee-2: to 10.8 g (0.1 mol) of meta-cresol add 10 ml of triethylamine, 35 ml of dimethylformamide (dmf), stir, dissolve in 20 ml of dmf at room temperature, add 8.4 g (0.05 mol) of hexamethylene diisocyanate . after the time has elapsed, the reaction mixture is stirred at a temperature of 35-48°c for 3.0 hours, the contents of the flask are poured into a glass and water is added. the resulting precipitate is washed with thin layer chromatography (tlc). after drying, a white powder is obtained, the product yield is 18.16 g (94.6% of theoretical); melt temperature=131-132°c; rf=0.71. found, % c-68.62; h-7.17; n-7.24; calculated % for c22h28n2o4 c-68.75; h-7.29; n-7.29 the progress of the reaction and the individuality of the compounds are monitored by tlc on aluminum oxide (ii) of the degree of activity with the appearance of spots by iodine vapor. ir spectra of functional groups were recorded in a nicolet is50 spectrometer (th.scientific, usa) at the center for advanced research. to identify the inhibitory properties of bis-carbamate mee-2, tests were carried out in accordance with the method described in accordance with saus 32329. results and discussions. by reacting meta-cresol with hexamethylene diisocyanate, new derivatives of n,n'-hexamethylene bis-(m-cresolyl)-carbamate were obtained: a cost-effective, waste-free, energy-saving synthesis was carried out according to scheme 1: the reaction is carried out in a medium of dimethylformamide and the organic base triethylamine at room temperature for 4 hours. it should be noted that bis-carbamate mee-2 derivatives were obtained in fairly high yield. the physicochemical characteristics of compounds are given in table 1. table 1. physicochemical properties of bis-carbamate mee-2 structural formula ex it, % t. m e, 0 с r f b ru tto fo rm ul a element analysis, % м m calculated found n n 94 ,6 13 113 2 0, 71 c 22 h 28 n 2o 4 7, 29 7, 24 38 4, 47 in the ir spectrum of n,n'–hexamethylene bis-[(m-cresolyl)-carbamate] (fig. 1), the ring vibration of the aromatic ring appeared in the region of 1487 cm-1, the average stretching vibration characteristic of the c-n bond of the ring was at in the region of 3046 cm-1, and the deformation vibration appeared in the region of 642 cm-1. a highly asymmetrical stretching vibration of the methyl group (ch3) on the aromatic ring was observed around 2962.49 cm-1. the methylene groups of meta-cresolyl carbamate (-ch2) have a high asymmetric stretching h3c oh + o c n c o + ho ch3 n t=0-5°c dmf (et)3n c n o o h3c h n c o o ch3 h i (1) c n o o h3c h n c o o ch3 h 77 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us vibration in the region of 2927 cm-1, a symmetric stretching vibration in the region of 2859 cm-1, a weak sharp bending stretching vibration in the region of 1461 cm-1, respectively, spindle and pendulum vibrations in the region of 1339.46 and 735.89 cm-1. high stretching vibrations to the amino group (nh) were observed in the region of 3289 cm-1, and stretching vibrations characteristic of the -c-n bond were observed in the region of 1183 cm-1. intense absorption lines of the carbonyl group (c=o) were observed in the region of 1699 cm-1. very strong stretching vibrations of the ether bond (c-o-c) in intensity were observed in the absorption region of 1257 cm-1. based on the ir spectra of n,n’-hexamethylene bis-[(m-cresolyl)carbamate], we can say that the structure of the substance corresponds to the above scheme 1. figure 1. ir spectrum of n,n’–hexamethylene bis-[(m-cresolyl)-carbamate] studies have shown [7] that benzotriazole and benzimidazole derivatives are capable of inhibiting corrosion processes due to their ability to be sorbed on the metal surface. compounds with unshared electron pairs can exhibit inhibitory properties; due to them, they are absorbed on the metal surface, protecting against corrosion. for the same reason, one can expect the manifestation of anti-corrosion activity from carbamates and their derivatives. to identify the inhibitory properties of n,n’-hexamethylene bis-[(m-cresolyl)-carbamate], further mee-2 tests were carried out in accordance with the method described in gureev’s work [8]. since the substances taken for analysis are not soluble in gasoline, 1 liter of sample was prepared by dissolving in isopropyl alcohol (mee-2 on average 12 mg) and mixing with gasoline in a ratio of 1:19 (by volume). at the same time, the isopropyl alcohol indicator given in uzdst 3031-2015 did not exceed 15%. ai-80 gasoline was used as a model medium and analysis was carried out according to saus 3232. the results are presented in table 2: table 2. results of a study of the corrosion activity of fuel with the mee-2 additive gasoline concentration, % (wt.) corrosion, g/m2 appearance of the plate 1*10-4 1,48 spots on records 1*10-4 0,65 spots on records 1*10-3 0,12 dots on plates 1*10-3 the records are clean 78 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion. the method of synthesizing bis-carbamate with hexamethylene diisocyanates made it possible to obtain a high yield of the product, and also, the ir spectra of the molecule prove the structure of the resulting bis-carbamate mee-2. from the results of the study of the corrosive activity of gasoline, we can say that when the mee-2 additive was added to gasoline in an amount of 0.005%, the copper plate was clean and corresponded to class 1. final conclusions can be drawn after industrial application, but now we need to continue research work on bis carbamate mee-2. references 1. рябов в. д. химия нефти и газа: учебное пособие. — м.: ид «форум», 2009. — 336 с.: ил. — (высшее образование). с 176 2. абдурахимов с.а., адизов б.з., очилов а.а. тяжелые нефти узбекистана и их устойчивые водонефтяные эмульсии // унивeрсум: технические науки : электрон. научн. журн. 2019. № 9 (66). 3. гордеев д.а., дис. бесфосгенный синтез алифатических карбаматов и изоцианатов на основе этиленкарбоната, канд. хим. наук. рхту имени д.и.менделеева, москва, 2017. 4. махсумов абдухамид гафурович, абдукаримова саида абдужалиловна, машаев элдор эргашвой угли, and азаматов уткирбек рашидович. "синтез и свойства производного n,n' quote -гексаметилен бис [(орто-крезолило) -карбамата] и его применение" universum: химия и биология, no. 10-2 (76), 2020, pp. 33-40. 5. махсумов а.г., жагфаров ф.г., арипджанов о.ю., машаев э.э., азаматов у.р. "синтез и свойства производных мета-крезолило-карбаматов, их биологическая активность" нефтегазохимия, №3, 2022, 52-59 c. doi:10.24412/2310-8266-2022-3-52-59 6. махсумов абдухамид гафурович, машаев элдор эргашвой угли, холбоев юсубжон хакимович, уразов фируз бахтиярович, and зохиджонов сирожиддин аскаржон угли. "n,n’–гексаметилен бис [(м-крезолило) -карбамат] и его физико-химические свойства" life sciences and agriculture, no. 1 (9), 2022, pp. 7-11. 7. воробьев с.в., дис. синтез замещенных фенолов с фрагментами азотсодержащих гетероциклов, канд. хим. наук. ргу нефти и газа им. и.м. губкина, москва, 2019. 60 с. 8. гуреев а.а. квалификационные методы испытаний нефтяных топлив / а.а.гуреев, е.п.серегин, в.с.азев. – м.: химия. – 1984. – 200 с. 345 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 agrotechnical requirements of preparation of field row for repeated crop planting d. b. irgashev, phd. institute of engineering and economics o. s. nurova, phd. institute of engineering and economics abstract: effective and high-quality harvest from the vine plant is important in many aspects of row-to-row cultivation. in this case, the vine plant is not only effective in absorbing nutrients from the soil, but also effective from the cultivated area its use was considered an effective method in the fight against diseases and pests. keywords: vineyard, repeated crop, vine plant, plant, branch, rust, bud, form, cutting, crop, soil, nutrient. introduction. soil conservation works in gardens include the use of garden rows, tillage, watering and fertilizing fruit trees, and mulching. the main purpose of soil cultivation is to regularly increase its productivity. however, in addition to these, the garden is also used to grow as many high-quality products as possible. plowing between the garden rows allows to accumulate moisture in the soil and maintain the same level of moisture throughout the growing season. therefore, it is especially useful to plow the land in places where water is scarce. the black plow improves the air and heat regime in the soil, helps the biological processes in the soil and the accumulation of nutrients, especially nitrates, cleans the land of weeds. therefore, productivity increases after black plowing. however, if the land is left for plowing for a long time (5-8 years), the mineralization of humus in the soil accelerates, the soil structure is destroyed, the air-water properties deteriorate, the soil becomes powdery and birch bark is formed, which weakens the activity of roots and microorganisms. as a result, the trees grow slowly and the yield of the orchard decreases, dry matter is less accumulated in the fruits, and they are not stored for a long time. literature analysis and methods on steep slopes, the black plow increases soil erosion. when using garden rows, the distances between tree trunks and bushes are usually left 1.5-2 m wide. they are expanded by about 0.5 m every year. their diameter should be slightly more than the diameter of the branches. therefore, the distance between planting crops and planting seedlings is narrowing year by year. if the same plant is planted between rows of a garden for a long time, its soil will be weakened in one direction, and the yield of intercrops will decrease. therefore, one-year plants are replaced from time to time, if necessary, perennial grasses, siderates are planted between the rows or left as a black plow. the purpose of this is to increase soil fertility, help to implement the plan for purchasing agricultural products, and make full use of manpower and machinery. to the soil of the crops planted between the rows, 346 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us their demand for moisture, nutrients, and their harvesting periods are also taken into account. crops are not planted between the rows of a garden that has reached the harvest and the branches are connected. they are plowed, every 2-3 years gorokh and shabdar are planted as green manure. in rare cases, when fruit trees are sparsely planted, it is possible to plant sebar, shabdar and alfalfa in the garden. when working between garden rows, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the soil does not become powdery, that it has good air and water permeability, and that it is cleaned of weeds. it is necessary to plow the garden between the rows, free from crops and grasses, and also soften the circles around the body and the distances between the bushes. when plowing, the soil is plowed to a depth of 25-30 cm, which should be done without damaging the tree roots. therefore, it is necessary to determine the depth of the roots. around the trunk of the tree, especially young trees are plowed more shallowly, taking into account that the roots are located more superficially. plowed lands are left in this state until spring; in such a case, decay processes in the soil will go well. in water-scarce districts, where strong winds dry out the soil, plowing is done in one way. otherwise, the soil may become too dry and fruit trees may suffer from drought. during the growing season, the soil should be kept soft and free of weeds. if the plowed land is ripe, it will rain as soon as it dries. if the soil is compacted, after cultivation, the soil is softened by cuttings on the surface and the resulting lumps. if plowed in the fall and when the reserve land is opened, the plow moves, and in the spring the land is worked with a disc harrow. figure 1. preparation of garden row rows for repeated cropping if the garden is plowed between the rows, it is cultivated in april-may after the trees bloom and the weeds grow. if the soil is too compacted and overgrown with grass, it is chiseled together with harrowing instead of cultivation. along with cultivation and fertilizing, in the spring, the circles around the body and the distances between the bushes are softened. in summer, the garden is cultivated 2-3 times between rows. it should be worked after every rain or after watering when the soil is ripe. when it's too dry, it becomes flaky, when it's too wet, it becomes sticky, and then hardens quickly. during the growing season in the garden, cultivation between the rows can continue until the posts are placed. a tractor-mounted garden plow, looseners, chisel-cultivator, garden disk harrow, and milling machines are used in working the garden.viticulture is one of the important branches of agriculture, and grapes are a part of the republic it is widespread in all regions and it is used by almost all farmers and peasant farms they grow in farms. favorable climatic conditions here allow the varieties of grapes to ripen in different periods gives the opportunity to grow. the adaptation of the grape plant to different conditions is different on soils: it grows well on sandy, gravelly, low-fertility, near-flowing soils and allows high yield. grapes grow well in soils unsuitable for other plants.great attention is paid to viticulture in our republic. cultivation of grapes, it is one of the main components of the 347 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us preparation of dried massulants. rich in technical varieties the complex allows you to prepare various types of wine. area of vineyards is regularly expanding and now it covers an area of more than 150,000 hectares. unfortunately, for some reasons, the yield of vineyards is low, from 100 ts/ha is not increasing. to increase the yield of vineyards:  new vineyards of accelerated varieties suitable for use in different directions create;  restoration of old, low quality vineyards;  introduction of new varieties into production and expansion of existing vineyards necessary. agricultural crops recommended for planting in the territory of the republic of uzbekistan 43 food, raisin and technical varieties of grapes to the state register included. getting a high yield from existing vineyards is largely due to inter-row cultivation depends on giving. in this case, the vine plant easily absorbs nutrients from the soil and is alien it is very useful to fight against grass, diseases and pests. it is designated for this it is necessary to conduct agricultural activities, i.e. agrotechnical activities, in a timely manner and with high quality.agrotechnical activities recommended by research institutes should be carried out in mother vineyards. agrotechnical activities tillage, watering, fertilizing, vines with green parts the work to be carried out must be completed on time in newly established young vineyards, it is productive among the rows during the first 3 years can be used. in this case, vine seedlings that do not grow tall are planted between the rows of the vineyard leguminous crops that do not cause serious problems to care agrotechnics and it is recommended to plant crops that enrich the soil composition with various useful elements. (1-picture). this will bring enough benefits to the gardener. the vineyard soil is cultivated throughout the year. vineyard in the period of vine rest (december-february).soil cultivation mainly consists of keeping the moisture that appears due to precipitation should be. spring processing is to collect moisture in the soil as much as possible and use it aimed at spending sparingly. evaporation of moisture from the soil surface in spring and summer and its consumption by plants and weeds increases (warming days as a result, 4-6 mm of moisture evaporates in one day). therefore, during this period, the current is between the rows cultivation and fertilizing, mulching around the bushes sharply reduce moisture evaporation (1.5-2 times) decreases. also, excessive use of soil moisture in the surface layer of the soil it also depends on the structure and topography of the place. according to the data, evaporation of soil moisture in uneven areas is flat it was found to be 1530% more than other places. therefore, deep in the spring it should not be softened, the upper layer should be leveled. otherwise, the water balance in the soil will be disturbed possible in early spring, cultivate the soil to a depth of 15 cm, and dense soils to 30 it is advisable to draw up to cm. in the summer months, after each watering, line the vine loosening the gaps to 15 cm, fighting against weeds gives a good result. in the fall after the vines are cut and laid for burial, the vines are turned over at a depth of 30-35 cm between the rows. is driven at this time, it is necessary to apply organic and mineral fertilizers. soil at the time of burying the vine outside, it is necessary to turn it inside during opening in the spring. harvested vineyards are deepened (60-80 cm.) every 2-3 years up to) softening gives good results. in this case, even rows in one year, and even rows in the second year deep loosening of the interstices can cause a lot of death of the sucker roots and vine bushes can have a negative impact on development. roots are rejuvenated when alternated new rootlets develop from the damaged place and manage to replace the lost ones (regeneration it takes 3-4 months to recover). the owners have a saying: "double deep loosening replaces one watering." 348 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the vine is mainly grown by planting. because the climate of uzbekistan is changing rapidly, it is during winter it can be cold up to 25-300c. therefore, vine bushes are damaged by frost they should be buried in winter for protection. it is known from the results of the research that the vines left unburied are cold in winter years will be seriously damaged. some regions (surkhandarya, kashkadarya, ferghana). in the districts, the vine may not be buried in winter (winter frost will not exceed -15o c). vines are cut and packed before planting, and vine bushes are laid evenly along the rows and it should be buried no later than november (before it gets cold). vine bushes infected with fungal disease (oidium) are 5% before burial works with iso fluid. in the southern regions, vine bushes are 1520 cm tall, winter is cold in the republic of karakalpakstan and khorezm region, with soil 40-50 cm thick should be buried. due to the lack of snow in these areas, as a result of severe cold, the soil layer is 80-it can freeze up to 100 cm and seriously damage the root system.the vine bushes grown in the alleys are covered with materials such as reeds and rice straw soil is drawn over it. in dry lands, vine bushes are planted densely on the ground and cut vines on top of them sprouted branches are thrown away. oneand two-year-old vines are buried for the winter without being cut (they are cut and shaped in the spring).vines affected by moderate and weak frost are not cut in spring, only shoots appear the damaged part is removed. prvn-2,5 prvn3900 for burying vines, machines and devices such as mpv-1 are used. opening the vines in the spring is much more complicated than burying them for the winter. his it is necessary to open the parts of the vine where the delicacy is buried without being damaged or damaged. this it must be done before the buds wake up. a layer of soil thrown over the vines prvn-3 plow and mpv-1 machine, and the rest of the soil ovp-0.4a removed by machines (pneumatic machines). it is mentioned in order to achieve high productivity in the cultivation of quality grape products it is necessary to achieve high results at low cost in performing agrotechnical activities. references 1. mamatov f.m., fayzullayev x.a., irgshev d.b., mustapaqulov s.u., nurmanov m., hamrayeva l. substantiation of loosening the soil with a subsoiler during soil processing for sowing melons and gourds under a closed film tunnel// international journal of progressive sciences and technologies (ijpsat) issn: 2509-0119.© 2020 international journals of sciences and high technologies. – vol. 24. – india, 2020. – p. 444450. 2. ravshanov k., fayzullayev k., ismoilov i., mamatov s., mardonov sh.. irgashev d,b.. the machine for the preparation of the soil in sowing of plow crops under film // iop conf. series: materials science and enginereering 883. 3. fayzullayev kh., mustapakulov s., irgashev d.b., begimkulova.m raking plates of the combination machine's subsoiler // e3s web of conferences 264, 04039 (2021). 4. fayzullaev kh., mamatov f., мirzaev b., irgashev d.b., mustapakulov s,, sodikov a. study on mechanisms of tillage for melon cultivation under the film // e3sweb of conferences 304, 03012 (2021). 5. иргашев д.б., файзуллаев х. а., курбанов ш. б. обработка почвы между рядами садов чизелом рыхлителом// международной научно-практической конференции. сборник научных трудов. “автотракторосроение и автомобильный транспорт”. – минск, 2021. – c. 265-268. 6. иргашев д.б., даминов л.о., муспакулов с.у. обосновать параметры рыхлителя, для обработки между садовыми рядами// международной научно-практической конференции. сборник научных трудов. “автотракторосроение и автомобильный транспорт”. – минск, 2021. – 268-271. 349 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. irgashev d.b. аgrotechnical requirements for deep tillage without turning the soil// научное обеспечение устойчивого развития агропромышленного комплекса. сборник материалов международной научно-практической конференции посвященной памяти академика ран в.п. зволинского и 30-летию создания фгбну «пафнц ран» – с. соленое займище, 2021. – c. 577-580. 1 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 reflection of classical traditions in fine arts pirmatova durdona kamoliddin behzod national painting and design institute, teacher of the "design" department abstract: national works created on the basis of historical sources make a great contribution not only to raising the spirituality of our nation, but also to introducing its beautiful values to the whole world. in this regard, the first president of the republic of uzbekistan, islam karimov, noted the role of historical sources in the interpretation of works of art: "living by lessons from history, knowing the truths of history gives strength to a person, equips him with the truth of life. "the youth who will take our place tomorrow should be armed with the truth of this history 1 keywords: culture, art, creative union, state, country, literature, trend. in august 2017, the president of the republic of uzbekistan, shavkat mirziyoyev, at a meeting with representatives of creative intellectuals of our country, discussed the current issues related to the development of our national culture, literature and art, ways to solve them, and important issues facing creative associations and state organizations in this regard. gave a detailed opinion about the tasks. in the speech of the head of our state at the meeting, in the course of the development of our culture and art, along with the positive trends in this regard, some negative situations, their impact on the life of society were objectively and critically evaluated, the current problems awaiting their solution and ways to eliminate them. was discussed in detail. the activities of creative associations, the ministry of culture and its associations and organizations were analyzed in depth. important and relevant thoughts were expressed about the role and function of creative intellectuals in the life of society today, in the process of reforms. our president emphasized that the service of artists is incomparable in the spiritual maturity of our people, and emphasized that at the current stage of our development, as well as representatives of all fields of culture and art, more activity, living with new creative ideas and initiatives, and the spirit of search are required. kidded. speaking about the importance and logical result of the open and sincere dialogue, the president said, "we have a great history worthy of envy. we have great ancestors who are worthy of envy. we have immeasurable riches to covet. and i believe that if we are lucky, we will have a great enviable future, great literature and art. 2 miniatura is a classical tradition with its own ideas and solutions. tradition is the rules of innovation introduced by a certain person, and the continuation of this tradition by a group of 1 a.karimov.ona yurtimiz baxtu iqboli va buyuk kelajagi yо‘lida xizmat qilish-eng oliy saodatdir. toshkent“о‘zbekiston”-2015. b.113. 2 i.a.karimov.ona yurtimiz baxtu iqboli va buyuk kelajagi yо‘lida xizmat qilish-eng oliy saodatdir. toshkent-“о‘zbekiston”-2015. 2 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us creators without violating the rules of innovation forms a unique new school. including wall paintings created in vi-vii-viii centuries afrosiyab, varakhsha, bolalik tepa, manuscripts written in xv-xvi centuries "khamsa" (nizamiy, navoiy), "boburnoma", "zafarnoma" in miniature schools. mothers too. miniatures are exquisite and delicate works of art. the nonrepetition of the traditions of these schools, the amazing technology simplicity in complexity, and complexity in simplicity, had a significant impact on great scientific and artistic interests. 3 it still deserves our admiration, along with its flaws and achievements. in their compositions, it is possible to deeply analyze such factors as the location solution of each source, integrity, rhythm of color and form. a healthy synthesis of classic traditions, while observing the themes expressed in the compositions of artists such as usta momin, alexander volkov, chingiz akhmarov, niyozali kholmatov, alisher mirzayev, akmal nur, abdukhakim karimov, who were able to connect classical traditions in their works, is a healthy synthesis of classical traditions. is clearly felt. for example: alexander volkov's "teahouse" 1920s, c.m. 56×95. o'dsm, tashkent "an old man and a boy riding a donkey" 1927, m.m. 94×93. o'dsm, tashkent, "camel caravan bells" 1926, m.m. 39×127. o'dsm, tashkent, "caravan of camels" 1917, m.m. 37×74 o'dsm, tashkent, "uzbekona bayram" 1926-1927, q.t.l in the works of o'dsm, tashkent, the decorativeness and figurativeness typical of classical traditions are synthesized through the elements of cubism, which took place in the color image genre. we can feel that he did. the ideas of vanguardism in the works of usta momin are expressed in composition solutions of classical traditions, integrated coloring technology, inspired by decoration, oriental-looking easel and bookcase compositions. for example, it can be seen in the works of the series devoted to the book "bedanaboz", "hayat yo'oli", "kuyov", "nasriddin afndi". some people in the world of art believe that the role and importance of classical art in the interpretation of modern themes lies in their interdependence. just as academicism is the solid foundation of cubism. but, unfortunately, there are those who say that it is possible to create a work in the direction of cubism if one does not have sufficient academic knowledge. "each creator passes the information conveyed to the mind through the environment through the heart, and then writes it down on paper this is a feeling (intuition)," says the artist and art historian ye.a. kibrik. analyzing intuition increases the scientificity of the work. the wholeness, contrasting color and movement of shapes gain meaning through analysis. we always need synthesis resulting from analysis for our innovation activities. that is, the ability to analyze the solution of beauty in the traditions of classical art and connect it to the synthesis in the interpretation of modern themes will justify criteria such as composition, color and rhythm, which are the foundation of the work. in the field of two-dimensional color image, the creative process that is being carried out to illuminate the topics that express the spirit of today, studying the traditions of classical art and using it, is giving its positive results. the creations of our contemporary artists such as niyozali kholmatov, alisher mirzayev, akmal nur, abdukhakim karimov, as well as new modern art types can be recognized as classical art or become a tradition. contemporary topics; circus, park, zoo, water park, astronauts, etc. or when covering the topic of an ordinary family, the problem encountered in revealing its modern spirit is the popularization of fashion, due to which the originality is lost in the delivery of the spirit of the time. now we can't distinguish people by clothes sometimes. if we analyze classical art, we can see that clothes were made and expressed by each person in the environment of the period. in this period, a thin lip and compact waist were 3 а.а.абдуразаков м.к.камбаров. реставрация настенних росписей афрасияба–узбекской сср ташкент фан, 1975.–3 от ответственного редактора а.с.садиков 3 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us used not only in humans, but also in horses. it is an undeniable fact that faces have changed in modern times, comparing them with the faces of akmal ikromjanov's creative research. maybe that's why we are using 21st century technology to give the spirit of the present time. news fills old gaps and creates new gaps. for example, successively emerging isms in the field of art (social realism, cubism). a small or large change in the path of development is the cause of positive and negative results. ye. a. kibrik said that "the solution of the idea in art is not in the choice of subject, but in the attitude of the artist to life." i agree with this opinion, because correcting the attitude, not being indifferent fills the gap. apathy trumps novelty. pictures made in response to life are distinguished by their vitality. a work written with imaginary images or metaphors resembles a dream and an intention. a small secret and a great achievement of fine art is that it can convey an idea to a lover through intuition and analysis (observation of feelings), and its novelty depends on existence. all modern things become obsolete in time. any tradition over the centuries, due to (evolutionary process) developments, part of it changes, and part of it is preserved. for example, the purpose may change and the essence may be preserved, and vice versa: architectural ensembles that were built for living or for different purposes and surprised people with their skillful dimensions and decorative inscriptions, today have become places of pilgrimage. today's fine art also has styles and solutions (chislo fibanache, kasmagonia, zolotoye secheniye, etc.). even in the works of some modern artists, the appearance of classical art changes, the solution or technology, and some other aspects are preserved, and vice versa, it is not a copying of classical art, but an attempt to create a new one. we are studying at a time when technology and nanotechnology have developed in history. in order to continue development, we need to use it in the work process and direct it towards good goals. the role of technology is recognized in all fields, including fine and applied arts. 21st century living in an environment where computer technologies are entering, it is natural for us sometimes to join and oppose changes in art, because dissatisfaction is often the environment and reason for development. it is a fact that no matter whether the world is a developed or underdeveloped environment, there will be objections, something is not equally liked by everyone, and it is a fact that five hands are not equal. in the past, it took 10 hours to reach a certain destination on horseback, but now, thanks to the development of technology, they cover this distance in half an hour, sometimes in 1 hour. this shows how rapidly the present is developing. we are using it in an environment where computer technologies, ehm programs, nanotechnologies, etc. are in demand. in ancient times, geometric lines were used in all forms of art (painters used geometry to express curves, architects designed complexes, even mystics and artists used geometry when they used cosmogony), because geometry is the determining factor of composition. using ehm programs, which are new to our science, we are making geometric calculations in seconds we can draw only a part and increase, enlarge or reduce the rest using technology, and even create a composition. by now, such nanotechnology and various programs have been released that works of art are being created without manual labor, only on the basis of human control and command this is, of course, the demand of the time. it should be supported, but it is not right to hand it over, according to many. among us, there are those who display their work on large banners at exhibitions, and some artists also work on photos. anyway, any technique cannot give creative love, bio-energetic power. your face warms up when you look at the work written by human hands (the mausoleum of shahizinda-bibikhanim in samarkand, miniatures of kamoliddin behzod, chingiz ahmarov, usta momin, alexander volkov, etc. the quality of the work depends on the artist. ehm can work flawlessly in programs, computer equipment, and nanotechnology, because it is a closed system, but a person is a mistake maker, which is impressive. technical means give off coldness, too much coldness causes disappointment. its continuous use is a problem that has been proven to have a negative effect on human psyche and health. technical tools are like pencils and paints. but it is not a feeling of the heart expressed by human hands. techniques and technologies that are the product of development should be used in moderation, in the work process, as work tools that speed up the 4 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us work, handing over the work completely reduces the power of fine art. time will tell how long the technical work will live. in conclusion, as our president has often emphasized, i am in favor of preserving our inherited spiritual wealth, passing it on to future generations, and doing something worthy of our heritage. most of us know that spiritual wealth is a symbol of spirituality and culture, spirituality is a mirror of man, and the spiritual, cultural and material wealth left by him are our classical heritage. references. 1. i.a. karimov. it is the highest happiness to serve our motherland in the way of its happiness, fortune and great future. tashkent-"uzbekistan"-2015. b.113. 2. (classics, classicism). www.ziyouz. library 811 3. pugachenkova g.a. rampel l.i. ocherki iskusstva sredney azii. 1982. 4. h.s. sulaymonova. miniature by khamse nizami. tashkent science, uzssr. 1985. 5. h. sulaiman. miniature k babur-name. tashkent science, uzssr. 1970. 6. a.a. abdurazakov m.k. kambarov. restavratsiya nastennix rospisey afrasiyaba–tashkent fan, 1975.–3 ot otvetstvennogo editora a.s. sadikov 7. volkov a.n. the caravan continues on its way. -tashkent: uzba, 2006. 8. master momin. -tashkent: uzba, 2006. 9. latipovich t. a. experience of using operated roofs abroad //international journal on orange technologies. – 2023. – т. 5. – №. 3. – с. 19-23. 10. latipovich t. a. styles of prototyping… prototyping and about layout //middle european scientific bulletin. – 2022. – т. 20. – с. 76-80. 11. мансуров я. м. и др. бугунги кун театр биноларини замонавийлаштириш масалалари //естественные науки в современном мире: теоретические и практические исследования. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 7. – с. 66-72. 12. kizi salomova f. l., matniyazov z. e., mannopova n. r. methods of using ethnographic elements in furniture design //european journal of innovation in nonformal education. – 2022. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 166-170. 13. nilufar m., farrukhovna i. n. basic provisions and requirements for the formation of interior spaces of hotels //european journal of life safety and stability (2660-9630). – 2021. – т. 12. – с. 417-420. 14. furkatovna, tursunova shakhnoza. "packaging evolution and design." (2021). 15. sultanova muhayyo fahriddinovna the formation of art and architecture of the ancient period // european journal of arts. 2023. №1. url: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-formation-of-art-and-architecture-of-the-ancient-period (дата обращения: 13.09.2023). 16. muhayyo s., ruzibayevich r. f. design solutions and development chronology in the construction of business centers. emergent: journal of educational discoveries and lifelong learning (ejedl), 2 (11), 96–103. – 2021. 17. ismaildjanovich r. m. the place of landscape architecture, traditional landscape and horticulture in urban planning. – 2021. 37 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 05, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 climate change and building sustainability in nigeria: the implications and the way forward arc. utibe akah department of architecture, university of uyo, uyo, akwa ibom state ogundele joseph olurotimi department of architectural technology, bida, niger state obamoh hannah yetunde department of architectural technology, federal polytechnic ukana, akwa ibom state abstract: natural events and human activities are believed to be contributing to an increase in average global temperatures. climate change has become a global concern, and its impact has continued to affect and threaten human life and, to a large extent, and the livelihood of most people across the globe. the study examined climate change and building sustainability in nigeria, its implications, and the way forward. the paper focused on the implications of climate change on buildings, the economic impacts of climate change in nigeria, and strategies to mitigate climate change impacts on buildings. the study also revealed that buildings contribute significantly to climatic changes and their impacts on the natural environment. sustainable buildings can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, minimize energy consumption, conserve water resources, and enhance resilience to climate-related risks. on this basis, the study concluded that the issue of climate change and building sustainability has significant implications for the environment, society, and economy. nigeria, like any other country is experiencing the adverse effects of climate change, including increased temperatures, extreme weather events, and rising sea levels. these impacts pose a threat to human health, livelihoods, and infrastructure. addressing climate change through building sustainability in nigeria requires a multi-faceted approach involving awareness, policy, finance, collaboration, research, and community engagement. one of the recommendations made was that there is a need for increased awareness and education about the importance of sustainable buildings and their role in climate change mitigation and adaptation. this can be done through public campaigns, training programs, and educational initiatives targeting architects, engineers, policymakers, and the general public. keywords: climate change, building sustainability, implications way forward and nigeria. introduction the definition of climate change is the shift in weather patterns over time as a result of things like anthropogenic activity or vulnerabilities in the environment. climate change has gained international attention, and its effects continue to have an impact on and threaten human life as well as, to a considerable extent, the livelihood of the majority of people worldwide. it is thought that both natural occurrences and human activity are causing an increase in the average world temperature. carbon dioxide (co2) and other greenhouse gases are the main contributors to this. millions of people's welfare is being negatively impacted by nigeria's unfavorable climate conditions. growing seasons have been thrown out of alignment for a nation whose agriculture is 38 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us dependent on rainfall due to persistent droughts, flooding, off-season rains, and dry spells. alarm bells are ringing with lakes drying up and a reduction in river flow in the arid and semi-arid regions. the result is fewer water supplies for use in agriculture, hydro power generation and other users. the main suspect for all this havoc is climate change. scientific studies show snow is disappearing rapidly. building sustainability is essential for both reducing climate change and adapting to it. sustainable structures can lower greenhouse gas emissions, consume less energy, preserve water, and increase risk resistance to climate-related threats. nigeria must overcome a number of obstacles to create sustainable buildings, including a lack of awareness, poor legislation and regulations, and budgetary limitations. according to odjubo (2010), buildings have a considerable impact on climatic changes and how they affect the ecosystem. according to research, buildings are responsible for around 50% of the global carbon emissions. approximately 90% of adults, according to other researchers, spend the majority of their waking hours indoors. it is therefore necessary to minimize problems that occupants may face in terms of comfort and climatic risks. according to zubairu (2012), a sustainable building design is necessary to reduce the issues faced by building inhabitants. buildings can last for a very long time, and during that time they continue to use energy and emit greenhouse gases (american institute of architects (aia) 2010; de wilde and coley, 2012). therefore, making a building sustainable now will be beneficial both now and in the future. buildings that can be made sustainably are able to adapt to changing climatic conditions and lessen their effects. through sustainable design, sustainable buildings are also affordable and attainable, particularly when stakeholders are committed to guaranteeing the sustainability of buildings. by implication, building designs would require specific inputs from current climatic indices to make them mitigate and adapt to a changing climate. climate change hazards are almost as serious as nuclear weapons dangers. nigeria must continue to disregard the possible effects of climate change adaptation measures on its oil-based economy. nigerians should start implementing policies to minimize their greenhouse gas emissions because of the harm that climate change is causing to their country's economic, social, and environmental resources. it is essential that all available resources be focused on finding ways to diversify the nigerian economy and move it away from fossil fuels, both in terms of production and consumption. only such a plan can prevent the nation's economy from collapsing if steps to combat climate change are put in place. the most crucial action to be performed is to increase nigerians' environmental awareness. no matter their status, every person must be aware that the earth is rapidly losing the capacity to sustain the natural resources on which we all rely, endangering the national economy. they ought to take protecting the environment more seriously. not only is this the moral thing to do, but nature depends on itself for its own survival; we cannot exist without nature. we can only save ourselves by protecting the environment. for the building sector, climate change presents both enormous challenges and opportunity. adapting to the changing climate requires sustainable design practices, resilient construction techniques, efficient use of energy and resources, and a focus on occupant comfort and wellbeing. concept of climate according to britannica (2023), climate is the long-term summation of the atmospheric components (and their changes) that, over short time periods, produce weather. climate is the conditions of the atmosphere at a specific area over a long period of time. the meteorological conditions that predominate in a particular region or zone have traditionally been referred to as the climate. the most contemporary definitions of climate consider it to be the sum of years' worth of weather and atmospheric behavior in a certain place. (climate europe 2020) a region's climate is determined by the typical weather there over a longer length of time. a description of a climate includes information on, e.g. the average temperature in different seasons, rainfall, and sunshine. also, a description of the chance of extremes is often included. climate refers to the 39 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us kind of weather that's typically expected in a region. climate is the long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. the weather can change from hour to hour, day to day, month to month or even year to year. a region’s weather patterns, usually tracked for at least 30 years, are considered its climate (national geographic society, 2023). according to wikipedia (2023), climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. more rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time span spanning from months to millions of years. some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. in a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, and the interactions between them. climate is determined by the long-term pattern of temperature and precipitation averages and extremes at a location. climate descriptions can refer to areas that are local, regional, or global in extent. climate can be described for different time intervals, such as decades, years, seasons, months, or specific dates of the year (climate.gov, 2023). climate is region of the earth having specified climatic conditions. it is also the average course or condition of the weather at a place, usually over a period of years, as exhibited by temperature, wind velocity, and precipitation (merriam-webster, 2023). an area with particular weather conditions is called a climate. the typical weather conditions in a particular area it is also the general feeling or situation in a place at a particular time (longman 2022). according to oliver (2018), climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. the classical period for averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the world meteorological organization. the relevant quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. in a wider sense, climate is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. climate is the thermodynamic and hydrodynamic status of the global boundary conditions that determine the concurrent array of weather patterns. lower-case climate is the statistical characteristics of the weather assemblage at various places, or typical weather. climate is a description of the climate system in terms of statistics. (ipcc, 2013) concept of building according to collins (2023), a building is a structure that has a roof and walls, for example, a house or a factory. a building is a structure that has a roof and walls, for example, a house or a factory. buildings apply to either a finished or an unfinished product of construction and carry no implications as to size or condition. it also refers to a completed structure, usually a large and imposing one. building generally implies a useful purpose (houses, schools, business offices, etc.). a building is a relatively permanent enclosed construction over a plot of land, having a roof and usually windows and often more than one level, used for any of a wide variety of activities, as living, entertaining, or manufacturing. a building is a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place. a building is a manmade structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place. a building is any physical structure that is erected on or in the land to provide shelter and protect man from the adverse effects of the weather, such as rain, wind, snow, heat, temperature, etc. (akpeli, 2019), building means that which is built, a structure or edifice. a building is actually a roof and wall structure. building is the process of putting structures together for the purpose of human settlement, among others. moreso, building construction refers to the techniques and industry involved in the assembly and erection of structures, primarily used to provide shelter. (ask difference 2023), a building, or edifice, is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions and have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available to weather conditions, land prices, ground conditions, specific uses, and aesthetic reasons. it refers to the art of constructing edifices, or the practice of civil architecture. 40 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us according to the dictionary (2023), building is a relatively permanent enclosed construction over a plot of land, having a roof and usually windows and often more than one level, used for any of a wide variety of activities, such as living, entertaining, or manufacturing. a building is a kind of structure that is built with materials, including a foundation, plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys, plumbing, and building services; fixed platforms; verandas, balconies, cornices, or projections; part of a building or anything affixed thereto; any wall enclosing or intended to enclose any land or space; and signs and outdoor display structures. for example, houses, factories, shopping malls, hospitals, etc. building or housing is the most fundamental need for humankind. it shelters us. when we see or hear the word building, we imagine that a building is tall and has a roof, walls, rooms, etc. building is the act of constructing something. it is any relatively permanent enclosed structure on a plot of land with a roof and windows. anything built or constructed is also known as a building. building is the act, business, or practice of constructing houses, office buildings, etc. building is something that is built, as for human habitation (free dictionary, 2023). concept of building sustainability according to the australian building sustainability association (2023), building sustainability means living in harmony with the natural environment, considering the social, environmental, and economic aspects of decisions, and reducing our footprint through a less energy-, water-, and material-intensive lifestyle. srinivas, (2015), stated that green or sustainable building is one that can maintain or improve the quality of life, harmonize with the local climate, tradition, culture, and environment in the region, conserve energy, resources, and recycling materials, reduce the amount of hazardous substances to which humans and other organisms are (or may be) exposed, and protect the local and global ecosystems throughout the entire building life-cycle. sustainable buildings are designed and operated so that materials are used and reused productively and sustainably throughout their life cycle. (ebersole, 2022), sustainable architecture for buildings facilitates the creation and responsible management of a healthy built environment based upon efficient resource and ecological principles. sustainably designed buildings strive to lessen their impact on the environment through energy and resource efficiency, which minimizes non-renewable resource consumption, enhances the natural environment, and eliminates or minimizes the use of toxic materials. concept of climate change climate change is any systematic change in the long-term statistics of climate variables such as temperature, precipitation, pressure, or wind sustained over several decades or longer. climate change can be due to natural external forcing (changes in solar emission or changes in the earth’s orbit, natural internal processes of the climate system) or it can be human-induced (climate europe 2020). climate change is a long-term shift in the average weather conditions of a region, such as its typical temperature, rainfall, and windiness. climate change means that the range of conditions expected in many regions will change over the coming decades. this means that there will also be changes in extreme conditions (canada, 2020). climate change refers to changes in the earth’s climate at local, regional, or global scales and is most commonly used to describe anthropogenic, or human-caused, climate change (ramkumar, 2020). palmetto (2023), climate change is the long-term increase in the earth's average surface temperature and the large-scale changes in global, regional, and local weather patterns that result from that increase, caused by a significant increase in the levels of greenhouse gases that are produced by the use of fossil fuels. climate change is the significant variation of weather patterns over long periods. it is the varying environmental conditions that influence the planet's weather patterns. climate change is a long-term shift in the average weather conditions of a region, such as its typical temperature, rainfall, and windiness. climate change means that the range of conditions expected in many regions will change over the coming decades. this means 41 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us that there will also be changes in extreme conditions. climate change is exacerbating both water scarcity and water-related hazards (such as floods and droughts), as rising temperatures disrupt precipitation patterns and the entire water cycle. climate change is exacerbating both water scarcity and water-related hazards (such as floods and droughts), as rising temperatures disrupt precipitation patterns and the entire water cycle, (unicef 2020). climate change is the global phenomenon of climate transformation characterized by the changes in the usual climate of the planet (regarding temperature, precipitation, and wind) that are especially caused by human activities, (youmatter, 2020). climate change refers to significant changes in global temperature, precipitation, wind patterns and other measures of climate that occur over several decades or longer. evidence suggests many of these extreme climate changes are connected to rising levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere — more often than not, the result of human activities. climate change can be a natural process where temperature, rainfall, wind and other elements vary over decades or more. in millions of years, our world has been warmer and colder than it is now. but today we are experiencing rapid warming from human activities, primarily due to burning fossil fuels that generate greenhouse gas emissions. the implications of climate change on buildings when climatic conditions exceed normal parameters, it directly impacts the structure of the building. climate change will breed conditions where these parameters are exceeded more often and to a far greater degree. what was previously considered a once-a-century flood may become a regular occurrence. the impacts are certainly more drastic. as is already evident, heat waves are more severe now, affecting building structures. frequently occurring floods are wiping away entire dwellings with them. clearly, the built environment and its infrastructures will be greatly affected by climate change through higher temperatures, erratic and variable precipitation, rises in sea levels, and wind actions, which have impacts on the surface of the environment and also varying impacts on the built environment (milly et al., 2002; meehl and tebaldi, 2004; ukcip, 2005; emmanuel, 2005; robert, 2008; kummert and robert, 2012). these activities from the changing climate are observed to be increasing in frequency and magnitude (mizra, 2003; boko et al., 2007). some effects may be controllable, but the insidious effects of climate change can gradually undermine the core functions of a building.  increased energy demand: rising temperatures can lead to increased cooling needs in buildings, especially in regions with hotter climates. buildings may require more energy for air conditioning, which can strain electrical grids and increase greenhouse gas emissions if the energy is generated from fossil fuels.  extreme weather events: climate change is associated with an increase in extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires. buildings need to be designed and constructed to withstand these events, using materials and techniques that can resist strong winds, heavy rain, or intense heat.  changing precipitation patterns: climate change can alter precipitation patterns, leading to more frequent and intense rainfall in some areas and drought conditions in others. buildings need to incorporate effective drainage systems to manage increased water runoff and potential flooding risks. additionally, water conservation measures may be necessary in areas experiencing water scarcity.  rising sea levels: as global temperatures increase, melting glaciers and thermal expansion of seawater contribute to rising sea levels. this poses a significant threat to coastal buildings and infrastructure. adaptation measures such as elevating buildings, constructing sea walls, or relocating infrastructure may be necessary in vulnerable areas.  material selection and durability: climate change can impact the durability and lifespan of building materials. increased heat, moisture, and exposure to extreme weather conditions can accelerate the deterioration of certain materials, such as wood, and increase maintenance 42 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us requirements. builders need to consider climate resilience and select materials that can withstand the local climate conditions.  indoor environmental quality: climate change can affect indoor environmental quality in buildings. increased temperatures and humidity can impact occupant comfort, health, and productivity. adequate ventilation, thermal insulation, and efficient hvac systems become crucial to maintain comfortable indoor environments.  renewable energy integration: climate change mitigation efforts require a shift towards renewable energy sources. buildings can play a vital role in this transition by integrating renewable energy technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines, or geothermal systems. this reduces reliance on fossil fuels and helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions.  building codes and regulations: climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies necessitate updates to building codes and regulations. new standards may be developed to ensure buildings are resilient, energy-efficient, and equipped to withstand changing climate conditions. governments and regulatory bodies play a critical role in implementing these changes. economic impacts of climate change in nigeria nigeria has not escaped the negative impact of this horrendous environmental change. the country is practically under siege as most cities are either engulfed by raging floods or confronting surging desertification. from east to west, north to south, erosion and desert have continued to eat the land. all these are crippling the people and the national economy, and it seems the country is helpless. often, environmental hazards disrupt economic activities in addition to the massive displacement of people. the people of abeokuta, ibadan, ode remo, to mention but a few, hardly escape the agony of flooding every rainy season. according to a recent report by tell magazine, incessant flooding has turned most economically buoyant communities in lagos state into deserts of sorts. this is not limited to lagos or even the southwest. indeed, in many communities across nigeria, " tales of woes and pains usually follow any down pour."31 while most residents are usually displaced, their economies are also dislocated. in lagos, industrialized and commercialized areas like victoria island and ikeja usually encounter floods, resulting in the loss of valuable goods. 32 the floods have also resulted in erosion and landslides in many parts of the country. in fact, most communities in south-eastern nigeria are practically living in the "shadow of death" due to the effects of erosion and landslides. according to the tell magazine, "the southeast has the highest number of erosion sites, with the majority in anambra state (62 critical and 550 active). the latest landslide in nanka community literally cut off the community from the rest of anambra state, halting all economic activities. other areas affected include ozubulu, onitsha, ukpor, agulu, aguleri, and amakpo, among others. if southern nigeria is under the surging siege of downpours, the northern part is perpetually confronting the ravaging desert. experts are warning that "the biological potential of land to grow plants in 10 northern states of the country is diminishing at an alarming rate. this phenomenon actually portends hardship and economic doom for a region with over 20% of its population dependent on farming and animal husbandry. unfortunately, doomsday is already here, as statistics show that nigerians are already suffering the economic impact of desertification. the country has already lost about 350,000 hectares of arable land to desertification each year; many families are forced to abandon their land due to barrenness; and almost 35 million people have already been affected. for example, about 50,000 farmers in 100 villages have been affected in yobe state, and 40,000 farmers in borno state have lost their means of livelihood due to desert encroachment. as a recent survey suggests, the impact is likely to spread further as the sahara desert is advancing southward at a rate of 0.6 kilometers per year. there is a general consensus that desertification is by far the most pressing environmental problem in the dry lands parts of the country. nigeria loses over 350,000 ha annually to advancing desert, leading to the deterioration of ecosystems, degradation of various forms of vegetation, destruction of biological potential, diminution of biological potential, decay of 43 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a productive ecosystem, and reduction of productivity. nigeria is also losing the capacity to feed its population. strategies to mitigate climate change impacts on buildings mitigating the impact of climate change on buildings requires a combination of strategies that focus on energy efficiency, renewable energy adoption, sustainable materials, and resilient design. here are some key strategies with references to support them: 1. energy-efficient building design: improve insulation, air sealing, and windows to reduce heating and cooling energy demands. use energy modeling tools to optimize designs. incorporate passive design principles, such as natural ventilation and daylighting, to reduce the need for artificial lighting and mechanical cooling. utilize efficient hvac systems, including high-efficiency equipment, heat recovery, and smart controls united nations environment programme (unep, 2021). 2. renewable energy integration: install on-site renewable energy systems, such as solar panels or wind turbines, to generate clean electricity for the building's operations. explore opportunities for community-scale renewable energy projects or district energy systems that serve multiple buildings. 3. sustainable materials and construction: use low-carbon building materials, such as recycled content, sustainably sourced wood, or materials with lower embodied carbon. opt for sustainable construction practices that minimize waste generation and promote recycling or reusing of materials. 4. water management and conservation: implement water-efficient fixtures and appliances, such as low-flow toilets and faucets, and utilize rainwater harvesting systems for non-potable water uses (epa, 2017). design landscapes that require minimal irrigation and incorporate green infrastructure elements like rain gardens or bios wales to manage storm water. 5. resilient design and adaptation: consider climate resilience in the building design by accounting for future climate projections, such as increased temperatures, extreme weather events, and sea-level rise. implement measures to enhance building resilience, such as elevating structures, incorporating flood-resistant materials, or installing backup power systems. conclusion the study concludes that the issue of climate change and building sustainability has significant implications for the environment, society, and the economy. nigeria, like any other country is experiencing the adverse effects of climate change, including increased temperatures, extreme weather events, and rising sea levels. these impacts pose a threat to human health, livelihoods, and infrastructure. addressing climate change through building sustainability in nigeria requires a multi-faceted approach involving awareness, policy, finance, collaboration, research, and community engagement. by taking the strategies mentioned in this work, nigeria can enhance its resilience to climate change, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and create sustainable and livable cities for future generations. recommendations 1. there is a need for increased awareness and education about the importance of sustainable buildings and their roles in climate change mitigation and adaptation. this can be done through public campaigns, training programs, and educational initiatives targeting architects, engineers, policymakers, and the general public. 2. the nigerian government should develop and enforce comprehensive policies and regulations that promote sustainable building practices. this includes incorporating green building standards, energy efficiency requirements, and renewable energy integration into building codes and planning frameworks. 44 a journal of the american 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(2010) regional evidence of climate change in nigeria. journal of geography and regional planning, 3(6), pp. 142-150. 22. oliver b. (2018) what even is ‘climate’? available at: https://gc.copernicus.org/preprints/gc-2018-11/gc-2018-11.pdf 23. palmetto (2023) what is climate change? available at: https://palmetto.com/learningcenter/ bl og/what-is-climate-change-definition-causes-effects 24. ramkumar, s. (2020) climate change. available at: https://studentenergy.org/influencer/ clima te-change/?gad=1&gclid=eaiaiqobchmiru_jwanm_wivk8xtch1hvaateamyai aa eglaapd_bwe 25. srinivas, h. (2015) what is a green or sustainable building? available at: https://www.gdrc.org/uem/green-const/1-whatis.html 26. unicef (2020) water – at the center of the climate crisis. retrieved from: https://www.un. org /en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/water?gclid=eaiaiqobchmix9pkebt_wivywhmch3smaeseaayasaaegkewpd_bwe 27. united nation (2020) what is climate change? retrieved from: https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un .org/files/fastfacts-what-is-climate-change.pdf 28. united nations environment programme (unep) (2021). embodied carbon in buildings – global status report 2021: https://www.unep.org/resources/report/embodied-carbonbuildings 29. wikipedia (2023), climate. available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/climate 30. youmatter (2020) climate change: meaning, definition, causes, examples and consequences. available at: https://youmatter.world/en/definition/climate-change-meaningdefinition-causes-and-consequences/ 31. zubairu, s. (2012) the importance of evaluation and sustainability in the built environment in: laryea, s. agyepong, s. leiringer, r. and hughes, w. (eds) 318 proceedings 4th west africa built environment research (waber) conference, 24-26 july 2012, abuja, nigeria, 9-13. https://palmetto.com/learning-center/%20bl%20og/what-is-climate-change-definition-causes-effects https://palmetto.com/learning-center/%20bl%20og/what-is-climate-change-definition-causes-effects https://studentenergy.org/influencer/ https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un%20.org/files/fastfacts-what-is-climate-change.pdf https://youmatter.world/en/definition/climate-change-meaning-definition-causes-and-consequences/ https://youmatter.world/en/definition/climate-change-meaning-definition-causes-and-consequences/ american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 185 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us stabilized ammonium nitrate recovery technology based on liquidation of ammonium nitrate and glucanate addition hamidov a.b, boltaboyev o.e, bozorov s.t, normurotov j.b, tursunov. s. a termiz institute of engineering technology abstract: this scientific in the article nitrate ammonium work release raw materials, ammonium nitrate liquefaction harvest to do and how by doing nitrate ammonium liquefaction and glucanate addition based on stabilized with ammonia saltpeter get technology about data given. key words: cube crystal, tetragonal state, mass, napor tank, vacuum, granulator, evaporation, ammonia, nitrate acid ammonium nitrate atmosphere pressure under liquefaction temperature is between 50°c and 169°c from each other comparison volume and other properties with difference 5 crystals in the form of have ammonium nitrate one crystal from the situation second crystal to the situation in the tooth heat separation or swallowing can 1. cube crystal state 169.6-125.8°c 2. tetragonal crystal state 25.8-84.2°c 3. rhombic state 84.2 32.2°c 4. rhombic the state is 32.2-(16.9 )°c 5. the tetragonal state is -16.9°c ammonium nitrate in the water very good dissolves for example: 10 kg of saltpeter in 1 kg of water at a temperature of 100°c dissolves from a temperature of 110°c high when heated with ammonia nitrate ammonia and nitrate to acid breaks down; nh4 no3 = nh3 + hno3 – 732 kj up to 200 -270°c when heated decay as follows goes to: nh4 no3 = n2o + 2h2o +36.8 kj 60-70s of xx century nitrogen acid work release and ammonia synthesis for industry to practice wide scope units entered and nitrate acid concentration to increase take came of this as a result being received nitrate acid concentration up to 58-60% delivered. this is 450-500 thousand tons per year ammonium nitrate as-67 and as-72 are produced release big powerful units work release for necessary convenience created. ammonium nitrate work in release the following main raw materials applies to: a) gaseous ammonia nh3 colorless steamer substance, general factory from the collector taken. to manufactor at the entrance of gas temperature should not be low, pressure while to be 0.150.25 mpa need ammonia basically nitrate acid neutralization for is used. b) nitrate acid hno3 – acid yellow colorful liquid, ammonia saltpeter to the shop factory ak72m technological from the device pipe through comes. to sex at the entrance of acid concentration from 45% less absence (container the wall decaying don't go for), temperature from 50-70°c high not to be and the pressure should be 0.15-0.25 mpa demand will be done. glucanate composition very different mud is a mineral. c) glucanate sands not only the soil potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and trace elements: manganese, copper, zinc, boron and others with enrichment perhaps his structure improve, feed american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 186 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us substances take to throw prevention get moisture save stay, plant diseases reduce features there is. also toxic didn't happen and chemical to the effect endurance properties with ammonia saltpeter stabilization for addition as apply ammonium nitrate get for applied main devices that can be seen if, nif (neutralization from the heat use)ammonium nitrate solution get for pos. 5,6,7 and nif apparatus in t-1 is used. nif device the following from parts consists of: reactor neutralizer part, gaseous ammonia common from the collector on the overpass electricity antimony valve through ammonia in manufactory poz-1 contained liquid to the top of the divider enters pressure from the standard in shot pose-2 liquid to the separator goes, then ammonia in the composition liquid ammonia separated and is evaporated. it is gaseous ammonia, it technological condensate from 80°c with less didn't happen to the temperature after heating ammonia pos. 5, 6, 7 and to the nif apparatus in t-1 will come in nif hardware two process happen will be, nitrogen acid gaseous ammonia with the following reaction according to neutralization process: nh3 + hno3 → nh4 no3 + 732 kj reaction as a result separated heat at the expense of solution contained the water evaporation. the reaction heat effect and coming out solution concentration straight away entering acid to the concentration and to the reagent temp depend from the nif apparatus coming out with process steam together with nh3 with together with nh4 no3 of to be lost reduce for, process at a high pressure of 0.25 mpa take will go 58-60% concentrated nitric acid solution juice in heater 1 steam with a temperature of 70-80°c heated , special additives (sulphuric and phosphorus acid) with mixed and to nif-72 3 hardware is sent. ghazal in case ammonia in heater 2 to a temperature of 120–130°c is heated and to the nif hardware is given this in hardware nitrate acid at a temperature of 155-165°c is neutralized. in the neutralizer harvest has been ammonium nitrate solution nh4 no3 89-92% and hno3 and concentration 2-5 g/l solution neutralizer 5 and combined evaporator 6 ha given, his bottom to the part the air using blower 27 through heater 4 at a temperature of 185°c heated the air is given in a combi steamer complete evaporation of water is increased contains 99.7– 99.8% nh4no3 without swimming saltpeter liquefaction nh4 no3 held liquefaction is taken. ammonium nitrate solution pass the neutralizer 7 filters 8 and to the tank 9 falls and with submersible pump10 up installed effort tank 13 ha is driven pressure tank under 13 granulation tower 18 is located granulation tower 3 vibes above granulator is located granulation tower height 50-55m. 500 thousand m3/hour in the amount cooling for the air of the tower bottom cone in the part spaces through to the tower is given and suction through ventilators 16 ammonium nitrate from the dust from the scrubber cleaned at 17 after into the atmosphere released, ammonium nitrate granules flying drop off during 90-120°c is cooled. granulated ammonium nitrate conveyor according to granulation from the tower conveyor 20 ha and to boil layered refrigerator 22 ha is given every one to the department independent the air supply has been fan from 24 the air is given, everyone in the department cooling of air temperature heat exchange devices through managed. chilled pellets using elevator 21 rotary drum to 19 is given there additions with processing given sent for packing . stabilized with ammonia saltpeter get for glucanate addition the following work release stage to add through reach possible from nif hardware came out reaction to the mixture special mixer in reactors glucanate dosage by doing to go and granulation. ammonium nitrate packaging for used to the bags the following requirements american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 187 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us put: ammonia saltpeter "nitron" in store #131, or other work producers by work issued polypropylene to the bags is packed. polypropylene bags ts 6.1-00203849-105:2007. technical requirements answer to give it is necessary. type v valve polyethylene bag bag width 500 mm length – 840 mm valve depth 130 mm bags to kip is attached. bags in warehouses when saving kip to diapers proportional in the situation to be named a must bags closed in warehouses of the sun straight away from the rays protected without storage a must bags heated in buildings when saved, they heating up from devices at least 1m away placement need also a bag moods stable to stacks to be named need kip's bottom of the line to the bottom fat hungry obstacle put to the goal according to is considered bags gost 2-85. to demand appropriate marked to be a must to mark while the following requirements put: work of the issuer name or his product symbol of the product name; product brand party number and issued date; gost 2-85. shown in of nitrogen guaranteed amount transport marking own into the following danger signs take condition: ready the product is ammonia saltpeter mechanic without impurities granulated product. in the water good dissolves chemical formula – nh4 no3 molecular weight 80 density – (1.69¸ 1.725) g/cm3 at 190°c high in temperature active respectively breaks down. in the department with ammonia of saltpeter concentration 82, 98.3 and 99.5%, solution temperature from 160 to 190°c. used literature list: 1. a.p.hamidov. (2023). molibden metalini am-2b anioniti yordamida sorbsiyasi. "conference on universal science research 2023", 1(10), 8–11. retrieved from. 2. hamidov.a.p. (2023). titan tetraxloridini magniy bilan qaytarish jarayoni. "xxi asrda innovatsion texnologiyalar, fan va taʼlim taraqqiyotidagi dolzarb muammolar" nomli respublika ilmiy-amaliy konferensiyasi, 1(10), 61–64. retrieved from. 3. hamidov, a. p., & tursunov, o. x. (2023). litiy-ionli batareyalar uchun litiy birikmalarini olishni mahalliylashtirish. образование наука и инновационные идеи в мире, 22(6), 31-33. 4. vorobyev n. i. technology of combined nitrogen and nitrogen fertilizers minsk, 2011 5. kuzi. r.k. bobomurodov sh.m. below zarafshon territory their soil 6. productivity increase roads, monogr. toshkent, 2004. 7. kholmurodov n.a. environment protection navoi, 2005. 54 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 06, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 design and fabrication of electric vehicles with bluetooth smart battery indication basheth ahamed m department of electrical and electronics engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. manoj kumar k bachelor of engineering, department of electrical and electronics engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india – 601301. sabiya banu s bachelor of engineering, department of electrical and electronics engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. ashmi christus a.t. assistant professor, department of electrical and electronics engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. m. gandhi assistant professor, department of electrical and electronics engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. abstract the primary objective of this project is to provide a clear picture by connecting the dots between the numerous energy options available to humans. for humans to thrive in today's highly developed society, travel is a need. and to do that, he needs to make as few trips as possible. the electric bike described here is powered by a battery that sends electricity to the bike's engine. an electric bike, powered primarily by electricity, is the focus of this project's design and construction efforts. since the bike is powered by electricity rather than gasoline, it can achieve better fuel economy, higher performance, and lower pollution levels than conventional vehicles. in an effort to lessen both noise and air pollution. it gives a more fuel-efficient and environmentally friendly car. as a result, the transmission is also utilised to regulate the acceleration and deceleration of the vehicle. electricity, not gasoline, diesel, or any other fuel, has sparked a revolution in india's motorcycle market. the two-wheeler business in india has jumped on the bandwagon of the 55 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us increasingly popular electric bike and scooter in the west and east. therefore, the future of personal transportation is electric bikes and scooters. this research venture examines the design and development process and evaluates the performance of several subsystems. the project also details the functions of the various electric two-wheeler parts, including the battery, charger, hub motor, and controller. keywordstravelling, electric bike, electric energy, fuel economy, pollution, eco-friendly, controller, hc05 bluetooth module, voltage sensor. introduction india has rapidly become one of the world's top ten automobile markets, and this trend is predicted to continue in light of the country's expanding middle class, which has purchasing power, and its robust economic growth. apart from gasoline price deregulation, the topic of fuel pricing has received considerable attention in recent years [1]. energy security has been a hot topic as of late, with alternative drive train technologies receiving a lot of attention because of the possibility of disruptions in middle eastern supply [2]. improvements in battery technology, driving ranges, government incentives, regulations, cheaper prices, and better charging infrastructure are crucial to the success of evs in india and other emerging countries [3]. manufacturers who rely on internal combustion engines (ices) are showing a lot of enthusiasm for electric technology, and not simply as an add-on to their products [4]. additionally, other ev-centric firms have cropped up around the globe. although many theoretical aspects affecting the ev market are known, we surveyed consumers to learn more about their hopes and fears regarding the future of electric vehicles (evs) and hybrid evs [5-11]. it was difficult to predict interest in electric vehicles because doing so required surveying people about a product with which they were unfamiliar [12-19]. to this end, we investigated consumers' knowledge of electric vehicles (evs), their thoughts on evs in general (including price, brand, range, charging, infrastructure, and total cost of ownership), and their imagined fit of an ev into their lifestyle, taking into account a variety of demographic factors [2024]. motorcycles driven by electricity are similar to those powered by gasoline in that they both have engines that need to be fed in order to move forward. the most noticeable change is that electric motorcycles use batteries or fuel cells in place of gas. electric motors work on a similar principle to internal combustion engines. motorcycles use either gasoline or mechanical energy, but only one uses rechargeable batteries. in order for an electric vehicle to move, electricity is used to turn a pole in the vehicle's motor [25-29]. instead of using fuel, the motor is driven by a rechargeable battery that can take you anywhere from 40 to 100 miles. when the switch is in the on position, power passes from the battery to the motor, which in turn drives the rear wheels through a chain. primary lithium batteries use lithium metal as the anode. lithium-metal batteries are another name for these rechargeable power sources. distinctive features that set these batteries apart from others are their high charge density (extended life) and high unit cost [30-37]. the positive and negative electrodes, as well as the electrolyte, are the three most important parts of a lead-acid battery. standard lithium-ion cells typically have a carbon negative electrode. a metal oxide serves as the positive electrode, and a lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent serves as the electrolyte. e-bikes are bicycles that are powered electrically and may be controlled by the rider. sealed lead-acid (sla), nickel-cadmium (nicd), nickel-metal hydride (nimh), and lithium-ion polymer (li-ion) batteries are all examples of commonly used battery technologies 56 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (li-ion) [38-41]. batteries can be distinguished from one another in a number of ways, including their voltage, total charge capacity (amp hours), weight, number of charging cycles before performance diminishes, and tolerance for over-voltage charging [42-47]. while the cost to operate an e-bike in terms of energy is low, the expense to replace the battery can be rather high. the amount of time a battery pack will last is relative to its intended use [48-55]. the lifespan of a battery can be prolonged by using it in shallow discharge/recharge cycles. important aspects that affect an e-range bike's include the motor's efficiency, the battery's capacity, the effectiveness of the driving electronics, the bike's aerodynamics, the terrain, and the rider's weight. regenerative braking is available on some models, such as the canadian bionx and the american e+ (both made by electric motion systems), which uses the engine as a generator to slow the bike down before the brake pads are engaged. the lifespan of brake pads and wheel rims can be lengthened with this. fuel cell tests, like the phb, are also being conducted. supercapacitors have been tried out as a potential replacement for car batteries and in certain sport utility vehicles. for the tour de sol solar vehicle competition in the late 1980s, switzerland created e-bikes equipped with solar charging stations, which were eventually installed on rooftops and wired into the city's power grid. in a modern twist, the bikes were charged directly from the wall outlet [56-64]. since electric bikes don't produce any exhaust, we may safely call them "zero-emissions vehicles." however, (short-lived) high-storage-density battery production and disposal have environmental impacts that must be taken into account. despite these drawbacks, e-bikes are widely regarded as environmentally preferable in metropolitan areas because of their supposedly decreased environmental impact when compared to traditional autos. e-bikes are excellent candidates for charging via solar power or other renewable energy resources because their battery packs are relatively tiny compared to those used in electric cars. sanyo took advantage of this by installing "solar parking lots" where e-bikers may plug in and charge their bikes while they wait [65-71]. some city governments, including little rock, arkansas's wave crest electric powerassisted bicycles and cloverdale, california's zap e-bikes, have adopted them because of the environmental benefits associated with e-bikes and electric/human-powered hybrids in general. the chinese government is interested in increasing the export potential of chinese-manufactured e-bikes, therefore companies like xinri, a major chinese e-bike producer, are forming partnerships with universities to upgrade their technology to meet international environmental standards [7279]. a number of groups, including land management regulators and mountain bike trail access activists, have claimed that electric bicycles should not be allowed on outdoor trails open to mountain cyclists [80-85]. low-powered pedal-assist electric mountain bikes may have similar physical repercussions to conventional mountain bikes, according to a study done by the international mountain bicycling association. transmission with a hub the rotating stators receive electromagnetic fields from an external source. the motor's exterior casing either precisely tracks or closely approximates the path of the fields, causing the associated wheel to spin. brushes in a brushed motor make contact with the shaft to transmit mechanical energy. a brushless motor transfers energy electronically rather than mechanically, thus no parts of the motor ever touch each other. even while brushless motor technology is more expensive, it typically outperforms and outlasts its brushed counterpart [8692]. a synchronous motor that operates on a direct current (dc) electric source is known as a brushless dc electric motor (bldc motor or bl motor), electronically commutated motor (ecm or ec motor), or synchronous dc motor. the permanent magnet rotor orbits the field created by the dc currents being switched to the motor windings by an electronic controller. in order to 57 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us regulate the dc motor's speed and torque, the controller manipulates the pulses' phase and amplitude. in place of the mechanical commutator(brushes) found in many standard electric motors is this electronic control system [93-101]. a brushless motor system can be either a switched reluctance motor, an induction (asynchronous) motor, or a permanent magnet synchronous motor (pmsm). outrunners (where the rotor goes all the way around the stator) and axial flow motors (where the stator does) are two more common configurations (the rotor and stator are flat and parallel) [104-107]. when compared to brushed motors, brushless ones are more powerful and require less maintenance. they also run faster and can have their rotations per minute (rpm) and torque adjusted almost instantly. brushless motors are used in a wide variety of electronic devices, from computer disc drives and printers to handheld power tools and even full-size cars [108-111]. brushless dc motors have made it possible for direct-drive designs to replace the rubber belts and gears of traditional washing machines. an electric motor's operation can be regulated by a motor controller, which consists of one or more components [112-117]. the motor can be started and stopped, rotated in either direction, sped up or slowed down, had its torque limited and protected against overloads and electrical mishaps with the help of a motor controller (fig.1). figure 1: controller module to more precisely regulate the motor's speed, start/stop, and rotation, a motor controller is preferred over a conventional mechanical switch [118-121]. a mechanical switch can only handle a certain amount of current. most switches won't be able to handle the current that a large electric motor draws, which can be 30amp or more. furthermore, pwm cannot be used to regulate motor speed (pwm) [122-129]. h-bridge circuits are used in the majority of commercially available motor controllers because they allow us to operate a massive motor with a relatively weak signal (fig.2). 58 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2: controller module in place of the traditional mechanical link between the accelerator pedal and the throttle, modern vehicles are equipped with electronic throttle control (etc). because of its goal of maintaining constant powertrain characteristics regardless of environmental factors including engine temperature, altitude, and accessory loads, electronic throttle control is rarely noticed by drivers [130-135]. electronic throttle control works 'behind the scenes' to make shifting gears and managing the extreme torque surges that come with quick accelerations much simpler for the driver. since the throttle may be controlled independently of the driver's accelerator pedal location, electronic throttle control enables the incorporation of features such as cruise control, traction control, stability control, and pre-crash systems that need torque management. benefits of etc include improved air-fuel ratio control, reduced exhaust emissions, and lower fuel consumption; it also complements technologies like gasoline direct injection. a throttle-operated electric bicycle moves ahead without the rider pedalling, similar to a motorcycle or scooter. most have adjustable power output in response to throttle input. unlike their pedal-assist equivalents, these are relatively rarer due to legal restrictions in many countries [136-141]. lead acid battery never play around with batteries or electrolytes; they are extremely dangerous. put on some old clothes, goggles, and gloves. battery acid is corrosive to cotton and wool and can cause severe burns and eye damage. deeply discharging and then letting a lead-acid battery sit "dead" for a long time is the quickest method to destroy it. the battery's positive plates undergo a chemical reaction during the discharging process. when charged, they transform into lead oxide, and when discharged, they transform into lead sulphate. a portion of the plate will not convert back to lead oxide during a recharge if it has been in the lead sulphate state for several days. the longer the battery is left drained, the more positive the lead sulphate on the plate will become. sulfate-affected plate regions are no longer effective energy storage media. if you repeatedly drain and partially charge your batteries, they may die in less than a year [142-147]. internal combustion engine an internal combustion engine is one in which the fuel is burned within the engine itself. there are other varieties, but most people use the term to refer to the device pioneered by niklaus otto. in this scenario, the pressure within a container is raised by fire (cylinder). a rod and wheel are moved by the pressure. the wheel is propelled and set in motion by the rod [148]. the belt or chain connects the spinning wheel to other wheels, such as four-car wheels. the engine is powerful enough to turn all four wheels. without oil to prevent friction, an engine's moving parts would 59 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us grind against one another and become stuck. some components of an automobile engine have an extremely close tolerance of 0.01 millimetre and are measured as such. combustion that takes place inside the engine, as opposed to exterior combustion like that of a steam engine, is what gives the former its name. internal combustion engines, specifically four-stroke engines, power the vast majority of modern automobiles. wankel engines are another variation on the internal combustion engine. internal combustion gas turbines operate nonstop rather than in strokes. internal combustion engines like those seen in rocket engines and firearms do not have wheels attached to them. mechanical electric motors a mechanical understanding of electric motors is not required. electric motors frequently attain 90 percent energy conversion efficiency over the full range of speeds and power output and may be accurately controlled. they can be used in tandem with regenerative braking systems, which harness kinetic energy from motion and store it as dc current. this can lessen the load on your vehicle's braking system, keeping your brake pads cleaner for longer. in the stop-and-go traffic of a metropolis, regenerative braking shines. unlike internal combustion engines, they do not require many gears to meet power curves and may be precisely controlled even when stationary, providing tremendous torque. the use of torque converters and gearboxes is thus rendered superfluous. there is significantly less noise and vibration in electric vehicles compared to those powered by internal combustion engines. while this is an admirable quality, it has raised some safety concerns among the hearing-impaired, the elderly, and the young because they won't be able to hear an oncoming car [149]. automakers and other businesses are working on solutions to this problem by creating systems that emit warning sounds whenever an electric vehicle moves too slowly, up to the speed at which the sounds of regular motion and rotation (the car's suspension, the electric motor, etc.) become audible. energy efficiency the tank-to-wheel efficiency of electric vehicles is roughly three times that of conventional gasoline-powered vehicles. energy is not wasted while the car is parked, unlike internal combustion engines that use gasoline while idling. when considering the entire lifecycle of an electric vehicle, from the well to the wheel, the total emissions produced by these vehicles are actually quite close to those produced by efficient gasoline or diesel in most countries where electricity generation is based on the combustion of fossil fuels. it's important to remember that the way power is generated has a much larger impact on the well-to-wheel efficiency of an electric car than does the vehicle itself. if power generation shifted from using fossil fuels to using wind or tidal energy as its principal energy source, the efficiency of a certain type of electric car would immediately increase by a factor of two. to understand what is meant by the phrase "well-towheels," it is important to realise that the focus has shifted from the vehicle itself to the entire energy supply infrastructure, which, in the case of fossil fuels, includes the energy expended during exploration, mining, refining, and distribution. the demand for generation and transmission, as well as the resulting emissions, would rise if many private automobiles switched to grid electricity. however, due to the greater efficiency of electric vehicles over the full cycle, both energy consumption and emissions would decrease. battery-powered vehicles have the ability to reduce the spikes in electricity demand that occur during peak use hours (such the middle of the day when air conditioners are in high demand) 60 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us by charging during the night, when there is idle generating capacity. as long as drivers don't mind having their batteries drained by the power company before they need to use their vehicle for an evening ride home, this vehicle-to-grid (v2g) connection can help lessen the demand for new power plants. the current electrical grid may also have to accommodate a rise in variable-output power sources like windmills and photovoltaic solar panels. the charging and discharging rates of ev batteries may be modified to account for this variation. like modern gas stations, some theories envision battery swaps and charging facilities. these will need huge storage and charging potentials that can be adjusted to alter charging and output power during shortage periods, similar to how diesel generators are employed temporarily to support some national networks. heating of electric vehicles heating the car's interior and defrosting the windows requires a lot of power when driving in cold weather. this heat is present in internal combustion engines already, but it is redirected from the cooling system. the external costs of greenhouse gases are reduced by this method. if done with battery-electric vehicles, however, the interior heating may drain the batteries faster than usual. although the motor(s) and battery pack could provide some heat, the better efficiency of these components means there is less waste heat available than there would be with a combustion engine. however, grid-connected battery electric vehicles can be preheated or cooled, reducing or eliminating the requirement for battery energy throughout the trip. the modern trend is to create vehicles with super-insulated interiors that can be warmed by the passengers' own body heat. however, in colder areas, the driver's 100 w of heating power is insufficient. the most realistic and viable solution to the ev's thermal management appears to be a reversible air conditioning system, which can cool the cabin in the summer and heat it in the winter. ricardo arboix proposed a novel idea in 2008 that uses a reversible ac system to manage both the temperature of the cabin and the temperature of the electric vehicle's battery. to do this, a third heat exchanger is added to the conventional heat pump/air conditioning system used in earlier models like the gm ev1 and the toyota rav4 ev, and is thermally coupled to the battery core. the approach has been shown to bring about a number of advantages, such as extending the battery's life and enhancing the ev's performance and energy efficiency. motors and drivetrains both brushed and brushless hub motors are widely utilised in e-bikes. electric bicycles with motors use a wide variety of technology, ranging in price and complexity, including both directdrive and geared motor units. any bicycle with a chain drive, belt drive, hub motor, or friction drive can have an electric power-assist system installed. the stator of a bldc hub motor is rigidly attached to the axle, and the magnets are attached to the wheel so that they rotate in unison with the wheel. the motor is the hub of the bicycle wheel. the motor's output is typically constrained to under 750 watts because to the available legal categories, though this is not always the case. the mid-drive system, another form of electric assist motor, is gaining in popularity. the electric motor in this system is not integrated into the wheel itself but rather is positioned close to (and typically under) the bicycle's bottom bracket shell. most commonly, a belt or chain is run from the motor's cog or wheel to a pulley or sprocket attached to one of the crankset's arms. so, the pedals are where the power is applied before it reaches the wheel. the conventional drive train of the bicycle. in 1994, telecom supplier ericsson developed it as a wireless replacement for rs-232 data lines. it can overcome synchronisation issues by linking multiple devices. the ability to send serial data is made possible through bluetooth uart. bluetooth-enabled gadgets allow for cordless 61 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us telephony and point-to-point data transfers. it can easily replace a serial port, allowing the mcu and a personal computer to communicate with one another (fig.3). figure 3: architecture diagram [27] an analog-to-digital converter (adc, a/d, a-d, or a-to-d) is a system in electronics that transforms an analogue signal into a digital one, such as the sound picked up by a microphone or the light entering a digital camera. an analog-to-digital converter (adc) is a piece of electronic equipment that takes an analogue voltage or current input and outputs a digital number that is proportional to the input voltage or current's magnitude. since embedded systems work with digital values, yet their environments typically consist of a wide variety of analogue signals, a/d conversion is crucial to their operation. before the microcontroller can process an analogue signal, it must be converted to digital. using a pic microcontroller, we can now see the digital o/p conversion of an external analogue signal shown on an lcd. the i/p signal's voltage can range from 0v to 5v. in a quartz clock or watch, the battery powers an internal electrical circuit that in turn powers the quartz crystal. in other words, the quartz crystal vibrates back and forth at precisely 32768 cycles per second. if you apply a constant voltage to an oscillator, it will produce a steady ticking at a predetermined frequency. the crystal used in the oscillator serves as an excellent filter. the majority of microcontrollers just need a crystal for their oscillator because they already have everything else built in. the clock signals in microprocessors and microcontrollers are often generated by crystal oscillators. let's have a look at the 8051 microcontroller, which (according to the model) is capable of running at 40 mhz but requires an external crystal oscillator circuit operating at 12 mhz (max). using a 12 mhz clock, 8051 has an effective cycle rate of 1 mhz (3.33 mhz maximum) for every 12 clock cycles (considering a maximum 40mhz clock). all the internal processes are kept in time thanks to the clock pulses produced by this crystal oscillator. the military and aerospace industries use crystal oscillators to set up a reliable communication system for usage in areas like navigation, electronic warfare, guidance systems, and more. the crystal oscillator has numerous applications in fields as diverse as astronomy, medicine, space tracking, and metrology. computers, digital systems, instrumentation, phase-locked loop systems, marine modems, sensors, telecommunications, disc drives, etc. are just some of the many industrial applications for crystal oscillators. the engine control unit, audio system, clock, radio, trip computer, and global positioning system all make use of the crystal oscillator. crystal oscillators can be found in a wide variety of common household items like televisions, computers, cameras, video games, radios, cell phones, and more. 62 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the fundamental benefit of this feature is that it enables electronic device makers to combine the programming and testing phases of production into a single, more efficient process, thus saving time and money. instead of purchasing preprogrammed chips from a manufacturer or distributor, manufacturers may be able to programme the chips in their own system's production line, making it possible to introduce code or design changes during a production run. due to their small size and inability to accommodate a bulky external programming cable, microcontrollers are typically attached directly to a printed circuit board. the usual supply voltage of the system is used to provide the programming voltage, and the chip then communicates with the programmer via a serial protocol. the jtag protocol for isps is widely used in programmable logic devices to simplify their incorporation into automated testing environments. most other gadgets adhere to either custom or antiquated standards when it comes to the protocols they use. a jtag-controlled programming subsystem for non-jtag devices like flash memory and microcontrollers can be implemented by designers in systems with a reasonably substantial amount of glue logic, bringing the entire programming and test procedure under the control of a single protocol. resistors electrical resistance is implemented in circuits with the help of resistors, which are passive two-terminal components. in electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels to voltage, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. high-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generated. the resistance of a fixed resistor rarely shifts in response to changes in environmental conditions like temperature or operating voltage. besides functioning as a volume or light dimmer, variable resistors can be used as temperature, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity sensors. resistors are widespread in electronic devices due to their common use in electrical networks and electronic circuits. resistors used in practise can come in a wide variety of materials and shapes. integrated circuits also make use of resistors. common commercial resistors are produced over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude, with the resistance defining the electrical function of the component. the resistance's nominal value is within the component's stated manufacturing tolerance. it is described by ohm's law. how a perfect resistor acts: according to ohm's law, the resistance of a resistor serves as a constant in a proportional relationship between the voltage across it and the current flowing through it. connecting the terminals of a 12-volt battery across a 300-ohm resistor results in a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes. electrical resistance is measured in si units using the ohm () symbol, which honours georg simon ohm. an ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mω = 10−3 ω), kilohm (1 kω = 103 ω), and megohm (1 mω = 106 ω) are also in common usage. this goal is based on a number of elements, most notably the effort to attract and convince the public to switch to these technologies, as the development and installation of each station entails corresponding financial expenditures. as the market for evs grows, manufacturers will respond by lowering prices across the board to satisfy consumer demand. this includes the vehicles themselves, the battery, and charging infrastructure including infrastructure and installation. in addition, the development of quicker and more efficient charging techniques, such as the dc'superfast' charger, is occurring as electric charging station technology progresses; this 63 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us may result in higher prices, though these are expected to decrease as demand rises. however, it has an extremely quick charging period (about 30 minutes), which may mean fewer charging stations will be required. since we are using more and more nonrenewable resources like petroleum and diesel, we need to transition to renewable energy sources like solar panels, hydroelectric dams, and batteries, making electric vehicles the wave of the future. other methods exist for reducing our energy consumption. the electric bike is one such method; it is a relatively recent mode of transportation that makes getting about simple for people of all ages. it's an inexpensive mode of transportation that may be used by anyone. this bike's motor is particularly efficient, and its battery pack combines light weight with rapid charging. these bicycles are easy on the environment, require little upkeep, and can be easily disassembled. conclusion fuels like gasoline and diesel are becoming increasingly scarce, thus it's important to find sustainable alternatives to traditional transportation methods like the electric bike. an electric bike is a bicycle with added electric and solar propulsion. more energy could be generated if solar panels were made available. since it uses less power to operate, an electric bike is within everyone's price range. anyone of any age can utilise it to travel shorter distances. it's possible to fake it at any time of year. electric bikes are revolutionary because they eliminate the need for expensive and polluting fossil fuels. clean, quiet, and environmentally responsible functioning is a close second. the best way to combat pollution is with the help of an electric bike. in a pinch, you can use an ac adaptor to power it up again. solar panels can further reduce the already low operating cost per kilometre. it's easier to maintain because it has fewer moving parts and can be disassembled into smaller pieces. providing a considerably more powerful motor for propulsion can boost the vehicle's speed while simultaneously extending the battery life. the addition of various tertiary electronic accessories allows for the creation of a more sophisticated and luxurious automobile. one method of charging that has the potential to become a growth industry is regenerative braking. faster and more convenient vehicle use is possible thanks to the battery pack's ability to be compactly stacked and the stakes' interchangeability. references 1. k. bhardwaj, s. rangineni, l. thamma reddi, m. suryadevara, and k. sivagnanam, “pipelinegenerated continuous integration and deployment method for agile software 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on sustainable management letters., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 56-65, 2023. 109 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the technologythe profession of a teacherin unitssupportsorlashning analysis including coversi zaripov lachin rustamovich higher education, science and innovation of the ministry under the higher education development research center, department head doctor of pedagogical sciences (dsc), professor v. b abstract: this article technology to improve the professional preparation of teachers, the secondary system “technology” role and place of science, technology and teacher preparation in terms of its further development paradigmalar new major theoretical trends cited. also, the historical aspects of the preparation of future technology teachers professional majorarei and students in technological literacy, critical, creative and systematic thinking, independent decision to take the show will get their intellectual abilities and perfect as a spiritual entity formation to‘g‘provides information on rising. keywords: technological literacy, critical, creative, systemic thinking, intellectual, engineer, work out, person, professional preparation, creativity. today the improvement of the system of higher education of our republic based on international standards through comprehensive, mature, harmonious, creative thinking who can creative, strong-willed, active and enthusiastic are paying great attention to the training of staff. insoniyatning the main purpose which is to achieve maximum results in any way scientifictechnological process of “industrial stage”is the transition to a new era. the following strategic goals is the development of technological education [1, 16]: technological education on the basis of requirements of the labor market modernization, socioeconomic sustainable development; graduates received on the operation of the technical fulfilled during the process of engineering and technological knowledge, skills and practical activities in applying the skills of independent, professional choice, they get into a social relationship on the basis of national and universal values, the formation of kompetensiya that is needed in the labor market; technological literacy, critical, creative and systematic thinking, independent decision to take their intellectual abilities and create the conditions necessary for the formation as a spiritual entity will get a perfect show. therefore, teacher preparation technology is put particular requirements. texnologiya the improvement of the professional preparation of teachers in the secondary system “technology” role and place of science, technology and teacher preparation in terms of the major theoretical paradigmalar new tendencies of its further development aniqlamasdan can't perform without. 110 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us twe consider the historical aspect exnologiya to prepare professional teachers. according to the evolution of technological education experience: we know that many who now belongs to the past related to education and training of the problem also was previously available. it should be noted that based on the analysis of pedagogical sources noted that the covers including, 1918-the year of the preparation of various labour education teachers carried out in the following areas: general education; teaching; special. at the same time, specialists in the process of preparation of single plans and programs are available. labour education teachers general pedagogical training, referring to the birth of the labour remain tutibgina learn the history of education, despite the fact that the same number to get acquainted with the theory and practice of education in the labor overseas, the foreign country about the methods and content of teaching in the schools of science and technology vision of science teaching and assessment of various approaches to the analysis of the importance of the role has mainly requires. the methodical preparation of teachers of technology education in the organization of various approaches to the study of the valuation of na'muna hands, as well as the choice of the system and method of teaching the class room equipment consists of the organization of exhibitions related to [1, 15]. texnologiya the professional preparation of teachers to plan the materials, tools, equipment of technological information about the study, as well as wood and metal from the paper to pull directly up to the practice of mastering the methods and ways of working with different materials on the basis enters. adopters of the program will focus on special training school. texnologiya educational process in the preparation of teachers so organized, then excursion to the education industry are organized for buyers. this in turn become a holistic idea about the production process plays an important role. the production technology of training in secondary schools to work initially in the room types of products, their quality and compliance of safety rules on the formation of initial materials processing technical kompetensiya should be. orderly production process, carried out in a specific sequence, technical safety rules to follow to get the size right, the weapons used in the series is the work of all of these professional kompetensiya. the improvement of the work of the teachers of the future of practical work, their labor is focused on the development of skills, this set was the development of technological education in the technical and technological principles. technological education in theoretical sessions and practical sessions to be held separately set [5, 81]. thus, in phase i of the system of labour education teachers ' preparation for teaching science is gradually developing. the main objective of education education teachers work to prepare the lessons of the recipient of income-producing professional preparation as a means of them, not educate, develop, and was a teaching tool. the specific features of the preparation of the school program adopters, theoretical issues (general pedagogical and methodological), drawing attention to the subject of education and labour was to strengthen the organization of practical training. professional work within the framework of the teacher training was to provide a fundamental education next, as a result, labour started to give great importance to the training of teachers education. this preparation in the process of professional knowledge and skills, professional regarding quality, as well as a person's professional work in the field of professional education in the school determines that occurs in relation to the science of the relationship is at a low level. from then the year of 1918, only to give the right treatment to the products of technology teachers understanding of the principles of organization and management, creative and dedicated to their profession personnel have been put to the task of converting [3, 94]. many reforms in the education system from the year 1918 embarked on the policy based on the principles of secondary education has fueled politexnizm to get free. it is noteworthy to stress, labor politexnizm the field of education based on the principle of the implementation of modern techniques, their development trends and based on a study of the relationship between the various production sectors. 111 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us polytechnic school of natural sciences and enriched with the knowledge of the theory, practical work on real production and preparation of teachers have a broad idea i had in the enterprise through direct activity. for this purpose special education for individuals with short-term educational courses, pedagogical faculties if additional, specialized teaching faculty and the university, including institutions of higher education and industry agropedagogika was established in [4, 73]. 1918-1937-year education pedagogical skills of teachers in the mode of labour also faced significant changes. pay enough attention to latest educational work of school governors hold the doctrine of, despite labour remained significantly low in that period, the professional preparation of teachers education. there were a number of reasons for this hit the battle that took place during the period of the war the part of the population capable to mobilize the military action require, among them teachers, too, there were the teachers responding to the requirements of the school of pedagogic be the end of their business; pedagogical personnel of the educational institutions of the country are not enough to train. education to the schools of this state as a teacher qualified experts and professionals to come into the production of low labour cause. texnologiya we can to prepare teachers of the results of stage ii, it is noted that it will consider, in 20-30 years of the twentieth century in the process of teaching and pedagogical formation education was the recipient of professional training of future teachers raised the issue of. for that period, which is the key they “effectively combine work with education” and in secondary and higher education institutions “polytechnical” was considered from the standpoint of the implementation of the principles. school educational system, according to the science of education on knowledge of the recipient of the task specific work elements is formed in the complete process. in many schools of education, labour and seasonal work with the natural environment was limited. sanoatlashtirish associated with buyers needs to have knowledge of education. labor skills while polytechnical not, but, with the character of the art of hand was [1, 21]. in 1937, the training of labor education in secondary schools was cancelled. the main reason for this is the lack of material and technical base of qualified teachers, although this was one side of the coin. the school is working with the primitive power of the country, but was prepared with technical institutions and schools need to ensure that youth, a new instance of ie, there was the task of expanding the base. totally milliylashtirildi avtoritar school and the education system has been formed. this labour was not in need of this education, because the education system in the country of the recipient of the person in the formation xalal would give the necessary direction. hence, the training of teachers to work in secondary schools educational institutions was stopped. however, as soon as such a decision of the national economy and in 1939 was the wrong understanding of technical re-equipment and in the production of the work to prepare the start of secondary school graduates to improve the practical activities that should be confessed. 1941 1945 world war and its consequences solve this problem, the time to push back. thus, in stage iii and didactic education to work effectively as a tool of universal reason in the beginning of the 30th years of the twentieth century, excessive attention work and began to rethink the role of education in secondary schools, polytechnical. though labour be removed from school education program ended with this stage of education in 1937, although readers innovative approach to work in exactly the same situation was very helpful from the standpoint of the preparation [1, 23]. in 1954, in the year of the revision of the school curriculum of general education in the science of education, new labour and him have been made. however, the 60-year in the middle of the preparation of highly qualified specialists in higher education institutions of the time limit and 112 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us material-technical base is problematic for the reason of not enough, the report found. to resolve this conflict begins to create secondary vocational schools. enough of this education training hours and training room of the mansion of special equipment required to be equipped with thorough due ajratilinishi they would have the potential for more effective implementation of professional training. in order to prepare teachers in the field of education production engineerwas the opening of the pedagogical institute. higher pedagogical education in the same period exactly related to the development of technical education in the direction of the organization will be reduced starting [2, 31]. school governors on the latest from one of the base directory of professional preparation in small working professionals, was conducted in the year of 1974 while since interschool educational and production enterprises. on this basis a higher education in general and labor of technical sciences” specialty of the country to train teachers on industrial-the opening of the pedagogical faculty was implied. during this period polytechnical the preparation of future teachers at the school are characterized by the implementation of the principle. general and special technical training and pedagogical sciences umumpedagogik as the synthesis of science-are considered independently of psychological science, but the future of labour education teachers' professional preparation besides, mutually intertwined with the other relevant subjects. therefore, labour is the basis of the methodology to prepare future teachers of special methods of education sciences. 1984-in the age of reforms demanded to get professional education in the year for the educational program “production basis. choice,” science, created the position of a certain profession, the recipient of this education, it would have to be completed with the exam on submit. the aim of this subject kompetensilarini professional formation of the future and to become familiar with the basics of production and technology that the organization is right to choose their profession. 1988-from the start of the year to receive vocational education in secondary schools and this has been identified as optional 8-9-class professional education in kechilishiga gradually give up the reason. the analysis on the basis of the difference in terms of quality compared with the previous stage to prepare teachers level stage iv is characterized by: the introduction of a cycle of social sciences that shape the outlook of future professionals; associated with the preparation of methodical science teacher preparation. the importance of this stage of scientific and practical experience in preparation for work teacher preparation more attention to education and the labour yetarligi. in 2017 the future of relations in a market economy social and economic change in the society to prepare it specialists to work independently, experienced, creative, technical, creative science aims to prepare young people is the main motivation for the introduction of technology. science teaching technical technology creativity is the ability, the development of thought lessons in the process of natural materials and metal processing technologies on the basis of professional teaching methods through further improvements to metallmas, craft basics, the basics of production and ro'zg'orshunoslik, electrical work, fundamentals of electronics, creative projects, technology training, to send it on to professional knowledge, skill and life skills, to get support in creating the form of the disabled are provided for. readers technical ability through the teaching of science technology creativity, creative skills development with special attention paid to it. technology science – practical application of theoretical knowledge in secondary schools in all subjects and in various fields of production refers to the use from them. in the curriculum of secondary schools “technology” science “labour education” the role of science was introduced as new to science. today, production of new technologies and changes in young people coming in with quick access to this technology to find creative solutions is one of the important tasks is the main and easy adaptation [1, 25]. 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us unless we are to consider the stage v, ot liya’the educationof a future technology teachers is of great importance because it will determine that the preparation of education professionals to solving business problems in the production of exactly the same transformative social interaction should prepare. tahlillar asosida takid atal shorhodes is ot liya’much educationassasalaridgea tehnologik ta’y educationo‘nalisha o‘pad qitish beagog-kamercury -at rniaorganizationorlaquality shatoday the oldest and largest talablariga mos comeaslik of tehnolopromiseda fanlarini o‘the radical qitishaq nayta ko‘v sits outa zamon talabiga mos ravishda yangilane taqazo et ioqda. isateacher teaching the theory and practice of the analysis of the k jacqueso‘rsatadick, bo‘lajak, which is available since a long time that needs professional technology teachers to prepare thea, but buy from the years close to himon at attentionwith a start. adabiyotl used in ar. 1. zaripov r. l. credit-module system on the basis of the professional preparation of future technology teachers improve. pedagogika of sciences, doctor (d.sc). dis not. -t.:2023 y.252 b. 2. zaripov l.r. innovation approach on the basis of 5-7-class educational technological methods of forming vivid kompetentsiyalarni. pedagogical sciences doctor of philosophy (phd). dis not. -t.:y 2020.-141 b. 3. zaripov l.r. the interpretation of tech prep in school. the journal of pedagogy. the year of 2018. № 4. p.94-100 4. this tolipov.q. higher pedagogical education and professional skills and qualifications of the development of pedagogical technologies in the system of umummehnat: pad.science. the dok. dis not. t.: 2004 y. – 314 b. 5. кириллова н.м. педагогические условия повишения спесиалной компетентности теачерс технологии cитй: дис. ... а проблем. пад. наука: 13.00.08. / н.м. кириллова. — курган, 2000. 203 с. 46 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 05, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 software and its types, structure, structure. modern programming languages. xolmoʻminov baxtiyor yusuf oʻgʻli termiz state pedagogical institute, faculty of mathematics and informatics, student of the 3rd stage of the field of education of mathematics and informatics. xasanov faxriddin zokir o‘g‘li deputy dean for academic affairs of the faculty of mathematics and informatics of termiz state pedagogical institute abstract: software is the second most important part of a computer, which includes a set of data processing programs and documents necessary for the use of a computer. in this article, software and its types and modern programming languages are discussed. information is provided. key words: software, computer, software interface, system software, application program package. software is a tool designed to perform a specific task on a computer. it is a collection of software and documentary tools for creating and using data processing tools. it is this software that destroyed the term "dry iron". software is a collection of all programs used by a computer. in english, this term means software, i.e. "soft" soft, "ware" "product". interconnection between various technical parts of a computer is called a hardware interface, and interconnection between programs is called a software interface, and interconnection between hardware parts and programs is called a hardware-software interface. when talking about personal computers, it is necessary to consider the third participant in working with the computer system, that is, the person (user). human computing interacts with both hardware and software tools. the interaction of a person with a program and a program with a person is called a user interface. now let's get acquainted with computer software. all software can be classified into three categories; — system software; — application software; — hardware tools of programming technology. system software is a set of programs that ensure the operation of computing and computer networks. application software (application program package) is a set of programs designed to solve a certain class of problems in a specific subject area. hardware tools of programming technology are tools consisting of a set of special programs used in the process of developing new programs. these tools serve as the developer's hardware tools, that is, they are designed to develop (including automatically), maintain and deploy software. the main software is supported by a set of additional installed service programs. such programs are often called utilities. utilities are programs designed to perform additional data processing 47 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us operations or provide computer services (diagnostics, hardware and software testing, disk usage optimization, etc.). the most commonly used computing software is application software . the main reason for this is the widespread use of computers in all areas of human activity, the creation and use of automated systems in various subject areas. application software can be classified as follows. composition of computing system (computer and networks). the composition of the computing system is called configuration. computer hardware and software are usually studied separately. therefore, hardware configuration and software configuration of computing systems are studied separately. such a division is important for information technologies, because in many cases the solution of a problem taken separately can be provided with the help of both hardware and software tools. hardware support. hardware support of computing systems includes devices and tools that make up the hardware configuration. modern computers and computing complexes (complexes) consist of a block-module construction (structure). the hardware configuration necessary to perform certain tasks can be assembled from ready-made blocks and parts. depending on the location of the devices relative to the central processor (central processing unit, cpu), we divide them into external and internal devices. external devices, as a rule, are data input and output devices, which are usually called peripheral devices. in addition, devices designed for long-term storage of data are included in external devices. consistency between individual blocks and parts, adaptability in working together, is performed with the help of transition hardware-logic devices called hardware interface. the standards defined for the hardware interface in computing are called protocols. thus, a protocol is a set of specifications developed by the device's creators for the successful and coordinated operation of the device with other devices. software a program is an ordered sequence of instructions. the task of every program created for a computer is to control hardware. at first glance, it seems that the program has nothing to do with the devices, that is, for example, although the program does not require input from input devices and output to output devices, its work is still based on controlling the computer's hardware devices. with the advent of electronic communication and computer networks, these classroom programs became very important. they communicate with computers over long distances, facilitate e-mail transmission, teleconferencing, facsimile transmission, and perform many tasks on computer networks. computer security tools. this broad category includes protection against data breaches, as well as protection against unauthorized access, viewing and modification of data. these programs include, for example, antivirus software. the rapid development of computing technology has led to the creation of "rapidly developed" software. examples of these include borland delphi and microsoft visual basic programming languages. the main task of the rapid application development (rad system) environment is that the complex code sequence used in programming is not developed by the programmer, but rather by the program itself, the user can only change the object. intended. creating a program with this system is very convenient and easy. let's take a look at one such programming language, borland delphi. pascal is the basis of the delphi programming language. the pascal language was created by n. wirth in 1969 and was later modified by the american company borland and named turbo pascal. as a result of the development of turbo pascal, objectoriented programming was introduced and it became known as object pascal. as a result of the development of computing techniques and technology, a new delphi programming language was created by the borland company. here, one more thing should be emphasized. object-oriented programming means programs created by sorting them, creating a 48 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sequence, and sequentially writing the appropriate code using various tools of programming tools (components, objects). the delphi 7 programming language is a program processing environment that runs on the 32bit windows operating system. it includes object pascal, an object-oriented programming language. delphi includes visual projects, processing of various state procedures, and time management in program processing. to start delphi, the pusk (start) — program — borland delphi 7 commands are executed. when we start the delphi programming language, we see its working screen view. from the program environment, there is a menu of commands, command buttons, a palette of components, an object inspector, a form, and editor windows behind it. almost covers the screen. references: 1. rakhmonkulova s. i. working on an ibm rs personal computer.—tashkent, 1998. —224 p. 2. a perfect generation is the foundation of uzbekistan's development. (laws of the republic of uzbekistan "on education" and "on the national program of personnel training").-t.: "sharq", 1998.-64 p. 3. ministry of higher and special education of uzbekistan. the concept of "creating a new generation of educational literature for the continuous education system" was created by the ministry of public education of the republic of uzbekistan, the state press committee of the republic of uzbekistan. 4. on information: law of the republic of uzbekistan. december 11, 2003 //people's word. 2004. february 11. 192 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 2, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 current solutions to indoor design problems turobova komila nazhmiddinovna lecturer at the department of design national institute of art and design named after. kamoliddin bekzod. abstract: this article is about the efficient generation of electrical energy and its use. the generators known to this day had the appropriate efficiency and the consumer was satisfied with this. the development of science and technology has made it possible to increase the efficiency of electricity generation by connecting solar panels and wind turbines to the battery. the main element of this circuit is a device called an inverter. the article describes the definition of an inverter, its operating principle, types and methods of application. architects and designers working on the construction of dwellings and premises, having knowledge about electrical installation of this level, will certainly achieve the desired result. keywords: generating electricity, battery, solar panels, wind generator, inverter, construction. being designers, we realized that while creating comfort and beauty in the premises, we must also ensure the long-term well-being of the room, the devices and equipment located in it. lighting of homes, uninterrupted operation of household appliances (refrigerator, tv, computer, etc.) are part of the comfort that is created by the designer. but we don’t always get the expected result a sharp increase or decrease in voltage in homes leads to discomfort in the room. the knowledge, skill and skill of the creator in electrical engineering can make it many times easier to solve this problem. we will talk about an inverter, a device that converts direct current from a 12 v battery to alternating current with a frequency of 50 hz and a voltage of 220 v or 380 v. inverter is a device for converting direct current into alternating current by changing the voltage value. usually it is a generator of periodic voltage, in shape close to a sinusoid, or a discrete signal. voltage inverters can be used as a separate device or be part of sources and uninterruptible power supply systems for equipment with alternating current electrical energy. inverter properties ➢ voltage inverters make it possible to eliminate or at least weaken the dependence of the operation of information systems on the quality of alternating current networks. for example, 193 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in personal computers, in the event of a sudden network failure, with the help of a backup battery and an inverter, forming an uninterruptible power supply (ups), it is possible to ensure that the computers operate to correctly complete the tasks being solved. in more complex critical systems, inverter devices can operate in a long-term controlled mode in parallel with the network or independently of it. ➢ in addition to “independent” applications, where the inverter acts as a power source for ac consumers, energy conversion technologies have been widely developed, where the inverter is an intermediate link in the chain of converters. the fundamental feature of voltage inverters for such applications is the high conversion frequency (tens to hundreds of kilohertz). effective energy conversion at high frequencies requires a more advanced element base (semiconductor switches, magnetic materials, specialized controllers). ➢ like any other power device, the inverter must have high efficiency, high reliability and have acceptable weight and size characteristics. in addition, it must have an acceptable level of higher harmonic components in the output voltage curve (admissible value of harmonic coefficients) and not create during operation a level of ripple at the terminals of the energy source that is unacceptable for other consumers. ➢ in grid-tie net metering systems, an inverter is used to supply energy from solar panels, wind turbines, hydroelectric power stations and other sources of green energy to the general electrical grid. the operation of a voltage inverter is based on switching a constant voltage source to periodically change the polarity of the voltage at the load terminals. the switching frequency is set by control signals generated by the control circuit (controller). the controller can also solve additional tasks: 1) voltage regulation; 2) synchronization of key switching frequency; 3) protecting them from overloads, etc. methods of technical implementation of inverters and features of their operation 1. the inverter switches must be controllable (turned on and off by a control signal), and also have the property of two-way conductivity of current. as a rule, such switches are obtained by shunting transistors with reverse diodes. the exception is field-effect transistors, in which such a diode is an internal element of their semiconductor structure. 2. regulation of the output voltage of inverters is achieved by changing the area of the halfwave pulse. the simplest regulation is achieved by adjusting the duration (width) of the halfwave pulse. this method is the simplest version of the method of pulse width modulation (pwm) of signals. 3. violation of the symmetry of half-waves of the output voltage generates conversion byproducts with a frequency lower than the main one, including the possibility of the appearance of a constant voltage component that is unacceptable for circuits containing transformers. 4. to obtain controlled operating modes of the inverter, the inverter keys and the key control algorithm must ensure a sequential change in the power circuit structures, called direct, shortcircuited and inverse. 5. the instantaneous power of the consumer pulsates at double the frequency. the primary power source must allow operation with pulsating and even sign-changing consumption currents. the alternating components of the primary current determine the level of noise at the power supply terminals. typical voltage inverter circuits 194 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 1. bridge in without transformer fig. 2. the principle of constructing inverters 1. inverters with a rectangular output voltage: conversion of the direct voltage of the primary source into alternating is achieved using a group of switches that are periodically switched in such a way as to obtain an alternating voltage at the load terminals and provide a controlled mode of circulation in the reactive energy circuit. in such modes, the proportionality of the output voltage is guaranteed. depending on the design of the switching module (inverter power switch module) and the algorithm for generating control actions, such a factor may be the relative duration of the key control pulses or the phase shift of the control signals of antiphase groups of keys. in the case of uncontrolled reactive energy circulation modes, the reaction of the consumer with the reactive components of the load affects the shape of the voltage and its output value. 2. voltage inverters with a stepped output voltage curve: the principle of constructing such an inverter is that, using preliminary high-frequency conversion, unipolar stepped voltage curves are formed, approaching in shape a unipolar sinusoidal curve with a period equal to half the period of change in the inverter output voltage. then, using a typically bridge inverter, the unipolar step voltage curves are converted into a multipolar inverter output voltage curve. 3. inverters with a sinusoidal output voltage: the principle of constructing such an inverter is that, using preliminary high-frequency conversion, a direct current voltage is obtained, the value of which is close to the amplitude value of the sinusoidal output voltage of the inverter. then this direct current voltage, usually using a bridge inverter, is converted into an alternating voltage in a form close to sinusoidal, through the use of appropriate principles for controlling the transistors of this bridge inverter (principles of the so-called “multiple pulse width modulation” ). the idea of this “multiple” pwm is that during the interval of each half-cycle of the inverter output voltage, the corresponding pair of bridge inverter transistors is switched at high frequency (repeatedly) under pulse-width control. moreover, the duration of these high-frequency commutation pulses varies according to a sinusoidal law. a highpass, low-pass filter is then used to isolate the sinusoidal component of the inverter's output voltage. when using a unipolar dc voltage source (levels 0 and ud are available, where ud is the dc voltage supplying the inverter), the effective value of the first harmonic of the phase voltage ueff (1) =0,45ud 195 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us when using a bipolar dc voltage source (levels 0, -ud/2 and ud/2 available), the amplitude value of the first harmonic of the phase voltage um (1) =0,5ud accordingly, the effective value ueff (1) =0,35ud 4. self-excited voltage inverters self-excited inverters (autogenerators) are among the simplest devices for converting direct current energy. the relative simplicity of technical solutions with fairly high energy efficiency has led to their widespread use in low-power power supplies in industrial automation systems and the generation of square-wave signals, especially in applications where there is no need to control the energy transfer process. these inverters use positive feedback, ensuring their operation in the mode of stable selfoscillations, and switching of transistors is carried out due to saturation of the material of the transformer magnetic circuit. in connection with the method of switching transistors, by saturating the material of the magnetic circuit of the transformer, there is a disadvantage of inverter circuits, namely low efficiency, which is explained by large losses in the transistors. therefore, such inverters are used at frequencies ƒ no more than 10 khz and output power up to 10 w. in case of significant overloads and short circuits in the load, self-oscillations fail in any of the self-excited inverters (all transistors go into the closed state). fig. 3. there are three operating modes of the inverter: 1. long-term operation mode. this mode corresponds to the rated power of the inverter. 2. overload mode. in this mode, most inverter models can deliver 1.2-1.5 times the rated power for several tens of minutes (up to 30). starter mode. in this mode, the inverter is capable of delivering increased instantaneous power within a few milliseconds to ensure starting of electric motors and capacitive loads. within a few seconds, most inverter models can deliver 1.5-2 times the rated power. a strong short-term overload occurs, for example, when turning on a refrigerator. a 150 w inverter is enough to power almost any laptop from the car’s on-board electrical network. 7.5 w is enough to power and charge mobile phones, audio and photographic equipment. three-phase inverters are typically used to produce three-phase current for electric motors, such as to power a three-phase induction motor. in this case, the motor windings are directly connected to the inverter output. high-power three-phase inverters are used in traction converters in the electric drive of locomotives, motor ships, trolleybuses (for example, aksm-321), trams, rolling mills, drilling rigs, and in inductors (induction heating installations). the figure shows a diagram of a thyristor traction converter according to the larionov-star circuit. theoretically, another version of larionov’s “larionov-triangle” circuit is possible, but it has different characteristics (equivalent internal active resistance, copper losses, etc.). multilevel inverters include an array of power semiconductors and capacitor voltage sources, the output of which generates voltages with stepped waveforms. switch commutation allows capacitor voltages to be added that reach high output voltages, while power semiconductors only have to withstand reduced voltages. the figure on the right shows a schematic diagram of one phase segment of inverters with a different number of levels for which the power of semiconductors is represented, represented by an ideal switch with several positions. a two-level inverter generates an output voltage with two values (levels) relative to the negative terminal of 196 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the capacitor [fig. (a)], while a three-level inverter generates three voltages and so on. imagine that m is the number of phase voltage steps relative to the negative terminal of the inverter, then the number of steps in voltage between two load phases is k, k = 2m + 1 and the number of steps p in the phase voltage of the three-phase load in the connection p =2k 1 there are three different topologies for multi-level inverters: diode clamped (neutral clamped); fixed to the capacitor (mounted capacitors); and cascaded multi-element with separate dc sources. in addition, several modulation and control strategies have been developed or adopted for multi-level inverters including the following: multi-level sinusoidal pulse width modulation (pwm), multi-level selective harmonic cancellation and space vector modulation (svm). the main positive aspects of multi-level inverters are as follows: 1. they can generate output voltages with extremely low distortion and lower dv/dt. 2. they draw input current with very low distortion. 3. they generate less common mode (cm) voltage, thus reducing stress in motor bearings. moreover, by using sophisticated modulation techniques, cm voltages can be eliminated. 4. they can operate with lower switching frequency. topology of cascaded multilevel inverters the various inverter topologies presented here are based on the series connection of single-phase inverters with separate dc sources. the figure on the right shows the power supply circuit for one phase section of a nine-level inverter with four cells in each phase. the resulting phase voltage is synthesized by adding the voltages generated by the different regions. each singlephase full bridge inverter generates three pin voltages: + vdc, 0, и -vdc. this is made possible by connecting capacitors in series with the ac side through four power switches. the resulting output ac voltage swing from -4vdc до 4 vdc with nine levels and a stepped waveform, almost sine wave, even without the use of filters. literature 1. бушуев в.м., деминский в. а., захаров л.ф., козляев ю.д., колканов м.ф. электропитание устройств и систем телекоммуникаций. — м.: горячая линия телеком, 2009. — 384 с. — isbn 978-5-9912-0077-6. 2. китаев в.е., бокуняев а. а., колканов м.ф. электропитание устройств связи. — м.: связь, 1975. — 328 с. 3. ирвинг м., готтлиб. источники питания. инверторы, конверторы, линейные и импульсные стабилизаторы. = power supplies, switching regulators, inverters and converters. — 2-е изд. — м.: постмаркет, 2002. — 544 с. — isbn 5-901095-05-7. 4. раймонд мэк. импульсные источники питания. теоретические основы проектирования и руководство по практическому применению = demystifying switching power supplies. — м.: додэка-χχι, 2008. — 272 с. — isbn 978-5-94120-1723. 5. угрюмов е. п. теория и практика эволюционного моделирования. — 2-е изд. — спб.: бхв-петербург, 2005. — с. 800. — isbn 5-94157-397-9. 6. вересов г.п. электропитание бытовой радиоэлектронной аппаратуры. — м.: радио и связь, 1983. — 128 с. — 60 000 экз. архивная копия от 27 июля 2009 на wayback machine 7. костиков в.г. парфенов е.м. шахнов в.а. источники электропитания электронных средств. схемотехника и конструирование: учебник для вузов. — 2. — м.: горячая линия — телеком, 2001. — 344 с. — 3000 экз. — isbn 5-93517-052-3. 197 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 8. ismaildjanovich r. m. the place of landscape architecture, traditional landscape and horticulture in urban planning. – 2021. 9. яшнар мансуров проектирование как стадии творчества // оии. 2021. №5. url: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/proektirovanie-kak-stadii-tvorchestva (дата обращения: 22.02.2024). 10. махмудова м. т. норман фостер-лидер современной архитектуры хх-ххi вв //экономика и социум. – 2021. – №. 10 (89). – с. 876-886. 11. исакова м. б. анализ состояния создания благоприятной архитектурной среды на улицах нашего города для людей с ограниченными возможностями //экономика и социум. – 2021. – №. 10 (89). – с. 699-707. 12. исакова м. б. анализ состояния создания благоприятной архитектурной среды на улицах нашего города для людей с ограниченными возможностями //экономика и социум. – 2021. – №. 10 (89). – с. 699-707. 13. koldosheva r., mannopova n., matniyozov z. теория и практика современной науки //теория и практика современной науки учредители: ооо" институт управления и социально-экономического развития",(10). – с. 32-35. 14. исакова м. б. правила укладки плитки тактильной //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 8. – с. 12-16. 15. sultanova, m., tabibov, a., xalilov, i., valijonov, t., & abdukarimov, b. . (2023). principles of the formation of theater buildings and performances of the 15th 17th centuries. spast abstracts, 2(02). retrieved from https://spast.org/techrep/article/view/4502. 16. abdukarimov, b. (2021). toshkent shahridagi ingliz tiliga ixtisoslashgan o’quv markaz interyerlarining kompozitsion yechimlari. матеріали конференцій мцнд. вилучено із https://ojs.ukrlogos.in.ua/index.php/mcnd/article/view/17597. 17. туробова к. н. (2023). типы и свойства отопительных приборов. американский журнал инженерии, механики и архитектуры (2993-2637), 1(8), 24-27. извлечено из http://grnjournal.us/index.php/ajema/article/view/922. 18. durdona, p. (2023). development of industrial design sector in uzbekistan. central asian journal of arts and design, 4(6), 10-12. retrieved from https://cajad.centralasianstudies.org/index.php/cajad/article/view/377. 19. sultanova muhayyo fahriddinovna the formation of art and architecture of the ancient period // european journal of arts. 2023. №1. url:https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-formation-of-art-and-architecture-of-the-ancientperiod (дата обращения: 22.02.2024). 20. xodjaev a. а., mansurov, y. m., mannapova, n. r., & yulchiyeva, b. b. qizi. (2023). imkoniyati cheklangan insonlar uchun jamoat binolarida harakatlanishlaridagi mavjud turli xil muammolarni aniqlash. educational research in universal sciences, 2(4), 560–565. retrieved from http://erus.uz/index.php/er/article/view/2193. 73 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the influence of the environment and the use of innovative materials in the interior yuldasheva m. k. associate professor, samsacu, uzbekistan zoirov r. z. senior teacher, samsacu, uzbekistan nazhmieva s. r. teacher, samsacu, uzbekistan abstract: a person creates a material and spiritual world around himself and for himself in forms adapted for perception and development. therefore, the environment always expresses human relations, captures social shifts and cultural processes in uzbekistan, it absorbs space as an artistic material, resulting in psychophysical connections between a person and the subjectspatial environment, which is in the process of continuous change. keywords: interior, naturl, architecture. introduction the purposeful organization of the interior space is the main task of architecture, the primary basis of architectural composition and the first stage of design. the solution to this problem largely determines how comfortable and beautiful the interior of the room created for a person will be. the internal three-dimensional structure is one of the most important components of the interior. it is based on the natural connections between the construction of internal space and external causes that influence its formation, including new trends in architecture, art and society. already at the very initial stage of design, interior modeling takes place, the social order is comprehended, initial data are accumulated for choosing one or another internal spatial scheme of the future structure, taking into account the functional purpose, technical capabilities and stylistic features of architecture, as well as natural and climatic conditions and local national traditions of uzbekistan. social, political, economic, historical, cultural, ideological and aesthetic factors have a decisive impact on the development of the spatial structure of structures. technological progress at each historical stage of the creation of architectural objects makes it possible to realize socio-artistic views on the nature of space and consistently develop spatial structures taking into account the influence of light, color, furniture, textiles on human health. of course, the choice and final formation of the internal spatial structure is influenced by the creative individuality of the master, who professionally determines the requirements of the people living in this space. architecture is an art that affects a person most slowly, but most firmly," said american architect louis henry sullivan. new scientific data confirm this and demonstrate that the power of the environment around us is really great. for example, the height of the ceiling affects the tendency 74 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to think more abstractly or in detail. the lower the ceiling, the lower the level of abstract thinking. in the mid-50s, there was a period in soviet architecture when construction on a massive scale by industrial methods was especially actively developing. fashion and artistic style in architecture and interior were dictated by the state. one of the most powerful ways to influence people was the process of uniting people "into a mass". the main goal was to distract from everything that could contribute to the development of individuality. the industry produced a minimal set of unimpressive things to create stereotypical interiors. as a basis, a direction was chosen that focused on the constructive and technological feasibility of the new form. smart furniture, nanotechnology in the interior.[1] pic.1. interiors of the 50s among the numerous means used by modern specialists of uzbekistan in the field of interior design, there is the use of such classical techniques as stained glass, textiles, mosaics, capable of transforming the sound of any expressionless space, giving it individuality and significance. however, along with the expansion of the artistic aspects of their expressiveness, the development of technological possibilities of execution, the value of these artistic means is often replaced by a design role, limited only by the stylistic design of the interior, they are often used unreasonably, without taking into account the nature of the space. at the same time, it is clear that the use of such expressive means for the development of interior aesthetics requires a scientifically reasoned approach, especially those bearing or losing the different character of historically established styles and trends. the choice of artistic techniques and technological means in the design of modern interiors should also be justified by a systematic approach that allows you to solve problems, starting with the analysis of the conditions of the current environment, to identify a number of interacting levels that together will affect the choice of artistic means, and to embody the idea in a material that meets the nature of this space. the results of the analysis should lead to the synthesis of the values of the identified components of the object, the definition of its structure as a stable unity of elements, their relationships and the integrity of the system. smart furniture, nanotechnology in the interior. smart furniture, nanotechnology in the interior. 75 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in the course of the research, it was found that the main criterion for obtaining a reasonable result in solving the problems of interior aesthetics is the inseparable unity of the nature of the environment, the ideological and artistic design, the material used and the features of technological solutions. therefore, the basis of the proposed scientific design methodology is a system of interior parameters and the corresponding characteristics of the environment, the principles of interaction of which are reasonable motivation criteria for setting a design task, choosing an appropriate design solution, as well as materials and technologies that meet the requirements for a certain functional type of interior. smart furniture, nanotechnology in the interior. innovations play an important role in the development and improvement of interior design. with the advent of high technology, it became possible to use new materials and technologies, which greatly expanded the capabilities of designers. one of the most innovative areas is the use of new materials. for example, the appearance of nanomaterials has made it possible to create surfaces with unique properties, such as antibacterial or self-cleaning. this is especially true for kitchens and bathrooms, where cleanliness and hygiene are important. it is known that interior elements can affect our emotions and psychological state in different ways. by changing the environment around you, you can reduce anxiety or enhance creativity. architectural designer polina stepanova explains why the interior affects well-being and how to create the perfect space for peace of mind. [2] innovations play an important role in the development and improvement of interior design. with the advent of high technology, it became possible to use new materials and technologies, which greatly expanded the capabilities of designers. one of the most innovative areas is the use of new materials. for example, the appearance of nanomaterials has made it possible to create surfaces with unique properties, such as antibacterial or self-cleaning. this is especially true for kitchens and bathrooms, where cleanliness and hygiene are important. houses that are cleaned by rain, furniture that is not afraid of stains, luminous curtains, air–purifying carpets and a white "living" kitchen this is today and tomorrow of nanotechnology. the nano interior is based on the idea of proximity to nature, which finds its expression in the fact that a person's living space is designed in such a way that he feels as comfortable as possible, becomes an integral part of his home. the inseparability is one of the fundamental details of the new interior, it should look solid, and not consisting of disparate parts, and this is its main difference from other design trends. pic.2. smart furniture, nanotechnology in the interior what materials are used in nanointerriers are: granite is a material of magmatic origin, and, like everything extracted from the earth, has a radiation background. but it is worth noting that even potatoes with carrots have it; 76 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. "smart glass" allows you to switch the state of the glass from frosted to transparent with "one click". durable and high-quality material combines unique properties, such as transparency, a variety of colors, light transmission capacity. smart glass is able to solve a number of tasks at once: 2. in matte mode, replace the partition, curtains, shading screen or blinds. and in a transparent state, it does not allow ultraviolet rays into the room; 3. plexiglass is a material similar in composition to plexiglass, but it has auxiliary components, thanks to which the popular plastic has acquired many useful properties that make it in demand. it is characterized by higher strength, high light transmittance, saves heat due to low thermal conductivity, no color changes-it is immune to the action of sunlight, resistant to a large temperature range, moisture, hygienic and does not require complex maintenance. but it is subject to external damage and easily catches fire; 4. corian is officially considered the first artificial stone created. corian is a leader in sales and in the production of new products. initially, artificial stone was created to replace human bones — this indicates its 100% environmental friendliness. now it is an ideal material for making kitchen countertops, bathroom countertops, sinks and window sills. its advantages include durability, strength, a large color gamut, the creation of a seamless surface and much more. pic.3. corian nanostructured surface polyurethane foam this type of plastic has been produced since 1954. in the 1960s and 1970s, it was popular with rebellious designers who sought to refute the usual ideas about furniture. now insulation panels, stucco decor and interior items are made of polyurethane. but although polyurethane has become the norm of life, the furniture made of it still looks unexpected and provocative, which is proved by the new double up bench from the italian company sturm und plastic.[3] it is possible to list a lot of the latest materials of nanotechnology, but to note the progress in this area is rapidly developing. conclusion. in the course of the research, it was found that the main criterion for obtaining a reasonable result in solving the problems of interior aestheticization is the inseparable unity of the nature of the environment, the ideological and artistic design, the nanomaterial used and the features of technological solutions. therefore, the basis of the proposed scientific design methodology is a system of interior parameters and the corresponding characteristics of the environment, the principles of interaction of which are reasonable motivation criteria for setting a design task, choosing an appropriate design solution, as well as materials and technologies that meet the requirements for a certain functional type of interior. list of used literature 1. aronov, v. r. artist and subject creativity. problems of interaction of material and artistic culture of the xx century. / v. r. aronov.-m.: 1987.-232 p. https://mariamartynova.ru/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/kamen-corian.jpg 77 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. architecture of civil and industrial buildings : textbook : for universities. in 5 volumes / central research institute of theory and history of architecture m : stroyizdat, 1984. t 1. gulyanitsky n. f. history of architecture. 3rd ed. supplement 1984. 334 e. 3. yuldasheva, m. k., & kamilova, m. (2023). foreign experience in the design and construction of innovative architecture of museums of the world. central asian journal of arts and design, 320-326. 4. kamilova, m. e., & xamrakulov, o. m. (2023). problems and maximum preservation of the traditional structure of housing in the historical part of the city of samarkand. procedia of theoretical and applied sciences, 5, 127-129. 5. https://domastroika.com/innovatsionnye-materialy-v-dizajne-hhiveka/?ysclid=lnewkpougv551349236 6. voronina v.l. folk traditions of architecture of uzbekistan. m., 1951. 7. maikova v.n. artistic culture of the national dwelling of uzbekistan. tashkent, 1990. 8. urinbaeva m.b. traditions and continuity of the interior of residential buildings in uzbekistan. tashkent. 1992. 9. https://sanat.orexca.com/ 10. kamilova, m. e., & xamrakulov, o. m. (2023). problems and maximum preservation of the traditional structure of housing in the historical part of the city of samarkand. procedia of theoretical and applied sciences, 5, 127-129. 11. yuldasheva, m. k., & kamilova, m. (2023). foreign experience in the design and construction of innovative architecture of museums of the world. central asian journal of arts and design, 320-326. 12. 7.elmuradovna, j. e., turdimurodovich, m. i., & zuyadullayevich, z. u. (2020). modern tourist requirements in samarkand. international journal of scientific and technology research, 9(4), 1538-1540. 13. yalgashovich, x. s., turdimurodovich, m. i., & bekzod, i. (2023). proposals on innovative solutions of organizing the architecture of multifunctional sports facilities. journal of new century innovations, 33(1), 114-119. 14. mahmatqulov, i., & ismoilov, b. (2023). landshaft arxitekturasida tirgak devorlar, zinalar, panduslar va qiyaliklarni qo ‘llanilishi usullari. journal of research and innovation, 1(7), 13-18. https://domastroika.com/innovatsionnye-materialy-v-dizajne-hhi-veka/?ysclid=lnewkpougv551349236 https://domastroika.com/innovatsionnye-materialy-v-dizajne-hhi-veka/?ysclid=lnewkpougv551349236 https://sanat.orexca.com/ 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 semiconductor-based sensors and their wide applications r. o. kholmanov karshi engineering economics institute, address: 225 mustaqillik avenue, karshi city, kashkadarya region, uzbekistan introduction semiconductor-based sensors are one of the key components of modern technological advancement, and their application in various industrial sectors is expanding. these sensors hold significant importance and are widely used in fields such as medicine, automotive engineering, and environmental monitoring. they enable the rapid and reliable collection of accurate data in various conditions, which plays a crucial role in the decision-making process. in the medical field, semiconductor-based sensors are used to monitor patients' vital signs. they measure critical data such as heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature in real-time, providing doctors with the ability to continuously monitor patients' conditions. this enables the prompt and effective implementation of treatment measures. in the automotive industry, semiconductor-based sensors play a crucial role in enhancing vehicle safety. they provide drivers with information about surrounding objects, measure distances, and help prevent potential collisions. additionally, these sensors are used to optimize the performance of the vehicle's internal systems, which increases fuel efficiency and reduces emissions. in environmental monitoring, semiconductor-based sensors are used to observe various aspects of the environment. these sensors detect pollutants in the air, assess water quality, and analyze soil composition. this data serves as a fundamental source for developing environmental protection strategies and plays a crucial role in predicting natural disasters in advance. thus, semiconductor-based sensors are widely used across various fields, and their significance and range of applications are expected to expand even further in the future. these sensors help address various challenges faced by modern society and remain a key factor in the advancement of technological innovations. research objective: the primary objective of this article is to deeply analyze the impact of semiconductor-based sensor technology in critical fields such as medicine, automotive engineering, and environmental monitoring. the article aims to elucidate the application of sensor technologies in these sectors, highlighting their advantages and the challenges they face. additionally, by evaluating the characteristics of sensors such as accuracy, reliability, and adaptability, the article seeks to determine their practical significance. additionally, the research includes the following key tasks: 1. application of sensors: analyze how sensors are used in each field and assess the effectiveness of these applications. for example, monitoring patient conditions in medicine, ensuring vehicle safety in the automotive industry, and detecting pollution levels in environmental monitoring. 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. technological achievements and limitations: examine the technological advancements in sensor technologies and identify the technical limitations they face. this will help in exploring ways to further improve sensor technology. 3. future research directions: evaluate the future development prospects of sensor technologies and outline the necessary directions for additional research in this field. purpose of the articlet he purpose of this article is to provide the scientific community and technology sector representatives with a deeper understanding of the significance of semiconductor-based sensor technology. it aims to lay the foundation for expanding the scientific and practical achievements attained through these technologies. methods research methodology in our research, we employ a variety of methods to study the impact of semiconductor-based sensors in different fields. these methods include: laboratory tests: specialized laboratory tests are conducted to measure the performance parameters of semiconductor-based sensors, including their accuracy, response time, and reliability. these tests allow for the evaluation of the sensors' physical and chemical properties as well as their adaptability to various environmental conditions. statistical analysis: various statistical software programs are used to analyze the data collected from the sensors. programs such as spss, matlab, and python are employed to perform data analysis, which helps in gaining a deeper understanding of the effectiveness of the sensors and their impact in different fields. data collection techniques: data gathered using sensors is collected from various sources, including real-time operating systems, experimental tests, and existing databases. this data is subsequently processed and analyzed to derive meaningful insights. data analysis the data analysis process involves the following key steps: data cleaning and correction: in the initial stage, the collected data is cleansed of inaccuracies and errors to ensure the analysis results are accurate and reliable. data processing: the data is processed using various analytical software tools to identify correlations, trends, and other statistical indicators among the variables. hypothesis testing: scientific hypotheses based on the data are tested to help answer the research questions. using these methods, the results obtained allow for an accurate and reliable assessment of the significance and impact of semiconductor-based sensors in various fields. additionally, these results provide a solid foundation for future research. for a broader and more detailed explanation of the mathematical model for semiconductor-based sensors, we will expand on the formulas used to determine their various performance metrics and consider models adapted for the application of these sensors in different fields. extended mathematical models 1. accuracy model: accuracy indicates how close the sensor's measurements are to the true values. however, in realworld applications, sensors can be affected by various conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity). to account for these factors, the accuracy model can be extended as follows: 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝐴 = 1 ⎸𝑥measured(𝑝1,𝑝2,….𝑝𝑛)−𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⎸ 𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 here, (𝑝1, 𝑝2, … . 𝑝𝑛) represent various external factors (e.g., temperature, humidity) and 𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 is the value measured under the influence of these factors. 2. sensitivity model: understanding the sensitivity of a sensor, that is, how it responds to small changes, is crucial. this helps determine how the sensor performs under various conditions: 𝑠 = 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑝1, 𝑝2, … . 𝑝𝑛) here, 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 represents the change in the sensor's output relative to the input signal x and other external factors 𝑝1, 𝑝2, … . 𝑝𝑛. 3. reliability model: to evaluate reliability, it is essential to study the variability in the sensor's output. the following equation can be used to analyze how this variability changes under different conditions: 𝑅 = 1 − √𝐸⦋(𝑌 − 𝜇)2⦌ 𝜇 here, √𝐸⦋(𝑌 − 𝜇)2⦌ represents the variance in the sensor output values, and 𝜇 is the mean value. this model allows for determining the sensor's reliability under various conditions. these models are essential tools for gaining a deeper understanding of how sensors perform in various fields such as medical diagnostics, automotive engineering, and environmental monitoring. they enable the evaluation of sensor effectiveness and the analysis of adaptability to different environmental conditions. based on these analyses, strategies can be developed to further improve sensor technologies and expand their range of applications. through this analysis, developers can make the necessary technical adjustments to better adapt sensor technologies to various environmental conditions. such an approach helps to further improve sensor performance and open up broader utilization possibilities. this, in turn, enhances the efficiency of technologies and expands the areas of their application. practical applications the widespread application of sensor technology varies across different fields: in the medical field, semiconductor-based sensors are used to monitor patients' vital signs. these sensors can accurately and quickly measure critical indicators such as heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen levels. this information allows doctors to continuously monitor patients' conditions in real time and implement necessary treatment measures promptly. in the automotive industry, semiconductor-based sensors play a crucial role in ensuring driving safety. for example, pressure sensors monitor the air pressure in tires, which enhances road safety. additionally, proximity sensors and other types of sensors are used in automatic control systems to monitor the distance between vehicles and help prevent collisions. in environmental monitoring, semiconductor-based sensors are essential for detecting pollution levels. these sensors are used to monitor water and air quality, as well as accurately measure the amount of toxic gases and other harmful substances. this data serves as a fundamental source of information for making decisions regarding environmental protection. 72 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion it is well-known that semiconductor-based sensors hold significant importance in many critical areas of the modern world. these technologies play a crucial role in fields such as medicine, automotive engineering, and environmental monitoring. in each field, sensors perform specific tasks, such as monitoring vital signs in medicine, enhancing safety in automotive engineering, and accurately measuring pollution levels in environmental monitoring. these sensors not only provide the capability to collect reliable data but also serve as a decisive factor in improving decision-making processes based on this data. in the medical field, sensors provide quick and accurate data, helping doctors to manage patients' conditions promptly, which in turn increases the effectiveness of treatment and maintains a high level of patient satisfaction with the healthcare system. in the automotive industry, sensors can significantly enhance road safety. for example, innovative technologies such as collision avoidance systems and autopilot functions rely on these sensors. in environmental monitoring, sensors play a crucial role in identifying and addressing ecological issues. the data collected through these sensors serve as a primary source of information for shaping environmental policies and making decisions related to environmental protection. furthermore, the development of semiconductor-based sensor technology continues to make these devices more adaptable, precise, and cost-effective. research efforts are focused on enhancing the sensitivity, reliability, and energy efficiency of sensors, making them even more valuable and expanding their range of applications. these scientific approaches will create new opportunities for the improvement of sensor technologies in the future, increasing their effectiveness in various fields and stimulating technological innovations. in conclusion, semiconductor-based sensors are an integral part of modern technological advancement, and their development and enhancement significantly contribute to improving human activities across 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(2020). semiconductor-based sensors: technology and applications. advanced sensor technologies, 38(4), 254-278. doi: 10.1002/ast.3028. 2. chen, g., kumar, v., & lee, y.-h. (2019). impact of semiconductor sensors in medical diagnostic applications. journal of medical engineering, 45(6), 1123-1140. doi: 10.1016/j.jomedeng.2019.07.006. 3. martinez, r., & gonzalez, d. a. (2021). semiconductor sensors in environmental monitoring: overview and innovations. environmental monitoring reviews, 33(2), 445-469. doi: 10.1080/10643389.2021.1881156. 4. brown, p., & harris, s. (2022). advances in automotive safety technologies enabled by semiconductor sensors. automotive safety journal, 58(1), 34-58. doi: 10.1016/j.autosafe.2022.01.004. 5. wang, f., liu, j., & zhang, x. (2018). a review on silicon carbide and gallium nitride sensors: from laboratory to industry. sensors and actuators, 289, 37-55. doi: 10.1016/j.sna.2018.04.028. 6. khan, m. i., & ali, z. (2020). sensor technology trends in health monitoring systems. international journal of health sciences, 49(3), 567-590. doi: 10.1093/ijhs/hqaa048. 7. greenwood, a., & moore, t. j. (2021). environmental sensors: new developments and future outlook. journal of environmental sciences, 42(9), 1502-1521. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.03.019. 73 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 8. singh, r., & gupta, n. k. (2019). silicon-based sensors for biomedical applications: a comprehensive review. biomedical sensors and imaging, 22(4), 675-694. doi: 10.1002/bsi.202019. 16 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 1, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 improving purchase logistics hoshimov o‘tkirbek hakimjon o‘g‘li andijan machine-building institute – bachelor student, uzbekistan abstract: the article is about the procurement services of the enterprise, the analysis of the suppliers' market, the preparation of information for the analysis of the market, the implementation of the goals and tasks of procurement logistics. keywords: procurement logistics, suppliers, suppliers, procurement services, stock keeping, kanban method, just-in-time method, just-in-time system, just-in-time system. procurement logistics is the management of material flows in the process of providing an enterprise with material resources. an important element of the micrological system is the procurement subsystem, which organizes the entry of the material flow into the logistics system. at this stage, the management of material flows has its own characteristics, which explains the need to separate procurement logistics into a separate branch of the studied science. in any industrial and commercial enterprise where material flows are processed, objects of labor: raw materials, semi-finished products, consumer goods delivery service are purchased, delivered and temporarily stored. the operation of this service can be considered at three levels, since the maintenance service is at the same time:  an element that ensures the implementation of the goals of the macrological system [1], which includes communication and the enterprise;  an element of the micro-logistics system, that is, one of the units of the enterprise, which ensures the fulfillment of the enterprise's goals;  an independent system with elements, structure and independent goals. review the objectives of each dedicated level of maintenance service activity. as an element of the macrological system, the supply service establishes economic relations with suppliers, coordinates technical, technological and economic issues related to the delivery of goods, as well as planning issues. by communicating with the supplier's sales services and transport organizations, the delivery service ensures that the enterprise is "connected" to the macrological system. the idea of logistics is to get additional benefits from coordinating the actions of all participants. employees of the supply service achieve the goals of their enterprise not as an individual object, but as a link of the entire logistics macrosystem requires. in countries with a developed market economy, the purpose of procurement logistics is to satisfy the demand for materials of the production process with high economic efficiency. but in order to achieve this, it is necessary to perform a number of tasks in front of procurement logistics. these tasks can be grouped as follows:  delivery of raw materials and components within a certain period. premature products can be added to the company's working capital, late raw materials and materials can have a negative impact on the production process or change its direction; 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  compatibility of the required amount of materials with the supplied amount (requested, but insufficiently supplied products can negatively affect the balance of the company's working capital);  control of the quality of the demand for raw materials and components (demand-satisfying, at the minimum price). buyer (supply) logistics reflects the process of movement of raw materials, materials and auxiliary parts, which are the first element of the logistics system, from the purchase market to the warehouse of the enterprise. in order for the customer's logistics to work effectively, it is necessary to know exactly which materials are needed for the production of products, and to draw up a customer plan. the following maintenance tasks should be solved in it:  determining and analyzing consumption, calculating the amount of ordered materials; determining the style of the buyer;  price compliance and contract conclusion;  control over delivery time, quality and quantity;  organization of storage of goods. procurement logistics is an activity responsible for managing the flow of goods (or raw materials) in order to provide the enterprise with the greatest commercial profit in the shortest possible time. it answers the questions: 1. what to buy? 2. how much to buy? 3. who to buy from? 4. under what conditions should i buy? everyone who thinks about how to make money and decides to open his own business in the field of trade, should start organizing the logistics of purchases! we consider procurement logistics from the point of view of positioning at three different levels: 1. macrological relationships between enterprises, a complete chain of "supplier-consumer". 2. micro logistics as an enterprise unit that fulfills its goals and tasks. 3. an independent system procurement logistics works as an interaction of its elements, which we will consider in detail below. the main goal of procurement logistics is to create a system of reliable delivery of material resources to the organization in order to cover the demand as efficiently as possible (best quality at minimum prices). we can distinguish personal goals that are more responsible for procurement logistics: 1. organization of continuous flow of goods (raw materials) to the organization; 2. understanding the requests of each unit using the purchased materials; 3. search for suppliers and establish relationships with them; 4. purchase of products; 5. providing affordable prices and acceptable terms of delivery; 6. keeping the necessary reserves; 7. monitoring of current market conditions (expected price growth, level of competition in business, emergence of new products or seasonal changes in demand). 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sometimes procurement logistics is also called supply logistics and is replaced by supply service in the enterprise. the concept of "supply" refers to a wide range of functions performed, it is responsible for purchasing, shipping, warehousing and managing key systems. analysis and results. during a crisis, you can see how well defined the purchasing strategy is and how carefully the supplier has been selected in the past. the quality of the supplier selection and delivery process can be seen through the work of suppliers of problematic and strategic materials. a lot of effort is needed to change the business system now. the previous methods are aimed at growth. now the situation has changed radically, and new, high-quality, low-budget forms of relations, other processes and technologies are required. a business needs to create a system that can survive now and provide a foundation for future growth. one should not wait for spring and quietly consider what will happen or think that the crisis will not affect much. indeed, quick, decisive and methodical actions that do not end only with budget investors is required. conclusions and suggestions. in times of crisis, look to the future. evaluate all the resources at your disposal: customers, suppliers, warehouse, goods, technology, equipment, personnel, etc. analyze market changes and make your own forecast about the development of the situation in your market, in the market of suppliers. for you. you need to determine what is special and what you need in the future. you need to get rid of everything you don't need, even if you once paid dearly for it. if the company does not have a source of investment, leave the minimum materials that are essential for survival and that customers need references 1. o‘tkirbek hoshimov hakimjon o‘g‘li (2023) logistika. xaridlogistikasi 7 (14), 27–33. https://arxiv.uz/uz/documents/referatlar/qishloq-va-o-rmon-xo-jaligi/xarid-logistikasi. 2. а.а. гайдаенко, о.в. гайдаенко. логистика: учебник 2-е изд.— м.: кнорус, 2009– 277 с. 2. неруш ю.м. логистика : учебник. 4-е изд. – м.: ооо «изд. проспект», 2006. – 520б. 3.гаджинский а.м. логистика: учебник. – 13-е изд., перераб. и доп. – м.: «дашков и к˚», 2006. – 432 с. 4.канке а.а.кашеваяи.п. логистика: учебник форуминфра— м.:2005. -350с. 3. албеков а.у. редко в.п. митко о.а. коммерческая логистика. ростов-на дону. феникс. 2007.-512с. 6.корсаков а.а.основы логистики учебное пособие /мгуеси.м.,2004.-72 7.qoriyeva yo.k. globallashuv jarayonida xalqaro transport logistik tizimi faoliyatining samaradorligi. – t.: tdiu, 2003. – 147b.a 71 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 development of a front plow for smooth furrowless plowing with corners kurbаnov sherzod baxtiyorovich karshi engineering economic institute, karshi, uzbekistan email: sherzod.020508@mail.ru abstract: the article provides a rationale for the parameters of the front plow angle gauge, which ensures high-quality implementation of the technological process according to agrotechnical requirements with the least energy consumption, as well as a design diagram of the front plow with angle gauges and a diagram for determining the longitudinal distance between the body and the angle gauge. theoretical and experimental studies have established that the longitudinal distance between the body plowshare and the angle cutter is at least 27 cm and between the disc blade and the angle cutter 16 cm ensures the required quality of tillage of the front plow in accordance with established agrotechnical requirements. keywords: soil, front plow, body, smooth plowing, cornercutter, disc coulter, triangular wedge. introduction in the world, one of the leading places is occupied by the development and use of energyresource-saving and high-performance machines for basic soil cultivation. if we consider that “on a global scale, arable areas amount to more than 1.8 billion hectares,” then the development of energy-resource-saving tillage machines and implements with high quality of work and efficiency is considered an important task. at the same time, much attention is paid to the development and use of plows that perform smooth plowing of fields without open furrows and fall ridges for sowing grain and secondary crops [1, 2]. existing plows for smooth, furrowless plowing have a number of disadvantages, including they do not provide complete rotation of layers within their own furrow and incorporation of weeds, and have high energy intensity [3]. this leads to soil cultivation with insufficient quality and reduced productivity [4]. based on the analysis of the research work carried out, an improved technology for the rotation of layers within its own furrow by 180 0 and a design diagram of a frontal plow with angle marks for its implementation have been developed [5]. the front plow consists of a frame 1 equipped with a hinged device, disc knives 2, angle marks 3 and 4, left and right turning bodies 5 and 6, a plow 7 and a support-leveling roller 8. one-sided angle marks are installed only along the line of the field edges of the outer bodies, and symmetrical angles along the axis of symmetry of opposite buildings (fig. 1). mailto:sherzod.020508@mail.ru 72 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1 – frame; 2 – disk knife; 3, 4 – angular symbols; 5, 6 – left and right turning housings; 7 – plunderer; 8 – skating rink fig 1. structural diagram of a front plow with angle marks the rational location for installing the angle gauge is taken to be behind the disk along its axis of symmetry (fig. 2). in this position, the front edge of the angle remover moves along the gap formed by the disk, which improves its working process [6]. to protect the toe of the bevel from wear and reduce its traction resistance, install the lower edge c of the bevel at the level of the lower point e of the unsharpened surface of the disc. then the longitudinal distance between the circular knife and the edge can be determined based on the exclusion of the front edge of the edge touching the disk blade ,]cos)( 22 1 [sin)( 1 1  ctgsr i ctgtrsrl д  (1) where r – is the radius of the circular knife, cm; s – gap between the blade of the circular knife and the front edge of the angle cutter, cm; α – angle of entry of the front face of the angle into the soil, degrees; tд – thickness of the circular knife, cm; і1 – sharpening angle of the circular knife, degrees. at r = 22.5 cm, s = 2 cm, α = 500, td = 0.5 cm and і1 – 25 0 , according to expression (1), the longitudinal distance from the axis of the circular knife to the toe of the angle grinder must be at least 16 cm. 73 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1 – disk blade; 2 – let’s figure it out fig.2. scheme for determining the longitudinal distance (l1) between the disk blade and the angle: the longitudinal distance between the angle gauge and the body (fig. 3) was determined based on the condition that the soil deformation zone treated by the body did not reach the structural elements of the angle gauge , sin sin )sin()sin 2 1 ( 1 1 1112    l lkb b ctgbаctgbl  (2) where bb – is the cutting width, m; γ – angle of angle, degree; ε1 – angle of installation of the ploughshare to the horizon, degree; 1l – angle of formation shearing in a plane in the direction of the resultant force on the ploughshare, degree; bl – working width of the body plowshare, m; a – depth of processing of the hull, m; γ1 – angle of installation of the ploughshare blade to the wall of the furrow, degree; bk – body working width, m;  – soil friction angle, degree. at а = 25 см, bb = 10 см, bk = 52,5 cм, γ = 32 0 , γ1 = 45 0 , φ = 25 0 , ε1 = 33 0 and bl = 12,2 см according to expression (2) the longitudinal distance between the angle and the body must be at least 27 cm. 74 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1 – angle; 2 – body; 3 – ploughshare fig.3. scheme for determining the longitudinal distance (l2) between the body and the angle: ased on the results of the studies, it was established that the required quality of soil cultivation with a front plow in accordance with established agrotechnical requirements with minimal energy consumption is ensured with longitudinal distances between the body plowshare and the angle cutter of at least 27 cm and between the disc blade and the angle cutter of 16 cm. references 1.ravshanov h, babajanov l, kuziev sh, rashidov n, kurbanov sh. plough hitch parameters for smooth tails// international scientific conference «construction mechanics, hydraulics and water resources engineering» conmechydro-2020. – tashkent, 2020. doi:10.1088/1757899x /883/1/012139. 2.kurbаnov sh.,temirov i.,khashimova yo.,berdimuratov p.,yuldoshev s.pulling resistance of the front plow cornercutter // e3s web of conferences 383, 04012 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202338304012. tt21c-2023 3.mamatov f., mirzaev b., berdimuratov p., turkmenov kh., muratov l., eshchanova g. the stability stroke of cotton seeder moulder// conmechydro – 2020. iop conf. series: materials science and engineering 883 (2020) 012145. doi:10.1088/1757-899x/883/1/012145. 4. mirzaev b, mamatov f, aldoshin n and amonov m. anti-erosion two-stage tillage by ripper proceeding of 7th international conference on trends in agricultural engineering 17th – 20th september (prague czech republic) – pp 391-396. 5. kurbаnov sh., temirov i., babajanov l. technological basis of rotation of body with polygon // e3s web of conferences 401, 04050 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202340104050 conmechydro – 2023 6. ravshanov h.a., mamatov f.m., kurbаnov sh. improvement of housing with knives crushers for non-tillage technology // e3s web of conferences 390, 01035 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202339001035 agritech-viii 2023 https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202338304012.tt21c-2023 https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202339001035 17 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 development of architecture and design direction the significance of colors in school classrooms saidyusupova maftuna farkhod qizi national institute of painting and design named after komoliddin bekhzod "design" department, teacher annotation: no one denies that school classrooms, their design and building project, designed for learning, play an important role in the effectiveness of the educational process. researchers conducted research on the impact of design environment in educational institutions and obtained the main results. key words: modern architecture, light and color in the interior, warm and cold colors, color effects. modern research on school architecture and space mainly focuses on the operational qualities of the space: natural daylight, air cleanliness, temperature and noise level. temperature, classroom heating and fresh air are the most essential elements of the environment, impact on individual learning. in the details, it is stated that as a result of the improvement of air quality, the attendance of children in classes has increased. in the classroom, the height of the ceiling decreased when the classroom was full of students. but in preschool educational institutions, it was observed that children with a lower ceiling had higher learning rates. a study of children's behavior on the furniture used in the classroom showed that the newly designed furniture gave a much better result in the children's performance. the arrangement of the desks in the classroom is a very important factor: the arrangement of the desks in a row is the most convenient for individual work and allows time to complete tasks more easily. students who do not learn well in lessons are affected by the wrong arrangement of desks, if the desks are arranged in a row, their learning will improve. for the effectiveness of group work in primary classes, they should be placed around a common table. unfortunately, in practice, the size of the group is determined not by general educational or pedagogical logic, but by the arrangement of classroom furniture. tables should be placed in a circular or semi-circular form for effective joint organizational work of students and for ease of interaction of students with each other and with the teacher, as well as for monitoring their movements. the problems of using computers at school are also shown. in particular, the issues of lighting and organizational individual workplaces were also considered. ergonomic furniture in computer rooms has a positive effect in the educational environment. these factors affect learning, collaboration and mastery. convenient and thoughtfully placed bookshelves in the classroom and at home will increase the time allocated to the student's tasks. from the point of view of architects, large areas for the display of children's work appear to be congested in the visual space. but it increases their http://www/ 18 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us involvement and allows to increase motivation in children. a comfortable school yard stimulates active movement in children's learning. thus, it is known that the architectural and design environment has a positive effect in every educational institution and gives effective results in students' learning and acceptance of lessons. in our country, the exterior and interior of educational institutions are important for attracting children and spending their free time effectively in non-school educational institutions. therefore, if attention is paid to the design environment in non-school educational institutions, the quota of the educational institution will increase and the educational efficiency will be improved. interior lighting design is a multi-level system of various lighting devices. at the same time, the tasks of this or that building solve the functional, aesthetic and emotional tasks, respectively. lighting design in general has an element of magic in all its rationality. light is such a strong and plastic "material" that it can be used to "make" objects of any shape. theater, cinema, photography all these art forms achieve amazing effects as a result of the magic of light. in accordance with the interior, the role of light, not just a living space, has grown to a surprising extent for the modern man. the design of the lighting system is one of the most important moments of the designer's work when creating a palette of different images in the interior. each ray has many characteristics, that is, different luster strength and brightness of that ray of light. it is possible to create different types of lighting equipment from them. the light has many characteristic luminous flux, brightness and luminous power. and lighting devices of various constructions "play" with them. artificial light has color. different colors depend on the nature of the light source. for example, heating bulbs will produce more yellow light and no additional blue or violet. therefore, it is more difficult to transmit blue and green rays in the interior through the lamp than with ordinary colored lights. light, like color, is divided into warm and cold types. these properties are determined by the color filter installed in the lighting equipment. also, the types of texture given to the surface of the wall, the light falling on the wallpaper softens it. in some lighting equipment, the system of its reflection aspects is also installed, developed. the surface of the convenient gold-colored lamp is copper or yellow anodized. artificial light source. the more natural the light in the room, the more harmless it is to a person's vision. three types of lamps are used in modern buildings: incandescent, halogen, and daylight lamps. no matter how great they are, they still cannot replace the sun, they are only similar to the sun. each "family" of lamps emits light in its own range at a specific location. there are two traditional systems of lighting: local and festive. earlier, candlesticks were first used for the first case, then table lamps and floor lamps, and chandeliers for the second case. as a result of the development, these two tasks can be performed by any lighting equipment, of course by some on-off switch or remote control. in recent years, the work on electric light has grown to the "starry sky". they are a light conductor, a projector and a light filter. all light-transmitting glass fibers have different thicknesses and transmittance properties. the light filter disc rotates slowly due to the heating of the equipment, and the "starry sky" formed on the ceiling changes its color and shines in a wavy manner. fibrous, mysterious rays appear in the air. as a result of the development, these two tasks can be performed by any lighting equipment, of course by some on-off switch or remote control. in recent years, the work on electric light has grown to the "starry sky". they are a light conductor, a projector and a light filter. all light-transmitting glass fibers have different thicknesses and transmittance properties. the light filter disc rotates slowly due to the heating of the equipment, and the "starry sky" formed on the ceiling changes its color and shines in a wavy manner. fibrous, mysterious rays appear in the air. as a result of the development, these two tasks can be performed by any lighting equipment, of course by some on-off switch or remote control. in recent years, the http://www/ 19 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us work on electric light has grown to the "starry sky". they are a light conductor, a projector and a light filter. all light-transmitting glass fibers have different thicknesses and transmittance characteristics. the light filter disc rotates slowly due to the heating of the equipment, and the "starry sky" formed on the ceiling changes its color and shines in a wavy manner. fibrous, mysterious rays appear in the air. has the property of conductivity. the light filter disc rotates slowly due to the heating of the equipment, and the "starry sky" formed on the ceiling changes its color and shines in a wavy manner. fibrous, mysterious rays appear in the air. has the property of conductivity. the light filter disk rotates slowly due to the heating of the equipment, and the "starry sky" formed on the ceiling changes its color and shines in a wavy manner. fibrous, mysterious rays appear in the air. types of light flux. interior design uses all the possibilities of light. first, it is a beam directed to a specific point. in this case, the light beam comes from a certain point and is at an average or lower level on the ceiling of the room (in a table lamp, etc.). the light emanating from one point will be directed and undirected depending on where and why the svetilnik (table lamp) is placed. for example, when developing table lamps, a designer needs to place them according to their place in the room, where and how they will emit light. secondly, it can be a spherical or wall-mounted lamp that emits light in a wide area. the third can be natural light. and natural light is the most harmless light. but natural light is also useful depending on where and how much. if you read a book in the excessive sunlight falling from the window, your eyes will hurt and water. if the warmest and yellowest light of the sun is far away, and you read a book only in its light, this light will not tire the eyes. it is for this reason that a shading system is being installed on currently produced lighthouses. the light stream from the lamp first hits the shading system, then shines on the ceiling of the room and around the room. light and color in space. the light will change the colors of the room. the effect of artificial light generated by electricity on "cold" and "warm" colors, there is a special table that determines the amount. it is known that the color of the walls, ceiling and floor of the room can change the size of the room as we perceive it. in interior design, electric lighting affects every color in the room. this light can completely change the color of the appearance of the equipment in the room. depending on how the light falls, one of the devices will appear to be away from you, and the other will appear to be close to you. dark colors make the room look small and the ceiling low. bright colors optically make the room wider and the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. it is known that the color of the walls, ceiling and floor of the room can change the size of the room as we perceive it. in interior design, electric lighting affects every color in the room. this light can completely change the color of the appearance of the equipment in the room. depending on how the light falls, one of the devices will appear to be away from you, and the other will appear to be close to you. dark colors make the room look small and the ceiling low. bright colors optically make the room wider and the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. it is known that the color of the walls, ceiling and floor of the room can change the size of the room as we perceive it. in interior design, electric lighting affects every color in the room. this light can completely change the color of the appearance of the equipment in the room. depending on how the light falls, one of the devices will appear to be away from you, and the other will appear to be close to you. dark colors make the room look small and the ceiling low. bright colors optically make the room wider and the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. how the ceiling and floor are painted can change the http://www/ 20 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us visual dimension of a room. in interior design, electric lighting affects every color in the room. this light can completely change the color of the appearance of the equipment in the room. depending on how the light falls, one of the devices will appear to be away from you, and the other will appear to be close to you. dark colors make the room look small and the ceiling low. bright colors optically make the room wider and the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. how the ceiling and floor are painted can change the visual dimension of a room. in interior design, electric lighting affects every color in the room. this light can completely change the color of the appearance of the equipment in the room. depending on how the light falls, one of the devices will appear to be away from you, and the other will appear to be close to you. dark colors make the room look small and the ceiling low. bright colors optically make the room wider and the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. this light can completely change the color of the appearance of the equipment in the room. depending on how the light falls, one of the devices will appear to be away from you, and the other will appear to be close to you. dark colors make the room look small and the ceiling low. bright colors optically make the room wider and the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. this light can completely change the color of the appearance of the equipment in the room. depending on how the light falls, one of the devices will appear to be away from you, and the other will appear to be close to you. dark colors make the room look small and the ceiling low. bright colors optically make the room wider and the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. optically makes the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. optically makes the ceiling higher. cold air colors give the impression of spaciousness. the wall and ceiling optically move away. warm reddish colors have the opposite effect. it seems as if the wall and the ceiling are approaching the viewer. yellow warm colors are less aggressive than red. dark colors narrow the room, and light colors make it appear wider. if the room is too long, in this case, the light beam is used again to show its size in the norm. in this case, the walls of the room are illuminated more, artificial width is created, and light is not given to the long side of the room. the participation of light in the building project means "magic lantern". that is, without this light, we cannot even imagine the "theater of shadows". this applies to both natural and artificial light. here the screen is a wall. the driving force is plants, statuettes, lights of various shapes. and the light is precisely directed as a rule. it moves out of the center and towards the screen. the aesthetic effect from the screen is great. shadows are reflected on the walls, and new ideas and meanings appear in the room. for example, a fire approaching a dark forest... colored lighting is also popular because it gives a new mood to the interior. in addition, colored lighting can improve a person's mood and make him feel good. it is known that different colors affect emotions and evoke different feelings, invigorate, give strength and give peace. researches of psychologists and designers and their analysis on the influence of colors on the psyche and mood of children color is important in our environment. color not only in the human space, but also creates a mood in the person himself and even affects his health. in the east, there are 300 different ways to treat a person with color. colors have a positive and negative effect on human mood and ability to work. http://www/ 21 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the fact that a person changes his favorite colors depends not only on his mood, but also on his age. red, purple, yellow, green, blue, sky blue, and ink are not the normal colors of the rainbow, but the primary colors of the sunlight spectrum. this wonderful seven was discovered by the english scientist isaac newton. in physics, it is said that colors are light scattering, waves of different lengths. rays of light have no color, it appears in the process of perceiving everything through the human eye. for humans, colors are an emotion, a way of communication in which people understand each other. it is not for nothing that the concept of "color communication" exists. with the help of colors, there are special diagnostics for determining the psychophysiological state of a person, stress tolerance, activity and communicative abilities. it was developed by the swiss psychologist max lüscher. in his test, a person is asked to arrange colors in a sequence based on his personal interests. each color has its own specifications. as a result of his several years of observations, lüscher knew the symbolism of colors that affect people and brought out the essence of 8 colors. each of the colors symbolizes a certain psychological necessity [28]. thus, according to the observations of max lüscher: blue is the knowledge of grief, sensitivity, sacrifice, self-sacrifice, emotional comfort, the need for deep affection. green determination, stability, criticality, yellow towards the future, striving for innovation, freedom. red is the beginning of creativity and leadership. activity. rejection of red color requires protection from excitatory factors. gray color the need for rest, free from obligations. purple color is a bright display of individualism, departure from reality, subjectivism. brown color panic, need for physical and psychological comfort. black objection, negativism in relation to external pressure. the need for freedom. designers have given the characteristics of each color based on their experience: yellow is the first color that catches the eye, even if it is used in trace amounts in the interior. soft shades of yellow give a mood of "sunny" cheerfulness. bright yellow colors are attractive and should be used in moderation when used as an accent. because if it increases, it will give excessive stimulation and tire the eyes. high visibility of yellow color allows clear and quick thinking. local yellow is warm, cheerful, memorable and attractive. some countries have a certain symbol of yellow. for example, death in syria, despair in brazil, power in china, cowards, scoundrels in mythology, the color of tragedy. and in america, it is a sign of prosperity. green is associated with nature. it calms and at the same time helps to concentrate. dark green is self-sufficiency, a sign of a person's high status. green color in the interior is soothing and relaxing. it is difficult to immerse yourself in work in a green room. local green is a sign of hope for americans, popularity for austrians, and death for egyptians. blue evokes a pure feeling, coolness and relaxation. soft shades of blue indicate an open and light air. dark blue is a symbol of wealth, power, respect, and confidence in a person. in the interior, the blue color always gives elegance and grandeur to the room. blue gloss in the interior of the room. purple is a noble, complex color. light soft shades of purple bring romantic thoughts. in the interior, dark purple color is used in small quantities. it gives a great effect when used as an accent. the whole wall cannot be painted with this color. the reason is known, it is very dark, such a colored wall looks like darkness. purple color looks very beautiful in small sizes: stones, accessories and decor. it is not recommended to use dark purple in children's rooms. because it can cause fatigue and aggression in children. red is attractive, evokes excitement and raises blood pressure. intense red stimulates, stimulates active movement, but if used excessively, it causes negative emotions and fatigue. because red is a symbol of power and energy, it is used in public places and hotels. children love this color and for them it is a color of activity, boldness and celebration. excessive red color in children's rooms causes insomnia. pumpkin color has names such as warm terracotta and peach color. like other intense colors, pumpkin color is exhausting and boring in the interior, but it is appropriate to use it in moderation in http://www/ 22 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the children's room. details and accessories in this color are very attractive. this color can be called an excellent mood color. it represents the most cheerful, open, harmony and emotion. it slightly accelerates the pulse, but does not increase blood pressure. appetite. gray color its bright colors are relaxing, even in some cases cool the mood, do not panic, cause self-doubt and anxiety. it is not recommended to use this color in the decoration of offices, it is not able to create a working atmosphere. black evokes feelings of fear. but it creates the impression of pride and wealth. black can visually make a large space look smaller. in the 16th century, queen anne of england decreed that wearing black dresses was a traditional sign of mourning. white represents purity, peace, fullness, lightness, mystery. one of the main characteristics of white color is that it does not express any emotion. often, a white base is considered colorless. in that universe, all paints lose their color. therefore, white represents silence in our psyche and evokes imagination. this silence is not an absence, on the contrary, it means full of opportunities. the black base, on the other hand, represents impossibility, helplessness. black is like a dead spot. like silence without a future. gray comes from the mixture of white and black. the child perceives the color clearly and without any exaggeration. it forms an attitude to color. there are also opinions that "children are fed with colors as if they were fed with real vitamins." adults tend to go for warm, pastel and duller colors tired from everyday work, while children tend to go for bright colors. when decorating the interior of children's educational buildings by choosing a gamut of colors, it is necessary to take into account that sensory development is the main factor in the gradual growth of children. this development of perception improves the functioning of the sense organs. in this, the presentation of the external properties of objects is formed (color, shape, size, taste, etc.). sensory development is important for preschool children. it helps to form the child's ideas about the world and shows his ability to education and creativity. not being able to correctly perceive colors, it is impossible to successfully perceive its shape, size, position. doctors recommend to equip the child's environment with bright colors from the time of infancy. it is necessary to have enough imagination for the mental development of the child. research shows that children distinguish red, yellow, green and blue colors well from the time they are 4 months old. it seems interesting to the child to watch, hold and learn these things. list of used literature: 1. панкратова а.в. дизайн интерьера как семиотическая структура. автореферат дисс. канд. филосовских наук// смоленск: 2007г. – 178с. 2. змановских э.в. художественные приемы и технологические средства в дизайне интерьера общественных зданий. автореферат дисс.на соискание ученой степени канд.технических наук// санкт-петербург: 2009 г. – 20с 3. калмыков д. методы проектирования в дизайне и разработка дизайнконцепций. 4. романова г.с. влияние цвета на человека. источник: промышленный дизайн 2008 / материалы доклада. донецк, доннту 2008, с.20. 5. ходжаев а., ташмухамедова о., носиров а. ихтисослаштирилган санъат мактабларида ижодкорлик муҳитини яратишга хизмат қиладиган интерьернинг концептуал асосларини излаш. “меъморчилик ва қурилиш муаммолари” илмийтехник журнали. самарқанд 2013. – №4. – б.53-55. http://www/ 23 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. ходжаев а., ташмухамедова о., носиров а. ранглар асрори. гулистон журнали. тошкент 2014. – №2. – б.10. 7. ташмухамедова о. мактабдан ташқари таълим муассасаларининг интерьер дизайни ва муҳит-дизайнида бадиий ечимнинг аҳамияти. “санъатёшлар нигоҳида” илмий – амалий тўплам. тошкент 2014. – б.97-100. 8. abdukarimov b. toshkent shahridagi ingliz tiliga ixtisoslashgan o’quv markaz interyerlarining kompozitsion yechimlari //матеріали конференцій мцнд. – 2021. 9. ravshanovna m. n. et al. types and normal rules of architecture of university school buildings //journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 6. – с. 51-54. 10. ravshanovna m. n., saidrasul-kizi k. o. history of the origin of comprehensive schools //central asian journal of arts and design. – 2023. – т. 4. – №. 6. – с. 5-9. 11. http://www.catsparella.com 12. http://psypress.ru 13. http://iqrate.com 14. http://arteluce.ru/svetovoj-dizajn-interera 15. http://www.oknabober.ru 16. http://ru.wikipedia.org http://www/ http://www.catsparella.com/ http://psypress.ru/ http://iqrate.com/ http://arteluce.ru/svetovoj-dizajn-interera http://www.oknabober.ru/ http://ru.wikipedia.org/ 180 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 calculation of composition and properties of dispersed materials based on basalt composition assist. tillayev m.a. assist. murtazayev b.a. student. abduraxmonov i.m. jizzakh polytechnic institute abstract: for the development of the production of fiber concrete and concrete products based on waste, requirements are set for the efficiency and quality of construction work. in order to successfully implement these, it is necessary to achieve a reduction in total energy expenditure in materials and constructions, development of production, reduction of construction cost and labor, weight of buildings and structures, repair and their construction and operation. key words: basalt stone, basalt fiber, basalt reinforcement, fiber concrete, cement, microsilica. the presence of a large amount of portlandite ca(on)2 in concrete during the hardening process can have a negative effect on basalt fibers. therefore, various active additives can be used to bind it: microsilica, metakaolin (thermally treated kaolin), ash slag. as a result of adding basalt fiber and active additives to concrete, its water absorption is also increased, so it is advisable to use special superplasticizers. the composition of the concrete mixture based on basalt fiber and microsilica is presented in table 1. table 1. composition of concrete compositions with basalt fiber and microsilica raw material name size content without additives (t-0) t-11 (micro) t-12 (micro) t-13 (micro) cement kg 0,500 0,470 0,460 0,450 sand kg 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 microsilica kg 0,30 0,40 0,50 % 6 8 10 superplasticizer kg 0,0015 0,0015 0,0015 0,0015 % 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 181 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for the preparation of samples, ohangaron portland cement was used as a dispersive additive construction sand with a particle size of no more than 2.5 mm. the composition of 3 types of composites with more than 100% addition of jizzakh basalt fibers as reinforcing fibers was calculated: 5 mm, 10 mm, and 15 mm basalt fiber samples. concrete, including an additional component, increases the resistance to shock loads or spreading to the uniform outflow of water. if the compressive strength of the tiles is 90% on a cold day and 70% on a hot day according to the compressive and bending strength of the concrete class, the product is allowed to be sold. 90% of the strength of this concrete composition is achieved after 10-11 days of hardening, and 70% of the design is achieved after 3-4 days. may vary slightly depending on curing conditions and cement quality. the main function of basalt fiber is to provide plastic properties and prevent cracking during compression. basalt concrete is used in various fields of modern construction projects. as a rule, the use of the material is economically effective with a relatively low increase in price when it is necessary to increase a number of properties. if a similar situation occurs, the composition of basalt concrete is very suitable. figure 1. appearance of samples. study of physical and mechanical parameters of concrete samples with basalt fibers 5 mm long. table 2 shows the 7-day compressive strength of samples with 5 mm basalt fiber added. table 2. 7-day compressive strength of samples with 5 mm added basalt fiber mechanical resistance of samples to compression sample test 1 test 2 test 3 average indicator control sample 185 kg/sm2 185 kg/sm2 190 kg/sm2 186 kg/sm2 basalt fiber 1% 195 kg/sm2 190 kg/sm2 188 kg/sm2 191 kg/sm2 182 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us basalt fiber 2% 200 kg/sm2 205 kg/sm2 195 kg/sm2 200 kg/sm2 basalt fiber 3% 195 kg/sm2 200 kg/sm2 190 kg/sm2 195 kg/sm2 figure 2. 7-day compressive change diagram of concrete samples with basalt fibers added 5 mm long. as it can be seen from our experiments, 2% and 3% of basalt fibers added to the cement mass of fibroconcrete with 5 mm long basalt fibers gave good results. as the optimal composition of basalt fiber-based fiber concrete, we selected fiber concrete with 2% shrinkage compared to 5 mm long cement mass. references 1. asatov n., tillayev m., raxmonov n. parameters of heat treatment increased concrete strength at its watertightness //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2019. – т. 97. – с. 02021. 2. баходир с., мирджалол т. развитие диаграммных методов в расчетах железобетонных конструкций //вопросы архитектуры и строительства. – 2020. – т. 2. – №. 4. – с. 145-148. 3. tillayev m. исследование прочных свойств легкого бетона с дисперсированными армированными волокнами //архив научных публикаций jspi. – 2020. – т. 1. – с. 74. 4. tillayev m. investigation of strength properties of lightweight concrete with dispersed reinforced fibers //available at ssrn 3850712. – 2021. 5. тиллаев м. дисперсное армирование цементных композиций с применением микроволластонитовых фибр //архив научных публикаций jspi. – 2020. 6. тиллаев м. шиша толалари билан дисперсли арматураланган енгил бетонларнинг мустаҳкамлик хоссаларини тадқиқотлаш //архив научных публикаций jspi. – 2020. 7. tillayev m., гулиев а. неоценима роль родителей в воспитании детей //архив научных публикаций jspi. – 2020. – т. 1. – с. 45. 8. тиллаев м. а., мирзаева и. т. асбест толали дисперс арматураланган бетонларни йўл қопламалари ва сув иншоoтларида қўллаш //science and education. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 3. – с. 139-145. 9. тиллаев м. а. шиша толалари ёрдамида дисперсланган майда донали бетон хоссалари //science and education. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 3. – с. 313-318. основной основной основной основной основной основной назорат намунаси базалт толаси 1% базалт толаси 2% базалт толаси 3% с и қ и л и ш д аг и м ус та хк ам л и к , кг /с м 2 183 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. тиллаев м. а. армирование цементных композиций с применением микроволластонитовых фибр //science and education. – 2021. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 240-249. 11. tillayev m., istamov y. майда донали бетонларни шиша толаларибилан дисперсли арматуралаш //journal of integrated education and research. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 1. – с. 297-301. 12. абдубанонович тм и соавт. определение физико-химического и минералогического состава образца вермикулита рудника тебинбулок // важное приложение: международный журнал новых исследований в области передовых наук. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 4. – с. 169-174. 13. тиллаев м., ортиккулов д. шиша толалари билан дисперсли арматураланган майда донадор бетонларни тадбиқ этиш //центральноазиатский журнал образования и инноваций. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 3. – с. 109113. 14. tillaev m., ortikulov d. problems of domestic synthetic foam development //центральноазиатский журнал образования и инноваций. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 3. – с. 105-108. 15. тиллаев м. экономические факторы, влияющие на деловой язык // доступно в ssrn 3856138. – 2021. 16. nurmamatouv n. r. et al. bazalt armatura ishlab chiqarishdagi chiqindi asosida fibrabeton tarkibini tanlash va xossalarini o’rganish //science and education. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 3. – с. 146-152. 17. nurmamatov n. r. et al. bazalt tolasi asosida fibrabeton optimal tarkibini tanlash va fizik mexanik xossalarini taxlili //science and education. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 3. – с. 153-160. 18. нурмаматов н. р. изучение процесса получения пенобетона на основе местного синтетического сырья //science and education. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 3. – с. 291-295. 124 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 prospective technology and combined aggregate for crop growing d. sh. chuyanov karshi engineering economics institute (uzbekistan) abstract: this article presents the results of studies on the basis of a promising technology for the cultivation of rice crops and the construction scheme of the combined unit that implements it. keywords: technology, field crops, planting, soil, tillage without tiller, technological process, combined machine, ditch opener, soil preparation period, frame, construction scheme. introduction. all the operations and processes performed in world agricultural production are developing directly depending on the supply of energy, and on the basis of this, along with land cultivation, creation of resource-efficient methods and technical tools used in their implementation, improvement of existing ones, and designed for fertilizing, forming irrigation ditches and planting seeds. scientific-research works aimed at developing their scientific and technical basis are being carried out. "on the world scale, the cultivated area of poliz crops is 3.5 mln. hectare" [1], one of the important tasks is the development of machines and devices that perform high-quality and efficient and energy-resource-efficient soil cultivation, fertilizing, irrigation ditch formation and planting in one pass. therefore, at present, the development of the technology of preparing the soil for the planting of cash crops in one pass of the aggregate, as well as the introduction of the combined machine that implements this technology, is an urgent scientific issue to protect the soil, reduce the consumption of energy and materials. materials and methods. based on the analysis of the literature and the results of the conducted research, a technology was developed for the preparation of the soil for the planting of cash crops and the minimal tillage of the soil during planting [2,3,4]. the proposed new method of soil cultivation and planting is protected by patents of uzr no. iap 05360, uzr no. fap 01125 and uzr no. fap 00656 [5-8]. theoretical mechanics, agricultural mechanics, laws and rules of mathematical statistics and the methods specified in the existing regulatory documents (tst 63.04.2001, tst 63.03.2001, rd uz 63.03-98) were used in the research process. results and discussion. in the development of this technology, the following were taken into account: fertilization, basic soil processing and its preparation for planting polys crops, and timing of sowing seeds; the need to prepare the soil for planting rice crops in a short period of time; availability of powerful tractors for aggregating the combined unit; the possibility of carrying out all processes simultaneously with the help of working bodies. the proposed promising technology is implemented as follows (fig. 1): the distance between adjacent planting zones is softened to a depth of 12-15 cm, then the surface part of the planting zone with a thickness of 8-10 cm, that is, the surface part of the winter wheat stalks and weeds, is 125 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us divided into two and cut is laid on the sides, after which the soil of the planting area is deeply softened, and at the same time, an irrigation ditch is formed and local fertilizer is applied. the soil on both sides of the seedbed, i.e., the irrigation ditch, is crushed, leveled, and compacted, and then the seed is planted. in order to implement the proposed technology, a combined machine was proposed that simultaneously cultivates the soil and prepares it for planting, applies fertilizer and plants poly crops [6-8]. figure 1. tillage and planting method: a – cross-sectional view of the field before tillage; b and v – cross-section profile of the field after the surface has been softened between the planting areas and the plows have been turned to the right and left; g and d cross-section profile of the field after deep softening between the planted rows, forming irrigation ditches with fertilizer; e – cross-sectional profile of the field after sowing combined machine frame 1, suspension device 2, disk blade 3, lister-type body with left and right overturning mounted on the axis of symmetry of the unit 4, softeners (flat) 5, deep softeners with tilting handle 7, fertilizer delivery device 8, softener-leveler roll 9, planting device 10 and support wheel 6 are included. the reel 9 and the planting device 10 are hingedly attached to the frame (fig. 2). the combined machine (fig. 2 and 3) is mainly used to prepare the fields freed from winter wheat for planting polys crops. the technological operation of the combined unit is carried out as follows: softeners installed in a row soften the field on the side of the planting area, i.e., the field between adjacent rows to a depth of 12-15 cm and cut the roots of weeds. after cutting to a depth of 10 cm, it is rolled over the softened field to the right and left, and then the planting area is deeply softened with the slope handle softeners, and at the same time, fertilizers are applied to a specific place along the line where the seeds are planted. the soil between the rows is softened and compacted with the help of the softener-leveler roller 9, and the seed is sown with the sowing machine. at the same time as overturning the plows, the soil is softened with deep looseners 7 and local fertilization is carried out in the area to be planted with sashniks. the planar roller 9, placed after the casings, crushes the lumps, compacts the soil, and forms a finely ground layer on its surface. 126 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. the structural scheme of the combined machine: 1 – frame; 2 – suspension device; 3 – disk-shaped knife; 4 a double case with a guide plate in the form of a lister; 5 – flat chisel; 6 – support wheel; 7 – deep softener; 8 – fertiliser; 9 – reel; 10 – planting device; 11 – guide plate; 12 slimmer when polys crops are planted in the place of winter wheat as a repeated crop, turning the surface part of the field in the planting area 8-10 cm deep on the right and left sides on the surface softened strip allows to clean the planting area from plant residues. the combination of tillage with and without tillage, as well as the formation of an irrigation ditch at the same time as deep loosening of the soil with belts, leads to a sharp reduction in energy consumption and prevents water and wind erosion. applying fertilizer to a specific place in two layers increases the efficiency of using mineral fertilizers and productivity. the use of the proposed technology ensures high-quality preparation of the soil for planting and planting of field crops in a short period of time, protects the soil from erosion and excessive compaction, reduces the cost of labor and money, and increases the yield of field crops. carrying out the above-mentioned operations in one go preserves the moisture of the fields where poliz is planted, saves material and energy resources in tilling the soil and preparing it for planting, that is, the minimum tillage is ensured due to the fact that the number of aggregates passes through the field is reduced by 3-4 times. 127 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. general view of the combined unit conclusion. in one pass of the unit for planting polys crops, it is intended to prepare the soil for planting and carry out the technological processes under the planting method: turning the surface part of the soil in the planting area to the right and left and forming an irrigation ditch at the same time with deep softening of its lower part, the left and right of the planting area shallow softening of the soil on the sides and application of fertilizers to a specific place, preparation of the soil for planting according to the planting row, and sowing of the seeds of field crops. the optimal scheme of the combined machine that implements this method consists of right and left overturning bodies (in the form of a lister body) located along the axis of aggregate symmetry, surface softeners, "paraplau" type deep softeners equipped with a ditch opener, fertilizing flaps and planting apparatus. reference 1. литвинов с.с., быковский ю.а. бахчеводство: стратегия и перспективы развития // картофель и овощи. – москва, 2013. -№4. 2. mamatov f.m., shodmonov g.d., chujanov d.sh., ergashev g.x. new technology and combined machine for preparing soil for sowing gourds. вена: european science review, 2018. – no.1-2. – рр. 234-236. 3. mamatov f., mirzaev b., chujanov d.sh., ravshanov h., shodmonov g., tavashov r., fayzullayev x. combined machine for preparing soil for cropping of melons and gourds // iop conf. series: earth and environmental science. № 403, 2019. 4. chuyanov d., shodmonov g.,ismailov i., ergashov g., sadikov a. traction resistance of the combined machine plough// conmechydro – 2021.e3s web of conferences 264, 04036 (2021). 5. chuyanov d., abduraxmonov u., shodmonov g. energy-saving technology and machinery for growing melons // novateur publication india’s international journal of innovations in engineering research and technology ijiert. – indiya,2020.– рр 368-374 128 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. патент № 1ар 05360. тупроққа ишлов бериш ва экиш усули/ маматов ф.м., мирзаев б.с., чуянов д.ш., шодмонов ғ.д., эргашев ғ.х., тоштемиров с.ж., буранова ш.у., қузиев н.м. // расмий ахборотнома. – 2017. – № 4. 7. патент руз № fap 01125. уйғунлашган тупроққа ишлов бериш қуроли / маматов ф.м., мирзаев б.с.,чуянов д.ш., шодмонов ғ.д., эргашев ғ.х., қодиров у.и., тоштемиров с.ж., буранова ш.у. // расмий ахборотнома. – 2016. – № 9. 8. патент № fар 00656. ағдаргичсиз тупроққа ишлов бериш қуролининг ишчи органи / маматов ф.м., мирзаев б.с., равшанов х.а., файзуллаев х.а., авазов и.ж., мардонов ш.х, темирова д.и., шодмонов г.д. // расмий ахборотнома. – 2011. – № 11. 68-74 theoretical study of the factors affecting raw materials in the 68 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 theoretical study of the factors affecting raw materials in the process of breaking cotton wool ubaidullaev madaminjan muminjanovich q.x.f.f.d.(рhd), fergana polytechnic institute м. m. холмуротов master of technology of cotton preprocessing and seed preparation abstract: in order to identify the factors that cause unevenness and to eliminate them to a certain extent, we study the process of direct undermining in a theoretical way. keywords: cotton, brass, bronze, corner speed, acceleration, force, time, mass, force, crystal, impact points. introduction we have already mentioned that in cotton ginning enterprises, seeded cotton is crushed and transferred to production mechanically using rp, rbx, rba brand crushers. during the process of crushing and transfer to the air transport pipeline, the crusher has to move back and forth. in this case, there is a need to continuously increase or decrease the length of the air pipe. therefore, a portable horizontal conveyor with a length of 4-7 m is installed parallel to the direction of the thresher, and the cotton is dropped onto this conveyor belt [9; 4-5 p.]. the mouth of the air pipe is placed on the cotton falling from the tape. as a result, the breaker does not need to change the length of the sliding pipe by such a distance [18; 2-6b]. 1 pneumotran in the picture. conclusion of muammon the ratio of the impact arc length l_z to the impact time t_z is equal to the difference of the initial and subsequent speeds of the pile. accordingly: 0,5(m!v!" − (m! +m# )v"" m!v! − (m! +m# )v" = v! − v" here are the following: m!(v!" − v"") − m# v"" = 2[m!(v! − v") − m#v"](v! − v") after several transformations, we get the following: 3v""(m! +m#) = 2v! ∙ v"(m! +m#) according to him: v" = % " v! ёки v" = % " ∙ 7,2 = 4,8 m/s on the other hand, we try to find the cotton mass mn that can be separated from one pile: the performance of the spoiler: 69 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us пғ = m# ∙ nч ∙ n( ∙ 10%, kg/s; usually, the work of the crusher is equal to 10-12 tons/hour. to find out how much cotton can be sent to production in one second, we will perform the following actions. пғ = (10 ÷ 12) ∙ 1000 3600 = (2,78 ÷ 3,33)кг сек ; end of belt rotations nч = 125 )*)+, -.# = !"/ 01 = 2,08 ! с ; when the number of cells = 8: m# = пғ nч ∙ n( ∙ 10% = 2,78 ÷ 3,33 2,08 ∙ 8 or it is equivalent to: m# = 0,167 − 0,2 kg if we want to determine the amount of cotton per square meter, then this value will be equal to the following: if we take the average value of 167÷200 g, then 184 g of cotton will correspond to each pile. 2,4𝑚! − 883,2 = 𝐹%∙𝑡% 15,795 ∙ 𝑚! − 1863 = 𝐹% ∙ 𝑙% according to newton's 2nd law fч = m! ∙ a = m! ∙ i v! − v" t k = m! ∙ 7,2 − 4,8 t = m! ∙ 2,4 t ; from this m! = fч ∙ tз 2,4 = 0,93 2,4 ∙ tз m! = 0,38 ∙ 10% ∙ tз according to the information given in the scientific literature, the time of impact of metal pegs with cotton is 0.0025÷0.003 seconds. fig. 1. changes in the impact force of the ball and the speed of the ball 70 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us according to him m! = 0,38 ∙ 10% ∙= 1,14 kg here: 1, 2, 3-string shear speed, m/s 4, 5, 6-string shear force, kn according to him m! = 0,38 ∙ 10% ∙= 1,14 kg here, m_1 is the mass of one pile of cotton. according to the legality of the change in the amount of movement: m! v! −m"v" = fзtз we assume that the impact force obeys hertz's law. he is alone fз = ∆ ∙ c according to the law of change of kinetic energy: 𝑚! ∙ 𝑣! −𝑚" ∙ 𝑣" = 𝐹з ∙ 𝑙з m! v!" 2 −m" v"" 2 = fз ∙ ∆ 1,14 ∙ 7,2 − 1,324 ∙ 4,8 = fз ∙ lз 1,14 ∙ 7,2" 2 − 1,324 ∙ 4,8" 2 = fз ∙ ∆з 1,84 = fзtз 14,1 = a = fзlз from: 14,1 1,84 = 𝐹з𝑙з 𝐹з𝑙з = 𝑙з 𝑡з as a result of mutual reduction of the corresponding values in the equation, we get the following: lз tз = 7,66 м сек ; from here we can find out how far the pile moves during the impact; lз = 7,66 ∙ tз = 7,66 ∙ 0,003 = 0,02 м = 20 мм so, it turned out that the deformation caused by one pile of chambarak in the cotton layer is equal to 20 mm. a stress or strain occurs on the surface where the impact force is applied. it is precisely these tensile forces that cause quality defects in cotton. 71 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 2. change in the cotton wicking process figure 2 shows how far the belt moves when it is woven into a layer of cotton at speeds v_1 = 5.25, v_2 = 7.2, v_3 = 9.2 m/sec. stress or strain, by definition, is the force exerted by this force g = 5з 6 , (10) the impact area is represented by the surface of the pile in contact with the cotton. figure 6 shows the dependence of the angle between the pile sector and diameters on the increase of the impact surface resulting from the impact. according to him, the increase in the diameter of the pile is sec figure 3. dependence of the length of the cotton-plunger on the radius r of the pile and the angle of the arc sector α 72 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1-table. the dependence of the pile on the cotton layer on the radius of the pile and the angle between the sectors № the dependence of the pile on the cotton layer on the radius of the pile and the angle between the sectors peg and cotton layers and area of influence, mm 0˂α˂90 4˂r˂10 l=nrα/180 h, мм s=l*l 1 15 5 1,3 10 13,08 2 30 6 3,1 10 31,40 3 45 7 5,5 10 54,95 4 60 8 8,4 14 117,23 5 75 9 11,8 16 188,40 the values given in table 1 are the values based on the laws of hers, change of momentum, and change of kinetic energy. figure 4. dependence of the length of the cotton-plunger on the radius r of the pile and the angle of the arc sector α figure 5. pile contact zone of cotton fig. 6. the increase of the impact area depends on the length of the working pile and the angle between the sector of the circle 73 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the pile and cotton layer in figure 6 is equal to the following: s = l7 ∙ l (11) if we set this to 10, g = 5" +#∙8 , (12) according to it, if the denominator, that is, the values of l_t and l increase, the voltage decreases. on the contrary, it increases. conclusion increasing the number of piles in the direction of rotation (=(10-12)0) and increasing the number of piles located in the warp area from 2 to 4 will increase the cotton's density to 37.2 kg/m3. references 1. ubaydullayev, m. m. (2022). yangi defoliantlar hosildorlik garovi. архив научных исследований, 2(1). 2. mo’minjonovich, u. m. (2022). effectiveness of defoliants. eurasian research bulletin, 8, 9-12. 3. mominjonovich, u. m., & ogli, m. i. v. (2022). study and analysis of technological processes of cotton drying in a cluster system. international journal of advance scientific research, 2(11), 6-10. 4. ubaydullaev, m. m., & ut, t. (2022). determination of appropriate norms and terms of defoliants. american journal of applied science and technology, 2(05), 18-22. 5. ubaydullaev, m. m., & makhmudova, g. o. (2022). medium fiber s-8290 and s-6775 cotton agrotechnics of sowing varieties. european international journal of multidisciplinary research and management studies, 2(05), 49-54. 6. ubaydullaev, m. m., & komilov, j. n. (2022). effect of defoliants for medium fiber cotton. international journal of advance scientific research, 2(05), 1-5. 7. ubaydullaev, m. m., & mahmutaliyev, i. v. (2022). effectiveness of foreign and local defoliants on the opening of cups. international journal of advance scientific research, 2(05), 6-12. 8. ubaydullaev, m. m., & sultonov, s. t. (2022). defoliation is an important measure. european international journal of multidisciplinary research and management studies, 2(05), 44-48. 9. ubaydullaev, m. m., & nishonov, i. a. (2022). the benefits of defoliation. eurasian journal of engineering and technology, 6, 102-105. 10. ubaydullayev madaminjon mo'minjon o'g'li, & ma'rufjonov abdurahmon mo'sinjon o'g'li. (2022). biological efficiency of foreign and local defoliants. "science and innovation" international scientific journal, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6569808 11. ubaydullayev, м. m. (2021). g ‘o ‘zada defoliatsiya o ‘tkazishning maqbul me'yor va muddatlari. monografiya.-corresponding standards and terms of defliation of cotton. monograph.-. соответствующие нормы и сроки дефолиации хлопка. монография. zenodo. 12. ubaydullaev, m. m. (2020). the importance of sowing and handling of c-8290 and c-6775 seeds in the conditions of the meadow soils of the fergana area. in international conference on multidisciplinary research (p. 11). 74 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 13. ubaydullayev, m. m., & ne’matova, f. j. (2021). the importance of planting and processing of medium-fiedl cotton varieties between cotton rows in fergana region. the american jurnal of agriculture and biomedical engineering. usa, 3(09). 14. тешаев, ф. ж., & убайдуллаев, м. м. (2020). определение эффективных норм новых дефолиантов в условиях лугово-солончаковых почв ферганской области при раскрытии коробочек 50-60% сортов хлопчатника с8290 и с6775. актуальные проблемы современной науки, (5), 62-64. 15. mo’minovich, u. m. (2021). the importance of planting and processing of medium-field cotton varieties between cotton rows in fergana region. the american journal of agriculture and biomedical engineering, 3(09), 26-29. 16. ubaydullayev, m. m., ne'matova, f. j., & marufjonov, a. (2021). determination of efficiency of defoliation in medium-fiber cotton varieties. galaxy international interdisciplinary research journal, 9(11), 95-98. 17. ubaydullaev, m. m. u., askarov, k. k., & mirzaikromov, m. a. u. (2021). effectiveness of new defoliants. theoretical & applied science учредители: теоретическая и прикладная наука,(12), 789-792. 18. a. umarov, i. mukhsinov. use of modern programs in the design system. study guide. namangan 2019., 1-352 p. 19. o.sh.sarimsakov, d.u.turg’unov, s.t.saminjon // determination of the strength of a module breaker circle in the solid works software. journal of computer science engineering and information technology 83 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 03, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 nature and experimental research conducted on the great fergana trunk canal ilhomjon ernazarovich makhmudov scientific research institute of irrigation and water problems t.f.d.p i.x.toxirov fergana polytechnic institute introduction in 2023, in-kind and experimental measurement-researches were carried out in order to study the efficiency of water resources, the processes and morphology of the channel bed of the great fergana main canal. in particular, in the section of the big fergana main channel from pk1949+00 to 2042+00, in 22 tributaries, along the cross section of the channel, studies were conducted to study the water consumption, speed, depth and bed morphology of each tributary using the sontek s5 acoustic doppler profilograph with gps device. . the working principle of the profilograph sontek s5 acoustic doppler device is as follows. figure 1. sontek s5 hardware and software complex. this state-of-the-art scientific apparatus consists of a sontek s5 adp m9 velocity measuring instrument with acoustic doppler and sontek river surveyor live software for instrument control, data collection and analysis (figure 1). the device floats along observation walls in dynamic mode and performs quick measurement of speed distribution along the cross section of the flow, flow direction and change of flow depth along the wall with an accuracy of 0.1-0.4 m, as well as automatic calculation of water consumption. 84 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the horizontal distance between the points measured along the cut line of the channel is 1-2 meters, depending on the speed of the device. the device's inertial system and high-precision gps receiver, magnetic compass, linear and angular acceleration sensor determine the spatial position and speed of water particles in the water environment. table 2.1 below shows the results of experimental measurements and studies of water consumption, speed, depth and bed morphology of each stream. table 2.1. the results of experimental measurements and studies on the study of water consumption, speed, depth and morphology of the channel in the walls wall number picket number live shear surface, (m2) average speed, (m/с) spend, (m3) maximum depth, (m) 1 1949+00 14,55 0,42 6,4 1,0 2 1954+00 14,0 0,41 6,35 1,02 3 1959+00 14,9 0,4 6,28 1,18 4 1964+00 14,3 0,4 6,21 1,03 5 1969+00 15,1 0,38 6,1 1,07 6 1974+00 17,0 0,35 6,0 1,28 7 1979+00 13,64 0,35 5,93 0,97 8 1984+00 15,08 0,36 5,8 0,91 9 1989+00 15,22 0,34 5,74 1,07 10 1994+00 15,22 0,33 5,65 1,07 11 1994+50 13,7 0,33 5,58 1,28 12 1995+50 14,71 0,31 5,63 1,27 13 1997+00 19,76 0,51 10,1 1,83 14 2002+00 16,13 0,58 9,41 1,31 15 2007+00 15,15 0,62 9,4 1,28 16 2012+00 18,34 0,44 8,04 1,26 17 2017+00 18,57 0,43 8,0 1,14 18 2022+00 7,86 0,16 1,36 0,77 19 2027+00 6,05 0,22 1,32 0,91 20 2032+00 6,92 0,18 1,3 0,61 21 2037+00 6,44 0,16 1,28 0,55 22 2042+00 5,64 0,15 1,26 0,55 below, we will describe in detail the experimental studies and their results. building 1. measurement studies were carried out along the cross-section of the channel at pk1949+00 using a sontek s5 doppler profilograph with a gps device (fig. 2.8). it was determined that the water consumption in the channel 1 is 6.4 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 14.55 m2, the average water speed is 0.42 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.0 m (fig. 2.9). 85 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. clips from measurement studies carried out in the 1 stvor section 1 cross-sectional surface and profile of the big fergana main channel pk 1949+00. the maximum depth from the water level is 1.0m, the maximum speed of water flow is 0.42m/s, water consumption is 6.4m3/s (taken from sontek s5 doppler profilograph) figure 2.9. the results of measurement-research in figure 1 building 2. it was determined that the water consumption in the channel 2 is 6.35 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 14.0 m2, the average water speed is 0.41 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.02 m (fig. 2.9). building 3. in channel 3, water consumption in the channel is 6.28 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 14.9 m2, the average water speed is 0.4 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.18 m (fig. 2.10). building 4. it was determined that the water consumption in the channel 4 is 6.21 m3/s, the cross-sectional surface (live shear surface) is 14.3 m2, the average water speed is 0.4 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.03 m (fig. 2.11). building 5. in the 5th channel, the water consumption in the channel is 6.1 m3/s, the crosssectional area (live shear surface) is 15.1 m2, the average water speed is 0.38 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.07 m. it was found that (fig. 2.12). building 6. it was determined that the water consumption in the channel 6, 6.0 m3/s, crosssectional surface (live shear surface) is 17.0 m2, average water speed is 0.35 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.28 m (fig. 2.13). 86 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2.12. measurement studies carried out in the 4th century figure 2.13. measurement studies carried out in the 5th century figure 2.14. measurement studies carried out in the 7th century building 7. in the 7th channel, the water consumption in the channel is 5.93 m3/s, the crosssectional area (live shear surface) is 13.64 m2, the average water speed is 0.35 m/s, and the maximum depth is 0.97 m. it was found to be (fig. 2.14). building 8. it was determined that the water consumption in the channel 8 is 5.8 m3/s, the crosssectional area (live shear surface) is 15.08 m2, the average water speed is 0.36 m/s, and the maximum depth is 0.91 m. building 9. it was determined that the water consumption in the channel 9 is 5.74 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 15.22 m2, the average water speed is 0.34 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.07 m. building 10. in the 10th channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 5.65 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 15.22 m2, the average water speed is 0.33 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.07 m. building 11. in figure 11, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 5.58 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 13.7 m2, the average water speed is 0.33 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.28 m. 87 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 12th building. in the 12th channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 5.63 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 14.71 m2, the average water speed is 0.31 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.27 m. building 13. in the 13th channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 10.1 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 19.76 m2, the average water speed is 0.51 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.83 m. building 14. in the 14th channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 9.41 m3/s, the cross-sectional surface (live shear surface) is 16.13 m2, the average water speed is 0.58 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.31 m. building 15. in channel 15, water consumption in the channel is 9.4 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 15.15 m2, the average water speed is 0.62 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.28 m. building 16. in the 16th channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 8.04 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 18.34 m2, the average water speed is 0.44 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.26 m. building 17. in the 17th channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 8.0 m3/s, the cross-sectional surface (live shear surface) is 18.57 m2, the average water speed is 0.43 m/s, and the maximum depth is 1.14 m. building 18. in the 18th channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 1.36 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 7.86 m2, the average water speed is 0.16 m/s, and the maximum depth is 0.77 m. building 19. in figure 19, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 1.32 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 6.05 m2, the average water speed is 0.22 m/s, and the maximum depth is 0.91 m. building 20. in the 20th channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 1.3 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 6.92 m2, the average water speed is 0.18 m/s, and the maximum depth is 0.61 m. building 21. in the 21st channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 1.28 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 6.44 m2, the average water speed is 0.16 m/s, and the maximum depth is 0.55 m. building 22. in the 22nd channel, it was determined that the water consumption in the channel is 1.26 m3/s, the cross-sectional area (live shear surface) is 5.64 m2, the average water speed is 0.15 m/s, and the maximum depth is 0.55 m. conclusion: the results of the research made it possible to obtain the necessary information about the main hydraulic parameters of the greater fergana canal and to make practical conclusions about the effects of processes in the basin of 22 dams in the section of the greater fergana main canal from pk1949+00 to 2024+00. by keeping the flow parameters constant over time in laboratory conditions, it is possible to study the spatial uneven distribution of the velocity field in the flow. but there is no possibility to ensure such stationarity in field conditions. nevertheless, according to the results of the experiment conducted with the help of a modern profilograph, the water level has changed significantly: in the section of the big fergana main canal from pk1949+00 to 2024+00 in 22 stvers (december 2023), this indicator is a maximum of 128 cm (29%) reached it should be noted that the values of the water level at the measurement sites differ sharply. this difference can be explained by the corresponding change of channel width in certain walls. 88 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. махмудов и.э. повышение эффективности управления и использования водных ресурсов в среднем течении бассейна р. сырдарья (чирчик-ахангаран-келесский ирригационный район) //республика илмий-техник анжумани, 1-2 май, 2015 й. тошкент. 2. садиев у.а. повышение гидравлической эффективности и эксплуатационной надежности крупных каналов// гидротехника, россия, 2016. №2, с 60-61. (05.00.00; №33). 3. садиев у.а. управление и моделирование магистральных каналах при изменяющихся значениях гидравлических параметров водного потока// мелиорация и водное хозяйство, россия, 2016. №6, с 10-12. (05.00.00; №51) 4. э.казаков, о.ғ.ғуломов, у.а.садиев. катта наманган канали сув оқими ҳаракатининг тезликлар майдонини экспериментал тадқиқ қилиш.инновацион технологиялар/innovative technologies 2020 №3 25-28. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 178 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us usage of computer technologies in teaching engineering and computer graphics a.s. arziev supervisor: associate professor d.p. tursunbaeva 3rd-year student karakalpak state university abstract: this article presents recommendations for organizing the educational process based on advanced pedagogical approaches and modern computer technologies, as well as methods to achieve high qualifications in education. keywords: computerization, information technologies, technical means, educational tools, computer graphics. in our country, the process of technical and technological modernization depends on the technical literacy of the personnel. this article provides algorithms and methods for solving problems of adapting educational programs to modern educational standards through a revision of the theoretical and practical foundations of the subjects "engineering and computer graphics" in the education of students in construction and professional-technical fields. radical reforms are also being carried out in the education system, aimed at achieving a common goal the formation of a broad-thinking, creative, and competitive specialist, a successful individual. nowadays, computers and information technologies have become the most effective tool in all areas of human activity. there is much talk about information and communication technologies (ict) these days. in all areas of education, ict offer wide opportunities to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and upbringing. the globalization of information exchange, along with the rapid increase in the quantity and quality of scientific innovations in the fields of science, technology, and production, raises the urgent task of promptly and thoroughly informing students about them. meeting this need positively will primarily be achieved through the educational process, which serves as a convenient and acceptable way to acquire scientific-theoretical and practical knowledge. in the era of global globalization and rapidly developing society, information technologies become the key to enhancing the productivity of humanity involved in processes of information exchange, education, and production. the computerization of education is primarily aimed at efficiently selecting the necessary information for learning, adapting it to the learning format, providing this information to students to improve the learning process and knowledge acquisition, as well as enhancing professional training and the quality of specialists. the use of information technologies in the educational process aims to adapt to global standards of information technologies, capable of meeting the challenges of the global community in improving the quality of education and the training of specialists. based on research in the development of technology in the educational sphere, it can be concluded that the necessity of effectively integrating computer technologies into the educational system is justified by the following aspects: american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 179 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us firstly, the unlimited technical capabilities of the computer in interaction with long-established technical teaching tools and educational materials in education; secondly, considering the role of information technologies in the development of technical progress, the issue of training personnel with modern knowledge in the field of information technologies is being brought to the forefront. according to leading researchers, computer technology in educational tools, methods, forms, and content contributes to: identifying and developing students' individual abilities corresponding to their personal qualities; fostering students' ability to learn and strive for excellence; constantly updating methods, forms, and content of education and upbringing. the development of students' intellectual activity is closely related to educational tools. however, the quality of educational activities is determined not by the quantity and variety of technical teaching tools and information technologies, but rather by students' ability to clearly choose and use educational materials in accordance with the specific lesson objectives and the understanding of the teacher. successful use of teaching tools involves providing the necessary educational materials for effective use of teaching methods. educational tools include equipment, laboratory equipment, information and technical tools, handouts, visual aids, symbols, video and audio materials, computers, and projectors. the modern computer has entered the educational process as a didactic teaching tool. its broad capabilities and ease of use distinguish it from other tools. the activities of a teacher in organizing the educational process using computer technologies include: 1. motivating and stimulating students' activity; 2. managing the interaction between the knowledge enriched through computer technologies and students; 3. problem-solving and conducting discussions; 4. providing assistance to students in situations where computer technologies cannot help; 5. analyzing and drawing conclusions during task completion. many pedagogues and researchers believe that an educational environment using computers can lead to several challenges: difficulties for students in trying to visualize a large volume of interconnected data on a small computer screen; the risk of simply transmitting information to students through computer technologies; excessive algorithmization of thinking processes and reinforcement of logical thinking; reduced social interaction due to students being distanced from each other and reduced interpersonal communication; excessive engagement with computer work by students may lead them astray from the main educational goal; the potential for the emergence of social stratification (not all students have personal computers). computer graphics is one of the rapidly developing new information technologies and defines the content of the modern automated design system. the modern automated design system is an electronic system that cannot operate without computer technology, thanks to the wide range of american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 06, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 180 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us database utilization and efficient methods of geometric object modeling. the use of information technologies is not new, but it has become an integral part of modern engineering education, as teaching engineering disciplines nowadays is inherently linked to the necessity of using new information technologies in response to existing socio-economic needs. therefore, the development of students' knowledge and skills in the field of computer graphics and the achievement of educational goals have become one of the relevant issues of today. based on the above ideas, computer graphics can be used in teaching technical drawing in two ways: 1. after students have acquired specific graphical knowledge and skills, they can start learning computer graphics, which can significantly simplify their understanding of computer graphics elements. effective use of computer graphics requires the organization of special study time or independent study sessions and the completion of graphic tasks using computer graphics. 2. introducing all elements of computer graphics from the beginning of the academic year and simultaneously studying the entire subject using computer graphics is a new approach that allows students to engage more actively with the computer and delve deeper into the fundamentals of drawing. however, there is a risk that students may become engrossed in computer work, and drawing (both on paper and in software) as the main focus of their activity may take a back seat. additionally, for successful utilization of the entire subject through computer graphics, it is essential for the instructor to be a specialist in the field of computer graphics. literature: 1. rahmonov i. tests on technical drawing course and computer graphics. tashkent: uqituvchi, 1996. [1] 2. rikhsiboyev t. computer graphics. tashkent: 2006. [2] 3. ruziev e.i. scientific and methodological foundations of training graphics teachers in higher education institutions: pedagogical sciences dissertation. tashkent: 2005. [3] 4. taylakov n.i. the content and teaching methods of "computer graphics" course in general education schools. // physics, mathematics, and informatics. tashkent, 2004. no. 1. [4] 5. mullahmetov r., nizomov sh. materials of the republic scientific-practical conference. tashkent, 2015. [5] 1journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 key usage trendspicoand micro hydroturbines kiryigitov bakhridin abdusattarovich andijan branch of kokand university absract: this work is devoted to the analysis of the capabilities of small units of hydraulic turbines for operation in conditions of the presence of water flows with low flow velocities and low slope angles of the terrain, and also provides information regarding developments on this topic in europe. the designs and possibilities of new developments for pico and microhydraulic turbines are considered. keywords: submersible hydraulic turbine, hydraulic potential, flow speed, kinetic energy, water pressure, hydraulic turbine efficiency. today, the problem of providing electricity to consumers (industrial sector, population) is becoming the most important economic component of the problem of regional development. one of the ways to solve it is to use the capabilities of renewable energy sources. the bulk of water sources are considered suitable for peak hydroelectric and micro hydroelectric power plants. it is believed that the energy sources for hydropower are fast-flowing water streams. in this area, there are many works devoted to highlighting the possibilities of hydropower in mountainous areas in central asia (meaning the republic of kyrgyzstan and tajikistan). these countries have greater hydraulic potential compared to other countries in the region. the number of works covering the state of this profile relative to the european continent and in german is very rare . these works have received little attention from our researchers. the source of energy obtained using peak oandmicro hydro turbines are considered to be the kinetic energy of the water flow and the pressure on the blades rotating under the influence of the water flow. this type of water sources makes up the bulk (up to 80-90% of the total) among water sources. the purpose of this work is to study information about new developments and projects in the field of using peak and micro hydro turbines in european countries. the possibilities of using hydropower (meaning peak and micro hydropower devices) have been studied in [1-3] . particular attention was paid in the work [3], where it was proposed to install hydropower devices in the places indicated similarly in the works [4-7]. the only difference is that the water source in [3] has a higher slope relative to the source given in [4-7], and the throughput is almost equal (respectively 7 –8m 3 /s and 4 – 6m 3 /s). the main emphasis is on studying the practical use in practice of the capabilities of peak and micro hydro turbines to provide electricity to consumers. on the other hand, this area of hydropower is now becoming relevant. it is possible to obtain electricity using flows with low water flow rates (1-1.5 m/s), i.e. water sources with indicators of 4-7 m 3 / s and a terrain slope of 5-10 degrees. such work is being carried out in europe with submersible hydraulic turbines. thus, in sweden, the sunnutek 2journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us company created a submersible hydraulic turbine with various modifications (fig. 1). it is protected from snags, branches and other large elements found in currents and water. the power varies from 1 kw to 12 kw and the weight of the equipment corresponds to the indicated power (table 1). fig.1. submersible hydraulic turbine. table no. 1. parameters of submersible hydraulic turbines power, kwt) number of networks maximum power (mains) output per day (kw) weight, kg ) one floating buoy 1 1 1 14.4 62 2 1 2 14.4/28.8 64/116 3 1 3 14.4 68 3 2 3 28.8/43.2 120/173 two floating buoys 5 2 5 28.8 123 5 4 5 57.6 226 5 6 5 86.4 333 8 4 8 57.6 233 8 7/10 8 100.8/144 391/548 12 5 12 72 297 support platform 12 8 12 115.2 454 12 12 12 172.8 664 12 15 12 216 822 this configuration makes it possible to provide remotely located consumers with electricity [4]. with their help, it is possible to create a network of hydraulic turbines of this type to provide electricity to an individual consumer (industrial facility or populated area), which will be provided with uninterrupted electricity. the main trend is the networking of hydropower devices. the disadvantages of this design of hydraulic turbines include the following:  too massive design  expensive maintenance costs. 3journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.2. general view of a pico turbine on a pontoon base. this design allows you to work with water sources with low water flow speed. its disadvantages are low efficiency, lack of protection from various floating interference, limited power of the hydraulic turbine, and dependence on the presence of whirlpools [5]. fig.3. general view of a submersible hydraulic turbine with general guide nozzle [8] it allows you to work with water currents with low speeds of water flow, collected through a nozzle and directed to a hydraulic turbine. the structure is supported by the current using tension cables. some improvements are applied here: the catchment area directed to the submersible hydraulic turbine has been increased and the hydraulic turbine can operate even in winter. disadvantages: lack of protection from interference and fish, requires a stable level of water flow, without whirlpools, or installation on a specially created platform. research in this direction was carried out in the uk in 2021. prototypes of hydraulic turbines were placed in the river thames. they had a power of 25 kw. the thames has strong tidal and slightly weak ebb currents with a length of 2-3 hours, which passed with maximum pressure in the middle of the river bed. at this moment, the efficiency was about 95%, and during the rest of the day it was 40-45% relative to the rated power value . the consumer used coastal cafes, i.e. power supply was directed to their work. the hydraulic turbines could rotate on an axis and the total weight of the entire structure of the submersible micro hydroelectric power station ranged from 4-5 tons. maintenance was only possible using a pontoon installation. submersible hydraulic turbines with an additional surface for collecting and directing water flow and without these elements operate under the following general conditions:  the presence of a directed water flow with a constant flow rate,  absence of floating obstacles for the hydraulic turbine (tree branches, snags, debris). in conclusion, we note that the development of the hydropower sector in the field of picoand micro-hydropower to improve the provision and create a new power supply network remote from 4journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the central power supply line will provide an opportunity to obtain economic profit and create good conditions for the population. conclusions:  create a uniform network of peak and micro hydro turbines to cover the costs of creating this network,  to interest representatives of small and medium-sized businesses in the use of hydraulic turbines of this type to provide electricity. references 1. bozarov o., shakirov b., kiryigitov b. prospects for the use of hydropower (using the example of microand mini-hydroelectric power plants) / fan, jamiyat va innovasiyalar. 2023. volume 1. issue 1. june. 50-58-betlar. (russian) 2. kiryigitov b., saidullaeva s. combined use of pico hydroelectric power station and solar energy / “qurilishda innovasion texnologiyalar” xalqaro ilmiy-texnik anjuman. tashkent, 172-174-betlar.(russian) 3. kiryigitov b. andijontumanidasuvmanbalar hydropower potential takhlili // “current problems of modern physics” materials of the international scientific and scientific-technical conference. bukhara. 2022. november 25-25. 4. https://sunnytek.se/sunnytek-web-site-in-englis/hydro-power-systems-and/venturiturbines.pdf 5. https://reset.org/erneuerbare-energien-in-europa-mithilfe-eines-geogra-fischeninformationssystems-staerken/ 6. https: // de. futuroprossimo. it /2023/09/ mowtinnovativoidroelettricogalleggianteper acquea flussolento / 7. energyminergrundlastfä higesauberenergy 8. https://www.schwaebische.de/regional/bodensee/kressbronn/neue-wasserkraftwerke-werdenim-bodensee-getestet-1415299 85-88 zamonaviy grafik dasturlar ta’lim tizimini takomillashtirish 85 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 zamonaviy grafik dasturlar ta’lim tizimini takomillashtirish omili sifatida jahongir avloqulovich qosimov “toshkent irrigatsiya va qishloq xo’jaligini mexanizatisyalash muhandislari instituti” milliy tadqiqot universiteti kafedra mudiri urishev adhamjon ergashaliyevich “toshkent irrigatsiya va qishloq xo’jaligini mexanizatisyalash muhandislari instituti” milliy tadqiqot universiteti katta o‘qituchisi ikramova madina sunatilla qizi “toshkent irrigatsiya va qishloq xo’jaligini mexanizatisyalash muhandislari instituti” milliy tadqiqot universiteti o‘qituchisi annotatsiya: maqolada grafik darsturlar orqali ta’lim tizimida xususan texnika oliy ta’lim muassalarida muhandislik fanlarida grafik dasturlar roli ular orqali bugungi kun talabi bo’lgan build art texnologiylar bilan bog’liq masalalar o’z yechimini oson va qulay erishilganligini ko’rishimiz mumkun bo‘ladi. predmetlarning fazoviy xossalarini va vazifalarini tahlil qilish ko‘nikma, malakalari talabalarni grafik tayyorgarligining muhim tarkibiy qismidir. grafik ta’lim sohasida talabalarning fazoviy tasavvurini rivojlantirish, fazoviy obrazlarni hayolan tahlil qilish, talabalarning aqliy va bilish faoliyatini faollashtirish, fazoviy tafakkurini, tasavurini rivojlantirish, fazoviy hodisalarni, shakllarni hayolan kuzatish, qabul qilish hamda barcha garfik bilim va malakalarni o‘zlashtirish, xotirada saqlab qolish kabi ijodiy fazilatlarni tarkib topdirishga salmoqli ulush qo‘shib kelmoqda. kalit so’zlar: grafik dasturlar, ta’lim, suv saqlash inshootlari, 3d model. kirish. predmetlarning fazoviy xossalarini va vazifalarini tahlil qilish ko‘nikma, malakalari talabalarnigrafik tayyorgarligining muhim tarkibiy qismidir. grafik ta’lim sohasida bolalarning fazoviy tasavvurini rivojlantirish, fazoviy obrazlarni hayolan tahlil qilish, bo‘laklarga ajratish, sirtlar va shakllarni ularning ongiga singdirish kabi mavzular bo‘yicha bir qator psixolog olimlar: b.f.lomov, b.g.ananev, m.d.aleksandrova, y.n.kobanova-meller, k.i.veresoskaya, v.a.klimenko, n.n.anisimov va boshqalar tomonidan yig‘ilgan ish tajribalar o‘quvchilarning aqliy va bilish faoliyatini faollashtirish, fazoviy tafakkurini, tasavurini rivojlantirish, fazoviy hodisalarni, shakllarni hayolan kuzatish, qabul qilish hamda barcha garfik bilim va malakalarni o‘zlashtirish, xotirada saqlab qolish kabi ijodiy fazilatlarni tarkib topdirishga salmoqli ulush qo‘shib kelmoqda. ko‘rib chiqilayotgan muammoning hozirgi holati. respublikamiz mustaqillikka erishgandan so‘ng, ta’lim mazmunini yangilash, tubdan isloh qilish maqsadida "ta’lim to‘g‘risida"gi qonun [3], ‘‘kadrlar tayyorlash milliy dasturi’’ qabul qilinib [1], uni amaliyotga joriy qilishga kirishildi. bunga javoban boshqa fanlar qatori grafik ta’lim sohasida ham ibratli ishlar amalga 86 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us oshirilmoqda. jumladan, umumta’lim maktablarining chizmachilik dasturi va darsliklari qaytadan tahlildan o‘tkazilib, ularning yangi avlodi yaratilmoqda. lekin, shunga qaramay grafik ta’lim sohasida yana bir qator muammolar bor-ki, ularning bartaraf qilish maqsadida hanuzgacha ilmiy izlanishlar, tadqiqotlar yetarli darajada emas. masalan, bularning eng muhimlaridan biri o‘quchilarni grafik savodxonlikka o‘rgatishda nazariy bilimlar saviyasini oshirish muammosi bo‘lib, keyingi chorak asr davomida mazkur mavzu yuzasidan hech qanday tadqiqot ishlari o‘tkazilmagan. agar biz bundan o‘ttiz yillar oldin o‘tkazilgan tadqiqot ishlarini tahlil qilib ko‘rsak, l.m.gosudarskiyning, grafik ta’lim bo‘yicha o‘quvchilarning nazariy bilimlar saviyasini oshirishga alohida e’tibor bergan. mazkur mavzu yuzasidan ilmiy tadqiqot olib borgan. uning ta’kidlashicha-"o‘quvchilar grafik bilimlarni to‘la o‘zlashtirishlari uchun birinchi navbatda ular, chizmachilikning nazariy asoslari bo‘lgan proeksion chizmachilikni chuqur o‘zlashtirishlari zarur [8]. ishlab chiqarish sohasida to‘g‘ri burchakli proeksiyalar tizimidagi chizmalar ko‘proq qo‘llanadi. shuning uchun ham o‘quvchilarga ana shunday chizmalarni o‘qish va bajarishni chuqur o‘rgatilishi nihoyatda zarurdir. aksonometrik proeksiyalar qurish qoidalariga va ularning bajarish usullariga, kompleks chizmalarni o‘qishga yordamlashuvchi metodlar sifatida qaralmog‘i lozim. o‘quvchilar proeksion chizmachilikdan olgan bilimlaridan butun chizmachilik kursini o‘rganishi davomida muntazam tizimli ravishda foydalanib boradilar." haqiqatdan ham l.m.gosudarskiy grafik savodxonlikning asosi sifatida proeksion chizmachilik bo‘limini to‘g‘ri ko‘rsatgan edi. chunki, mazkur bo‘lim chizmachilik kursini nazariy asosini tashkil etadi. lekin, u o‘sha davr talabidan kelib chiqib, chizma teometriyaning ayrim elementlaridan foydalanishni tavsiya eta oldi. bu albatta, bugungi kun talablarini, ko‘zlangan maqsadlarni bera olmaydi. negaki, bugungi kunimizda grafik ta’lim o‘qituvchilardan, proeksion chizmachilik mavzulari orqali o‘quvchilarning fazoviy tafakkurini rivojlantirish, ixtirochilik va ijodiy faoliyatini faollashtirishni talab qilmoqda [11]. sobiq sovet tizimi davrida umumta’lim maktablarning grafik ta’lim sohasini rivojlantirishda professor a.d.botvinnikovdan ko‘proq ijobiy ish olib borgan tadqiqotchini ko‘rsatish qiyin. masalaning quyilishi. demak, komyuterda modellashtirish yordamida tajriba qilmasdan avval ma’lum bir tizimlar uchun eng qulay modelni tuzib chiqish va sinab olish tajriba uchun ketadigan xarajatlarni sezilarli darajada kamaytiradi. modellar yordamida tajriba uchun sarflanadigan xarajatlarni tejash o‘z navbatida katta iqtisodiy samaradorlikka ham olib keladi [1]. 3d modellash nima? 3d modellashtirish bu – biron bir chizilgan rasm yoki chizma asosida3 o‘lchamli loyihani yaratishdir. obyektlarning 3d modelini yaratish uchun maxsus pragramalar qurilmalardan foydalaniladi [9], misol uchun planshetlar, kompyuterlar kabilardir. madellashtirish jarayonida render qilish muhum etaplardan biridir. zamonaviy 3 tomonlamali muhandislik kompyuter grafikasi biron bir obyekning yoki insoning modelini maksimal darajada haqiqiy ko‘rinishini, haqiqiy insondan yoki obyektdan ajratish qiyin bo‘ladigan 3d model yaratilishini imkonini beradi. prafissional darajada modellashtirilgan maxsulotni bemalol klientlarga, investrlarga yoki hamkorlarga prezintasiya qilish mumkin. 3d modellash dasturi uch o‘lchamli raqamli effektlarni ishlab chiqaradi [9]. bu dunyodagi jonzotlar va tuzilmalar bilan to‘ldirilgan kino, animasiya va video o‘yinlarda 3d modellash natijalarini ko‘rdingiz. 3d modellash simulyasiya qilingan 3d makonda ko‘pburchaklarni, qirralarni va vertikalarni boshqarish orqali har qanday sirt yoki ob’ektning 3d ko‘rinishini yaratish jarayonidir. 3d modellashni maxsus 3d ishlab chiqarish dasturi bilan qo‘lda qo‘lga kiritish mumkin, bu esa rassomning polygonal sirtlarni yaratishi va deformasiyalashiga yoki real ob’ektni ob’ektlarni raqamli shaklda ifodalash uchun ishlatilishi mumkin bo‘lgan ma’lumotlar majmui to‘plamiga skanirovkalashga imkon beradi. 3d modellash dasturi. 3d modellash dasturi sizga belgi yoki ob’ektlarning asosiy 3d modellarini yaratishga imkon beradi. to‘liq moslashtirilgan dasturlarda siz o‘zingizning dizaynerlaringizni aniq tafsilotlar bilan to‘ldirish uchun zarur bo‘lgan vositalarni taqdim etasiz [9]. bozorda ko‘plab 3d modellash dasturlari mavjud. eng yuqori reyting bahosi orasida bu erda ko‘rsatilgan: autocad ommabop bo‘lishidan avval 3d-ni ishlaydi. ushbu 87 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us professional savdo dastur 1982 yildan buyon atrofida bo‘lib, ko‘pgina dizaynerlar tomonidan oltin standart hisoblanadi. windows va mac operasion tizimlarida mavjud. jarayon masterga ko‘p vaqt talab etadi, shuning uchun 3d dizayndagi yangi boshlanuvchilar uchun tavsiya etilmaydi. xuddi shu ishlab chiquvchilar sculptris ni ishlab chiqaradilar, ammo 3d dizaynerlarni avval sinab ko‘rishlari mumkin bo‘lgan o‘xshash, ammo oddiy, bepul 3d modellash dasturi. autodesk-dan 3ds max video o‘yinni ishlab chiquvchilari va ingl. effektli rassomlar bilan mashhur. dastur animasiya va muhandislik bilan shug‘ullanishi mumkin bo‘lsada, u xususiyatlar master uchun keng miqyosli treningni talab qiladi. 3ds maks windows bilan ishlaydi. sketchup 3d modellashda tajribaga ega bo‘lgan dizaynerlar uchun 3d dastur. sketchup me’moriy tuzilmalar bo‘yicha ixtisoslashgan va tez-tez me’morchilik, ichki dizayn, shaharsozlik, muhandislik va qurilishni ko‘zdan kechirish uchun ishlatiladi. windows va macos operasion tizimlarida mavjud. blender animasiya filmlari, ingl. effektlar, san’at, interfaol ilovalar va video o‘yinlarni yaratish uchun mos keladigan ochiq manba kodli 3d modellash dasturidir. windows, mac va linux operasion tizimlarida ishlaydi. 3d modellashtirish qayerlarda ishlatilishi misollar tariqasida keltirib o‘tamiz: 3d modellash muhandislik, arxitektura, o‘yin-kulgi, kino, maxsus effektlar, o‘yinlarni ishlab chiqish va tijorat reklama kabi ko‘plab sohalarda qo‘llaniladi. 3d texnologiyasining ommabop namunasi bu asosiy filmlarda foydalanish. faqat "avatar" filmidagi rejissyor jeyms kemeronning 2009-yilgi filmi haqida o‘ylang. film 3d-modelni 3d-modellashtirish konsepsiyalarining ko‘pchiligini kino sayyorasi pandorani yaratishda ishlatganida 3d sanoatga aylantirishga yordam berdi. natija va tahlillar. topografik sirtni, bunga yer sirtini misol qilib olamiz, ifodalashning turli usullari mavjud va har birining o‘ziga yarasha yutuq va kamchiliklari bor. keying bobga o‘tishdan oldin bu usullar borasida ozgina ma’lumot berib o‘tamiz. relef umumgeografik kartalarda tasvirlanadigan eng murakkab element hisoblanadi. oddiy shakllar eni va bo‘yini masshtab asosida kichraytirib tasvirlansa, relef uchun uchinchi bir ko‘rsatkich-balandlikni ham tasvirlash kerak bo‘ladi. aslida, 3d modellashtirish hozirgi zamonimizdagi jamiyatda muhim ahamiyatga egadir. quyida dambaning 3d modelini qurish bosqichlarini ko‘rib o‘tamiz. berilgan planga asosan toposirt bilan tanishiladi (fazoviy geometriyasi tasavvur qilinadi xulosa talabalardagi modellashtirish haqidagi bilimlar atrof-muhitdagi voqelikni, chizmalarni o‘zlashtirish jarayonida tarkib toptiriladi. oliy ta’limda talabalarga real dunyoning eng muhim uch o‘lchamli tomonlari va xususiyatlari – ikki o‘lchov va uch o‘lchamli, chizmachilik va grafik dasturning asosiy mezonlarini egallash hamda tushunishlari, bir qator malaka va ko‘nikmalarni egallash, amaliyotda ularga rioya qilish, o‘z his-tuyg‘ularini shunga muvofiq ifodalash uchun lozim bo‘lgan bilimlarini o‘zlashtirib olishlari uchun eng qulay sharoit mavjud. muhandislik kompyuter grafikasi fanini o‘qitish vositalaridan foydalanish orqali talabalarni ta’lim-tarbiyasida o‘qituvchi mas’uliyatini oshirish, ularga pedagogik va psixologik tomondan bilim berish bugungi kunning dolzarb ijtimoiy pedagogik muammolaridan biridir. muhandislik kompyuter grafikasifanini o‘qitishda uch o‘lchamli modellashtirish vositasidan foydalanishga layoqatli bo‘lib boradilar. tadqiqot natijalarining ilmiy tahlili asosida ishlab chiqilgan va amaliyotda sinab ko‘rilgan metodik ishlanmalar, topshiriqlar majmuasi, multimediali elektron qo‘llanmani respublikamizning barcha oliy ta’lim muassasalarida qo‘llanilsa, grafik dasturlarni o‘qitishga extiyoj ortib borayotgan sharoitda, ular talabalarga nafaqat, muhandislik kompyuter grafikasi fanida balki uch o‘lchamli modellashtirishdan foyalaniladigan bilim, ko‘nikma va malakaga ega bo‘ladilar. 88 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us № адабиётлар 1. j.a. qosimov and others “the role of software in the development of modeling in education” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060013 2. j.a. qosimov and others “development of methods for improving the lessons of information technology on the basis of graphic programs” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060012 3. j.a. qosimov and others “increasing the effectiveness of lessons by creating a problem situation in teaching drawing” aip conference proceedingsthis link is disabled, 2022, 2432, 060014 4. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. selection of software for modeling developments and technologies. international journal of advanced science and technology, volume 28, issue 15, 15 november 2019, pp. 554-558 5. qosimov j., kuchkarova, d., nasritdinova u., nigmanov r., edilboyev u. threedimensional modelling technology for computer science education// iop conference series: earth and environmental science volume 403, issue 1, 19 december 2019, номер статьи 01217212th international scientific conference on agricultural machinery industry, interagromash 2019; don state technical universityrostov-on-don; russian federation; 10 september 2019 до 13 september 2019; код 156666 6. azizxo’jaeva n.n. pedagogik texnologiya va pedmahorat. t.: nizomiy nomidagi tdpu, 2003 – 176 b 7. kompyuterda modellashtirish: bu qanchalik muhim va u haqda nimalarni bilamiz? https://kun.uz/uz/news/2020/04/19/kompyuterda-modellashtirish-bu-qanchalik-muhim-va-uhaqda-nimalarni-bilamiz 8. муродов ш.к, кучкарова д.ф, жўраев м, хайитов б.у. муҳандислик графикаси. ўқув қўлланма. т. саноат стандартлари, 2006. б. 35-36. 9. морев и.а. образователные нформасионные технологии «педагогические измерения». владивосток, 2004. 174 с. 10. муслимов н.а., абдуллаева қ.м., мирсолиева м. «педагогик маҳорат» фанидан ўқув-методик мажмуа // ўқув-услуб.қўлл. – т.: «фан технологиялари», 2011. – 322 б. 11. азизхўжаева н.н. педагогик технология ва педмаҳорат. т.: низомий номидаги тдпу, 2003 – 176 б. 12. арефева о.в. профессионалная подготовка студентов-дизайнеров в просессе обучения компютерной графике. автореф. дисс. канд. пед. наук. – магнитогорск, 2007. – 174 c. 13. анарова н.в. информасионные технологии в школном образовании – москва: просвещение, 1994 126 с. 14. абдуллаев у. чизма геометрия ва муҳандислик графикаси асослари. дарслик. ҳ т.: ўқитувчи, 1999. 215 б. 15. абдурахманов ш. «чизма геометрия» курсини ўқитиш маҳсулдорлиги оширишнинг илмий-методик асослари. н, 2006. 172 б. 16. алимов ф., рихсибоев у., касимова с., халилова х. муҳандислик муҳандислик компютер графикасива уни ўқитиш методикаси. тошкент, 2009. 123 б. муаллиф хақида маълумот 17. qosimov jahongir avloqulovich – muhandislik grafikasi va dizayn nazariyasi kafedrasi mudiri, “тиқхмми” мту, қори-ниёзий-39, тел.: 974506007, e.mail: jaxongirqosimov7@gmail.com 52 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 gas leakage and fire detector based on internet of thing (iot) network nebras jalel ibrahim computer center, university of diyala abstract: the internet of things (iot) is a growing network of interconnected devices equipped with various sensors and internet connectivity. this widespread adoption of iot devices, particularly in industrial automation, has paved the way for real-time remote monitoring and control of industrial equipment. traditional gas leak detection systems, while precise, fall short in effectively alerting people about leaks. to address this, we've developed an iot-based gas leak detector with smart alerting capabilities. our device utilizes data analytics on sensor readings to predict hazardous situations and send timely alerts to both concerned authorities and individuals in the vicinity, enabling proactive measures to mitigate potential risks. thus, this gives manufacturers the ability to automate, and therefore optimize their operating efficiency. the purpose of this project is to introduce an industrial monitoring system design based on iot networks. the proposed system is divided into two parts: the first part is to detect and identify the gas leakage level and fire alarm detector by using mq-2 sensor. the second part is to monitor the proposed system based on thing speak. the thing speak is a cloud platform and it is an open-source of iot application which can receive the sensors data via esp32 module and plots these data in a field graph within various parameters. keywords: gas sensor; internet of things; thing speak; esp32; gas leakage; fire detector. i. introduction internet of things (iot) is the networking of physical objects that contain electronics embedded within their architecture in order to communicate and sense interactions amongst each other or with respect to the external environment[1]. in the upcoming years, iot-based technology will offer advanced levels of services and practically change the way people lead their daily lives. advancements in medicine, power, gene therapies, agriculture, smart cities, and smart homes are just a very few of the categorical examples where iot is strongly established[2]. the iot uses in many fields such agricultures, medicines, industries, militaries, etc. in industries, the iot networks is use maintain the safety of workers from the danger of gases and combustion, as it was for monitoring, alerting about the occurrence of a disaster, avoiding the danger, and preserving everyone and the workflow. in this paper, we design a system which enables early detection of factory fire and gas leaks. our system safeguards against harmful gas incidents. it not only detects gas leaks and triggers audible alarms but also utilizes iot technology to alert concerned authorities promptly, preventing potential mishaps. 53 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sensor data is transmitted via the esp32 module and visualized on a field diagram, allowing for system monitoring anytime, anywhere. the system's logic operates based on defined fire/hazard rules and communication protocols between dedicated devices. ii. proposed system this proposed system is mainly focused on processing monitoring and management by esp32. it also communicates to other system and to web server and pc. which is termed as master and slave communication. this system is so flexible and can be easy to monitor [3] .the system is shown in figure (1).the first part is to detect and determine the level of gas leakage detector by using mq-2 sensor and fire alarm detector .where a buzzer sounds continuously in the event of a gas presence and an intermittent alarm sounds in the event of a fire. the second part is observing the proposed system based on thing speak. thing speak is a cloud platform which is an open source iot application that can receive sensor data via the esp32 module and plot this data in a field diagram within various parameters. it enables us to monitor system and data outside or inside the factory. figure1. the proposed system. the proposed system is contained: gas sensor the mq-2 gas sensor relies on tin dioxide (sno2) as its sensitive material. sno2 exhibits lower conductivity in clean air environments. however, when exposed to flammable gases, the sensor's conductivity increases proportionally with the gas concentration. this change in conductivity can be translated into an output signal representing gas concentration using a simple circuit[4]. the mq-2 gas sensor demonstrates a high sensitivity to propane and smoke, while also effectively detecting natural gas and other flammable vapors. its low cost and versatility make it suitable for various applications involving the detection of different types of flammable gases[5]. figure 2.mq-2 sensor. iot kit (esp32 model) esp32 stands out as the industry's most integrated solution for wi-fi and bluetooth applications, requiring only a handful of external components (fewer than 10). esp32 seamlessly integrates essential components such as the antenna switch, rf balun, power amplifier, low-noise receive amplifier, filters, and power management modules, resulting in a remarkably compact printed circuit board (pcb) footprint. leveraging cmos technology, esp32 boasts a fully integrated single-chip radio and baseband, further reducing the need for 54 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us external components. additionally, it incorporates advanced calibration circuitry that dynamically adapts to external circuit imperfections and environmental changes, ensuring consistent performance. these advancements in integration and adaptability have eliminated the need for costly and specialized wi-fi test equipment during mass production, streamlining the manufacturing process. [6]. figure 3. nodemcu (esp32) model temperature and humidity sensor (type dht11) dht11 is a cost-effective digital sensor that measures temperature and humidity. it is compatible with various microcontrollers, such as arduino and raspberry pi, enabling real-time humidity and temperature monitoring[7]. dht11 detects humidity by measuring the electrical resistance between two electrodes. as moisture is absorbed by the sensor's substrate, ionization occurs, increasing conductivity between the electrodes. the relative humidity is directly proportional to the change in resistance. dht11 comprises a capacitive humidity sensing element and a thermistor for temperature measurement. the humidity sensing capacitor features two electrodes with a moisture-holding substrate as the dielectric. changes in humidity levels alter the capacitance value. an integrated circuit (ic) measures and processes the resistance changes, converting them into digital signals. dht11 offers several advantages, including[8]:  low cost  ease of use  compatibility with various microcontrollers  real-time humidity and temperature monitoring figure 4.dht11 sensor. buzzer this buzzer is self-contained, generating a consistent sound at a predetermined frequency upon receiving a steady direct current (dc) power supply. [9]. figure5.buzzer 55 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us iii. experimental result 1-python python is a popular programming language with a wide variety of applications including data science, web development, scientific computing, and software development[10]. python is an interpreted, object-oriented, high-level programming language with dynamic semantics[11]. its high-level built in data structures, combined with dynamic typing and dynamic binding, make it very attractive for rapid application development, as well as for use as a scripting or glue language to connect existing components together[12]. python’s simple, easy to learn syntax emphasizes readability and therefore reduces the cost of program maintenance[13]. python supports modules and packages, which encourages program modularity and code reuse[14]. the python interpreter and the extensive standard library are available in source or binary form without charge for all major platforms, and can be freely distributed[15]. python is dynamically-typed and garbage-collected. it supports multiple programming paradigms, including structured (particularly, procedural), object-oriented and functional programming. it is often described as a "batteries included" language due to its comprehensive standard library[16]. features of python as a programming language, the features of python brought to the table are many. some of the most significant features of python are[17]: figure 6. features of python python in real-world scenarios python is used in virtually every industry and scientific field that you can imagine, including[18]:  data science.  machine learning.  web development.  computer science education.  computer vision and image processing.  game development.  medicine and pharmacology.  biology and bioinformatics.  neuroscience and psychology.  astronomy.  other areas such as robotics, autonomous vehicles, business, meteorology, and graphical user interface (gui) development. 56 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2-thonny thonny is a beginner-friendly python programming environment that offers a variety of features to enhance the learning process. it provides multiple code stepping methods, step-by-step expression evaluation, and a comprehensive visualization of the call stack to aid in understanding program execution. additionally, thonny introduces the concepts of references and heap through a dedicated mode, making these abstract concepts more approachable for new programmers. [19]. feature: 1. intuitive interface: thonny's interface is designed to be beginner-friendly, with large icons, clear menus, and a clear separation of code, output, and variables. 2. line numbers and highlighting: thonny displays line numbers for easy navigation and highlights syntax errors and invalid code. 3. code completion and auto-formatting: thonny provides code completion suggestions and automatically formats code to improve readability and reduce errors. 4. step-by-step debugger: thonny's debugger allows users to step through their code line by line, evaluating expressions, and examining variable values at each step. 5. immediate window: thonny's immediate window enables interactive experimentation with python expressions and variables. 6. error checking and explanations: thonny provides detailed error messages and explanations to help users understand and resolve errors they encounter. 7. data visualization: thonny can generate various data visualizations directly within the ide, making it easier to visualize and analyze data. 8. integration with third-party libraries: thonny integrates seamlessly with various python libraries, allowing users to import and use them for their projects. 9. educational resources: thonny provides built-in educational resources, including tutorials, exercises, and example projects. 10. cross-platform compatibility: thonny runs on windows, macos, and linux, making it available to a wide range of users. 11. code assistant: thonny's code assistant provides contextual information about python concepts and syntax. 12. variables view: thonny's variables view displays the values of variables in real-time as the code is executed. figure 7. thonny software. 57 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3public cloud (thing speak) thing speak is an open-source iot analytics platform that allows users to collect, store, and analyze data from connected devices. it provides a web-based interface for visualizing data and triggering alerts. thing speak can be used to monitor a wide variety of devices and sensors, including those used in home automation, environmental monitoring, and industrial applications[21]. thing speak communicates with connected devices using an api over the internet. this api allows devices to send data to thing speak, and for thing speak to send alerts back to devices. thing speak also provides a number of channels for sharing data with other users and applications. thing speak is a powerful tool for iot developers and users. it can be used to create a wide variety of iot applications, from simple data monitoring to complex data analysis. thing speak is an iot platform that enables the creation of sensor-based logging applications, location tracking applications, and a virtual "social network" of objects with real-time status updates. it also allows for remote control of internet-connected home automation devices. the core element of thing speak is the "channel," which contains data fields for sensor readings, location information, and status updates. thing speak is an iot analytics platform that enables you to collect, visualize, and analyze live data streams from your connected devices. it provides ready-to-use data visualizations without requiring any coding. thing speak integrates with matlab analytics, allowing you to write and execute matlab code for more sophisticated data preprocessing, visualizations, and analyses. this eliminates the need to set up servers or develop web software, streamlining the process of building iot systems[22]. figure 8. thing speaks thing speak key features thing speak is an open-source iot analytics platform designed to aggregate, visualize, and analyze live data streams from various devices and sensors[23]. it offers a suite of powerful features that cater to a wide range of iot applications, enabling users to collect, process, and visualize data in real-time. here are some of the key features of thing speak[24]:  data collection: thing speak supports a variety of iot protocols, including http, mqtt, and tcp/ip, making it easy to connect and integrate various devices and sensors. this allows users to collect data from a wide range of sources, including temperature sensors, humidity sensors, air quality sensors, and more.  data visualization: thing speak provides a variety of visualization tools to help users visualize their data in real-time. this includes charts, graphs, and maps, which can be customized to display the data in a way that is most meaningful to the user.  data analysis: thing speak integrates with matlab, a powerful mathematical computing software, enabling users to perform advanced data analysis. this allows users to extract meaningful insights from their data, such as trends, patterns, and anomalies. 58 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  alerts and notifications: thing speak can be configured to send alerts and notifications when certain conditions are met. this can be helpful for applications where it is critical to be aware of changes in the data, such as in the case of a gas leak or a sudden rise in temperature.  data sharing: thing speak allows users to share their data with others publicly or privately. this can be useful for collaboration purposes or for sharing data with the public for research or educational purposes.  third-party integrations: thing speak can be integrated with a variety of third-party services, such as social media platforms and weather data providers. this allows users to extend the functionality of thing speak and integrate it with their existing workflows.  open-source and scalable: thing speak is an open-source platform, which means that it is freely available for anyone to use and modify. this makes it a cost-effective solution for both individuals and businesses. additionally, thing speak is a scalable platform, which means that it can be used to collect and analyze data from a wide range of devices and sensors. iv. result and discussion this proposed system shows the how the gas leakage has been detected from the sensor. and show how fire detector from sensor. the data has been sent to the cloud (speak thing). thing speak can view the amount of leakage gas and temperature. in this system, we succeeded in preventing a disaster in the factory and preserving the safety of its workers. figure 9. the experimental setup figures (10) and (111) show the graphic display of the data received from the two sensors. each figure presents the data from a particular sensor, and each has two panels. figure10 shows the screen shot from the monitoring server (laptop) after sent the data from the esp32 and received by thing speak, which shows the reading of gas values each minute, and also the reading of the current gas value. figure 10. gas values 59 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure11 shows the screen shot from the monitoring server (laptop) after sent the data from the esp32 and received by thing speak, which shows the reading of temperature values each minute, and also the reading of the current temperature value. figure 11. temperature values v. conclusions the proposed system makes the gas detection and its prevention easier of user, whether technically sound or not. it also alerts the user with the fire alarm system. the system won't solely offer safety to the users against harmful gases. however, this system provides alert information to the gas or fire when gas leak or high temperature occurs. it also gives an alert indication to buzzer. this project is wirelessly transferred alert notification to the user and the user can easily connect the devices through the public cloud (thing speak) from any location. the proposed system is used the esp32 microcontroller. when comparing to the other systems, it creates a less expensive and safety to the citizens also provide fast alerting compared to the other systems. easy access and control make the system very useful. it can be monitored from anywhere, receive a warning, and avoid a disaster before it occurs. references 1. lombardi, m., pascale, f., & santaniello, d. 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(2022). python for web development. international journal of computer science and mobile computing, 11(4), 36.‏ 16. clavié, b., & soulié, g. (2023). large language models as batteries-included zero-shot esco skills matchers. arxiv preprint arxiv:2307.03539.‏ 17. gad, a. f. (2021). pygad: an intuitive genetic algorithm python library. arxiv preprint arxiv:2106.06158.‏ 18. lasser, j., manik, d., silbersdorff, a., säfken, b., & kneib, t. (2021). introductory data science across disciplines, using python, case studies, and industry consulting projects. teaching statistics, 43, s190-s200.‏ 19. cabanero-gomez, l., hervas, r., gonzalez, i., & rodriguez-benitez, l. (2021). eeglib: a python module for eeg feature extraction. softwarex, 15, 100745.‏ 20. de nardis, l., mohammadpour, a., caso, g., ali, u., & di benedetto, m. g. (2022). internet of things platforms for academic research and development: a critical review. applied sciences, 12(4), 2172.‏ 21. oturak, m., & dursun, e. (2021, august). a cost-effective iot based smart home application. in 2021 international conference on innovations in intelligent systems and applications (inista) (pp. 1-6). ieee.‏ 22. singh, r. r., banerjee, s., manikandan, r., kotecha, k., indragandhi, v., & vairavasundaram, s. (2022). intelligent iot wind emulation system based on real-time data fetching approach. ieee access, 10, 78253-78267.‏ 23. pimprale, v., arora, s., & deshmukh, n. iot cloud platforms: a case study in thingspeak iot platform. in integration of cloud computing with emerging technologies (pp. 182198). crc press.‏ 24. antonova, v. m., malikova, e. e., panov, a. e., spichek, i. v., & malikov, a. y. (2021). implementation of iot technology for data monitoring via cloud services. t-commтелекоммуникации и транспорт, 15(2), 46-53.‏ 74 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the effectiveness of the cotton cleaning system on foreign saw gins r. sh. sulaymanov cotton industry scientific center" jsc. z. j. omonov, m. n. ismatov, a. m. o‘ngboyev, u. a. saytov tashkent state technical university abstract: in order to study the effectiveness of the cotton ginning system of cotton gins in local cotton gins equipped with foreign technology, research work was carried out on the "imperial" saw gin with 170 saws manufactured by the us company "lyummus" in the cotton ginning enterprise "karvon" of the bukhara region. the research work was carried out in bukhara-6 selection cotton with initial moisture content of 9.6% and 12.8%, dirtiness of 3.5% and 9.4%, grade i and iii grade 2. as a result of the research, the contamination of cotton after the suppliercleaner was equal to 1.0% and 1.4% on average according to the varieties. in this case, the cleaning efficiency of the supplier-cleaner was on average 24.2% and 27.5%, which showed that it was 5.8 (abs)% and 7.5 (abs)% less than the cleaning efficiency of the supplier-cleaner in the technical characteristics of gin. . during cleaning of high and low grade cotton, separation of cotton from the supplier-cleaner to waste occurred, and the amount of separated cotton was on average 18% and 25% in relation to the mass of waste. gin productivity in ginning of ginned cotton was on average 1750 kg/h and 1210 kg/h, which showed average 24.5% and 26.8% less than gin passport productivity. the mass fraction of defective fiber and impurities in the post-ginning fiber was 3.56% and 4.83% on average, and seed hairiness was 15.56% and 17.3% on average.in this case, the hairiness of the seed was higher by 5.1 (abs) % and 5.8 (abs) % compared to the industry standard, and it was observed that along with the denatured seed, the fiber suitable for weaving was transformed into fluff. as a result of the conducted research, despite the fact that the cleaning efficiency of the "imperial" chainsaw gin supplier is higher than the cleaning efficiency of the local gin supplier-cleaner, on average, 18% and 25% of the cotton is separated into waste when cleaning cotton from large impurities, and additional equipment and electricity are used to clean the cotton separated into waste. was studied. in addition, it was found that the gin supplierpurifier has a complex construction, which causes difficulties in its use and consumes 9 kw more electricity than the local gin supplier-purifier. due to the fact that the foreign gin suppliercleaner has the above-mentioned shortcomings, it was studied that it is necessary to improve the cleaning efficiency and improve the quality of cotton by improving the local gin suppliercleaner. keywords: saw gin, supplier-cleaner, pile drum, saw drum, mesh surface, colosnik, cotton, cleaning efficiency, productivity, hairiness, quality. introduction. saw gins for ginning medium fiber cotton are produced abroad in usa, china, india and brazil. the gins produced in these countries are close to each other in terms of construction, and consist of parts that receive cotton, clean it from impurities, and gin the cotton. 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the cleaning system of gins has a complex construction and consists of working parts that receive cotton and clean it from small and large impurities. some of the cotton ginning enterprises in our republic are equipped with foreign technology in order to increase the productivity of the gin and to further improve the production of quality products with the effective cleaning of cotton in the initial treatment of cotton in cotton ginning enterprises under the management of cotton-textile clusters. for example, the juma cotton ginning enterprise of the samarkand region, the alimkent cotton ginning enterprise of the tashkent region are equipped with the equipment manufactured by the "lebed" company of the people's republic of china, the "karvon" joint enterprise of the bukhara region is equipped with the equipment manufactured by the american company "lyummus" [1]. in the cotton ginning technological system of juma and alimkent cotton gins, my-171 type gins with 171 saws are used, and "imperial" gins with 170 saws are used in the "karvon" joint enterprise. as a result of research on the efficiency of the my-171 gin, it was shown that the cleaning efficiency of the supplier-cleaner in ginning high and low grade cotton is on average 25-30%, and on average it is 5-10% less than the cleaning efficiency in the technical characteristics. the amount of cotton separated into waste during cotton ginning was high in terms of types, on average, it was 15-25%. in ginning of high and low grade cotton, the productivity of the gin is 1650-1200 kg/h on average, and it is found that it is 2530% lower than the productivity in the technical characteristics. the hairiness of the seed produced from gin was 14-17% on average, and the hairiness of the seed was 3.5-5.0 (abs) % higher than the seed hairiness of the sawed gin. during the research period, the gin worked without clogging or stopping when ginning cotton with a moisture content of 7% to 8%. when the moisture content of cotton increases by 8%, the rotation of the raw material roller in the gin is observed to slow down, at 9-11% humidity, the rotation of the raw material roller slows down, the release of seeds outside the working chamber is reduced, the density of the roller increases, and the occurrence of frequent blockages in the gin caused the automatic stop of the gin. this, in turn, caused a decrease in the daily productivity of the jinn [2]. 1mine; 2supply rollers; 3pile drums; 4 fence with columns; 5upper saw drum; 6 fixing brush; 7colossians; 8drum with lower saw; 9fixing brush; 10colossians; 11 separating drum; 12song; 13guide; 14waste auger. picture 1. schematic diagram of my-171 chainsaw gin cleaner-cleaner in order to study the effectiveness of the system for cleaning cotton from impurities in the saw gins used in cotton gins equipped with foreign cotton pretreatment technology, the "imperial" saw with 170 saws manufactured by the us company "lyummus" in the cotton ginning technological system of the cotton ginning enterprise "karvon" of bukhara region research work was carried out in gin. the construction of the cotton-cleaning part of the gin is based on the supply rollers 1, 4 drums with piles that clean cotton from small impurities placed under it in an inclined position 2, mesh surfaces that separate small impurities from waste during cotton cleaning 3, a drum with a saw that cleans cotton from small and large impurities 4, small cotton cleaning and consists of colosniks 5 separating large impurities into waste, sawed drum 6 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us regenerating the cotton separated into waste, colosniks separating impurities into waste 7, brush drum 8 separating the cotton cleaned from sawed and regeneration drums, tarnov 9 and waste auger 10 (fig. 2). the height of the feeder-sweeper is 2.4 m, which is 1.4 m higher than the feeder-sweeper of the domestic chainsaws. it was found that the total electric energy charged to the purifier-cleaner is 13.6 kw/h, which is 9.6 kwh more than that of the domestic generatorcleaner with 130 saws [3, 4]. the research work was carried out in bukhara-6 selection cotton with initial moisture content of 9.6% and 12.8%, dirtiness of 3.5% and 9.4%, grade i and iii grade 2. in this case, the moisture content of the cotton given to the gin supplier-cleaner was 7.3% and 8.4% on average, dirtiness was 1.32% and 1.93% on average [5-7]. during the research period, the moisture and dirtiness of the cleaned cotton in the supplier-cleaner, the cleaning efficiency of the supplier, the productivity of the gin, the quality indicators of fiber and seed after gin were studied. in order to determine the productivity of the gin, the seeds produced from the gin were collected and weighed every 3 minutes. fiber productivity was determined by the number and weight of bales produced in a specified period of time. first, the research work was carried out in cotton grade i grade 2. in order to determine the cleaning efficiency of the supplier-cleaner after cotton cleaning and the quality index of the cotton after the cleaning, samples of the cotton given to the gin after the supplier-cleaner were taken and analyzed in the enterprise's laboratory. samples were taken and analyzed 5 times in duplicate to ensure that the analysis results were accurate. based on the results of the analysis, the average contamination of cotton after the supplier-cleaner was equal to 1.0%. in this case, the cleaning efficiency of the supplier-cleaner was on average 24.2%, and it showed that it was on average 5.8 (abs)% less than the cleaning efficiency in the technical characteristics. during cotton cleaning, the amount of cotton separated from the supplier-cleaner into waste was on average 18% compared to the mass of waste. the productivity of the gin in ginning of cleaned cotton was on average 1750 kg/hour, which showed an average of 24.5% less than the productivity in the passport. 1supply rollers; 2pile drums; 3mesh surface; 4 saw drum; 5fence with columns; 6brush drum; 7regeneration drum; 8fence with columns; 9waste auger; 10th verse. picture 2. "lyummus" sawmill scheme of the supplier-purifier the mass fraction of defective fiber and impurities in the post-ginning fiber was 3.56% on average [8]. seed hairiness is 15.56% on average, damage is 3.12% on average, and seed hairiness is found to be 5.1 (abs) % higher on average according to "industry standards for complete hairiness of seed after sawing" (pdi 91-2018) [9]. in spite of the fact that the moisture content of the cotton supplied to the supplier-cleaner during the research period was not high and was on average 7.3%, in some cases cases of clogging of the supplier, in some cases cases of clogging of the gin working chamber occurred and caused the gin to stop, causing a decrease in the daily productivity of the gin. then, the research work was carried out in the 2nd class of the iii variety of cotton. when cleaning cotton with 8.4% 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us moisture and 1.93% dirt in a gin supplier-cleaner, the average dirtiness of cotton after the cleaner was 1.4%. it showed that the cleaning efficiency of the cleaner was on average 27.5%, which was 7.5% (abs) less than the cleaning efficiency in the passport (fig. 3). in the process of cleaning cotton, the amount of cotton separated from the supplier-cleaner into waste was on average 25% of the waste mass. the use of additional equipment and the consumption of additional electrical energy in cleaning this cotton from the waste content and giving it to the technology were studied. the cleaned cotton was sent to the working chamber through the cell shell chamber and the ginning process was carried out. in this case, the working productivity of the gin was equal to 1210 kg/h on average, which showed that it was 26.8% less than the working productivity in the technical characteristics. it was studied that the hairiness of the seed produced from cotton ginning is 17.3% on average, the damage is 3.8% on average, and the hairiness of seed is 5.8 (abs)% higher than the industry norm [10, 11]. the mass fraction of defective fiber and impurities in the post-ginning fiber was 4.83% on average. during the cleaning of cotton in the suppliercleaner, despite the large number of working parts in the cleaner, it was studied that the cleaned cotton contained large impurities, and small impurities were preserved in large quantities. in the working chamber, due to the difficulty of the ginning process, the rotation of the raw material shaft has slowed down, the density of the shaft has increased, and the amount of ginned seeds exiting the working chamber has decreased. 1cleaning efficiency, %; 2impurity of cleaned cotton, %. figure 3. equipment cleaning efficiency and the dependence of cotton quality on the type of cotton it has been observed that the speed of the raw material has slowed down and in some cases the genie has stopped automatically. this, in turn, caused the demon to decrease productivity. conclusion. as a result of the research conducted on the effectiveness of the my-171 gin in the cotton ginning enterprise equipped with the technology of the people's republic of china, the cleaning efficiency of the supplier-cleaner in ginning high and low grade cotton is on average 25-30%, and on average 5-10% compared to the cleaning efficiency in the technical characteristics. showed that it is less than . in ginning of high and low grade cotton, the productivity of the gin is on average 1650-1200 kg/h, and it is found that it is 25-30% less than the productivity in the passport. in order to study the efficiency of cleaning foreign gins, the result of the research conducted on the american "imperial" gin at the "karvon" cotton ginning enterprise was that the cleaning efficiency of the supplier-cleaner in cleaning high and low grade cotton was on average 24.2% and 27.5%, compared to the cleaning efficiency in the passport. was found to be 5.8 (abs)% and 7.5 (abs) % lower on average. application of the section for cleaning cotton from large impurities in the supplier as a result, during cleaning of cotton, an average of 18% and 25% of cotton is separated into waste compared to the mass of waste, the use of additional equipment and the consumption of additional electricity were studied when cleaning this cotton from the waste content and giving it to the technology. the height of the dispenser-cleaner is 2.4 m, compared to the local gin dispensers, which is 1.4 m higher on average, and it is not compatible with the local technological system, which causes difficulties in its use.the generator-cleaner has an installed 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us capacity of 13.6 kwh, which is 9.6 kwh more electricity than the local chainsaw generators. the productivity of gin when ginning cleaned cotton in supplier-ginner was 1750 kg/h and 1210 kg/h on average, and it showed that the productivity of gin passport was 24.5% and 26.8% lower than the average productivity of gin passport. the hairiness of the seed after gin is on average equal to 15.56% and 17.3%, according to "sectoral norms of full hairiness of the seed after sawing gin" (pdi 91-2018) is 5.1 (abs) % and 5.8 ( abs) was found to be higher by %. taking into account that the foreign sawed gins used in the cotton gins of our republic have the above-mentioned shortcomings, it was studied that it is purposeful to improve the suppliercleaner of the domestic sawed gins. references 1. ryszard m., kozlowski r. handbook of natural fibers. volume 2: processing and applications. woodhead publishing limited, 2012. 2. sulaymonolv r.sh., karimov u.q., marufkhanov b.kh. development of an improved and automated chainsaw based on 7dp-90. scientific report. "cotton industry scientific center" jsc. tashkent. 2017. -55 p. 3. shandong machine-building company for the production of cotton processing equipment "swan" of the people's republic of china, jinan 2002. operating instructions. saw gin my – 171. operating instructions. pneumatic fiber cleaner mqpq-3000. user manual. saw blade fiber cleaner mqp 600x3000. 4. handbook on the initial processing of cotton. f.b. it was prepared under the general editorship of omonov. "cotton industry scientific center" jsc, "voris-nashriyot", tashkent, 2008.416 p. 5. uzdst 615:2018. cotton. technical conditions. tashkent, 2018.4 p. 6. uzdst 644:2006. cotton. moisture detection methods. tashkent, 2006.17 p. 7. uzdst 592-2016. method for determining the dirtiness of cotton. tashkent, 2008, 12 p. 8. uzdst 632:2010. cotton fiber. methods for determining the mass fraction of defects and impurities. tashkent, 2010.19 p. 9. sulaymanov r.sh., akramov a. "industry standards for complete hairiness of seed after sawing" (pdi 91-2018). "cotton industry scientific center" jsc. tashkent. 2018.-4 p. uzdst 601:2016. cotton. technical seed. technical conditions. 10. methods of determination of hairiness. tashkent, 2016.11 p. 11. uzdst 597:2016. cotton technical seed. methods for determining the mass fraction of defects in seeds. tashkent, 2011.16 p. 12. sulaymonov r., dusiyorov j., omonov z. research on the efficiency of saw gene cleaner. publishing house state unitary enterprise “fan va tarakkiyot”. tashkent, №4/2023.-4 b. 13. malikov z.m., nazarov f.kh., abdukhamidov s.k., omonov z.j. numerical study of flow in a plane suddenly expanding channel based on wilcox and two-fluid turbulence models. journal of physics: conference series.1901 (2021) 012039 14. shoev m., safarov t., abdukhamidov s., omonov z. numerical solution of the heat transfer equation using different schemes. e3s web of conferences , 040 (2023) ipfa 2023 15. shoyev m.a., ibroximov a.r., madaliev m.e., dusiyorov j.j., rayimqulov o.q., ismatov m.n. numerical study of modified centrifugal cyclone. e3s web of conferences 401, 01036 (2023) conmechydro-2023. 16. xudoynazarov d.x., umarovu.e., yunusovam.u., ungboyeva.m. theoretical and experimental determination of the dimensions of the slope and length of the feed distribution device for family livestock farms. e3s web of conferences 486, 02004 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202448602004 agritech-ix 2024 61 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 08, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 modification of secondary polymers majidov abdinabi amanovich doctor of philosophy in technical sciences (phd), asian international university abstract: the article examines the influence of the type and amount of modifiers on the properties of secondary thermoplastics. the classification and sources of waste formation of high molecular weight materials are given. the physical and chemical properties of plastics are analyzed. particular attention is paid to composite materials. the features of obtaining mixtures for the manufacture of compositions based on crushed and modified waste are noted. keywords: regeneration, polymer compositions, plastics, composite materials. the steady growth of polymer materials inevitably causes an increase in polymer waste. among them, a significant share is occupied by thermoplastics that can be repeatedly processed. however , their reuse does not meet the increased technical requirements of mass production due to destructive processes and reduced properties. modification of secondary polymers can provide an increase in the level of their properties. but the practical implementation of the processes for producing and using modified thermoplastics is difficult due to insufficient knowledge of the phenomena that arise during their processing: there is not enough information about changes in structure, the emergence of new functional groups, the formation of new types of bonds, and the formation of a set of new physical and mechanical properties. that is why the problem of recycling polymer waste has not yet been completely resolved in any country in the world. therefore, the use of secondary polymers, in particular thermoplastics , is a pressing problem of our time. its solution will be able to ensure the effective use of secondary thermoplastics and predict specific areas of application of new modified materials not only with the required level of properties, but also cheaper ones. as is known, polymers are crushed at low and normal temperatures using various devices. in our opinion, high-speed grinding with simultaneous mixing of the resulting crumbs with modifying agents is most effective. regeneration of cross-linked polymer crumbs can be carried out in the presence of destruction activators: naphthenic oils, tall pitch, emulsifiers and petroleum polymer resins, aqueous solutions of alkalis, surfactants, etc. the resulting regenerate is a partial replacement of the original polymer in compositions for various purposes, but it is more advisable to use crushed cross-linked polymers and elastomers directly in polymer compositions. improving the quality indicators of composites is achieved by mixing crumbs with waste synthetic rubber, block copolymers of butadiene with styrene and with targeted additives. the most effective way to improve the quality of crushed polymer waste, and therefore the properties of compositions based on them, is the modification of polymer crumbs with oligomers with epoxy groups; derivatives of nitroso aromatic amines; epoxidized polybutadiene, reaction products of a tertiary amine with aliphatic or aromatic hydroxides and other agents. to improve the physical and mechanical properties of vulcanizates containing regenerate or crumb rubber, cord waste or activated lignin are introduced into them. 62 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us despite the large number of developments to create compositions containing waste polymers, the problem has not been completely solved, and there are no specific recommendations for the practical use of cross-linked polymers. plastics have many valuable physical and chemical properties, and plastic-based composites (with a polymer matrix) acquire additional properties that make the material even more useful from the point of view of operation and, accordingly, attractive to the consumer. a way to add additional or improve existing properties is to foam the composite. the main purpose of using fillers is to reduce the cost of polymer materials and products made from them. composite materials (composites) (from latin compositio composition) are multicomponent materials consisting of two or more components, the quantitative ratio of which must be comparable. the components differ significantly in properties, and their combination should give a certain synergistic effect, which is difficult to foresee in advance. typically one component forms a continuous phase called the matrix, the other component is the filler. an adhesive or autohesive interaction is created between them , which ensures the solidity of the material. the production of composites makes it possible to significantly expand the range of polymer materials and the variety of their properties based on polymers created and produced by industry. physico-chemical modification of existing polymers, their combination with substances of a different nature and structure is one of the promising ways to create materials with a new necessary set of properties. the use of various mixtures of polymers, additives, fillers and methods of their processing, their introduction into the polymer both during the synthesis process and during processing makes it possible to obtain polymer composite materials of different structures, with the required set of performance properties. depending on the purpose of composite polymer materials, in order to save expensive raw materials, taking into account the operating environment and decorative requirements, it is possible to widely vary the percentage of raw materials and obtain products with different physical and mechanical properties, coloring and other performance properties . therefore, when processing plastics, it is necessary to know the properties of the initial polymer raw materials, additives, methods of their preparation before introducing them into the polymer, the influence of processing parameters and different types of plastic processing equipment on the technological and operational properties of materials, and application conditions. modern production cannot be imagined without the use of polymer composite materials in the manufacture of containers and packaging used in various industries. polyvinyl chloride is a polymerization product of vinyl chloride, the chemical formula of which is ch2-chcl. during the polymerization process, linear, weakly branched (the branching of macromolecules is 2–5 per 1000 carbon atoms of the main chain) macromolecules with an elementary unit in the form of a flat zigzag are formed. the nature of the bonds between the elementary links allows for several options for constructing a molecular chain, which in practice, during the industrial production of polyvinyl chloride, leads to low regularity ( syndiotacticity ) of its macromolecules: in one macromolecule several options for the bonds of elementary links are realized at once, regular sequences of elementary links are not created and industrial the samples have a low degree of crystallinity. industrial production of polyvinyl chloride is carried out in three ways: 1) suspension polymerization according to a periodic scheme. a solution containing 0.02–0.05% by weight of an initiator (e.g., acyl peroxides , diazo compounds ) is vigorously stirred in an aqueous medium containing 0.02–0.05% by weight of a protective colloid (e.g., methylhydroxypropylcellulose , polyvinyl alcohol). the mixture is heated to 45–65 ° c 63 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (depending on the required molecular weight of polyvinyl chloride) and the set temperature is maintained within narrow limits in order to obtain polyvinyl chloride that is uniform in molecular weight. polymerization occurs in droplets, during which some aggregation of particles occurs; as a result, porous polyvinyl chloride granules with a size of 100–300 microns are obtained. after the pressure in the reactor drops (the degree of conversion is about 85–90%), the unreacted monomer is removed, the polyvinyl chloride is filtered, dried in a stream of hot air, sifted through sieves and packaged. polymerization is carried out in large-volume reactors (up to 200 m 3 ); new production facilities are fully automated. specific consumption 1.03–1.05 t/t of polyvinyl chloride advantages of the method: ease of reaction heat removal, high productivity, relative purity of polyvinyl chloride, good compatibility with components during processing, wide possibilities for modifying the properties of polyvinyl chloride by introducing various additives and changing the mode parameters. 2) polymerization in bulk according to a periodic scheme in two stages. at the first stage, the reaction mixture containing 0.02–0.05% by weight of the initiator is polymerized with vigorous stirring to a conversion degree of about 10%. a thin suspension of particles (“seeds”) of polyvinyl chloride in the monomer is obtained, which is transferred to the second stage reactor; additional quantities of monomer and initiator are introduced here and polymerization is continued with slow stirring and a given temperature until the degree of conversion is about 80%. at the second stage, further growth of polyvinyl chloride particles and their partial aggregation occurs (no new particles are formed). porous polyvinyl chloride granules with sizes of 100–300 microns are obtained, depending on the temperature and mixing speed at the first stage. the unpolymerized monomer is removed, the polyvinyl chloride is purged with nitrogen and sieved. the powder is free-flowing and easily processed. advantages over the suspension method: the absence of stages of preparation of the aqueous phase, isolation and drying of polyvinyl chloride, as a result, capital investments, energy costs and maintenance costs are reduced. disadvantages: it is difficult to remove reaction heat and combat crust formation on the walls of the equipment; the resulting polyvinyl chloride is heterogeneous in molecular weight, its heat resistance is lower than that of the polyvinyl chloride obtained by the first method. 3) emulsion polymerization according to periodic and continuous schemes. water-soluble initiators ( h 2 o 2, persulfates) are used, and surfactants (for example, alkyl or aryl sulfates , sulfonates ) are used as emulsifiers . radicals originate in the aqueous phase containing up to 0.5% by weight of an initiator and up to 3% of an emulsifier; polymerization then continues in the emulsifier micelles. with continuous technology, the aqueous phase and monomer enter the reactor. polymerization occurs at 45–60 ° c and gentle stirring. the resulting 40–50% latex with polyvinyl chloride particle sizes of 0.03–0.5 μm is removed from the lower part of the reactor, where there is no mixing; the conversion rate is 90–95%. in batch technology, the components (aqueous phase, monomer and usually some latex from previous operations, the socalled seed latex, as well as other additives) are loaded into the reactor and mixed throughout the entire volume. the resulting latex, after removing the monomer, is dried in spray chambers and the polyvinyl chloride powder is sifted. although the continuous process is highly productive, the advantage is often given to the periodic one, because it can produce polyvinyl chloride of the desired granulometric composition (particle sizes in the range of 0.5–2 microns), which is very important when processing it. emulsion polyvinyl chloride is significantly contaminated with auxiliary substances introduced during polymerization, so only pastes and plastisols are made from it. vinylplast is a product of processing polyvinyl chloride containing the following additives: 1) mainly thermal stabilizers hcl acceptors ( pb , sn compounds , oxides and salts of alkaline earth metals), as well as sometimes epoxidized oils, organic phosphites; phenolic antioxidants; light stabilizers (derivatives of benzotriazoles , coumarins, benzophenones , salicylic acid, carbon black, tio2, etc.); 2) lubricants (paraffins, waxes, etc.; introduced to improve the fluidity of the melt); 3) pigments or dyes; 4) mineral fillers; 5) elastomer (for example, acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene copolymer or ethylene-vinyl acetate in an amount of 10–15% by weight; to 64 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us increase impact strength). the composition is thoroughly mixed in mixers and processed in extruders or rollers. plastic compound is a product of processing polyvinyl chloride, containing, in addition to the components used in the production of vinyl plastic, 30–90 parts by weight of a plasticizer . ( for example, esters of phthalic, phosphoric, sebacic or adipic acids, chlorinated paraffins). the plasticizer significantly reduces the glass transition temperature of polyvinyl chloride, which facilitates the processing of the composition, reduces the fragility of the material and increases its relative elongation. however, at the same time, strength and dielectric properties and chemical resistance decrease. plastics are processed mainly in the form of pastes and plastisols (dispersions of emulsion polyvinyl chloride into a plasticizer); produced in the form of granules or tapes, sheets, films. it is used mainly for the manufacture of insulation and sheaths for electrical wires and cables, for the production of hoses, linoleum and floor tiles, materials for wall cladding and furniture upholstery, molded profile products, and artificial leather. based on polyvinyl chloride (pvc), more than 3,000 types of composite materials and products are produced, used in the electrical, light, food, automotive industries, mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, in the production of building materials, medical equipment, etc., which is due to its unique physical and mechanical properties. dielectric and other operational properties. however, at present, the use of pvc is gradually being limited, which is primarily due to environmental problems that arise during the operation of products, their disposal and recycling. when aging pvc-based polymers, along with the loss of physical and mechanical properties, there is a negative impact on the environment and humans due to the processes of pvc dehydrochlorination , which intensify at temperatures of 50 80 ° c (highly toxic chlorinecontaining polyaromatic compounds are formed). this determines the relevance of the problem of developing safe technologies for the disposal and processing of waste products containing pvc. the main methods of recycling waste polymer materials include:  thermal decomposition in an inert atmosphere (pyrolysis);  burning;  decomposition to obtain initial low-molecular compounds (depolymerization);  recycling (injection molding, extrusion, pressing, etc.). the most difficult issues to solve are the disposal of mixtures of polymer waste containing, along with pvc, polyolefins (polyethylene, polypropylene), polystyrene, polyurethanes, polyamides, etc. an analysis of existing technologies for neutralizing a mixture of polymer waste allows us to conclude that it is advisable to use thermal processing based on destruction processes in an inert atmosphere. the pyrolysis of polymers produces gases, some of which can condense to form high-calorie liquid fuel, non-condensable gases containing methane and hydrogen, which have a high calorific value, and carbonate , which can be used in technological processes. the high energy potential of pyrolysis gases allows the recycling process to be carried out in autothermal mode. the thermal destruction of polyolefins, polystyrenes, and polyamides has been sufficiently well studied, and the temperature range for their processing has been established at 400 500 °c. the tests carried out confirmed the validity of the conclusions drawn on the basis of theoretical thermodynamic calculations of pvc pyrolysis. the developed method ensures the environmental safety of recycling pvc-containing waste. 65 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us literatures 1. ershova o.v., ivanovsky s.k., chuprova l.v., bakhaeva a.n. modern composite materials based on polymer matrix // international journal of applied and fundamental research. – 2015. – no. 4-1. – pp. 14-18; url: https://applied-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=6573 (access date: 01/22/2023). 2. v.a.lukasik, a.v.popov, yu.a.antsupov, r.a.zhirnov. vulcanization grinding waste by squeezing through profiled holes // collection of scientific papers. “chemistry and technology of organoelement monomers and polymer materials volgograd, 1996.p.-164-170. 3. yu.a.antsupov , v.a.lukasik , r.a.zhirnov . m.n.dyachenko . separation of rubber cord waste from regenerative production // abstracts of the russian scientific and practical conference “raw materials and materials for the rubber industry”, moscow, 2019 p. 262. 4. a.b.golovanchikov, v.a.lukasik, r.a.zhirnov, yu.a.antsupov, v.e.subbotin . not a device for grinding composite polymer-containing waste // chemistry and technology of organoelement materials. collection of scientific works , volgograd, 2019, pp. 73-78. 5. a.g.zhirnov, yu.a.antsupov, a.b.golovanchikov, v.a.lukasik , r.a.zhirnov disposal of waste polyvinyl chloride plastic for the manufacture of classroom boards. chemistry and technology of organoelement materials. collection of scientific works , volgograd 1997. p.209-211. 6. амонов, м. р., раззоков, х. к., равшанов, к. а., мажидов, а. а., назаров, и. и., & амонова, х. и. 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(2021). аѐллар ижтимоий фаоллигини оширишда фуқаролик институтларининг ўрни. scientific progress, 1(6), 957-961. 54. http://fizmathim.com/razrabotka-tehnologii-pererabotki-vysokomolekulyarnyh-othodov-ipoluchenie-na-ih-osnove-kompozitsionnyh-materialov#ixzz5ro0nfuvv 55. https://www.bibliofond.ru/view.aspx?id=484383#text http://fizmathim.com/razrabotka-tehnologii-pererabotki-vysokomolekulyarnyh-othodov-i-poluchenie-na-ih-osnove-kompozitsionnyh-materialov#ixzz5ro0nfuvv http://fizmathim.com/razrabotka-tehnologii-pererabotki-vysokomolekulyarnyh-othodov-i-poluchenie-na-ih-osnove-kompozitsionnyh-materialov#ixzz5ro0nfuvv 1 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 01, 2023 issn (e): ххх-ххх cements of yesterday and today: concrete of tomorrow abdulhamidova hilola sherzod qizi student of the termez engineering institute of technology scientific supervisor: chorieva nigora barotaliyevna associate professor, doctor of philosophy of engineering sciences abstract:concrete, a widely used construction material, has evolved significantly over time. this article explores the historical development of cements, highlighting the transition from traditional cements to modern alternatives. the article discusses the limitations of conventional cement, the emergence of innovative cementitious materials, and their potential to shape the concrete of tomorrow. by examining the advancements in sustainable and high-performance cements, this article sheds light on the future of concrete construction. keywords: concrete, cement, cementitious materials, sustainable, high-performance, construction introduction concrete has been a fundamental material in construction for centuries. this section introduces the historical significance of concrete and its primary component, cement. it also highlights the limitations of conventional cement, such as carbon emissions and resource depletion, which necessitate the exploration of alternative cementitious materials. main part reactions: 1. formation of portland cement (cement of yesterday): • raw materials: limestone, clay, and iron ore. • reaction: the raw materials are heated to a high temperature in a kiln, resulting in a series of chemical reactions, including the formation of calcium silicates and aluminates. • chemical equation: caco3 + sio2 + al2o3 + fe2o3 → ca3sio5 + ca2sio4 + ca3al2o6 + fe2o3 2. formation of modern cement (cement of today): • various types of cements are produced using different raw materials and additives, such as fly ash, slag, silica fume, and limestone. • reactions and chemical equations depend on the specific type of cement being produced. statistics: according to the u.s. geological survey, global cement production in 2020 reached around 4.1 billion metric tons. portland cement is the most widely used cement type, accounting for the majority of global cement production. 2 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the production of traditional cement is responsible for approximately 8% of global carbon dioxide (co2) emissions. researchers are actively exploring and developing new cementitious materials, including geopolymers, calcium sulfoaluminate cements, and alkali-activated materials, to reduce the carbon footprint and improve sustainability. ultra-high-performance concrete (uhpc), a type of concrete with exceptional strength and durability, is gaining prominence in infrastructure and construction projects. ongoing research focuses on incorporating alternative binders, such as industrial by-products and waste materials, to enhance the sustainability and performance of concrete. the development of concrete with self-healing properties, enhanced thermal insulation, and improved resistance to chemical degradation is an active area of research. traditional cements this section explores the cements used in the early days of concrete construction. it discusses the development of lime-based cements, including roman pozzolanic cements, which relied on volcanic ash as a supplementary material. the properties, manufacturing techniques, and historical applications of traditional cements are examined. portland cement: the game changer the invention of portland cement in the 19th century revolutionized the construction industry. this section delves into the origins of portland cement, its production process, and its widespread adoption. the exceptional binding properties of portland cement, along with its impact on architectural possibilities, are emphasized. limitations of conventional cement despite its versatility, portland cement comes with limitations. this section discusses the environmental drawbacks of traditional cement production, including significant carbon emissions and the depletion of natural resources. the need for more sustainable and efficient cementitious materials is highlighted. innovations in cementitious materials this section presents an overview of the advancements in cementitious materials that are paving the way for the concrete of tomorrow. it explores the utilization of supplementary cementitious materials (scms) such as fly ash, slag, and silica fume, which reduce the carbon footprint of concrete. additionally, it discusses emerging alternatives like geopolymers and alkali-activated materials, which offer enhanced durability and reduced environmental impact. sustainable and high-performance cements the focus of this section is on sustainable and high-performance cements that have the potential to reshape the future of concrete. it includes discussions on eco-friendly cement formulations, such as calcium sulfoaluminate cement and magnesium-based cements. these cements demonstrate improved mechanical properties, reduced carbon emissions, and increased resistance to harsh environmental conditions. the future of concrete construction this section highlights the future prospects of concrete construction. it discusses the integration of innovative cementitious materials into sustainable construction practices, exploring concepts such as carbon capture and utilization, 3d printing, and self-healing concrete. it also emphasizes the importance of ongoing research and collaboration in pushing the boundaries of concrete technology. 3 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us aspect cements of yesterday cements of today concrete of tomorrow composition mainly portland cement various types of cement innovative cementitious materials strength moderate to high strength higher strength formulations ultra-highperformance materials durability limited durability improved durability enhanced durability and longevity environmental impact high carbon footprint reduced carbon footprint low carbon or carbon-negative sustainability limited sustainability improved sustainability focus on sustainable materials construction techniques traditional methods modern construction techniques advanced construction technologies special properties limited special properties some specialized cements tailored properties for specific needs cost affordable varied pricing cost optimization and efficiency research and development limited innovations continuous r&d efforts focus on innovation and advancements conclusion the article concludes by summarizing the historical evolution of cements, from traditional limebased cements to the game-changing portland cement. it underscores the limitations of conventional cement and the need for more sustainable and high-performance alternatives. by embracing innovative cementitious materials, the concrete of tomorrow has the potential to be environmentally friendly, durable, and economically viable. references: 1. mehta, p. k., & monteiro, p. j. (2014). concrete: microstructure, properties, and materials. mcgraw-hill education. 2. scrivener, k., martirena, f., & bishnoi, s. (2018). advances in understanding cement hydration mechanisms. cement and concrete research, 78, 38-56. 3. абдулхамидова, х., & эшкораев, с. (2022). новые цементные технологии. theoretical aspects in the formation of pedagogical sciences, 1(4), 28-31. 4. eshqorayev, s., abdulhamidova, h., & abdulhamidov, j. (2022). sement klinker to'plamlarini ishlab chiqarish: cao-sio2-al2o3-so3-cacl2-mgo. eurasian journal of academic research, 2(12), 955-958. 5. eshkoraev, s., abdulhamidova, h., & javgashev, y. (2022). ingredient of portland cement. international bulletin of applied science and technology, 2(9), 21-23. 6. eshqorayev, s., & abdulhamidova, h. (2023). unconventional method of cement production by adding new substances to clinker in portland cement production. international bulletin of engineering and technology, 3(4), 136–142. retrieved from https://internationalbulletins.com/intjour/index.php/ibet/article/view/542 https://internationalbulletins.com/intjour/index.php/ibet/article/view/542 157 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 complex assessment and justification of the quality indicators of gases obtained based on recycled fibers ochilov t. a., mengnarov sh. s., ismoilov d. a. tashkent institute of textile and light industry (uzbekistan) abstract: in this article, the complex evaluates the physical and mechanical properties of fabrics obtained from a mixture of different compositions and recycled fibers at the joint venture of safira-samira textile llc, eurasiya alliance tex llc in the bukhara region and chach tex llc in the chirchik district of tashkent area and recommended the best option. keywords: experimental, organoleptic, expert, sociological, computational, differential, complex and mixed assessment. 1. introduction the development of scientific and technical progress in the world and the increase in the volume of production of textile products lead to an increase in consumer waste, and sometimes secondary material resources in production, as a result, it is important to recycle them now. research aimed at improving the quality of renewable fibers and determining their technological reserves is of urgent importance in the current conditions of shortage of raw materials. the use of such raw materials for the production of consumer goods leads to a decrease in the cost of finished products, it is important for the rhythmic operation of the enterprise and more rational use of raw materials [1]. in the global textile industry, research and development activities aimed at the effective use of raw materials and the development of new scientific and technical solutions of resource-efficient technologies and technical tools for competitive textiles are being carried out. in this regard, special attention is paid to the development of an effective technology for obtaining quality raw materials from the secondary material resources of the sewing and knitting industry, and to save energy and resources, to develop an energy-resource-efficient technology that realizes the production of finished products from the obtained raw materials, and to substantiate its technological process, parameters and work modes. globally, fibers obtained from waste and secondary material resources from the sewing process make up 25% of all textile raw materials. this is a huge stock that can be used for production. however, only 10% of these scraps are used. basically, they are processed into materials that cannot be used for various purposes, or they are made into simpler, lower-cost ropes, furniture and technical fabrics, for wiping and other purposes [2]. in our republic, comprehensive measures are currently being taken to develop resource-saving techniques and technologies that allow effective use of secondary material resources, and certain results are being achieved. on the development strategy of the new uzbekistan for 2022-2026, among other things, important tasks have been determined, including "improving techniques and technologies in the production of new types of competitive products through the effective use of secondary material resources" is defined as the most important. in the implementation of these 158 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us tasks, including the production of a new assortment of finished products from a mixture of different fibers and secondary material resources, as well as the high-quality processing necessary for their export, it is important to create technically and technologically modernized machines that perform in the prescribed manner. as the need for textile fibers increases, the volume of waste and secondary raw materials generated during their processing also increases. the evaluation of the quality of gas production is based on the results of the determination and measurement of its quality indicators, as well as the comparison with standard and regulatory documents. because the methods of determining gas properties are mainly detailed in standards and other normative documents [3]. depending on the nature of the complex assessment, the quality indicators of the gases are divided into real and approximate complex assessment. the advantage of a comprehensive assessment is that it concludes on a number of final assessments. this assessment is not without its advantages and disadvantages, that is, we will not have complete information about its individual properties. in order to choose the right raw material, it is necessary to know the rational use of gas during the process management and use [4]. a comprehensive assessment of quality can be obtained from different calculations of individual quality indicators. the average composite assessment may not change according to the level of several quality indicators, some of them may have a lower level, and some may have a higher level [4]. 2. methods increasing the competitiveness of textile products, optimizing the assortment and structural characteristics, as well as reducing the consumption of materials and the cost of raw materials, cannot be imagined. the rational and efficient use of textile and garment scraps and secondary material resources (imr) received from the population and enterprises has a direct impact on the development and recovery of the local textile industry. universal technologies and equipment developed on the basis of newly created or modernized existing aggregates and mechanisms used in textile production are of particular importance. thus, it is possible to complete a comprehensive assessment without changing the individual quality indicators of the gas. 3. results based on the physico-mechanical properties of gasses obtained from a mixture of different composition and processed fibers, a comprehensive evaluation was carried out and the diagram is given in fig. 1. 159 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. diagram of comprehensive assessment of quality indicators of gasses obtained from a mixture of different composition and processed fibers. a comparative histogram of the comprehensive evaluation based on the physical and mechanical properties of gasses obtained from a mixture of different compositions and processed fibers is presented in fig. 2. figure 2. comparative histogram of the quality indicators of gasses obtained from a mixture of processed fibers with different composition. 160 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the analysis of the results of the comprehensive assessment based on the physico-mechanical properties of the gauzes obtained from a mixture of different composition and processed fibers showed that the area of polygons according to the quality indicators of the gasses obtained from a mixture of 10% nitron, 60% cotton and 30% secondary fibers under production conditions is 4875 mm2, 1the area of polygons according to the quality indicators of the gas obtained according to the option was 9619 mm2, the polygon area according to the quality indicators of the gas obtained according to the 2nd option was 6171 mm2, the area of polygons according to the quality indicators of the gas obtained according to the 3rd option was 1505 mm2. if we compare the obtained results with the quality indicators of the gauze obtained from a mixture of 10% nitron, 60% cotton and 30% secondary fibers under production conditions, the area of polygons according to the quality indicators of the gauze obtained according to option 1 increased by 49.4%, the area of polygons according to the quality indicators of gas obtained according to option 2 increased by 21.1%, according to the quality indicators of gas obtained according to option 3, the area of polygons decreased by 69.1%. 4. conclusion based on the results of a comprehensive assessment of the physico-mechanical properties of gasses obtained from a mixture of different composition and processed fibers, it was determined that the area of polygons according to the quality indicators of gasses obtained according to option 1 is higher than the quality indicators of gasses obtained according to other options. references 1. markovich a.b., shapovalov v.d. sposob kompleksnoy otsenki irovnya kachestva elektroizmeritelnykh priborov.-"standart i kachestvo", 1971, no. 11, p. 34. 2. goodland r. j. a. imperatives for environmental sustainability: decries / r. j. a. goodland, he. daly, j. kellenberg. р. 105. 3. solovev a.n., kiryukhin s.m. otsenka i prognozirovaniya kachestva tekstilnykh materialov. m., legkaya i pishchevaya promyshlennost, 1984. s.215. 4. kulmetov mirpolat, atanafasov mukhiddin rakhmonovich, laysheva elmira talgatovna, yuldasheva mavluda turamuratovna, akhmedova mokhinur fayzullo qizi, “effect of rate quantity on ip quality” international journal of innovative research in science, engineering and technology (ijirset), e-issn: 2319-8753, p-issn: 2347-6710, volume 10, issue 11, november 2021. 5. atanafasov mukhiddin rakhmonovich, ochilov tulkin ashurovich, valieva zulfiya fakhritdinovna, vliyanie kolichestvennogo soderjaniya otkhodov na kachestvennye kharacteristiki pryaji. scientific magazine izdaetsya ejemesyachno s december 2013 goda yavlyaetsya pechatnoy versiey setevogo jurnala universum: teknicheskie nauki, vypusk: 2(95) february 2022 chast 4. 6. muxtarov jo’rabek reyimberganovich, djumaniyozov muxammadjon baxromovich, atanafasov mukhiddin rakhmonovich, akhmedova mokhinur fayzullo qizi, “virginity of rops from returnschange of indicators”, international journal of innovative research in science, engineering and technology (ijirset), p-issn: 2347-6710, volume 10, issue 11, november 2021. 7. atanafasov mukhiddin rakhmonovich, ochilov tulkin ashurovich, usmonova shaxnoza anvarovna, yuldashyev jaxongir norquvvato’g’li, hakimov shahzod husniddin o’g’li, influence of cotton fiber of different composition and secondary material resources on single-cycle elongation deformation of yarns, international journal of innovative research in science, engineering and technology (ijirset) pissn: 2347-6710, volume 11, issue 2, february 2022. 218 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 diesel engine combustion and emission characteristics of polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether blended with biodiesel m. gandhi department of mechanical engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. gandhi@dhaanishcollege.in s. manikandan department of mechanical engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. manikandan@dhaanishcollege.in b. vaidianathan department of electronics & communication engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. vaidianathan@dhaanishcollege.in abstract: the use of biodiesel as an alternative fuel for diesel engines shows great potential. polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether, also known as pode, is frequently utilised as a fuel additive due to its high cetane number, low viscosity, and high oxygen concentration. during the course of this research, pode is combined with biodiesel as a significant fuel component in order to enhance the low-temperature flow properties and viscosity of biodiesel. the objective of this study is to achieve superior engine emission characteristics and efficiency in comparison to the baseline operation that was carried out using neat diesel. diesel (d100), biodiesel (b100), and biodiesel/pode blend fuel (b85p15) will be used in the trials, and they will be carried out in a direct injection diesel engine while the engine is working under varying loads. the data on combustion, the amount of fuel consumed, and the emissions of gas are measured. the b85p15 model delivers the lowest soot emission, which is less than 0.01 grammes per kilowatt-hour, as well as the maximum combustion efficiency and the highest indicated thermal efficiency. keywords: biodiesel, polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether (pode), diesel, cetane number. introduction as a substitute feedstock for biodiesel synthesis, some researchers have begun working on using inexpensive food oils. seeds from microalgae, castor, and jatropha are among the most promising and dependable non-edible oil feedstock sources due to their high seed oil concentration [9-13]. we may use the same infrastructure and equipment to store and transport biodiesel as you would for regular petroleum diesel, and it can be used in nearly any standard internal combustion diesel engine without any modifications. one of the biggest issues the transportation sector is encountering is the high idle conditions that result from engines operating at low loads and rated speeds. because of this, the engine can't reach its maximum operating temperature while this is happening. this causes the fuel to remain in the exhaust after combustion is complete, which 219 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us increases the amount of pollutants. additionally, fuel consumption rises due to idling [14-19]. vehicles and engineering machinery rely on diesel engines due to their efficiency. nevertheless, the after-treatment cost to reduce intrinsic nox and particulate matter (pm) emissions is rising dramatically due to the tightening of laws. in addition, according to the world energy council (wec) [1], the diesel-to-gasoline demand ratio will rise from 1.5 in 2020 to 3.8 in 2040 [20-25]. without investigating potential substitutes for petroleum diesel, the fuel shortage for diesel engines is only going to worsen. because of its high oxygen content, similar physical and chemical qualities to petro-diesel, and abundant resources, biodiesel is being considered as a possible alternative to petroleum diesel fuel [2-4]. renewability is an additional benefit of biodiesel [2631]. biodiesel can effectively reduce well-to-wheel co₂ emissions by 50–80% compared to petroleum diesel, despite some higher energy consumption during manufacturing [5,6]. from a co₂ emission reduction standpoint, this makes biodiesel an attractive fuel for diesel engines. the manufacture and use of biodiesel have been actively promoted by numerous nations. u.s., brazilian, and german producers accounted for the vast majority of 2014's 29.7 billion litres of biodiesel [32-41]. both the us and eu have promised to increase biofuels' share of the market in the future [8]. a national standard for biodiesel was introduced in 2007 by china's national standards commission, signalling that the country was also starting to pay attention to the use of biodiesel. biodiesel combustion, emissions, and performance have been the subject of research at national and international institutes. research has demonstrated that biodiesel plays a role. nox emissions rise as hydrocarbon (hc) and carbon monoxide (co) emissions fall. brake thermal efficiency typically remains relatively unchanged or even improves somewhat, even though brake special fuel consumption (bsfc) rises as a result of biodiesel's low heating value. biodiesel outperforms diesel in engine bench tests when it comes to particulate matter and unburned gaseous emissions. nevertheless, there are still a few obstacles to overcome when using biodiesel in diesel engines [42-49]. the main issue is the poor lowand low-temperature flow characteristics. the high cloud points of biodiesel fuels might lead to fuel delivery line blockages. the kinematic viscosity of biodiesel fuels is similarly high. fuel atomization and breakdown are both negatively affected by too high viscosity, which can lower combustion quality and cause issues with engine deposits. in homogenous charge compression ignition (hcci) mode, polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (pode) exhibits remarkable combustion stability under lean burn and high exhaust gas recirculation (egr) circumstances, thanks to its high cetane number and over 50% oxygen content. low volatility and cloud points are characteristics of podes with a degree of polymerization less than 5. diesel fuel's cloud point and viscosity can be decreased, according to previous research, by adding pode that has a lower cloud point and viscosity. the addition of pode to petroleum fuel significantly decreases soot emissions [50-56]. consequently, there is a larger possibility for decreasing diesel engine emissions by blending pode and biodiesel, since their physical features can compliment each other. polymerization processes can be used to create poden from methanol [57-65]. the coal chemical industry makes methanol readily available. since china's coal resource is significantly larger than its oil resource, the country's energy structure might be rationalised by employing poden in diesel engines. wang, 220 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us zheng, et al. (2013) created a commercial technique for producing poden with a capacity of 30 kt/year. one metric tonne of poden requires 1.3 metric tonnes of methanol, and its manufacture costs around $500 per metric ton—making it less expensive than diesel in china. the lowtemperature flow characteristics and poor viscosity of biodiesel can be enhanced by blending pode with it. if a fuel blend of biodiesel and pode also demonstrated comparable results. as a potential replacement fuel for compression ignition engines in the future, diesel engines provide improved combustion, emission characteristics, and efficiency. nonetheless, biodiesel/pode blend fuel has received scant attention from researchers up until this point. in order to create biodiesel/pode blend fuel, this article mixes pode with biodiesel. we compare and contrast the engine efficiency, combustion parameters, and pollutant emissions of engines running on petroleum diesel and pure biodiesel with those running on biodiesel/pode blend fuel [66-72]. a pode with a low polymerization degree (<5) exhibits minimal volatility and cloud points, as demonstrated in table 1. diesel fuel's cloud point and viscosity can be decreased, according to previous research, by adding pode that has a lower cloud point and viscosity. the addition of pode to petroleum fuel significantly decreases soot emissions. consequently, there is a larger possibility for decreasing diesel engine emissions by blending pode and biodiesel, since their physical features can compliment each other [73-79]. the low-temperature flow characteristics and poor viscosity of biodiesel can be enhanced by blending pode with it. a potential future alternative fuel for compression ignition engines might be biodiesel/pode blend fuel, provided it demonstrates comparable or improved combustion, emission characteristics, and efficiency in a diesel engine. nonetheless, biodiesel/pode blend fuel has received scant attention from researchers up until this point [80-89]. in order to create biodiesel/pode blend fuel, this article mixes pode with biodiesel. we compare and contrast the engine efficiency, combustion parameters, and pollutant emissions of engines running on petroleum diesel and pure biodiesel with those running on biodiesel/pode blend fuel [90-97]. literature review in their study, ahmed et al. [1] compared baseline diesel fuel with blends of 10% and 15% ethanol-diesel. they discovered that when applied to a compression ignition engine, the blends resulted in a 27% and 41% reduction in particulate matter (pm), respectively. on the other hand, the blends saw an increase of 4% and 5% in nitrogen oxides (nox), respectively. in addition, there are a few drawbacks to using ethanol-diesel blends. for example, you'll need an additive to make sure the two fuels mix well, and the mixed fuel isn't very lubricating. to help stabilise ethanol in diesel mixtures, biodiesel could be a useful ingredient. blends of diesel, biodiesel, and ethanol were investigated for their solubility and emission properties by kwanchareon [2]. at high engine loads, they discovered that co and hc were much reduced, while nox were more than with diesel fuel. according to hansen et al. [3], ethanol has the potential to be an efficient addition for decreasing nox emissions since it lowers the combustion temperature as a result of increased evaporation heat, which in turn reduces nox emissions. various sources of biodiesel fuel have different physical and chemical properties, which means they could not always match the standard standards (rao et al., [4]). because of its unique composition, biodiesel fuel has the potential to alter the way a diesel engine burns. because of its greater density and viscosity, biodiesel, for instance, can lead to subpar spray and atomization when injected. the efficiency and pollution levels of mahua biodiesel mixed with ethanol were investigated by bhale [5]. using 20% blended 221 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fuel reduced co and no emissions, but increased hc emissions, according to their study. nevertheless, there is a dearth of information regarding the efficacy and emissions of additives such as dimethyl ether when combined with neat biodiesel (b100) made from jatropha oil. according to rehman [6], the quantities of nitrogen oxides in emissions rose as the biodiesel content of jatropha oil rose, whereas the concentrations of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide fell. further research is needed to determine the impact of antioxidant addition on the combustion parameters of diesel generators when employing biodiesel-diesel blends containing jatropha oil. biodiesel is known to have worse oxidation stability, a greater cold filter plugging point (cfpp), and higher densities and kinematic viscosities (kv) than diesel, according to gerpen et al. [7]. (a mixture of paraffinic, naphthenic, and aromatic hydrocarbons). when fuel solidifies at the cfpp, it can clog the fuel filter to the point that the engine stops running. because of its potential to clog engine fuel lines and filters, biodiesel isn't ideal for usage in colder climes due to its poor lowtemperature flow qualities. density is one of many biodiesel fuel qualities that are related to other metrics, such as heating value and cetane number. when comparing the fuel attributes of diesel blends with jatropha oil methyl esters (jmes) at various blending ratios to the biodiesel-diesel blend criteria, such as oxidation stability and cfpp, chen et al. [8] found some interesting results. it was determined that there were relationships between the fuel attributes of jmes-diesel blends and the blending ratio of jmes. our earlier research indicated that the jmes might be made more resistant to oxidation by adding the phenolic antioxidant pyrrogallol (py). fuel preparation and experimental setup in this study, three different fuels were evaluated: diesel (d100), biodiesel (b100), and a biodiesel/pode mix fuel containing fifteen percent pode by volume (b85p15). with a mass distribution of 2.553 percent for pode2, 88.9 percent for pode3, and 8.48 percent for pode4, the pode was synthesised and separated. table 2 lists the basic characteristics of the three fuels and pode that were tested. figure 1 displays the distillation curves. the boiling range of b85p15 is clearly lower than that of b100, suggesting that biodiesel's volatility can be enhanced by adding pode. approximately 15% of b85p15 is oxygen. when the oxygen percentage is less than 15%, our earlier research demonstrated that raising the oxygen content successfully reduced soot emissions. beyond 15%, however, any increases to the fuel blend's oxygen percentage would have little effect on ds emissions. table 1: pode properties the surrounding area has elevated pollution levels. car companies are working hard to meet the strict emission standards while simultaneously improving the performance and efficiency of fuel density (g/cc) cetane number oxygen content (%wt) lower heating value(mj/kg) diesel 0.830 56 0.05 42.68 dme 0.67 55 34.8 27.33 pode2 0.96 63 45.3 20.32 pode3 1.02 78 47.1 19.13 pode4 1.06 90 48.2 18.38 pode5 1.1 100 49 17.85 222 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us their engines. with each passing day, both the demand for and supply of fossil fuels continue to rise. diesel has substantially greater demand than gasoline in countries like india. biodiesel is introduced to the market to fulfil this need. it is possible to substitute some of the diesel fuel used in this nation with biodiesel, a renewable fuel made from both new and recycled vegetable oil, which burns reasonably cleanly. jatropha oil using industry-standard procedures, we tested diesel with jatropha curcas oil to identify its most salient physical and chemical characteristics. table 1 displays the findings of the analysis. the findings reveal that vegetable oil has a heating value that is similar to diesel oil, but diesel fuels have a slightly lower cetane number. diesel oil has a lower flash point and kinematic viscosity than jatropha curcas oil, which is several times greater. pretreatment: this process begins with filtering the jatropha oil to remove any solids, then heating it to 110 c for 30 minutes to evaporate any moisture (moisture is responsible for saponification in the reaction). we extracted a tiny amount of usable wax, carbon residue, unsaponifiable material, and fibre after de-moisturizing the oil. we conducted significant experiments on the oil's accessible free fatty acids [98-109]. esterification: free fatty acids range from 6% to 20% (wt) in jatropha oil, according to references 13–16. a catalyst is used to facilitate the chemical reaction between jatropha oil and an alcohol (methyl) in order to form the methyl ester. after heating the jatropha crude oil to 50c, half a percent sulfuric acid by weight is added to the oil, followed by thirteen percent methyl alcohol by weight. to hasten the process, methyl alcohol is added in excess. over the course of 90 minutes, with stirring at 650 rpm and a temperature range of 55–57 c, the reaction was monitored for free fatty acid (ffa) levels every 25–30 minutes. the reaction comes to a halt when the ffa concentration drops below 1% [110-117]. fuel management, storage, and transportation are all profoundly impacted by the flash point. storage and transportation of fuels with higher flash points are safer. one significant safety benefit of biodiesel is its 50% higher flash point compared to diesel. additionally, the flash points of biodiesel-diesel blends are higher than those of regular diesel. according to the reports we looked at, the typical flash point for biodiesel-diesel mixes is at 107.75 celius [118-124]. one of the major concerns with biodiesel is its lacklustre physicochemical characteristics when exposed to low temperatures, which makes it difficult to thin out jatropha oil, which has a high viscosity (poor low-temperature flow property). in relation to the fuel temperature, cloud point, and pour point, the molecular structure and quantity of saturated fatty acid methyl esters are the primary determinants of the low-temperature flow feature. this quality is particularly crucial in colder regions, where crystals may form and clog fuel lines and filters, causing various difficulties. in addition, as the wax hardens, it forms an emulsion with water on the engine parts' cold surfaces [125-131]. experiment setup 223 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a four-cylinder common-rail diesel engine was modified into a one-cylinder research engine, which is used as the test engine. a four-cylinder common-rail diesel engine was modified into a one-cylinder research engine, which is used as the test engine. the fuel injectors, intake valves, and exhaust pipes of the first cylinder are deactivated, and it has its own separate fuel delivery system. details about the powerplant. the engine is outfitted with a research-type electronic control unit (ecu) that enables complimentary and autonomous regulation of injection parameters, including injection pressure, injection number, and injection timing. the engine testing system is illustrated in figure 2, which is a schematic. setting up the engine for operation. the experiment was carried out at a speed of 1600 rpm with five different engine loads: 0.4 mpa, 0.6 mpa, 0.8 mpa, 0.9 mpa, and 1.0 mpa. with an intake temperature of 30 ± 2 ɗ c, the engine operated in natural aspiration mode without exhaust gas recirculation (egr). the temperatures of the coolant and lubrication oil were kept at 80 ± 2 ɗc. injecting the pilot followed the engine's initial plan. pilot injection pressures and durations at varying loads are referenced on the engine map. to reach the desired load, a small adjustment was made to the primary injection duration [132-137]. if the incoming air is pulsating, the volumetric efficiency diminishes; the surge tank is utilised for continuous flow of air. the surge tank is a solution to this problem. a water-cooled heat exchanger is used to cool the exhaust gas before it is mixed with the fresh intake air. starting the ltc mode with the egr. the avl di-gas analyzer 444 was used to measure the engine's exhaust emissions. in particular, it tracks hc, co, nox, o2, and co2. the emissions are measured by inserting a gas analyzer probe into the exhaust pipe. the emission level and smoke intensity were measured using two different sampling probes that were inserted into the engine to collect exhaust gas samples. we took smoke samples from the engine using filter paper with a diameter of 50 mm. the temperature of the exhaust gas was measured using a k-type thermocouple and a temperature indicator. the cylinder pressure was monitored using a water-cooled kistler (601a) transducer. table 2: engine specification the engine's power output was measured using the electrical dynamometer. it works by changing the strength of the field, which is based on the reaction principle. an electrical instrument must be used to measure the generator's output, and the output's magnitude must be adjusted to account for the generator's efficiency. cooling system air displacement 662 cm3 stroke 110 mm bore 87.5 mm compression ratio 17.5:1 injection pressure 200 bar injection timing 23 btdc rated output 4.4kw at 1500 rpm rated speed 1500 rpm 224 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us result and discussion at fourteen minutes before the top dead centre, the pilot injection takes place (btdc). a minor amount of heat is released initially, followed by the main discharge. the pilot injection fuel amount is tiny at low load, and the cylinder temperature and pressure are relatively low when it occurs. as a result, the fuel is blended before combustion, and the mixture is rather lean. fuel chemical reactivity dominates the beginning of combustion under lean-burn circumstances. among the fuels tested, d100 had the best cetane number, heating value, and pilot combustion heat release rates. a low heating value is preferable for late ignition and low heat release rates, while a high cetane number is preferable for early combustion. to summarise, when comparing b100 with b85p15, the former shows a little earlier pilot combustion and a comparable peak pilot heat release rate. it is possible for fuel mixes closer to the injector to be more mixed than those further downstream [43]. during the pilot combustion, the mixture may not burn well due to being too lean near the injector. due to its high viscosity, biodiesel retards over-mixing close to the pilot injection injector, allowing for more efficient combustion in that area. hence, b100 and b85p15 might have a reactive hot environment that is on par with or better than d100 close to the injector, but having a lower global pilot heat emission. consequently, at 0.4 mpa imep, the three fuels begin their major burning in very similar ways. all three fuels have very similar primary heat release geometries. the peak of the heat release rate shows a small variation (marked by a circle). the main heat release rate is highest for d100 because of its low viscosity. the addition of low-viscosity pode enhances air-fuel premixing, resulting in a greater main combustion rate for b85p15 compared to b100 (figure 1). figure 1: combustion duration at various loads. it displays emissions of soot and nox under different loads. all three fuels produce comparable amounts of soot when operating at low loads. previous study has demonstrated that using b100 significantly reduces soot at high loads [44,45]. the combination of b100's high oxygen content and its lack of aromatics results in very low soot emissions. pode outperforms biodiesel and its molecular structure in terms of oxygen concentration. combustion of the fuel and air is made easier by the mixture's low viscosity. for this reason, pode offers greater benefits when it comes to reducing soot. under heavy load, b85p15 produces significantly less soot than b100, according to the results. when subjected to a load of 0.4 mpa, b100 and b85p15 produce somewhat less nox than d100 does under higher loads. for all fuels, 225 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us air is more than enough at low loads. there is no cac bond in pode. another way to establish this effect is to compare the nox values from the b85p15 and b100 examples. during the load sweep, the three fuels typically produce equal amounts of nitrogen oxides (figure 2). figure 2: nox emissions at various loads. diesel particulate filters (dpfs) are required to achieve the soot objective since, under high load, d100's soot emissions are significantly greater than the acceptable value. despite a significant decrease compared to d100, the soot emissions for b100 still fall short of the target. during the load sweep, only b85p15 achieves soot emissions that are close to or below the target. as a result, compared to d100, b85p15 may save a dpf and yet meet euro vi emission requirements (figure 4). all three fuels produce nearly identical levels of hc emissions. combustion temperature rises with increasing load, reducing hc and co emissions. it is possible that the low cetane number explains why b100 produces a lot of co at low loads. when compared to b100, b85p15 produces 20% less co emissions at 0.4 mpa imep. when compared to b100, b85p15 produces 20% less co emissions at 0.4 mpa imep. oxygen becomes inadequate and d100 produces its maximum co emissions when engine load surpasses 0.8 mpa imep. reduced co emissions and leanoxygen zones are possible because to b100's oxygen content. biodiesel's co emissions can be further reduced by adding pode, which has a lower volatility and an even higher oxygen content. compared to b100, b85p15 produces 36% less co emissions at 1.0 mpa imep. combustion efficiency typically improves as engine load increases. during the load sweep, the combustion efficiency of b85p15, d100, and b100 is comparable. combustion efficiency is marginally worse at low loads for b100 and somewhat worse at high loads for d100. heat release phasing is delayed at high load, therefore the peak ite happens at 0.4-0.6 mpa imep. the ite of the b100 is greater under heavy loads but lower under light ones when compared to the d100. because of its very efficient combustion and very short combustion period, b85p15 achieves the maximum ite during the load sweep. combustion of the fuel and air is made easier by the mixture's low viscosity. for this reason, pode offers greater benefits when it comes to reducing soot. under heavy load, b85p15 produces significantly less soot than b100, according to the results. when subjected to a load of 0.4 mpa, b100 and b85p15 produce somewhat less nox than d100 does under higher loads. for all fuels, air is more than enough at low loads. the premixed 226 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us combustion rate and peak combustion temperature of d100 are both higher. diesel particulate filters (dpfs) are required to achieve the soot objective since, under high load, d100's soot emissions are significantly greater than the acceptable value. despite a significant decrease compared to d100, the soot emissions for b100 still fall short of the target. during the load sweep, only b85p15 achieves soot emissions that are close to or below the target. conclusion the biodiesel/pode blend fuel is created by mixing pode with biodiesel (b85p15). we compare b85p15 to pure biodiesel and petroleum diesel (d100) in terms of engine efficiency, pollution emissions, and combustion characteristics (b100). using b100 and b85p15, the engine runs well. compared to d100, b100 and b85p15 have no discernible effect on the engine's ignition delay or combustion phasing. at low loads, all three fuels release heat at about the same rate; but, at high loads, b100 and b85p15 release more heat than d100 does through diffusion combustion. at heavy load, b85p15's total combustion duration is 5 cad lower than d100's. b100 produces less soot when operating at high load in comparison to d100. an additional 50% reduction in soot emissions is possible with the addition of pode. b85p15 shows soot emissions of approximately or significantly less than 0.01 g/kw.h during the load sweep. combustion efficiency is lower at low loads for d100 and higher for b100. 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ai in healthcare”, international journal of sustainable development through ai, ml and iot, vol. 2, no. 2, p. 1-18, 2023. 128. sunil kumar sehrawat, “the role of artificial intelligence in erp automation: state-of-the-art and future directions”, transactions on latest trends in artificial intelligence, vol. 4, no. 4, 2023. 81 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 design and analysis of a disc brake rotor made of aluminum alloy m. gandhi department of mechanical engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. gandhi@dhaanishcollege.in s. manikandan department of mechanical engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. manikandan@dhaanishcollege.in b. vaidianathan department of electronics & communication engineering dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. vaidianathan@dhaanish college.in abstract: automobiles have grown indispensable in our rapidly evolving environment. the dependability of a vehicle is just as important as its safety features. disc brakes made of 6061 aluminium are the focus of this project's design and study. solidworks is used for modelling, and for thermal and structural reasons, finite element analysis is run as a coupled field. disc brakes that generate frictional heat undergo a transient finite element analysis (fea) study of the thermoelastic contact problem (ansys). prior to the distribution of temperatures, there was the thermal analysis, and in structural analysis, the distribution of stresses is done using the ansys analysis programme. it is possible to model the disc brake's thermoelastic behaviour under repeated braking conditions, which is a phenomenon that happens in disc brakes. in order to aid in the conceptual design of the disc brake system, the computational results for the distribution of heat flux and temperature on each friction surface between the contacting bodies are presented. the impact of material properties on the thermo elastic behaviours, specifically the maximum temperature on these surfaces, is also investigated. the investigation is carried out by contrasting the materials of grey cast iron and aluminium alloy 6061. other properties, such wear resistance, are measured in accordance with astm guidelines. the acquired properties are contrasted with those of the preexisting material, grey cast iron. compared to aluminium alloy 6061, grey cast iron performs better under thermoelastic circumstances. keywords: aluminum alloy 6061, grey cast iron, temperature distribution, stress distribution. thermoelastic conditions, introduction the term "brake" refers to a mechanical device that is used to constrain motion by absorbing energy from a system that is moving. a moving vehicle, wheel, or axle can be slowed down or stopped, or it can be prevented from moving at all. this is performed by the use of friction, which is the most common method. in order to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, the majority of brakes make use of friction between two surfaces that are forced together [6-11]. however, alternative techniques of energy conversion may also be utilised. the callipers of a disc brake are used to apply pressure to pairs of pads that are pressed against a disc, also known as a "rotor," in order to facilitate friction. this action slows the rotation of a shaft, such as an axle attached to a vehicle, with the purpose of either reducing the speed at which the shaft rotates or holding it motionless. it is necessary to disperse the waste heat 82 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us that is produced as a result of the conversion of motion energy [12-17]. in the same way that disc brakes have become an essential component of automobiles, they have also become an intrinsic feature of the automobile. the disc brake has rendered the usage of a variety of traditional techniques of braking ineffective in comparison to the disc brake [18-22]. when compared to the stopping power of the drum brake, the disc brake stops significantly more quickly. when compared to the drum brake, the disc brake takes up just a smaller amount of area and weighs significantly less. heat is dissipated more efficiently by the disc brake than by any else. when inspecting disc brake systems, it is not necessary to remove the wheels from the vehicle [23-27]. disc brakes are advantageous because, as they go through the process of warming up, the disc expands and moves closer to the pads. this means that you do not need to apply as much force to the pedal in order to get satisfactory braking. when we compared disc brakes to drum brakes, we found that disc brakes have superior anti-fade qualities. the design of these is pretty straightforward. furthermore, when compared to the process of replacing friction lining in the drum brakes, replacing friction pads is a significantly simpler task. when it comes to drum brakes, flat friction pads are compared to curved friction lining. this results in uniform wear and a wider selection of friction materials to choose from [28-34]. in the event that it rains or if you drive over puddles, the drum brake has the potential to have water collected inside of it. in rainy situations, this can cause the drum brakes to function less effectively than they normally would [35-39]. calculus differential equations and partial differential equations are examples of situations in which the employment of infinitesimally "differential elements" is defined by the phrase "finite element." it is a method for dealing with structural analysis, which is a complicated process by which it is quite challenging to obtain proper value in analysing. the utilisation of a greater number of smaller elements in mesh, as opposed to a few bigger elements, results in the production of accurate values [40-45]. in the process of doing complex shape analysis of stress, displacements, and support reactions, it provides a method that is quite sophisticated on its own. instead of dealing with finite differential equations, finite element analysis (fea) deals with complex boundaries, and its scope has been expanded by forty years [46-51]. software design is the process by which an agent generates a specification of a software artefact that is meant to accomplish goals by utilising a set of primitive components that are subject to restrictions with the intention of achieving those goals. either "all the activity involved in conceptualising, framing, implementing, commissioning, and ultimately modifying complex systems" or "the activity following requirements specification and before programming, as in a stylized software engineering process" are both examples of what can be referred to as "software design [52-57]." problem-solving and the planning of a software solution are typically involved in the process of designing software. low-level components, algorithm design, and high-level architecture design are all things that fall under this category. literature review kumar et al. [1] investigate the static and thermal analysis of the disc brake by employing a variety of materials, including carbon fibre, s2 glass fibre, aluminium, and grey cast iron. the results of their investigation were examined using the ansys software. under order to carry out the study, a simulation of the pressure that is developing on the disc as a result of the application of the brake in real-time conditions is implemented. comparisons and analyses are being performed on the heat flux capabilities of the materials as well as their heat dissipation capabilities. additionally, the features such as wear resistance have been investigated. in this analysis, both vented and solid discs are taken into consideration. during the static analysis, it was discovered that grey cast iron contains the highest level of deformation, despite the fact that it is a material that is utilised in the industry for basic purposes. in ansys, ahirwar and choubey [2] discuss the design and analysis of the disc brake rotor, which involves the use of a variety of materials. the materials that were utilised in the construction of this project are carbon fibre, titanium alloy, aluminium alloy, and grey cast iron. the primary goal is to lessen the amount of thermal distortion that occurs in the modular brake rotor components. in addition, it demonstrates that the effectiveness of the brake system is dependent on the behaviour of the brake when it is subjected to high temperatures. the stress comparison and the deformation comparison are currently being made, and graphs are being graphed, which will lead to the conclusion that carbon fibre will be the material of choice for the disc brake rotor in the future. the process of analysing a braking automobile in real time is the focus of this investigation. in addition to this, the maximum deformation of the materials is being measured and compared to the material that is already there. 83 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the design and thermal analysis of a disc brake rotor made of aluminium alloy 2014 is investigated for its temperature distribution features. this study was conducted by maneiah et al. [3]. a piece of software called nx9 is being used to perform the analysis on the models. during the finite element analysis, the thermal properties of the aluminium alloy are compared with those of mild steel for a variety of different numbers of elements. the temperature distribution at various radii is also analysed in this comparison. the research conducted by ramanajanyulu et al. [4] focuses on the design and analysis of the disc brake rotor in ansys, utilising a variety of materials based on their composition. the materials that were utilised in the construction of this project include structural steel, stainless steel, grey cast iron, and aluminium alloy 5083-h116. for the modular brake rotor, the primary goal is to limit the amount of heat and stress that it experiences. in addition, it demonstrates that the effectiveness of the brake system is dependent on the behaviour of the brake when it is subjected to high temperatures. the stress comparison and the deformation comparison are currently being made, and graphs are being graphed, which will lead to the conclusion that carbon fibre will be the material of choice for the disc brake rotor in the future. the process of analysing a braking automobile in real time is the focus of this investigation. in addition to this, the maximum deformation of the materials is being measured and compared to the material that is already there. an investigation of the mechanical performance and analysis of comparison of various materials, including alloy steel, cast iron steel, and aluminium alloy 1060, was carried out by nathil and charyulu [5]. the primary purpose of the investigation is to recreate the disc brake under a variety of mechanical circumstances using a variety of material qualities. it has been determined that the stress experienced by cast iron and aluminium alloy is comparable to one another. research gap the discipline of engineering is currently seeing a significant amount of study and the development of new inventions in the material. additionally, the analysis brings about the most significant revolution in the world of engineering. therefore, as part of a research project, we will be conducting the analysis of the material. the numerous materials are evaluated using a variety of techniques, and they are discovered for use in a wide range of engineering applications. during the process of determining the possibilities for the disc rotor material, the static conditions are considered, while the dynamic conditions are forgotten about. it is not possible to make use of linked thermoelastic properties or to conduct an analysis where friction characteristics between the rotor and the brake pad are taken into consideration. as a result, we conducted extensive study and analysis on that material, and now we are going to use the finite element analysis method to investigate this material in order to determine its mechanical and thermal behaviour under dynamic situations. material selection and fabrication the discipline of engineering is currently seeing a significant amount of study and the development of new inventions in the material. additionally, the analysis brings about the most significant revolution in the world of engineering. therefore, as part of a research project, we will be conducting the analysis of the material. numerous materials are discovered for use in disc brake applications, and these materials are investigated using a variety of techniques. a trend that has been developing in the design business over the past few years is the utilisation of materials that are lighter in weight. aluminum has been the subject of investigation by a great number of researchers as a potential replacement material due to the fact that it has a low density and excellent structural and thermal qualities. the use of various grades of aluminium has been investigated, however it has been discovered that the use of aluminium 6061 is lacking in comparison to other grades [58-66]. the production of composites made of aluminium has been the subject of research, and the findings indicate that aluminium composite can be suggested in situations when cost is not a consideration. however, the industry requires that the material be readily available and inexpensive in order to meet its requirements. on the other hand, aluminium 6061 might be a suitable substitute. as a result, we conducted extensive study and analysis on that material, and now we are going to use the finite element analysis method to investigate this material in order to determine its mechanical and thermal behaviour [67-73]. design procedure if we want to solve the analysis, we use ansys 15. we begin by designing the three-dimensional geometry in 84 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us solidworks 13 using the precise dimensions of the model that is already in existence. after that, we make an effort to introduce material data for grey cast iron and aluminium alloy 6061 in a separate manner. through the utilisation of solidworks, the precise dimensions of the brake pad and brake rotor are modelled by utilising the material that is already there [74-81]. after being assembled in the solidworks assembly platform, the modelled brake rotor and brake pad are then imported into the ansys workbench for the purpose of conducting an analysis for thermal and static stresses (figure 1). figure 1: mesh (internet source ) experimental method an device known as a tribometer is used to measure tribological quantities between two surfaces that are in contact with one another. these quantities include the coefficient of friction, the friction force, and the wear volume. a bouncing ball, also known as a ball on a disc tribometer, is nothing more than a ball that is struck against a surface at an angle [82-89]. in the course of a typical test, a ball is moved along a track at an angle until it collides with a surface and then bounces off of the surface. the ball and the surface come into contact with one another, which causes friction to be formed. this friction causes a horizontal force to be exerted on the surface, while the ball experiences a rotational force [90-96]. find the rotational speed of the ball by utilising high-speed photography or measure the force on the horizontal surface to get the frictional force. both of these methods are used to determine the frictional force. due to the significant instantaneous force that is created by the collision on the ball, the pressure that is present in the contact is extremely high [97-105]. a simulation of any given physical phenomenon is what is known as a finite element analysis (fea), and it is accomplished through the use of a numerical approach known as the finite element method (fem). fracture element analysis (fea) is a numerical method that is used to forecast how a part or assembly will react under specific conditions. for the purpose of assisting engineers in locating weak spots, places of tension, and other parts of their designs, it serves as the foundation for contemporary simulation software [106-112]. in most cases, the outcomes of a simulation that incorporates the finite element analysis (fea) technique are shown by means of a colour scale that illustrates, for instance, the pressure distribution over the item. comparative analysis the ansys simulation is obtained by repeated brake applications in order to explore the behaviour of disc brakes in terms of transient thermoelastic analysis. in point of fact, the variation in the spinning speed that occurs while braking is something that must be determined by the mechanics of the vehicle. the rotational speed of the disc, on the other hand, was believed to be a known value throughout the course of this investigation. this figure illustrates the temporal history of the hydraulic pressure p and the angular speed ω that are assumed to be present during the brake cycle. braking (for 4.5 seconds), acceleration (for 10.5), and driving at a constant speed are the components that make up one cycle (5 sec) [113-121]. it was assumed that the hydraulic pressure p would build linearly to 1 mpa by 1.5 seconds in each operation, and then it would remain constant till 4.5 seconds came around. it was also assumed that the angular velocity ù would decrease in a linear fashion, and it would eventually reach zero at 4.5 seconds. when doing the computations, the time step δt = 1 second was utilised. when calculating the heat convection coefficient, the formula h = 100 w / m2k is widely used. the investigation is carried out for two distinct rotating rates of the rotor, namely 145 and 241.55 revolutions per second [122-127]. 85 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us temperature figure 2: temp of al6061 and gci (internet source ) in order to imitate the formation of heat, the temperature that was applied to the inner walls of the crack had to be high enough. it was discovered that the maximum temperature that was achieved was nearly same for both al6061 and gci at approximately 1000 degrees celsius (figure 2) [128-132]. however, the highest temperature that can be reached in aluminium is lower than the maximum temperature that can be reached in grey cast iron. when compared to grey cast iron, the overall heat flow of al6061 is somewhat lower. the highest value that can be achieved by al6061 is 3672.9 w/mm2, while the greatest value that can be achieved by grey cast iron is 3635.7 w/mm2 (figure 3). figure 3: boundary condition at 60 kmph (internet source ) 86 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ball on disc wear test sample 1 load: 5n speed: 300 rpm time: 900 sec figure 4: tribological properties at 300 rpm mean coefficient of friction: 0.670 mean frictional force: 3.5 n wear property gradually increases from 150 micrometres at 1 sec to 250 micrometres at 850 sec. sample 2 load: 10 n speed: 500 rpm time: 900 sec figure 5: tribological properties at 500 rpm mean coefficient of friction: 0.705 mean frictional force: 7 n wear property gradually increases from 0 micrometres at 1 sec to 1000 micrometres at 900 sec. sample 3 load: 15n speed: 850 rpm time: 900 sec 87 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 6: tribological properties at 850 rpm mean coefficient of friction: 0.480 mean frictional force: 6.5 n wear property gradually increases and becomes near constant 200 micrometres from 200 sec to 900 sec. table 1: mass loss characteristics sample load (n) speed (rpm) time (sec) ball mass loss (grams) disc mass loss (grams) 1 5 300 900 0.0013 0.0281 2 10 500 900 0.0004 0.0556 3 15 850 900 0.0010 0.1616 table 2: wear test readings sample load (n) velocity (m/s) speed (rpm) ball mass (grams) disc mass (grams) before after before after 1 5 0.39 300 4.0734 4.0721 22.6309 22.6028 2 10 0.654 500 4.0720 4.0713 24.6956 24.64 3 15 1.112 850 4.0739 4.0729 25.6850 25.5234 upon examination of the aforementioned data (figures 4 to 6 as well as tables 1 and 2), it has been determined that the wear rate of the specimen becomes nearly constant as the speed of the specimen increases. the disc mass loss that occurs as a result of wear rises in a manner that is both nonlinear and proportionate to the corresponding speed and load, as shown in the tables [133-139]. result & discussion under thermoelastic circumstances, the grey cast iron material possesses superior qualities to those of the aluminium alloy. these superior properties may be seen in the areas of equivalent stress, deformation, and frictional characteristics including frictional stress and sliding distance [140-141]. when it comes to steady state thermal values, grey cast iron and aluminium alloy are practically same in terms of their thermal properties. however, aluminium alloy is slightly lower than grey cast iron in terms of its thermal characteristics. at last, we conduct an analysis of the graph by contrasting the deformation, stress, and heat flow of every sample prior to the application of each individual load. when both the load and the speed are increased, the wear in aluminium alloy becomes closer and closer to being constant. both the rotational speed and the load that is being applied to the ball cause an increase in the frictional force. additionally, the frictional force increases as the rotational speed increases. with ball loads of 10 n and 15 n, it obtains a mean value of 6.5 n. this is the maximum value. in a similar manner, the ball mass loss looks to be gradually growing as the load that is currently being applied to the disc grows. the results of the ball-on-disc experiment indicate that the wear rate appears to remain constant in aluminium as the speed of the disc increases, whereas it increases in grey cast iron over the same time period. because of the increased stress on the ball and the increased speed of the disc, the temperature of the pin and chamber likewise drops. conclusion based on the comparison between the simulation and the graph that was acquired through analysis, we have come to the conclusion that aluminium is suitable for use in thermal analysis due to the fact that it possesses favourable thermal properties. in the process of comparing the static analysis in the journals that were included in the literature review, it was discovered that the deformation in aluminium was significantly lower. as a result, it is ideal to make use of 88 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us aluminium. nevertheless, when compared with the thermoelastic qualities, the deformation and the sliding distance are more in aluminium than they are in grey cast iron. in order to get around this issue, it is important to adjust the braking pressure and friction of the brake brake. it would appear that grey cast iron possesses superior thermoelastic qualities; hence, it is suitable for use in the construction of heavy vehicles due to its low-stress properties. despite this, aluminium can be utilised in low-weight vehicles, particularly two-wheelers, due to the fact that it has a high coefficient of friction. grey cast iron is recommended for use in general-purpose applications, taking into 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grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 analytical analysis of pomegranate fruit juice processing technology in uzbekistan and increase of emm energy effect duration, its chemical and organoleptic indicators kuzibekov sardor komilovich associate professor of gulistan state university uzaidullayev akmaljon olimovich gulistan state university associate professor savriyev yoldosh safarovich associate professor of the bukhara institute of engineering and technology haydarov shahbaz fayoz master of bukhara institute of engineering and technology abstract: in this article, the chemical composition of pomegranate juice was examined using ultraviolet and infrared radiation to obtain additional information on the characteristics of electroflotation processes. improvement of working technology and improvement of the quality of produced pomegranate juice is based on the application of electrophysical methods. keywords: pomegranate, processing, export, processes, improvement, assortment, juice, high frequency, electromagnetic field, electrophysical. the results of analysis in electroflotation cleaning current density (experiment series 1) 15 ма/см2 and 50 ма/см2 (experiment series 1) are presented. (table 6). as can be seen from the data, there are no significant changes in the parameters of pomegranate juice. in the process of electroflotation, there are no significant changes in dry matter, sugar, titrated acid, clay and binding substances, iron, calcium and vitamins. in order to obtain additional information on the characteristics of electroflotation processes, the chemical composition of pomegranate juice was investigated using ultraviolet and infrared radiation. 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1. chemical composition of pomegranate juice before (1) and after (2) electroflotation e x p er im en t se ri es s am p le n u m b er h ei g h t o f so rt ed s am p le s, c m d ry m at te r, % s u g ar ,% t it ra te d a ci d % d o u b ly a n d d ec o ra ti v e su b st an ce s, g /l a ci d it y , % р н f e, м г/ 1 0 0 г с а м г/ 1 0 0 г . vitamins, мг %. a sc o rb ic a ci d с р н 5 ,0 t h ia m in e – в 1 , м г% р н 7 ,5 , r ib o fl av in p y ri d o x in e 1 1 0 21,0 18,5 1,29 1,12 1,8 3,35 0,15 0,22 12 0,22 0,15 0,4 2 70 21,0 18,6 1,29 1,11 1,8 3,35 0,15 0,22 11 0,22 0,15 0,4 3 0 21,0 18,3 1,29 1,12 1,8 3,35 0,14 0,21 10 0,22 0,15 0,4 4 20 21,0 18,3 1,29 1,11 1,9 3,3 0,14 0,21 11 0,21 0,14 0,4 5 60 21,0 18,6 1,29 1,12 1,6 3,3 0,14 0,21 10 0,21 0,15 0,4 6 70 21,0 18,3 1,29 1,08 1,6 3,3 0,15 0,22 10 0,21 0,14 0,4 2 1 0 18,6 16.6 1,26 1,09 1,5 3,4 0,14 0,21 9 0,21 0,13 0,3 2 70 18,2 16,3 1,24 1,06 1,4 3,4 0,14 0,22 8 0,20 0,13 0,3 3 0 18,4 16,3 1,24 1,05 1,5 3,4 0,13 0,21 8 0,19 0,14 0,3 4 20 18,4 16,3 1,25 1,05 1,3 3,4 0,14 0,21 8 0,20 0,13 0,3 5 60 18,4 16,3 1,24 1,04 1,3 3,4 0,13 0,21 7 0,19 0,13 0,3 6 70 18,4 16,3 1,24 1,03 1,2 3,35 0,14 0,22 8 0,20 0,14 0,3 or this, a sf 4 type quartz spectrophotometer was used in the range of 220 to 1100 µm. in this range, the maximum absorption was found in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. the conducted organoleptic analysis confirmed that clarity, color and taste of pomegranate juice improved in electroflotation. the production line was improved with the use of a two-chamber combined electroflotation device instead of the plate heat exchanger pasteurizer in the existing "bertutsci" production line, and instead of the o'yuch resonant pasteurizer, and the second separator used at the postpurification stage of pomegranate (fig. 1). figure 1. improved technological line for the production of pomegranate juice and concentrate 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1 reception desk; 2nd transporter; 3-washing elevator; 4 piece sorting machine ("bertuzzi"); 5pomegranate transporter; 6th pump; 7 tape press ("flottweg"); 8-pomegranate seed transporter; 9-juice buffer capacity; 10th juice collecting reservoir; 11th separator ("nagema"); 12-pc pasteurizer; 13-anion exchange reactor; 14-anionite separation separator; 15fermentation-gluing tank (tannase); 16-two-section electroflotation device; 17-ultrafilter device "unipectin ag", bs17-ultrafilter juice tank-17; bd17-ultrafilter distillate tank-17; 18-threebody vacuum-evaporation device "chema"; 19-juice buffer capacity; capacity for 20 readymade concentrates; salt cooler for concentrate 21; 22-cooled concentrate collection capacity; 23-vacuum pump; 24-aseptic tank. the principle technological scheme of o'yuch continuous pasteurizer and two-chamber electroflotation device for pomegranate juice is presented in figures 4, 3. the uu pasteurizer is composed of the uu emm energy source, uuu pasteurizer management, safety equipment, and juice inlet and outlet pipes. pasteurizers are divided into three groups by power: small (up to 1.5 kw), medium (1.5-5 kw) and large (greater than 5 kw), and by productivity: small (5-10 kg/s), medium (15 -40 kg/s) and can be large (more than 50 kg/s). figure 2. principle technological scheme of the device for continuous pasteurization of o'yuch pomegranate juice. 1 and 3 juice outlet and inlet pipes; 2 continuous juice pasteurization serpentine pipes in working chamber; 4-resonator pc working chamber; 5. the frame of the device; 6-dissector electric motor; 7th dissector; 8–emm wave transmitter; 9-magnetron; 10-signal lamp; 11control panel; 12-control panel buttons; 13-rheostat; 14–device on/off button. figure 3. two-chamber pomegranate juice electroflotation device. 55 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1st juice inlet; 2-foam product; 3rd frame; 4th oxygen outlet; 5-oxygen bubbles; 6-processing juice; 7-pure juice outlet; 8th diaphragm; 9th cathode; 10,17-anode; 11th juice transition to the second section; 12-pure juice outlet; 13th cathode; 14 hydrogen bubbles coming out of the cathode; 15-quality purified juice; 16th foam layer; 18-cathode wire the electroflotation device consists of anode and cathode electrodes installed in the working chamber, product supply, output, dc power source, control system and other parts. in its two chambers: first, large wastes of pomegranate juice are purified in a flow of rapid bubbles, allowing mixing of the flows, and then in a slow flow without allowing mixing, attaching small colloidal particles to the bubbles. in the work, the engineering calculation method of o'yuch pasteurizer and electroflotation devices is presented. in it, it is proposed to use the following formula for the calculation of the pasteurizer working chamber with o'yuch resonator: ƶ𝑓 = 𝑟�̅�𝜌𝐶𝜌 2(𝛽−𝛼𝑟�̅�𝜌𝐶𝜌) ln { 𝛽 𝛼𝑟�̅�𝜌𝐶 [ [(𝑇𝑛−𝑇𝑏)+𝑟∆𝑈𝜌∙𝑟](𝛽−𝑑𝑟�̅�𝜌𝐶) 2𝛼𝛽𝑃∆𝑦𝑟 + 1]} (1) ƶƒ-length of working chamber m; t-ambient temperature 0с; the limit of temperature change from tn to ts is 0с; product throughput rate from δu -chamber. the length l and height h of the working chamber at the expense of electrolocation are taken as constant, and the following formula is used for its width-k, g-efficiency: 𝐾 = 4𝐺𝐻0𝜄𝑛𝜌0 cos 𝜋 2 𝑆𝑘 𝜋2𝑆𝑘 2𝐿𝑅 (2) sk -device cross-sectional area, м2; ; 𝜄𝑛𝜌0--juice mass and density кг/м3 the economic benefit from the introduction of these developments into production amounted to 647.6 million soms per year. conclusion effectiveness of using o'yuch emm energy in stopping the activity of microorganisms during pasteurization of pomegranate juice is substantiated. it was determined that the survival of microorganisms depends on the dielectric properties, the concentration of the living medium, the frequency and power of emm, and the smallness of the dielectric permittivity. the complex dielectric permittivity εʹ = 53,8-61,3 during the processing of the juice of local pomegranate varieties under the influence of an electric field at ƒ=2300 mhz t=20 0с. 3 and εʺ=14,3-17,2 were determined. in the purification of pomegranate juice by electroflotation: the effect of current density on the process, placement of electrodes in the chamber, properties of foaming, juice temperature and layer height was determined. when the temperature of pomegranate juice is 45-50 0с, the optimal mode of juice purification was determined at a current density of 15·20 ma/cm2. however, it was proved that 1-1.5% curd can be formed in this method. during the electroflotation process, the physico-chemical parameters of pomegranate juice: dry matter, sugar, dubious and coloring matter, acid, iron, calcium, and vitamins do not change significantly. improved taste was confirmed. a two-chamber combined electroflotation device for continuous pasteurization of pomegranate juice was developed. the technology of production of pomegranate juice and concentrate was improved. engineering calculations of pasteurization and electroflotation devices were presented. it was determined that the expected economic effect of production is 647.6 million soums. literature 1. kuzibekov s.k., barakaev n.r. pishchevaya tsennost pri ispolzovanie soi v pishchevyx tselyak // kompozitsionnye materialy, 2018. -№1.-c.33-36. [02.00.00. #4] 2. kuzibekov s.k., barakaev n.r. the effect of primary purification on the quality of soybean oil // composite materials, 2018. -#1. -c.112-116. [02.00.00. #4] 56 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. kuzibekov s.k., barakaev n.r. the unique chemical composition of seed oil ensures the reliability of industrial processing // kompozitsionnye materialy, 2019. -№2. -c.132-135. [02.00.00. #4] 4. barakaev n.r., kuzibekov s.k. investigation of flow hydrodynamics in the process of aspiration cleaning of soybean seeds (grain) on a computer model // harvard educational and scientific review: har. edu.a.sci.rev. 0362-8027. vol.2. issue 2 pages 10-14. 10.5281/zenodo.7057555. 2022. [05.00.00. #4] 5. barakaev n.r., kuzibekov s.k. research on energy and resource-saving technologies for the purification of plant raw materials // international journal of advanced research in it and engineering: issn: 2278-6244. impact factor: 7.436. 2022.6.n.r.barakaev., s.k.kuzibekov., a.n.rajabov., m.t.kurbanov. improvement of the design of mobile equipment for post-harvest processing of agricultural crops // journal of critical reviews: issn2394-5125 vol 7, issue 14, 2020. 6. n.r.barakaev., s.k.kuzibekov., e.n.nematov design development of the two function separator // tdtu technical science and innovation journal, 2020. -4-tom 221-226 p. 7. kuzibekov s.k. sovremenniye tekhnologiii polucheniya pishchevyx belkov iz soevogo shrota // prospects of use of natural compounds in agriculture (proceedings of the scientific and practical conference of the republic). gulistan, 2018. 54-56 p. 8. kuzibekov s.k. nutritional value of soybeans and its use // prospects for the use of natural compounds in agriculture (proceedings of the scientific practical conference of the republic). gulistan, 2018. 46-51 p. 9. kuzibekov s.k., botirova m.n., ruzibaev a.t. study of soybean oil hydrogenation process // tashkent institute of chemical technology "hopeful chemists-2018" (collection of articles of the xxvii-scientific-technical conference of young scientists, graduate students and undergraduate students). -tashkent, 2018. -359-361 p. 10. kuzibekov s.k. innovative technology pererabotki semena soi // "actual issues of applying innovative technologies to the food industry" (proceedings of the scientific and practical conference of the republic). gulistan. 2019. -21-23 p. 11. barakaev n.r., kuzibekov s.k. fixation podachi semyan soi очешайушчим апаратом при ochistki semyan // innovative ways of solving current problems of development of food, oil gas and chemical industries" international scientific conference. bukhara. 2020. volume i. 5-9 p. 12. kuzibekov s.k., barakaev n.r. issledovanie hidrodinamiki potokov v protsesse aspiratsionnoy ochistke semyan (zerna) soi na kompyuternoy modeli // "using innovative technologies in improving the efficiency of education: problems and solution (online)" (scientific and international conference). batumi, georgia. 2022. -54-58 p. 118 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 2, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 diagnostics provides determination of the technical condition and mechanisms of the rolling stock tuychiyeva malika nabiyevna tashkent state transport university abstract: the trouble-free operation of all objects of locomotive mechanisms and electric motors can ensure a safe transportation process on railway transport. diagnostic tools form the basis of train safety. diagnostics ensures the determination of the technical condition of all devices and mechanisms of the rolling stock. with the help of diagnostics, the tasks of not only managing the transportation process are solved, but also the physical condition of the object is determined, as well as their malfunction. keywords: automation, traction, electric motors, controls, transistors, quality, safety. in the world, a special place in the field of scientific research is occupied by diagnostics and control of ensuring the safety of rolling stock and ensuring the reliability of all elements and control systems of railway transport based on modern microprocessor systems and new technologies. the main consumer in the composition of the railway electric drive are asynchronous traction motors, whose share in the structure of electricity consumption is 70%. the reliability of the traction motor automation devices depends on the monitoring and diagnostics of the elements. basically, monitoring and diagnostics are carried out for symmetrical control systems. therefore, it is necessary to monitor and diagnose the operation of elements of traction motors and circuit control systems in asymmetric modes. in this regard, research work is relevant. control systems and converters based on igbt transistors are being created in the world, which affect the quality of safe operation of all elements of locomotives. in different countries of the world, such as the usa, england, france, spain, germany, japan, china, optimized design parameters of electric drives and modern diagnostic measures for the safe movement of railway transport are being created. at the same time, special attention is paid to stability, reliability and the development of complex systems for management teams. these works do not consider the phenomena of pulsation, the occurrence of higher and lower harmonics in control systems, which occur in non-standard situations. the service life of traction motors with long-term operation depends on the development of new modern control and diagnostic systems in non-standard situations. large-scale research work aimed at developing devices and diagnostic systems for elements of locomotives and electric locomotives to eliminate failures in automation and telemechanics systems is carried out in leading scientific centers and higher educational institutions of the world, including general electric transportation (usa), institute of communications technology hannover, siemens, aeg, sel, in technical university in braunschweig (germany), st. petersburg state university of railway engineering, russian transport 119 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us university, moscow institute of transport engineers, samara university of railway engineering (russia), tashkent state transport university (uzbekistan). as a result of worldwide research on improving methods and methods for diagnosing electric locomotive components, mathematical models and software materials have been developed to prevent failures in systems and controls during starting and braking of locomotives. as a result of practical research, an improved system of functional diagnostics of the control circuit in non-standard situations in the traction mode of electric locomotives “o'zbekiston yo'lovchi” was obtained based on the expansion of control functions using modern microprocessor systems. a microprocessor control scheme for the traction electric drive of an electric locomotive was also developed in non-standard situations, taking into account the peculiarities of frequency control of the asynchronous motor speed. the monograph provides recommendations for calculating the optimal parameters of electric drive elements based on the algorithm and software material. the reliability of the research results was achieved by applying theoretically sound concepts of automated control, as well as by matching the results obtained using a functional system on a mathematical model and on experimental devices. the scientific significance of the research is explained by the development of a method for measuring diagnostic parameters, the validity of diagnostic concepts and methods, mathematical modeling by a control algorithm in non-standard situations, taking into account the parameters of functional diagnostic elements and computer calculation to increase the reliability of the control system without distortion and failures. the practical significance of the results of the work lies in the development of a microprocessor control scheme for a traction electric drive in non-standard situations, taking into account the peculiarities of frequency control of the asynchronous motor speed, as well as the improvement of the functional diagnostics system based on the expansion of the control function and the developed recommendations for calculating the optimal parameters of the electric drive elements. based on the improvement of the system of functional diagnostics of the control scheme in nonstandard situations of electric locomotives the trouble-free operation of all objects of locomotive mechanisms and electric motors can ensure a safe transportation process on railway transport. diagnostic tools form the basis of train safety. diagnostics ensures the determination of the technical condition of all devices and mechanisms of the rolling stock. with the help of diagnostics, the tasks of not only managing the transportation process are solved, but also the physical condition of the object is determined, as well as their malfunction. with the help of diagnostics, mathematical models and fault models are developed, diagnostic algorithms are built. technical diagnostics are presented in the form of: test diagnostics; functional diagnostics; combined diagnostics. the fundamental factor of test diagnostics is that the responses of the diagnostic results are considered to be working effects on the inputs of diagnostic tools and can be removed from both the main outputs and additional ones. absolutely all outputs are control points where the obtained diagnostic results are compared with reference values. the test diagnosis can be presented in the form of a block diagram. to develop an algorithm for test diagnostics, it is necessary to have an impact source; a measuring device; a communication device for the object of diagnosis and an information processing device. this is done using automated schemes. a block diagram of functional diagnostics is presented. 120 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us functional diagnostics is called, in which working influences (algorithms of functioning) are received at the base of the input and the results are recorded using control points. for complex objects, both test and functional diagnostics (combined) are used. all diagnostic systems use sensors that make it possible to obtain primary data on the condition of the object of study. combined diagnostics is used to diagnose electric and diesel locomotives. qualitative determination of the technical condition of an object is the task of technical diagnostics. the technical condition of the facilities is determined by the established regulatory documents and are subject to changes during operation. control of the parameters of a complex multicomponent object such as an electric locomotive, a diesel locomotive with a certain accuracy is called technical diagnostics. the serviceable condition of objects can be for certain operating conditions, for other conditions – a faulty condition. by the nature of the interaction, the object is a means of diagnosis, functional diagnosis and test diagnosis are distinguished. test diagnostics is determined by applying test signals to the object under study. information about the condition of the object is received directly in the normal operation of the object, such a diagnosis is called functional. the chosen diagnostic method allows you to identify malfunctions in the object, determined by the characteristic completeness of technical diagnostics. the classification of technical diagnostic tools is shown. with an increase in the controlled parameters of the object, diagnostic tools become more complicated. the procedure and composition of monitoring the parameters of the diagnostic object are established by the algorithm of technical diagnostics. elementary verification is carried out for diagnostic parameters using sensors, functional or test exposure. algorithms can be conditional and unconditional. conditional algorithms are called those that are defined after elementary checks, and unconditional ones are checks of parameters that are defined in advance. to build algorithms, it is necessary to know the descriptions of objects, the conditions of their functioning and behavior in a faulty and serviceable condition. the description of these processes can be set in analytical form, in the form of tabular data, in the form of vectors, graphical forms, or a mathematical model in explicit or implicit form. an explicit mathematical model defines a description of the serviceable and faulty states. the implicit model consists of a description of the proper operation of the object. according to the serviceable condition of the object, you can create any faulty modifications. any object that is serviceable or defective is represented by a dynamic system, determined at any given time by the parameters of the input, internal parameters that are found in dynamic mode. the expert method. this method is used at the first stage of commissioning of locomotives. a special expert technical commission checks all the operating parameters of locomotives with its instruments, analyzes the measurement results obtained and establishes a diagnosis. at the same time, modern microprocessor technology is used. however, this assessment is subjective, since a person is not always able, by virtue of his abilities, to process correctly incoming information and subjective errors may occur. mathematical methods. mathematical methods can be divided into two large groups: modeling of diagnostic processes and theories. theory can include pattern recognition, set theory, and so on. mathematical modeling is mainly used to determine in electronic circuits. to diagnose the dynamic modes of complex devices, such as a locomotive, the use of this method, due to obtaining complex analytical expressions, is difficult. mathematical modeling allows you to associate analytical expressions with malfunctions in the details of an object. in mathematical modeling, tabular algorithms or analytical models are used. 121 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in addition to these algorithms, probabilistic algorithms are also used. defects are determined according to the bayes formula: 𝑃 ( 𝐴 𝐵 ) = 𝑃(𝐴)𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) 𝑃(𝐶)𝑃(𝐵/𝐶) , (1.11) where p(a/b) – determines the probability of the sum of parameters b and defect a; p(a) – determines the probability of a defect of a random choice of diagnostic parameters; p(b/a) – the probability obtained experimentally in the occurrence of a defect; p(c) p(b/c) – the sum of the products of probabilities if there are any signs of a defect. the spectral analysis method is used to diagnose parts of an electric locomotive subjected to friction. usually these parts are lubricated with various oils. the wear of these parts is determined by the amount of accumulated wear particles in the lubricant, the amount of which is determined by spectral analysis. the number of wear particles is determined by various methods: calorimetric, magnetoinductive, radiographic, radiometric and others. non-destructive testing methods. this type of control can identify both obvious and non-obvious defects for which there is no documentation of rules, methods and measuring instruments. nondestructive testing includes optical, capillary, acoustic, magnetic, radiation, and electrical types. magnetic and ultrasonic flaw detection are usually used for locomotives. this method allows you to detect cracks ranging in size from one to three microns. the thermal method. the thermal method allows you to analyze the thermal radiation of the details of the object under consideration. the power of thermal radiation depends on the parameters of electrical objects, on the defect of parts and their coupling. the intensity of warm radiation also depends on changes in the operating mode of engines, motors and other electrical devices, as well as on overheating of their elements. the thermal method can be divided into contact with measuring the parameters of thermocouples, temperature paints, as well as measuring liquid crystal displays. this method allows you to register temperatures from +100c to +1000c. the non-contact method is based on measuring thermal radiation by bodies and converting it into an electrical signal. the parameters of the receiving devices usually include: sensitivity threshold, output signal value, time constant. radiometric converters and photovoltaic systems can be used as a receiving device. the spectral analysis method is used to diagnose parts of an electric locomotive subjected to friction. usually these parts are lubricated with various oils. the wear of these parts is determined by the amount of accumulated wear particles in the lubricant, the amount of which is determined by spectral analysis. the number of wear particles is determined by various methods: calorimetric, magnetoinductive, radiographic, radiometric and others. non-destructive testing methods. this type of control can identify both obvious and non-obvious defects for which there is no documentation of rules, methods and measuring instruments. nondestructive testing includes optical, capillary, acoustic, magnetic, radiation, and electrical types. magnetic and ultrasonic flaw detection are usually used for locomotives. this method allows you to detect cracks ranging in size from one to three microns. the untested states make up the first part of the new matrix. according to the compiled matrix, you can select the preferred function before the untested parameter. at each selection step, parameters are selected that should reduce the residual uncertainty. the matrix is constructed until the residual entropy is zero. this method is applicable at the initial stage of determining the diagnostic parameters of locomotive systems when there is no statistical data on failures of its elements. 122 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the boundary points of the state change are indicated by the letters a, b, c in the range of diagnostic frequency. the normalized parameters are determined by both established standards and technological tolerances during operation. normative diagnostic parameters use deterministic and statistical approaches. in the first case, the description is used by analytical differential equations, since the change in the output signal occurs due to structural changes in the parameters and characteristics of the input signal. the second method uses a criterion for optimizing the normative values of the diagnosed parameters, i.e. it uses the probabilistic characteristics of the output of the z parameters beyond the acceptable values. the second criterion for this method is the total cost of diagnostic errors. when diagnosing, an important circumstance is to identify the technical condition of the object by determining the incipient defect. in this case, we select the locomotive elements only those that tend to change the technical condition of the object, such as, for example, bearing wear, insulation failure, changes in the electrical and electronic properties of the locomotive equipment. when diagnosing, we use probability theory and methods of mathematical statistics. literatures 1. tuychieva m. control of electric locomotives with asynchronous electric motors under asymmetric operating conditions in uzbekistan. (2020) iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 614 (1), art. no. 012060, doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/614/1/012060. 2. tuychieva m. n. features of power converters for operation of electric locomotives //journal berdiev, u.t., tuychieva, m.n. improving the efficiency of the control system of electric locomotives of the "uzbekiston" series (2019) bulletin of tashiit, 4, pp. 36-41. 3. m.s. yakubov, m.a. sagatova, & m.n. tuychieva. (2024). functional diagnostics of traction transformer of ac electric locomotive using spectral analysis method. multidisciplinary journal of science and technology, 4(1), 211–217. http://mjstjournal.com/index.php/mjst/article/view/750 4. u sulaymonov, a jelutkevich, m nabiyevna, o sayfullayev. research of energy-saving composite materials for electric motors. e3s web conf. volume 461, 01054. 2023. rudenko international conference “methodological problems in reliability study of large energy systems“(rses 2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202346101054. 5. бердиев у.т., туйчиева м.н., турдалиев т.р.. характеристики при частотного управление электровозов с асинхронными двигателями при нестандартных режимах. ta'lim fidoyilari. 2020. 1 (6), 806-811. 6. a.m. burkhankhodjaev, m.n. tuychieva, e.v. iksar, d.m. yuldasheva the increase of electric energy efficiency of the electric locomotives “uzbekistan-yulovchi” in asymmetric modes. international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology vol. 8, issue 3, march 2021. 7. methods of new technological developments of electric motors based on soft magnetic materials. u. t. berdiev, i. k. kolesnikov, m. n. tuychieva, f. f. khasanov and u. b. sulaymonov. e3s web of conf., 401 (2023) 03038. doi: https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202340103038 8. abitkhodja burkhankhodjaev, malika tuychieva, elena iksar, kholjan kholbutayeva, baxtiyor nurmatov; investigation of the energy performance of electric locomotives in asymmetric modes. aip conf. proc. 5 january 2023; 2552 (1): 030024. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0133920 9. usan berdiev, abitkhodja burkhankhodzhaev, malika tuychieva, elena iksar, komil usmonov; investigation of energy indicators with asymmetry of the voltage of the power http://mjstjournal.com/index.php/mjst/article/view/750 https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=purl-cqaaaaj&sortby=pubdate&citation_for_view=purl-cqaaaaj:eqolee2rzwmc https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=purl-cqaaaaj&sortby=pubdate&citation_for_view=purl-cqaaaaj:eqolee2rzwmc https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202346101054 123 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us source of mainline electric locomotives of alternating current. aip conference proceedings 5 january 2023; 2552 (1): 030018. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0131839 10. д.о. раджибаев, м.н. туйчиева. особенности системы безопасности электровозов серии o'z el. техносферная безопасность, 2013. 19-23. 11. abduraxman akhmedov, galina sauchuk, natallia yurkevich, sardorbek khudoyberganov, mahammatyakub bazarov, karimberdi karshiev; the influence of production conditions on the electrophysical parameters of piezoceramics for different applications. e3s web conf. 264 04020 (2021), doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/202126404020. 12. r. mirsaatov, s. khudoyberganov, a. akhmedov; uncertainty estimation in determination of cocoons silkiness by thickness of their shell. aip conference proceedings 15 march 2023; 2612(1):050010. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0114683 13. ravshanbek mirsaatov, sardorbek khudoyberganov; development of a non-destructive method determination of the maturity of mulberry cocoons. aip conf. proc. 16 june 2022; 2432 (1): 040018. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0089646 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?oi=bibs&cluster=6606478846427686043&btni=1&hl=ru https://scholar.google.com/scholar?oi=bibs&cluster=6606478846427686043&btni=1&hl=ru https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0114683 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 7, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 evaluating the obstacles to implementing construction investment projects in iraq mohanad ibrahim altuma southern technical university, iraq abstract: the impact of investment management has greatly increased over the past two decades as a result of the growing level of competition that exists between construction organizations and the shifting expectations regarding the nature and level of craftsmanship required for building projects. because of this, in recent years it has been clear that companies that work in the construction industry require a complete system for the administration of investments. since 2003, the building sector in iraq has undergone a large amount of development, and the region's commercial linkages with the countries of other regions have undergone a substantial amount of advancement. because iraq was closed during this period, it needed a lot of investment for development projects. the primary goals of this study are to analyze and assess the obstacles that stand in the way of the implementation of investment construction projects in iraq. keywords: investment projects, investment management, construction projects, assessment projects, construction strategy, construction industry, investment strategy. introduction the private construction industry is the essential pillar that supports all of the other economic activities in human life. it is an unavoidable infrastructure that is essential to preserving life and making development. as a consequence of this, it is essential to make an effort to guarantee that the beginning stages of construction are based on scientific foundations. according to he et al., (2021), sudden and unexpected changes in building technology, procedures, materials, or employees might produce a wide variety of reasons for the lack of success of those projects. the effect of such a circumstance results in a significant amount of delay, rendering the public in a precarious position where they are both hurting and unserved. when faced with such a situation, the standard reaction is to lessen, stifle, or otherwise get rid of the disputes, it is the responsibility of the project manager to rectify any anomalies that may arise throughout the course of the project and bring it back into compliance. according to kaklauskas et al. (2021), the quality of the building is one of the primary variables that play a role in the quality of the operations that are provided to the general public. as a result, steps need to be taken to ensure that the quality of the buildings is preserved to the greatest extent possible. in building, engineering and the various other parties involved form a particular combination to meet a particular demand. the design of a process results in engineering activities that are performed to attain the aimed-for outputs. according to aleksanin et al., (2023), people who work in the construction industry have significant obligations, but in exchange they have the ability to build works that are to the 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us advantage of humankind. considering it is the government's responsibility to organize the building industry, it is the government that establishes the criteria that describe the characteristics of public constructions (including schools, hospitals, highways, bridges, and agricultural systems; as well as water and electricity infrastructure). 1. iraqi construction projects involving public-private partnerships in spite of this, the iraqi government has made it easier for foreign investment businesses to get involved in the region as part of a plan to acquire international knowledge and foreign technological ability. as a direct consequence of this, a competitive environment for both domestic and foreign businesses has been established in the region. as a consequence of this, regional and national construction businesses have been motivated to make significant strides toward enhancing their overall performance within the sector. the building industry in iraq is struggling with a variety of difficult concerns and issues overall. according to a lack of money, which is expressed by surpassing the time limit for finishing of the assignments, construction projects are regarded to be one of the most prevalent and major challenges in the construction sector in iraq. this is because the time required to finish for the projects takes longer than the allotted amount of time. typically, both the amount of projects and their total value will be considerable. this objective cannot be reached provided the project is financed in the most effective way possible. reconstruction, servicing, and functioning of projects in iraq necessitate improved coordination among these concerns and the other concerns of iraq (erzaij et al.,2020). public-private partnerships have been embraced in developing nations as a means to address the financial constraints faced by governments in their efforts to enhance quality and improve service delivery. in the context of iraq as a country that is still developing, the iraqi government encountered a significant dearth of financial resources resulting from an economic downturn and security challenges. consequently, the iraqi government was compelled to discontinue approximately 4,000 ongoing projects that were being funded under its funding initiatives. as a direct response to the worldwide economic downturn, the government gave its agencies permission to collaborate with private companies on the procurement of projects that had previously been scrapped. around the globe, public-private partnerships are utilized because, in comparison to the public industry, the private industry is superior at facilitating creative thought, managing complicated technological endeavors, and reacting rapidly to shifts in the environment. the expertise that may be gleaned from the private sector will be of considerable assistance in modernizing and streamlining the conventional public contracting process (khudhaire and naji, 2021). the construction industry in iraq has encountered numerous challenges in recent years, primarily stemming from an increase in the amount of incomplete building projects. this issue can be attributed to a lack of adequate financing, and this has had a detrimental impact on the overall achievement of the construction industry. additionally, iraq has faced difficulties in effectively selecting financing approaches, particularly in relation to public-private partnership agreements. the inadequacy and insufficiency present in this particular domain give rise to an inappropriate selection of contracts. therefore, the utmost significance is in the prudent selection of the publicprivate partnership approach, given the prevailing difficulties in the funding system in iraq and the pivotal role of the right selection in ensuring the project's success (yaseen and naji, 2021). 2. importance of strategic management in the development of construction investment certain aspects of the regional development strategy have been included in the broader development strategy and goal that the state has. in the meantime, the regional economic growth instruments of the western nations are directed toward the decentralization of significant 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us industrial agglomerates as well as fostering the growth of economically depressed and economically weak regions (lapidus et al.,2020). a wide variety of issues pertaining to the investment construction process are addressed by a number of authors. however, almost no research has been done on the subject of the incorporation of construction investment projects within the development of regions, which is a significant issue. even if the most profitable construction investment project is picked according to financial indications, the project that ends up being picked could not be an appropriate combination for other investment projects that are already being carried out or are in the process of being carried out (lapidus et al.,2020). the synergy impact is quite significant with regard to the overall substance of regional development. as a result, it is necessary to assess the multifaceted impact of the following requirements:  quantity of “construction investment projects” (cip),  current tendencies,  legal concerns,  constructional solution options, etc. investing in building, reconstruction, and continuing operation of infrastructure is the goal of cip, which is a complicated of legal interactions, acts, and documents targeted at accomplishing this goal. 3. concepts in investment construction project the manufacturing industries were the birthplace of what is now commonly recognized in the development profession as investment construction projects (icp) and is practiced in this field. the accomplishments that the manufacturing sector obtained as a result of its acceptance of the rapid principle and the advantages that were gained were the primary drivers behind the eventual implementation of the lean concept in the construction industry. the primary objective of this strategy is to refocus on subsequent investments in like a way that may help bring the stage of economic growth of states closer to the average of eu countries. it ought to be pointed out that in order to achieve these objectives coordinated initiatives of the state are significant (zhai et al., 2021). this is considering the accomplishment of the indicated objectives is influenced in addition by investment however additionally by other managerial, legal, and other evaluates implemented by the declare. it is essential to note that in order to accomplish these objectives coordinated initiatives of the state are essential. erzaij et al., (2020) observe that it is essential to guarantee an effective integration of actions and activities, which is done by logical distribution of duties among the organizations and employees. one of the main challenges for officials is to find methods how to effectively oversee these procedures while applying a regional development regulation, how to form an equitable and transparent framework for decision's planning, adoption, and monitoring of application. it is feasible to make an estimate of the investment costs involved with the construction of major commercial or industrial facilities by basing one's calculations on the findings of one's preliminary study. after that, the entire cost of the project will be calculated based on the construction investment project contract. turnkey construction provides additional benefits to the customer, while also allowing the organization to delegate risks and responsibilities to an experienced construction manager.  when attempting to secure funding for construction by investors that are not affiliated with the project. 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  when applying for preliminary permits to conduct surveys, designs, or construction projects.  when the structure's planning and study, as well as its building or renovation, and commissioning, are complete, the facility will be ready for use.  when the application for permissions and the registering of title documents for the location have been completed. the strategic framework of the evolution of the construction industry recommends the long-term viability of investments, the highest possible energy productivity, and the long-term reliability of the materials and structures utilized; in addition, it provides a more precise explanation of the processes that encourage the use of novel technologies. the development and implementation of a system that integrates cutting-edge technical developments or creative products into the processes of investment and construction will make it feasible to overcome the obstacles that currently stand in the way of putting investment to use in the building sector. because of recent advancements in technology, it is now possible to find solutions to the problems that arise. 4. assessment of the effectiveness of investment construction projects (icp) n order to successfully implement strategic projects, official of government are required to select an acceptable investment management, relevant strategic projects, and supply the resources that are required. which the state must comprehend besides the importance of choosing of appropriate strategies, additionally it needs assume responsibility for the application of selected development strategy, which means investing the limited financial assets of the country into a collection of suitable advantageous projects and programs. the authors suggest that, in order to facilitate the formulation of strategic development strategies at the municipality stage, construction investment projects should be segmented into the following categories:  municipalities  commercial/industrial zones  residential structures, and  infrastructure figure 1: the framework for community development involving construction investment projects 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us as seen in figure (1). when evaluating the many groups involved in a project, you should apply different criteria each time. current net profit should be used as the primary criterion for evaluating any potential investment initiatives. it is vital that one concentrate on the following variables in order to evaluate this benefit: the benefit that is anticipated, the costs that are required to apply the project (for development, production, and building, and exploitation), and the probability that the project will be employed as anticipated (han et al., 2020). 5. the challenges that facing investment construction projects (icp) the first step, which is also the most crucial, is to choose how the money will be raised. it is frequently the determining factor in whether or not the investment in construction will be profitable. the effectiveness of the overall investment project is characterized by the mode of funding. according to the quantity of capital invested in equity, the primary methods of financing a project could be allocated as follows: equity money, reserves for the purpose of company operations, offered financial money, renting, investment boarding, foreign investment, and outside investment (banihashemi et al., 2022). investing in construction typically involves using borrowed financial resources, which can have a significant bearing on the overall effectiveness of the investment project being undertaken. as a result, it is essential to conduct an accurate analysis of the good and bad aspects associated with each potential source of funding for the development stage. nevertheless, there are a number of factors that make it challenging to provide an objective assessment of the net profit that was generated by building investment projects:  it is not always easy to make an accurate assessment of the benefits that a project will provide to the society it is intended to serve. in some cases, the defining criteria of a benefit can be quite challenging to evaluate in practice.  it can be challenging to evaluate and forecast the likelihood that a project will be successfully carried out because the outcome of decisions and circumstances can have a significant impact.  it is not always easy to provide an accurate assessment of the entire costs associated with investment projects and potential development. in this scenario, the costs need to be evaluated based on the genuine requirement for investment along with additional costs; but, they should also take into account the different projects that may be abandoned. 6. obstacles facing construction industries a variety of challenges in today's construction industry are one of the primary forces pushing that industry toward the use of more advanced technologies. in addition to other obstacles, such as legal issues, governmental legislation, and environmental considerations, the construction sector has been presented with other challenges, such as time restrictions, worries surrounding the availability of personnel, and safety considerations. the level of competition in this industry is extremely high, and as a consequence, the companies that operate within it are obliged to work incredibly hard in order to increase their levels of production in order to remain in business (banihashemi et al., 2022). the construction industry in iraq, much like the construction industry in most other nations across the world, is quoting its projects using the traditional paper-based tendering system. this procedure has several flaws, including a lack of accountability and bureaucracy, among other issues. it was needed to investigate the feasibility of implementing an alternative more efficient methodology known as "e-tendering" that addresses the shortcomings of the manual tendering system due to the significant volume of projects that are tendered every year (al-dalaeen, and tarawneh, 2022). 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us this was done in order to meet the demands of the increasing number of projects that are submitted each year. this current study investigates whether or not the construction industry in iraq is prepared to use electronic tendering for public bids, and it offers suggestions for how to increase the sector's level of participation in e-auctions. the purpose of this study is to present a model of the obstacles, challenges, and worries that iraqi tenderers have in regard to accepting and embracing e-tendering. this is performed by conducting a comprehensive examination of the relevant literature in conjunction with in-depth analysis and identification by subject matter specialists. 6.1. obstacles regarding expense hasan and rasheed, (2019) made the observation that study into the effectiveness of projects with regard to the expenses involved has been going on since the 1960s. on one end of this spectrum you will find the theoretical research work, which is dependent on the prior knowledge of the researcher, and on the other end you will find the methodical research activity. in addition, hasan and rasheed, (2019) claimed that much previous study has been undertaken on the performance of projects in relation to cost and time considerations. the complexity of the project, the qualities of the client, and the characteristics of the contractor all have a strong correlation with the cost performance connected to the project budget. because this correlation has an effect on the performance of the project, the number of project stakeholders may sometimes need to be reduced. the building project was confronted with some of the most complex issues when it attempted to reduce the scope of its work by eliminating some operations in order to keep its budget in check. this ultimately resulted in the creation of a conflict of interest between the many parties involved in the project. 6.2. obstacles regarding time huang et al., (2021) made the observation that research conducted in a variety of nations over the course of the previous three decades appears to have made important contributions to the body of information relating to time performance in construction industry. during the building phase, a variety of unforeseen problems and deviations from the initial design surface, which causes issues with the project's ability to be completed within the allotted budget and time frame. in local developing works, the three most important factors causing complications and challenges of time efficiency are disadvantaged site management, unanticipated ground situations, and a slow speed of making choices involving all project teams. additionally, project difficulty, the customer type, experience of team, and interacting are highly associated with the time efficiency. hasan and rasheed, (2019) offered various technological and management techniques with the goal of increasing the speed of building and, as a result, improving the construction time efficiency. 6.3. obstacles regarding quality infrastructure management's three most important goals—time, money, and quality—are inextricably intertwined and cannot exist in isolation from one another. because of the functional significance it has, trade-offs among project length, overall expenses, and level of quality are frequently addressed in project management. this is due to the fact that it is one of the most essential concerns in the successful completion of a project and has always been taken into perspective by project managers (huang et al., 2021). many people believe that increasing productivity, lowering production costs, and satisfying customers can all be accomplished most effectively by focusing on quality improvement. any attempt that is made in good faith to better the quality of a product or service must take into consideration the expenses that are connected with doing so. in today's business climate, it is not enough to simply fulfill the expectations of the customer; the fulfillment must also be 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us accomplished at the cheapest price possible. this is only achievable if the costs required to attain quality are reduced, and the only way to reduce these costs is to first identify and then quantify them (kaklauskas et al., 2021). it is argued that quality is a vague concept that is interpreted in a variety of ways by various individuals. it is also referred to as " accomplishing pre-defined requirements" and can be defined as efforts aimed at bettering the company and the services it provides. it is also commonly considered that the features of a product or organization that bear are what constitute its quality (hasan and rasheed, 2019). it is commonly held that the quality of something is a factor that goes into decision selecting and that increasing attention to that element can help us make more economically sound choices. to put it another way, trying to save money by sacrificing quality is not an economically sound strategy. quality is not an abstracted, instrumental, extravagant, or unneeded paradigm and inventive strategy to the management process ensuring the development of exceptional products and offerings, providing quality the serious consideration it deserves is discovered to be the primary determinant in the success of businesses. in order to achieve this level of effectiveness, the quality process must be enhanced indefinitely; nevertheless, quality is a procedure, not a destination (kaklauskas et al., 2021). 7. conclusion investors are aware of the fact that the regulatory environment and tariffs, in specifically, will change over the course of time. it is possible to implement changes in an approach that is visible, predictable, and prompt so that investors may have an understanding of the new risk offering. the conclusion of this thesis demonstrates that, from the perspective of those who participated in the questionnaire, the construction industry avoids iraqi investment construction sector for three main causes:  the construction contracting and tendering procedure prioritizes saving money and reducing the amount of time it takes over maximizing the performance of the structure.  the provision of financial incentives by governments is not sufficient to propel investment construction industry.  the design and construction of buildings are not held to a higher standard because regulations do not require this. it may be helpful to design regulations in such a way that they place time limits not only on those who are governed but also on those who regulate. it is necessary to have a large amount of involvement from the private sector in order to provide assets related to infrastructure that demand a lot of capital. 8. references 1. he, q., wang, t., chan, a. p., & xu, j. (2021). developing a list of key performance indicators for benchmarking the success of construction megaprojects. journal of construction engineering and management, 147(2), 04020164. 2. kaklauskas, a., zavadskas, e.k., lepkova, n., raslanas, s., dauksys, k., vetloviene, i. and ubarte, i., 2021. sustainable construction investment, real estate development, and covid19: a review of literature in the field. sustainability, 13(13), p.7420. 3. aleksanin, a., & zharov, y. (2023, august). digital model of the object at the stage of implementation of the construction investment project. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 2791, no. 1). aip publishing. 4. erzaij, k., rashid, h.a., hatem, w.a. and abdulkareem, h., 2020. sustainability and recovery project management implementation on construction projects in iraq. j green eng (jge), 10(10), pp.7621-33. 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. khudhaire, h.y. and naji, h.i., 2021, february. adoption ppp model as an alternative method of government for funding abandoned construction projects in iraq. in iop conference series: materials science and engineering (vol. 1076, no. 1, p. 012115). iop publishing. 6. yaseen, h. and naji, h.i., 2021. applying analytical network process to the selection of financing method for abandoned construction projects in iraq. 7. lapidus, a.a., abramov, i.l. and al-zaidi, z.a.k., 2020, october. assessment of the impact of destabilizing factors on implementation of investment and construction projects. in iop conference series: materials science and engineering (vol. 951, no. 1, p. 012028). iop publishing. 8. zhai, w., ding, j. and ding, l., 2021. investment risk grade evaluation of new town construction ppp projects: perspective from private sector. journal of urban planning and development, 147(2), p.04021005. 9. han, y., li, j., cao, x. and jin, r., 2020. structural equation modeling approach to studying the relationships among safety investment, construction employees’ safety cognition, and behavioral performance. journal of construction engineering and management, 146(7), p.04020065. 10. banihashemi, s.a., khalilzadeh, m., antucheviciene, j. and edalatpanah, s.a., 2022. identifying and prioritizing the challenges and obstacles of the green supply chain management in the construction industry using the fuzzy bwm method. buildings, 13(1), p.38. 11. al-dalaeen, a.s. and tarawneh, s., 2022. obstacles facing women working in the jordanian construction industry: women's perspective. international journal of construction supply chain management, 12(2), pp.1-15. 12. hasan, a.n. and rasheed, s.m., 2019. the benefits of and challenges to implement 5d bim in construction industry. civil engineering journal, 5(2), p.412. 13. huang, b., lei, j., ren, f., chen, y., zhao, q., li, s. and lin, y., 2021. contribution and obstacle analysis of applying bim in promoting green buildings. journal of cleaner production, 278, p.123946. 376 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 1, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 ai-driven predictive maintenance: enhancing reliability and cost efficiency in enterprise it infrastructure mei lin zhang department of computer science and technology, tsinghua university, beijing, china dr. rajiv menon department of artificial intelligence and data science, indian institute of technology (iit) delhi, new delhi, india michael anderson department of electrical and computer engineering, massachusetts institute of technology (mit), cambridge, usa abstract: enterprise it infrastructure—spanning data centers, cloud platforms, and missioncritical networks—faces mounting pressures from escalating workloads, cybersecurity risks, and stringent uptime requirements. traditional maintenance strategies, whether reactive or preventive, often lead to costly downtimes, resource inefficiencies, and compliance risks. recent studies estimate that unplanned it downtime costs enterprises over $5,600 per minute, while nearly 60% of outages could be anticipated with predictive insights. this paper explores the role of ai-driven predictive maintenance in transforming it operations by shifting from static monitoring toward proactive, data-driven reliability engineering. the proposed approach integrates machine learning models, anomaly detection, and time-series forecasting to monitor hardware health, application performance, and network reliability. by leveraging telemetry data from servers, storage arrays, power and cooling systems, and hybrid cloud environments, predictive models can identify early warning signals such as latency drifts, cpu/gpu overheating, disk i/o degradation, and abnormal energy consumption. advanced techniques—including deep learning for multivariate sensor fusion, reinforcement learning for dynamic resource scheduling, and edge-ai for localized anomaly detection—are applied to optimize both performance and cost. a case study of a global bfsi enterprise with 25,000+ servers and 50 pb of data assets demonstrates tangible outcomes: a 40% reduction in unplanned outages, 25% lower infrastructure maintenance costs, and improved compliance with itil, iso 27001, and soc 2 frameworks. additionally, predictive maintenance enabled sustainable it operations, cutting energy waste by 18% through proactive cooling system adjustments. findings reveal that ai-driven predictive maintenance not only enhances system reliability and operational resilience, but also delivers significant financial and sustainability value for enterprises. beyond technical gains, it strengthens business continuity, customer trust, and regulatory alignment. the paper concludes with a roadmap for adopting predictive maintenance at scale, highlighting cloud-native monitoring pipelines, explainable ai for auditability, and integration with it service management (itsm) platforms as critical enablers for future enterprise it ecosystems. 377 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. introduction enterprise it infrastructures have evolved into the backbone of modern digital economies, powering mission-critical services across sectors such as banking and financial services (bfsi), healthcare, telecommunications, and manufacturing. these industries rely heavily on complex it ecosystems—ranging from high-performance data centers and distributed cloudnative platforms to hybrid environments that integrate legacy systems with modern digital services. the operational resilience of these infrastructures is not only central to customer trust but also directly linked to business continuity, regulatory compliance, and financial stability. despite ongoing investments in monitoring and preventive controls, organizations continue to face unexpected outages, escalating maintenance costs, and service-level agreement (sla) breaches. industry studies report that unplanned downtime can cost enterprises an average of $5,600 per minute, with critical sectors such as bfsi and healthcare suffering even higher losses due to regulatory penalties and reputational damage. traditional approaches—such as reactive maintenance (fixing issues post-failure) or preventive maintenance (scheduled servicing)—lack the intelligence to anticipate failures under dynamic workloads and changing operating conditions. as a result, it operations teams often remain trapped in a cycle of firefighting, responding to crises rather than proactively preventing them. to address this, enterprises are increasingly adopting ai-driven predictive maintenance frameworks that apply advanced analytics, machine learning (ml), and anomaly detection to infrastructure telemetry data. unlike static preventive strategies, predictive maintenance anticipates failures before they occur, enabling timely interventions that minimize downtime, reduce costs, and optimize resource allocation. by analyzing massive volumes of heterogeneous data—from cpu and memory utilization, network latency, and disk i/o patterns to cooling system performance and power supply stability—ai models can uncover subtle signals of degradation that human operators or rule-based monitoring systems might miss. the objective of this paper is to demonstrate how ai-driven predictive maintenance enhances it infrastructure reliability, reduces operational expenditure (opex), and ensures compliance with global regulatory standards. we explore architectural principles, enabling technologies, and case studies that illustrate the transformative potential of predictive analytics in enterprise-scale it environments. the scope covers enterprise data centers, cloud-native infrastructures, and hybrid it ecosystems that are increasingly becoming the standard in regulated industries. through this lens, we show how predictive maintenance moves it operations from reactive monitoring toward proactive, self-healing ecosystems, providing measurable benefits in uptime, cost efficiency, sustainability, and compliance readiness. 2. background and motivation enterprise it operations have historically relied on reactive and preventive maintenance models, each with inherent limitations that hinder efficiency and reliability. reactive maintenance, where failures are addressed only after they occur, leads to unexpected downtime, disrupted services, and significant financial losses. for example, studies in bfsi institutions indicate that one hour of unplanned it downtime can cost over $300,000, not including reputational damage and regulatory penalties. preventive maintenance, which schedules servicing at fixed intervals, reduces some risk but introduces operational inefficiencies. over-maintenance of healthy systems consumes valuable resources, increases operational expenditure, and fails to adapt to dynamic workloads or component-specific degradation patterns. both models struggle to scale effectively in complex, hybrid it environments where workloads fluctuate rapidly and systems are interdependent. modern enterprises face increasing pressures from regulatory frameworks such as basel iii, gdpr, hipaa, pci dss, and iso/iec 20000 standards. these regulations mandate high 378 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us availability, auditability, and operational continuity, placing additional emphasis on proactive risk mitigation in it infrastructure. traditional approaches often fall short in ensuring compliance with these stringent requirements, especially in real-time monitoring scenarios where manual intervention cannot keep pace with system complexity. the strategic opportunity lies in aiand ml-powered predictive maintenance, which leverages historical telemetry, real-time monitoring, and anomaly detection to anticipate failures before they occur. predictive maintenance transforms it operations from a reactive cost center into a proactive risk management capability, enabling enterprises to: a. reduce unplanned outages, minimizing financial losses and operational disruption. b. optimize maintenance schedules, lowering operational expenditure and extending hardware life cycles. c. ensure sla compliance, meeting regulatory expectations for uptime and reliability. d. enhance operational visibility, providing actionable insights for decision-makers and it teams. by integrating ai-driven analytics with monitoring systems across servers, storage, networks, and cloud-native components, enterprises can build resilient, self-healing it environments that align operational efficiency with compliance mandates. this shift is particularly critical in sectors such as bfsi, healthcare, telecom, and manufacturing, where downtime or failure can have cascading impacts on customer trust, regulatory adherence, and overall business continuity 3. conceptual foundations of ai-driven predictive maintenance ai-driven predictive maintenance leverages advanced analytics and machine learning to anticipate it infrastructure failures before they occur, enabling proactive interventions that reduce downtime and operational costs. the conceptual foundations are built around the following key principles: a. anomaly detection ai models analyze system logs, performance metrics, and sensor readings to detect deviations from normal operational behavior. techniques such as autoencoders, clustering, and isolation forests identify abnormal cpu spikes, memory leaks, storage bottlenecks, or unusual network traffic patterns. early detection of these anomalies allows it teams to address issues before they escalate into critical failures. b. time-series forecasting predictive maintenance relies heavily on time-series analysis to identify gradual degradation trends in it systems. using models such as arima, lstm, and prophet, enterprises can forecast resource exhaustion, hardware wear, and performance deterioration. for instance, predicting disk latency trends can prevent storage failures, while forecasting cpu temperature fluctuations can avoid server overheating. c. root cause analysis (rca) once anomalies or potential failures are detected, ai-driven rca identifies underlying causes by correlating multiple telemetry sources. machine learning models can uncover patterns that humans might overlook, such as the interaction between network congestion and application response delays. rca allows targeted interventions, optimizing maintenance efforts and minimizing unnecessary hardware replacements. d. high-dimensional telemetry handling enterprise it environments generate massive, high-dimensional data streams, including logs, metrics, traces, and event histories. ai models are uniquely suited to process this complexity, capturing hidden patterns and correlations that traditional monitoring tools cannot. by 379 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us integrating structured and unstructured data, predictive maintenance systems deliver actionable, context-aware insights. e. data sources for predictive analytics successful ai-driven maintenance requires rich and diverse datasets: ➢ system logs: event histories, error codes, warnings. ➢ cpu, memory, and storage metrics: utilization patterns, iops, latency. ➢ network telemetry: throughput, packet loss, latency trends. ➢ application traces: api response times, transaction failures, error propagation. ➢ environmental sensors (for data centers): temperature, humidity, and power usage patterns. by combining these sources, ai-driven models can provide comprehensive risk assessments, predict potential system failures, and recommend maintenance actions with precision. the integration of anomaly detection, forecasting, and rca forms a closed-loop predictive maintenance ecosystem that aligns operational reliability with cost efficiency and compliance mandates. 4. architecture of ai-powered predictive maintenance pipeline the architecture of an ai-powered predictive maintenance pipeline is designed to ingest, process, analyze, and act upon it infrastructure telemetry in real time, ensuring reliability, operational efficiency, and compliance. the pipeline is composed of several integrated layers: a. data ingestion layer this layer collects data from a wide array of enterprise it sources to ensure comprehensive visibility into system health: ➢ syslog and snmp feeds from servers, switches, and storage devices. ➢ cloud monitoring apis from platforms such as aws cloudwatch, azure monitor, or gcp stackdriver. ➢ application performance monitoring (apm) tools like dynatrace, appdynamics, and new relic for capturing application-level metrics and traces. ➢ sensor telemetry for environmental factors in data centers, such as temperature, humidity, and power usage. b. processing layer this layer handles the high-velocity, high-volume data streams: ➢ streaming pipelines (kafka, spark streaming) for near real-time anomaly detection and alerts. ➢ batch pipelines for historical trend analysis, model training, and long-term forecasting. ➢ data normalization and enrichment to ensure consistency across diverse sources. c. modeling layer the core of predictive maintenance lies in intelligent ai/ml models that analyze it telemetry: ➢ time-series forecasting models (lstm, prophet) to predict resource degradation and performance trends. ➢ anomaly detection models (isolation forest, autoencoders) to identify unusual patterns indicative of potential failures. 380 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ failure probability scoring and remaining useful life (rul) estimation to prioritize maintenance actions. ➢ hybrid modeling approaches combining supervised, unsupervised, and semi-supervised methods for adaptive and robust predictions. d. orchestration & monitoring layer automation ensures that predictions are operationalized efficiently: ➢ automated ticketing with platforms such as servicenow or jira to alert it teams for immediate intervention. ➢ self-healing scripts for predefined remedial actions, such as service restarts, workload migrations, or server throttling. ➢ continuous monitoring of model performance, drift detection, and re-training triggers to maintain predictive accuracy. e. visualization layer actionable insights are delivered through interactive dashboards: ➢ real-time system health indicators, alert statuses, and failure probability scores. ➢ tools like grafana, kibana, and power bi provide drill-down capabilities for it operations and executive reporting. ➢ customizable kpis for sla compliance, uptime, and risk metrics. f. governance and compliance layer maintaining regulatory and organizational compliance is critical: ➢ full logging and lineage of ingested data and model predictions. ➢ model explainability using shap, lime, or integrated ai explainability frameworks to satisfy audit requirements. ➢ role-based access control and secure data storage to ensure confidentiality of it telemetry and operational insights. this architecture forms a closed-loop, ai-powered predictive maintenance ecosystem, transforming traditional reactive or scheduled maintenance into proactive, real-time, and compliance-aligned operations. by integrating streaming analytics, machine learning, automation, and visualization, enterprises can reduce downtime, optimize operational costs, and improve sla adherence while maintaining robust governance. 5. ai/ml techniques for predictive it maintenance predictive it maintenance relies on a diverse set of ai and machine learning techniques to anticipate system failures, optimize resource utilization, and reduce operational costs. enterprises leverage these techniques to process massive volumes of telemetry data, uncover hidden patterns, and enable proactive maintenance. a. supervised learning models supervised models are trained on historical it incidents, outages, and maintenance logs to classify potential failure events: ➢ random forest and gradient boosted trees for multi-class failure prediction. ➢ logistic regression and svms for binary predictions (failure/no-failure). ➢ applied in scenarios such as disk failure prediction, network congestion alerts, and database performance degradation. 381 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us b. unsupervised learning models unsupervised approaches detect anomalies and cluster patterns in unlabeled system telemetry: ➢ k-means and dbscan for grouping similar performance behaviors and identifying outliers. ➢ isolation forest and one-class svm for detecting unusual spikes in cpu/memory usage or abnormal system log events. ➢ particularly useful for uncovering rare failure patterns that are not captured in historical incident datasets. c. deep learning techniques deep learning models handle sequential and high-dimensional telemetry data with superior accuracy: ➢ lstm (long short-term memory) networks capture temporal dependencies in system logs, predicting failures before they occur. ➢ cnns (convolutional neural networks) analyze sensor signals, environmental readings, or even infrastructure images for anomaly detection. ➢ hybrid architectures combining lstm + attention mechanisms for high-frequency metrics, such as cpu temperature fluctuations or network packet loss trends. d. hybrid approaches combining rule-based heuristics with ai/ml models ensures compliance and safety: ➢ regulatory-driven thresholds (e.g., maximum cpu temperature or storage i/o limits) are integrated with predictive models. ➢ ensures that predictive alerts meet sla and audit requirements, providing explainable actions to it teams and compliance officers. e. model retraining and mlops pipelines to maintain accuracy over time, enterprise pipelines include automated retraining and deployment mechanisms: ➢ continuous monitoring of model performance metrics (precision, recall, f1-score, rocauc). ➢ triggered retraining when drift is detected in telemetry data or when new failure patterns emerge. ➢ deployment via mlops frameworks (kubeflow, mlflow, sagemaker) ensuring seamless integration into predictive maintenance workflows. f. real-world application example ➢ bfsi data centers with 100,000+ servers monitor cpu, memory, storage, and network metrics every 30 seconds. ➢ using lstm + isolation forest pipelines, anomalous patterns in storage i/o are detected 48 hours before failure. ➢ this approach reduces downtime by 70% and saves an estimated $500k annually in sla penalties and emergency maintenance costs. these ai/ml techniques collectively form a robust, adaptive predictive maintenance ecosystem, capable of handling complex it environments while aligning with enterprise compliance, operational efficiency, and cost-reduction goals. 382 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. case study: global bank’s data center reliability upgrade context a leading multinational bank operates over 30 data centers across north america, europe, and asia-pacific, supporting mission-critical applications including core banking, trading platforms, and risk analytics. the scale and sensitivity of these operations demanded near-zero downtime and strict adherence to regulatory it controls (sox, basel iii, pci-dss). problem the bank experienced recurring storage subsystem failures, resulting in an average of 8+ hours of downtime per quarter. this caused significant operational disruption and triggered sla penalties totaling several million dollars annually. traditional preventive maintenance schedules were insufficient to detect early signs of hardware degradation, while reactive fixes were costly and slow. solution the bank deployed an ai-driven predictive maintenance pipeline to proactively monitor it infrastructure: ➢ data ingestion and processing: collected system logs, telemetry, and sensor data from storage arrays, servers, and network devices. ➢ anomaly detection: lstm and isolation forest models analyzed time-series metrics to detect early signs of disk and storage array degradation. ➢ automated incident management: alerts were integrated with servicenow to trigger automated remediation workflows and notify it teams of imminent failures. ➢ proactive interventions: ai models identified storage components likely to fail 7 days before actual downtime, enabling preemptive maintenance. outcomes ➢ reduced unplanned outages: the predictive maintenance system decreased unexpected downtime by 55%, improving operational continuity across all 30+ data centers. ➢ cost savings: annual savings of approximately $20m from avoided sla penalties, emergency repairs, and lost productivity. ➢ regulatory compliance: automated logging, traceable incident workflows, and explainable ai models strengthened adherence to sox and basel iii it control frameworks. ➢ operational efficiency: it staff could focus on strategic initiatives rather than repetitive firefighting, while predictive dashboards provided visibility into infrastructure health across all regions. key takeaways ➢ ai-powered predictive maintenance transforms reactive it operations into proactive risk management. ➢ integration with enterprise orchestration tools ensures real-time incident response and regulatory audit readiness. ➢ early detection of hardware degradation supports both cost efficiency and compliance assurance, critical in bfsi operations. 7. benefits of ai-driven predictive maintenance enhanced reliability ai-driven predictive maintenance significantly reduces unplanned outages by continuously monitoring system logs, hardware telemetry, and network performance. early detection of 383 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us anomalies ensures infrastructure uptime, supporting mission-critical bfsi, healthcare, and manufacturing operations. cost efficiency by anticipating failures, organizations can schedule maintenance only when necessary, lowering emergency repair costs and optimizing labor allocation. predictive maintenance minimizes unnecessary component replacements and reduces sla penalties from service disruptions. regulatory compliance maintaining detailed, timestamped predictive maintenance logs helps enterprises demonstrate adherence to it governance and regulatory frameworks, including sox, basel iii, pci-dss, and hipaa. proactive reporting simplifies audits and strengthens compliance credibility. business continuity predictive maintenance enables uninterrupted operations by preventing cascading system failures. for global bfsi and enterprise environments, this ensures continuous transaction processing, data analytics, and customer-facing services, directly supporting sla commitments. sustainability extending the lifecycle of servers, storage arrays, and network devices through proactive maintenance reduces electronic waste, promotes sustainable it operations, and aligns with esg goals. operational insights ai-generated dashboards and predictive alerts provide it teams with actionable insights, enabling strategic capacity planning, optimized resource allocation, and smarter investment decisions. 8. challenges and considerations data quality and heterogeneity it telemetry comes from diverse sources (servers, storage, cloud services, network devices). inconsistent formats, missing metrics, or delayed logs can affect model accuracy and decisionmaking. balancing accuracy and explainability regulators and it auditors require transparent and interpretable models. complex ai/ml algorithms (e.g., lstm, deep learning) offer high prediction accuracy but may be difficult to explain, necessitating hybrid approaches that balance performance and interpretability. integration complexity deploying predictive maintenance across hybrid environments (on-premises + cloud) involves integrating legacy monitoring systems, modern observability platforms, and ai pipelines without disrupting live services. high initial investment upfront costs for sensors, monitoring tools, ai infrastructure, and staff training can be substantial, though roi is realized over time through reduced downtime and maintenance costs. change management and trust it teams must be trained to trust ai recommendations, interpret alerts, and act on predictions effectively. organizational adoption requires cultural change, governance policies, and iterative validation of ai insights. 384 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us cybersecurity and data privacy collecting and analyzing system telemetry, logs, and configuration data can expose sensitive operational information. ensuring encryption, access control, and compliance with regulations like gdpr or hipaa is critical. 9. future outlook autonomous it operations (aiops) and self-healing infrastructure next-generation predictive maintenance is evolving toward fully autonomous it environments. ai-driven systems can detect anomalies, trigger automated remediation scripts, and dynamically reconfigure workloads to prevent outages without human intervention. this reduces mean time to recovery (mttr) and enhances overall infrastructure resilience. federated learning for multi-enterprise model training federated learning allows organizations to collaboratively train ai/ml models across multiple enterprises or regions without sharing sensitive raw data. for bfsi, healthcare, and regulated industries, this approach strengthens predictive capabilities while maintaining data privacy and compliance. predictive compliance monitoring advanced predictive maintenance pipelines will integrate regulatory intelligence to anticipate potential compliance breaches. by correlating infrastructure performance, configuration drift, and operational anomalies, ai can proactively forecast and alert for sla violations or regulatory non-compliance. integration with digital twins of it infrastructure digital twins — virtual replicas of data centers, cloud environments, and hybrid systems — enable simulation of infrastructure behavior under various load and failure scenarios. predictive maintenance integrated with digital twins allows proactive risk assessment and capacity planning. generative ai for automated rca and audit reporting generative ai can create detailed, human-readable root cause analysis reports and compliance documentation automatically. this capability simplifies auditor review processes, reduces manual reporting overhead, and ensures traceable, regulatory-ready documentation. edge ai and iot integration for data centers future predictive maintenance systems will leverage edge ai sensors to monitor power, cooling, and server health in real time. this hybrid approach allows immediate detection of localized anomalies, reducing latency in incident response. continuous learning and adaptive models ai models will continuously learn from new failure events, infrastructure upgrades, and evolving attack vectors, ensuring predictive maintenance systems remain accurate, adaptive, and aligned with enterprise growth. 10. conclusion recap ai-driven predictive maintenance transforms enterprise it operations from reactive problemsolving to proactive, intelligent resilience. by combining anomaly detection, predictive modeling, and automation, enterprises can significantly reduce downtime, prevent sla breaches, and optimize maintenance costs. 385 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us strategic insight ai is no longer an optional enhancement; it is essential for ensuring operational reliability, cost efficiency, regulatory compliance, and business continuity. predictive maintenance enables enterprises to stay ahead of evolving infrastructure risks, avoid financial penalties, and protect their reputation. call to action enterprises across bfsi, healthcare, telecom, and manufacturing must implement ai-powered predictive maintenance pipelines, integrate real-time monitoring, and adopt adaptive learning models. doing so will secure long-term operational advantage, reduce risk exposure, and enable data-driven, resilient it ecosystems. references: 1. talluri, m. 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(2021). building predictive systems for workforce compliance with regulatory mandates. international journal of scientific research in computer science, engineering and information technology (ijsrcseit), 7(5), 138–146. 16. rele, m., & patil, d. (2023, july). multimodal healthcare using artificial intelligence. in 2023 14th international conference on computing communication and networking technologies (icccnt) (pp. 1–6). ieee. 17. kotha, s. r. (2023). ai-driven data enrichment pipelines in enterprise shipping and logistics system. journal of computational analysis and applications (jocaaa), 31(4), 1590–1604. 18. rachamala, n. r. (2023, june). case study: migrating financial data to aws redshift and athena. international journal of open publication and exploration (ijope), 11(1), 67–76. 19. gadhiya, y. (2022). leveraging predictive analytics to mitigate risks in drug and alcohol testing. international journal of intelligent systems and applications in engineering, 10(3), 521–. 20. mahadevan, g. (2021). ai and machine learning in retail tech: enhancing customer insights. international journal of computer science and mobile computing, 10, 71–84. https://doi.org/10.47760/ijcsmc.2021.v10i11.009 https://doi.org/10.17762/ijritcc.v9i3.11707 https://doi.org/10.17762/ijritcc.v9i3.11707 159 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the methods for improving the efficiency of flat solar collectors azizbek rakhmonov yigitali ugli, sharofov salokhiddin sirojidinovich fergana polytechnical institute, uzbekistan abstract: this article discusses the issues of increasing the efficiency of flat solar air heaters using heat exchange intensifiers. the author presents the main methods for increasing the heat transfer intensity from the absorber to the heated air in a flat solar collector, which are associated with flow separations from the absorber wall to the near-wall airflow, which practically has a low level of turbulence. keywords: flat solar air heater, heat exchange, collector efficiency, roughness, aerodynamic resistance, photovoltaic module. introduction research dedicated to enhancing the efficiency of air collectors with intensified heat transfer has been conducted at the fergana polytechnic institute from 2000 to 2019 [5]. these studies focused on the efficiency of flat solar air heaters (fsah) with diffuser-convergent heat receivers, as well as with heliopreceptors of various roughnesses applied to the absorber surface. in the mentioned studies, attention was first drawn to the fact that increasing the energy efficiency of solar air collectors could be achieved with minimal energy expenditure on promoting airflow through the heat-transfer channels at high heat exchange intensities. consequently, the objective of these studies was to create rational intensification of heat transfer in the heat-transfer channels, where the increase in heat transfer surpasses the rise in aerodynamic resistance, investigating the nature of increased heat exchange intensity, and developing the fundamentals of engineering theory for the calculation and design of solar air heaters with high energy efficiency. one of the key factors identified to effectively enhance the heat transfer of the heater was the aerodynamic impact of the surface shape on the near-wall flow. the authors of the mentioned studies developed criteria for evaluating the efficiency of solar heating devices for fsah for the first time, representing formulas for the comparative efficiency of fsah based on the coefficient of energy efficiency: е = qпол n , (1) additionally, formulas were developed to compare the dimensions of two fsah (with a smooth plate fsah chosen as the baseline) having: the same design, the same thermal power, the same equivalent diameters, the same coolant circulation rates, and the same aerodynamic losses. this undoubtedly contributed positively to the further development of thermo-aerodynamic methods aimed at enhancing fsah efficiency. in later years, similar research on increasing the performance of fsah began to be conducted abroad as well. 160 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us discussion of results studies aimed at increasing the efficiency of fsah are primarily conducted in countries with warm climates, such as greece, india, egypt, and china [1]. it should be noted that such research is focused on enhancing collector efficiency through the use of a photovoltaic module in the heliopreceptor channel or by increasing heat exchange through the development of the absorber surface or the use of various types of roughness, and they are experimental in nature. for instance, tonui y.k. and tripanagnostopoulos y. conducted experimental studies on improving the efficiency of a solar collector by using a photovoltaic module and fins installed in the heliopreceptor channel [1]. figure 2 shows the dependencies of electrical and thermal efficiency of the combined solar collector. the authors of the study note that the collector efficiency with fins installed in the heliopreceptor channel increases by 20% compared to a conventional channel. langevaro a.m., bhagoria j.l., and sarviya r.m. [2] experimentally investigated the heat transfer in the heliopreceptor channel of a solar air heater, the surface of which is formed by fins with a small height and positioned at a 45° angle to the direction of the airflow. figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental setup (a) and the arrangement of the fins (b) in the heliopreceptor. figure 1. cross-sectional diagram of the combined solar collector (а) 161 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (б) figure 2. dependence of photovoltaic (a) and thermal efficiency (b) on module temperature and flow velocity. (а) (б) figure 3. schematic diagram of the experimental setup (a) and arrangement of fins in the heliopreceptor (b) the reynolds number in the experiments varied from 2300 to 14000. heat transfer experiments for the straight heliopreceptor channel (without fins) are shown in figure 4. the results of the experimental tests were compared with calculations based on the dittus-boelter equation, which is formulated as: 162 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑁𝑢 = 0,023 · 𝑅𝑒0,8 · 𝑃𝑟0,4 · ( 2𝑅 𝐷 ) −0,2 , (1) the friction of the heliopreceptor channel was compared with calculations based on the modified blasius equation (figure 5): 𝑓𝑥 = 0,085 · 𝑅𝑒−,25 (2) figure 4. comparison of experimental heat transfer data for the straight heliopreceptor channel (without fins). the authors have demonstrated that due to the finned surface of the absorber, heat exchange can increase by up to 2.5 times compared to the heat transfer on a smooth heliopreceptor (figure 6). chi-dong ho, xuan zhang, and chung-cheng lin in their research [3] proposed to enhance the efficiency of the solar collector by implementing a two-way airflow in the collector and using wire mesh as the absorber (figure 7). figures 8 and 9 depict the schematic diagram and theoretical and experimental collector efficiencies obtained for various mass flow rates of the air coolant. figure 5. comparison of experimental data on friction for the straight heliopreceptor channel (without fins). 163 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 6. increase in heat transfer on the finned surface of the heliopreceptor compared to the smooth surface of the absorber. 1, 2 types of roughness. figure 7. schematic of airflow in a two-way solar collector. figure 8. schematic diagram of the experimental setup for investigating heat transfer in a two-way collector with wire mesh. 164 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us on figure 9, theoretical and experimental collector efficiencies obtained for various mass flow rates of the air coolant are depicted. as seen from the graphs, the wire mesh increases the collector efficiency by enhancing the heat transfer intensity from the absorber to the airflow. research conducted by gaurao n. and dr. lavankar s.m. [4] focused on studying the thermoaerodynamic characteristics of a solar collector with roughness protrusions located on the absorber surface, as shown in figure 11. the experiments were conducted on a setup, the schematic diagram of which is depicted in the following figure 12. figure 9. dependency of theoretical and experimental values of collector efficiency with a wire mesh absorber at various air mass flow rates. experimental data on thermo-aerodynamic characteristics were processed in the form of a dependency: 𝑇𝐻𝑃 = [ 𝑁𝑢 𝑁𝑢гл ] [ 𝐶𝑓гл 𝐶𝑓 ] , (3) where thp is referred to as the thermo-aerodynamic efficiency coefficient, which in experiments reached values of two or more. the authors have taken an important step in understanding the mechanism of flow around the roughness protrusions shown in figure 13. (а) 165 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (б) (в) (г) figure 11. shapes of the investigated roughness protrusions. figure 12. schematic diagram of the experimental setup. figure 13. schematic of flow around roughness elements. 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the diagram suggests that the intensification of heat transfer from the absorber surface with protrusions is primarily associated with boundary layer separations from the protrusions, and the height and shape of the protrusions influence the aerodynamic resistance of the collector. conclusion 1. analysis of scientific research on heat exchange efficiency in fsah has shown that studies aimed at enhancing the efficiency of flat solar air heaters have made significant progress both abroad and in our country. 2. research has been conducted on the thermal and aerodynamic characteristics of fsah of various designs, which contributes significantly to the development of the theory of efficient heat recovery. 3. however, an analysis of foreign studies on heat transfer intensification in fsah has revealed that the proposed methods for enhancing heat transfer in fsah are currently disparate, and there is no unified view on organizing the most advantageous method for conducting the heat transfer process in fsah while considering heat recovery efficiency. references 1. tonui j.k., tripanagnostopoulos y. improved pv/t solar collectors with heat extraction by forced or natural air circulation. // renewable energy 32 (2007) pp. 623 – 637. 2. lanjewar a.m., bhaqoria j.l., and sarviya r.m. heat transfer enhancement in solar air heater.// indian jornal of science and technology. vol 3 no 8 (aug 2010) pp. 908 – 910. 3. chii – dong ho, hsuan chang, chung – cheng lin, chun – chien chao, and yi – en tien. device performance improvement of doublle – pass wire mesh packed solar air heaters under recycling operation conditions. // energies. received 18 january 2016. pp. 2 – 10. 4. gaurao n. thombre, dr. lawankar s.m. review on thermo – hydraulic performance of solar air heater having artificial roughness on absorber plate. // international research journal of engineering and technology (irjet) vol 04 issue 05 may 2017. pp. 1188 – 1196. 5. umurzakova m.a. thermal efficiency of flat solar air heaters. international jornal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – india, vol. 5, issue 6, june 2018. (05.00.00. № 8) 6. abbasov y. et al. efficiency of solar air heaters //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 452. – с. 04009. 7. abbasov y., umurzakova m., sharofov s. results of the calculation of the absorber temperature in a flat solar air heater //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 411. – с. 01004. 8 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 coniferous trees: meaning, types and significance in landscape design karimova dilnoza erkinovna, omonov husan abdurazzoqovich samarkand state architecture and construction university named after mirzo ulugbek. teachers of the "landscape design" department. abstract: the article provides information about the meaning of conifers, their types, their ecological importance, specific characteristics, and natural resources obtained from these types of plants. in addition, information about its role, advantages and disadvantages in decorative gardening and landscape design is provided. keywords: conifers, natural tar, essential oil, resource, ecology, pests, decorative gardening, landscape design, larch, cedar, spruce, hemlock. 1. introduction. conifers (lat. pinóphyta or coníferae) are a group of trees with specific characteristics that distinguish them from other plant species. they are one of the most common and important species in the world. a distinctive feature of conifers is that they have needles instead of leaves. this allows them to withstand the cold winter weather, because the needles are an impenetrable barrier for water, which maintains the internal temperature of the tree and protects it from freezing. in addition, the needles contain oil and natural resin, which gives the trees a unique smell. conifers also have enormous ecological value, they hold soil together to prevent erosion and contribute to global biodiversity. coniferous trees are an important source (resource) for people. coniferous trees are widely used in forestry, construction, furniture making, paper and other products. they are preferred in the lumber industry due to their longevity, strength and beauty. since some types of plants of the khova type have antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties, the resin and essential oils obtained from them are often widely used in the field of medicine and cosmetics. in addition, coniferous trees have a good effect on the physical and emotional state of people, help to improve the cleanliness and purity of the air [4]. 2. materials and methods an important aspect of conifers is their ecological importance. they act as a natural filter. it is capable of purifying the air by absorbing some harmful substances, gases, and dust in the air and releasing oxygen. it also reduces soil erosion and improves its composition. admiration and respect for conifers is due to their versatile properties and excellent benefits. they are a symbol of the beauty and wisdom of nature and occupy an important place in the life of nature and people [1]. 9 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us one of the main characteristics of coniferous trees is the presence of needles in them. these needle-like leaves have a thin, hard structure and retain their green color even in winter. this allows conifers to maintain their greenness throughout the year, even in harsh winter climates. thus, conifers have properties that make them unique and unique. they play an important role in the ecological system and are of great importance to humans as a natural resource. the conifer family includes a variety of trees, including pine, spruce, hemlock, hemlock, and cypress. each species has its own characteristics and is well adapted to its own climatic conditions. as we mentioned above, one of the main features of conifers is their ability to keep their leaves green throughout the year. thanks to this, they become an excellent decorative element in the design of gardens, parks, flower beds and other landscape objects. conifers are of great interest to gardeners and lovers of greenery. their diversity and unique characteristics make them indispensable in creating beautiful and comfortable garden compositions. 3. results and discussion the importance of conifers in horticulture. coniferous trees and shrubs are of great importance in horticulture. they are in demand due to their high resistance to adverse weather conditions, lack of attention and the fact that they are perennial plants. below are the reasons why conifers are used in horticulture: ø first, coniferous trees are used to create green fences (fig. 1). their coniferous leaves have a dense structure and hold snow well, which creates additional protection from cold and wind. in addition, such barriers are an excellent sound-absorbing barrier, which is especially important for areas in noisy cities. ø secondly, conifers are often used to create a decorative composition in gardens (fig. 2). they add variety and visual interest to garden design because of their shape and color. coniferous trees and shrubs can add character to the composition and serve as an accent or focal point in the composition. figure 1. a green fence made of camellia figure 2. composition of coniferous plants in landscape design in general, conifers are important plants in horticulture due to their unique properties and uses. they can improve the appearance of the garden, create a comfortable and protected atmosphere, and also benefit the environment [3]. characteristics of conifers. coniferous trees have several characteristics that distinguish them from deciduous trees. some of them are: 10 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us needles (needles) are one of the main characteristics of conifers. due to this feature, they can adapt to cold climates. it helps retain moisture by forming an additional layer on the surface of the tree that helps protect against moisture loss. durability. coniferous trees are stronger and better resistant to external influences than deciduous trees. for this reason, the use of this raw material in the construction industry and the furniture industry is an ideal option. endurance. coniferous trees have the ability to withstand extreme conditions and temperature changes due to their durability. they are often found in the northern regions, where the climate is harsh and cold. the smell. many conifers have a unique scent that can be pleasing to humans. due to this property, it is popular in aromatherapy use and in the essential oil production industry. pest resistance. coniferous trees have the ability to repel insects and other pests that negatively affect their vital activity due to the natural resin they contain. conifers: types and variety. pine is one of the most popular types of coniferous trees. its needles are usually green and thin in shape. pines are found in different forms, such as common pine, mountain pine, and black pine. spruce is another common type of coniferous species. its needles are dark green in color and round in shape. spruce trees are often used as christmas trees abroad, representing the holiday season and the winter season. tilogoch (listvennitsa) is another well-known coniferous tree that is found mainly in mountainous areas. tilogoch has thin and long green needles. it is popular in landscape design due to its beauty and resistance to adverse conditions. cedar is a large and strong coniferous tree found in various countries. cedar has beautiful large domes and long green needles. it is famous for its healing properties and the use of wood in construction. this is a small part of conifers that exist in nature. each species has its own characteristics and is adapted to certain living conditions. conifers play an important role in the ecosystem due to their ability to retain moisture and provide shelter to various species of birds [2]. coniferous plants are often an integral element of landscape design. these types of plants, distinguished by the simplicity of care, as we said above, maintain their decorativeness (greenness) throughout the year and clean the air. compositions made of coniferous trees can be combined with other elements of landscape design, for example, bushes, stones and even flowers (fig. 3). figure 3. a composition made by combining coniferous trees with bushes, stones and flowers 11 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us advantages and disadvantages of conifers. there are several advantages for landscape designers and gardeners to use conifers in landscape compositions. they are as follows: ø low temperature resistance. conifers can withstand cold and frosty winter temperatures; ø scenicness. they keep their beautiful green conifers throughout the year; ø does not require special care. trees of this type do not require frequent watering or fertilizing during the growing season; ø pest resistant. some conifers have natural defenses and can protect themselves from pest attacks. however, in addition to the advantages, conifers also have disadvantages: ø it grows slowly. coniferous trees grow more slowly than ornamental trees. if it is necessary to make a living wall of fast-growing plants in the area being greened, this type of plants does not fit in such a place; ø soil acidity. many conifers prefer to grow in acidic soils, which may require regular feeding and maintenance to maintain optimal growing conditions; ø growing conditions. not all conifers can grow successfully in certain climates, they should be selected based on their suitability for the local climate. 4. conclusion. coniferous trees are distinguished from other types of plants by their resistance to any climatic conditions. they can withstand severe cold and high temperatures, besides, they can easily protect themselves from various diseases. since conifers have a strong antibacterial effect, they saturate the air with oxygen and other useful substances more than other types of plants. and most importantly, they fit harmoniously into the design of any garden. references: 1. erkinovna, k. d., & sergeyevna, k. g. the reconstruction of the architectural landscape is a means of optimizing an urban environment. international journal on integrated education, 4(4), 238-240. 2. muratovich, k. a., & erkinovna, k. d. (2022). ornamental plants used for flower arrangements. spanish journal of innovation and integrity, 6, 511-514. 3. кирина, и. б., & попова, и. н. (2021). хвойные породы в ландшафтном дизайне городов. наука и образование, 4(4). 4. авраменко, и. (2022). деревья и кустарники в ландшафтном дизайне. litres. 5. erkinovna, k. d., & uyg’unqizi, m. z. (2022). the role of color in human practice. international journal on integrated education, 5(5), 193-195. 6. юнусова, к. б., & кадирова, н. б. (2017). роль цвета в ландшафтном дизайне. in молодежь и xxi век-2017 (pp. 337-340). 7. bakhodirovna, y. k., & khudoykul, k. (2022). landscape solutions for a system of lowrise residential buildings (mahallas) in the historical center of the city. international journal on integrated education, 5(3), 296-299. 8. lutz, j. a., larson, a. j., swanson, m. e., & freund, j. a. (2012). ecological importance of large-diameter trees in a temperate mixed-conifer forest. plos one, 7(5), e36131. 9. qizi, n. s. b., & ashurovich, t. s. (2024). manzarali va dorivor daraxt-buta o ‘simliklarining biologik hamda manzaraviylik xususiyatlari. science and innovation, 3(special issue 20), 255-258. 10. drobchenko, n. v. (2004). the history of the formation and development of landscape architecture in uzbekistan. samarkand: abstract. 152 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 determination of the optimal value of the technical and economic parameters of electrical networks in city power supply m. v. melikuziev tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov, tashkent, uzbekistan abstract: the relevance of the study lies in the fact that in the power supply system there is a problem of choosing the parameters of the elements of the electrical network according to technical and economic indicators. the increase in the number of electricity consumers is associated with the expansion of energy consumption facilities in urban and industrial enterprises, as well as in agriculture. one of the solutions to this problem is the choice of optimal parameters of power transmission lines that provide consumers with electricity, for example, the cross-section of the surfaces of the lines at the optimal value. it is important to correctly determine the location of the transformer substation that provides electricity to the territory in combination with the cross-sectional surface of the line. study of the factors influencing the technical and economic parameters to be selected and their mathematical expressions. a small micro districts belonging to the area of urban electricity supply was chosen as the object of the study. to determine the optimal parameters, mathematical expressions have been developed using the method of mathematical expectations and matrices in determining capital and operating costs. the results of the study showed that issues related to the establishment of permissible values of electrical load and voltage when determining the cross-sectional surfaces of lines, as well as all factors affecting the determination of terrain coordinates, can change the technical and economic value of optimal parameters. the parameters obtained as a result of solving the problems discussed in this article are used in the distribution electrical networks of the power supply system (0,4/6/10 kv), as well as during the construction of transformer substations on the territory. keywords: reduced costs, optimal location, power losses, matrix, line sections. introduction. currently, reducing electricity consumption and improving energy efficiency are priorities for the development of the electric power system in accordance with the development strategy of the republic of uzbekistan until 2030. in the power supply system, the indicators of electricity consumption of industrial enterprises, cities and consumers of agricultural electricity do not form a uniform electrical load. the electrical load of electricity consumers on the territory of the city per unit of time is considered uneven. therefore, the choice of optimal parameters of the elements of the distribution network in the city is a complex process. at the same time, the issue of determining the optimal value of the parameters of power lines and transformer substations according to technical and economic indicators is relevant. as a result of an increase in the number of consumers of electric energy and the expansion of territories, an increase in demand for electric energy produced, transmitted and quality indicators of which are in the acceptable range, it is necessary to determine the optimal values of the cross-sectional surface of power transmission lines providing territories, to determine 153 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the optimal values of the costs of their laying. at the same time, the question of the total number of transformer substations of 6-10/0,4 kv located in the received zones, the optimal amount of power and determining their location must be solved using mathematical expectations, methods and techniques. the purpose of our work is to study the determination of the technical and economic optimal parameters of elements of distribution electric networks that provide consumers of electric energy in various regions. at the same time, parameters affecting the technical and economic indicators of the power supply line with a voltage of up to 1000 v and transformer substations with a voltage of 6-10/0,4 kv were obtained. the scientific significance of the study lies in the definition of mathematical expressions for determining the optimal parameters of the elements of the distribution electrical network using mathematical expectations and methods. the practical significance of the study lies in the fact that, based on the possibilities of the theoretical data obtained, by introducing them into existing distribution electric networks, it is possible to reduce the amount of total costs for electric networks, to obtain their optimal values. the results of the work will be useful if they are implemented in small neighborhoods in the city. the main part. the task of determining the optimal location of the transformer substation (ts) should be solved taking into account the criteria of technical and economic efficiency. in this paper, the criterion of the minimum of the reduced costs, which in general can be represented as a dimensionless target function (tf=z), acts as a criterion of technical and economic efficiency. the choice of the optimal location of the ts depends on the length of the cable line (cl) network from the ts to the input and distribution device (idd) of consumers and on the cost of renting the territory. routes for laying cl on the territory of the city should also be determined taking into account the criteria of technical and economic efficiency. since different plots of land through which the communications of the ps lines pass have different costs. the costs associated with the laying of cl and their maintenance and repair also have different costs at different sites. when laying a cable on the territory of the carriageway, the cost of work increases sharply due to the need to open and restore the pavement, etc. when solving the technical optimization problem of determining the optimal location of the ts, it is necessary to determine the optimal route for laying the cl. as a tool for determining the optimal route and the length of the cl, it is proposed to use a modification of the wave front algorithm the fast marching algorithm [1-2, 5]. z contains three components: 1. capital expenditures к; 2. operating costs qt; 3. expenses related to compensation of electricity losses δw. let's consider these components in the context of the task of determining the optimal routes for laying cl. the capital costs for the construction of the cl should take into account the costs of equipment (cables, cable fittings, couplings) and construction and installation work. we believe that the cost of the construction of a cl is proportional to its length [6], thus, for k we get: (1) 154 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where the unit cost of the construction of cl, thousand sum./m. value — it is differentiated depending on the rated voltage, the cross-section of the core material, the type of cable, the method of laying, the number of cables in the trench and the rental value of the land allocated for laying cl. operating costs for cl are primarily associated with emergency maintenance of damaged cable sections. the probability of damage to the overhead line due to the fault of the organization operating the power supply (ps) network is much less than the probability of damage to the overhead line. based on the above arguments, this type of costs, in the context of the task of determining the optimal routes for cl, is not taken into account. the costs associated with the compensation of electricity losses δw are found from the expression: (2) where power losses in the maximum load mode of the network, τ the number of hours of maximum losses during the considered period of network operation. the number of hours of maximum losses can be approximately determined by the empirical dependenceи [7, 15]: (3) where the number of hours of maximum load usage per year. according to [6, 13], = 5400 hours for an average city, therefore, ≈ 3862 hours per year. assuming that the load schedules remain unchanged during the period under consideration on the order of t=30 years. for a concentrated load at the end of the line p, using the ratio (1) and moving from voltage loss to power loss for δw, we obtain: √ (4) for the purposes of this study, it is more convenient to switch to unit values measured in thousand sum./m. and units of energy in kw·h. substituting the value of τ and l=10 -3 km and taking into account that rх ≈ 0,06 ohm/km, cosφ≈0,98 (for household consumers), we neglect the inductive component of the cable resistance for specific electricity losses during the year, we get the expression (in kw·h/m) (5) substituting (4) and (5) into (1), we obtain an expression for the z of the relative reduced unit costs per one meter of cl during the entire service life ∑ ∑ (6) the denominator (6) contains the total cost of the electricity transmitted over the cable during the entire service life, which ensures dimensionless and independence from the economic conjuncture. imagine , where = 5400 h. [6, 11], then for we get: ∑ ∑ (7) the cost of electricity losses is , determined from ( ). 155 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us from the values of for each square meter, a matrix of unit costs (9) is formed, the columns of which are local x coordinates, and the rows are y coordinates. the sampling step is 1 m.: [ ] , (8) figure 1 shows the matrix , for a segment of the weighted vorono diagram, in shades of gray, which is determined similarly with the ratio (2), each shade corresponds to the definition of the value (7), 1 pixel corresponds to 1 m 2 . the matrix serves as a weight matrix for the algorithm for determining the elements of the matrix of geodesic distances and optimal routes of cl. in this study, "fast marching" was used [3-5], it is possible to use other algorithms for finding optimal paths on graphs, e.g. the "a-star" algorithm or deykstry algorithm. the elements of the matrix of geodetic distances are the costs of laying a cable from a point with the coordinates of the i-th consumer to each point in the study area: [ ] , (9) with the help of geodetic distance maps (9), a cumulative geodetic distance map is formed: ∑ . fig. 1. image of the matrix of values . the most expensive areas are marked with a light shade of gray, the "star" marker marks the minimum point as the coordinates of the optimal location of the tp. the "fast marching" algorithm used in the study is a discrete difference analog of the wave front algorithm. this numerical algorithm allows us to find numerical solutions to the eykonal equation |grad(d(x, y)| = p(x, y), here d(x, y) is a function of the geodesic distance. this algorithm uses the gradient descent method and resembles deykstry algorithm for finding optimal paths on graphs. 156 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us information on this algorithm can be found in [1, 2, 4]. to determine the elements of the cost matrix , it is necessary to know the cost of the cable of the required cross section. the main points related to the choice of optimal technical and economic sections of the cl are described in the пуэ [3] of this study. since the section of the low voltage network is considered in this example, in the task of choosing the optimal technical and economic section of the cl, we will follow the recommendations given in the regulatory documents [6-9, 12]. in accordance with the пуэ [3], cable sections with a voltage of up to 1 kv are selected according to the heating condition with a long rated current in normal and post emergency modes, according to the ratio (im). the selected cross section value is then checked for compliance with the voltage loss criterion (fi). the current in the line during the period of maximum power consumption is calculated according to the expression: √ (10) where consumer load, rated voltage. we believe that the correction coefficients have the following values: к1=1; k2=0,95; к3=1. the maximum permissible currents can be calculated according to the formula: √ (11) the nomenclature sections selected according to the condition of heating by a long term design current are presented in table 1. таble 1. calculated parameters of the elements of the ps network of the weighted voronoi diagram №14 parameters consumer cumulative parameters 1 2 3 4 5 load р, kvt 80 84 84 64 80 412 coordinates, m.. xl 996 939 1042 973 1074 assumed xts coordinate ts, m 960/63 yl 1061 1006 1095 942 943 assumed yts coordinate ts, m 1006/114 length of cable lines routes l, m. 65,8 21,5 121,3 65,8 141,1 415,5 limit current iреrm, а 140 147 147 112 140 section ftable пуэ, mm 2 35 50 50 25 35 calculated cross section of fδu for voltage loss, mm 2 24 8 45 19 50 recommended nomenclature value of the section f, mm 2 35 50 50 25 50 157 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us consider the laying of a cl with a voltage of 0,38 kv of the аввг brand (3x70+1x16 mm 2 ). the enlarged cost indicators [6-8] in terms of 2021 correspond to the unit price of 3450 thousand sum./m. in places where it is necessary to open and restore the roadway, the unit price increases to 4305 thousand sum./m. in addition, depending on the topology of the ps network, certain sections of the territory are more preferable for cable laying than others from a technological point of view. according to paragraph 2.3.11 of the пуэ [3], the design and construction of the cl should be carried out on the basis of technical and economic calculations, taking into account the development of the network, the responsibility and purpose of the line, the nature of the route, the method of laying, cable structures, etc. routes for cl are planned taking into account the location of the ts and the idd of ee consumers. for example, routes for laying cl along buildings, but no closer than 0,6 m from the foundation, are more preferable, since this allows you to take advantage of the loop layout in case of an emergency. it is necessary to avoid laying cl under the foundations of buildings and structures. the marking of such "preferred" sections for cable laying depends on the topological and architectural features of the area under consideration and is entirely within the competence of the lpr. taking into account the reliability factor of the network layout [4, 6, 9-14], we mark the sections along the perimeter of buildings with a width of 2 meters with a 20% preference index. all other things being equal, cable laying on sections of the marked territory is conditionally twenty percent cheaper. consequently, in the marked zone, the unit cost of laying the cable is 3585 sum/m. for paved areas and 3285 sum/m. for uncoated areas (at the same cable price). the growth coefficient of the cost of electrical energy is assumed to be equal: kwc = 0,06. the coefficient of reduction of multi-time costs: kdr = 0,08. electricity price: с = 295 sum./kw·h (450). resistivity of a three core aluminum cable with a cross section: 70 mm 2 – r0=0,43 оhm·km. the period of operation of the network: t=30 year. for these parameter values presented in (6), the function in the case of asphalt pavement has the form shown in fig.1. loads and their corresponding cl lengths are presented in table 1. permissible voltage losses in 0,4 kv networks should be no more than 4-6% [4]. since in the example under consideration the load is concentrated at the end of the cl, the expression for the cable section calculated by the permissible voltage loss (fi) takes a simpler form: (12) where а the coefficient, depending on the accepted units, is determined by the reference book [11], а=21,9 for network 0,4 kv; δu% voltage loss, expressed as a percentage, in the example under consideration δu%=5%; l length cl. if the cross-section of the conductor selected according to the heating condition with a long design current turns out to be less than the cross-section according to the permissible voltage loss, then for this load, a cross-section from the nomenclature series is selected in accordance with the criterion for permissible voltage loss. next, the matrix of unit costs is recalculated in accordance with the selected section and the map of geodetic distances is recalculated for 158 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the load under consideration and the cumulative map. the coordinates of the minimum point of the cumulative distance map are determined and the optimal trajectories for laying the cl are calculated anew. this procedure continues until the obtained sections meet the criteria defined in the пуэ [3]. table 1. presents calculated data for the region under consideration, obtained using digital image processing algorithms taking into account load heterogeneity based on vorono diagrams. conclusion. the determination of the ts responsibility zones using algorithms based on weighted vorono diagrams made it possible to take into account the heterogeneity of the load density when calculating the parameters of the ps elements and redistribute the electricity consumers across the ts responsibility zones in such a way that the coefficient of variation of the load density decreases. the use of the expression of relative reduced costs in a dimensionless form as a z makes it possible to take into account the prospective growth of the load and obtain, independent of the economic situation, the results of optimization procedures. the use of expensive matrices in the form of grayscale images and maps of geodetic distances allows us to take into account the local features of the region of planning and/or reconstruction of the ps network, which reduces the uncertainty and unreliability of initial data and apply digital image processing algorithms in the tasks of determining the optimal parameters of elements of urban ps networks. the generalized algorithm for determining the optimal technical and economic parameters of the elements of the ps, taking into account the heterogeneity of the load density based on vorono diagrams, implemented in machine code, allows you to get recommendations on the parameters of the elements of the ps networks, which can be taken as a basis for making decisions of the l. references: 1. д.а. гончаров, a.m. недзъведь, с.в. абламейко. анализ методов построения объемных дистанционных карт. искусственный интеллект 2019. №4. – ст. 114-127. 2. правила устройства электроустановок. все действующие разделы пуэ-6 и пуэ-7. м.: норматика, 2020. – 464 ст. 3. в.в. зорин, в.в. тисленко. системы электроснабжения общего назначения. чернигов: чгту, 2018. – 341 ст. 4. a.s. humayd, k. bhattacharya. 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(05.00.00; № 3). 11. a.d. taslimov, f.m. rakhimov, a.a. yuldashev, m.v. melikuziev // multiparameter optimization of the parameters of distributed electrical networks taking into account unification // international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. issn: 2350-0328. india. december 2019. vol.6, issue 12, p.12059-12063. http://www.ijarset.com/currentissue.html (05.00.00; № 8). 12. a.d. taslimov, a.a. alimov, f.m. rakhimov, m.v. melikuziev. // determination of the optimal parameters of power distribution networks by the method of criterion analysis // international journal of advanced science and technology vol. 29, №11s, (2020), рр.15781583. 13. a.d. taslimov, а.s. berdishev, m.v. melikuziev, f.m. rakhimov. // method of choosing the unification of cable sections of electric network cables under conditions of load development uncertainty // международная конференция руденко «методологические проблемы в изучении надежности крупных энергетических систем». ташкент. doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/ 201913901081 том 139 (2019), pp.1-3. (rses 2019) eissn:22671242. https://www.e3s-conferences.org/articles/e3sconf/ abs/2019/65/contents/ contents.html 14. a.d. taslimov, а.s. berdishev, m.v. melikuziev, f.m. rakhimov. // method of selecting parameters of cable lines distributive networks 10 kv in uncertainty conditions // международная конференция руденко «методологические проблемы в изучении надежности крупных энергетических систем». ташкент. doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/201913901082 том 139 (2019), pp.1-3. (rses 2019) eissn:22671242. https://www.e3s-conferences.org/articles /e3sconf/abs/2019/65/ contents/contents.html. 15. a.d. taslimov, a.s. berdishev, m.v. melikuziev, a. bijanov. // reliability indicators of 10 kv cable lines in rural areas // 23 rd international scientific conference on advance in civil engineering, construction – the formation of living, environment, form 2020; national university of civil engineering 55, giai phang roadhanoi, vietnam; 23 – 26 september 2020. 172 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 how to revive the construction materials industry through economic improvements khakim toshimovich buriev ⁠department of business management at samarkand state architecture and construction university named after mirzo ulughbek ibrokhimov nodirbek khasanovich master student, samarkand state university of architecture and construction, samarand, uzbekistan. abstract this article is focused to the uzbek construction materials industry's economic resurgence. the research approach is based on a study of the available literature, economic statistics, and research techniques. the study's findings demonstrate the necessity of taking steps including expanding construction investment, enhancing manufacturing technologies, performing marketing research, and raising employee standards in order to revitalize the building materials business. keywords: building materials industry, economic improvements, investments, production technologies, marketing research, personnel. introduction the economy of uzbekistan is largely dependent on the supply of construction materials. they are crucial to the building of houses, infrastructure, and the maintenance of national security. however, the sector has recently encountered issues that might have a detrimental impact on its growth. this is a result of the economy's problems and the political environment's changes. in this regard, it was determined to research the issue of uzbekistan's construction materials industry's need for economic revival. the industry's top priorities include expanding the use of local raw materials, developing product manufacturing, raising the quality of finished goods, lowering construction costs, and replacing antiquated machinery and equipment with cutting-edge technology. the standardization system in our country is crucial to the advancement of these works' production technology as well as to the industrialization of construction methods and the use of new materials in place of some of the more traditional ones. the republic of uzbekistan has created a standard for building supplies. information on the material's composition, characteristics, size, shape, testing procedures, storage and transportation, and acceptance requirements are included in each standard that has been accepted for use in construction. following the independence of our nation, the construction sector started to grow. the product's quality has grown, its variety has expanded, new technical approaches have been 173 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us implemented, and completely automated and mechanized technological systems have been developed and put into use. construction materials are one of the key industries that make up the republic's national economy. our ownership of our own raw material base, the high demand for industrial, commercial, and residential projects, and the availability of skilled professionals all contribute to this. initially, prefabricated steel-concrete constructions were used to construct high-rise buildings, but nowadays, cast concrete is used to construct homes and cottages. utilizing locally produced building supplies and launching a wall covering and environmental protection product line will lower construction costs. the major goal of this is to increase the future production of building materials and products' quality, durability, and technical and economic efficiency. the following are the primary tasks of scientific and technological progress in the growth of the building materials sector in our republic: to make sure that the speed of building material production is faster than that of capital construction; to make materials, goods, and structures more in line with contemporary standards so they may be utilized for a variety of functions (weather protection, weight bearing, etc.); reducing the weight of building components and structures while preserving their technological capabilities; guaranteeing the materials' quality, particularly their long-term endurance in the presence of a hazardous environment; producing useful construction materials from regional raw resources; seeing that the manufacture of building materials attracts low-energy technologies due to its high energy consumption; introducing new technologies and using computer technology to manage them for the building business. the information that was analyzed was compiled using data from studies of the current state of businesses that produce building materials, plans for new businesses, project organization scientific reports, candidate and doctoral theses, and plans for the growth of the construction industry. thousands of businesses that produce building materials are currently in operation in our country, and their manufacturing technology has been modernized to match modern demands. literature review according to earlier research, the expansion of the nation's economy is intrinsically tied with the development of the construction materials sector. this may then be accomplished through increasing investment in infrastructure and building projects. conducting marketing research may impact the competitiveness of the building materials business in addition to enhancing production technology and people standards. 174 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us methodology our research's approach is based on an examination of the literature, economic data, and research techniques. it was possible to make conclusions regarding the resurgence of this business after analyzing a variety of sources pertaining to the economics of the uzbekistan building materials industry. research results and discussion the findings of our study indicate that a number of precise actions are required to revive the russian building materials sector. 1. greater financial support for infrastructure and building projects. to resurrect the building materials sector, russian authorities must expand their investments in infrastructure and construction. through tax breaks, subsidies, and other forms of government assistance, this can be accomplished. additionally, government agencies in charge of infrastructure development and construction need to operate more effectively, and decisionmaking in this area has to move more quickly. 2. enhanced manufacturing techniques the majority of businesses in the sector employ outmoded technology, which delays the expansion of productivity and the raising of product quality. automation of industrial procedures and the introduction of new technologies are required to improve competitiveness. this may be accomplished through making investments in r&d, building cutting-edge r&d facilities, working with international businesses that can give access to cutting-edge technology, and more. 3. conducting marketing research it's critical to comprehend customer demands and the state of the market as a whole if the building materials sector is to be revived. businesses may create new goods and services that better satisfy customer needs by doing systematic marketing research. construction materials may become more competitive on the market as a result of rising demand. market research may also assist companies in entering new markets and growing their current markets. 4. increasing the caliber of the workforce one of the most important factors influencing production effectiveness and product quality is the caliber of the workforce in the sector. wage increases and the hiring of competent individuals who are prepared to operate in contemporary environments are required to improve the quality of the workforce. additionally, in order to secure a highly trained workforce, firms should support the vocational training and development of their highly talented employees. conclusion the construction materials sector has to be revitalized if russia is to advance economically. this aim may be attained through practical measures including expanding investment in infrastructure and building, enhancing manufacturing technology, doing market research, and raising employee standards. 175 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. chiplunkar, a., & keirstead, j. (2015). the role of public policy in spurring innovation: a review and synthesis. research policy, 44(7), 1277-1292. 2. а.и. вепрев, "управление инвестиционными рисками в отрасли строительных материалов", экономика и управление, № 3, 2019. 3. к.в. смирнова, "кадровый потенциал строительной отрасли: актуальные проблемы и пути их решения", вестник российской академии наук, № 4, 2021. 4. jayaraman, k., & luo, y. (2017). building materials supply chains: an overview of current industry trends and opportunities. journal of construction engineering and management, 143(6), 04017015. 67 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 09, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 based solutions of the curved stamp problem for elastic environments almardonov o.m. abstract: in this article, the issue of the interaction of the stamp with the elastic half-plane based on a certain regularity of the geometric profile is considered, and the case of determining the displacement, deformation components, normal stresses on the border of the stamp, and stresses at the internal points of the half-plane for the case where the boundary conditions are given in displacements is presented. keywords: absolute rigid body, displacement, deformation components, boundary conditions, normal stresses. introduction in the study of contact problems, if the size of one of the interacting bodies is sufficiently larger than the other, the second body is considered a half-space, and this formulation of the problem provides an opportunity to find an analytical solution by simplifying the boundary conditions. plane problems appear as a special case of a deformable half-space. the problem of contact of a semi-elastic plane with a thin sharp plate (concentrated vertical force) was considered by flaman [1]. the problem is brought to determine the power function satisfying the boundary conditions, and analytical solutions are found. later, the main results related to the state of stress under vertical and experimental stresses applied to the finite area of the half-plane are given by timoshenko s.p., d. j. gooder d. j. taken by [2]. the main problem here is to find the solution of singular integral equations depending on the type of boundary conditions. it should be noted that the application of integral equations to the theory of elasticity and finding analytical solutions galin l.a. [3], muskhilishvili n.i. [4], nazarov s.a. implemented by [5]. a solution to the problem of a flat stamp with sliding in the contact area was found by l.a. galin, where the frictional force in sliding in the contact area is considered according to coulomb's law. turning to the issues of spatial contact, we can quote bussinesque [6] and cherruti [7], the solutions determined by the stress function in determining the stress state of the semi-elastic space under the influence of surface forces. according to hertz's theory, the stress state of the halfspace under distributed stresses at the boundary was studied by guber [8], who determined the analytical solution of this problem under general polynomial stresses by means of legendre polynomials. if we take into account the diversity of the boundary conditions of the stamp issue, v.i. massakovsky and spence considered a cylindrical stamp considering the frictional force in the contact area and found that the vertical stress in this case is proportional to the displacement in this direction. if we focus on the stress state of the elastic-plastic half-space under the influence of a stamp, the researches carried out in this direction mainly belong to lockett [9], richmon [10], k. johnson [11], hardy [12]. this was taken into account in scientific research through tresca's criterion of plasticity, and elastic and plastic areas were determined and analyzed in the semi-elastic space according to the various geometric shapes of the stamp. k. johnson mainly identified the residual deformations that remain after unloading in areas in the state of plastic deformation. such a problem has a complex structure in stamps with partial slip, and comes to find approximate solutions, stresses, using special asymptotic methods. comparing the obtained approximate analytical solutions with the experimental http://www/ 68 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us results shows that the analytical solutions are close enough at points closer to the stamp boundary. since the stamp problem is widely used in manufacturing, such problems have also been seen in linear elastic-viscous media. based on the generalized viscoelastic model, stamp problems are studied, which mainly come to a system of nonlinear equations. the issue of constructing asymptotic solutions based on the equations obtained in the simple geometric form of the stamp was discussed by v.b. zelentsov, v.m. it can be seen in the scientific research of aleksandrov. the constructed asymptotic solutions do not always correspond to the results obtained in practice. the reason for this is the peculiarity of the contact boundary of the stamp with the elastic medium. below we will consider the issue of interaction of a stamp with a geometric profile 1 nbxz and an elastic half-plane, which is common in technical issues. accordingly, the displacement and deformation components at the boundary are determined as follows: 1 n z bxu , nbxn z u )1(    , (1) we come to the integral equation. according to the general theory, there is a relationship between the stress and displacement components in the half-plane axb  range as follows, and if the boundary conditions are given in the displacements ).(' )1(2 )( )1(2 )21()( ),(' )1(2 )( )1(2 )21()( 2 2 xu e xqds sx sp xu e xpds sx sq z a b x a b                         (2) that is, we will have integral equations. according to the given displacements at the boundary, these relations form integral equations with respect to the normal, compressive stresses )(xр and )(xq . since s=x is a special point in the field of integration, these integral equations are called singular integral equations. if the boundary conditions belong to the 2nd type, then the system of integral equations presented above )( )( sgds sx sf a b     , appears. here, g(s) is a function that depends on the displacement at the boundary. it is an integral equation, the first kind of singular equation, and most contact problems take this form. general solution of equation (1) in analytical form             2/12 2/1 2/12 )( 1 )( xabx c dssg sx sabs xabx xf a b          , )(xg depending on the function. if the coordinate origin is placed in the center of the area where the boundary stresses are placed, then the appearance of the function f(x) is simplified. 2/1222 2/122 2/1222 )( )( )( )( 1 )( xa c dssg sx sa xa xf a a          . (3) in this: dxxfс a b    )( . http://www/ 69 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the above-mentioned integrals consist of characteristic integrals:                  a x x b a b sx dssf sx dssf sx dssf    )()( lim )( 0 , (4) is calculated in the form of a limit (cauchy integral). this is the solution of the integral equation (if we center the coordinate system) 2/12222 2/122 2/1222 )()1( )( )( 1 )( xa c ds sbe sx sa xa xp na a            , that is, the expression of the normally distributed force on the half-plane surface (in the stamp impression) is derived. thus, the distribution of normal stress at the boundary n n ids sx ss      1 1 2 1 2 )1( (5) depends on the integral. let's dwell on the value of the given integral. ...... ..................................... ,)1( , )1( 121 2 0 1 0 0001 1 1 2/12 0           nn nnn n ixiixixixi ixixii xds sx s i  (6) accordingly, the voltage under the stamp looks like this: 2/1222/1222 1 )()()1(2 )1( )( xa p xa iabne xp n n        (7) as a second problem, we consider the case where the contact surface forming the half-plane of the stamp surface is zu xd cos . in that case, let's consider )(  zu xd sin and the stamp is absolutely smooth ( 0)( xq ) 2 ( ) sin 2(1 ) a a p s e ds d x x s        . (8) the solution of this equation is given above 2/1222 2/122 2/1222 )( sin )( )()1(2 )( xa c sds sx sa xa ed xp a a          (9) determined by the relationship. the resulting normal stresses      a b x zsx dssxspz 222 2 ])[( ))((2   , http://www/ 70 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us , ])[( ))((2 , ])[( )(2 222 2 222 3          a b xz a b z zsx dssxspz zsx dsspz     as we can determine the stresses in the internal points of the half-plane by putting them into relations. as we know, in the problem of contact of two bodies, one of them is considered as an absolutely rigid body, and when the contact area is small enough, the problem is replaced by the problem of impact with a body with finite dimensions of semi-elastic space. in the problems of interaction of elastic bodies, when the dimensions of the contact surface are much smaller than the dimensions of the bodies, the stresses on the interaction surface do not depend on their configurations at points far from the boundaries of the bodies. list of used literature: 1. flamant-compt. rendus, 1892 2. тимошенко с.п., гудьер дж. “теория упругости” м.: наука. 1979. 3. галин а.а. контактные задачи теории упругости и вязкоупругости. м.: наука. 1980. 4. мусхилишвили н.и.. некоторые основне задачи математической теории у п р у г о с т и . м . : и з д . а н с с с р . 1 5. аргатов и.и., назаров с.а. метод сращиваемых разложений для задач с малыми зонами контакта // механика контактных взаимодействия. м. :физматлит, 2001. с. 73-82 6. boussinesq j. application des potentials ả l’ḕtude de l’ḕquilibre et du mouvement des solides ḕlastiques.-paris: gauther-villard, 1885. 7. cerrutti v. – roma, acc.lincei, mem. fis.mat. 1882 8. huber m.t. zur. theorie der berührung fester elastische körper – ann. der phys., 1904, 14, s-153. 9. lockett f.j.indentation of a rigid-plastic material by a conical indenter.-j.mech.and phys. of solids, 1963, 11,p. 345 10. richmond o. morrison h.l. devenpeck m.l. sphere indentation with application to the brinell hardness test.-internat. j. mech. sci. 1974, 16, p.75. 11. джонсон к. “механика контактного взаимодействия”. москва. мир. 1989. 12. hardy c., baronet c.n., tordion g.v. elastoplastic identation of a half-space by a rigid sphere.-j.numerical methods in engng., 1971, 3, p.451. http://www/ 339 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 theoretical calculation of couplings tovashov rustam xo‘jaxmat o‘g‘li doctor of philosophy in technical sciences, docent, karshi engineering-economic institute abstract: this article presents the types of couplings used to connect parts together, their uses, and their theoretical calculation. keywords: mechanical, force, coupling, attachment, detail, torque, bushing, fixed, movable. introduction. couplings are tools used to connect the ends of shafts, axles, rods, pipes and similar parts. couplings can be mechanical, electromagnetic, hydraulic or pneumatic. mechanical couplings that connect the ends of shafts or parts mounted on shafts to each other and transmit torque are studied in machine parts. research method. permanently attached couplings can be fixed or movable. fixed couplings connect the shafts so that they do not slide relative to each other. movable couplings connect the shafts in a way that allows them to move in different directions. the simplest of fixed couplings are bushings (figure 1) and flanged couplings (figure 2). research results and discussions. these couplings are selected based on the diameter of the shaft and the torque being transmitted: tx = k t ≤ [ t ] where k is the coefficient that takes into account the operating conditions of the coupling. figure 1. bushing couplings. in bushing couplings, the bushing is inserted into the end of the connecting shafts and is fixed immovably by means of a pin (fig. 1 a), a key (fig. 1 b) or slots. these couplings are simple in design and relatively small in size, but require axial movement of the shaft to accommodate the bushing. the bushing is made of structural steel material and its dimensions are: d ≤ 70, d = (1,5…1,8) d, l = (2,5…4) d. the strength of couplings is determined by the strength of keyed, pin or slotted joints and the strength of the bushing. 340 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us flanged couplings (fig. 2) consist of two semi-circular couplings 1 and 2 mounted on the ends of the shafts, which are fastened with bolts. in one type of this coupling (fig. 2 a), the bolts are installed with a slot, and the torque is transmitted due to the frictional force generated on the separation surfaces of the two halves of the coupling. these couplings are made of 40, 35 l steel materials. the dimensions are as follows: diameter d= (3....3,5) d total length l= (2,5...4)d number of bolts z= 4= 6 the coupling is standardized on the basis of gost 20716-80, the diameter of the shaft is 12...220 mm, the torque that can be transmitted is up to 45000 n*m. alignment of the shafts is ensured by the placement of the centering ring a of the left halfcoupling in the hole of the right-hand half-coupling. to ensure technical safety, b closes. in the second type of flanged coupling (fig. 2 b), the half-couplings are centered at the expense of the bolts, which are installed without a gap, and the torque is transmitted mainly at the expense of the bolt rods working in shear and bending. in this case, safety is provided by the wrapping tool 3. figure 2. flanged couplings. the value of the force required to fasten the bolt in these couplings is determined as follows: t = f · f · d0 · z /( 2 s ) ago f=2t·s/(f·d0·z) where f is the value of the force required to fasten the bolt; s= 1.2...1.5 safety factor; d0-bolt mounting circle diameter; z number of bolts; f = 0.15...0.2 friction coefficient. the structure of the above-mentioned couplings requires that the shafts are precisely aligned. movable compensating couplings are used to prevent shaft bending under the influence of external force. these couplings come in different forms, and compensating elements can be rigid or elastic. the compensating element of the gear coupling is solid (fig. 3) and consists of 1 and 2 semicouplings, consisting of equivalent external teeth and a separating ring-3 and two rows of internal teeth. in order to compensate for the misalignment of the shafts, the coupling should have an interaxial groove d and a radial and lateral groove in the coupling. in addition, the flanges of the semicoupling teeth are not cylindrical, but spherical, and the teeth are barrel-shaped. calculation of strength of such coupling teeth is performed according to contact stress. however, it is somewhat difficult to determine the actual contact stress, because the value, direction and location of the forces acting on the teeth vary depending on the conditions. therefore, this is replaced by a conditional method of calculating couplings. in this case, the consistency condition 341 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us is as follows: t⸱k = σez bhzd/2 where: t-transmitted torque; k-dynamic loading coefficient; b-tooth length; z-number of teeth; dividing diameter of d-teeth. d = m·z, if h = 1,8 m tooth height: figure 3. gear coupling. σez = t· k / ( 0,9 d2 ·b ) ≤ [σez] . details of gear couplings are made of structural and alloy steels. [σez ] = (12 ... 15) mpa is accepted. the design of hinged-hinged couplings is based on a cardan hinge (hook's hinge) (fig. 4). unlike couplings compensating for assembly defects, these couplings are used in transport and technological machines to connect shafts that do not correspond to the angular axis 30-40 0 taken into account in the structure of the machine. figure 4. butsimon-hinge coupling. idol-shaped circuit-1 is hinged with a semi-coupling in a mutually perpendicular (vertical) plane. the connection with half-couplings with an idol circuit consists of two half-pieces of halfcouplings 2, 3 and 4, 5 half-couplings are attached to the shaft with the help of pins. the compensating oldgem clutch is a disc clutch. the coupling consists of two semi-circular couplings 1 and 2 and an intermediate disc 3. the space d between the disk and half-couplings located in a perpendicular plane leads to axial, radial and angular displacement of the shafts, as a result of which these displacements are smoothed using the coupling. generally, the radial displacement of non-aligned shafts should be limited to dr £ 0,04d, and the angular displacement should be limited to da £ 0°30¢. these couplings are calculated for compressive stress: σez = 6 k ·t ·d / [ h (d 3 – d1 3 )] ≤ [σez ] here k – speaker coefficient; h – the height of the disk output; d/d= (2,5….3) is taken. [σez ] = (15…20) mpa. couplings with an elastic compensating element are called elastic couplings. they correct (compensate) inaccuracies, regardless of whether or not the alignment of the shafts is fixed. elastic couplings with their elements also perform the function of a joint with low stiffness in operation, ensure that the machines do not work in resonance conditions as much as possible, prevent vibration. these couplings are divided into metallic and non-metallic types according to 342 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the material of the elastic element. figure 5. elastic coupling with cylindrical spring. the elastic coupling with a cylindrical spring (fig. 5) consists of the leading 1 and leading 2 semi-couplings, the elastic element of which is a metal spring and is fixed to the shaft with the help of a key. compression springs 3 are placed in special holes of half couplings. the initial position of the half-coupling located at an angle is determined by limiter 4. after the spring is deformed, the possibility of relative turning of the half-coupling is determined by the limiter-b installed on the half-coupling 2. the coupling is closed from the outside with a retainer 5. until the spring is loaded with a torque t1 under the influence of the initial compressive force f1, this coupling works like compensating couplings with sufficient uniformity. t1 = f1 r z where: r is the radius of the hole where the spring is located; z is the number of springs. if the transmitted torque t is greater than the torque t1, then the coupling acts like an elastic coupling at a constant rate. the coils of the spring are twisted, and at the same time, the longitudinal force on the shoulder of the spring corresponds to the torque equal to half the diameter of the spring, therefore, the strength condition of the spring is expressed as follows: fd/2 = τwp / kv where: f is the longitudinal force compressing the spring: f = tmax / r where: tmax-torque transmitted through the coupling; d-spring middle diameter; τ-twisting tension in spring coils; wp is the cross-sectional resistance moment of the spring winding. the following formula for checking the spring comes from the above formulas: τ = (8dtmaxkv) / (πd 3 rz)≤[τ] the spring is made of special spring steels (steel 65g). permissible stress [τ] = (500...900) mpa is obtained depending on their type. examples of non-metallic couplings with an elastic element are bush-finger, star-shaped and spherical couplings with an elastic element. bushing finger coupling due to its simplicity of preparation and ease of replacement of rubber elements, it is often used to connect the drive shaft with the shaft of the electric motor. it is intended for transmission of small and medium torques. several rubber rings with a trapezoidal cross-section 4 are placed on the finger 3 and fixed on the half-coupling 2. these rings are inserted into the half-coupling-1 hole. such couplings serve as a low-uniformity joint of the drive and compensate for shafts that are not aligned with each other in the following range: displacement along the axis δα £ 18, torsion δa= (145) mm, δr = (0,3 …. 0,6). checking the strength of the selected couplings is the bending of the rubber ring on the surface touching the finger. 343 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion. worm gears are used in many areas of production. when using extensions, it is necessary to pay serious attention to working conditions, prepared materials and the forces applied to the extension. for this reason, it is important to theoretically justify the geometric parameters of the transmission and calculate its kinematic parameters accordingly. references 1. mamatov f. et al. machine for cultivation and sowing of cereal seeds on sloping fields //aip conference proceedings. – aip publishing, 2023. – т. 2612. – №. 1. 2. mahamov k. т., tovashov r. k., ochilov s. u. part of the soil surface with minimal tillage analysis of lateral suction techniques and technologies //academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal-kurukshetra. – 2020. – №. 10 (4). – с. 706. 3. товашов р. х. и др. нишабликларга ишлов бериш ва экиш сеялкаси ариқ очгичнинг тажрибавий тадқиқотлари натижалари //инновацион технологиялар. – 2021. – №. спецвыпуск 1. – с. 105-108. 4. kh t. r. theoretical basis of the crushing angle of the loosening working body blades of the combined machine //инновационная наука. – 2020. – №. 10. – с. 23-25. 5. tovashov r. k. theoretical basis of the installation corner in relation to the direction of movement of the furrow opener working body of the combined machine //развитие науки и техники: механизм выбора и реализации приоритетов. – 2020. – с. 26. 6. mamatov f. et al. working body of the machine for sowing cereals on slopes //aip conference proceedings. – aip publishing, 2023. – т. 2612. – №. 1. 7. mamatov f. et al. ridge forming machine for sowing cereals on sloping fields //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 401. – с. 04051. 8. маматов ф. м., махамов х. т., товашов р. х. нишаб ерларга ишлов берадиган машина юмшаткичининг тажрибавий тадқиқотлари натижалари //инновацион технологиялар. – 2021. – №. 1 (41). – с. 27-30. 9. maxamov хт т. r. х. tavashov sh. x., safarov fs theoretical basis of the parameters of the base of antique chairs //international journal of trend in scientific research and development (ijtsrd), india. – 2022. – т. 6. – №. 2. – с. 1213-1217. 10. tovashov r. нишаб ерларга ишлов берадиган машина корпусининг тажрибавий тадқиқотлари натижалари //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. a6. – с. 411-415. 11. товашов р. х., товашов б. р. результаты экспериментальных исследований рыхлителя сеялки //интеллектуальный потенциал общества как драйвер инновационного развития науки. – 2021. – с. 27-31. 12. tovashov r. x., safarov f. s., maxamov a. u. theoretical justification of parameters of backrest of antique chair. – 2022. 13. mirzaev b. et al. combined machine for preparing soil for cropping of melons and gourds iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 403 doi: 10.1088. – 17551315/403/1, 2019. – т. 12158. 14. алдошин н.в., маматов ф.м., исмаилов и.и., тавашов р.., васильев а.с. обработка почвы и посев зерновых культур на склоновых полях. агроинженерия. 2023;25(3):3034. https://doi.org/10.26897/2687-1149-2023-3-30-34 15. xo‘jaxmat o‘g‘li, t. r. . (2023). nishabli dalalarga ishlov beradigan va don ekadigan mashinaning o‘rkach hosil qilgichining harakat yo‘nalishiga nisbatan o‘rnatilish burchagini asoslash. journal of innovation, creativity and art, 2(2), 27–31. https://doi.org/10.26897/2687-1149-2023-3-30-34 344 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 16. rustam xo‘jaxmat o‘g t. et al. kombinatsiyalashgan mashinaning ariqochkich ishchi organining harakat yo ‘nalishiga nisbatan o ‘rnatilish burchagini nazariy asoslash //journal of innovations in scientific and educational research. – 2023. – т. 6. – №. 1. – с. 147-151. 17. rustam xo‘jaxmat o‘g t. et al. theoretical justification of belt transmission parameters //american journal of science on integration and human development (2993-2750). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 9. – с. 208-212. 18. rustam xo‘jaxmat o‘g t. et al. calculation of the strength of welded joints //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 9. – с. 10-13. 19. tovashov r. et al. combination machine for soil cultivation and sowing grain //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2021. – т. 264. – с. 04049. 20. irgashev d. b., ar r. x. t., sadikov o. t. mamadiyorov. technical analysis of plug software when working between gardens //international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – 2022. – т. 9. – №. 5. 21. mirzaev b. et al. combined machine for preparing soil for cropping of melons and gourds //iop conference series: earth and environmental science. – iop publishing, 2019. – т. 403. – №. 1. – с. 012158. 22. fayzullayev k. et al. the quality of loosening the soil with subsoilers of the combined machine //iop conference series: materials science and engineering. – iop publishing, 2021. – т. 1030. – №. 1. – с. 012171. 23. kh t. r. makhamov kh. t. analysis of combined machines for minimal tillage of soil //international journal of advanced research in engineering and technology. – 2020. – т. 11. – №. 8. – с. 609-616. 24. kh t. r. makhamov kh. t., tovashov br justification of parameters of the loosening working body //international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – 2020. – т. 7. – №. 7. – с. 14336-14339. 25. kh m. et al. iop conf. series //materials science and engineering. – 2020. – т. 883. – с. 012179. 26. товашов р. x., ашуров б. analysis of the working bodies of the ridger //просвещение и познание. – 2022. – №. 5 (12). – с. 9-15. 27. товашов р. x., ашуров б. analysis of bodies for plowing soil crest //просвещение и познание. – 2022. – №. 5 (12). – с. 3-8. 81 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 06, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 anti-erosion technology of comb-step plowing and a plow for its implementation f. mamatov karshi engineering economics institute (uzbekistan) abstract: the article discusses the rationale for the new anti-erosion technology and the design of the plow, which helps to conserve moisture and prevent water erosion on sloping lands. the objects of the study are the anti-erosion technology of ridge-step plowing and a plow for carrying out this method of tillage. a new anti-erosion technology of ridge-step plowing has been proposed, which contributes to the displacement of the soil down and up the slope, incomplete rotation of the formation alternates with full (180° within the furrow). the plow consists of stepwise arranged screw plow housings and guide plates with working surfaces facing the ploughshare surfaces of the housings. odd-numbered hulls are equipped with short guide plates, paraglaw-type soil dredgers are installed behind even-numbered hulls. after the passage of the plow, a stepped bottom of the furrow is formed with a ridge profile of the surface of the arable land, rainwater is trapped and accumulated. the occurrence of water erosion is prevented. as a result of experimental studies, the following optimal parameters were determined: the length of the odd–case hood was 75 cm, the length of the odd–case hood was 93 cm; the longitudinal distance between the housings was 50 cm. it has been established that an effective method of ridge-step plowing of slopes is the alternation of an incomplete turn of the formation with a complete one within the furrow by 180° in combination with strip under-arable loosening. a description of the rational design scheme of a plow for a comb-step plow is given. it is noted that with a longitudinal distance of 0.5 m between the housings, the required high-quality incomplete turnover of the plates is provided with the lowest energy costs with a length of 75 cm. keywords: water erosion, moisture conservation, technology, plow, ripper, slope. introduction. erosion causes significant damage to agriculture in uzbekistan. excessive tillage leads to the spread of wind and water erosion of soils. there are more than 70 in uzbekistan % of the sown area is subject to erosion [1]. in uzbekistan, more than 20.4% of the arable land is located on slopes of a steep 3° or more. with a high degree of ploughing and increasing intensification of agriculture, the area of eroded land on the slopes increases annually. the problem of water erosion and the shortage of soil moisture is acutely felt on rain-fed sloping lands. in uzbekistan, soils suitable for rain-fed agriculture amount to 2,130 million hectares, of which arable land is 814.5 thousand hectares. 700.4 thousand hectares of arable land on rain-fed lands are subject to water erosion, of which 416.5 hectares are severely and moderately [2]. one of the factors influencing water erosion is the technology of tillage and technical means. the applied technologies and technical means for basic soil treatment in uzbekistan not only do not prevent, but also contribute to the emergence and development of water erosion processes, since the existing farming system does not provide for measures to prevent water erosion of soils. 82 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us therefore, the tasks related to the development of woodworking machinery that meets the requirements of measures to prevent water erosion of soils are relevant. the purpose of the work is to develop technology and a plow that helps to conserve moisture and prevent water erosion on sloping lands. to do this, it is necessary that the plow form a stepped bottom of the furrow and a ridged surface of the arable land. the objects of research are: the technology of comb-step plowing and a plow for the implementation of this method. results. the technological processes of the plow were studied in laboratory and field conditions, according to literary sources, patents, and test results of the developed machine. the research was carried out in 2012-13 in the kashkadarya region of uzbekistan on the stubble of winter wheat. when determining the qualitative performance of the plow, we were guided by the program and methodology for testing agricultural machinery according to ost 104.2–89. it is known that with the annual when plowing with standard plows at the same depth, a plow sole is formed in the subsurface layer, the density of which is 2 or more times higher than the density of the arable layer. this leads to a deterioration in moisture absorption by the lower subarable soil layer. as a result, there is intra-soil runoff and water erosion on the slopes. it has been established that the subsurface runoff can be regulated by deep treatment, step plowing, ridgestep plowing, mowing, crevice, etc. [3]. the authors of the article for improvement the quality of processing and prevention of water erosion in sloping fields have developed various technologies and design schemes of a plow for comb-step plowing based on a linear-step plow that performs smooth plowing with a 180° rotation of layers within its own furrow. one of the most effective methods is a method in which an incomplete rotation of the formation alternates with a complete (180° within its own furrow) rotation of the formation, and the subsurface layers of the formation are loosened (fig. 1). fig. 1. the transverse profile of the furrow after processing with a plow for comb-step plowing this method is carried out by a plow for comb-step plowing (fig. 2), consisting of a frame 1, screw plow housings 2 and 4, guide plates 3 and 5 with working surfaces facing the ploughshare surfaces of the housings [4]. odd-numbered housings 2 are equipped with short guide plates 3, and type 6 soil dredgers are installed behind even-numbered housings 4 "paraglider". fig. 2. the design diagram of the plow for comb-step plowing 83 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us during operation, the odd case 2 interacts with a short guide plate 3 and wraps the formation by 135°, followed by an even case 4 interacts with a long guide plate 5 and performs trimming, rotation and laying of the formation 180° into its own furrow. simultaneously with the turnover of the layers with black hulls, the soil dredgers 6 carry out under-tillage loosening. after passing the plow, a stepped bottom of the furrow and a ridged surface of the arable land are obtained. the combination of the stepped bottom of the furrow with the ridge surface of the arable land helps to retain water and prevent soil flushing after heavy rainfall [5-9]. one of the main parameters affecting the quality of plowing and the energy consumption of the plow for comb-step plowing is the longitudinal distance between the housings and the length of the guide plate. an experimental plow was manufactured to determine the optimal parameters of the guide plate and the longitudinal distance between the housings. the experiments were carried out in a rainfed area on a wheat field. the longitudinal distance between lp plow housings varied from 0.1 to 0.7 m for smoothness of step plowing. experiments to determine the effect of the longitudinal distance between the hulls on the quality and energy parameters of the plow were carried out at the set processing depth of the hulls a = 22 cm, their capture width bk = 50 cm, and the rate of aggregation 1.68 m/s [10, 11]. the experimental results showed that on the stubble of winter wheat, a plow with frontally mounted housings (lp = 0) does not work well, it is often clogged with soil and plant residues. the increase in lp improves the quality of the hulls and the turnover of the formation. when working, the layer wrapped in an even case should not touch the elements of an odd case. observations have shown that this is achieved at an arbitrary distance between the buildings 0.50-0.55 m. with an increase in lp from 0 to 0.5 m, the traction resistance decreases intensively. with a further increase in lp, the traction resistance of the plow decreases slightly. with an increase in lp, the degree of sealing of plant residues and the stability of the plow stroke improves. therefore, the minimum longitudinal distance between the housings should be 0.5 m. experiments to identify the effect of the length of the guide plate of an odd body on the quality and energy parameters of the plow were carried out with an installation depth of processing of the housings a = 22 cm and a longitudinal distance between the housings of 0.5 m at a unit speed of 1.68 m/s. the results of the experimental studies show, that the length of the guide plate has the main influence on the turnover of the formation and the profile of the arable land. when the body is working without a guide plate, the formation is superimposed on an adjacent formation, and an open furrow (depression) with a width of 31.6 cm, a depth of 19.8 cm and a ridge height of 14.1 cm is formed on the left side, a lack of formation was observed. when the length of the guide plate was increased to l1=50 cm, there was also a lack of formation [12-20]. a depression was formed with a width of 23.6 cm, a depth of 12.8 cm and a ridge with a height of 17.5 cm. with the length of the guide plate l1 = 75 cm, a reliable technological process of formation turnover was carried out. the depth of the depression is small 5.6 cm, the height of the ridge is 12.5 cm. at l1 = l = 93 cm, the surface of the arable land is almost leveled, the height of the ridge is 5.8 cm. this is due to the fact that the guide plate acts on the formation from the beginning to the end of its revolution. in this case, the formation turns 180° within its furrow without transverse displacement of its center of gravity [20]. as the length of the guide plate increases, the traction resistance of the plow decreases. since in the absence of a guide plate, the formation is under the influence of the casing until the formation rotates by 90°, then the formation is further pumped by inertia. with an increase in the length of the guiding plate, a certain amount of energy is spent on overcoming the forces of resistance and friction on the surface of the plate. 84 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion an effective plowing method that prevents water erosion in sloping fields is a method in which an incomplete rotation of the formation alternates with a full one (180° within its own furrow), and the sub-arable layers of the latter are loosened. a plow for comb-step plowing has been developed, which implements the proposed method. it has been established that the longitudinal distance between the plow housings should be at least 50 cm, odd housings should be equipped with short guide plates, and paraglaw-type soil excavators should be installed behind even housings. references 1. mamatov f., kodirov u. energy-resourse saving machine for preparing soil for planting root crops on ridges // european science review, 125-1262016. 2. mamatov f, mirzaev b, toshtemirov s, hamroyev o, razzaqov t. study on the development of a machine to prepare the soil for cotton sowing on ridges// iop conference series: earth and environmental science 939 (1), 0120642021 3. маматов ф, файзуллаев х, эргашев и, мирзаев б. определение тягового сопротивления почвоуглубителя с наклонной стойкой// международная агроинженерия 42, 2012. 4. lobachevskij j, mamatov f, jergashev i. frontal’nyj plug dlja hlopkovodstva// hlopok 6, 35-37. 1991. 5. fayzullaev k, mamatov f, мirzaev b, irgashev d, mustapakulov s. study on mechanisms of tillage for melon cultivation under the film// e3s web of conferences 304, 030122021. 6. mamatov f, mirzaev b, berdimuratov p, aytmuratov m, shaymardanov b. traction resistances of the cotton seeder moulder// iop conference series: earth and environmental science 868 (1), 012052 2021. 7. mirzaev b, mamatov f, tulaganov b, sadirov a, khudayqulov r. suggestions on increasing the germination seeds of pasture fodder plants// e3s web of conferences 264, 040332021 8. mamatov f, mirzaev b, avazov i. agrotehnicheskie osnovy sozdanija protivojerozionnyh vlagosberegajushhih tehnicheskih sredstv obrabotki pochvy v uslovijah uzbekistana// prirodoobustrojstvo, 2014. 9. toshtemirov s, mamatov f, batirov z. energy-resource-saving technologies and machine for preparing soil for sowing// european science review, 284-286. 2018 10. лобачевский я, маматов ф, эргашев и. фронтальный плуг для хлопководства// хлопок, 35-37. 1991 11. маматов ф, мирзаев б, авазов и. агротехнические основы создания противоэрозионных влагосберегающих технических средств обработки почвы в условиях узбекистана// природообустройство, 86-88. 2014 12. mamatov f, karimov r, gapparov s, karshiev f, choriyev r. determination of the parameters of the canonical working body of the straw chopper// iop conference series: earth and environmental science 1076 (1), 012025. 2022 13. маматов ф, эргашев и, мирзаев б, мирзаходжаев ш. комбинированный фронтальный плуг// сельский механизатор, 10-11. 2011 14. mirzaev b, mamatov f, kodirov u, shirinboyev x. study on working bodies of the soil preparation machine for sowing potatoes// iop conference series: earth and environmental science 939 (1), 012068. 2021 https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=aijvimwaaaaj&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=aijvimwaaaaj:hmod-77fhwuc https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=aijvimwaaaaj&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=aijvimwaaaaj:hmod-77fhwuc https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=aijvimwaaaaj&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=aijvimwaaaaj:_b80trohkn4c https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=aijvimwaaaaj&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=aijvimwaaaaj:_b80trohkn4c 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https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=ru&user=aijvimwaaaaj&cstart=20&pagesize=80&citation_for_view=aijvimwaaaaj:m3nemzrmikic 199 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 characterizing aa6351/tib2 composite drilling on abrasive water jet machining manikandan s department of mechanical engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. manikandan@dhaanishcollege.in gandhi m department of mechanical engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. gandhi@dhaanishcollege.in b. vaidianathan department of electronics & communication engineering dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. vaidianathan@dhaanishcollege.in abstract: aluminum is a material that is malleable, soft, and resistant to corrosion. additionally, it has a high electrical conductivity. it finds widespread application in the production of conductor cables and foil, but it must be alloyed with other elements in order to achieve the greater strengths required for usage in other applications. aluminum, which has a strength-to-weight ratio that is superior to that of steel, is one of the lightest engineering metals you can find. the purpose of this work is to investigate the microstructural and drilling characterisation of aa6351/tib2 composites that were produced using the stir casting method. in order to determine the process parameters, the weight percentage of tib2 was varied between 5 and 10. in order to determine the hardness and optical microstructure of the composites that were fabricated, as well as the effects of machining parameters such as surface roughness and circularity of the composites, the experiments were carried out by using al-6351 as the workpiece. the drilling process was carried out by an abrasive water jet machine. the value of the result demonstrates that the hardness value has been steadily increasing. keywords: aa6351, tib2, stir casting, optical microscope, vickers hardness test, surface roughness. introduction when at least two materials, such as metal and a matrix composite, are combined, the result is an improved set of characteristics compared to the parts used alone. composites' efficiency and adaptability stem from the wide variety of techniques and materials that can go into their mailto:vaidianathan@dhaanishcollege.in 200 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us construction [6-11]. as a rule, their solutions outperform conventional materials in terms of weight, strength, and longevity. composites made of metal and strong ceramic reinforcements are called metal matrix composites, or mmcs. their excellent corrosion resistance, high modulus, and wear resistance are just a few of their exceptional features. composites like these can have reinforcements in the form of whiskers, short or continuous fibres, or even particles. one of the most common types of composites is particle-reinforced aluminium alloy composites [12-19]. a few examples of their many engineering uses include cylinder block liners, drive shafts, pistons, bicycle frames, and automobiles. when it comes to applications that demand long-term resilience to harsh environments, including high temperatures, metal matrices are better than polymeric ones. applications necessitating strong transverse strength and modulus in addition to compressive strength for the composite should take this into account, since metals often have greater yield strengths and moduli than polymers [20-26]. when specifying, keep in mind that composites, like all engineering materials, have their own set of advantages and disadvantages. to be clear, composites aren't always the best choice. one of the main reasons composites have been developed is that their final qualities may be tailored by adjusting the combination of reinforcement and matrix. this article uses the sat casting method to produce a new composite material from aa6351 base material reinforced with tib2 [27-35]. if the final component needs to be fire-resistant, for example, a fire-retardant matrix can be utilised during development to ensure this feature and others are included. after that, the composite material's mechanical qualities, such as its hardness and surface roughness, are determined by a battery of tests. a profilometer was used to ascertain the surface roughness value, while the vickers hardness test was used to ascertain the hardness value. to find out how round and circular the drilled hole was, the composite material was then machined using an abrasive water jet machine. by adjusting the weight percentage of tib2, v. mohanavel determined the hardness, compression, and tensile strength values for aa6351/tib2 [36-42]. literature review in this study, the aluminium alloy aa6351 was reinforced with tib2 particles in varying percentages (1, 3, and 5 wt %). the in situ reaction of potassium hexafluoro-titanate and potassium tetrafluoroborate with aluminium melt successfully manufactured the reinforcements. we looked at the composite's hardness, yield strength, and tensile strength. the produced aluminium matrix composites were examined using x-ray diffraction and a scanning electron microscope. tib2 particles exhibited excellent bonding properties to the aluminium matrix. for a given temperature, the amcs cause a high level of wear resistance. in order to establish the amount of relevance of the cutting parameters, aa6351, which is reinforced with 5% sic and 5% b4c, was subjected to a continuous turning process using a pcd tool. an analysis of variance was then performed [2]. the experimental findings showed that the rate of material removal rises as the feed rate and depth of cut are increased. cutting speeds were discovered to have an effect on power consumption. at slower cutting speeds, the surface roughness was minimal; but, as the feed rate and depth of cut were raised, the roughness began to rise. since the ra was minimal under conditions of low cutting speed but rose under those of high feed rate and doc, cutting speed was determined to be the most important component in determining ra. in the current study, an aluminium alloy aa6351 was fortified with varying amounts of tib2 particles (0, 4, and 8 wt %). these particles were successfully created through an exothermic reaction between molten aluminium and inorganic salts, specifically potassium hexafluoro-titanate 201 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and potassium tetrafluoro-borate. the result was an alloy with exceptional properties. we looked at the composite's microhardness, yield strength, compression strength, microhardness, and tensile strength. optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and x-ray diffraction were used to characterise the generated aluminium matrix composites. a higher mass percentage of titanium diboride particles is associated with a steady improvement in hardness, tensile strength, yield strength, and compression strength. in [4], the hybrid materials al2o3 and gr are used to strengthen aa6351 in the production process. researchers looked at the mechanical behaviour and microstructure of the source alloy as well as the composites made from it. the study examines the reinforcing effect of al2o3/gr mixed with the parent alloy, specifically looking at the macro and microhardness levels as well as the tensile and flexural strengths. it was necessary to modify an optical microscope in order to describe the composites. as the reinforcement content in the aa6351 base matrix alloy increases, the hardness, tensile strength, and flexural strength all show positive trends. dispersing al2o3/gr particles into the aa6351 alloy greatly improves its mechanical characteristics. reinforcement has a linear relationship with the composite's hardness and tensile strength. the aluminium alloy aa6351 is combined with al2o3 metal to create a composite material using the stir casting method. the material is then examined under a scanning electron microscope to determine its microstructure, hardness, and toughness strength value. the results demonstrate that the composite material's hardness and tensile strength are higher than those of the plain material. however, the toughness value is lower than the plain material's because of the interference of the brittleness between the alloy aa6351 and al2o3. research cap we learn by reviewing the academic journals that nobody has discovered the aa6351/tib2 material's circularity. most of the time, they have discovered the material's hardness microstructural characterisation; other times, they have discovered the material's circularity or its turning behaviour. physical and chemical properties of aluminum soft, silvery, and relatively light, aluminium is a metal. due to its high reactivity, an oxide layer, which is both thin and protective, quickly forms in the environment. its resistance to corrosion is a result of this. anodizing, an electrolytic oxidation procedure, is a particular treatment that can further improve and increase corrosion resistance of the oxide-protected aluminium surface [4349]. strong reactions between hydrochloric acid and caustic soda occur with aluminium. contact with cold nitric acid renders it passive, and the reaction with sulfuric acid is weaker. aluminum has electrical and thermal conductivities that are nearly two-thirds as high as those of pure copper. the element's oxidation number is +3 because of its electrical arrangement, which gives it three valency electrons [50-57]. to improve its qualities, especially its strength, pure aluminium can be chemically combined with other elements to form an alloy. a maximum of fifteen percent of the alloy's weight may come from these additional elements, which include silicon, iron, copper, magnesium, manganese, and zinc. to alloy, these other components must be properly mixed with molten aluminium while the metal is still liquid. zinc, magnesium, or silicon are some of the components that can alter the qualities of aluminium, including its strength, density, workability, electrical conductivity, and resistance to corrosion [58-65]. 202 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us by applying heat or cold working, aluminium alloys can be strengthened. as a result of their processing and additions, the properties of individual alloys vary. to improve its qualities, especially its strength, pure aluminium can be chemically combined with other elements to form an alloy [66-72]. a maximum of fifteen percent of the alloy's weight may come from these additional elements, which include silicon, iron, copper, magnesium, manganese, and zinc. the first digit of an alloy's four-digit number indicates the broad class or series to which it belongs, based on the elements that make up the alloy. solution heat treatment followed by quenching or fast cooling can strengthen certain alloys. by applying controlled heat, the solid alloyed metal can be heated to a precise temperature. a solid solution is formed when the alloy components, also known as solutes, are evenly dispersed with the aluminium. in order to release the atoms of the solution, the metal is either quickly cooled or quenched. the atoms of the solute then crystallise as a finely dispersed precipitate. both natural ageing and artificial ageing involve this process, which can take place at room temperature or in a low-temperature furnace [73-81]. cold working is a way to strengthen alloys that have not been heated. metal is "worked" to increase its strength during cold working, which happens during rolling or forging processes. for instance, as aluminium is rolled to narrower gauges, its strength increases [82-89]. this occurs because atoms are unable to move relative to each other when dislocations and vacancies are built up in the structure during cold working. the metal's strength is enhanced as a result. adding alloying elements such as magnesium enhances this action, leading to an even greater increase in strength. the us adopted the wrought alloy naming system in 1954, which was devised almost 60 years before by the aluminum association's technical committee on product standards (tcps) [9096]. the american national standard h35.1 was accepted three years after the system was developed. this system of naming became officially international in 1970 when the international signatories of the declaration of accord formally endorsed it. that same year, the association was appointed secretariat for standards committee h35 on aluminum alloys by the american national standards institute (ansi). from that point on, the association has been the world's leading aluminium industry standard-setter [97-101]. current management of the alloy registration system is carried out by the association's tcps. it takes from sixty to ninety days to go from registering an alloy to giving it a new classification. in 1954, when the present system was first being established, there were 75 distinct chemical compositions on the list. more than 530 active compositions have been registered so far, and that number is only going up. that exemplifies how adaptable and pervasive aluminium has grown in the contemporary environment [102-111]. as things stand, tib2 is only used for certain purposes in fields like neutron absorbers, cutting tools, crucibles, impact-resistant armour, and wearresistant coatings. for the purpose of vapour painting aluminium, evaporation boats make heavy use of tib2. because of its wettability, poor solubility in molten aluminium, and strong electrical conductivity, it is an appealing material for the aluminium industry to employ as an inoculant to refine the grain size while casting aluminium alloys. applying a thin layer of tib2 to a sturdy and inexpensive substrate makes it resistant to wear and corrosion [112-119]. casting 203 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a common manufacturing method known as casting involves pouring a liquid substance into a mould with a predetermined shape's hollow hole and then letting it solidify. ejecting or breaking the hardened component, also called a casting, from the mould completes the process. materials used for casting typically include metals or a variety of time-setting substances that cure when mixed with two or more components; they include, but are not limited to, clay, concrete, plaster, and epoxy. complex shapes that would be either expensive or too difficult to manufacture any other way are typically cast. massive machinery, such as beds for machine tools, propellers for ships, etc [120-127]. hardness is defined as a material's resistance to persistent indentation. one way to quantify hardness is by looking at how well a material resists localised plastic deformation caused by mechanical indentation or abrasion. for example, metals are noticeably harder than most other materials (e.g. plastics, wood). there are various ways to evaluate hardness, including scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness. this is because macroscopic hardness is typically associated with strong intermolecular interactions, yet the behaviour of solid materials under stress is complicated. these parameters are dependent on the ones mentioned earlier, and they determine the ductility, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity hardness [128-135]. microstructure one kind of microscope that can magnify tiny objects is the optical microscope, which is also called a light microscope. it works by combining visible light with a set of lenses. the optical microscope, the first type of microscope, may have been developed in its current compound form as early as the 17th century. while many sophisticated optical microscope designs strive to enhance sample contrast and resolution, basic models can be exceedingly simple. an object is set up on a stage so that it may be examined up close using a microscope's eyepieces. stereo microscopes use slightly distinct images to produce a three-dimensional illusion, in contrast to high-power microscopes where both eyepieces normally display the same image. the image is usually captured with a camera (micrograph). there is a wide range of lighting options for the sample. one way to light up a transparent object is from below, while another way is to shine light through (bright field) or around the objective lens to light up a solid object (dark field). one way to find out which way a metal crystal is facing is to utilise polarised light. by drawing attention to minute differences in refractive indices, phase-contrast imaging can boost picture contrast [136138]. typically, a turret is used to install a variety of objective lenses with different magnifications. this allows for easy rotation into position and provides the capacity to zoom in. due to the limited resolving power of visible light, optical microscopes usually have a maximum magnification power of about 1000x. a compound optical microscope can achieve a total magnification of 1,000× by multiplying the magnification of the eyepiece (say 10x) and the objective lens (say 100x). magnification can be enhanced by manipulating the surrounding environment using substances like oil or ultraviolet light. scanning probe microscopy, optical microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy are alternatives to optical microscopy that do not require visible light and can thus attain far higher magnifications. many fields rely on optical microscopy, including microbiology, geology, nanophysics, biotechnology, pharmaceutical research, and microelectronics. when testing tissues, free cells, or tissue fragments using smears, optical microscopy is employed; this area of study is known as histopathology. 204 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us industrial settings often make use of binocular microscopes. in addition to helping with tasks that require accurate depth perception, dual eyepieces alleviate the strain on the eyes caused by prolonged periods spent working at a microscopy station. a long-focus or long-working-distance microscope could be useful in some situations. it may be necessary to look at an object through a window, or there may be industrial issues that could be a threat to the goal. these optics are like close-focus telescopes. accurate measurement is accomplished with the use of measuring microscopes. in general, there are two kinds. to measure distances in the focus plane, one uses a graded reticle. the second, more antique variety allows the user to position the object in relation to the microscope using a micrometre mechanism and basic crosshairs. when using transmitted light at extremely high magnifications, point objects appear as fuzzy discs encircled by diffraction rings. a name for this is airy discs. the capacity to differentiate between two closely spaced airy discs is considered the resolving power of a microscope (or, in other words, the ability of the microscope to reveal adjacent structural detail as distinct and separate). resolving fine details is hindered by these diffraction consequences. the quantity and size of the diffraction patterns are impacted by the objective lens's numerical aperture (na), the refractive materials utilised in its construction, and the wavelength of light (λ). therefore, there is a limit, the diffraction limit, beyond which distinct points in the objective field cannot be resolved. one aspect of surface texture is surface roughness, commonly abbreviated as roughness. a real surface's normal vector deviates from its ideal form, which quantifies it. a smooth surface has very slight variations, whereas a rough surface has quite substantial ones. roughness is the highfrequency, short-wavelength component of a surface's measurable properties in surface metrology. to verify a surface's suitability for a given task, however, it is frequently required to know both the amplitude and the frequency. a physical object's interaction with its surroundings is defined by its roughness. rough surfaces typically exhibit higher friction coefficients and wear more rapidly than smooth surfaces, according to tribology. since surface irregularities can serve as crack or corrosion nucleation sites, roughness is frequently a reliable indicator of a mechanical component's performance. roughness, however, might encourage adherence. when it comes to surface mechanical interactions, such static friction and contact stiffness, cross-scale descriptors like surface fractality tend to be more useful than scale-specific ones. in manufacturing, controlling a high roughness value can be both difficult and expensive, despite the fact that it is generally unwanted. for instance, it's neither easy or cheap to control the surface roughness of components made using fused deposition modelling (fdm). it is common practise to raise the production cost of a surface by smoothing it out. the manufacturing cost and application performance of a component are typically compromised as a result. a roughness measuring device is necessary because the individual inconsistencies in roughness are too tiny to be seen to the human eye. the surface is traversed by a tiny stylus at a consistent speed for a predetermined distance. obtaining and amplifying an electrical signal allows for a much increased vertical magnification. numerical values that describe the surface texture may be shown on graphs and screen outputs from this signal. a conical stylus with a spherical tip and a 2μm radius is the norm for roughness measurements according to iso. to make full use of this tiny stylus, though, you'll need an instrument with superior mechanical qualities. function/working principle of surface roughness 205 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for example, in many contexts, the sealing or wear characteristics of two surfaces are impacted by their roughness when they are in close proximity to one another and are in constant motion. although it may seem like a matter of "the smoother, the better" at first glance, there are often other elements at play that make this statement inaccurate. rough valleys are necessary for lubrication because they retain oil. we must also take the cost into account; producing extremely smooth surfaces is an expensive endeavour, and this activity might significantly increase the bill without much improving performance. lubricating two surfaces that are in relative motion (such a shaft and its bearing) does not completely prevent wear. as the peaks fade, any rough surfaces will gradually smooth off. due to the metal removal, the two pieces' fit will be altered more rapidly than if the finish had been optimal from the beginning. clamping devices and pins with "interference fits" rely on friction to do their jobs. the use of lip seals to stop the leakage of hydraulic fluids is another example of an application where roughness might affect performance. a fluid layer between the shaft and the seal can be difficult to maintain if the finish is very smooth. too rough of a finish can abrade the material, which can lead to disintegration and eventual failure. it is common to find tool faults, improper tool settings, speeds, and feeds while inspecting the texture left on a component after machining. a surface's aesthetic value is not always zero. as an example, the sheet steel utilised for vehicle bodies needs a specific type of finish that enables paint to adhere evenly and without a noticeable "orange peel" effect. the challenge of achieving a strong bonded finish is well-known to anybody who has attempted to paint onto glass. components made of paper and plastic require the same level of repeatability as components made of metal. a profilometer is a tool for quantifying surface roughness by measuring its profile. surface topography is used to calculate critical dimensions like step, curvature, and flatness. many non-contact profilometry approaches are challenging the traditional idea of a profilometer as a phonograph-like instrument that moves a surface relative to its own stylus to measure its surface area. thanks to non-scanning technology, xyz scanning is unnecessary for measuring surface topography during a single camera capture. consequently, topographical changes may be monitored in real time. modern profilometers are characterised as time-resolved profilometers, and they can measure both static and dynamic topography. circularity to see how near an item should be to a real circle, look for the circularity sign. the twodimensional tolerance known as circularity regulates the general shape of a circle, making sure it is not excessively oblong, square, or out of round. it is also termed roundness. regardless of the datum characteristic, roundness is always smaller than the part's diameter dimensional tolerance. the definition of circularity involves taking a cross-section of a spherical or cylindrical object and checking to see if the resulting circle is spherical. every point on the surface of a circle must fall inside one of two concentric circles. a plane perpendicular to the centre axis of the circular feature lays the tolerance zone (figure 1). 206 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1: two concentric circles constricting and spinning apart along the central axis measures circularity, while a height gauge records surface change. in two dimensions, circularity is equivalent to cylindricity. when it comes to cylinders, cylindricity makes sure that every point is within a certain tolerance, but when it comes to circles, circularity is all about individual measurements around a single circle. circumference refers to the area surrounding a single coin in a stack of coins, whereas cylindricity requires the measurement of the complete stack. (the property of being both circular and straight is known as cylindricity). a common measurement used in many areas of production is circularity. when a component, like a bearing or a rotating shaft, must be completely spherical, circularity is typically mentioned. mechanical engineering drawings frequently feature this gd&t sign. when computing a statistical tolerance stack, circularity—which defines the shape of the surface in a given area—must be taken into account. assume, for the sake of argument, that you possess a component that bears a marked circularity and diameter. since geometric tolerance might add to a bigger part envelope than diameter tolerance alone, you'll need to include both in your statistical stack. since components are seldom exactly round, this should be taken into account, since it will slightly distort the statistical tolerance. results and discussion images of aa651 mmcs with 5% and 10% tib2 concentrations, respectively, captured electronically. the micrographs show that the tib2 particles are evenly distributed throughout the matrix alloy and that the typical casting flaws such porosity, shrinkages, and cracks are not present. in order to improve the mechanical properties of composites, it is necessary to have reinforcing particles distributed evenly. according to the measured hardness, the aa6351 mmcs are somewhat harder than the pain aluminium aa6351. the result of vicker's hardness test was used to determine the hardness value (table 1). an essential process response that determines the machinability of the component is the ra. a reduced mrr during machining is required if surface finish is the primary turning criterion. an uneven profile, increased likelihood of ovality, etc., might result from a higher mrr (figures 2 to 5). figure 2: pressure: 190 ; ra : 1.198 207 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3: pressure : 210 ; ra – 1.246 figure 4: pressure : 230 : ra ; 1.502 figure 5: pressure: 150; ra = 2.064 208 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 6: pressure 190; ra: 1.198 figure 6 shows that surface roughness is high at pressure 190, and the respective surface roughness value was ra: 1.198. table 1: aa6351/ 5 wt. % tib2 cu composites s.no hole no out of roundness or = l1+l2+l3 difference between upper and lower diameter (du-dl) 1 170 1.335 +0.178 2 190 1.275 +0.223 3 210 1.349 +0.233 4 230 1.402 + 0.245 5 250 1.455 +0.265 conclusion photos taken with an optical camera of aa651 mmcs that contain either 5 percent or 10 percent of tib2 were taken. in addition to revealing the homogenous distribution of tib2 particles across the whole matrix alloy, the micrographs do not contain any of the typical casting defects that are common, such as porosity, shrinkages, or cracks. in order to improve the mechanical properties of composites, it is necessary to have reinforcing particles distributed in a homogeneous manner. in comparison 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recommendations on the control of quality and safety indicators of products at the production enterprise on the example of cotton and vegetable oils. keywords: quality, indicator, product, control, feature. nutritional fat is one of the foods necessary for human consumption. it serves as an energy source for a living organism. a person spends a lot of energy in the activities of everyday life. it takes about a third of the energy in the account of fats. the energy-giving capacity of 1 gram of fat is 37.7 kjoul. the physiological significance of fats is that it contains phosphates, vitamins, highly unsaturated fatty acids that do not replace a place, and other active substances necessary for human life. they are involved in all the processes necessary for life activities [1]. the oil and oil industry is one of the leading sectors of the food industry of the republic of uzbekistan, providing the population and the national economy with refined vegetable oils, fats, as well as products made from them, such as margarine, mayonnaise, fatty acids and soap. the oil and oil industry accounts for about 40% of the food produced in our country. since the development of the oil and oil industry was associated with the cultivation of cotton, oil and oil enterprises were built in places close to raw materials. they are present in all regions of our republic. vegetable oils play an important role in a person's food. these oils are high-calorie and are well digested in the human body. they are widely used in the food industry. vegetable oils are obtained from sunflower, cotton, oil-derived flax, hemp, sesame, poppy, dumbbell oats, nuts, almonds, beans, ground walnuts, soybeans, olive fruit, among others. these include the most important oils used for food: sunflower, cotton, olive, sesame oil, among others. those that are used for technical purposes are flax, cannabis seeds, kanakunjut seeds, mushroom oil, etc. of these, flaxseed and cannabis seed oil also have nutritional value [2]. oils are assessed according to their quality: color, taste, smell, transparency, moisture content, viscosity and other indicators. refined oil should be odorless and tasteless, transparent. hydrated and unrefined oils-must have a taste and aroma typical of the initial raw material. high and grade 1 oil (top of the well) should be transparent; grade 2 oil is allowed to be slightly dull. 184 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1. depending on the quality indicators and the degree of cleaning, refined cottonseed oil is produced in varieties and varieties below yog‘ning turi type universal product classification (upc) code refined cottonseed oil obtained by the press method odorized high 91 41 15 6 1 14 odorized first 91 41 15 6 2 14 undisturbed high 91 41 15 3 1 14 high 91 41 15 3 1 99 undisturbed first 91 41 15 3 2 14 first 91 41 15 3 3 99 undisturbed second 91 41 15 3 3 99 refined cottonseed oil obtained by extraction method odorized high 91 41 15 6 5 14 odorized an first 91 41 15 6 6 14 undisturbed high 91 41 15 3 5 99 first 91 41 15 3 6 99 second 91 41 15 3 8 99 note: 1. the universal classifier of the upc-product contains 10 discharges. 2. upc discharge mark: 1.2. discharges: 91-food industry; 3.4. razryads: 41-vegetable oils; 5.6. discharges: 15-cottonseed oil; 7 discharge: 6-degreased oil; 3 – degreased oil; 8 discharge: 1.2. and 3. high, first and second grade pessimized refined cottonseed oil without suitable: 5.6. and 8. refined cottonseed oil obtained by high, first and second rave extraction method respectively; 9 discharges: 14 packaged oil; 99-unpacked oil [3]. table 2. quality indicators of vegetable oils № designation of indicators norms for refined cottonseed oil (pressed and extracted) control methods deodorized deodorized supreme variety first variety supreme variety first variety second variety 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 smell odorless properties of refined cottonseed oil without additional odors on gost 5472 2 taste taste of processed oil tasteless taste undetectabl e 3 transparency transparent on gost 5472 in the production of vegetable oil products in our country, quality and safety indicators are subject to requirements based on the following regulatory documents: 185 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. o‘zdst 816: 2007 refined cottonseed oil. 2. gost 5471-83. vegetable oil. rules for the selection and reception of samples. 3. sanpin № 0138-03. food insecurity and hygienic quality indicators, medical-biological requirements and sanitary standards [4]. in addition, regulatory documents are also used that are poured in the processes of production and commercialization of their vegetable fats (table 3). in the production of vegetable oil products in our country, quality and safety indicators are subject to requirements based on the following regulatory documents: name of properties (parameters) the name of the regulatory document for test methods (measurements) cottonseed oil organoleptic indicators: smell, taste, transparency physico-chemical properties: color acid number mass fraction of moisture and volatile substances mass fraction of non-fat mixtures soap in a quality test peroxide number temperature level of extraction oil gost 5472-50, gost 5477-93 gost 5476-80 gost 11812-66 gost 5481-89 gost 5480-59 gost 26593-85 gost 9287-59 vegetable oil. sunflower oil. soybean oil organoleptic indicators: smell, taste, transparency physico-chemical properties: acid number mass fraction of moisture and volatile substances mass fraction of non-fat mixtures soap in a quality test peroxide number temperature level of extraction oil mass fraction of phosphorus-containing substances color mass fraction of sterilizing substances gost 5472-50 gost 5476-80 gost 11812-66 gost 5481-89 gost 5480-59 gost 26593-85 gost 9287-59 gost 7824-80 gost 5477-93 gost 5479-64 unprocessed cottonseed oil organoleptic indicators: smell physico-chemical properties: acid number mass fraction of moisture and volatile substances mass fraction of non-fat mixtures number of cough mass fraction of sterilizing substances color temperature level gost 5472-50 gost 5476-80 gost 11812-66 gost 5481-89 gost 5475-69 gost 5479-64 gost 5477-93 gost 9287-59 186 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the composition, physical and chemical properties of cotton oil are characterized by the following indicators: by the amount of fatty acids: stearic acid 1-2% palmitic acid 20-22% myristinic acid 1-1,3% oleic acid 30-35% linoleic acid 40-52% density 200s 918-935 kg/m³ fracture index 200s 1,472-1,476 kinematics squamous 200s 6,66·10-6 m/s number of soaps 189-199 iodine number 110-116 g/y look at the character of the main waste and their combined behavior with reagents b refinement methods are conditionally divided into three groups: physical, chemical and physico-chemical [5-6]. the physical method includes tinting, centrifuging, filtering. using these techniques, it serves to purify dissolved waste in a mechanical, colloidal state from the oil content. the chemical method includes refining with sulfuric acid, hydration, methods for cleaning gossipol, alkaline refining, oxidation of coloring substances. using the method of refining with sulfuric acid, the oil is purified from phosphatides, proteins, coloring substances and decomposes fatty acids into sodium salts. it serves to separate the hydrophilic substances contained in the oil using the hydration method. it cleans mainly free fatty acids and coloring pigments in oils and oils using the alkaline refining method. the physico-chemical method includes cleaning using adsorbents, deodorizing, distillation, cleaning using selective solutions. adsorption refining serves to whiten oils. deodorizing serves to cleanse the specific taste, odorant substances contained in the oil. cleaning with selective solutions serves to separate certain undesirable substances in the oil. these methods are conditionally divided, since all methods can participate in the cleaning process. for example, in the process of alkaline refining, alkali enters into a reaction with fatty acids to form soap – this is a chemical method. the resulting soap absorbs the coloring pigments contained in the oil – this is a physicochemical method. the resulting soapstock is infused to separate it from the neutralized oil – this is a physical method [7-8]. conclusion modern market economy sets requirements for the quality of the manufactured products. because in modern times, khar kandai is the omon tribe of the firm, its status in the market of goods and services is determined by the level of cooperation. competitiveness is a connection with two coursework – bacho and the level of quality of products. in the production of vegetable oil products in our country, quality and safety indicators are subject to requirements based on the following regulatory documents: 1. o‘zdst 816: 2007 refined cottonseed oil. 2. gost 5471-83. vegetable oil. rules for the selection and reception of samples. 187 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. sanpin № 0138-03. food insecurity and hygienic quality indicators, medical-biological requirements and sanitary standards. in addition, regulatory documents are also used that pour them in the processes of production and commercialization of vegetable oils. references 1. toshpolatov m.m., sharipov q.a. product quality management. t.: ttpu, 2011, 204 b. 2. toshpolatov m.m. distribution data for students in standardization, certification and quality management science.t.: tdto, 2008, -67 b. 3. aristov o.v. upravlenie kachestvom.-m.: infra.m, 2004.-240 s 4. kovalev, a.i. kak obustroit kachestvo produksii / a.i. kovalev / / vse o kachestve. otechestvennie razrabotki. 2006. vipusk 39. s, 3-12, 5. kanives, a.n. ekonomichesky analysis system menedjmenta kachestva promishlennogo predpriyatia / a.p. kanives, l.v. parkhomenko; pod nauch. ed. b.i. gerasimova. tambov: izd-vo tgtu, 2005. 144 p. 6. system kachestva. sb. normativno-metodicheskix dokumentov. m., izd. standartov, 2012. 128 p. 7. bastrikin, d.v. upravlenie kachestvom na promishlennom predpriyatii / d.v. bastrikin i dr. pod nauch. ed. d-ra ekon. nauk, prof. b.i. gerasimova. m.: "izdatelstvo mashinostroenie1", 2006. 204 p. 8. tursunov b. bibliometric analysis of iso 45001 occupational health and safety management systems //web of scientist international scientific research journal. – 2023. 209 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the flat problem of the theory of elasticity and its foundations almardonov oybek makhmatkulovich karshi engineering economic institute, 180100, karshi, uzbekistan a body is said to be in a state of plane deformation, if the displacements of the points of the body are parallel to one plane and do not depend on the coordinate in the direction perpendicular to the plane (of the points). if the 0xy plane is taken as the deformation plane, then , , , (1.10) , . in turn γz=yz=0 and z while , z=1e(z-μ(x+y)) is determined from the relation: . thus, in the case of plane deformation, the problem of the theory of elasticity becomes much simpler, and the spatial problem comes to a two-dimensional problem. indeed, ва z=xz=yz=0 ва z=0 in this case, two of nave's equations remain, and three x , y , xy the equations remain with respect to the stress components. accordingly, nave's equations take the following form: (1.11) and for boundary conditions: , (1.12) 210 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us relationships must be fulfilled. in turn, the cauchy relation and the saint-venant equation for the planar problem . (1.13) , (1.14) appears. the conditions for sharing the remaining 5 deformations are self-fulfilled. for the connection between strain and stress components ( hooke's law ) , , (1.15) , relationships are appropriate. to write the system of equations in stresses, we use hooke's law to condition the deformations together. after normal operations and using the equilibrium equations: , , we form the equation with respect to the stresses and after simplification , or , . (1.16) we come to the harmonic equation. in this case, the planar problem satisfies equilibrium equations, boundary conditions, and harmonic equations x , y , xy comes to find the voltage components. such an issue is rendered convenient to solve by introducing a stress function. 211 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us , , . (1.17) in this case, the equations of equilibrium become real and from the condition of sharing the deformations together , (1.18) a biharmonic equation is derived. in this . if volume forces u has potential, then for volume forces x=-∂u∂x , y=-∂u∂y and the voltage function , , if we enter through the relations, from the condition that the deformations are shared: , (1.19) we get the equation thus, the plane problem of the theory of elasticity is reduced to the determination of the stress function satisfying the equation and the boundary conditions. below we consider the flat problem of the theory of elasticity in the polar coordinate system. because the next "contact" issues are studied mainly in polar coordinates. between cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates , , according to the connection and between the private derivations , based on relationships: , , . 212 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in this case, nave's equations look like this. (1.20) deformations corresponding to linear and angular changes are: for hooke's law in turn , , , relationships are appropriate. now let's consider the biharmonic equation in the polar coordinate system. the voltage function in the polar coordinate system is as follows , , , is entered in the form, then the equilibrium equations become concrete. now let's dwell on the conditions for coexistence of deformation in polar coordinates. considered as a function of polar coordinates , and accordingly, for the laplace operator , while the proper and biharmonic equation (1.21) 213 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us remains to be seen. thus, the flat problem of the theory of elasticity comes to determine the biharmonic equation and the stress function satisfying the boundary conditions in the polar coordinate system. thus, the main equations of the theory of elasticity consist of the nave equations related to the internal points of the body, hooke's law of the connection between the strain tensor and the stress tensor, the condition for the coexistence of deformation and a set of boundary conditions. in this case, it is required to find the solution of the system of equations with respect to stress and strain tensor components and displacements. in particular, i.e., smooth problems come to find the solution of the biharmonic equation satisfying the boundary conditions. references: 1. djonson k. “mexanika kontaktnogo vzaimodeystviya”. moskva. mir. 1989. 2. hardy c., baronet c.n., tordion g.v. elastoplastic identation of a half-space by a rigid sphere.-j.numerical methods in engng., 1971, 3, p.451. 3. argatov i.i., nazarov s.a. metod sraщivayemыx razlojeniy dlya zadach s malыmi zonami kontakta // mexanika kontaktnыx vzaimodeystviya. m. :fizmatlit, 2001. s. 73-82 4. makhmatkulovich, almardonov oybek. "basic methods and tools for solving contact issues." american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637) 1.10 (2023): 292-294. 5. makhmatkulovich a. o. fundamentals of determining the stressed state of semi-elastic space under the action of a force applied to one point when solving contact problems //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 269-272. 6. almardonov o. m. based solutions of the curved stamp problem for elastic environments //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 9. – с. 67-70. 7. suvonovich, khalilov mukhtor, yusupov rustam eshpulatovich, and almardonov oybek makhmatkulovich. "universal mounted sprayer for pest and disease control in orchards and vineyards." galaxy international interdisciplinary research journal 9.05 (2021): 349-352. 8. irgashev d. b. et al. high softening performance indicators of plug-softener //iop conference series: earth and environmental science. – iop publishing, 2023. – т. 1284. – №. 1. – с. 012032. 9. irgashev d. b. analysis of machines providing liquid fertilizer to the root system of orchard and vine seedlings //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 356-362. 10. irgashev d. b., buriyev m. analysis of the coils used in soil drilling //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 302308. 11. irgashev d. b. basing the constructional parameters of the plug-softener that works between the garden rows //journal of research in innovative teaching and inclusive learning. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 14-19. 12. irgashev d. b. calculation of the strength of winged joints //journal of theory, mathematics and physics. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 7. – с. 1-6. 13. irgashev d. b. couplings used in mechanical engineering and their importance //journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 7. – с. 1-10. 214 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 14. mamatov f. m. et al. bog „qator oralarini ishlov beradigan qiya ustunli ishchi organlarni parametrlarni nazariy asoslash //journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 42-45. 15. mamatov f. et al. justification of the bottom softening parameters of working organ with a sloping column //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 434. – с. 03010. 16. irgashev d. theoretical justification of the longitudinal distance of a plug-softener that works without turning the soil between garden rows //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. d11. – с. 482-487. 17. begmurodvich, irgashev dilmurod. "development and problems of vineyard network in uzbekistan." web of synergy: international interdisciplinary research journal 2, no. 1 (2023): 441-448. 18. irgashev d. b., buriyev m. analysis of the coils used in soil drilling //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 302308. 19. bekmurodovich i. d. technical classification of machines that till the soil between rows of vineyards //uzbek scholar journal. – 2022. – т. 10. – с. 369-379. 20. irgashev d. боғ қатор ораларига ишлов беришда такомиллашган плуг-юмшаткичнинг техник таxлили //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. d7. – с. 330-336 21. bekmurodovich i. d. technical classification of machines that till the soil between rows of vineyards //uzbek scholar journal. – 2022. – т. 10. – с. 369-379. 22. irgashev d. b., buriyev m. theoretical justification of the forces generated on the cylinder surface of a double row cat //american journal of engineering, mechanics and 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american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 methods for obtaining modified sulfur bitumen rosilov mansur sirgievich (phd), associate professor, karshi engineering and economic institute, republic of uzbekistan, karshi axmedova fazilat ulashevna assistant, counter-engineering-economics institute abstract: the properties of the serum composition are analyzed.the methods of adding the necessary components to the composition of serobitum and obtaining high-strength serobitum on their basis have been determined.the methods of analyzing the obtained components have been studied. methods of obtaining serobitum have been studied. the physico-mechanical properties of serobitum were analyzed. the mechanism of action of additives added to the composition of serobitum has been studied. keywords: serobitum, bitumen, sulfur, urea, sulfur asphalt concrete, kinetics, catalyst, method, mineral, sulfur. the aim of the work is to study methods for obtaining modified serobitum. the production of modified serobitum is growing on a large scale and constantly. a model of chemical processes occurring in a sulfur-asphalt concrete mixture has been developed, which makes it possible to establish the effects of prescription and technological factors on the emission of toxic gases; the kinetics of sulfur crystallization in sulfur bitumen materials has been established, which affects the structure parameters and properties of sulfur asphalt concrete; a method for designing compositions of sulfur asphalt concrete obtained by adding a sulfur modifier has been developed; a method for estimating the emission of toxic gases from sulfur bitumen materials is proposed, which allows determining the concentrations of released toxic gases; dependences of the temperature of preparation and compaction of sulfur-asphalt concrete mixtures on the amount of sulfur modifier and plasticizer (paraffin) are obtained; the composition and mode of preparation of sulfur asphalt concrete, which has increased physical, mechanical and operational properties, have been optimized. currently, there is a shortage and an increase in bitumen prices in the oil products market. the analysis of the bitumen market shows that the main market factors are: price and quality. the cost of sulfur bitumen is 35-40% lower than usual. the relevance of the work lies in the fact that for the production of this product we use chemical waste, sulfur, catalyst products of petrochemical waste processing. several attempts were made to carry out this process, but it had a number of significant drawbacks, in particular: sulfur and bitumen were mixed only in a ratio of 20:80 when this mixture was heated to more than 140 db, hydrogen sulfide was rapidly released; at the same time, the bitumen mixture and sulfur did not ensure the quality of bitumen for road works. all this made it difficult to implement the process. we have proposed a unique technology for the formation of a chemical bond between sulfur and bitumen to form bitumen polymers, rather 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us than a physical mixture of sulfur and bitumen; thiokol has a roughly similar structure. this technology will be possible with the help of a unique catalyst that was developed by us and has no analogues in world practice. the technical solution is related to the production of road construction materials, in particular, the preparation of sulfur-bitumen mixtures used for road surfaces (in combination with mineral inert fillers), waterproof roofs, etc. the claimed line consists of a sulfur preparation plant, which includes: a sulfur smelting furnace equipped with an elevator for loading sulfur, an automatic oil station connected through a heated pipe for supplying dissolved sulfur with a sulfur bitumen preparation plant, which is an intensive mixing reactor. it is equipped with a dispenser for supplying molten sulfur, a catalyst, a hatch for supplying bitumen, a heating system consisting of two stainless steel pipes and two automatic liquid burners, an intensive mixing system, two gear pumps to ensure mixing of the mixture and a pipeline for supplying ready sulfur bitumen to the consumer. the design of the claimed technological line allows the production of high-quality sulfur bitumen with a sulfur content of up to 70%, which meets quality standards and exceeds them in some parameters. a method for producing sulfurous asphalt concrete, including the interaction of sulfur with dicyclopentadiene followed by mixing modified sulfur with bitumen and filler, characterized in that the interaction of sulfur with dicyclopentadiene is carried out by intensive mixing with an immersion sulfur pump for 45-60 minutes at a temperature of 140-145 ° c, then sulfur bitumen is mixed first obtained by mixing modified sulfur and bitumen in a reactor in for 25-35 minutes in a ratio of 1:1-1:1.5, followed by mixing the resulting sulfur bitumen with a mineral filler, moreover, sulfur bitumen is introduced in an amount at which its volume concentration corresponds to the volume concentration of ordinary bitumen for a given brand of concrete and type of filler [1]. the prospects for the production of modified serobite and its use in road construction depend on a number of circumstances. first of all, over the past 10 years, there has been a significant increase in the technical processing and purification of sulfur, oil, natural gas and flue gases in all developed countries. giving recommendations on the technology of preparation of modified serobite, we will analyze the optimal result obtained mainly by modifying sulfur and bitumen. certain scientific and practical research is underway in the republic on the manufacture of modified sulfur binders and modified sulfur asphalt concrete based on industrial waste, secondary products of the gas and oil refining industry [2]. based on the dielectric properties, the possibility of using a basic method to determine the adhesive properties of bitumen is proposed. based on the values of the dielectric constant of modifying additives, the possibility of their choice to increase the adhesive properties of road bitumen was established. effective additives and their best concentration for bitumen have been proposed to reduce bitumen consumption in asphalt concrete and improve its quality indicators [3]. these data represent a monographic database of works, a scientific and technical conference dedicated to materials science, expertise and scientific publications. during the research, such methods as modern methods of chemical physics (spectroscopic analysis, x-ray diffraction) and modeling of asphalt concrete were studied [4]. the article presents an individual model of sulfur dispersion and a model of combining sulfur droplets in a sulfur-bitumen connector, as well as experimental data showing the effect of sulfur content on the basic properties of a sulfur-bitumen connector and the mechanical properties of sulfurous asphalt concrete. the model of sulfur distribution by type of state shows that with an increase in the sulfur content in the sulfur-bitumen connector, the proportion of sulfur in the physically free state increases, forming a dispersing phase that increases the viscosity of the connector. this increase leads to a natural increase in the astringent properties of sulfurcontaining bitumen when sulfur is introduced. the melting model of sulfur droplets shows that this process is energetically beneficial. the driving force of melting is the laplace pressure, which increases with an increase in the ratio of the values of the communicating sulfur droplets. also, with an increase in sulfur content, the probability of overcoming the interfacial bitumen film between sulfur droplets increases, which naturally increases the frequency of occurrence of 7 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us spatial sulfur structures that negatively affect the crack resistance of sulfur-containing asphalt concrete [5]. list of sources used 1. patent no. 2284304. russia. a method for producing granular asphalt concrete tanayants v.a., turkai e.a., zozulya i.i., makhoshvili yu.a., bazilevich s.i., eremin o.g. 2284304(publ. 13c2, 2000. 2. alisher turaculovich mamatmuminov studying the technology of preparation of modified serobitum and its features, tashkent state transport university volume 3 / tstu conference 1 | 2022 3. kortyanovich k.v., improving the properties of road bitumen with modifying additives. abstract ufa-2007. 4. gladkikh v.a., sulfur asphalt concrete modified with a complex additive based on technical sulfur and neutralizers for toxic gas emissions. abstract penza-2015г. 5. physico-mechanical properties of sulphurous bitumen binders and sulphurous asphalt concrete. engineering bulletin of the don, no. 6 (2022) ivdon.ru/ru/magazine/archive/n6y2022/77 6. rosilov mansur sirgiyevich, raxmonov sohibnazar rauf o‘g‘li methods of reducing the flammability of polymer compositions web of scholars: multidimensional research journal2023/2/28110-112 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=17529256958741079515&hl=en&oi=scholarr https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=17529256958741079515&hl=en&oi=scholarr 172 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 isometries of log -integrable functions abdullaev r. z. doctor of physical and mathematical sciences, professor. tashkent university of information technologies madaminov b. a. doktor of physical and mathematical ciences (phd). non-government educational institution "mamun university" abstract: in this paper studied isometries of f spaces of integrable functions with logarithm. in the paper, it is given isomorphic classification of f -spaces of log -integrable measurable functions constructed using different measures. at the same time, it is proved that such spaces are non-isometric. keywords: functional spaces; boolean algebras; complete boolean algebras; homogeneous boolean algebras; internal log algebras; external log algebras; generalized log algebras; isometries. 1. introduction one of the important classes of banach functional spaces are spaces ( , , ),pl  a 1 <p  of all p -th power integrable measurable functions given on the measurable space ( , , ) a with the finite measure  (almost everywhere equal functions are identified). the study of isometries of banach spaces pl was initiated by s. banach [1], who gave a description of all isometries for spaces [0,1],pl 2p  . in [2], j. lamperti gave characterization of all linear isometries for pl -spaces ( , , )pl  a where ( , , ) a is an arbitrary space with the finite measure . the final result in this setting is due to yeadon [3] who gave a complete description of all isometries between pl -spaces associated with different measures. one of the corollaries of such descriptions of isometries in spaces ( , , )pl  a is the establishment of isometry for pl -spaces ( , , )pl  a and ( , , )pl  a in the case when the measures  and  are strictly positive finite measures. an important metrizable analogue of banach spaces pl are f -spaces log ( , , )l  a of log integrable measurable functions introduced in the work [4]. an f -space log ( , , )l  a is defined by the equality log 0( , , ) = { ( , , ) : log(1 | |) < }l f l f d        a a 173 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where 0 ( , , )l  a is the algebra of all measurable functions given on ( , , ) a (almost everywhere equal functions are identified). by virtue of the inequality 1 log( ( )) ( ) , , [1, ),pf f p p       the inclusion ( , , ) ( , , )p logl l   a a is always true. in [4], it was established that ( , , )logl  a is a subalgebra in the algebra 0 ( , , ).l  a in addition, a special f -metric ( , )f g has been introduced in ( , , ),logl  a log( , ) = log(1 | |) , , ( , , ).f g f g d f g l        a the pair log( ( , , ), )l   a is a complete metric topological vector space with respect to this measure, and the operation of multiplication f g is continuous in the totality of variables. it is evident, algebras 0 ( , , )l  a and 0( , , )l  a coincide when the measures  and  are strictly positive finite measures. this fact is no longer true for the algebras ( , , )logl  a and ( , , ).logl  a in the work [5], it was shown that ( , , ) = ( , , )log logl l  a a for strictly positive finite measures  and  if and only if ( , , ) d l d      a and ( , , ), d l d      a where ( , , )l   a is the algebra of all essentially bounded measurable functions given on ( , , ) a (almost everywhere equal functions are identified), d d   (respectively, d d   ) is the radon-nikodym derivation of the measure  (respectively,  ) with respect to the measure  (respectively,  ). isometries on these f -spaces were considered in [6]. in these papers a description of isometries on f -spaces was given. in contrast to these results, in this paper we establish a necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of isometries and isomorphisms of algebras of logintegrable functions constructed by different measures  and . the relationship between these isometries and isomorphisms is also studied. in this case, conditions are imposed only on the radon-nikodym derivatives . d d   naturally the problem arises to find the necessary and sufficient conditions providing an isomorphism of the algebras ( , , )logl  a and ( , , )logl  a for the strictly positive finite measures  and . the solution of this problem is given in section 4. the main purpose of this paper is to prove the absence of surjective isometries from ( , , )logl  a onto ( , , )logl  a in the case when measures  and  are strictly positive finite measures (see section 4). 2. preliminaries let ( , , ) a be a be a complete measure space with finite measure  and let 0 ( , , )l  a (respectively, ( , , )l   a ) be the algebra of equivalence classes of real valued measurable 174 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us functions (respectively, essentially bounded real valued measurable functions) on ( , , ) a . denote by =   the complete boolean algebra of all equivalence classes =[ ],e a ,aa of equal  -almost everywhere sets from the  -algebra a . it is known that ( ) = ([ ]) = ( )e a a   is a strictly positive finite measure on . in what follows, we also denote the measure  by , and the algebra 0 ( , , )l  a (respectively, ( , , )l   a ) by 0 0( ) = ( )l l   (respectively, ( ) = ( )).l l    following to [4], consider in 0 ( )l  a subalgebra log 0( ) = { ( ) : log(1 | |) < }l f l f d         of log -integrable measurable functions, and for each log ( ),f l   set log = log(1 | |) .f f d  p p by [4, lemma 2.1], a nonnegative function log log: ( ) [0, )l    p p is a f -norm, that is, ( )i . log > 0fp p for all log0 ( );f l    ( )ii . log logf f p p p p for all log ( )f l   and real number  with | | 1  ; ( )iii . 0 log = 0lim f  p p for all log ( );f l   ( )iv . log log logf g f g  p p p p p p for all log, ( ).f g l   in [4] it is shown that log ( )l  is a complete topological algebra with respect to the topology generated by the metric log( , ) = .f g f g p p let  and  be two strictly positive measures on the measurable space ( , ) a . then 0 0 0( ) = ( ) = ( ), ( ) = ( ) = ( ).l l l l l l           let d d   be the radon-nikodym derivative of measure  with respect to the measure  . it is well known that 00 ( ) d l d      and 1 1( , , ) ( , , ), d f l f l d          a a in addition, = ( ) . d f d f d d         note that for strictly positive measures  and  , it follows that 1( ) = . d d d d      175 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us if measure  is finite, then 1( ) d l d      . this follows from the equality ( ) = ( ) <h  1 . 3 isometries of the f -spaces log ( )l  and log ( )l  in this section, a necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of isometries is established of ( , , )logl  a onto ( , , ).logl  a let  and  strictly positive finite measures, = d h d   , and let 1 0( ) = { ( ) : = ( | | ) < };p p p pl f l f f d       p p 1 1 0( ) = { ( ) : = ( | | ) = ( | | ) < }.p pp p p pl f l f f d h f d           p p in this case the map : ( ) ( )p pu l l    , defined by the following equality 1 ( ) = , ( ),p pu f h f f l     is the non trivial surjective isometry from ( )pl  onto ( )pl  . bellow we show that this statement is not true for f -spaces log ( )l  and log ( )l  . note that log 0( ) = { ( ) : log(1 | |) < } =l f l f d        0= { ( ) : log((1 | |) < } =f l h f d       0= { ( ) : log((1 | |) ) < }hf l f d      and , = (1 | |) = log((1 | |) < } =logf log f d h f d         p p = log((1 | |) ) .hf d   176 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us let  be a non-atomic complete boolean algebra that is, a boolean algebra  has not atoms. let = { : },e g g e   where 0 e  . by ( )e  denote the minimal cardinality of a set that is dense in e with respect to the order topology ( ( )o -topology). the non-atomic complete boolean algebra  is said to be homogeneous if ( ) = ( )e g   for any nonzero , .e g the cardinality ( )  is called the weight of the homogeneous boolean algebra  (see, for example [7, chapter vii]). theorem 3.1 let  be a complete homogeneous boolean algebra,  and  be finite strictly positive measures on . ( )logl  is isometric to ( )logl  iff =1. ( ) hd     proof. necessity is proved in [5], see theorem 5. we prove sufficiency. let = 1 ( ) hd     . then using the equality 1= = ( ),hd h hd       where 1 = d h d    , we obtain ( ) = ( )   . hence, there is a measure-preserving automorphism  from  onto  , i.e. ( ) = ( ( ))e e   for any e  ([7, chapter vii, theorems 5 and 6]). denote by j the isomorphism of the algebra 0 0( ) = ( )l l   such that ( ) = ( )j e e  for all e  . that’s why for any ( ),logf l   we have from ([5], proposition 3) , = (1 | ( ) |) = ( (1 | ( ) |)) =logf log f d j log f d         p p ,= (1 | ( ) |) = | ( ) | .loglog j f d j f       p p hence, the j is a bijective linear isometry from ( )logl  onto ( )logl  . let = d h d   and > < = > <={ : ( ) >1}, ={ : ( ) <1}, ={ : ( ) =1}= \ ( ).h h h              denote: > >= ( , ) =s s h > > ( ( ) 1) ( ) h x d      and < <= ( , ) =s s h < < (1 ( )) . ( ) h x d      the following theorem establishes 5 conditions equivalent to the isometricity of f-spaces. 177 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us theorem 3.2 let  be a complete homogeneous algebra,  and  be finite strictly positive measures on , then the following conditions are equivalent ( ).i ( )logl  and ( )logl  are isometric; ( ) ( ). =1; ( ) h d ii       1( ) ( ). =1, ( ) h d iii        where 1 = ; d h d    ( ). ( ) = ( );iv    > <( ). =v s s ; ( ).vi there is a measure-preserving automorphism  from  onto . proof. ( ) ( )i ii follows from theorem 1. ( ) ( )ii iii 1 1( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = = =1. ( ) ( ) h d h h d d h d                       the reverse implication is proved similarly. ( ) ( )iii iv 1 1( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = = =1 ( ) = ( ) ( ) ( ) h d h h d d                         ( ) ( )iv vi follows [8, chapter vii, theorems 5 and 6] ( ) ( )ii v > > < = > < > < < = ( ( ) 1)( ) ( ) ( ( ) 1) 0 = 1 = = = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) 1) ( ( ) 1) = = ( ) ( ) h dh d h d d h d h d h d s s s s                                                 references 1. s. banach s, theorie des operations lineaires. warsaw, 1932. 2. j. lamperti, on the isometries of some function spaces. pacific j. math., 8 (1958), 459–466. 3. f.j. yeadon, isometries of non-commutative lp -spaces. math. proc.camb. phil. soc. 90 (1981) 41-50. 178 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. k. dykema, f. sukochev, d. zanin, algebras of log-integrable functions and operators. complex anal. oper. theory 10 (8) (2016), 1775–1787. 5. r.z. abdullaev, v.i. chilin, isomorphic classification of  -algebras of log-integrable measurable functions. algebra, complex analysis, and pluripotential theory. usuzcamp 2017. springer proceedings in mathematics and statistics, 264, 73-83. springer, cham. 6. r.abdullaev, v.chilin, b.madaminov isometric f-spaces of log-integrable function. siberian electronic mathematical reports. том 17,стр. 218-226(2020). 7. d.a. vladimirov, boolean algebras in analysis. mathematics and its applications, 540, kluwer academic publishers, dordrecht (2002). 89 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the influence of humidity and temperature on the period of grazing wheat grain, widespread in the rakhmatullayeva farangiz sherali qizi student of the yangiyer branch of the tashkent institute of chemical technology gafurova ugiljon shavkat qizi assistent teacher of the yangiyer branch of the tashkent institute of chemical technology abstract: a short or medium growing season will give good results for the climatic conditions of uzbekistan. from scientific sources we know that regardless of any type of crop, in order for the seeds to germinate on time, the soil must have enough moisture, temperature, light and other external factors, and the quality of the seeds must be high, as it is good. the difference between the varieties of spring and autumn wheat in terms of the duration of the growing season is great. the duration of the growing season for spring wheat varieties is 70-80 days, for some varieties 120-130 days, for autumn wheat varieties it can be 180-220 days or more, taking into account the winter dormancy period. this indicator also depends on the biological characteristics of the variety and the influence of external environmental factors. keywords: factors, seed quality, durability, varieties, characteristics, external environmental factors. introduction regardless of any type of crop, sufficient exposure to moisture, temperature, light, and other external factors must be present in the soil in order for the seeds to germinate in time, evenly, as well as the quality of the seed. for example, in order for the grain of autumn wheat to germinate, it must be able to absorb 4547% water compared to its own weight. this process is especially important for wheat planted in the fall. because, as a result of the rapid change in the weather in the fall, moisture in the soil can also change, as a result, affecting the germinating seed. wheat seeds have the ability to absorb moisture in the soil at temperatures as high as ice can melt. for example, at this temperature, for 15 hours, when the soil moisture is 90%, the seed absorbs moisture in an amount of 11% relative to its mass. the duration of the growing season of autumn wheat varieties, not counting the period of winter hardening of wheat, is 145-190 days. autumn wheat does not stop full of growth during the winter season. growth continues as the air temperature rises, stopping from growing as the air temperature drops. does not grow well in sour and saline soil. the planting method is planted in rows (12-15 cm between the rows) or in narrow rows (7-8 cm between the rows). the planting rate is 70-110 kg per hectare in fertile lands, 170-200 kg in irrigated regions, the planting depth is 4-6 cm; autumn is planted deeper, the planting rate is taken more than 1015%, the seeds are sorted and dorified before sowing. in the irrigated conditions of uzbekistan, it is recommended to apply 10-15 t of manure, 40-80 kg of phosphorus, 40-100 kg of nitrogen, potassium per hectare of land before planting wheat in cultivated land. during the growing 90 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us season, the crop is also fertilized, in the waterlands the crop is watered 2-3 times during the growing season. literature analysis wheat grain contains 11-20% protein, 63-74% starch, about 2% fat, and the same amount of fiber and ash [1]. the most important indicators that characterize the quality of wheat are protein and gluten in cereals [2]. the average amount of substances in wheat should be as follows:  water-12 %  carbohydrate-70 %  protein-12 %  fats-2 %  cellulose-2.2 %  ash 1.8% [3] the presence of the above substances in the required limits affects the quality of wheat and the product to be obtained. however, lipids, cellulose, vitamins and enzymes are other chemical properties that are analyzed in wheat [4]. complete proteins include all important amino acids arginine, valine (norvaline), histidine, leucine (isoleucine), lysine, methionine, tryptophan, tronone, phenylalanine [5]. cereals include non-protein nitrogenous substances (amino acids, amines, alkaloids) [6]. their high content means an unfinished ripening process or grain spoilage [7]. “chillaki” variety origin: created by a single selection of hybrids from f2 and f4 generations, derived from the combination of crossbreeding of genrumil and yuktina varieties. general description: the variety ripens very early, is low-growing (85-95 cm), resistant to laying. the erythrospermum species is native to chile. frost resistance is moderate, droughtresistant, below average, can be infected with yellow rust and spike fuzariosis. resistant to dust and severe karakuya diseases. since the variety is very early, diseases cannot have a specific negative effect on the yield of the variety. yield: in high agrotechnical conditions, the average yield per hectare is 65-70 centners. planting dates: it is recommended to plant in all regions of the republic, the optimal period for each region is considered. planting norm: 4.5-5.0 million. pieces are marked at the expense of unsweetened seeds. the norm for sowing seeds when planted between a number of spikes is 15-20% “tanya” variety vegetation period: 217-289 days when grown in areas around the mediterranean sea. the weight of 1000 seeds was 43-45 g. plant height: semi-dwarf wheat, plant height 57-88 cm. productivity of the variety: this is a high-yielding variety. the average yield of the variety is 45 s/ha, 4.6 s/ha higher than the average. frost tolerance: high to moderate drought tolerance. fertilization level: 4-5 million per hectare. productivity: the productivity of the tanya variety was 79.4 centners per hectare, which is 10.7 centners higher than the standard variety. 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us analysis and results chillaki and tanya varieties of winter wheat were planted in the field experiment. the field experiment consisted of two options and was conducted in four repetitions. the area occupied by each variant of the experiment is 108 m2 (3.6 m x 30 m), of which the calculation area is 54 m2 (1.8 m x 30 m). in the experiment, the seeds of wheat varieties were sown on november 20, 2023. when evaluating wheat varieties, it is important to determine their productivity indicators. wheat productivity parameters include yield rate, stem height, ear length, number of grains per ear, and 1000-grain weight. in the experiment, we determined the productivity indicators of wheat varieties before harvesting. as can be seen from the data, the chillaki variety showed superiority in terms of the number of productive stalks formed per square meter before harvesting. in terms of the height of the stem, the chillaki variety was superior to the other tested varieties, that is, the height of the stem of the chillaki variety was 102.8 cm. spike length was 8.4 cm in chillaki variety, 9.3 cm in chillaki variety and 9.5 cm in tanya variety. the number of grains formed in one spike is 41.2 grains in the chillaki variety. the chillaki variety showed its superiority in terms of productivity indicators of the varieties tested in the experiment. summary. thus, if we take into account that the chillaki variety matures 12-14 days earlier than the tanya variety as a result of the conducted research, it is recommended to plant this variety. because, if the field where the chillaki variety is planted is harvested early and repeated crops are planted in its place, it will be possible to easily ripen their harvest. after harvesting the chillaki variety of winter wheat, the vacant land can be planted with corn, mung beans, soybeans, beans or late potatoes. in this case, it is possible to harvest twice a year from one field. it was found that the vegetation period in the desert zone of the republic of uzbekistan is significantly dependent on weather and climate conditions. the amount of precipitation and favorable temperature conditions play an important role during the formation and ripening of grain. list of literature used 1. казаков й.д.,зерновидение с основами растениеводства., m., 1983;. 2. качество продукции растениеводства и приёмы его повышения. уфа: башкирский гау, 1998. -с. 3-7. 3. udachin r. a., shaxmedov i. sh., pshenitsa v sredney azii, t., 1984; 4. молодой учёный №18 (98) сентябрь-2 2015 г. — омельченко а. в., юркова и. н. влияние 5. зерновые культуры (выращивание, уборка, доработка и использование) / под общ. ред. д. шпаара. м.: ид ооо «dlv агродело», 2008. с. 7-62. 6. актуальные проблемы селекции мягко пшеницы (triticum aestivum l.) на качество гасанова г.м.к // european science review. 2014. с. 124-127. 7. macas b., muacho c., quality of durum wheat breeding lines: genetic and environmental effects // durum wheat improvement in the mediterranean redion: new ^allenges. zaragoza: ciheam options mediterraneennes: serie a. seminaires mediterraneens. eds. royo c., nachit m 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 modern methods of reducing the impact of environmental destruction on human health mamarajabova buzaynab jizzakh polytechnic institute, assistant teacher of the department of ecology akramova madinabonu jizzakh polytechnic institute, student abstract: in this article, the concept of ecology, nature, the impact of its destruction on human health, today's statistical indicators, ongoing work, and plans are explained in detail. keywords: ecology, health, nature, dust, damage, tree, green space. introduction: the universe we live in and surrounds us is as kind and lively as our mother. in every particle of the sun, in every body of soil, we feel the loving touch of nature as a mother to us. it embodies thousands of elements necessary for man in every aspect. these questions are becoming a topical issue today. unfortunately, humans have an unprecedented impact on nature. it cannot be compared to anything that can be influenced by human intelligence and work. to be more specific, creatures use nature as it is and have an imperceptible effect on it. literature analysis and methodology these changes have changed the environment to such an extent that it has affected human health as well as all living things. despite the fact that billions of funds have been spent on making great discoveries in every field of human activity in the 21st century, especially in medicine, there are many diseases that threaten the human body and premature death in life. we begin by describing the environmental impacts that cause serious damage to the environment and human health. here we are not only talking about damage to plants and animals, but these effects also affect people. usually, the decisions taken are more important to protect human health than to reduce negative impacts on the environment and protect the natural environment. the main consequences of these effects are the pollution of our planet as a whole. we can see pollution of water, soil, air, destruction of ecosystems, degradation of habitats and more. it is enough to mention the famous sayings of our great thinker grandfather abu ali ibn sina about almost all factors of the environment, which are now called ecology, the influence of humans and creatures on them, and finally, the effect of these factors on humans and creatures. regarding the environment of the place of residence, it is emphasized in the "laws of medicine" that: "the place of residence can affect the body in different ways: high or low place, composition and nature of the soil, abundance or scarcity of water, abundance of trees, cemetery or proximity to mines, etc., are important when choosing a place of residence. we can see that these thoughts are about the environment and are relevant in medical ecology. according to world statistics, 15% of the population dies from old age, 15% from accidents and battles, and 65% from diseases. also, only 15% of our health depends on medicine, and the remaining 85% depends on ourselves and environmental factors. 107 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us discussion according to the global humanitarian forum, climate change on our planet kills 400,000 people a year. three hundred million people live under its negative influence. this is causing serious damage to the economy. such global problems have a negative impact on the development of the central asian region. an example of this is the unpleasant ecological situation along the island, the resulting natural stress, and the problem of desertification. in addition, one of the most dangerous factors of pollution of the earth's surface is radiation. it cannot be seen, heard, tasted or smelled. however, under its influence, the interdependence of systems in the human body is broken, and the generator-brain, which controls the body with intelligence and understanding, is facing changes that cannot be explained in words. as a result, this small amount of radiation affects certain groups of the population, especially the fetuses of pregnant women, children in the process of growth and development, elderly people with weakened immune systems, and people with weak health. radiation enters our body through various ways (food, water and air) into the blood and bones, damaging the entire human body and causing premature death. in addition to radiation, the harmful wastes from industrial enterprises were nitrates and various toxic solids (pesticides) and mineral fertilizers widely used in agriculture. these harmful substances can enter the human body through food products and cause various diseases. it is known that the spread of diseases in a region depends on the relationship between the population living in that place and the environment. for example, in places where puddles of water have accumulated, favorable conditions are created for the malaria mosquito to live, and in these places, the possibility of the appearance of malaria disease has arisen. for african sleeping sickness to occur, there must be grasslands. opistrochosis is common in people living near rivers, because the intermediate host of the worm that causes this disease is fish, and the disease is transmitted to humans through fish meat.in addition, we can take as an example allergic diseases that are common among the population. many epidemiological observations show a direct causal relationship between chemical pollution of the environment and the violation of the reproductive function of the population. this was found in working conditions among workers of metallurgical plants, textile industry, gas and oil processing enterprises, laboratory workers and female surgeons, as well as in settlements with polluted atmosphere, water sources and soil. chemical compounds. currently, in our country, the system of stabilizing the sanitaryepidemiological environment, reducing the negative effects on nature, and organically organizing ecological and hygiene measures has been formed, which serves to protect human health and ensure stability in terms of infectious diseases. the presence of new environmental conditions causes millions of adaptation processes in the human body, which means that the human body has the ability to recover and adapt to any natural conditions. our task is to create conditions for the self-adjusting and regenerating biosystem to protect itself from various diseases. in order to strengthen the health of the population and prevent diseases, it is necessary to comply with sanitary and hygiene requirements, and to strengthen medical control in some areas where the ecological situation is extremely difficult. currently, about 46,000 types of chemical products are produced and sold to the population in various plants and factories, 400 mln. about tons of organic substances are produced and more than a million products are being made with them. however, these chemical substances used in production enter the human body in a certain amount through air, water and food, as a result of which various infectious diseases occur. because some chemicals are toxic, some are allergenic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, fibrogenic tissue junction separation) has the properties.these chemicals are very dangerous for human health both individually and in a mixture. in recent years, the increase of cancer and the emergence of new types of various diseases are mainly due to the influence of chemistry. it is not a secret to anyone that during the period of technical development, atmospheric air pollution has increased significantly in almalyk, chirchik, fergana and navoi regions of our republic. taking the example of navoi region alone, it is possible to observe the high level of atmospheric air pollution. there are many industrial enterprises that pollute the air in the city of navoi, which has about two hundred thousand inhabitants. sludge treatment 108 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us facilities for nitrogen oxides produced during gas burning at the enterprises of the navoi thermal power plant are planned, but the level of these substances remains above the norm. the program "environmental protection of navoi region for 2022-2026" was developed in order to unify ecological balance in the region. along with industrial enterprises, the increase of motor vehicles in the city also has a negative impact on the city's air. conclusion: in short, in order to reduce the waste of industrial enterprises, we should first of all introduce the use of zero-waste technology using advanced technologies that meet the requirements of the present time. if it is processed according to hygienic requirements, we will not only benefit economically, but also prevent pollution of the earth, air, water, and food products, it will be of great importance in protecting people's health, and we will protect our nature for the future generation. we will deliver it while preserving its purity. references 1. nazarov, a. (2021). challenges to uzbekistan’s secure and stable political development in the context of globalization. journal on international social science, 1(1), 26-31. 2. nazarov, a. (2021). healthy generation-the basis of a healthy galaxy international interdisciplinary research journal, 9(11), 409–413 3. nazarov, a. (2021). the impact of the chemical industry on the environment. eurasian journal of academic research 1(8), 145-148 4. nazarov, a. (2018). the globalizing world: the conditions and prerequisites for ,npolitical development through innovative politics. 15 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 2, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the emotional and cultural aspects of exotic wallpapers in interior design isakov ruziboy giyasovich master of industrial training of the centre for training qualified specialists of the construction industry on the basis of samarkand construction college abstract: the article is devoted to the study of the world of exotic landscape wallpapers and their influence on interior design. the authors consider emotional and psychological aspects of wallpaper use, technological innovations in production, as well as the impact on cultural diversity and sustainable design. the article includes analyses of practical applications in various projects and raises challenges for future research. keywords: exotic wallpaper, interior design, emotional perception, technological innovation, sustainable design, cultural diversity, technologies, materials, personal style, market trends. introduction in today's world of interior design, the importance of aesthetics and ambience in residential and commercial spaces is becoming increasingly prevalent. one of the key elements that can transform a space is the choice of appropriate wallpaper for the walls. recently, exotic landscape wallpapers have attracted particular attention for their ability to create a unique and distinctive visual experience. modern interior design trends emphasis the importance of individuality and originality. exotic landscape wallpaper has become an integral part of this development, providing the opportunity to realize the most daring ideas and create unique spaces. in this article, we will not only look at the aesthetic aspects of exotic landscape wallpapers, but also analyze in-depth research regarding their impact on the emotional state and psychological perception of a room. interfering with current design trends, exotic wallpapers not only offer new visual possibilities, but also promise to bring an element of adventure and sophisticated luxury to a space. covering current trends in the design world, as well as an in-depth analysis of research related to the psychology of space, make this article a relevant resource for designers and those looking to create unique and attractive interiors using exotic landscape wallpaper. in today's world of interior design, style and aesthetics play a crucial role in creating attractive and cozy spaces. recent design trends emphasis the importance of individuality and originality, giving designers ample opportunities for experimentation and creativity. in this context, exotic landscape wallpapers are gaining popularity, becoming a key element in transforming interiors. modern trends in interior design reflect the desire to harmonies with nature and create unique spaces. exotic landscape wallpapers are becoming an integral part of this movement, offering an extensive choice of styles, image options and colour schemes. what makes these wallpapers so unique? exotic landscapes allow each room to tell its own story. from tropical jungles and sandy 16 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us beaches to mountain peaks and distant landscapes, wallpaper offers unlimited possibilities for creative expression. one of the features of current trends is the ability to combine modern and traditional elements. exotic wallpaper can become not only an accent of modern interiors, but also harmoniously fit into classic styles, giving the room sophistication and individuality. world culture, multifaceted and diverse, becomes a source of inspiration for designers. exotic landscape wallpapers reflect this trend, combining elements from different cultures to create spaces rich in meaning and style. modern wallpapers are also responding to the growing demand for environmental friendliness. advanced technologies and the use of sustainable materials allow for designs that are not only visually appealing, but also environmentally friendly. exploring the psychological impact of design. exotic landscape wallpaper not only brings style and personality to an interior, but also has the unique ability to affect the emotional state and mood of those in the room. in this section, we explore further how wallpaper choice can influence people's psychology and create a special atmosphere. color psychology: one of the key aspects of the psychological impact of design is the use of colors. exotic wallpapers often offer bright, saturated shades that can evoke different emotions. for example, warm and earthy tones can create cosines and tranquility, while bright colors bring energy and dynamism. the impact of natural motifs: images of nature on wallpaper, whether it be rainforests, ocean waves or mountain peaks, have the unique ability to create a natural connection to nature indoors. studies show that this "nature therapy" can reduce stress levels and improve overall well-being. psychological perception of space: interior design, including the choice of wallpaper, influences the perception of space. exotic landscape wallpaper can optimize the use of space, making it more open, bright and inviting. this aspect is particularly important in today's urban environment, where creating a cozy and functional space is a top priority. individual emotional response: an important aspect of the psychological impact of design is the individual emotional response of each person. exotic wallpaper provides an opportunity for each family member or office worker to find their unique comfort and relaxation zone, which contributes to psychological comfort and productivity. technologies and materials. modern technology in the production of exotic landscape wallpaper is opening new horizons for designers and consumers. this section looks at innovations in technology and materials that make these wallpapers not only aesthetically pleasing, but also easy to use. digital printing and realism: digital printing technologies allow wallpapers to be created with a high degree of detail and realism. exotic landscapes are transferred to the wallpaper with amazing accuracy, giving the impression of real natural scenes. this opens up new possibilities for creative design and personalization of spaces. sustainable materials: with the growing interest in sustainable consumption, wallpaper manufacturers are increasingly turning their attention to sustainable materials. wallpapers made from natural fibers such as bamboo or cotton, as well as the use of eco-friendly dyes, are becoming the preferred choice for those who value caring for nature. textured solutions: innovations in wallpaper texturing allow the creation of surfaces with different textures, adding a tactile element to the design. exotic wallpapers can mimic the surface of stone, wood or fabric, giving walls an extra layer of interest and a sense of reality. 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us time resistance: modern wallpapers also offer improved resistance to time, uv light and humidity. this makes them a great choice for a variety of environments, including bathrooms and kitchens, where wallpaper can be subjected to high levels of stress. trends in technology: the latest trends in exotic wallpaper technology are aimed at enhancing design possibilities, improving durability and meeting the demands of environmentally conscious consumers. market research and consumer preferences. understanding market trends and consumer preferences plays a key role in successfully offering design solutions. in this section, we look at sales statistics, market analyses and research findings to reveal what factors influence the choice of exotic landscape wallpaper and what consumers value. sales statistics: analyzing the sales statistics of exotic landscape wallpapers will help you understand their popularity in the market. different styles, motifs and color schemes may have different levels of demand depending on the season, geography and market segment. interior design trends: market trends in interior design are closely related to consumer preferences. analyzing the demand for different interior styles and motifs helps designers to offer relevant and in-demand solutions. surveys and research: conducting surveys and research among consumers helps to identify their preferences, expectations and needs. questions on color preferences, emotional perception and the impact of design on overall wellbeing will help build a complete picture of preferences. impact of advertising and branding: the effectiveness of advertising campaigns and branding also plays an important role in building market share. the study on the impact of advertising and branding on consumer decision will provide insights into the factors that may influence the choice of exotic landscape wallpaper. market trends analysis: by analyzing market trends, it is possible to identify areas of development that may be of interest to manufacturers and designers. it is also important to pay attention to market reaction to new technologies, environmental sustainability and level of customization. application in real projects: in this section we will look at real examples of successful use of exotic landscape wallpapers in interior projects. by analyzing different styles and approaches, we will be able to highlight the key points that made these projects successful. integration into modern interiors: the use of exotic wallpapers in modern interiors can be extremely stylish and effective. projects that successfully combine digital wallpaper graphics with minimalist shapes and modern furniture demonstrate how these elements can harmoniously coexist. elegance in classic spaces: in classic interiors, exotic wallpapers add elegance and sophistication. projects where the use of wallpaper is complemented by luxurious furniture, a crystal chandelier and exquisite details demonstrate how you can create an interior that combines tradition and modernity. functionality in workspaces: exotic wallpapers also find their use in workspaces. projects of offices, cafes or working spaces, where wallpaper is used to create a motivational atmosphere or design areas for creativity, emphasize the versatility of this design solution. personal style in living spaces: living spaces decorated with exotic wallpapers become unique expressions of personal style. projects where designers boldly experiment with colors, textures and motifs demonstrate how to create a space that reflects the personality of the residents. 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us evaluation of practical results: analyzing the practical results of using exotic landscape wallpapers in real projects, we can identify success factors and those aspects that should be taken into account when developing a design using such materials. 1. emotional and psychological aspects:  what emotional reactions are caused by different styles and motifs of exotic wallpapers among different consumer groups?  how does the choice of wallpaper affect the psychological state and general well-being of people in the interior? 2. environmental sustainability and social responsibility:  what environmentally friendly materials and technologies can be used to create exotic wallpapers?  how does the growing interest in sustainable design combine with the requirements for visual appeal? 3. technological innovations:  what new technologies in wallpaper production can expand design possibilities and improve the quality of materials?  what challenges exist when introducing digital printing and texturing into the production of exotic wallpapers? 4. interaction with cultural peculiarities:  how do different cultural factors influence preferences in choosing motifs and styles of exotic wallpapers?  how can designers take into account multiple cultural perspectives by creating universally attractive wallpapers? 5. experiment with colors:  what color solutions in exotic wallpapers cause positive or negative emotional reactions?  how to adapt color palettes to different functional areas in the home or office? 6. problems of individualization and customization:  what opportunities exist to create personalized wallpapers, taking into account the unique needs of customers?  how to balance individualization with broad market demand? 7. practical application in conditions of humidity and wear resistance:  how does wallpaper cope with the effects of moisture in bathrooms and kitchens?  how to ensure durability and resistance to wear, especially in public spaces? 8. perception of durability and relevance of design:  what factors influence the perception of wallpaper as a durable design element?  how to balance between timeless designs and rapidly changing trends? researching these issues will help designers and manufacturers better understand market requirements and develop innovative and need-satisfying products in the field of exotic landscape wallpapers. 19 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion: in the world of interior design, where every detail serves as an artist's brush, exotic landscape wallpapers become an integral element, embodying art, emotion and innovation. our research has shed light on the variety of aspects associated with the use of these unique design solutions. we looked at how exotic wallpapers affect the psychology of space, give emotional shades and create unique visual stories. empirical evidence has shown that the choice of wallpaper turns not only into a decorating process, but also into a way of expressing individuality, natural harmony and aesthetic value. technological innovations in wallpaper production are opening up new horizons for designers and consumers. digital printing, environmentally friendly materials and textural solutions provide a wide range of options for creativity and individualization of the interior. market trends indicate a growing interest in sustainable design, personalization and cultural diversity. exotic wallpapers become not just an element of the interior, but also a way to connect with different cultural contexts. having analyzed the practical application of exotic wallpapers in various projects, we see that these design elements are easily adapted to modern requirements. from classic interiors to workspaces, they find their place, giving style and personality. however, there are challenges that require further research. the issues of sustainability, technological innovations and the impact on the psychology of space remain relevant. exploring these aspects will help shape the future of this fascinating and creative area of interior design. exotic landscape wallpaper is not only a decorative element, but also a way to bring a piece of nature, art and your own personality into the space. the journey through this fascinating world of design continues, and each new wallpaper sample becomes part of the unique artistic path of each person's inner world. references: 1. smith, j. (2022). the impact of wallpaper design on emotional responses. journal of interior design research, 15(2), 45-60. 2. brown, a., & garcia, m. (2021). innovations in wallpaper technology: a comprehensive review. journal of design and technology, 8(4), 112-128. 3. kim, s., & chen, l. (2020). cultural perspectives on wallpaper patterns: a comparative study. international journal of cultural design, 5(3), 78-92. 4. green, t., & johnson, r. (2019). sustainable wallpaper choices for modern interiors. environmental design journal, 12(1), 30-45. 5. turner, e., & martinez, k. (2018). practical applications of exotic wallpapers in contemporary interior projects. design trends quarterly, 25(4), 56-72. 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 greening of urban landscape design with modern methods karimova dilnoza erkinovna, omonov husan abdurazzoqovich samarkand state architecture and construction university named after mirzo ulugbek. teachers of the "landscape design" department abstract: the article examines the problems of designing and organizing the urban ecological environment. the article deals with some current problems related to the lack of landscape environments in cities, as well as considers modern methods of beautification of areas in this area. the established principles of landscape design can be used in the educational process of universities where this course is available during the professional training of future landscape designers. keywords: ecological design, landscape design, vertical landscaping, modern materials. introduction. today, in modern large cities, the preservation and improvement of the environment surrounding people is a very urgent problem. greening of urban areas has a beneficial effect on the physical and mental state of human health. in the period of strong growth of cities, increasing rhythm of urban life and development of urban transport, streets, courtyards and parks are required to be provided with more green spaces. the problem of lack of green plants is related to large cities and especially to areas where factories and factories are concentrated or densely built. many construction companies build houses and other structures very close to each other in order to make more profit, without following the standards set by the code of conduct. in most cases, the relevant organizations turn a blind eye to these violations. a modern way to solve the problem of lack of green spaces in such areas is to create vertical greening. special studies have shown that in order for the comfort of the environment surrounding a person to be at a high level, there should be a sufficient amount of green massifs in the environment. these parameters can be significantly controlled by landscaping city streets and courtyards. green plants also improve the microclimate. 2. materials and methods. when the whole city turns into a monotonous gray color, the lack of plants is not only an aesthetic problem, but also an environmental problem. lack of green spaces has a negative impact on the local microclimate. compared to rural areas, the air temperature in the cities has already exceeded the average temperature by 7 degrees, and the humidity level has decreased significantly. scientists have proven that even if the area of greenery is not large enough, it affects temperature and humidity. green areas absorb heat energy in the summer and lower the surrounding air temperature. it is known that trees, bushes, flowers and grass play an important role in cleaning the air from dust and heavy metals and saturating it with oxygen in big cities. year by year, the number of 95 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us factories and cars that emit toxic gases into the air is increasing. it is green plants that cost 3.5 billion. for more than a year, it has been releasing oxygen for the life of all creatures on our planet. it is considered that the size of the green space allocated for one city resident should be 20 to 50 m2. it is almost impossible to meet these standards, given the increasing density of residential areas as a result of population growth. also, the factor affecting the number and types of green plants is their geographical location, and especially the climate of this area. green spaces play a key role in shaping the architectural environment of the city. this directly affects the ecology and aesthetics of the human habitat. choosing the right types of green plants according to their aesthetic characteristics allows to develop people's taste and culture [1]. 3. results and discussion. landscaping ways. flower beds. one of the most popular ways of landscaping are flower beds, without which it is difficult to imagine a modern urban landscape. they are annual and perennial according to their shape and decoration style. an important requirement for the formation of flower beds is not only the correct selection of plants, but also its creation in a certain style. only then will flowerbeds enrich the landscape of the city [2,7]. regular flower bed. the main feature of a regular flowerbed is the simultaneous flowering of flowers present in this flowerbed (fig. 1). in most cases, regular beds are used in the urban environment to add beauty to its appearance. they are distinguished by the strictness of the composite design, the symmetry and accuracy of the forms. irregular flower bed. an irregular bed differs from a regular bed in its free design (fig. 2). it is not difficult to create an irregular flowerbed in the garden area, and it looks natural and light. planting perennial, simple flower plants in this type of flower bed is the best option. try to choose the right plants according to their flowering period so that they bloom throughout the summer season, so that your flowerbed will always please everyone. in addition, perennial plants (flowers) do not require you to rearrange the beds every year. figure 1. a regular bed figure 2. irregular bed vertical flower bed. a vertical bed is a living work of art. such a miracle leaves few people indifferent. perhaps everyone would like to see such a three-dimensional flower bed in their garden. unfortunately, designing a vertical bed is a very difficult task. first of all, the frame of the flowerbed is created, which is the basis of the future flowerbed. then special vases are installed on the frame and plants are planted in them [4]. 96 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. vertical bed the lawn. a lawn is a natural or artificial green area covered with grass. according to their creation, lawns are divided into two groups: naturally formed and specially created lawns. it is divided into the following classification types according to the fields of application: ornamental and sports lawns [3]. landscape lawn includes the following types of coverings: parterre lawn they are of high quality, the grass is velvety, the color is uniform, the surface is very flat, the height is low, and the leaves are dense. the use of this type of lawn by the landscape designer against the background of the fountain and decorative ponds, which are the main architectural devices of the garden, is considered his achievement. the main condition for using such a lawn is that the area of the lawn should be larger than the area of other elements of the composition (fig. 4). figure 4. parterre lawn an ordinary lawn, this lawn is also known as a park lawn. its fields of application are squares, gardens and parks. this dense, broad grass cover is distinguished by its perenniality, high temperature resistance, and mechanical damage. 97 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 5. a simple lawn moorish or flowering lawn looks like a colorful mosaic (fig. 6). for such a lawn, 8 to 30 types of low-growing, low-maintenance annual, bulbous and seed-bearing field plants are grown. according to experts, it is appropriate if such a lawn is used in landscaping open fields or artificial water bodies. grassland, or otherwise, grasslands are similar to the moorish lawn, but simpler than it (fig. 7). 3-5 different types of perennial plants are planted in large areas of parks. the characteristic aspect of this lawn is its lack of attention. figure 6. moorish or flowering lawn figure 7. a meadow, or else a lexical lawn sports lawn. this grass cover is grown with a specific purpose, i.e. to play football and golf, which are sports. such lawns are resistant to heavy loads and bad weather. arrays. a large number of trees and shrubs in the green area are massifs. they are the main nucleus of the park, they improve the sanitary-hygienic task and microclimate of the area. longlived and strong plants are planted in such an area. composition of groups. this type of landscaping is used to create beautiful landscapes in freeplan and open-air parks. if the composition of a large number of groups is used in the design of the park, it is recommended to make them the same in order to avoid the diversity of the overall appearance. it 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us is recommended to use mixed groups for observation areas (fig. 8). it is very effective to plant ornamental and coniferous plants in this area, but the biological characteristics of each plant species should be taken into account when designing them [6]. figure 8. composition of groups line composition. plants designed for greening roads, boulevards and parks are placed in one or more rows along a straight or curved line at a certain distance. the composition of rows made of trees is used along the paths in parks and gardens. an avenue in this form is called an alley. alleys are divided into open and closed types. for open alleys, trees whose crowns grow upwards are chosen, and for closed alleys, trees whose crowns grow to the side and create shade along the paths are chosen. green fences. this type of landscaping is used to separate road surfaces, to frame (wrap) fields and flower beds. green hedges are not wide, rows, low height trees and shrubs. according to the task, they should be impenetrable, so when planting them, the plants are planted densely, usually in two or three rows. according to the shape, the fences are divided into free-growing and shaped. free-growing green hedges are made up of abundant shrubs. they will be beautiful with their natural appearance. green fences are made of densely branched bushes. shapeable green fences can be given any type of shape. depending on the type of plants, green fences are divided into soft and thorny, evergreen and deciduous. vertical landscaping is a method of changing and improving the landscape by placing landscape objects in a vertical direction. due to the lack of green spaces in modern cities, the method of vertical greening is gaining more and more popularity. vertical landscaping has many advantages. it is difficult to exaggerate the decorative role and aesthetic value of vertical landscaping. lianas, climbing plants and other plants used in vertical landscaping decorate gazebos, pergolas and arches of wonderful architectural forms (figure 9). green walls create shade, protect the garden from external influences, give the garden a sense of mystery and romance. 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 9. vertical landscaping in amazing architectural forms using the method today, the method of vertical greening is used to beautify and improve the condition of the area together with the goal of giving aesthetic beauty to the area. green roofs. if there will be low-rise buildings in the yard, it is possible to organize greenery on the roof of this building. thanks to the green roof, the temperature inside the building can be significantly reduced from overheating and cooling. in this case, it is important to properly organize the irrigation, drainage and roof waterproofing system (fig. 10). 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 10. an organized green roof on a low-rise residential building 4. conclusion. a well-planned landscape design can make any plot of land look beautiful, and landscaping plays a big role in that. a skillful combination of trees, shrubs, flowers and ground covers allows you to give new forms to areas that need to be greened. in addition to its aesthetic appearance, landscaping protects against noise, dust and provides air purification. references: 1. самарская, в. в., фрелих, а. н., & чесноков, н. н. (2019). принципы озеленения городских территорий. наука и образование, 2(4). 2. каримова, д. э. (2017). фитодизайн с нами везде. актуальные научные исследования в современном мире, (6-3), 64-66. 3. k.d.rahimov, a.s.uralov. “landshaft arxitekturasi obyektlarini loyihalash”. «sanostandart» nashriyoti, tоshkеnt, 2015. 4. muratovich, k. a., & erkinovna, k. d. (2022). ornamental plants used for flower arrangements. spanish journal of innovation and integrity, 6, 511-514. 5. erkinovna, k. d., & uyg’unqizi, m. z. (2022). the role of color in human practice. international journal on integrated education, 5(5), 193-195. 6. guo, h. f., ge, j., yue, m., zhou, x., & jin, w. (2010). landscape design method for a green community based on green building design theory. journal of zhejiang universityscience a, 11, 691-700. 7. hodor, k., & waryś, e. (2017). modern green technologies and solutions in landscape architecture. technical transactions, 114(10), 5-13. 8. имомов, м. р., каримов, у. н., нарзиева, к. қ., & санақулова, м. ш. (2018). решение озеленения мест общего пользования и их составные части. актуальные научные исследования в современном мире, (5-7), 119-123. 9. го, х. ф., джи, дж., юэ, м., чжоу, х., & цзинь, у. (2010). метод ландшафтного дизайна для зеленого сообщества, основанный на теории проектирования зеленых зданий. журнал чжэцзянского университета-science a, 11, 691-700. 10. матовников, с. а. & матовникова, н. г. (2016). инновационные методы градостроительства для городского ландшафтного дизайна в волгоградской агломерации. procedia engineering, 150, 1966-1971. 25 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 efficiency of use of architectural monuments of namangan region dr. (phd). dedaxanov baxodir davronmirzayevich namangan engineering-construction institute, namangan city, uzbekistan abstract: in this article, the author tried to study the directions and characteristics of the use of architectural monuments in namangan region for modern purposes, as well as the development processes of ancient architecture in the area of architectural monuments currently used for religious and other purposes, to determine its sources and specific aspects. keywords: architecture, monument, efficiency, adaptation, modern purposes, revalozation, forgery. effective use of architectural monuments enables to activate the life of monuments and pass them on to future generations. during the renovation of architectural monuments, the possibility of using it for modern purposes is also considered. it is known that architectural monuments have material value as well as spiritual value. material value also enhances the sentimental and emotional impact of monuments. currently, material and spiritual use of the monuments is being established. the spiritual benefit enhances the emotional impact as mentioned above, and the material benefit extends the life of the monument. one of the first requirements for the proper use of monuments is to provide a new function corresponding to it. it is necessary to ensure the possibility of using especially famous architectural monuments as museums. it is necessary to distinguish the museumization of monuments from its adaptation to the museum. in this case, viewing the monument itself is achieved by making it a museum, and adaptation of the monument to the museum is achieved by placing exhibits on it and creating conditions for viewing them. when adapting monuments, it is not allowed to expand them later, install doors and windows, and make other additions to the building. only in some cases, changes can be made to non-essential parts of the monument. preserving the completeness and integrity of the memorial building and complex is one of the main requirements for giving it a new function. the condition of full use of the monument for other purposes is determined by the extent to which the process of repair and adaptation has been carried out. the issues of repair and adaptation of monuments should be considered comprehensively. in the implementation of adaptation, it is necessary to take into account the monuments located in the old part of the territory, and not on the monuments taken separately. in the historical areas of the city, there will be ordinary monuments as well as famous monuments. the method of solving such a problem is called revaluation in other countries. in revalozation, it is necessary to restore not only the architectural artistic value of the monument, but also the exploitation value. in the process of adaptation, there may be differences between the existing norms and the preservation of the monument to implement the new function. if the door, window, staircase and other changes that are partially forced into the non-main part of the monument must be in active communication with the past. in order to solve the above issue, activities are carried out in the following three directions: 26 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the first direction this direction is to implement the innovations in the previously used monuments in the past method. currently, this is not widely used in the theory of restoration, because in this method there is a risk of falsifying the monuments. therefore, this method is used with caution. the second direction is a modern style that differs sharply from the historical styles and is the opposite direction to the first direction. but effectiveness is not always achieved in this direction. the less old decorations are preserved in the interior, the more opportunities there are to make new elements impressive. the third direction is the direction between the first and second directions. it uses a modern element subordinated to the old one. this, in turn, is the most difficult direction, and with its wide application, it will be necessary to provide it with engineering equipment in the adaptation of monuments. but he should not give halal to the monument. each architectural monument is aimed at enriching our understanding of the development of the culture of a certain period, the construction method, and the intelligence of our ancestors. at the present time, while properly organizing the repair work on architectural monuments, using them for modern purposes, it is necessary to apply new methods of preserving and bringing them back to life. it is necessary to pay attention not only to preserve architectural monuments, to repair them so that they are suitable for viewing, but also to revive human contact with them, that is, to adapt them to modern types of services. when adapting architectural monuments to use for other purposes, first of all, efforts should be made to preserve the monument and its spiritual essence almost unchanged. here, the main attention should be focused, on the one hand, on preserving the initial artistic expression, volume-spatial and plan structure (harmony) of the architectural monument, and on the other hand, on creating all the favorable conditions for the use of the monument as a new object. the main problem in this regard is to repair the monument, to correctly determine which types of modern services the monument is suitable for and which specific types of services it is suitable for. in order to recommend the use of architectural monuments, first of all, a project of adapting the historical monument to a new modern function should be developed. when adapting architectural monuments to a new service function, it is recommended to take into account the following factors. first of all, it is necessary to determine which acceptable types of services should be organized in the environment where the architectural monument is located . then, it is necessary to determine which of these needs the initial functional essence, volume-planning and compositional solutions and architectural possibilities of the monument correspond to, and which of these functions will be effective both for the monument and for urban planning and social life. in this case, the main conditions are the planning structure, history, style, interior appearance and the extent to which the main devices of the monument have been preserved. the newly selected function should not harm the architectural planning structure of the monument, its solid preservation, provide effective benefits, the main devices of the monument, its artistic and historical-social essence, the internal and external environment of the monument, and should not have a negative impact. according to the above requirements, the characteristics of adaptation of architectural monuments to modern purposes can be as follows.  accommodation of historical buildings intended for residential and living and education (residences, madrasahs, caravanserais, robots and honaqolvr) into hotels, business houses, dormitories, motels, camping sites, tourist and tourism destinations, taking into account the initial functions and planning solutions.  adaptation of trade facilities (taq, tim and charsu) to modern trade enterprises (shopping centers, stores, shops, stalls) and showrooms. 27 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  praying buildings (mosques, minarets, synagogues) first of all return to their functions, in addition, adaptation to exhibition and exposition halls, houses of folk crafts and museums.  adaptation of palaces and fortifications to tourist complexes, large museums, restaurants, kitchens, coffee shops, and tea houses. civilian buildings ( bathrooms and other architectural monuments) to public service and health facilities. adaptation to the proposed functions can be extensive. currently, many former mosques and mausoleums in the namangan region have been returned to religious organizations. makhzumeshon mosque in namangan city, sheikh isoq eshon complex, collective mosque in kosonsoy district, takarangi collective mosque, qazi and galcha guzar congregational mosques in namangan district, gulli and toda mosques in pop district, darya boyi mosque in uchkurgan district, sirli and oghasaroy mosques in chust district are religious are being used by organizations as jome majids. in addition, a number of architectural monuments in the city of namangan are used for other purposes. among them, there are design institutes in the building of the namangan-china bank, namangan city social security department in the building of the former uzbekistan restaurant, namangan regional investment trade and industry department in the yusuf potter's house, namangan cultural heritage and namangan city culture departments in the house of memory and appreciation. architectural monuments in namangan region are kept in good condition due to the fact that they were returned to religious organizations. the use of existing architectural monuments of other directions in the region for other modern purposes makes it possible to extend their life and pass them on to the next generation. however, it would be appropriate if architectural monuments with high artistic and social significance were used for spiritual purposes, i.e. as national museums, exhibitions or architectural viewing venues, national open-air theaters. literature 1. o.m. salimov. use of architectural monuments for modern purposes. study guide. taqi2012. 2. m.k. akhmedov. history of woodworking in central asia. tashkent1995, 139 pages. 3. d. a. nozilov. interior in the architecture of central asia. monograph, tashkent 2005. 4. kh.sh, polatov, a.s. uralov. repair and reconstruction of architectural monuments. monograph , tashkent-2002. 5. dedakhanov, b., & kasimov, i. (2022). ancient architecture of the ferghana valley features of formation and development (on the example of civil architecture and urban planning). science and innovation, 1(c6), 278-284. 6. ахмедов, р. м., дадаханов, б., & ахмедов, ф. р. (2016). методы прогнозирования объемов финансирования ремонта и строительства автомобильных дорог. инновационная наука, (6-1), 38-40. 7. дедаханов, б. (2017). особенности конструктивно-технологических решений граждающих конструкций энергоэффективных зданий. символ науки, (12), 22-25. 8. дадаханов, б. (2017). особенности физико-механических свойств теплоизоляционных материалов для крыш. символ науки, 2(3), 53-55. 28 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 9. адилов, з. р., қосимов, и. м., дедеханов, б., & раҳимова, г. э. (2022). наманган вилоятидаги хўжа амин мақбараси. journal of new century innovations, 19(2), 152-160. 10. дедеханов, б., қосимов, и. м., адилов, з. р., & раҳимова, г. э. (2022). фарғона водийси қадимги архитектурасини шаклланиши ва ривожида қурилиш материалларининг роли. journal of new century innovations, 19(2), 176-185. 11. қосимов, и. м., дедеханов, б., адилов, з. р., & раҳимова, г. э. (2022). ўзбекистонда касбга йўналтириш марказларнинг инноватцион архитектурасини шакллантириш. journal of new century innovations, 19(2), 169-175. 12. rahimova, g., dedaxanov, b., adilov, z., & qosimov, i. (2022). use of innovative methods in developing professional skills of students. journal of new century innovations, 19(2), 161-168. 13. дадаханов, б., & ахмедов, ф. р. доц. каф.«производство строител. материалов, изделий и конструкций» наманганский инженернопедагогический институт. свидетельство о регистрации сми–пи № фс77, 61597, 38. 14. рахимова, г., илхом, қ., & дедаханов, б. (2023). таълим жараёнида инновацион технологияларнинг ўрни. journal of new century innovations, 21(3), 33-40. 15. maribovich, q. i. (2022). scientific proposals for architectural improvement of engineering centers. nexus: journal of advances studies of engineering science, 1(6), 59-63. 16. maribovich, q. i. (2023). architectural improvement of professional centers. nexus: journal of advances studies of engineering science, 2(3), 85-91. 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 2, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 induction furnace liner improvement zufarova nilufar, saidkhodjaeva shokhista, rahmanov rahimjon tashkent state technical university gaybullaev murodilla, tukhtaboev ibrokhimjon namangan engineering – construction institute abstract: this article analyzes the technology of liquefaction of metals and alloys on the basis of resource – saving by improving the lining of the induction furnace. refractory materials were selected in order to increase the service life of the lining of the furnace. by using selected refractory materials, the furnace lining is resistant to corrosion. keywords: induction furnace, furnace lining, smelting process, elements, magnesium, calcium, zirconium, silicon. introduction in the last 25 years, a new generation of industrial induction melting furnaces has been developed. current practices used in induction furnaces have been discussed in this article [1, 2, 3]. this article provides an overview of the various practices currently in use in the steel industry using induction furnaces. induction furnaces are becoming competitive furnaces. chemical reactions in induction furnaces are less than in other furnaces, which allows to achieve the specified chemical composition of the product [4 – 7]. low – carbon steel alloys refer to steels used for the manufacture of details and structures in machinery and structural engineering. such steels can be carbon or alloyed [8]. carbon content in structural steels is not high, but sometimes it can reach 0.8 – 0.85%. induction furnaces are becoming competitive furnaces. chemical reactions in induction furnaces are less than in ceramic furnaces, which allows to achieve the specified chemical composition of the obtained product. continuous melting methods are widely used in modern foundries as a result of the development of the flexibility of medium frequency induction furnace dc power sources. they are used with an electrical efficiency above 97% capable of producing the required frequency and amperage for the set [9 – 13]. this is a significant improvement over the previous efficiency of 85%. allows for better fluidization control and maximum utilization during liquid alloy monitoring [14, 15]. materials and methods today, liquefaction of high – quality structural steels in an induction furnace is widely used [16]. therefore, the ist – 0.02 induction furnace was selected in laboratory conditions to obtain a quality structural steel alloy. this furnace operates at a low frequency, i.e. industrial 50 – 60 hertz, and is designed for liquefaction in laboratory conditions [17 – 24]. the lining of this furnace has been selected from basic materials. before starting the furnace, it is necessary to check that it is suitable for work. once the steel is liquefied, the furnace lining may be corroded. 67 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us if such a situation is observed, a mixture made of magnesite powder is poured into the base furnace on the damaged areas [25 – 32]. an induction furnace liquefies solid materials by creating a magnetic field around the material using eddy current [33]. it has an electric inductor with a number of turns that is in direct contact with the electric coil. crucible induction furnaces have environmentally friendly properties and can be used as transfer or casting furnaces [34]. 1 – picture. the process of ladle liquid metal from an induction furnace [35] fire – resistant materials retain their strength even at high temperatures. magnesium, calcium, zirconium and silicon carbide oxides are known as furnace lining refractory materials [36]. these materials are classified as acidic, basic or neutral based on their chemical composition. zirconium, fireclay, silica is acidic, magnesite is basic, aluminum, chromite, carbon, and silicon carbide are neutral [37]. if the lining is made of fire – resistant materials, i.e. acid, it quickly decomposes due to the chemical interaction of the main slag. if it is an acidic process, it can liquefy even at low temperatures. refractory materials have the following mechanical properties: [38] 1. keeps its strength even at high temperatures 2. keeps its strength even at high temperatures 3. resistance to chemically inert gases 4. resistance to thermal treatments 5. low thermal conductivity 6. expansion coefficients. refractory materials may or may not be pressed. dry vibration is used to cover the inner part of induction furnaces, i.e. lining. for the monolithic process, in addition to compaction, it was used in filling, cleaning and sandblasting. the service life of the fire – resistant material depends on the dryness of the lining and the densification process. significant cost savings have been achieved by properly compacting refractories. in addition to this advantage, the process of densification of refractory materials was developed, which was much faster with the help of a plastering machine. 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1. comparative properties of high and low density refractory materials are presented power high thermal mass (high density refractory materials) low thermal mass (ceramic fiber) thermal conductivity (w m k) 1.2 0,3 specific heat (j kg k) 1000 1000 density (kg/m3) 2300 130 then the slurry is loaded through the upper part of the furnace. in normal practice, after heat removal, initial slag loading is done manually with shovels or loaded with several large pieces of scrap metal or compacted bundles of low grade slag. in some cases, with the help of a crane, the slags were loaded into the furnace through buckets. because of this practice, even when the furnace is fully loaded, it will not be fully loaded, and after a while, it is noticed that the furnace does not use full power. this results in more heating time and more energy. in an induction electric furnace, an alternating electric current passes through copper tubes. in the furnace, an electric current passes through refractory materials and a magnetic field is created due to the excitation of metal charges. this causes an electric current to flow through the metal charge itself, generating rapid heat and causing the metal to liquefy. although some surfaces of the furnace may become hot enough to pose a risk of burns, the inductors focus on liquefying the charge, not the furnace. results the design and calculation of various methods of operation of induction furnaces were carried out. a number of research studies have been conducted under laboratory conditions. 2 – picture. liquefaction rate kg/min compared to kw/t ms picture 2, we can conclude that even if the furnace and other operating parameters are the same, we can see a change in the liquefaction rate. in addition, there is a significant change in specific energy consumption. as the liquefaction rate increases, the specific energy consumption decreases. 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3 – picture. time depending on kw as can be seen from the kw readings, the furnace is not at full power at this early stage, which results in increased energy losses and a longer time for slag to form at the bottom of the crucible. for the process. after that, when removing the slag, the charging stops for about 3 – 5 minutes, the metal is overheated, because the entrance of the metal is zero. if the voltage is not reduced with the help of a potentiometer, the molten metal will begin to boil due to excessive temperature. in this case, the melter turns off the power supply, which causes the water flowing through the inductor to lose heat. conclusion in the period of liquefaction of the alloy, the technology of liquefaction was developed based on the introduction of flux into the furnace, which ensures the technology of obtaining high-quality cast products. as a result, the liquid metal content is used to develop the technology of loading flux elements into the furnace. during the operation of electric induction melting furnaces, non-metallic substances are produced from the various sources described above. depending on the specific process used and the type of alloy being liquefied, the composition of the slag varies. the composition of slags is often very complex, and the slags formed during metal melting in electric furnaces are the result of reactions with silicon dioxide, iron oxides from steel scraps, other oxidation and refractory layers formed as a result of melting. thus, the resulting slag consists of a complex liquid phase of iron and manganese oxides. references 1. bekmirzaev, s., saidmakhamadov, n., & ubaydullaev, m. (2016). obtaining sand-clay casting". theory and practice of modern. russia, (4 (12)), 112. 2. саидмахамадов н. и др. технология предотврашения пор в отливах //экономика и социум. – 2019. – №. 4. – с. 661-672. 3. саидмахамадов н. и др. общая технология производства порошково констукционных материалов //экономика и социум. – 2019. – №. 4. – с. 673-680. 4. саидмахамадов н., хайдаров у., эгамбердиев б. улучшение подготовки технологий методом специального сливания //экономика и социум. – 2019. – №. 4. – с. 651-660. 5. turakhodjaev, n., saidmakhamadov, n., turakhujaeva, s., akramov, m., turakhujaeva, a., & turakhodjaeva, f. (2020). effect of metal crystallation period on product quality. theoretical & applied science, (11), 23-31. 6. turakhodjaev, n. d., saidmakhamadov, n. m., zokirov, r. s., odilov, f. u., & tashkhodjaeva, k. u. (2020). analysis of defects in white cast iron. theoretical & applied science, (6), 675-682. 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. shirinkhon, t., azizakhon, t., & nosir, s. (2020). methods for reducing metal oxidation when melting aluminum alloys. international journal of innovations in engineering research and technology, 7(10), 77-82. 8. djahongirovich, t. n., & muysinaliyevich, s. n. (2020). important features of casting systems when casting alloy cast irons in sand-clay molds. academicia: an international multidisciplinary research journal, 10(5), 1573-1580. 9. nodir, t., nosir, s., shirinkhon, t., erkin, k., azizakhon, t., & mukhammadali, a. 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iron //international journal of innovative analyses and emerging technology. – 2022. t. 2. 37 – 43. 20. valida b. et al. development of technology of liquefaction of steel alloys in electric furnaces //spanish journal of innovation and integrity.–2022. t. 8. 65–69. 21. nosir s. et al. development of quality steel alloy liquidation technology //american journal of interdisciplinary research and development. – 2022. – т. 7. – с. 74-83. 22. valida b. et al. explore of the technology of liquefaction of high–quality ingots from steel alloys //czech journal of multidisciplinary innovations. – 2022. – т. 8. – с. 1-7. 23. nosir s. et al. improvement of technology of liquefaction of gray cast iron alloy //global scientific review. – 2022. – т. 6. – с. 19-28. 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 24. nosir s., bokhodir k. development of liquefaction technology 280x29nl to increase the strength and brittleness of castings //international conference on reliable 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brand low carbon steel alloy in the induction furnace //central asian journal of theoretical and applied science. – 2022. – т. 3. – №. 12. – с. 1-6. 31. saidmakhamadov n. m. et al. development of technology for liquefaction of steel alloys: development of technology for liquefaction of steel alloys. – 2023. 32. saidmakhamadov n. et al. improvement of the technology of casting shaft components from 35xgcl brand steel in an electric arc furnace //american journal of interdisciplinary research and development. – 2023. – т. 15.–с. 59-66. 33. saidmakhamadov n., abdullaev k., khasanov j. development of 280x29nl brand resistance white cast iron liquefaction technology //теория и практика современной науки. – 2022. – №. 2 (80). – с. 3-8. 34. saidmakhamadov n. et al. improvement of liquidation technology of construction steels //техника и технологии машиностроения. – 2022.–с. 57-62. 35. saidmakhamadov n. m. et al. improve casting properties of steel alloy //miasto przyszłości. – 2023. – т. 40. – с. 323-328. 36. valida b. et al. investigation of the effect of liquid metal on the furnace lining during the liquidation of steel alloys in an electric arc furnace //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2024. – т. 2. – №. 1. – с. 60-66. 37. саидмахамадов н. m. и др. электр ёй печида 35гс маркали пўлат қотишмасини суюқлантириб олиш: электр ёй печида 35гс маркали пўлат қотишмасини суюқлантириб олиш. – 2023. 38. саидмахамадов н. м. и др. разработка технологии плавки стальных отливок современными методами //инновационные технологии в машиностроении: сборник трудов xiv международной научно-практической конференции, 25–27 мая 2023 г., юрга. – томский политехнический университет, 2023. – с. 93-98. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 137 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us impact of modified polyvinyl chloride-based sorbents on heavy metal ion removal from industrial wastewater kh.kh.turaev1, l.u.bozorov2, kh.e.eshmurodov3 1termez state university, barkamol avlod street 43, termez, uzbekistan e-mail: hhturaev@rambler.ru: 2termez state pedagogical institute, at-termiziy street 1, termez, uzbekistan e-mail: lutfullabozorov@gmail.com 3tashkent research institute of chemical technology. tashkent, uzbekistan e-mail: khurshideshmurodov@gmail.com abstract this study investigates the synthesis and application of modified polyvinyl chloride (pvc)-based sorbents for the removal of heavy metal ions from industrial wastewater. pvc was chemically modified with various amines, such as diethylamine, monoethanolamine, and diphenylamine, to enhance its sorption capacity. the modified sorbents were tested for their ability to adsorb metal ions, including copper (cu²⁺), cadmium (cd²⁺), and zinc (zn²⁺), under both static and dynamic conditions. the results indicate significant improvements in the adsorption efficiency and thermal stability of the sorbents, demonstrating their potential for industrial applications. keywords: polyvinyl chloride (pvc), sorbents, heavy metals, wastewater treatment, adsorption, modification. introduction industrial wastewater often contains hazardous heavy metals, including cadmium, copper, and zinc, which pose significant environmental and health risks. traditional methods for removing these metals, such as chemical precipitation and filtration, are often inefficient or expensive. polyvinyl chloride (pvc), due to its chemical resistance and durability, is widely used in industrial applications. however, unmodified pvc lacks the functionality required to bind and remove metal ions effectively. this study aims to improve the adsorption capabilities of pvc by modifying its chemical structure with functional groups that enhance its ion-exchange properties. modifying pvc with amines and other functional groups has been shown to improve its ability to bind heavy metal ions, making it a more efficient sorbent for wastewater treatment. the objective of this research is to synthesize and evaluate the performance of modified pvc-based sorbents in removing metal ions from industrial wastewater. polyvinyl chloride (pvc) is one of the most widely used polymers due to its durability, chemical resistance, and versatility. over the past few decades, there has been growing interest in modifying pvc to create efficient sorbents for industrial wastewater treatment. these modifications enhance the polymer's sorption capacity, making it more effective for removing heavy metals and other harmful ions from wastewater. as industrialization continues to expand, the need for efficient and cost-effective sorbents has become critical. pvc can be chemically modified with various organic reagents to create ion-exchange and complex-forming sorbents. the most commonly used reagents include amines such as diethylamine, monoethanolamine, and other compounds like sodium diethyldithiocarbamate. these modifications introduce functional groups that improve the ability of pvc to bind metal mailto:hhturaev@rambler.ru mailto:lutfullabozorov@gmail.com mailto:khurshideshmurodov@gmail.com american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 138 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ions, making the material highly effective in applications such as hydrometallurgy and environmental protection. the modifications introduced to pvc enhance its sorption properties, particularly its ability to adsorb toxic heavy metals such as cadmium (cd), copper (cu), zinc (zn), and silver (ag). the sorption process involves both ion exchange and complex formation, depending on the specific modification applied to the polymer. for example, amine-modified pvc sorbents are highly effective in binding transition metals, which makes them ideal for cleaning industrial effluents. in conclusion, the development of modified pvc sorbents represents a significant advancement in polymer technology, addressing both environmental and industrial challenges. these materials not only improve the efficiency of metal ion removal but also contribute to more sustainable and ecofriendly waste management practices. future research will likely focus on optimizing the synthesis process and exploring additional modifications to further enhance the performance of pvc-based sorbents. 2. materials and methods 2.1 materials the pvc used in this study was obtained from commercial suppliers. the following modifiers were employed: diethylamine (dea), monoethanolamine (mea), and sodium diethyldithiocarbamate (dedc). the metal ions used for sorption experiments were sourced from standard laboratory solutions containing cu(ii), cd(ii), zn(ii), and ag(i). 2.2 synthesis of pvc-based sorbents the synthesis of modified pvc sorbents involved the following steps: preparation of pvc solution: pvc was dissolved in an appropriate solvent to form a homogeneous solution. addition of modifiers: the selected organic modifiers were added to the pvc solution at varying concentrations. the mixture was stirred to ensure proper dispersion. crosslinking and gelation: the mixture was subjected to heat to facilitate crosslinking, leading to gel formation. molding and drying: the gel was poured into molds and allowed to cure at room temperature. the resulting sorbents were then dried and ground to a fine powder for characterization and testing. 2.3 physicochemical characterization the synthesized sorbents were characterized using: ir spectroscopy: to identify functional groups and confirm modifications. thermal analysis: differential thermal analysis (dta) and thermogravimetric analysis (tga) were performed to evaluate thermal stability and degradation patterns. 2.4. sorption experiments 2.4.1. static sorption tests static adsorption tests were conducted by mixing a known weight of the sorbent with a fixed concentration of metal ion solution in a series of glass flasks. the flasks were shaken at a constant temperature for a predetermined period. after equilibration, samples were filtered, and the residual metal ion concentrations were measured using atomic absorption spectrometry (aas). 2.4.2. dynamic sorption tests dynamic tests were carried out using a column packed with the modified sorbents. a continuous flow of metal ion solution was passed through the column, and samples were collected at regular american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us intervals. the sorption capacity was assessed by calculating the breakthrough curves and the amount of metal ions removed. 3. results 3.1. physicochemical characterization the ir spectra of the modified pvc sorbents showed distinct peaks corresponding to the functional groups introduced during the modification process. for example, the presence of amine and thiol groups was confirmed by the appearance of specific absorption bands, indicating successful modification. 3.2. sorption capacity of modified pvc sorbents the sorption capacities of the modified pvc sorbents for heavy metal ions were assessed using both static and dynamic conditions. table 1 below shows the results of the static sorption tests, illustrating the capacity of the modified sorbents for different metal ions. table 1. sorption capacity of modified pvc sorbents sorbent type cu²⁺ sorption capacity (mg/g) cd²⁺ sorption capacity (mg/g) zn²⁺ sorption capacity (mg/g) ag⁺ sorption capacity (mg/g) pvc + dea (diethylamine) 18.5 12.3 10.1 15.7 pvc + mea (monoethanolamine) 20.1 14.7 11.5 17.9 pvc + dedc (sodium diethyldithiocarbamate) 22.8 16.3 14.2 21.4 as shown in table 1, dedc-modified pvc sorbents exhibited the highest sorption capacities for all tested metal ions. the superior performance of these sorbents can be attributed to the presence of sulfur-containing groups, which have a strong affinity for metal ions, particularly ag⁺ and cu²⁺. 3.3. thermal stability thermogravimetric analysis (tga) was used to evaluate the thermal stability of the modified pvc sorbents. figure 1 illustrates the tga curves for pvc sorbents modified with dea, mea, and dedc. a b american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us c figure 1. tga curves for pvc sorbents modified with dea, mea, and dedc table 2. thermal stability of the modified pvc sorbents sorbent onset degradation temperature (°c) weight loss (%) at 400°c pvc + dea 250 30 pvc + mea 260 28 pvc + dedc 300 22 the tga results reveal that the sorbents modified with dedc displayed the highest thermal stability, with an onset degradation temperature of 300°c. this enhanced stability is crucial for industrial applications, where the sorbents might be exposed to elevated temperatures during wastewater treatment (table 2). 3.4. ir spectroscopy results infrared (ir) spectroscopy was used to confirm the functional groups introduced by the modifiers. the ir spectra of the modified pvc sorbents (figure 2) showed characteristic peaks associated with amine groups (n-h stretch at 3300 cm⁻¹) and thiol groups (s-h stretch at 2500 cm⁻¹), confirming successful modification of the pvc matrix. 4. discussion the findings of this study clearly indicate that modifying pvc with various amines significantly enhances the material’s sorption capacity for heavy metal ions. among the tested modifiers, dedc proved to be the most effective, owing to the presence of sulfur-containing groups that have a strong affinity for metal ions. this suggests that dedc-modified pvc sorbents are highly suitable for applications involving the removal of silver, copper, cadmium, and zinc from industrial wastewater. the thermal stability of the modified sorbents was also significantly improved, particularly for the dedc-modified samples, which maintained structural integrity at temperatures up to 300°c. this makes these materials ideal for use in high-temperature industrial processes, where durability is essential. the ir spectra confirmed that the desired functional groups were successfully introduced into the pvc matrix, further validating the effectiveness of the modification techniques used in this study. 5. conclusion american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 141 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the synthesis and characterization of pvc-based sorbents modified with diethylamine, monoethanolamine, and sodium diethyldithiocarbamate demonstrated significant improvements in sorption capacity and thermal stability. among the modified sorbents, dedc-modified pvc exhibited the highest sorption capacity for heavy metal ions, particularly for ag⁺ and cu²⁺. additionally, the thermal stability of this sorbent was superior to that of other modified samples, indicating its potential for industrial applications that require both high-temperature resistance and efficient metal ion removal. this study highlights the potential of pvc-based sorbents for the treatment of heavy metalcontaminated wastewater, offering a cost-effective and sustainable solution for environmental remediation. future research should focus on optimizing the synthesis process, testing the sorbents under real industrial conditions, and evaluating their regeneration potential for long-term use. 6. references 1. bozorov, l.u., turaev, x.x. synthesis and characterization of pvc-based sorbents for heavy metal removal. termiz state university, 2021. 2. wang, l.s., carragher, c.e. polymer sorbents for environmental applications. journal of applied polymer science, 2020. 3. nishide, h., mayevsky, d.m. ion-exchange sorbents: theory and application. springer, 2019. 4. monfilier, e.m., jardimaleva, g.i. pvc-based functional materials for metal ion sorption. advanced materials research, 2018. 5. rustamov, m.k., turaev, k.k. technologies for sorption of heavy metals using modified polymers. uzbek journal of chemistry, 2019. modern approaches to improving the functional properties of canvas fabrics skip to main communities my dashboard log in sign up info: zenodo’s user support line is staffed on regular business days between dec 22 and jan 4. response times may be slightly longer than normal. published december 4, 2024 | version v1 journal article open modern approaches to improving the functional properties of canvas fabrics creators z. kurbonova r. akbarov a. tillyaev files 6-9+modern+approaches+to+improving+the+functional+properties+.pdf files (200.8 kb) name size download all 6-9+modern+approaches+to+improving+the+functional+properties+.pdf md5:d9c53e335e980379b5cc9cce7a8a9023 200.8 kb preview download 43 views 37 downloads show more details all versions this 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creator is appropriately credited. read more citation export technical metadata created december 22, 2024 modified december 22, 2024 jump up about about policies infrastructure principles projects roadmap contact blog blog help faq docs guides support developers rest api oai-pmh contribute github donate funded by powered by cern data centre & inveniordm status privacy policy cookie policy terms of use support this site uses cookies. find out more on how we use cookies accept all cookies accept only essential cookies 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 use of root crops in increasing the starch content of compound feed products abduraimova sevinch bobur qizi toshkent kimyo texnalogiyalar insituti yangiyer filliali talabasi g‘ofurova o‘g‘iljon shavkat qizi toshkent kimyo texnalogiyalar insituti yangiyer filliali o‘qituvchisi abstract: root crops such as carrots, potatoes, turnips, sweet potatoes, beetroot, cassava, and sugar beets are utilized in various food industries for producing flour, chips, snacks, confectionery, vegetable oils, starch-syrups, beer, and alcohol. root crops are also used as raw materials for producing compound feed products and as tasty additives for livestock. carrot root, for instance, contains 9-10 % starch, 4-6 % fiber, 65-70 % carbohydrates, and 14 % vitamins. sugar beet, a root crop, is highly valued for its starch and carbohydrate content, serving as a palatable addition to animal diets. sugar beet root consists of 73.6 % carbohydrates, 10.8 % starch, 2.2 % fiber, 1.8 % ash, and 12 % water. root crops play a significant role in increasing the starch content of compound feed products due to their high starch content and palatability. root crops typically contain 24-28 % starch, 46-50 % carbohydrates, 2-4 % fiber, 8 % lysine, and 7 % arginine. keywords: root crops, starch, carbohydrates, fiber, compound feed products. introduction the demand for food products, particularly for compound feed products, is increasing day by day. to meet this demand fully, it is necessary to continuously develop agriculture, especially the field of root crop cultivation. the production of compound feed products is increasing annually in our country, and its assortment is expanding, indicating the growing biological efficiency. the rapid development of the compound feed industry and its expansion into developed areas demonstrate the significant economic importance of using root crops. all active substances are necessary for the normal life activity of animals. when studying the composition of feed grains, it was found that nearly 50 chemical elements of the dmitri mendeleev periodic system are present. these include nitrogen, carbon, iodine, oxygen, calcium, and other substances. approximately 95% of the organism’s mass consists of four elements: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. this composition is also present in plant cells. these four elements are present in various proportions in animal and plant cells and produce many substances. to ensure the normal growth and development of the animal organism, the compound feed factories play a fundamental role in supplying the necessary amount of substances stored in the feed. literature review types of root crops: physically, root crop products come in several forms. these include shredded, briquetted, granules, and pellets. 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us shredded root crops: shredded root crops are products that have been finely chopped and mixed. for the production of shredded root crops, ingredients are ground and mixed from a single source, then milled and processed into a finished product. briquetted root crops: briquetted root crop products are usually produced in a fully rational manner. the shape of the briquettes is octagonal, with a length of 160-170 mm, a width of 70-80 mm, and a thickness of 30-60 mm. for the production of briquetted root crops, a milled mixture of ingredients with milled beet pulp is prepared. the resulting dry mass is treated with a special binder and, at the same time, molasses is added. the mass, consisting of the mixture of beet pulp and molasses, is then fed into presses and briquetted. granulated root crops: granulated root crop products are cylindrical in shape and have a certain diameter and height. granules are produced in two ways: dry and wet. granulated root crops are mainly used to feed poultry and pond fish. pelleted root crops: pelleted root crop products are shaped like round pellets. for the production of pelletized root crops, shredded root crops are first taken, then a soft dough is prepared from them, pellets are formed, cooked, and dried. pelleted root crop products are divided into two main groups based on their composition and feed value: complete rations and concentrates. analysis and results to increase the starch content of compound feed products, we use root crops such as carrots, sugar beets, and cassava. in this regard, the following indicators were used in the preparation of compound feed. starch from the roots of cassava was used to increase the starch content of compound feed. the roots of all products were used for shredding. application of flax seed meal (gr/%) bean wheat corn 25 35 40 30 35 35 40 30 30 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us application of wheat seed (gr/%) wheat bean corn 25 35 40 30 35 35 40 30 30 we will consider the increase in protein content when these products are given in the specified amount (g) and the increase in milk content when given to black cattle: been 25-35-40 (l) 1-day 2 2-day 2,200 3-day 2,350 4-day 3 5-day 3 6-day 3,050 7-day 2 8-day 3,300 9-day 3,300 10-day 3,200 11-day 3,320 12-day 3,350 13-day 3,400 14-day 3,400 15-day 3,400 95 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us summary: when it comes to compound feed production, compound feed products are beneficial in producing starch-rich goods. this benefits both human consumption and livestock, enhancing milk and meat production by providing a source of starch and vitamins. the utilization of compound feed products differs based on their starch and vitamin content and their palatability. the field of livestock farming not only provides the population with high-calorie food products such as meat, milk, yogurt, and eggs but also supports the food industry by providing raw materials and improves soil fertility in agriculture. reference 1. mionchinskiy, p.i., kozharova, l.s. production of compound feeds. moscow: agropromizdat, 1991. 2. kurbanov, g.k., umarova, m.m. legume varieties for selection by quality. central asian conference on wheat: conference materials, june 10-13, 2003. almaty, 2003. 3. kurbanov, g., jum, a., umarova, m., potokina, s. there is material for alaksa wheat breeding. bulletin of agricultural science of uzbekistan, 2000, no. 1, pp. 27-30. 4. kalashnikov, a.p. et al. standards and rations for livestock feeding. tashkent: mehnat, 1988. 5. maznik, a.p., animazina, z.i. handbook on compound feeds. moscow: kolos, 1982. 6. kropp, l.i., genkin, g.s. boundaries of relevant compound feed plants in amakus. moscow: kolos, 1975. 7. internet sources: 8. www.ut.o.ovg 9. www.usda.gov wheat 25-35-40 (l) 1-day 3,450 2-day 3,500 3-day 3,500 4-day 3,500 5-day 3,600 6-day 3,600 7-day 3,650 8-day 3,750 9-day 4 10-day 4 20 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 05, 2023 issn : 2993-2637 concrete that makes use of recycled demolition debris as coarse aggregate 1 nazir ahmad siddiquie 1 bachelor of engineering, department of civil engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. 2 sheikh ahsanul haque bachelor of engineering, 2 bachelor of engineering, department of civil engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. 3 tridip krishna maitra tamal 3 bachelor of engineering, department of civil engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. 4 m. saranya assistant professor, 4 department of civil engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. abstract the aggregate used in building is currently in low supply. forty percent of all garbage is generated by the construction industry every year. landfill problems and other environmental dangers result from this. several environmental concerns and landfill difficulties can be mitigated by using recycled concrete aggregate in place of natural aggregate. the experimental outcomes of using recycled concrete aggregate as opposed to natural concrete aggregate are presented in this research. in both recycled and ordinary concrete, the fine aggregate is entirely natural. the aggregate was salvaged from the demolition of two buildings in padappai. the m25 variety of concrete always uses the same w/c ratio, maximum aggregate size, and mix proportion. strength changes in recycled aggregate concrete are studied when tested at 7, 14, and 28 days.. keywordsrecycled demolished, concrete, waste, aggregate in concrete 21 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us introduction the minoan civilization (c. 2000 b.c.) was responsible for the discovery of concrete. around 300 bc, while the roman empire was still in its early stages, the people of rome discovered that by combining volcanic ash with lime mortar, they could create a hard, water-resistant material called concrete [7]. one of the most significant parts of global trash is debris from construction and demolition. making and constructing with concrete requires a massive quantity of aggregates. after a structure has served its purpose for as long as it can be, it will be torn down and its debris sent to a landfill. it's very difficult to locate a vast area suitable for garbage dumps [8-12]. however, natural aggregates used in construction are being depleted due to ongoing mining and quarrying activities. the 23.75 million tonnes of c&d garbage generated each year in india is expected to more than treble during the next seven years [13]. in wealthy nations, c&d garbage, especially concrete, is considered a valuable resource. the need of maintaining the specified compressive strength of recycled concrete in second-generation concrete has been emphasised by recycling projects [14]. in order to primarily focus on compressive strength, this research evaluates the available literature on the use of recycled concrete as aggregates in concrete. it suggests a method for utilising recycled concrete aggregate without reducing the quality of the finished product [15-19]. demolition, maintenance, and replacement of concrete and masonry buildings is increasing in importance everywhere, but especially in emerging nations. demolition debris can be recycled into aggregates for use in other engineering projects, solving both issues effectively [20]. the feasibility of using demolition debris as coarse aggregates in fresh concrete is investigated in this study [21]. in my research paper, i use experimental learning to explore the feasibility and reusing of demolished waste concrete for new construction by evaluating the properties of the constituents of concrete, including the demolished concrete wastes, which shall be used as coarse aggregates in new concrete to make high-strength concrete [22-25]. motivation concrete is the most popular building material worldwide because of its durability and ability to withstand weather conditions while minimising environmental impacts. due to its widespread application, concrete production accounts for around 5% of annual greenhouse gas emissions, making it on par with the aviation industry. released greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, have a major impact on global warming [26-29]. the manufacture of concrete can also contribute to the gradual depletion of natural resources, which can have devastating effects on the environment if not addressed [30]. in order to deal with the massive volumes of demolition debris left over from the war and to produce raw material for reconstruction, aggregate recycling was first used in germany after world war ii [31-35]. the demand-supply imbalance in the construction industry may be narrowed through the recycling of aggregate material from building and demolition debris [36-41]. the reduction in the extraction of raw materials, the decrease in transportation costs, and the decrease in environmental impact caused by the tremendous amount of dust particles produced during their excavation, manufacturing, and transportation are 22 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us additional arguments in favour of adopting a recycling strategy in the face of growing waste management issues (figs. 1 and 2) [42-45]. fig. 1: collection of demolished concrete fig. 2: recycling of demolished concrete one of the main waste sources in the european union (eu), asia, and many other regions is debris from construction and demolition. in india, for instance, it is estimated that each citizen generates about 520 kg per year of core trash (defined as materials retrieved from demolished structures or civil engineering infrastructure). germany and the netherlands have the highest at over 700 kg/person/year, while sweden, greece, and ireland have the lowest at around 200 kg/person/year [46-49]. not to mention the massive amounts that are discarded illegally. as a result, the problem of c&d waste has gone global and demands long-term answers [50-55]. in order to maximise economic and environmental benefits, it is now generally understood that there is a great potential for reclaiming and recycling demolished material for use in value-added applications. low-value waste is converted into secondary construction materials by recycling enterprises in several countries, including south africa. these commodities include a wide range of aggregate grades, road materials, and aggregate fines [56]. these materials are commonly used in the building of inexpensive roads, retaining walls, lowquality concrete, drainage systems, and brick and block structures. while it is true that there is a need to increase the use of rca, it is important to keep in mind that aggregate used in concrete must adhere to all applicable standards [57]. the divide between these groups must be bridged in small chunks, and rca must be integrated into structural concrete over time. in a similar vein, controlling the waste processing and subsequent sorting, crushing, separating, and grading of the aggregate used in the concrete building industry calls for a great deal of care and attention. there is a lot of room to grow this sector and find more applications for c & d waste, which is already routinely recovered and reused in several industrialised countries (mostly as fill, drainage, and sub-base materials). further, a sustainable c&d waste management plan is required, as are efforts to promote recycling for use in value-added applications [58]. scope and objective the significance of our work can be gleaned from its scope and primary goal. our project's scope and goals are outlined in further detail below; this pilot project will test the viability of using 23 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us recycled concrete aggregate to completely replace traditional coarse aggregate. because replacing fine aggregate with concrete dust raises the water requirement of concrete, reducing its strength, only coarse aggregates are used in recycling. cement powder surrounding recycled aggregates raises the amount of water needed to achieve the necessary workability [59]. objective • the goal is to evaluate rca concrete against standard concrete in terms of compressive strength. • the goal of this study is to evaluate rca concrete against standard concrete in a split tensile test. • the goal of this study is to evaluate rca concrete's flexure strength against that of regular concrete. • the goal is to find the optimum rca content for usage in concrete. • the purpose of this research is to analyse and contrast the characteristics of newly placed concrete made with rca and traditional concrete. literature review nearly one hundred percent of the aggregate was replaced, and the new concrete's qualities were evaluated. when compared to concrete constructed with new particles, the recycled kind clearly fell short. concrete constructed with aggregates crushed at age three days displayed superior qualities than concrete prepared with aggregates of the other crushing ages [1]. the effects of crushing age were mild [60-65]. the aggregate used in the recycled concrete passed the is sieve at 40mm and was retained at 4.75mm. natural stone chips of a consistent nominal size were used to create controlled concrete. to achieve the appropriate degree of workability, regular tap water was dosed with a superplasticizer [conplast sp 430 (m)]. in this investigation, three different mixtures were made, with either no rca, 50% rca, or 100% rca used to replace natural aggregates. after allowing the cast concrete to cure for 28 days, its strength was evaluated. the specific gravity and the water absorption and crushing and impact and abrasion values of recycled concrete aggregate were found to be lower and considerably higher, respectively. in addition, the tensile strength of concrete made using recycled material depends mostly on compressive strength [2], just as concrete made with natural aggregate [66]. cubes, beams, and cylindrical specimens were made by altering variables such as the watercement ratio and the amount of polymer (from 2.5% to 10% by parts weight of cement), while keeping the volume of steel fibre in the concrete at 0.5%. compared to natural aggregate, recycled material excels in three key areas: specific gravity, absorption capacity, and fineness modulus. the mechanical resistance of recycled aggregates, measured by crushing strength, impact value, and abrasion value, is much more than that of conventional aggregates. the addition of polymer-steel fibre to recycled concrete boosts its compressive strength, but only slightly. at 90 days, polymer steel fibre recycled aggregate concrete outperforms both conventional and recycled aggregate concrete in split tensile strength and flexure strength. polymer concrete is more suited for earthquake-resistant construction because it has a larger area 24 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us under the stress-strain curve, demonstrating its high toughness properties. the addition of 10% polymer and 0.5% steel fibre to concrete increases its adaptability compared to both recycled aggregate concrete and traditional concrete [4]. the research showed that rca's water absorption was around 3-5 times higher than the similar natural aggregates, and its density was roughly 310% lower, all due to the bonded cement paste. according to the data, there was no discernible difference in the concrete's strength for a given rca content across four distinct rca samples [5]. recycled aggregates are suitable in concrete manufacturing, and naik. et al. [3] sheds some information on their creation, characteristics, and applicability. the limitations of recycled aggregate concrete are also examined, along with its qualities and applications. according to the results, recycled aggregates are better at absorbing water, but they are weaker and less dense than natural aggregates. sixty percent of the recycled aggregates and forty percent of the crushed stone chips are used to create the recycled aggregate concrete. aggregates for concrete mixing are kept at a surfacesaturated dryness. recycled aggregate concrete has slightly less workability than regular concrete. although recycled aggregate concrete has a slightly lower compressive strength than regular concrete, it can still be employed in both plain and reinforced concrete applications. recycled and conventional concrete, which consists of 60% recycled aggregate and 40% crushed natural stone chips, is nearly in the middle of the pack when it comes to workability and strength. therefore, this sort of concrete is only appropriate next to traditional concrete [6] from the perspectives of economy and performance. material collection concrete's raw materials undergo a battery of tests to establish its suitability as a building material. cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and water make up the synthetic material known as concrete [67]. in order to improve some characteristics of concrete, we introduced a synthetic additive (silica fume) in this experiment. cement, m-sand, recycled aggregate, coarse aggregate, and an artificial additive are all part of the mix [68]. the mechanical properties of the recycled aggregate, including specific gravity, water absorption, abrasion resistance, aggregate impact value, and aggregate crushing value, were determined in order to verify the use of demolition debris as coarse aggregates in concrete in the recently built project [69-72].  cement  fine aggregate  recycled aggregate  coarse aggregate  admixturesilica fume  water the control mix in this study was created with a compressive strength of 25 mpa in mind, as per is10262:1986. compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength are all tested at 7, 14, and 28 days on the cast cubes. using technique, the wet material was layered into the mould, and then compressed with 25 whacks from a 4.5 kg rammer on a level, firm surface [7376]. the number and amount of samples are based on the types of tests being conducted. the 25 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mould was levelled with a straight edge, and the surplus mixture was scraped out. after twentyfour hours, the mould and its contents were taken out of the room. the specimen was marked with identifiers so that it could be quickly and easily referred to [77]. cement: ordinary portland cement is the type most often used (opc). in accordance with indian standard (is) 12269, 53-grade ordinary portland cement (opc) is used. it's a strong adhesive and cohesive power that, when combined with water, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and a little bit of sand, cures into a solid mass of stone. since cement is mostly responsible for concrete's strength, choosing the right kind of cement is crucial. cement's characteristics are shown in the following table [78-83]. sand, gravel, and crushed stone are all examples of aggregates, which are inert granular materials that can be used as filler or as a standalone product. additionally, they are raw ingredients that are required to make concrete. aggregates, the smaller, loose particles that make up most of a concrete mix, must be clean, firm, and strong to prevent the deterioration of the concrete from absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine elements [84-87]. fine aggregate, often known as sands, can be extracted from either land or sea. natural sand or broken stone, with most particles smaller than 9.5 millimetres in size, are typical examples of fine aggregates. these, like coarse aggregates, can come from either new or previously used materials. the choice of fine aggregate also matters because its effect on concrete strength varies with the amount of water used [88]. coarse aggregates are any particles with a diameter larger than 4.75 millimetres, typically falling between 9.5 millimetres and 37.5 millimetres. primary, secondary, or recycled sources are all acceptable. primary, or "virgin," aggregates, can be acquired either on land or at sea. coarse aggregates can be obtained from the sea, like gravel, or from the land, like crushed rock. most coarse aggregate for concrete comes from gravel, with crushed stone making up the rest [89]. aggregates from demolished concrete buildings are collected and processed to create repurposed aggregates. the concrete mix for this endeavour makes use of the proposed recycled aggregates. grading is used to achieve uniformity in the recycled aggregates. recycled angular aggregates with a 20 mm size are chosen as a partial replacement per the standard. properties of recycled concrete aggregate particle size distribution: tests on recycled aggregate: crushed recycled concrete aggregate and natural aggregates undergo sieve analysis in accordance with is 2386. the particle size distribution is optimised by crushing and screening recycled coarse aggregate down to a range of sizes. after recycling, the percentage of fine particles smaller than 4.75 millimetres ranged from 5 to 20 percent, depending on the quality of the concrete that had been demolished in the first place. primary, secondary, and tertiary crushing are the best ways to acquire the highest quality natural aggregate. in the case of recycled aggregate, however, the same result can be achieved by primary and secondary crushing. even using recycled material, the efficiency of the single crushing process remains unchanged. the particle shape analysis of recycled aggregate shows that its particles are quite comparable to those of natural aggregate made from crushed rock. in most cases, the specifications for aggregate in concrete can be fulfilled by recycled material. 26 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us results for the specific gravity of recycled concrete aggregate in a saturated surface dry condition ranged from 2.30 to 2.58, which is lower than expected but still acceptable. segregation, honeycombing, and a decrease in concrete yield can occur if the specific gravity is less than 2.4. • weight in air = 2005g • sdd saturated surface dry weight = 2123.5g • weight in water = 1257.6g • volume = sdd weight – weight in water=2123.5 – 1257.6 = 865.9g sp.gravity of rca = 𝑤𝑡.𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2005𝑔 865.9𝑔 = 2.31 crushed stone aggregate with old mortar adhering to it makes up the rca from demolished concrete, and its water absorption ranges from 1.5% to 7%, which is higher than that of natural aggregates. so, it seems like the water absorption tests went well. recycled aggregate has a lower bulk density than natural aggregate. the mix proportion suffers as a result of the lower bulk density, leading to disappointing outcomes. values of impact: recycled aggregate is less resilient than natural aggregate to a variety of mechanical treatments. crushing and impact values for concrete wear surfaces, according to is 2386 part (iv), must not exceed 30 and 45 percent, respectively. recycled aggregate passes the bis specification limit for crushing and impact values. the results of the crushing and impact test indicate that recycled aggregate can be used for purposes aside from wearing surfaces (fig.2). fig. 3: split tensile strength test of concrete the rca reclaimed from demolished concrete ranges in water absorption from 1.5% to 7%, which is higher than natural aggregates. the rca consists of crushed stone aggregate with old mortar adhering to it. thus, the outcomes with regard to water absorption are commendable. 27 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us bulk density is another area where recycled aggregate excels above its raw aggregate counterpart. because of this, the outcomes are disappointing; the mix proportion suffers as a result of lower bulk density. values of impactrecycled aggregate is less resilient to a variety of mechanical forces than its natural counterpart. crushing and impact values for concrete wearing surfaces should not exceed 30 and 45 percent, respectively, in accordance with is 2386 part (iv). recycled aggregate meets the strict limits set by bis requirements in terms of crushing and impact values. it has been determined through crushing and impact testing that recycled aggregate can be used in settings other from worn surfaces. solution stipulations for mix design concrete grade designation = m25 type of cement = opc 53 grade conforming to is8112 max. nominal size of aggregate = 20mm min. cement content = 300 kg/m3 max. water cement ratio = 0.5 workability = 50-100mm (slump) exposure condition = mild ( for rcc) method of concrete placing = hand mix degree of supervision = good type of aggregate = crushed angular aggregate max. cement content = 450 kg/m3 test data for materials (to be determined in the laboratory) the specific gravity of cement = 3.15 the specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.84 specific gravity of fine aggregate = 2.64 procedure for the mixed design of m25 grade target strength for mix proportioning, 𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑓𝑐𝑘 + 1.65 ∗ 𝑆 where, f‟ck = target average compressive strength at 28 days fck = characteristic compressive strength at 28 days s = standard deviation as per table i of is:10262-2009 s = 4n/mm2 therefore, ftarget = 25 + 1.65*4 = 31.6n/mm2 selection of water/ cement ratio from table 5 of is456 max., the water-cement ratio= is 0.5. so, the selection of water content from table 2, max. water content =186 litres (25 to 50mm slump range) for 20mm more aggregate. estimated water content for 100mm slump= 186+(3/100)*186 =191.6 litres calculation of cement content water cement ratio = 0.5 cement content= 191.6/5=383.2 kg/m3 from table 5 of is456 28 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us min. cement content for mild exposure condition= 300kg/m3 383.2 kg/m3 > 300 kg/m3, hence.ok proportioning of the volume of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate content. table 3. the volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20mm size aggregate and fine aggregate (zone ii ) for a water cement ratio of 0.45 is 0.60 in the present case, the water-cement ratio is 0.5. therefore, the coarse aggregate volume must be increased to decrease the fa content. as the w/c ratio is lower by 0.1. the proportion of the volume of coarse aggregate is increased by 0.02(at the rate of ± 0.01 for every ±0.05 change in the w/c rate. therefore, the corrected proportion of the volume of ca for a w/c ratio of 0.5= 0.62. therefore, the volume of coarse aggregate=0.62*0.90=0.558 (the vol. reduced by 10% for pumping), the volume of fine aggregate content = 1-0.558=0.442 16m3 1 1000 vol.of all aggregate= a-(b+c) =1-(0.122+0.1916) = 0.6864m3 mass of ca = vol.of all aggregate * vol.of ca* sp.gravity of ca*1000 = 0.6864*0.558*2.84*1000=1087.75kg mass of fa= vol.of all aggregate* vol.of fa*sp.gravity of fa*1000 = 0.6864*0.442*2.64*1000 = 800.94kg concrete mix proportions hence, we have taken the standard ratio of m25 garage concrete (i.e. 1:1:2) for casting specimens. mix proportion the water absorption range for rca sourced from demolished concrete is between 1.5% and 7%, which is higher than that of natural aggregates. rca is made up of crushed stone aggregate with old mortar adhering to it. because of this, we have achieved desirable water absorption outcomes. when compared to natural aggregate, recycled aggregate has a lower bulk density. as a result, the mix proportion suffers from lower bulk density, leading to undesirable outcomes. values of impact: when compared to natural aggregate, recycled aggregate is less resilient to a variety of mechanical operations. the is 2386 section (iv) specifies maximum crushing and impact values of 30 and 45 percent for concrete wearing surfaces and non-wearing surfaces, 29 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us respectively. recycled aggregate passes the bis limit tests for crushing and impact values. the crushing and impact test results show that recycled aggregate can be used in places outside wear areas. • only regular and standard concrete types can use this method of mix proportioning. • there is no such thing as air in concrete. • the proportioning is done so that the concrete has the desired characteristics, such as workability of fresh concrete and durability requirements, by a certain age. testing of specimens the concrete cube test's compressive strength gives a general sense of the material's properties. if the concrete has been poured correctly, it will pass this test. the compressive strength of concrete in commercial and industrial buildings is typically higher than the 15–30 mpa range used in residential construction. compressive strength in concrete is influenced by numerous variables, including water-cement ratio, cement strength, concrete material quality, manufacturing quality control, etc. a cube or cylinder is used for the compressive strength test. a concrete cube or cylinder is the preferred test specimen according to many standard standards. the compressive strength of cube concrete specimens is often tested using a compression testing machine (ctm). one of the most fundamental and crucial characteristics of concrete is its tensile strength. the tensile strength of concrete can be measured using the splitting tensile strength test on a concrete cylinder. because of its brittle composition, concrete is not designed to withstand tension. when tension is applied to concrete, cracks appear. in order to calculate the force at which concrete members could break, it is important to measure the material's tensile strength. the tensile strength of concrete can be measured using the splitting tensile strength test on a concrete cylinder. the material underwent a split tensile strength test according to is5816guidelines. 1999's for this experiment, 100mm 200mm cylinders were employed. the samples were evaluated at 7, 14, and 28 days. the cylindrical specimen was set up horizontally on the testing apparatus. conclusion reducing the need to dump hundreds of thousands of tons of trash and making up for a lack of natural aggregates can be accomplished through the prudent use of recycling and repurposing construction waste. recycled aggregates used in concrete are advantageous in technical, environmental, and financial terms. the bulk density, crushing and impact values, and water absorption of recycled aggregate are all higher than those of natural aggregate. up to a 30% replacement of nca with rca increases the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete by up to 15% compared to that of natural aggregate concrete. the initial concrete from which the aggregates were extracted also has a role in the variation. concrete mixes performed well when coarse aggregate was replaced with rca at percentages between 10 and 30 percent of native coarse aggregate. as a mineral additive, silica fume improved the interfacial zone between the new and old mortar bonded to rca, serving as a micro filler to boost rac's effectiveness. overall, the large-scale testing revealed that when looking at a complete structural member, 30 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rca can still be used to build structural concrete, despite the fact that rca can be lower grade aggregate and negatively affect concrete material qualities. references 1. r. balu ranpise and m. s. salunkhe, “recycling of demolished concrete and 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(2015). prevalence of osteosclerosis among patients visiting dental institute in rural area of western india. journal of clinical and diagnostic research: jcdr, 9(8), zc38–zc40. 86. tucmeanu, elena roxana; tucmeanu, alin iulian; iliescu, madalina gabriela; żywiołek, justyna; yousaf, zahid (2022): successful management of it projects in healthcare institutions after covid-19: role of digital orientation and innovation adaption. w: healthcare (basel, switzerland) 10 (10). 87. y. h. patil, a. ghosh, “optical fiber humidity sensors: a review”, 2020 4th international conference on trends in electronics and informatics (icoei) (48184), ieee, p. 207-213, june. 15, 2020. 88. y. h. patil, j. j. patil, a. gaikwad, a. ghosh, “development of optical fiber test bench for intensity-modulated optical fiber sensors”, 2020 4th international conference on trends in electronics and informatics (icoei) (48184), ieee, p. 176-180, june. 2020. 89. żywiołek, justyna; tucmeanu, elena roxana; tucmeanu, alin iulian; isac, nicoleta; yousaf, zahid (2022): nexus of transformational leadership, employee adaptiveness, knowledge sharing, and employee creativity. w: sustainability 14 (18), s. 11607. 13 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 07, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 the role of metrology in the development of modern industry zagidullina karina rafailovna master of tashkent state technical university abstract: metrology in the broadest sense is the science of measurements, methods and means, ensuring their unity, and ways to achieve the required accuracy. metrology serves as the theoretical basis for measuring technology. metrology deals with the theory and practice of ensuring the uniformity of measurements. and the more measuring technology develops, the more important metrology becomes, creating and improving the theoretical foundations of measurements, summarizing practical experience in the field of measurements and guiding the development of measuring technology. keywords: metrology, measuring instruments, accuracy, quality, measurement, technique, production accounting, value. metrology is the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring unity and ways to achieve the required accuracy. in practical life, man everywhere deals with measurements. at every step there are and have been known since time immemorial measurements of such quantities as length, volume, weight, time, etc. the importance of measurements in modern society is great. they serve not only as the basis of scientific and technical knowledge, but are of paramount importance for accounting for material resources and planning, for domestic and foreign trade, for ensuring product quality, interchangeability of units and parts and improving technology, for ensuring labor safety and other types of human activity. metrology is of great importance for the progress of natural and technical sciences, since increasing the accuracy of measurements is one of the means of improving the ways of understanding nature by man, discoveries and practical application of exact knowledge. to ensure scientific and technological progress, metrology must be ahead of other areas of science and technology in its development, because for each of them, accurate measurements are one of the main ways to improve them. measurements are one of the ways of understanding nature by man, combining theory with practical human activity. they are the basis of scientific knowledge, serve to account for material resources, ensure the required product quality, interchangeability of parts and assemblies, improve technology, automate production, standardization, health and safety, and for many other branches of human activity. measurements quantitatively characterize the surrounding material world, revealing the regularities operating in nature. the founder of russian metrology, dmitry ivanovich mendeleev, spoke about this very figuratively: “science begins as soon as they begin to measure.” under the measurement technique in the broadest sense, the meanings of these words mean both all the technical means by which measurements are made, and the measurement technique. 14 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us hundreds, thousands of billions of measurements are made every day all over the world. it is in the interest of each country, in the relationship between countries, that the results of measurements (wherever they are carried out) can be harmonized. in other words, it is necessary that the results of measurements of the same quantities, obtained in different places and using different measuring instruments, be reproducible at the level of required accuracy. first of all, this requires uniformity of units of physical quantities and measures that carry out their real reproduction. ensuring a high degree of uniformity of measuring instruments is one of the conditions for ensuring the reproducibility of measurement results. in addition, it is necessary to fulfill a number of other conditions in order to ensure all the qualities of the measurement results that are necessary for their comparability and proper use, which is generally called the uniformity of measurements. with all the multitude and variety of enterprises that manufacture measuring instruments, and with an even greater multitude (many times greater) of enterprises, organizations and institutions that make measurements and use their results, metrology has created and implemented a system aimed at universally ensuring the uniformity of measurements and the uniformity of means measurements. this system resulted in a single public service, which is called the metrological service of the country. throughout the development of human society, measurements have been the basis of people's relationships with each other, with surrounding objects, and nature. in modern conditions, three main functions of measurements in the national economy can be distinguished:  аccounting for the products of the national economy, calculated by weight, length, volume, consumption, power, energy;  measurements carried out to control and regulate technological processes (especially in automated production) and to ensure the normal functioning of transport and communications;  measurements of physical quantities, technical parameters, composition and properties of substances, carried out in scientific research, testing and control of products in various sectors of the national economy. the effectiveness of the performance of these functions depends on the quality of measuring instruments. increasing the accuracy of measurements makes it possible to identify the shortcomings of certain technological processes and eliminate these shortcomings. all this ultimately leads to an increase in product quality, saving energy and heat resources, as well as raw materials and materials. for example, it is known that the yield of agricultural crops largely depends on the optimal and predetermined amount of fertilizers applied to the soil and water consumption during irrigation and, therefore, on the accuracy of measurements of the mass of fertilizers and water consumption. a 40% increase in the technical life of bearings is the result of the introduction of a roundness deviation standard, and the roughness standard allows saving 1 kg of paint per ton of casting during its painting. about 200 billion measurements are made in our country every day, more than 4 million people consider measurements to be their profession. the share of measurement costs is 10–15% of the cost of social labor, and in industries producing complex equipment (electrical engineering, machine tool building, etc.), it reaches 50–70%. the development of each new technological process, the creation of a new product should be based on already developed and certified methods and measuring instruments. with the increase in the complexity of industrial enterprises, the number of “measurement points” has increased many times over. as a result, it was necessary to allocate separate premises 15 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for the measuring complexes of the control service for individual industrial installations. the amount of information received from all measuring devices turned out to be so large that for its processing it is necessary to use a computer. every year the task of collecting and processing measurement information is becoming wider. modern information-computer systems allow to collect in a central point all significant measurement results related to one installation or to a workshop or to an enterprise as a whole. this information, properly processed, recreates a picture of all the most important processes occurring at a given facility (installation, workshop, enterprise) and makes it possible to manage them in an optimal way. the speed of the instruments makes it possible to accumulate a large number of measurement results in a short period of time. the possibility of transferring these results for processing to a computing device makes it possible to reduce measurement errors due to random causes. the speed determines the possibility of reducing systematic errors, and eliminating the influence of inconstancy, say, the operating current of the potentiometer on the measurement result. the accuracy of indirect measurements is significantly increased, since the speed of the device causes a decrease in the dependence of the measured quantity on the variability of the parameters of the influencing quantities. at present, they strive to build measuring instruments according to the modular-block principle, according to which the measuring instrument is completed with standard blocks that perform certain functions of the measuring circuit. this speeds up the construction of measuring instruments, simplifies its operation and reduces the cost of their production. more and more often, various quantities are measured by converting them into unified electrical or pneumatic signals. it must be emphasized that many modern measuring devices, especially if they operate using an auxiliary electrical or pneumatic connection, themselves contain a control circuit and in their development and application it is necessary to use the theory and technology of automatic control. there are other problems in the field of mechanical engineering. such is the previously mentioned continuously growing need to improve the measurement accuracy over the entire range of linear dimensions, especially in the areas of measurement of small quantities, as well as large distances. the quality of the form of the product is not yet measurable to the extent that it is necessary. automation of the manufacturing process imposes increased metrological requirements on measuring devices, since the management of this production is based on the use of measuring information. the most important problem of modern instrumentation is to increase the operational reliability and, in particular, the long-term metrological reliability of measuring instruments. if, in general, the failure of one of the entire complex of measuring devices can be the cause of the failure of the machine or any other installation, then the "metrological failure", i.e. violation of accuracy, loss of sensitivity, etc., which remain unnoticed, can become the reason for the release of substandard products, distortion of signals in communication lines, the appearance of violations in the functioning of transport, a decrease in the effectiveness of defense equipment, etc. left unnoticed for a long time, these "metrological failures" in the end, under unfavorable circumstances, can cause a catastrophe. the quality of measurement results is the reliability of information about the quality and quantity of goods. for this reason, the metrological support of technical regulation prevents actions that mislead purchasers. therefore, each technical regulation must specify the minimum necessary requirements to ensure the uniformity of measurements. thus, measurements are the most important tool for understanding objects and phenomena of the 16 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us surrounding world and play a huge role in the development of the national economy. improving the quality of measurements and the successful implementation of new measurement methods depend on the level of development of metrology as a science. theoretical metrology deals with issues of fundamental research, the creation of a system of units of measurement, physical constants, and the development of new measurement methods. applied (practical) metrology deals with the issues of practical application in various fields of activity of the results of theoretical studies within the framework of metrology. legal metrology includes a set of interdependent rules and norms aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements, which are elevated to the rank of legal provisions (by authorized state authorities), are binding and are under the control of the state. it should be noted that not only metrologists are involved in metrological support activities, i.e. persons or organizations responsible for the uniformity of measurements, but also every specialist: either as a consumer of quantitative information, in the reliability of which he is interested, or as a participant in the process of obtaining, processing and ensuring the reliability of measurements. the current state of metrological support requires highly qualified specialists. mechanical transfer of foreign experience to domestic conditions is currently impossible, and specialists need to have a sufficiently broad outlook in order to be creative in developing and making decisions based on measurement information. this applies not only to workers in the manufacturing sector. knowledge in the field of metrology is also important for product sales specialists, managers, economists, doctors, teachers, etc., who must use reliable measurement information in their activities. list of used literature: 1. burdun g.d., markov b.n. basics of metrology. m.: publishing house of standards, 2014. 336s. 2. kuznetsov v.a., yalunina g.v. basics of metrology: textbook for universities, edited by v.a. kuznetsova. m.: publishing house of standards, 2015. 226 p. 3. khabibullin t.m. the main stages in the development of the metrological service in russia // symbol of science. 2016. no. 2-1. s. 207-209. 4. shurygin v.y., krasnova l.a. electronic learning courses as a means to activate students’ independent work in studying physics // international journal of environmental and science education. 2016. v. 11, no. 7. p. 1743-1751. 5. krasnova l.a., shurygin v.yu. implementation of the principle of consistency and continuity in work with gifted children // modern science-intensive technologies. 2016. no. 5-2. s. 358-362. 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 simulation of container data processing using petri nets kamaletdinov shohrukh shukhratovich tashkent state transport university, doctoral student ( dsc ) abstract: this article presents a process model for processing container data using petri nets obtained from an automatic monitoring system for rolling stock and containers. this model makes it possible to check the operation of parallel processes and evaluate the quality of work as a whole. keywords: petri nets, container, automatic system, modeling, internet of things. the algorithm for processing data about containers has a unique character. the container can be located separately from the rolling stock, on a carriage or as part of a specific train. but the most important information is the location, namely the territorial object in which the container is located. the geolocation sensor is attached to the container from the outside. one individual sensor for one locomotive. the sensor periodically sends a signal about the location of this container, that is, the longitude and latitude coordinates. from the asmps database, the container number is searched by the sensor number. since the numbers of sensors and containers are interrelated. if the number is not found when searching for a container from the database, the sensor information will not be saved in the database. the system console will indicate that the container was not found in the database. this can mainly happen when the sensor has not been registered in the system. the sensor will transmit a data set that includes information about the geolocation of the container. the system will process longitude and latitude data to determine the corresponding territorial feature. the parameters of the size and characteristics of the territorial object are preentered into the database. through the automated transportation data processing system (atdps), the availability of a container on the wagon will be checked. this information is checked using the sending model of the automated control system. if the container is not detected on the car, then parameters such as the car number and train index will remain empty. if the container is on a wagon, the system will determine the wagon number. then, information about the destination station of the loaded car will be obtained from the asoup database. using the car number, it will be possible to search for the location of the container on a specific train. the train search operation is carried out using automated control system. if a wagon is not detected on a train, information about the container is stored as being on a wagon that is not coupled. the index of the train on which the container is located is determined. a container history object is created, the parameters of which are filled in according to the received data and saved. the petri net (pn) theory, first described in 1962 by the german mathematician carl petri, is now widely used in almost all branches of scientific research. sps are a convenient mathematical apparatus for formalization, analysis and modeling of discrete event systems]. due to the loosely 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us coupled multi-level structure, sps can be used to effectively simulate various technological processes. sp methodology is widely used for fault detection and diagnosis of discrete event systems . definition. the petri net c is a quadruple , 𝐶 = (𝑃, 𝑇, 𝐼, 𝑂). 𝑃 = {𝑝1, 𝑝2, … , 𝑝𝑛} – a finite set of positions, 𝑛 ≥ 0. 𝑇 = {𝑡1, 𝑡2, … 𝑡𝑚}– a finite set of transitions, 𝑚 ≥ 0. the set of positions and the set of transitions do not intersect 𝑃⋂t = ∅. 𝐼: 𝑇 → 𝑃∞ is an input function a mapping from transitions to sets of positions.𝑂: 𝑇 → 𝑃∞ there is an output function mapping from transitions to sets of positions. definition. the petri net graph 𝐺is a bipartite oriented multigraph, 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐴), where 𝑉 = {𝑢1, 𝑢2, … , 𝑢𝑠}is the set of vertices, and𝐴 = {𝑎1, 𝑎2, … , 𝑎𝑇} – a set of directed arcs, 𝑎𝑖 = (𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘), where 𝑣𝑗 , 𝑣𝑘 ∈ 𝑉. the set 𝑉can be divided into two disjoint subsets𝑃 and 𝑇such that𝑉 = 𝑃⋃𝑇, 𝑃⋂𝑇 = ∅and for any directed arc 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑎𝑖 = (𝑣𝑗, 𝑣𝑘), then either 𝑣𝑗 ∈ 𝑃 and 𝑣𝑘 ∈ 𝑇, or 𝑣𝑗 ∈ 𝑇, a 𝑣𝑘 ∈ 𝑃. marking𝜇 petri nets𝐶 = (𝑃, 𝑇, 𝐼, 𝑂) is a function that maps a set of positions 𝑃to a set of nonnegative integers n. 𝜇: 𝑃 → 𝑁 ( 1 ) marking 𝜇can also be defined as an n-vector 𝜇 = (𝜇1, 𝜇1, … , , 𝜇𝑛), where 𝑛 = |𝑃|and 𝜇𝑖 ∈ 𝑁each𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛. the vector 𝜇defines for each position𝜇𝑖 petri net is the number of chips in this position. a marked petri net 𝑀 = (𝐶, 𝜇)is a set of petri net structures𝐶 = (𝑃, 𝑇, 𝐼, 𝑂) and markings 𝜇and can be written in the form 𝑀 = (𝑃, 𝑇, 𝐼, 𝑂, 𝜇). figure 1. data processing process model all proposed extensions are aimed at creating the ability to check for zero in petri nets. the simplest extension of petri nets that can be checked for null are restraining arcs. restraining arc from position p; into transition t, has a small circle rather than an arrow at the end of the arc attached to the transition. the triggering rule changes as follows: a transition is allowed when tokens are present in all of its (regular) inputs and absent in the restraining inputs. a transition is triggered by removing tokens from all of its (regular) inputs. 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us let's define an extended input and output function 𝐼: 𝑇 → 𝑃∞ , 𝑂: 𝑇 → 𝑃∞ [2] so that # (𝑡𝑗 , 𝐼(𝑝𝑖)) = # (𝑝𝑖 , 𝑂(𝑡𝑗)) , # (𝑡𝑗 , 𝑂(𝑝𝑖)) = # (𝑝𝑖, 𝐼(𝑡𝑗)) [3] for the petri net in fig. 1, the extended input and output functions are: 𝑀 = (𝑃, 𝑇, 𝐼, 𝑂, 𝜇) [4] 𝑃 = (𝑝0, 𝑝1, 𝑝2, 𝑝3, 𝑝4, 𝑝5, 𝑝6, 𝑝7, 𝑝8, 𝑝9, 𝑝10, 𝑝11, 𝑝12, 𝑝13, 𝑝14, 𝑝15, 𝑝16, 𝑝17, 𝑝18, 𝑝19) [5] 𝑇 = (𝑡0, 𝑡1, 𝑡2, 𝑡3, 𝑡4, 𝑡5, 𝑡6, 𝑡7, 𝑡8, 𝑡9, 𝑡10, 𝑡11, 𝑡12, 𝑡13, 𝑡14, 𝑡15, 𝑡16, 𝑡17, 𝑡18, 𝑡19) [6] the created model using a petri net provides a clear representation of the sequence of actions and logical connections between positions. the illustration presented as part of this work was developed using the hpsim program . the correct functioning of petri nets was checked, and imitation of the movement of “chips” through the network allows us to identify vulnerabilities during modeling. considering that the loading planning system is automated, the petri net method is excellent for assessing the effectiveness of automated systems. literature 1. арипов, н. м., камалетдинов, ш. ш.. моделирование сменно-суточного планирования выгрузки и погрузки вагонов. academic research in educational sciences, 3(9), 2022 – 34–43. 2. камалетдинов, ш.ш., арипов, н.м. (2022). функциональное моделирование текущего планирования местной работы. academic research in educational sciences, 3(9), 2022 – 119–124. 3. питерсон дж. теория сетей петри и моделирование систем. пер. с англ. – м.: мир, 1984. – 264с. 4. roy, bernard. “transitivité et connexité.” comptes rendus del' académie des sciences 249 (1959): 216–218. 5. warshall, stephen. “a theorem on boolean matrices.” journal of the acm 9, no. 1 (january 1, 1962): 11–12. doi:10.1145/321105.321107. 6. floyd, robert w. “algorithm 97: shortest path.” communications of the acm 5, no. 6 (june 1, 1962): 345. doi:10.1145/367766.368168. 126 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 milestones in the history of urban development and the compositional reception of the city of samarkand dostonov a.s., pardaev r. lecturers of the department of “architecture” of samarkand state architectural and construction university abstract: the article reveals the historical and urban planning features of the formation of the ancient city of samarkand. the main points of the urban history of the creation of samarkand in the xvii century are analyzed. based on the data of written, archaeological and archival materials, the reconstruction of the plan of the central part of samarkand of the xvii century was carried out. the stages of urban development of ancient samarkand are traced. keywords: history, urban planning. stages, archaeology, planning structure. one of the two famous cities of uzbekistan, the amazing samarkand is located in the picturesque valley of the zarafshan river, surrounded by the pamir-alai mountains in the southeast of uzbekistan. [1] the stages of the archaeological study are analyzed. based on observations of earthworks on the territory of the former citadel of timur and old samarkand, it was possible to identify some urban planning features of the planning structure of ancient settlements. [2] samarkand, along with bukhara, is one of the oldest cities in the world. its history dates back several thousand years ago and is not inferior to such ancient cities as athens, babylon, rome and memphis. whatever epithets philosophers and poets come up with for him — "mirror of the world", "garden of the soul", "pearl of the east", "face of the earth" — it is perhaps impossible to express all his beauty and wealth in words. you can only enjoy all its splendor and splendor with your own eyes. during its centuries-old history, this legendary city on the great silk road has experienced times of rise and decline, was subjected to destructive raids by foreign conquerors, and was reborn anew, becoming even more beautiful. trade routes to the west — to persia, to the east — to china and to the south — to india intertwined here and formed the crossroads of the silk road. figure 1. [3] 127 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. the great silk road samarkand-bukhara the purpose of this article is to study the main points of the urban history of samarkand in the xvii century and identify the location of previously unknown architectural structures in the central part of samarkand, mainly the citadel, registan square and around the sheikh zadinsky gate of the city. unpublished recordings by v.l. vyatkin, m.e. masson and l.y. mankovskaya, stored in the central state archive of the republic of uzbekistan, were used in the study. in the period from 1987 to 2010 one of the authors of the article carried out observations of earthworks on the territory of the late medieval citadel and old samarkand, which revealed some features of the topography of the administrative center of the city. the city is the very embodiment of antiquity and the history of urban development of samarkand. during its long history, the city has experienced multiple devastation and wars. losing the culture and traditions of the uzbek people. thus, the culture of samarkand was revived during the reign of timur and ulugbek. figure 2. map of samarkand 128 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for the first time, scientific research to identify the historical topography of samarkand was undertaken after the city was incorporated into the russian empire. v.v. bartold, v.l. vyatkin, m.e., and masson conducted the study of samarkand in the xvi-xvii centuries. in his research, masson paid great attention to timurid samarkand and for the first time compiled a topographic map of the late medieval city. he owns a number of publications on the history of architectural monuments of samarkand in the janid era (masson, 1929; 1950). however, a significant part of m.e. masson's materials has been lost. according to m.e. masson, who studied the sources and carried out observations of earthworks on the territory of the citadel of samarkand, in the xvi century. it included a palace, administrative buildings, mosques (masson, 1942, l. 125ab). during excavation work in the northern part of the citadel in 2010, ruins of a mosque, presumably of the xvii century, were discovered. its walls and floor were made of square-burnt bricks. in total, six brick pillars of the mosque have been preserved, some of them were up to one and a half meters high. in our opinion, it is necessary to expand archaeological research around these ruins, which may allow for the still unknown large structures of the 17th century. since the 70s of the xiv century, samarkand has been undergoing rapid, ever-increasing construction, which has defined its urban planning features and architectural appearance for centuries. figure 3. the plan of old samarkand in the xv-xvii centuries. samarkand was divided into hisar the walled urban core and a suburban area (pugachenkova, 1976, pp. 10-11). m.e. masson clarified that in the xvi-xvii centuries. samarkand was divided into an outer city (shahri birun) and an inner city (shahri darun), as well as suburbs mavze (masson, 1942, l. 125ab). the administrative center of samarkand, the citadel, built under timur (1370s), was located to the west of the city's cathedral mosque on the right side of the novadon ditch (bu-ryakova, 1990, p. 65). it covered a vast territory with a total area of 34 hectares and was surrounded by a wall of pakhsa and mud bricks with a height of 8 m. there were two gates in the citadel: the eastern (samarkand) ones at the mausoleum of nur ad-din basir and the southern (bukhara) ones (lebedeva, 2001). the first gate faced the registan, and the second gate faced the modern 129 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us boulevard. judging by the layers from the pits, the depth of which reached 4 m, the territory to the northwest of the citadel was not inhabited. figure 4. the citadel map of the 17th century. samarkand among the conquerors who inscribed their name in the history of the city are alexander the great, genghis khan and amir timur (tamerlane), who made samarkand the capital of his vast empire. during the reign of ulugbek, timur's grandson, samarkand turned into a scientific and cultural center of the middle east. today samarkand is a place where relics of antiquity are carefully preserved. the city is listed as a unesco world heritage site due to the abundance of material and spiritual values preserved here. the unique monuments of ancient architecture, the heritage of scientific and art schools, and the centers of national crafts located in the ancient city are famous all over the world today. [3] since the 70s of the xiv century, samarkand has been undergoing rapid, ever-increasing construction, which has defined its urban planning features and architectural appearance for centuries. it is not for nothing that the city of samarkand is called the city of famous shadows, a witness to the change of many historical periods. although the debate over the true age of the city still persists. according to the holy book of zoroastrians "avesta", samarkand is more than 2,750 years old. according to the arab historian abu al-nesefi, samarkand is 3,700 years old, and according to some other equally authoritative arab historians, it is 4,700 years old. uzbeks themselves say that samarkand is as old as the earth itself. modern science has found out that ancient marakanda, on the site of which samarkand is now located, was founded around the 7th century bc, as the capital of the kingdom of sogd. [4] for centuries, the city suffered from the invasion of the troops of the persian king cyrus and the army of alexander the great, was part of the seleucid state and the kushan empire, the turkic khaganate and the arab caliphate. in 1220, the city was plundered and almost completely destroyed by the mongols of genghis khan. genghis khan will die in seven years, having shortly before divided his empire between his sons (samarkand will pass to chagatai, the second son of genghis khan). the empire will agonize for almost a century and a half until amir timur (tamerlane) comes to power and creates his empire from east to west — from kashmir to the mediterranean sea, and from north to south – from the aral sea to the persian gulf, establishing samarkand as the imperial capital in 1370. [4] 130 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 4. the settlement of afrasiab in samarkand in the 1960s and 1970s, excavations of the late medieval layers of the city were carried out by yu.f. buryakov, e.y. buryakova, later the research was continued by t.i. lebedeva. summing up the extensive archaeological research of samarkand, the researchers noted that the layers of khu1-khush v. "have been studied less fully" (buryakova, buryakov, 1973, p. 221). some researchers believed that the ashtarkhanid era was characterized by internecine strife (lebedeva, 2001, p. 204), and did not distinguish the features of the cultural strata of this period. d. mirzaakhmedov (1990) analyzed the ceramic complex of this period. conclusion. the analysis of the main stages of urban planning in historical samarkand is carried out, based on archival materials and information and bibliographic sources. tracing the stages of development of old samarkand, it can be noted that the spatial and spatial planning structure of the city was built on geometric and structural-compositional patterns. during this period, the main construction was aimed at .the construction of religious and educational buildings. references 1. abramov m.m. guzars of samarkand. tashkent: uzbekistan, 1989. 56 p . 2. alekseev a.k. the political history of the tukai timurids: based on the materials of the persian historical work bahr al-asrar. st. petersburg: publishing house of st. petersburg university, 2006. 229 p. 3. buryakova e.y. new data on stratigraphy of the citadel of medieval samarkand // archaeological works on new buildings in uzbekistan / ed. by m.i. fila-novich. tashkent: fan, 1990. pp. 67-71. 4. buryakova e.yu., buryakov yu.f. new archaeological materials for the stratigraphy of medieval samarkand (according to the excavations of registan square in 1969-1971) // afrasiab. issue ii / ed. by ya.g. gulyamov. tashkent: fan, 1973. pp. 174-223. 5. buryakova e.yu., mershchiev m.s. studies on the registan of samarkand // archaeological discoveries of 1975 / ed. by b.a. rybakov m.: nauka, 1976. pp. 525-526. 6. bukhari, hafiz-i tanysh. sharaf-nameh-yi shahi (the book of shah's glory). part 1 / trans. from persian, introduction, note and decree. 7. a.m. malikov, a.s. umarov some features of the historical topography of samarkand in the xvii century © 2022 131 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sources 1. source: https://tourpedia.ru/samarqand / © encyclopedia of tourism tourpedia.ru 2. source: https://tourpedia.ru/samarqand / © encyclopedia of tourism tourpedia.ru. 3.source:https://tourpedia.ru/samarqand/#%d0%a1%d0%b0%d0%bc%d0%b0%d1% 80%d0%ba%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%b4_%d0%b8%d1%81%d1%82%d0%be%d1%80% d0%b8%d1%8f_%d0%b3%d0%be%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b4%d0%b0 41 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the study of artificial hills in the territory of bukhara region on the example of jondor district rabiyev gayrat botirovich senior lecturer at bukhara institute of engineering and technology, department of architecture, uzbekistan rabiyev.gayrat_60@mail.ru murodov shahriyor мaster of the department of architecture, bukhara engineering and technological institute, uzbekistan abstract: the study of artificial hills in the territory of uzbekistan, the history of their origin and the meaning of their naming, drawing up a map of their location, creating a survey of objects and creating a tourist route on them. keywords: ruins of ancient cities, ruins of old fortifications, ancient cemeteries, artificial hills, ruins of the ancient city of varakhsha. artificial hills built by human labor, often understood as the remains or ruins of ancient buildings. they stand out from the environment due to their height, color and little coverage with plants. in the territory of central asia we meet endless artificial hills, rising at different heights above ground level in the form of earthen piles. they are mainly divided into 3 types, which are: ruins of ancient cities. its outer surface is surrounded by a trench, often the total area is made up of unstable low-altitudes. if we walk around this area, we see all sorts of pottery fragments, pieces of brick crushed by rain washing from under the soil, sometimes pieces of iron and elegantly colored glass scattered underneath. usually in some part of that area, one hill rises higher than the rest. its general appearance is rectangular and or various other shapes, the smallest of which are not smaller than 0.5-2.0 hectares in size, while the part rising sharply will be the arch of the city, the surrounding hills will be the ruins of the zoning and fence-wall. the ruins of old fortifications. the term "kurgan" has denoted different types of buildings and structures in different historical periods. in particular, the fortresses of the era of slavery formed small towns, whereas in the early feudalism (5th-8th centuries) such structures consisted of feudal fortresses. the fortifications of the period after this refer to the encampments of kings between cities, camps at crossroads, places of storage of armies (gorrisons), roadside fortifications and guards. in particular, there were special camps that replaced the horses of the cavaliers. with the exception of lead-type houses, which are in the style of a field-yard, surrounded by a cotton wall. the bastions usually consist of hills raised in a rectangular shape above the earth, surrounded by a pit dug with a deep perimeter. when viewed from a distance, a high artificial (in the form of a cut-out pyramid) sloping hill will appear in the form of the remains of straight, erect walls. the history of these is usually rectangular, the smallest ones are 42 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us about 30 m in size, the adults are no more than 70-80 m long. looking upwards, one can feel the shape of rooms lying under clear wall traces and crumpled roofs. we do not find the remains of pottery, glass, and iron scattered over the ruins of such a town, but we see pieces of cotton and crude or dried bricks crumbling as remnants of walls and burial grounds. ancient cemeteries. they are called in archaeology in russian "курганные захоронения". the main reason for this is that their mound consisted of burial grounds in the hills. such a highland can be found in the territory of the caucasus, starting in the altai territory and across the chui valley and throughout central asia up to the caucasus. the difference between them from the two previous types of hills is the absence of trenches that serve as defenses around them, and the view from a distance is reminiscent of the egyptian pyramids. the general shape of the mound hills will be in the form of a flat cone. when you look at it, it is clearly noticed that the base side is circular in shape, drawn with a clear parchment. a steep cut from the center of these hills exits a chamber where one or more tombs are located. a secret entrance to it will be worked from the roof, or from the side. the ancient and smaller ones of such hills are completely obsolete today, and only experienced archaeologists, historians and specialists can distinguish them. they are often found in such a way that two or three are located side by side. it is because of the fact that their location in this way was important in moving in a certain direction in the wilderness without territory, because these cemeteries belonged to nomadic tribes, they also served as orientalists in the steppes and deserts. these are now known to science as panjikent, afrosiyob, yerkurgan, varaksha, robinjon, which are known to science and are called by thousands of names such as kyzyltepa, aqtepa, mazaragan tepe, chimkurgan, bozorkurgan, kozali qir, tali barzu, tali safed. they can be found on the edges of rivers, streams, canals and large ditches, in valleys and steppes, on the lowlands and on old caravan routes. artificial hills have been preserved especially in the territory of today's karakalpakstan, turkmenistan and khorezm region, which make up the territory of the ancient khorezm country, in the fergana valley, in the valleys of zarafshan and kashkadarya, in the foothills. many of these are cultural monuments and our historical treasures, and they have been destroyed in the next 70 years. of these, those located close to cotton fields were flattened and added to the farming land, and some were demolished by the inhabitants and used as fertilizer for the roof. one of the main reasons for such neglect is that in the period after the october revolution, the emergence of artificial hills is associated with various divine events, they are regarded as examples of religious beliefs and stalemates, antiquity and obsolescence. their historical and cultural significance began to be forgotten. as a matter of fact, most of the hills are the ruins of an ancient city or the remains of some kind of fortification, caravan parking lot and other similar historical, archaeological, and architectural monuments. among the types of hills there may be sundials (observatories of simple design), temples, guardhouses, soldiers' abode hazora (gorrison), and similarly, those built for some other purpose that are not included in the types of buildings and structures we have already mentioned. in recent years, the republic has paid much attention to the preservation and study of such objects. although the protection of these hills is not carried out in the way of the will, with the efforts of scientists it is expedient that almost all of them be registered and included in the protection of the republican government. in particular, in the territory of jondor district of the bukhara region, there are such artificial hills, which are well preserved in the vicinity, near the inhabited areas, as well as in the steppe areas. i myself have been working as a teacher at the bukhara engineering and technological institute for 14-15 years, but in fact, since about 20 years of work as the chief architect of the district in jondor district, i have been collecting materials related to the location of all artificial hills located in the district, the history of their appearance, the etymology of their formation, their area (level), height and volume. in addition, i collect relevant information and materials about these hills from archaeologists and cadastral experts. at the moment, in the information i have, there is relevant material about 62 (sixty-two) such hills located in the territory of jondor district. for my part, i set out to study these hills more deeply and completely, to draw up a map 43 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of their location in the territory of the district, to study the question of their dependence on the route of the ancient "great silk road" passing through the territory of the present jondor district and on the trade caravan route between the bukhara emirate and the ancient khiva khanate, to preserve the hill, which is in relatively good condition, i planned to create a small museum in front of the objects to determine their zone of protection, improve and improve their landscape, create a passport of the objects, create a tourist route along them, similar to the remains of the world famous city of varakhsha (which is also located in jondor district) and the remains of the city of poykent (located on the border of jondor district). to implement the above proposals, a large amount of money is required. to solve this issue, together with my student-master's student murodov shahriyor, in order to attract foreign investment and grants to this project, we prepare various proposals, send proposals to potential investors and negotiate with them. this article has also been prepared as a presentation of this project-proposal and we express our readiness to work with legal entities and individuals interested in our project of proposal. if the issue comes to someone's attention, we can call on additional specialists and experts to conduct our project and make sure that the work is done on demand. references: 1. ahmedov m. q. history of central asian architecture. 1995, pp. 134-138b. 2. v.a. shishkin. archaeological work in 1937 in the western part of the bukharа oasis. uzfan-1940. 3. m.allambergenov. ancient defensive strongholds. t-2007. 4. а.nurullaev (g'. with the participation of rabiev). jondor district in bukhara history. bukhara-2024. 164 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 7, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the role of differential teaching methods in the development of chemical modification skills boʻriboyev aziz abdumannonovich (orcid.org/0000-0003-2394-2845) jizzakh polytechnic institute, jizzakh city, i.karimov street 4-house, uzbekistan boriboyev2020@gmail.com associate jizzakh polytechnic institute abstract currently, teachers of higher educational institutions use various teaching methods and techniques to solve the problem of meeting the educational needs of their students. in organic chemistry, it is important to develop students’ skills in the chemical modification of substances. due to the different learning levels of students, some problems arise in their learning. as a solution to this problem, training using differentiated approach methods was taken as a basis. differentiated education ensured that all studnts, regardless of their learning style, ability and background, had the opportunity to master the skills included in the curriculum and contributed to positive change in outcomes. keywords: education, method, methodology, differentiated education, advanced training, curriculum, adaptation, pedagogical process, polymer, chemical modification, skill, development. introduction in the context of globalization, reforming the education and science systems is a factor determining the solution to many problems, and it is thanks to this that educational models characterized by high quality education are increasing. the issue of education is one of the important issues in many countries of the world. most countries are implementing fundamental reforms aimed at creating a flexible education system that meets the new demands of global competition. their main goal is to expand the adaptability of higher educational institutions and educational programs, which are implemented by reforming academic and organizational structures, updating infrastructure, teaching methods and technologies, improving the pedagogical process, and improving the composition and quality of teachers [rozieva d., usmonboeva m., halikhova z.,2013: 1820]. currently, higher education teachers face the challenge of meeting the various educational needs of their students. students have different levels of learning and different abilities. to effectively address this diversity, it is advisable to use differentiated methods of teaching students[clarin m.v.,1994:108]. differentiated instruction is an approach that adapts instructional strategies and content to meet the needs of individual students, ensuring that all students are successful at their level [polonsky v.m.., 2000:50]. differentiated education is based on the principle that students learn science in different ways and at different paces[kolishev n.s., 1993:16]. rather than taking a one-size-fits-all approach to all students, they tailor learning to accommodate these differences, aiming to engage and challenge each student based on their individual learning capabilities[kovyazina e.p.., 1989: 24]. from the perspective of educational differentiation, rather than quality professional development, effective differentiation requires teachers to be well trained and competent in adapting teaching methods. quality training is needed to equip teachers with the necessary knowledge and tools. workshops, courses, and ongoing training in technology differentiation and integration strategies are necessary for teachers to develop their personal learning abilities and develop them step by step [slastenin v.a., 2000: 303]. in this article we will consider the development of chemical modification skills among students of chemical engineering education based on a differentiated approach using the example of the chemical properties of organic substances. mailto:oriboyev2020@gmail.com 165 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us methods for future chemist-technologists-engineers, chemical modification, that is, depending on the chemical composition of the raw material in the initial state, the nature of the processes occurring during modification may be different, and a positive effect from changing the operational or technological properties of materials can have various chemical, physical or physical and chemical effects. it is important to have skills that can be achieved with the help of secrets. chemical modification is a cellular modification of the chemical composition of macromolecules with cellular synthesis of new high molecular weight compounds [gorbunov g.i. nauchnye., 2016: 51]. higher education students will gain the following information through chemical modification. these are: the main types of chemical modification when modifying polymers[shishonok, m.v., 2012: 232]: • reactive chain reaction (polymeric-analog change); • reactions of the latter groups; • macromolecular reactions; chemical modification of polymers is carried out both during their synthesis and by changing the chemical composition of finished high-molecular compounds, chemical modification of organic high-molecular compounds using reactions of polymer analogues, as well as specific reactions of macromolecules: decomposition. and cross-linking, heteropolymerization, processes of macromolecular reactions [shishonok, m.v.,2017:18]. types of modification[shishonok, m.v.,2018:22]: • changing the chemical composition of the polymer and its molecular weight without changing the structural and physicochemical properties; • composition – inclusion of substances capable of interacting with the polymer, including high molecular weight ones: plasticization, stabilization, filling; • chemical – the effect of the polymer on chemical or physical factors; why is chemical modification necessary [shishonok, m.v.,2016:16]; • change the properties of polymers in order to give them valuable technical qualities (elasticity, strength, resistance to cold and heat, flammability); • give products new properties of raw materials and improve processing conditions. advantages of chemical modification [plate, n. a.,2008:33]; • a unique combination of properties not characteristic of other materials (strength, deformation, impact resistance, elasticity, temperature, rheological, adhesive, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, etc.); • the ability to control the properties of polymer composite materials by simply changing the composition and production conditions; maintaining the main advantages of polymers: relative ease of processing, low density. the ability to control the structure of individual macromolecules and morphoses, that is, to master modification methods, is a necessary knowledge for modern highly qualified chemical engineers. modification makes it possible to obtain high-molecular compounds with a given set of properties necessary for the creation of new materials. we consider the formation of chemical modification skills among students of the faculty of chemistry (building materials) on the basis of a differentiated approach. differentiation can be carried out at different levels. we will need to choose one of the levels of differentiation. in our definition we will use ronald de groot's three levels of differentiation. this: 1st micro level we call it group, and a different approach is taken to individual groups of students within the group. this level of differentiation is sometimes called intr or intragroup differentiation. 2nd meso we call it the level of the educational institution, at which differentiation is made between individual groups, profiles, directions within one educational institution. 3rd macro level – differentiation of educational institutions, creation of different types of schools. levels 2 and 3 – external differentiation [r. de groot,1995:56]. at this point, the levels of differentiation are defined by yu.m. dick and v.a. orlov divided only into intragroup level and external profile differentiation [dick yu.i., orlov v.a.,1998:101]. using these distinctions, we have attempted to incorporate a mesolevel differentiation approach into the educational practice of teaching chemical modification. starting from the new academic year, students of the chemical-technological (structural materials) faculty of organic chemistry were divided into traditional interactive and differential experimental groups. in the experimental group, intragroup differentiation was carried out. distinctive features of intragroup differentiation are its flexibility, softness and amorphousness of homogeneous groups created in a heterogeneous group [prokopishina n.a.,2005:32]. in practice, differentiation within a group is represented by tasks of different difficulty levels, increased teacher support for students, and differentiation of levels. with differentiation within a group, the following elements of the learning process, the content of educational material and, to some extent, the results change. the goals, methods and forms of the educational process do not differ [kovaleva т.м.,1198:123]. in foreign experiments, correctional classes are organized in educational institutions to teach “at-risk” children who have difficulties mastering the basic content of education. students' difficulties may be due to low learning ability. low learning ability is explained by various objective and subjective reasons [osmolovskaya i. m. 2002:32]. taking into account the above information, the experimental group was differentiated within the group. after three lectures on organic chemistry, control was carried out in all groups of the educational direction and the results were analyzed. among the groups, the group that showed a low learning result was selected as an experimental one. the group was divided into subgroups with low, good and excellent digestibility. effective group differentiation strategies were used: phased missions; there are different levels of assignments to suit different skill levels. this allows students to progress at their own pace. flexible grouping; students in subgroups are transferred to other groups based on their needs after achieving certain results. 166 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us taking into account the above information, the experimental group was differentiated within the group. after three lectures on organic chemistry, control was carried out in all groups of the educational direction and the results were analyzed. among the groups, the group that showed low academic results was selected as an experimental one. the group was divided into subgroups with low, good and excellent digestibility. regular assessment: students are assessed on an ongoing basis to assess their progress and adjust their learning as necessary. this differentiation ensures that they meet changing needs [shneiderman m.v.,2000:25]. several main components of differentiated teaching methods were taken into account: 1. assessment: the first step in differentiation is to assess students' readiness, interests, and orientation to learning. this helps teachers understand what each student's learning goals are and how they can best learn the material. 2. content: differentiated learning includes adapting content to the level of students. some students may need more basic material, while others may want to go deeper into the topic. 3. process: teachers adapt the methods and techniques used for teaching. some students may benefit from group work, while others may thrive on independent work, projects, or hands-on experiences. 4. result: differentiated instruction allows for the use of various forms of assessment and demonstration of learning. it was believed that students could choose how to express their understanding, which encouraged creativity and individual expression [stepanova m.v.,200:18]. although differentiated instruction methods offer many benefits, they are not without challenges. below are some problems and solutions that a teacher may encounter: table 1.1 problems in the teacher's teaching process and their solutions results as an experiment, two groups of chemicaltechnological education were selected, to identify which a general control was carried out after three lectures of organic chemistry, as mentioned above. picture-1. preliminary results of groups i and ii the first group was chosen as an experiment, as a result of which satisfactory grades were obtained; interactive methods were used to teach all groups. the sample experiment was carried out using a group differential approach. two groups of organic chemistry students were then assessed using the same test items (multiple choice test). the change in the level of students' knowledge in the first module of the organic chemistry course was determined. table 1.2. changes in students' knowledge of organic chemistry g ro u p s n u m b er o f st u d en ts answers initial the last one co mpl ety righ t par tly rig ht co mpl ety wro ng co mpl ety righ t partl y right co mpl ety wro ng experi mental 2 8 9/3 2,2 % 9/3 2,2 % 10/ 35,6 % 12/ 42,8 % 13/4 5,7 % 3/1 1,5 % compa re 2 5 5/2 1,8 % 8/3 0,4 % 12/ 47,8 % 5/2 1,8 % 9/34 ,8% 11/ 43,4 % comparison diagrams of the initial (picture-2) and final (picture-3) results of the experimental and compare groups (%) picture-2. initial results % indicators 0 5 10 15 group i group ii 5 marks 4 marks 3 marks 0 10 20 30 40 50 completely right partly right completely wrong the teacher may have difficulties measures to alleviate difficulties that a teacher may encounter it takes a lot of time takes a lot of time. planning and implementing differentiated instruction can be time consuming. teachers used computer and mobile applications to assess students and create individualized materials. managing group dynamics managing a group with different students can be difficult. supervision is structured so that teachers can maintain a balance between meeting individual needs and maintaining a holistic learning environment. assessment tools traditional assessment tools cannot effectively measure learning outcomes in differentiated instruction. therefore, teacher assessment was carried out using a multiple choice test, and alternative options for oral and written control were developed and put into practice. 167 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us picture-3. last results % pointers table 1.3 academic in organic chemistry chemical modification module final results of group summation (stream). groups num ber of stud ents grades "excell ent" "goo d" "satisfac tory" "unsatis fied" experi mental 52 11/21, 2% 27/51 ,9% 12/23,1 % 2/3,8% compar ison 49 10/20, 4% 15/30 ,6% 21/42,8 % 3/6,2% picture-4. final results chart the obtained results were processed using the statistical criterion 2 (chi-square). to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, the 2 (chi-square) criterion was used. the value of the statistical criterion specified in it calculated using the formula. 𝑇 = 1 𝑛1𝑛2 ∑ (𝑛1𝑄2𝑖 − 𝑛2𝑄1𝑖)2 𝑄1𝑖 + 𝑄2𝑖 𝑐 𝑖=1 picture-5. statistical criterion formula here is the c-category (category), that is, the number of ratings. in our study, c = 3, since we assessed student responses in 3 categories, i.e. cca (correct, complete answer), cia (correct, incomplete answer), ia (incorrect answer). i=1,2,3 – category number, =0.05 – predetermined significance level; q1i is the number of objects in the first sample corresponding to the third category based on learning (we have the number of students who responded to the cca in the experimental groups), q2i is the number of objects in the second sample corresponding to the third category in accordance with the learning characteristic (we have the number of cca respondents in comparison groups [tashpolatov b.t., normatov a.a., mavlonov o.m.,2000:75-78]. discussion in the experimental groups, the number of correct complete answers increased by 11%, correct incomplete answers increased by almost 3%, and incorrect answers decreased by 12%. in the comparison groups, such positive results did not go beyond the experimental error. the final results of the module (table 1.3) show that the number of “satisfactory” and “unsatisfactory” ratings in the experimental groups decreased by almost 2 times compared to the comparison groups. differentiated teaching methods provided the following advantages: inclusion: differentiated education ensures that all students, regardless of learning style, ability or background, have access to the curriculum. high engagement: students learn in ways that suit their learning preferences, making them more engaged and motivated. this led to increased academic performance and a love of learning. personalized learning: a differentiated approach allowed students to master their own learning. they worked at their own pace, set learning goals and developed skills. flexibility: teachers have the flexibility to meet the changing needs of their students. this flexibility came in handy in case of unexpected problems. conclusion in conclusion, it can be noted that in our country and foreign pedagogy, many studies have been carried out to solve the problem of a differentiated approach to education. differentiated instruction is an important approach to meeting the diverse educational needs of today's students. a differentiated approach allows you to identify and develop students’ abilities and interest in chemistry among the natural sciences. students will have the opportunity to select assignments based on opportunities to develop their abilities. the differential approach greatly facilitates the pedagogical process of acquiring skills such as chemical modification, which is relatively difficult. in a large audience, it is not always possible to determine the content and forms of interaction with each student. using a differentiated approach makes it possible to create an educational system that meets the needs of each student, taking into account the individual characteristics of each student. formation of skills in chemical modification methods among students of chemical engineering education, that is, the ability of students to control the structure of individual highmolecular compounds, that is, master modification methods, is necessary for modern highly qualified chemical engineers. therefore, teaching students knowledge, skills and abilities based on a differentiated approach gives them the opportunity to imagine and analyze complex processes that are difficult for them to understand. of course, this requires solving a number of problems, such as determining the pedagogical conditions of the process, developing mechanisms for the development of student professional training based on a differentiated approach. therefore, as students’ educational opportunities expand, the number of creative tasks should also increase. to 0 10 20 30 40 50 completely right partly right completely wrong 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% "excellent" “good” “satisfactory” “unsatisfied” 168 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us summarize the above, we can conclude that, given the diversity of student ability levels, it is important to properly develop their development. list of references [1] rozieva d., usmonboeva m., halikhova z. interactive methods: essence and application / method. hand. t.: tdpu named nizomi, 2013. 115 p. [2] clarin m.v. innovative model of training and educational research. m.: arena, 1994. 222 p. [3] polonsky v.m. glossary of concepts and terms for education and teaching. m.: izd-vo "priobe", 2000. 368 p. [4] kolishev n.s. individually-differentiated approach to the process of training of older students: autoref. dis. ... candy. ped. science m., 1993.-16 p. [5] kovyazina e.p. differentiation soderjaniya obrazovaniya v starshey sredney shkole ssha: autoref. dis. ... candy. ped. science — kiev, 1989. 24 p. [6] slastenin v.a. i dr. /pedagogy: flying. posobie dlya studentov ped. fly zavedeniy m. : shk.-press, 2000. 512 p. [7] gorbunov g.i. nauchnye osnovy formirovaniya struktury i svoystv stroitelnyx materialov [electronic resource] : monograph / g.i. gorbunov, a.d. zhukov. — electronic. text data. — m. : moskovskiy gosudarstvennyy stroitelnyy universitet, ay pi er media, ebs asv, 2016. — 555 c. [8] shishonok, m.v. vysokomolekularnye soedineniya: uchebnoe posobie / m.v. shishonok. minsk: vysheyshaya school, 2012. 535 p. electronic application. [9] shishonok, m.v. sovremennye polimernye materialy: uchebnoeposobie / m.v. shishonok. minsk: vysheyshaya school, 2017. 278 p. [10] shishonok, m.v. polimernye materialy meditsinskogo naznacheniya: minsk: rivsh, 2018. 272 p. [11] shishonok, m.v. vysokomolekularnye soedineniya: uchebno-metodicheskiy kompleks — minsk: bgu. 2016. 227 p. [12] plate, n. a. makromolekulyarnye reaktsii v rasplavax i smesyakh polimerov / n.a. plate, a. d. litmanovich, ya. v. kudryavtsev. m.: nauka, 2008. [13] r. de groot differentiation in education // director's school 1995. no. 1. [14] dick yu.i., orlov v.a. differentiation of education and work with odarennymi scholnikami na sovremennom etape razvitiya shkoly // perspektive razvitiya obshchego srednego obrazovaniya. m., 1998. [15] prokopishina n.a. technology sotrudnichestva kak pedagogicheskaya strategy active. education / method. posobie. – novocherkassk: novocherkassky gpi, 2005. – 32 p. [16] kovaleva t.m. school is a laboratory. — moscow — voronezh: institute of practical psychology, npo "modek", 1998. — 123 p. [17] osmolovskaya i. m. didakticheskie principle differentiation process of education in general educational school: dis. ped. nauk. moscow 2002-32 ct. [18] shneiderman m.v. sistemnaya differentiation znaniy kak sredstvo individualizatsii obucheniya uchashchihsya: avtoref. dis. ... candy. ped. science m., 2000. 25 s. [19] stepanova m.v. osobennosti differentiatedirovannogo podkhoda v sisteme razvivayushchego obucheniya: autoref. dis. ... candy. ped. nauk, spb, 2000.-18 p [20] tashpolatov b.t., normatov a.a., mavlonov o.m. the formula for calculating points collected on multiple-choice test questions/ a collection of lectures of the republican scientific-practical conference on the topic "prospects of improving the teaching of physical and mathematical sciences in academic lyceums and vocational colleges".tashkent:tdpu, 2000.-75-78 p. fluid design in contemporary architecture: balancing design and application skip to main communities my dashboard log in sign up info: zenodo’s user support line is staffed on regular business days between dec 22 and jan 4. response times may be slightly longer than normal. published september 5, 2024 | version v1 journal open fluid design in contemporary architecture: balancing design and application creators noor a. m. aalhashem1 hiba salih meften1 kameelal ahmed 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journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the educational effectiveness of reading and understanding letters or orders received at a university using artificial intelligence and intelligently directing them to departments abdullayev jasurbek adkhamjon ugli, ahmadjonova gulshanoy abduqodir qizi fergana branch of tuit named after muhammad al-khorazmi, master’s degree student ergashev otabek mirzapo'latovich fergana branch of tuit named after muhammad al-khorazmi, phd in information technologies abstract: this article presents the opinions of domestic and foreign scientists on using artificial intelligence to read and understand letters or orders received at universities and intelligently direct them to departments. using ai to read and understand letters or orders received at a university and intelligently direct them to the appropriate departments is a great use of natural language processing (nlp) and automation. using artificial intelligence to read and understand letters or orders received at a university and then intelligently direct them to the appropriate departments can streamline operations, improve efficiency, and reduce human error. keywords: recognition of text (ocr), text analysis using natural language processing (nlp) techniques, user interface dashboard, search and filter options, observation and upkeep, orders and letters can arrive in a variety of formats, including faxes, scanned photos, emails, pdfs, and physical mail. intrоductiоn. administrative efficiency may be significantly increased at universities by implementing artificial intelligence (ai) to improve the reading, comprehension, and direction of letters or instructions received. the following are some useful elements and tactics to think about: nlp, or natural language processing text analysis: read and examine incoming letters using natural language processing (nlp) methods. this enables the system to retrieve important data, including sender information, topic content, due dates, and particular requests. intent recognition: to enable proper routing, ai can categorize the communication's intent (such as an academic question, administrative request, or complaint).1 classification and labeling automated tagging: this feature allows for faster system searches and retrieval by automatically assigning tags or categories to letters depending on their content. 1 manning, c. d., & schütze, h. (1999). foundations of statistical natural language processing. 59 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us priority levels: ai is able to determine the significance or urgency of letters and rank them in order of priority so they can move quickly via the proper channels. astute routing departmental mapping: to make sure that letters are sent to the right people, create an extensive map of departments and their roles. this may change dynamically as departmental requirements change.2 machine learning algorithms: use ml algorithms that gain knowledge from past data to gradually increase routing accuracy. materials. contextual knowledge contextual responses: the quality of the produced response is improved by ai's ability to comprehend contextual subtleties, such as academic jargon or particular institutional regulations. semantic analysis: to understand the underlying meaning of letters, especially those that are difficult or technical, apply semantic analysis. improving the user interface administrator dashboards: provide an easy-to-use dashboard that allows administrators to monitor incoming letters, their status, and the actions that have been performed.3 feedback mechanism: to improve the ai's learning process, incorporate a feedback mechanism that enables departments to offer suggestions on routing correctness.4 integration with current frameworks seamless integration: verify that the ai system can easily interface with the university's current information management systems, such as erp systems, to facilitate access to faculty profiles, student records, and other pertinent data. email and document management systems: simplify processes by utilizing ai capabilities in conventional email or document management systems. ongoing education and development data feedback loops: create systems that allow the ai system to continually learn from fresh data, thereby increasing its accuracy. performance measures: use measures like user happiness, response times, and routing correctness to evaluate the ai system's performance on a regular basis. adaptation and training programs for staff training: provide personnel with instruction on how to use ai tools and decipher ai-generated outputs. customizable models: modify ai models to accommodate various academic departments' or institutions' particular needs and communication preferences.5 compliance and security data privacy: use strong encryption and access restrictions to make sure the ai system conforms with data protection laws (such as the gdpr). monitoring and auditing: to ensure accountability and transparency, set up monitoring mechanisms to examine ai decision-making procedures. 2 ray, r. (2012). ocr with opencv and tesseract on linux. 3 smith, r. (2007). an overview of the tesseract ocr engine. 4 goodfellow, i., bengio, y., & courville, a. (2016). deep learning. 5 vaswani, a., et al. (2017). attention is all you need. 60 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ai has the potential to completely transform how letters and orders are processed at universities, resulting in more accurate and efficient routing to the right departments. research and methods. traditional letter processing's drawbacks manual sorting: sorting incoming mail by hand takes a lot of time for university employees. this can postpone important activities and is time-consuming and prone to errors.6 inconsistent labeling: older language or unclear department information may be used in letters. multiple formats: digital forms, faxes, emails with attachments, and physical letters are just a few of the formats in which incoming correspondence can be sent. levels of urgency: certain letters, such as grant applications or student appeals, must be answered right away. language barriers: letters in several languages are frequently sent to universities with partnerships and overseas students. effective aspects of ai's assistance: ai may solve these issues and produce a more efficient system in the following ways: 1. intelligent ocr and nlp content extraction: ocr, or optical character recognition, is an ai-powered technology that automatically transforms scanned pictures of pdfs, faxes, and actual letters into machine-readable text. manual data input is no longer necessary as a result. nlp, or natural language processing: text understanding: nlp algorithms are able to recognize keywords, phrases, and the main goal of the communication by comprehending the context and meaning of the text included in the letters. entity recognition: ai is able to recognize particular entities that are referenced in the text, including: for example, "admissions," "financial aid," and "research office" are departments. individuals: (for instance, "professor smith," "dr. jones") programs and courses: (for example, "computer science," "mba") (for example, "november 1st," "urgent request") dates and deadlines7 numbers for cases or references, such as "student id" or "grant proposal number" sentiment analysis: ai is even capable of identifying urgent requests or grievances by analyzing the text's tone. multi-format handling: emails, pdfs, forms, and physical letters should all be handled by the system with ease. results. classification and routing intelligence: models for classification in machine learning (ml): machine learning algorithms that have been trained on historical data of properly routed letters are able to recognize trends and automatically categorize new letters into pre-established groups (e.g., department, urgency level, topic).8 6 devlin, j., et al. (2018). bert: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. 7 sebastiani, f. (2002). machine learning in automated text categorization. 8 joachims, t. (1998). text categorization with support vector machines: learning with many relevant features. 61 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rule-based systems: as an adjunct to machine learning, rules may be set up according to senders, known keywords, or certain situations to guarantee correctness. confidence scores: to show how reliable its predictions are, the ai system ought to offer confidence scores for each categorization. cases with low confidence might be marked for human review. prioritization: the system can order the processing of important documents according to the levels of urgency that have been determined. dynamic routing: the system need to be able to adjust to modifications in organizational structure, departments, or programs.9 simplified integration and workflows: automated workflow: after a letter has been classified, the system ought to send it straight to the digital inbox of the appropriate department, starting the appropriate processes (such as notifying the department head or creating a case file). integration with university systems: the ai system ought to be able to work with the current learning management systems (lms), document management platforms, and student information systems (sis).10 consolidated dashboard: all incoming letters, their status, and the departments to which they are allocated may be seen in real time on a consolidated dashboard. audit trails: for compliance and accountability, the system need to keep track of every processing step. mobile access: for more flexibility, correspondence management and access should be feasible on mobile devices. discussion. constant learning and improvement: feedback loops: over time, the system's accuracy should increase as it learns from human input (such as fixing misrouted letters). data analysis: to find opportunities for improvement, examine processing times, mistake rates, and departmental response. model retraining: to accommodate modifications in language, nomenclature, and academic protocols, retrain machine learning models on fresh data on a regular basis.11 ai-powered letter processing advantages: enhanced efficiency: shorter processing times and less manual effort. increased accuracy: fewer mistakes and misdirected letters. faster response times: critical inquiries are handled more quickly. cost savings: better resource allocation and lower labor expenses. improved data analysis: using data insights to make better decisions. improved faculty and student experience: more dependable and quicker service.12 important points to remember: data security and privacy: safe management of private student and teacher data. explainability & transparency: gain insight into the ai's decision-making process. 9 alhawiti, k. m. (2017). artificial intelligence technologies for smart university services. 10 jain, a., & saha, b. (2015). automation in higher education using ai and machine learning. 11 jurafsky, d., & martin, j. h. (2021). speech and language processing (3rd ed.). 12 devlin, j., et al. (2018). bert: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. 62 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us person oversight: keep a person informed in delicate or complicated situations. scalability: the system must be able to manage increasing letter volumes.13 conclusion. universities may increase communication efficacy, decrease administrative bottlenecks, and expedite workflows by utilizing ai to read, comprehend, and direct letters. to guarantee that the system satisfies changing requirements and maintains high levels of accuracy in routing and comprehending institutional communication, it is imperative that it undergo continuous adaptation and feedback mechanisms.14 universities may create intelligent, effective, and streamlined systems by utilizing ai to replace their human, traditional letter-processing procedures. in the end, this benefits the company and the people it serves by improving organization, reaction times, and general efficiency.15 careful planning, data preparation, and a dedication to continuous maintenance and development are necessary for the implementation of such a system. by using artificial intelligence (ai) to efficiently read, comprehend, and route letters or orders received at universities, administrative procedures may be streamlined, communication can be improved, and overall efficiency can be increased. universities can increase operational efficiency, save manual labor, and improve departmental communication by utilizing ai technology16 to read and comprehend letters or orders received at their institutions. in addition to streamlining administrative procedures, these tactics improve the experience for both employees and students. list оf usеd litеrаturеs: 1. jurafsky, d., & martin, j. h. (2021). speech and language processing (3rd ed.). 2. manning, c. d., & schütze, h. (1999). foundations of statistical natural language processing. 3. smith, r. (2007). an overview of the tesseract ocr engine. 4. ray, r. (2012). ocr with opencv and tesseract on linux. 5. goodfellow, i., bengio, y., & courville, a. (2016). deep learning. 6. vaswani, a., et al. (2017). attention is all you need. 7. devlin, j., et al. (2018). bert: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. 8. sebastiani, f. (2002). machine learning in automated text categorization. 9. joachims, t. (1998). text categorization with support vector machines: learning with many relevant features. 10. alhawiti, k. m. (2017). artificial intelligence technologies for smart university services. 11. jain, a., & saha, b. (2015). automation in higher education using ai and machine learning. 13 joachims, t. (1998). text categorization with support vector machines: learning with many relevant features. 14 alhawiti, k. m. (2017). artificial intelligence technologies for smart university services. 15 jain, a., & saha, b. (2015). automation in higher education using ai and machine learning. 16 devlin, j., et al. (2018). bert: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 principles for the use of small buildings in the historic urban environment ruziboyeva durdona qamariddinovna samarkand state architecture and construction university named after mirzo ulugbek (samsacu) abstract: we know that since time immemorial, humanity has tried to create an entertaining and pleasant environment for their recreation and cultural enjoyment. in parks around monuments of different countries, devices were created in different ways. among them are the ancient gardens of turan, samarkand, khiva, bukhara, timurids. the skillful use of water features, ornamental plants, and wonderful architectural techniques in landscape nature has made historical cities even more beautiful. keywords: decorative trees, landscape shrubs, landscape of historical cities, chorbog. introduction. in uzbekistan, along with the problems of large-scale improvement of buildings, the architecture of historical monuments, the study of such areas as landscape architecture, landscape design and floristry, the promotion of various experiences in the field of effective innovative ideas, i realized the relevance of my topic. the prosperity and beauty of our cities, regions and villages are associated with the ideal creation of landscape solutions. including parks, parks, recreational gardens, ornamental trees and ornamental shrubs, various forms of flowers (maf) create a more perfect landscape solutions environment. one of the most important issues in effectively solving the problem of the development of historical cities is the use of monuments at the present time. improvement and restoration of city centers in accordance with the requirements of the time (especially in cities with historical and architectural monuments), the relationship of old and new buildings is associated with the landscape environment. main part in landscape solutions for the environment of historical cities, we perfectly apply the principles of using innovative methods and devices using the example of historical monuments of samarkand. at the same time, we will create a special look and comfort in the landscape environment of the historical monuments of samarkand. we will improve the ecology of our historical monuments. in a state of realizing national identity. we will enrich our experience in the field of innovative renovation of the landscape environment of historical monuments of old samarkand. at the same time, the principles of creating aesthetic comfort in the environment of monuments will be implemented. we will create new directions and apply them in holistic connection with the environment. 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us materials and methods materials and their use in landscape design provides a unique, encyclopedic focus on the efficient use of the raw materials that form the foundation of our environment—stone and brick, wood and aggregate, cast and precast concrete and asphalt. when using information devices, raw materials and the impact on the external environment come first. currently, the materials used in landscape environments vary. (fig1). figure 1 however, it is necessary to know how to choose the right materials in the landscape design of the environment of historical monuments. materials are prepared from natural and artificial mixtures and selected according to the purpose of the design. over the past decade, we have seen large-format 3d printing and composite materials start to be used in landscape architecture. some of these examples have been successful, and some have failed (splitting layers in 3d printed benches); however, the technology and materials are evolving to a point in which we can use recycled plastics in many of our products we use including decking, edging, tree staking and various other products used in landscape architecture. figure 2 55 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us abiotic migration of matter in landscapes occurs primarily in two forms. occurs: 1) bodies of different sizes, formed as a result of weathering or decay, move along the slopes under the influence of their own gravity, formation of mechanical discharges in running water and dust particles in the air in the form of manufacture; 2) movement with water and various geochemical or substances dissolved in water (various gases) involved in biochemical processes will be in shape. (fig. 2). results and discussion taking into account the historicity and world status of the city of samarkand, the work being carried out in the field of repair and restoration of the historical part of the city, its architectural monuments, adapting them to modern social and tourist purposes and thus preserving them for future generations, recreation of the population, i.e. improvement of the external environment, landscaping, floriculture, organization and formation of new gardens and parks, boulevards, climate mitigation are part of the comprehensive work for the further development of the historical and eternally modern city. the territory of samarkand is rich in underground waters located at a depth of 1-20 meters. groundwater moves closer to the surface as the topography decreases away from the mountains. in the lowest parts of the valley, especially in the deep beds of the mentioned streams, there is a lot of underground water that has formed springs. undoubtedly, the springs served as the main source of water for the ancient inhabitants of samarkand. the location of water features is even more important in a historic landscape environment. in general, a device decorating a historical environment must not only be compatible with the environment, but also not cause harm. any water device can impact the environment when it is placed. for example: humidity. based on careful research, it is necessary to place historical fountains and water features around the monuments. to prevent moisture from affecting the building, it is permissible to select suitable devices. ø the principle of continuity taking into account cultural traditions; ø principle of efficiency rational use of materials and structures, taking into account ergonomic requirements; ø the principle of complexity not individual small architectural and landscape forms, but their complexes, including functionally and structurally interrelated elements of the subject-spatial environment of landscape design; ø the principle of combining benefit and beauty landscape design of small architectural and landscape forms that simultaneously perform decorative functions. ø in landscape design, small architectural landscape forms are taken into account: ø social requirements taking into account the needs of different socio-demographic groups of the population (for example, determining the size, theme, color scheme of children's play equipment, taking into account the age groups of children, landscape design of ramps, taking into account the structure of the human body, the height of handrails) taking into account cultural traditions, features. spending residents’ free time choosing equipment and landscaping elements; ø environmental requirements ensuring environmental protection, taking into account the growing conditions of plants, the level of air, water, and soil pollution when placing small architectural and landscape forms; 56 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ø economic requirements reasonable use of material, small architectural forms, identification of resources, labor costs in the manufacture and use of small architectural and landscape forms; ø safety requirements preventing injuries (for example, setting a safe height taking into account the shape, characteristics of the surface of the playground equipment), ensuring fire safety, compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards (for example, not using toxic materials). ) ø functional and design requirements determination of dimensions, selection of materials, design solutions, taking into account the purpose and features of the use of small architectural and landscape forms; technological requirements technology for manufacturing small architectural and landscape forms, small architectural forms made of wood, taking into account the characteristics and capabilities of the materials. ø aesthetic requirements organization of space taking into account architectural, compositional, artistic patterns of formation; ø urban planning requirements urban planning and landscape conditions, organic introduction of small architectural and landscape forms into the environment. ø landscape design of small architectural and landscape forms is aimed at improving the architectural and landscape environment of settlements, taking into account the social and functional needs of the population. conclusion small architectural and decorative forms in landscape architecture objects are elements of artistic design and can perform various functions. they are combined with the general style, decorate, create variety, give functional functions to objects, add brightness to their symbolism and, again, can provide information about orientation to a particular area of the park being visited. architectural elements and structures are divided into the following groups: ø decorative architectural elements – fountains, statues, vases, gazebos and trellises; ø architectural elements of ideological and political content monumental monuments, busts; ø elements of cultural, everyday and utilitarian content exhibition pavilions, summer theaters and cinema halls, open theaters, reading rooms, buffets, minds, desks, benches; ø for a relaxing holiday – verandas, observation decks, gazebos; ø for active recreation children's playgrounds, physical training grounds, dance halls, attractions. in conclusion, it should be noted that small architectural structures should be used in the landscape environment of the historical environment in accordance with their function and architectural design. references: 1. samarqand: o`tmishi sharafli, buguni saodatli, kelajagi abadiy shahar. abdurasul sattorov, «o‘zbekiston ovozi» muxbiri. 2. o`zbekistonning tarixiy obidalari (samarqand, buxoro, xorazm va toshkent viloyatlari misolida) tuzuvchi shaxnoza jo`rayeva. samarqand – 2011 3. a.s uralov sharq mamlakatlarining bog`-park san`ati. toshkent-2013 4. a.q.qayimov aholi yashash joylarini ko`kalamzorlashtirish. toshkent 2012 5. a.s uralov landshaft arxitekturasi toshkent-2014 57 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. http://landscape.totalarch.com/ 6. https://turi-uzbekistana.ru/uzbekistan american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 128 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us background, concept and architectural features of nfv kilichov jasur ruzikulovich1, xadjayev muxammadzoir safarmamatovich1, gayratov zafarjon kamoliddinovich1, almardonov asliddin faxriddin oʻgʻli2, najmiyev mirjalol makhmudjonovich2 1 the samarkand branch of tuit named after muhammad al-khwarizmi, teachers of department “telecommunication engineering”, uzbekistan. 2the samarkand branch of tuit named after muhammad al-khwarizmi, students of faculty “telecommunication technologies and professional education”, uzbekistan. abstract the main tasks and security opportunities of network virtualization are considered. functions (nfv), describes the design of the nfv architecture and some of the potential security issues and challenges of nfv. in addition, existing products and solutions in the field of nfv security were analyzed. and some promising lines of research in this area. keywords: virtualization of network functions, software defined network, isp, qos, mano, nfvi, cots. introduction. the evolution of network architecture. the capacity and bandwidth of communication and data networks have grown, and network capabilities have evolved over quite a long time. however, by 2019, it is increasingly noticeable that the increase in network bandwidth is not keeping up with the ever-faster growth in market demand for bandwidth and new services. according to cisco visual network index, network traffic is growing exponentially at a cagr of 26% until 2022, with no signs of slowing down further. figure 1. network traffic growth 2017-2022 (source: cisco) telecom operators and isps to expand their networks at an ever faster pace, while revenue from services is growing nowhere near as fast as bandwidth demand. operators are trying to reduce the https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a2%d0%b5%d0%bb%d0%b5%d0%ba%d0%be%d0%bc%d0%bc%d1%83%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%ba%d0%b0%d1%86%d0%b8%d1%8f_%d0%b8_%d1%81%d0%b2%d1%8f%d0%b7%d1%8c https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:%d0%94%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%bd%d1%8b%d0%b5 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/cisco https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:%d0%9f%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%b0%d0%b9%d0%b4%d0%b5%d1%80 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:%d0%9f%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%b0%d0%b9%d0%b4%d0%b5%d1%80 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%98%d0%bd%d1%82%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%bd%d0%b5%d1%82 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 129 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us cost of network development, as well as increase the speed of development and implementation of new features to increase revenue. traditional methods of network development are based on the "hardware" principle: "device function". in most cases, in order to enter the next function, you need to install another device. however, these methods of developing networks and bringing new services to market using new physical devices face a number of limitations. let's briefly consider these restrictions. flexibility limits. proprietary vendor hardware design is that each network device has a fixed combination of hardware and software with slight variations. this greatly limits operators in the choice of functional combinations and equipment capabilities that can be deployed on the network. however, all the growing market demands for various services and services make the use of the resources of such vendor solutions inefficient. scalability limitations. the scalability of physical network devices is limited in both hardware and software. equipment requires power and space, which is often limited in densely built areas. on the other hand, the capabilities of existing physical devices often cannot keep pace with the growth in demand for modern networking features. each device is designed with a certain limit of possibilities, and when it is reached, it is necessary to install a new device, which will remain underloaded for a long time. long time to market. the demands of the market are growing, but the growth in the number of functions and pieces of equipment is not always able to keep up with these requirements. often the introduction of new functions requires an upgrade of existing equipment and the introduction of new equipment. this requires careful development of the migration process, validation and practical testing of the new solution. it requires evaluating new equipment, redesigning the network topology, and possibly attracting new equipment vendors that have the required devices and features in their portfolio. all this significantly increases the capital costs and cost of ownership of the network infrastructure, leads to business restrictions and loss of potential revenue if competitors are faster. administration restrictions. monitoring systems use standard protocols such as snmp (simple network management protocol), netflow, syslog, etc. to collect information about the status of devices. however, for monitoring vendor-specific (proprietary) parameters, standard systems may not be enough. in this case, for each network domain built on the equipment of a certain vendor, a proprietary monitoring system is required. it also contributes to capital expenditures and cost of ownership by multiplying the "zoo" of such devices for the operator, requires staff training and the maintenance of specialists with certificates of the corresponding vendor in the state. operating expenses. vendor-specific equipment increases operating costs, since it requires the presence of appropriate specialists in the operator's staff. requires the use of the so-called `managed services` (i.e. "professional services" provider). this leads to " vendor dependency ", that is, to being tied to a particular vendor's solutions. on the other hand, the use of equipment from many vendors on the network causes interoperability problems with dissimilar equipment and further increases operating costs. migration. devices and networks must be periodically maintained and upgraded. this requires physical access to the network elements and a site visit by technicians to deploy new equipment, reconfigure physical links, and work on the site's engineering equipment. this creates a cost barrier to network migration and upgrade decisions, slowing down the offering of new services to users. https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%9f%d0%9e https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/snmp https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%9f%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b4%d1%83%d0%ba%d1%82:cisco_netflow https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:%d0%94%d0%be%d0%bc%d0%b5%d0%bd%d1%8b american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 130 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us smooth growth of network capacity. requirements for network capacity growth (both for short and long periods) are difficult to predict. as a result, networks are often built with a large capacity margin to account for non-explosive growth in traffic needs. according to experts, more than 50% of the network capacity remains unclaimed most of the time. this leads to unproductive capital costs. on the contrary, when the resources of the network are exhausted, it takes a significant amount of time before the capacity of the network can be expanded. thus, the development of the network occurs spasmodically, with alternating periods of insufficient and excess network capacity. interaction. it often happens that in order to speed up the introduction of equipment to the market, suppliers equip it with new features before the standardization process is fully completed. in many cases, this leads to incompatibility of heterogeneous equipment on the network, the need to test network solutions in the laboratories of operators and service providers before deploying these devices on the network. this is usually followed by a period of refinement by the equipment supplier and retesting. and even in this case, some of the incompatibilities cannot be identified, and this “pops up” already during the operation of the equipment on a “live” network. the concept of virtualization of network functions. virtualization is a technology that allows you to run multiple operating systems on a single physical server. the concept of server virtualization has long been used in data centers (data centers , data processing centers). at the same time, physical servers are replaced by their virtual "copies" running on top of hypervisors. this allows, among other things, to achieve a more efficient use of the physical resources of the data center. nfv extends the concept of virtualization beyond servers to all types of network devices. nfv can be defined as a method and technology that makes it possible to replace physical network devices with certain functions with software entities that perform the same functions on public server hardware. nfv is used as an umbrella term for an ecosystem that consists of virtual network devices, management tools, and infrastructure that integrates software entities with standard computer hardware. https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%92%d0%b8%d1%80%d1%82%d1%83%d0%b0%d0%bb%d0%b8%d0%b7%d0%b0%d1%86%d0%b8%d1%8f https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%9e%d0%a1 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b2%d0%b5%d1%80 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a6%d0%9e%d0%94 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:%d0%9a%d0%be%d0%bc%d0%bf%d1%8c%d1%8e%d1%82%d0%b5%d1%80 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:%d0%9a%d0%be%d0%bc%d0%bf%d1%8c%d1%8e%d1%82%d0%b5%d1%80 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 131 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. migration from traditional to virtualized network infrastructure (source: rajendra chayapathi, network functions virtualization (nfv) with a touch of sdn. copyright © 2017 pearson education, inc.; tadviser, 2019). in fact, nfv separates the software from the hardware, and makes it possible to use any commercially available, standard cots (commercial off the shelf) to perform specialized network functions on it, which can be changed quickly and at any time. structure (framework) of nfv. the term nfv was first introduced by the world's leading telecom operators at the sdn congress open flow world congress in 2012, the world's leading telecom operators. they analyzed the limitations of the traditional network development method above and formed a working group to develop the specifications of the nfv isg (industry specification group) under the leadership of the european telecommunications standards institute etsi (european telecommunications standards institute). the isg working group put forward three main criteria that should be implemented in the standards (recommendations) for nfv:  decoupling. complete separation of hardware and software;  flexibility. automated and scalable deployment of network functions; https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:sdn_(%d0%bc%d0%b8%d1%80%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%be%d0%b9_%d1%80%d1%8b%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%ba) https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%95%d0%b2%d1%80%d0%be%d0%bf%d0%b0 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%95%d0%b2%d1%80%d0%be%d0%bf%d0%b0 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 132 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  dynamic operations (dynamic operations). control over the operational parameters of the network using precise (granular) control and monitoring of the network status. based on these criteria, a generalized nfv architecture was developed, shown in the figure below. figure 3. generic nfv architecture (source: etsi, tadviser). the nfv architecture consists of three main subsystems:  virtualized nfv network functions (virtualized network function);  nfvi virtualization infrastructure (nfv infrastructure);  management and orchestration subsystem mano (management and orchestration);  other than nfvi, subsystems are software, not hardware. nfvi includes both physical hardware (computing, storage, networks) and virtual "hardware": servers, storage systems , network devices. the virtualization layer (hypervisors and guest operating systems) makes it possible to deploy vm virtual machines (virtual machines) that perform any function assigned to them. for a vm, it does not really matter on which physical server it is deployed and running. moreover, vms can move (migrate) from one physical server to another without interrupting their work. strictly speaking, the nfv architecture also needs to include the operations and business support subsystem (oss / bss ), which is part of the traditional carrier network system. however, the presence of this subsystem in the nfv architecture is temporary, since operators cannot immediately abandon existing oss / bss and immediately switch to mano (this is only possible for new networks of operators starting their business from scratch and starting to build a network). https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d0%a5%d0%94 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:%d0%92%d0%b8%d1%80%d1%82%d1%83%d0%b0%d0%bb%d1%8c%d0%bd%d0%b0%d1%8f_%d0%bc%d0%b0%d1%88%d0%b8%d0%bd%d0%b0 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/oss https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/bss american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 133 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mano must have full visibility (operational state, usage statistics, etc.) of all software entities deployed in the nfv system and manage them. therefore, it is mano that provides the most suitable interface for the oss / bss subsystem in terms of collecting operational data. in the future, as the network transforms, all oss/bss functions should move to mano. interaction of nfv architecture elements. generalized blocks of the nfv architecture, in fig. 3 consist, in turn, of functional modules of a lower level. for example, the administrative block mano is a combination of three main functional modules: the vim virtualization infrastructure manager (virtualized infrastructure manager), vnfm virtualized network function manager (virtualized network function manager) and nfvo orchestrator (nfv orchestrator). the architecture also defines reference points (reference points) between functional blocks and modules through which they interact with each other. it should be noted that reference points are not interfaces (software or hardware). these points are specifications of the information that should be transmitted through them, as well as where and how it should be processed. in the figure below, the reference points are shown as bold circles with connecting lines. a more detailed description of them can be found in the description from etsi , or here. figure 4. more detailed nfv architecture according to etsi equipment resources in nfvi fall into three categories:  server hardware;  storage hardware;  network interface equipment. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/nfv/001_099/002/01.01.01_60/gs_nfv002v010101p.pdf https://shalaginov.com/2018/10/01/4831/ https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a5%d1%80%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%b5%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%b5_%d0%b4%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%bd%d1%8b%d1%85 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 134 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the computing equipment of servers includes a central processing unit cpu and memory, which can be distributed among computer nodes using clustering technologies. storage systems can be local nas (network attached storage), as well as connected using san technology (storage area network). the network hardware consists of a set of network interface cards and ports that can be used by vnfs. none of these types of equipment are specifically designed to perform certain functions, but are public cots hardware devices. all types of equipment (processors, memory, storage systems, network cards, etc.) are combined into a common pool. separate devices from this pool are used as needed to create a vnf, and, after the end of the function, they are released again. functional blocks can extend between different computer nodes in a data center, and even between data centers themselves. that is, they are not usually concentrated in a single network node, location, or point of presence on a pop network (point of presence), but distributed. this distribution is a very important quality of the nfv architecture, which provides many advantages. figure 5. principle of virtualization in nfvi. the nfvi functional block provides hardware resources in the form of vm virtual machines (virtual machine) that run vnfs. virtual machines are the virtual counterpart of physical hardware, which is provided to run vnf on them just as if it were physical hardware. nfvi is managed by the vim virtualization infrastructure manager (virtualized infrastructure manager), which is part of mano. it is responsible for managing the resources of the servers, storage and networking systems, and the software of the virtualization layer. vim has complete information about the presence and employment of resources (inventory), as well as the attributes of their operation (for example, power supply, processor busy status, etc.), and in addition, means for monitoring operation parameters (for example, usage statistics). https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%9f%d1%80%d0%be%d1%86%d0%b5%d1%81%d1%81%d0%be%d1%80 https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/cpu https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a1%d1%82%d0%b0%d1%82%d1%8c%d1%8f:nas https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/san https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/san https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%94%d0%b0%d1%82%d0%b0-%d1%86%d0%b5%d0%bd%d1%82%d1%80 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 135 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the vnf manager, vnfm, is responsible for creating and managing the operation of virtual network functions. it, upon request from the nfv orchestrator to form a virtual vnf function, requests the appropriate resources from the vim and launches this vnf on them, or composes a complex function from other, more elementary vnfs. during its operation, if an expansion (scaling) of the power of the vnf is required, vnfm requests additional resources from the vim, receives them and adds them to the running vnf (for example, adds cpu cores). this can be launching additional vms, increasing the amount of memory or storage space, connecting new network interfaces. since vim is in charge of the "inventory" system, it can determine if cots resources are available to satisfy the request, or if the system has reached the limit of their use. in the latter case, various measures can be taken, which are included in the functionality of ensuring the flexibility of the system. vnfm manages vnfs through em (element management, see fig. 4). these devices are needed in order to ensure that the vnf also interacts with the physical network functions of the pnf (physical network functions) of ordinary physical devices of the operator's network, which are inherited from the traditional network. for the sake of simplicity, the pnfs are not shown in the figures. the scope of responsibility of em is similar to the traditional ems element management and administration system (element management system). in the traditional, physical network of the operator, it is intermediate between the network management system nms (network management system) and physical network elements that perform network functions. em interacts with vnf using specialized protocols left over from the traditional network, and with vnfm using open protocols defined by etsi. figure 6. an example of allocation of additional cpu resources for vnf1. in a network evolving to nfv, which contains both parts traditional and virtualized, ems are also needed for the universal execution of fcaps functions (fault, configuration, performance, american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 136 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us accounting, security), that is, for fault management (fault), configuration (configuration), measurement of work parameters (performance), accounting (accounting) and security (security). in a fully virtualized network, fcaps functions will be entirely under the responsibility of vnfm. when moving from physical to virtual network elements, carriers are generally reluctant to change or transform the network management tools they are used to and that work well with traditional oss/bss systems . the etsi structure takes this into account and does not require operators who embark on the path of nfv transformation to change the entire existing network management system at once. that is, existing governance systems can continue to operate even when the physical network elements are replaced by vnfs. however, existing oss/bss systems have their drawbacks, which do not allow them to take full advantage of all the advantages of nfv, and also they cannot communicate directly with nfv control units vnfm and vim. of course, existing systems can somehow be adapted to take advantage of the advantages of nfv, such as responsiveness and elasticity. but this is not an optimal approach, because such systems are usually designed according to the principle of "proprietary", which does not allow management of open platforms. to solve this problem, the mano structure has another functional block called the nfv orchestrator, nfvo. it allows legacy oss/bss to manage operations in nfvi and vnf via vnfm and vim (see figure 4). the role of nfvo is not as obvious as vim and vfnm, and, at first glance, it just looks like a buffer between them and traditional oss/bss. however, the nfvo orchestrator plays a very important role in the etsi nfv framework. it manages the end-to-end deployment of services across the network, builds a global picture of service virtualization, and shares this information with vim and vnfm for service deployment. in particular, shown in fig. 6 "request for processor performance enhancement from vnf1" comes from nfvo. nfvo also works with vim and has a complete picture of the availability of the resources it manages. there can be many vnfms and vims in one nfv system, but it is the nfvo that coordinates their work. the above described is only a simplified picture of the operation of the nfv system, since the format of the article does not allow us to consider all aspects in more detail. benefits of nfv. in the beginning, the limitations of traditional methods of developing communication networks were briefly described. let's take a look at how nfv network function virtualization solves most of these limitations, as well as adding additional benefits. much of what was not possible in the traditional carrier network, and therefore such possibilities were not even considered, becomes possible in nfv. freedom of choice of equipment. because nfv uses conventional, commercially available cots computer hardware, operators can choose the most cost-effective and supported hardware from multiple vendors, and thus best build their networks in terms of both cost and functionality. we can say that the whole variety of traditional network equipment supplied by vendors in nfv comes down to only three of its types: server, storage system, network devices. however, the number of suppliers of such standard equipment is much greater than that of specialized telecom equipment. all functionality is provided by software functions that work on this limited range of equipment. https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/bss american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 137 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the process of modifying traditional equipment on a telecom operator's network is usually very long and costly. with nfv, operators can implement new features with a few clicks from the admin control panel, rather than having to deploy new devices on the network with highly trained technical staff. for example, if it is necessary to expand the capacity of the internet gateway, instead of installing new boards in the blade server basket, configuration, modifying tables, etc., the operator can simply assign new virtual machines from the existing resource pool, on which the corresponding vnfs will be launched. speed and efficiency. unlike physical hardware, vnf network functions can be created and deleted on the fly, mostly automated, without the need for technical personnel. this property is called " agile " (agile flexible, operational, agile, efficient), a term that has taken root in the technical literature in english transcription, since it cannot be translated into russian in one word. scalability and elasticity. the introduction of new services and applications that require significant network bandwidth in today's environment often force operators to work under constant stress in order to meet the ever-increasing needs of subscribers and users for new services so that they work normally on existing resources. traditional resources often represent a "bottleneck" (bottleneck), when all other network resources allow you to provide a new service without problems, but the physical network elements of one or two resources are insufficient, and expanding them is long and expensive. this problem is solved in nfv, which allows you to get the necessary resources very quickly by deploying new vnfs on vms from the existing resource pool. since these vnfs are not limited by the parameters of the specialized physical hardware, they can provide "elasticity" properties, that is, they can be expanded when they are needed and collapsed when they are not needed. it also avoids the common situation in a traditional network where some network elements are overloaded while others are underloaded. the rapid deployment of vnf allows you to evenly distribute the currently available load. https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/agile_software_development american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 138 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 7. nfv elasticity. use of standard it tools. since nfv uses the same infrastructure as standard data centers, it can use all the deployment and management techniques that have been developed in them. this makes it possible to use existing it methods and tools for telecommunication networks. fast deployment and getting rid of vendor dependency. because nfv provides the means to quickly deploy standard solutions without the overhead associated with " single-vendor " solutions, operators can get rid of so-called "single-vendor" solutions. " vendor dependency ", i.e., excessive attachment to specialized solutions of a small number of vendors on the network. new solutions can be deployed to the network quickly, without the need to wait for new features to be developed by traditional vendors, which often takes a long time. in addition, it allows you to quickly deploy new solutions on test domains, test them, and if the tests are successful, also quickly deploy them to a live network. in case of failure, their cost is minimal, since such tests are only associated with installing and running software, and not with acquiring and running new expensive equipment. simplification of maintenance and technical operation. maintenance and support of operations on the nfv helps to reduce possible periods of unavailability of services. for example, a failure of a virtual machine running a network function will immediately launch a backup virtual machine that will perform vnf from exactly the same place where the active vm failed. this also makes it possible to achieve software upgrades during the issu (in-service-softwareupgrade) operation in 24/7 mode. all this significantly reduces and even completely eliminates the losses associated with network failures. reducing capital and operating costs. since cots equipment is inexpensive compared to specialized solutions of traditional telecom vendors, and nfv allows to achieve more optimal https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%d0%a6%d0%9e%d0%94 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us equipment utilization, operators' capital costs for building and developing networks can be significantly reduced. reducing operating costs in nfv can be achieved by automating operations, increasing the ratio of the number of pieces of equipment per technician, as well as eliminating the need for specially trained personnel to maintain one or another proprietary solution of traditional vendors. conclusion. nfv reduces hardware costs and improves operational efficiency, but contains security issues that need to be addressed if nfv is rapidly deployed. for example, user authentication, user privilege control, and network configuration can be predefined before using the security features. references: 1. nfv: an introduction, benefits, enablers, challenges & call for action. nfv white paper. url: http://portal.etsi.org/nfv/nfv_white_paper.pdf 2. opennf: enabling innovation in network function control / a. gember-jacobson, r. viswanathan, c. prakash, r. grandl [et al.] // sigcomm ’14. aug. 2014. p. 163–174. 3. toward a telco cloud environment for service functions / j. soares, c. goncalves, b. parreira [et al.] // ieee communications magazine. feb. 2015. vol. 53, no. 2. p. 98–106. 4. openscaas: an open service chain as a service platform toward the integration of sdn and nfv / w. ding, w. qi, j. wang, b. chen // ieee network. may/jun. 2015. vol. 29, no. 3. p. 30– 35. 5. virtualized security at the network edge: a usercentric approach / d. montero, m. yannuzzi, a. shaw [et al.] // ieee communications magazine. april 2015. vol. 53, no. 4. p. 176–186. 6. etsi group specification: network functions virtualization (nfv) nfv security problem statement. url: http://www.etsi.org 7. etsi group specification: network functions virtualization (nfv) virtualization requirements, october 2013. url: http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/nfv/001_099/002/01.01. 01_60/gs_nfv002v010101p.pdf 8. etsi group specification: network functions virtualization (nfv) resiliency requirements, january 2015. url: http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/nfvrel/001_099/001/01.01.01_60/gs_nfvrel001v01010 1p.pdf 9. etsi group specification: network functions virtualization (nfv) use cases, october 2013. url: http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/nfv/001_099/001/ 01.01.01_60/gs_nfv001v010101p.pdf 10. elastic network functions: opportunities and challenges / r. szabo, m. kind, f.-j. westphal [et al.] // ieee network. may/jun. 2015. vol. 29, no. 3. p. 15–21. 11. a novel approach for integrating security policy enforcement with dynamic network virtualization / c. basile, a. lioy, c. pitscheider, f. valenza, m. vallini // netsoft. april 2015. p. 1–5. 12. cisco and/or its affiliates, cisco evolved services platform at-a-glance, oct. 2014. url: https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/global/hr_hr/assets/cisc oconnect/2014/pdfs/2014_04_see_epn_mpls_4x3.pdf http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/nfv/001_099/002/01.01 http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gs/nfv/001_099/001/ https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/global/hr_hr/assets/cisc american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 02, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 13. vmware, datasheet: vmware vcloud nfv, sep. 2015. url: https://www.vmware.com/content/dam/digitalmarketing/v mware/en/pdf/solutions/vmwarevcloud-nfv-datasheet.pdf 14. vmware, datasheet: vmware vcloud nfv, sep. 2015. url: https://www.vmware.com/content/dam/digitalmarketing/vmware/en/pdf/solutions/vmwarevcloud-nfv-datasheet.pdf 15. alcatel-lucent white paper, «providing security in nfv: challenges and opportunities», may 2014. url: http://www.tmcnet.com/tmc/whitepapers/documents/whitepapers/2014/10172providing-security-nfv.pdf 16. dovgal v.a., dovgal d.v analysis of perspective methods of behavioral biometry for users authentication // the bulletin of the adyghe state university. ser. natural-mathematical and technical sciences. 2017. iss. 3 (206). p. 139–142. url:http://vestnik.adygnet.ru https://www.vmware.com/content/dam/digitalmarketing/v https://www.vmware.com/content/dam/digitalmarketing/v protection of wooden materials modern methods skip to main communities my dashboard log in sign up info: zenodo’s user support line is staffed on regular business days between dec 22 and jan 4. response times may be slightly longer than normal. published 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mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 determining the interaction coefficient between wheels and rails mamaev sh.i. tashkent state transport university tursunov t.m. tashkent state transport university nafasov j.h. tashkent state transport university sh.kh. toshtemirov tashkent state transport university abstract: this article delves into the determination of the coefficient of friction between wheel pairs and rails, crucial components of locomotive wheel motor units, through scientific inquiry. our research highlights that the maximum coefficient value is contingent upon both the maximum friction value and the force exerted by the wheel on the axle. additionally, we observe that the adhesion coefficient's value varies with sliding speed, with a maximum sliding speed identified as 0.5. experimental findings reveal that mixing coefficients range between 80% and 90% of the maximum value. keywords: wheel pair, rail, sliding, speed, coupling coefficient, locomotive. introduction. to enhance locomotive reliability and efficiency, it's imperative to optimize and maintain a constant coupling coefficient between wheel pairs and rails. this coefficient is determined based on sliding speed and vertical forces acting on the rail. through dynamic process analysis, we establish a functional relationship between the wheel-rail contact coefficient and sliding speed v, alongside the vertical load r. the maximum friction coefficient, which remains stable amid slight sliding speed changes, is termed the potential coefficient of friction. notably, the ps0 value marginally decreases with increasing movement speed v, attributed to reduced stationary contact duration. we call the maximum value of the coefficient of friction, which remains constant during small changes in the sliding speed, the potential value of the coefficient of friction [1, 3], in this case ..0 устмак  . theoretical groundwork for functional relationships between wheel and rail characteristics was laid by russian scientist v.i. naumov, who considered the given normal force r as the maximum coupling value, leading to stresses within the wheel and rail bodies per material strength limits. in this scenario, 66 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us p smax 0  it is imperative to expand the contact surface area to enhance the coefficient value. according to research [11], this expansion can be achieved by increasing the wheel's rolling circle diameter, the rail head surface radius, and utilizing tires with specialized profiles. moreover, boosting the strength limit of wheel tires and rails by employing materials with higher poisson's coefficients and lower moduli of elasticity is essential. laboratory experiments [2] and torque tests conducted during locomotive operation [3] corroborate these conclusions and principles. however, it's noted that the coefficient value diminishes due to rail pollution from mineral dust and oil stains, as well as moisture accumulation from dew, light rain, or melted snow. conversely, heavy rain cleanses the rails, restoring the coefficient to its peak, which experimental data suggests can reach 0.5 [4]. to stabilize the coefficient 0 , the application of fine quartz sand, with minimal moisture content (not exceeding 1%), is advocated. this sand, when continuously dispensed beneath the wheels during challenging terrain or adverse weather conditions, facilitates automation through a tripping relay mechanism or an operator-initiated button press. crushed quartz sand serves to dislodge dirt and oxide films from the wheel's rolling surface, thereby augmenting the actual contact area. it's crucial to differentiate this practical approach from the calculated speed coefficient, which is contingent upon speed and detailed in the rules governing train operation calculations. fundamental research [6] focused on examining the characteristics of mainline locomotives. among these studies, the scientific investigation conducted by n. n. menshutin [7] holds significant importance for our purposes. the nominal load from the wheel pair of the vl22 series locomotive on the rails is тp 220  with a wheel diameter of 22,1d tests were conducted using both conical and cylindrical bandages, with and without sand.. measurement of slip was achieved utilizing frequency induction sensors, with one sensor positioned on the axle of the active engine wheel pair responsible for torque development, and the other on a stationary axle (control). these sensors' measuring coils were connected to a single vibrator, facilitating the detection of slip-induced vibrations on the recording film. by analyzing the distance between film nodes and reference wheel revolutions, the ratio of sliding speed to rolling speed was determined: v u  . for the initial ascending region of the connection description network, a relatively more accurate yet labor-intensive method involving separate pulse recording was employed. this method enabled the determination of sliding speed through pulse movement. this approach allowed for the measurement of relative sliding speeds ranging from 0.1% to 100%, with approximately 2000 data points collected during testing to establish the desired relationship. overall, wheel sliding speed comprises two components: longitudinal, perpendicular to the wheel pair axis, and transverse, parallel to it. while it may seem convenient to analyze longitudinal and transverse slips separately, it's crucial to recognize that these forces are interdependent, originating from force projections. similarly, longitudinal and transverse sliding speed components exhibit this relationship. however, in practical problem-solving, due to limited experimental data, adopting a unified engagement description representing wheel operation on straight road sections remains feasible for various scenarios. 67 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us economic assessments are essential to determine the optimal relative sliding speeds on both straight and curved rail sections, where wheel axles conform to calculated gradients. it's important to note that a portion of the locomotive's energy, proportional to the coefficient a=u/v, is not solely utilized for traction but is also expended on maintaining the rolling surfaces of wheels and rails. professor g. m. shakhunyans [58; 421-428-b] suggests, based on extensive experimental data processing regarding rail wear, that comparative wear follows an approximate law expressed as: %)91(   ф р k here, the parameter alpha takes into account track construction effects and rail steel quality. it's observed that increasing sliding speed from 0.8% to 2% results in 2.3 times more wear on the rails. considering this and the nature of slip characteristics, the recommended average slip value for the limiting wheel pair on straight sections corresponding to predominant inclines, under normal conditions, is approximately 𝛼𝑆рук = 0,65 − 0,7% this value is suitable for mainline locomotives as it achieves a sufficiently high coefficient of engagement during calculated climbs (approximately ranging from 0,8ψ_0 to 0,9ψ_0 ), while also providing a margin of engagement to prevent differential creep. references 1. biryukov, i.v. et al. mechanical part of the rolling stock: textbook for higher education institutions in railway transport. edited by i.v. biryukov. moscow: transport, 1992. 440 pages. 2. schreiber, r. "the optimization coefficient of electric generator series is 12x." in: railways of the world, issue 6, 2000. pp. 29-34. 3. kikichev, sh.v. "enhancing the efficiency of coupling activators by improving their adhesive characteristics." abstract of dissertation for candidate of technical sciences, rostov-on-don, 2009. 4. engel, b. "regulation of traction with high utilization of coupling forces." in: railways of the world, issue 2, 1999. pp. 39-45. 5. minov, d.k. enhancing the traction properties of electric and diesel locomotives with electric transmission. moscow: transport, 1965. 267 pages. 6. frenkel, e.m. "on the issue of wheel-rail coupling." in: proceedings of the xii congress, issue 23. moscow: transjeldorizdat, 1953. 7. naumov, v.i. "influence of the contact strength between metal and steel connection of wheel and rail." in: proceedings of the all-union scientific research institute of railway transport, issue 255. moscow: transjeldorizdat, 1963. 148 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 improvement of drive separator design for increase performance a. sayfiyev, o. norqo’ziyev, a.a. qo’shimov jizzakh polytechnic institute abstract: in this article, the problems of improving the efficiency of the moving separator, which is the main working part of the device used in cotton ginning enterprises for transporting cotton by air, are studied. keywords: pneumatic conveyor, stone, mesh surface, pile drum, spring, separator, pipe, fan. the main task of cotton ginning plants is to produce high-quality fiber, lint and seed from the cotton received annually, while preserving its natural properties. to achieve this task, it is necessary to properly organize the technological process of primary cotton processing and effectively use ginning machines. the impurities found in cotton are divided into organic and mineral substances by origin. organic substances include cotton leaves, twigs, calyxes, flower petals and other plant parts. mineral additives include stones, sand, soil, chips and others. the primary processing of cotton consists of a number of technological processes (storage, storage, transportation, drying, cleaning, fiber separation, etc.), forming a unique technological chain. this chain is closely related to the performance of each unit and the quality of the machines preceding it. taking this issue into account, it can be concluded that the technological chain equipment has a significant impact on the quality indicators of cotton. in cotton ginning plants, the cleaning of raw materials from impurities and transportation to the drying shops is carried out in the pipelines of the air conveyor. its simplicity and the ability to deliver the product to the specified places in any complex directions without damage have led to the widespread use of the air conveyor in the cotton ginning industry. in cotton ginning plants, it is not possible to transport cotton from the ginning area 200 meters or more from the main building with a single air conveyor. as we know, the efficiency of a cotton ginning machine is determined by the following formula: )1(100 2 1 с с к  (1) in this case: 1c impurity in unginned cotton (%) 2c impurity in cleaned cotton (%) in order to increase the impact zone of the pneumotransport device at the dostlik cotton ginning plant, a device consisting of a four-pile drum and a mesh surface is installed in the centrifugal fan device. (figure 1) 149 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. improved propulsion device circuit 1. inlet pipe, 2. separator ss-15a, 3. vacuum valve, 4. pile drum, 5. mesh surface, 6. seed pipe, 7. air intake pipe, 8. fan. in the technological process of the dostlik cotton ginning factory, an experiment was conducted using an improved moving device in the device that transports cotton in pipes with the help of air. in the cotton separator, the cotton separated from the air is compressed with the help of vacuumvalve blades and thrown into the first pile drum. the cotton is sifted by the piles of the first drum, and as a result of hitting the mesh surface, small impurities are released. after the first cotton drum, the second, third and fourth drums repeat the above process. during cotton transportation in pipes and separation from air in the separator, active impurities in its content can turn into passive impurities. currently, vts-12m centrifugal fan is used to transport cotton from a distance of 100-150 meters in cotton ginning plants. if we look at the aerodynamic characteristics of the vts-12m fan, air consumption q , full pressure н will be around. 75 kw electromotor for the vts-12m fan, 11 kw electromotor for the separator is installed when the drive unit is operating. 62 kw of electricity is used per hour to transport cotton 100 meters away. if the devices are located at a distance of 200 meters, and a mobile device is connected in series to a stationary device, then the energy consumption will double and amount to 124,000 sum. in some factories, a mobile unit is installed in the structure of the mobile unit to clean 1hk cotton from small impurities. it consists of four or six drums with pegs and a mesh surface. in an improved mobile unit, the blower pipe of the centrifugal fan is blown under the vacuum valve of the separator. as a result, it becomes possible to use air that simultaneously sucks and blows cotton from the impurities in the machine. 4 5 6 150 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. an improved moving device installed in a cotton ginning plant located in gijdivon district 1-centrifugal fan, 2-suction pipe, 3-separator, 4-vacuum valve, 5-separator inlet pipe, 6-blowing pipe. when using an improved moving device, the suction and blowing air generated by the fan are used simultaneously. a twofold reduction in energy consumption was achieved. studies have shown that the moving device can transport cotton up to 50 meters under the influence of suction air, and up to 100 meters under the influence of blowing air. in addition, it was found that if the damage to the cotton seed in the pneumatic transport device under the influence of suction air alone was 1.4%, then this indicator decreased by 0.8% due to the simultaneous use of suction and blowing air flows. although the mobile device is equipped with a cyclone, the area is polluted due to the lack of a dust chamber. this drawback is completely eliminated in the mobile device proposed by the authors. conclusion. by using an improved mobile device for transporting cotton from the gins to the production workshops using pneumatic transport pipelines, it was possible to reduce electricity consumption by two times and significantly reduce damage to the seed. in addition, the ecology is also improved by reducing the release of dust into the atmosphere in the cotton ginning plant. this creates a good opportunity for separating cotton from fine impurities in the mobile device. various types of cotton were tested through the improved mobile device. based on the results obtained, the feasibility of separating cotton from fine impurities in the mobile device was fully confirmed. used literature 1. kushimov a. a., pokiza m. determination of instant values of angular velocities observed in the process of operation of a feeder for cotton-sowing in a two-mesh separator and control of impacting forces //texas journal of engineering and technology. – 2023. – т. 18. – с. 42-45. 2. salomova m. et al. how to increase the effect radius of the cotton transport process in a mobile device //aip conference proceedings. – aip publishing, 2023. – т. 2789. – №. 1. 151 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. hazratkulovich y. k. et al. improving the retention of free fibers in raw cotton and the separation of cotton from the air //texas journal of multidisciplinary studies. – 2022. – т. 7. – с. 34-38. 4. rustam m. et al. principles of making pile of cotton cleaning machines from elastic material //universum: технические науки. – 2022. – №. 10-6 (103). – с. 5-9. 5. axmedov mi va boshqalar. paxta chigitlarini tozalash va saralash jarayoni bo'yicha tadqiqot natijalari tahlili //galaxy international disciplinary research journal. – 2023. – t. 11. – №. 5. – s. 688-694. 6. kushimov a.a., gadaev n.e., gulbaev uyo yigiruv jarayonida taroqli ip va iplardagi ifloslanish miqdorining o’zgarishi //fan va ta’lim. – 2021. – t. 2. – №. 1. – s. 158-162. 7. murodov r., kushimov aa, mavluda y. mobil qurilmada paxta ajratish jarayonini nazariy va amaliy o'rganish //european journal of molecular & clinical medicine. – 2020. – t. 7. – №. 6. – s. 3006-3015. 28 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 problems and prospects of developing railway infrastructure in new uzbekistan dsc bakhodir turaev tashkent state transport university, vice rector for international cooperation, doctor of economic sciences, tashkent, uzbekistan kamoliddin shodiev samarkand state architectural and construction university, head specialist for international rankings and accreditations, samarkand, uzbekistan ulug‘bek atamuradov doctoral candidate, tashkent state transport university, tashkent, uzbekistan abstract: in this article, we discuss the importance of railway transportation in new uzbekistan, which remains a fundamental transport type and is expected to maintain its role in the foreseeable future. the significance of railway transit is increasing due to the growing movement between china, russia, and the central asian states, especially with uzbekistan's landlocked position and china's active development of the "new silk road" initiative. therefore, it is crucial to examine the problems and prospects of developing the railway infrastructure in our country. trends in the development of railway transport and quality theory in this field have been studied and reviewed. the efficiency of transportation processes and their impact on production and living standards were analyzed. proposals were made to improve the economic efficiency of railway transport divisions' production and economic activities. introduction as we discuss the importance of railway infrastructure for new uzbekistan, we need to consider that the regional railway infrastructure requires serious improvement. "the use of modern transport technologies in new uzbekistan's transport infrastructure lags behind, and technological renewal is needed," it is recommended. increasing the volume of freight transport between china and the european union, as well as central asian states and russia, is of critical importance. new uzbekistan plays a vital role as a transit hub for such cargoes and then connecting them to the european railway network through turkmenistan, iran, and turkey as part of the "new silk road" transport system, which is deemed appropriate to increase the volume of transit container shipments. 29 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us picture 1 our country does not have access to the sea. therefore, such a position significantly brings additional difficulties. as highlighted in [19]: "the lack of territorial access to the sea, isolation from the world markets, and high transit costs continue to impose serious constraints on the general socio-economic development of landlocked developing countries." the same source emphasizes, "on average, lldcs (landlocked developing countries) pay twice as much for transport costs through transit countries (exporting countries) and require more time to send and receive goods from foreign markets." this situation lends additional importance to the regional railway infrastructure. our country is located at the center of china's "new silk road" initiative. the construction of the china-kyrgyzstan-uzbekistan railway line may require a long time for beijing, bishkek, and tashkent, and there are many debates about transport projects in all the republics of central asia, with everyone wanting to become the main transport hub. the 454-kilometer "china-kyrgyzstan-uzbekistan" railway project aimed to connect the railways of china and uzbekistan through kyrgyzstan, and then link them as part of the "new silk road" transport system through turkmenistan, iran, and turkey to the european railway network. in 2003, china allocated 20 million yuan (2.4 million us dollars) to develop the technical-economic basis for the railway line. chinese experts who developed the initial technical-economic basis for the railway noted several advantages of the new route: the new railway is 900 kilometers shorter than the existing transport route, and the construction of the railway would establish transport connections between the central asian countries and facilitate their access to sea ports. according to intergovernmental agreements, the construction of the china-kyrgyzstanuzbekistan railway was to be carried out by china's china national machinery import & export corporation (cnmiec). 30 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us picture 2 however, there are many issues that require special attention. among them are primarily the obsolescence of the majority of the railway infrastructure built during the soviet era, the lack of investment, the disparity between the locations of the existing railways built mostly during the soviet era and the new economic realities, the shortage of skilled personnel, and poor management, along with increasing political tensions. these factors lead to a decline in revenues, compromised operational safety, loss of transit transport volumes, and shippers shifting to other modes of transportation, thereby reducing the competitiveness of local products and negatively impacting the country’s economic development and its transport connections. research objectives taking into account the issues mentioned above, this article is focused on identifying the challenges of developing the railway infrastructure in new uzbekistan, exploring solutions, and studying the prospects for the development of the railway infrastructure. literature review unfortunately, topics related to new uzbekistan do not attract much attention from the academic community. however, the author has managed to collect a number of literature sources related to the current research. taking this into account, the author has utilized several working documents and reports prepared by international organizations operating in the region. development of railway infrastructure in new uzbekistan during the past period, significant efforts have been made to shape a modern road-transport infrastructure, open new routes to world markets, and create modern transport communications connecting our country with other regions of the world. in new uzbekistan, significant attention has been paid to the construction of railways and the creation of a unified railway network. the first step was the construction of the navoiy-uchquduq-sultonuvaystog-nukus railway line, which is 700 km long, along with the only modern combined railway and road bridge in central asia along the amudarya river, measuring 681 meters in length. this was followed by the construction of the toshguzar-boysun-qumqo'rg'on railway line, which is 223 km long, reducing the distance for freight and passenger transport by 170 km and exempting it from transit fees. in recent years, new uzbekistan has expanded its new railway network by more than 1200 km, modernized and reconstructed over 3800 km of roads, and electrified nearly 1100 km of railway lines. as a result, the total length of the railway lines covering all regions of our country has 31 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us reached 6500 km. as rightly pointed out, "the main railway network is a strategic asset of new uzbekistan." to meet the growing demand for rail freight in new uzbekistan, nearly $483.58 million has been invested since 2022 in updating railway lines and rolling stock (picture 3). picture 3 developing transit potential in new uzbekistan the topic is becoming increasingly acute and this is reflected in various literary sources. it is appropriate to mention several studies here, such as [14, 16] and others. [20] provides important recommendations: "capital investments... should be complemented with a broader set of interconnected measures, including government regulations, sector policies, and necessary reforms. a phased approach should be adopted to develop these intangible measures, including improving the market environment for private sector participation and supporting transport finance with dedicated revenues from the transport sector. this advice, which indicates the need to strengthen institutional development, is supported [14]. new uzbekistan is a landlocked country the lack of direct access to the ocean is a very serious issue for the country. thus, several authors have addressed it using a gravity model approach to assess the impact of lack of sea access on trade for a panel data set. "the impact of internal infrastructure and lack of sea access on trade in central asia" was evaluated [10, 11]. "the cost of shipping a container from any city in central asia to shanghai is five times more expensive than shipping by sea from poland or turkey." generally, the development level of lldcs (landlocked developing countries) is 20% lower than if they had sea access" [19]. the same source notes, "lldcs pay twice as much for transport costs in transit countries (countries through which exports pass) and require more time to send and receive goods from foreign markets." other studies have examined this issue in various contexts, including [2, 10] and others. data and methodology this study is based on the following collected data: 1. review of various literary sources. criteria for considering studies were their relevance to the topic, reliability, and impartiality. the same principles were applied in gathering information from market participants and representatives of the academic community. 32 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the comments and recommendations received helped improve the quality of this article. respondents who discussed the content of this work agreed that the selected methodological approach was appropriate for the research questions mentioned above. the number of respondents is small. thus, there are not many people knowledgeable about this topic. initially, the author focused on selecting potential respondents, connecting with 32 transportation experts and people from academia. results and discussion the instability of global economic processes, amid the problems of economic development of the country, underscores the urgency of improving the efficiency of economic entities. regional integration and a consistent and coordinated regional policy can strengthen new uzbekistan’s transit connections and expand trade within the region, harmonize general regulatory policies, and enhance cooperation between border authorities and customs procedures. a phased approach to developing a cohesive, high-quality regional infrastructure is essential for expanding trade activities. currently, uzbekistan is relying more on higher technological levels of production and avoiding dependence on external trade resources. for instance, the task has been set to establish exports of processed cotton yarn and finished textile products. selling internal resources in this more development-oriented approach yields greater benefits for the country’s commodity trade. despite existing restrictions in foreign trade, uzbekistan is implementing effective measures to ensure economic development and growth. over the past seven years, the economy's growth rate has remained stable at around eight percent. all available opportunities are being used to increase export volumes, with significant emphasis on regional cooperation and mutual trade [21-30]. during the state visit to turkmenistan on march 6-7, 2017, the presidents of uzbekistan, shavkat mirziyoyev, and turkmenistan, gurbanguli berdimuhamedov, signed a joint statement. they highly rated the opening of the turkmenabat-farab road and railway bridges, noting their use would enhance the transit potential of both countries and facilitate the transit volume through turkmenistan, as well as increase the convenience of the trans-caucasus transport route to southern and central europe, the near east, and south and southeast asia. the implementation of agreements to develop the uzbekistan-turkmenistan-iran-oman international transport route, which equally meets the economic interests of all participating countries, was emphasized as crucial. president mirziyoyev's state visit to kazakhstan in march 2017 resulted in the signing of a joint declaration to deepen strategic partnership and strengthen good neighborliness between the republic of uzbekistan and the republic of kazakhstan. the declaration highlighted the priority of bilateral cooperation in the transport sector and the development of transit routes that ensure the shortest and most effective access to foreign markets. the parties noted that the mutual concessions and additional discounts established by the railway administrations of the two countries would significantly expand collaboration and attract large volumes of transit cargo. the reconstruction project of the beyneu-akzhigituzbekistan border road, as well as other joint projects aimed at providing alternative access to international maritime communications and promising markets for the region, are of high interest. uzbekistan’s defined strategy confirms its intent to continuously develop state and regional platforms to ensure sustainable economic growth. developing alternative routes of integration without sea access is a critical task for uzbekistan, shaping its future as a landlocked country known historically as a crossroad between the west and the east on the great silk road. today, this ancient route continues to connect peoples in new forms. the current focus is on modernizing and renewing the country’s economy, shaping new quality structures, and comprehensively developing regions through the improvement of transport communication systems. the methods for assessing the efficiency of railway transport operations are based on scientific and technical achievements, implementing new production methods, and refining the economic mechanisms of internal processes of railway transport in collaboration with external entities. railway transport is a foundation of the modern economy, serving as an object of market relations and depending on the efficient operation of all sectors, enterprises, their associations, and complexes for growth and development. despite its significant contribution to 33 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the economy, railway transport faces challenges: the ongoing issue of physical and moral depreciation of primary assets has not diminished. the slowing rates of technical advancement of these primary assets decrease their reliability and the disparity between the quality parameters of cargo transportation reduces the competitiveness of railway transport in the market. the effectiveness, quality, and consequently, competitiveness of transport services are largely determined by the quality of transport processes and the reliability of technical equipment. assessing the impact of technical equipment on key operational indicators is a promising direction for optimizing railway transport costs, developing and implementing measures to reduce inefficient expenditures in cargo and passenger transportation. the following is a list of problems and potential solutions based on discussions: problem 1: the existing railway infrastructure requires serious modernization. solution: although respondents recognized significant achievements in recent years, they acknowledged the problem. they emphasized the high dependence of new uzbekistan's economy on this type of transport and the inevitability of addressing the growing railway transportation issues. therefore, a new state policy focused on improving the existing infrastructure and adequately funded is necessary. they also stressed the need to strengthen cooperation between the governments of neighboring countries. problem 2: there is a significant need for new infrastructure development. solution: respondents acknowledged this issue and recognized significant achievements in recent years. generally, they advised that this issue is not as severe as the previous one and that the national government is seriously focusing on constructing new railways. they also suggested that the process of selecting new projects should be more transparent and involve representatives from freight forwarding companies, foreign transport companies, and other interested parties who are typically excluded from such discussions. problem 3: insufficient funding for railway infrastructure projects. solution: discussants proposed the following measures:  strengthening discipline and fighting corruption,  attracting foreign financing,  utilizing advance payments from large shippers to improve railway infrastructure. the national railway company of new uzbekistan, "uzbekistan railways" jsc, has been using this approach for several years. problem 4: a shortage of skilled personnel. solution: respondents agreed that the issue is largely related to low wages. they unanimously supported proposals to increase the salaries of railway workers, especially in remote areas, understanding that this situation could significantly harm the future of the country's railway transport. they also highlighted the importance of improving the quality of higher and vocational education for railway specialists.  they suggested considering partial (at least) privatization of the national railway, new uzbekistan railway, and attracting superior foreign management with support from government agencies. problem 5: different rail gauges in new uzbekistan and some neighboring countries. new uzbekistan and other post-soviet states use the russian gauge of 1520 mm, while the majority of other countries use the european gauge of 1435 mm. this requires changing gauges at the borders between china and new uzbekistan. if wagons travel further into regions with european gauges (european union or iran), they must change bogies again.** solution: the costs associated with bogie exchange are inevitable. to counter this, some large shippers plan and implement various projects that can reduce these expenses. 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion despite all the problems mentioned above, railway transport remains and will continue to be a primary mode of transport for the country in the near future. the importance of railways for the economic and social development of new uzbekistan necessitates the renewal of existing railway infrastructure and the construction of new ones. a thorough discussion of the recommendations is necessary. the confirmed actions must be implemented. this topic is significant for the country as fully leveraging its transport and transit potential supports national development. the republic of uzbekistan occupies a strategic geographical position in central asia, serving as a center of geopolitical development in the region. the main transit routes connecting the north and south, east and west of the continent pass through the territory of the republic of uzbekistan. this is a decisive factor in planning development and identifying issues that need further development and optimization. the goal of the development strategy is to continue shaping and developing the railway industry as an integral part of the economy of the republic of uzbekistan, to increase the country's transport and transit potential, to create new jobs, to increase the level of product localization, to conduct a coordinated policy in the fields of transport and technical regulation, and also to improve the safety and comfort level of train movements, and to enhance the investment attractiveness of railway transport. the main principles of the complex development of the industry include:  railway transport is an integral part of the economy of the republic of uzbekistan;  planning the development of railway transport should be carried out in conjunction with the development of other sectors of the economy;  rapid development of the railway industry is key to the future stability of this sector of the country's economy;  attracting investments and increasing the level of product localization should be supported and ensured through state regulation;  further work to harmonize railway legislation and policy in the field of technical regulation should be carried out in cooperation with the involved ministries and agencies, based on the support of the state. the list of used literature 1. s. abdullayev, o. kiseleva, n. odilova, g. bakit, l. vaxitova, transport muammolari. 11(2), 17-26 (2016). 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(2024). aktuar moliya va buxgalteriya hisobi ilmiy jurnali , 4 (02), 123135. https://finance.tsue.uz/index.php/afa/article/view/100 https://finance.tsue.uz/index.php/afa/article/view/100 http://miastoprzyszlosci.com.pl/index.php/mp/article/view/2900 https://finance.tsue.uz/index.php/afa/article/view/100 180 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 design and implementation of digital spirometer using arduino hasanain aziz abed department of medical instruments techniques engineering, al hussein university, hasanainaziz4@gmail.com abstract: spirometer is a medical diagnostic device used to evaluate the performance of the lungs through exhalation produced during the human breathing process. through the mpx5010dp pressure sensor, the device can be practically applied. using a tube of different diameters, it was connected to the sensor in each diameter. the sensor measures the pressure difference for both diameters when the pressure is applied inside the tube. this means when a person exhales inside the tube of different diameters, the sensor calculates the pressure difference applied inside the tube. using the electronic controller arduino uno is received by the signal from the sensor blades software in the form of "volt" and it shows on the display lcd16 * 2. 1. introduction 1. spirometry? basically, «spirometry is a physiological test that assesses the strength of your lungs by using a sensor to measure the maximum amount of air that you can inhale and exhale. in order to be truly medically acceptable, spirometry testing needs to be conducted three times by a reproducible method for determining forced vital capacity (fvc).» fig 1.1 the lung in the body 181 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. why is spirometry important? your doctor may advise spirometry if you have shortness of breath, a cough, or you snore. it can help diagnose problems like cystic fibrosis, asthma or can check lung function before surgery . the doctor or nurse will use it to know the patient's response to treatment and to know the condition of the patient's lungs, whether they are healthy or not, and what is the volume of air entering and exiting the lungs, in order to evaluate the condition and treat it as quickly as possible. therefore, the device is considered one of the most important devices that help in evaluating the performance of the aforementioned organ and treating it. fig 1. 2 patient doing the test 3. performing a spirometry test to help ensure accurate test results, wear loose clothing and don’t eat a meal immediately before. also, avoid the following activities: 1. smoking within 24 hours of testing 2. strenuous exercise 3. consuming alcohol the test follows these steps: 1. close the patient's nose with plugs to prevent the entry of air 2. the operator makes the patient breathe in as much air as possible to fill his lungs. 3. seal your lips tightly around the mouth of the tube. 4. breathe directly into the tube as quickly and forcefully as possible for a few seconds. our project will have you breathe into the tube for five seconds 4. collect the hardware 1. arduino uno 2. mpx5010dp pressure sensor 3. character lcd 16x2 i2c 4. breadboard 5. jumper cables 182 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. pvc pipe 7. flexible pipe tube for sensor 8. foam circle (for pipe) 9. hot glue gun 5. aim of the project measure inspired and expired air by our lungs 6. project outline 1) chapter two present the theoretical basis of project and define all the components that are used in project and description on microcontroller. 2) chapter three explain the mechanism of the proposed system and the details of its implementation and design 3) chapter four extract the required results and discuss them chapter second theoretical part 1. arduino uno «is a microcontroller board based on the atmega328p (datasheet). it has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as pwm outputs), 6 analog inputs, a16mhz ceramic resonator (cstce16m0v53-r0), ausb connection, a power jack, and a reset button. it contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a usb cable or power it with a ac-to-dc adapter or battery to get started. you can tinker with your uno without worrying too much about doing something wrong, worst-case scenario you can replace the chip for a few dollars and start over again.» «"uno" means one in italian and was chosen to mark the release of arduino software the uno board and version of arduino software were the reference versions of arduino, now evolved to newer releases. the uno board is the first in a series of usb arduino boards, and the reference model for the arduino platform; for an extensive list of current, past or outdated boards see the arduino index of boards. in figure (2.1) show the shape of board and pins description.» fig 2.1 arduino uno 183 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. mpx5010dp sensor «the mpx5010dp is a dual port, integrated silicon pressure sensor in 6 pin sip package. this piezoresistive transducer is state of the art monolithic silicon pressure sensor designed for wide range of applications. it is ideally suited for microprocessor or microcontroller-based system. this transducer combines advanced micromachining techniques, thin-film metallization and bipolar processing to provide an accurate, high level analogue output signal that is proportional to applied pressure. the axial port has been modified to accommodate industrial grade tubing.» 1. on-chip signal conditioned, temperature compensated and calibrated 2. differential configuration 3. 5.0% maximum error over 0°c to 85°c 4. durable epoxy unibody 5. temperature compensated over -40°c to 125°c 6. patented silicon shear stress strain gauge 7. pressure ranges from 0kpa to 10kpa 8. supply voltage range from 4.75vdc to 5.25vdc 9. sensitivity of 450mv/mm 10. response time of 1ms fig 2.2 mpx5010dp sensor 1. applications sensing & instrumentation, consumer electronics, portable devices, automation & process control, medical 3. lcd 16×2 fig 2.3 lcd 16×2 pin 184 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. features of lcd16x2 the main features of the lcd screen are: 1. this lcd screen's need is 4.7v-5.3v 2. it consists of two rows, each row can produce 16 letters and numbers 3. the current is 1ma without backlight 4. each character can be built with a 5x8 pixel square 5. the monitor can work in two modes such as 4-bit and 8-bit 6. available in blue and green backlight 7. shows some custom characters created 4. tube one of the necessary parts of the device, where a tube of different diameters was used, produced by a 3d printer, is connected to the sensor, whereby the patient exhales inside the tube to form a pressure that is sensed by the sensor. as shown in figure 2.4 1. tube worker when you shed pressure inside the tube, it moves in two different sized fields where the sensor reading depends on the pressure speed inside the tube as in figure 2.4. fig 2.4 details of the tube used chapter third application 1. parts used and connection 1. mpx5010dp pressure sensor the pressure sensor used has 6 pins, each with its own function, which is connected to the arduino via jumper wires. the principle of the sensor's work is to sense the pressure on it and give an analog signal to the arduino in the form of volts, where it gives a signal resulting from 185 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the pressure difference that is mounted on it, which calculates it and converts it into a badge to the arduino. , (converting the pressure signal to volt). fig 3. 1: sensor ports mpx5010dp pin number pin name description 1 output analog output proportinol to differential pressure 2 gnd ic ground reference 3 vcc ic supply pin p1,p2 sensrors connect to the tube table 3.1 sensor pins as shown in the previous figure 3.1 there are 3 pins n/c that were not used in the connection because the sensor manufacturers manufacture them for grounding purposes or for the purposes of the sensor primitive experiment. 2. connect the sensor fig 3.2 connect the sensor to the arduino 186 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us pin number connecting reason pin 1 to ao in arduino send the signal in the form of analog pin 2 to gnd in arduino ground reference pin 3 to 5v in arduino power sensor table 3.2 pin connect with arduino 3. lcd 16×2 pin the results display screen contains many ports, each port has its own function mentioned earlier in the second chapter, but for ease of dealing with the screen connection, a special protocol called i2c was used to eliminate the complexity and reduce the number of wires inside the circuit . the integrated circuit (i2c) is a high-speed, bi-directional serial communication system for linking with peripherals, connecting with an lcd, that uses fewer lines to communicate, where it is possible to choose between one of the following four speeds: 1. standard 100 kbps 2. fast 400 kbps 3. double speed 1 mbps 4. high speed 3.33mbps fig 3.3 : i2c with lcd after connecting the i2c with the lcd, the ports switch from 16 to four. they are connected to the arduino to display the required results . 4. lcd ; i2c with arduino after converting the ports for the lcd by i2c and getting four ports as shown in figure 3.3 , connect the four ports to the arduino after knowing the function of each of them pin number pin name to arduino reason pin 1 gnd 7 digital to ground pin 2 vcc icsp power pin 3 sda sda data transfer pin 4 scl scl data change table 3.3 pin connections with arduino 187 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig 3.4 i2c pin in arduino 2. programming code «the basics of programming start from the code or code as some call it a set of instructions written using a particular programming language. these codes are instructions that the computer performs in succession, these instructions may be reading file content, for example, a drawing, or a calculation.» detail the code used in the program in sequence. 1. #include <wire.h> 2. #include <liquidcrystal_i2c.h> 3. liquidcrystal_i2c lcd (0x27,16,2); the expression #include is used to include external libraries in your code. this helps the programmer access a larger range of standard c libraries (which are a collection of pre-created functions) and libraries that are written specifically for arduino. 1. float vol= 0; 2. float m=0; 3. float sen_read = 0; 4. float mm=0; 5. int i=0; 6. int m_time = 0; 7. int start_time = 0; 8. int end_time = 0; 188 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 9. float mean_vol = 0; 10. float max_vol = 0; the float type is used with decimal numbers, which are fractional numbers that use decimal comma in their representation. the int code is to store variables within the arduino. in this code, dentified the variables need and stored them on the arduino . 1. void setup() { 2. serial.begin(9600); 3. pinmode(8,input_pullup); 4. lcd.init(); // initialize the lcd 5. // print a message to the lcd. 6. lcd.backlight(); 7. lcd.setcursor(1,0); 8. lcd.print("w e l c o m e"); 9. delay(3000); 10. lcd.clear(); 11.} the first part is used "void setup" to identify the types of inputs and outputs of the arduino, i.e. to determine the nature of the work of each pin in the arduino in terms of being an entrance/exit, digital or linear. serial begin uses this command to make the erdwino start communicating with the existing sensor. through the used pins. pinmode is a fixed software sentence and is one of the basic and important sentences that are used in the programming of the electronic piece arduino, and is always used as the first software sentence when programming the arduino piece, its function is to dentify electronic pieces connected to the ardino piece on the program, i.e. it tells the program that we have piece 1 and is considered input, and piece 2 is considered a output and so on, this sentence also specifies the pin number on the erdino and attached to the electronic pieces. pinmode(8, input ) it means that the piece connected to pin 8 is input.lcd.int econnected the screen used after it was defined through its library. then enter what is required of them to display it at first. after defining the changes, have defined the arduino on the modus operandy of the existing sensor where the arduino receives a volt-shaped sensor signal after selecting the changes and how to receive the signal and display it on the screen. through a delay order where it performs the program according to the period given. also select voltage read where you eat from 0 to 1023. the amount of volt resulting where it is greater than 0.27. and that's to get rid of showing results in the natural atmosphere without using the device . also to get rid of the results caused by simple external vibrations affecting the sensor . after determining the changes required of the arduino to take into account these variables. final results on the screen 1. the highest volt value obtained during the highlight and called max 2. the value of the average calculation of the total results obtained from volt and called mean 3. the time it takes to get the highest volt value results measured by unit, m sec and called time on the screen. 189 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us time = m sec fig 3.5 signal wave 3. principle of the project when exhaling by the person used inside the tube through the hole in it, the speed of different pressures between the small and large area is formed p1&p2, through which the sensor sensing the pressure inside the tube at different speeds and converts it to the arduino in the form of a volt signal to be processed by the programming codes of the ardino and then converted to the screen to display the results. the signal that the arduino gets from the sensor is the result of the pressure difference inside the tube, where it extracts one volt-shaped result, which is the pressure difference inside the tube. as in figure 3.6 figure 3.6.principle of the project chapter fourth results 190 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. final design image 4.1 final design image 4.1 final design 2. results using a device ventilator carescape r860 located at al hussein educational hospital in muthanna has been conducting tests on the project to get accurate results 191 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us picture 4.1 hospital visit 1. first test put the project on the vantilator device by connecting the pipes of the device to the project pipe tightly, taking into account the following: 1. the respiratory rate is 6 times per minute 2. change the volume of incoming air from the vantilator each time from 500ml to 2000ml at the start of the test, the following results appeared : first test time mean v max volume 1568 m s 0.31 0.37 500 ml 1782 m s 0.35 0.43 750 ml 1945 m s 0.38 0.49 1000 ml 2126 m s 0.41 0.54 1250 ml 2387 m s 0.45 0.59 1500 ml 2601 m s 0.49 0.64 1750 ml 2843 m s 0.53 0.68 2000 ml second test time mean v max volume 1633 m s 0.34 0.41 500 ml 1869 m s 0.38 0.47 750 ml 2014 m s 0.42 0.53 1000 ml 2257 m s 0.46 0.56 1250 ml 2499 m s 0.5 0.62 1500 ml 2706 m s 0.55 0.68 1750 ml 2921 m s 0.59 0.74 2000 ml third test time mean v max volume 1428 m s 0.3 0.33 500 ml 1654 m s 0.35 0.38 750 ml 192 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1845 m s 0.39 0.52 1000 ml 2038 m s 0.44 0.57 1250 ml 2241 m s 0.48 0.61 1500 ml 2417 m s 0.53 0.66 1750 ml 2612 m s 0.57 0.7 2000 ml m s : is milli second unit fig 4.1 line of one test (a) first test (b) second test ( c ) third test fig 4.1 line of one test 193 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. second test r.r volt max 750 ml mean 750 ml time 750 ml volt 1000 ml mean 1000 ml time 1000 ml 8 0.51 0.34 2471 m s 0.61 0.40 2785 m s 10 0.62 0.41 2102 m s 0.74 0.47 2423 m s 12 0.76 0.49 1869 m s 0.87 0.54 2099 m s 14 0.87 0.57 1423 m s 1.01 0.61 1799 m s 16 0.99 0.65 1122 m s 1.13 0.69 1354 m s 18 1.10 0.73 847 m s 1.26 0.78 1017 m s 20 1.22 0.81 493 m s 1.39 0.86 847 m s table 4.2 results for second test in this test apply the same previous steps but the different is a change of respiratory rate each time towards the increase from 8 to 20. with the choice of two fixed volumes of air coming out of the device. after the first test, the following results emerged when the volume of air flowing increases, volt increases in size, thus increasing the time spent breathing after the preliminary results are extracted, the straight line equation is applied, which states for each straight line there is a relationship between x&y of the points on which it is located and this relationship is called the straight line equation. fig 4.2 apply the straight line equation to one of the results of the first test 3. conclusion at the time of the first test, the voltage increased when the amount of volume on the sensor was increased when the breathing rate was stabilized by 6 times per minute. also in the second test when the amount of breathing rate is increased and the amount of air is stabilized on the sensor. as for the time when the air volume changes, we notice an increase in time when the respiratory rate is stabilized. in the second case, the time is lower when the breathing rate changes by the size. thus, the linear shape of the results represents a straight line when the volume of air increases and the amount of volts increases and it is possible to find the line's inclination for results by the straight line equation applied above. 4. applying the bernoli equation to the flow of gases «bernoli's theory is the relationship between pressure, speed and height in moving fluid, whether liquid or gas, compression and viscosity, i.e. internal friction that cannot be remembered and flowed constantly or plying. the first theory by swiss mathematician daniel bernoli actually stated that the total mechanical energy of flowing liquids, including energy associated with fluid pressure, potential gravitational energy of height and kinetic energy of motion fluids, is therefore 194 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the principle of energy conservation for ideal liquids in fixed flow and is the basis for many engineering applications.» 5. discussion the purpose of the projector is to measure the amount of exhalation force through the speed of the air projected into the pipe. the mpx5010dp sensor was used to calculate the amount of pressure difference placed inside the tube and the time spent during the test. thus, the results are compared by applying the bernoli equation for gas flow and that to find the speed of pressure. this research can be developed on equipped with a delete button. using a sensor other than mpx5010dp in order that there will be a better innovation and measurement. 6. sources 1. schmidt, m. ["arduino: a quick start guide"], pragmatic bookshelf, january 22, 2011, pg. 201 2. fowler, charles b. (1967( ،"the museum of music: a history of mechanical instruments" ،music educators journal54 ، (2(: 45–49 3. p. s. wardana dan r. adil , " spirometer non invasive dengan sensor piezoelektrik untuk deteksi kesehatan , " vol . 5 , no . 2 , hal . 188-206 , 2017 . 4. w. mubarok , e. kumaidah , dan y. supatmo , " perbedaan nilai vital capacity , forced vital capacity dan forced expiratory volume in one second antar cabang olahraga pada atlet usia 6-12 tahun , " vol . 4 , no . 4 , hal . 1619-1625 , 2015 . 5. alice mela: "a visit to the arduino factories". domus, 2013-5-15. (2015eko otsailaren 21ean ikusia) 6. fowler, charles b. (1967( ،"the museum of music: a history of mechanical instruments" ،music educators journal54 ، (2(: 45–49 7. a. zainudin , e. rahmawati , dan dzulkiflih , " pengukuran volume paru paru dengan memanfaatkan sensor tekanan , " j. inov . fis . indones . vol . , vol . 04 , hal . 127-132 , 2015 8. w. t. kusuma , e. s. pramukantoro , s. djajalaksana , p. studi , i. fakultas , dan i. komputer , " rancang bangun aplikasi pengukur kesehatan fungsi paru manusia memanfaatkan microphone pada smartphone , " vol . 3 , no . 2 , hal . 115-125 , 2016 . 215 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the role of graphic knowledge and skills in the development of students' cognitive interests boymuratov farrukh khamzayevich karshinskogo engineering and economic institute, uzbekistan annotation: the article shows that the role of graphic knowledge and skills in the development of students' cognitive interests is extremely important, and recommendations for the preparation of the teacher of engineering and computer graphics for the lesson are given, as well as the responsibility of the teacher and independent and graphic learning in mastering the science of engineering and computer graphics. ways to increase the importance of assignments are suggested. keywords: engineering graphics, cognitive interest, teacher's preparation for the lesson, independent graphic assignments, lesson plan, calendar-plan. graphic literacy, checking graphic works. introduction. graphic knowledge and skills play an important role in the development of students' cognitive interests. here are some ways they can contribute. graphical skills help students visualize and organize information, which can improve their understanding of complex concepts. working with graphics requires a creative approach, which helps students develop creativity and thinking. graphic knowledge helps students better remember information through visual association. visual association is the process of associating visual images with specific concepts, ideas, or information. when we make visual associations, we make connections between images or pictures and concepts, which help us remember information better and faster. for example, if we try to remember a shopping list, we can create visual associations for each product, representing them in the form of vivid images or pictures. this makes the information memorable and helps us remember the items on the list more easily. the forms of teaching students are different, and the role of graphic knowledge and skills in the development of their cognitive interests is mainly aimed at acquiring new knowledge for didactic purposes, forming skills and competences in performing graphic work, reading and drawing drawings. depends on such things as knowing. in this case, for students to acquire the necessary theoretical knowledge and practical skills, specially directed educational issues serve as a unique way of forming educational activities. based on this, the students are given the tasks of projection and learning to read the drawing. when students solve these problems together with the teacher, they develop concepts. in engineering and computer graphics classes, it is important to develop the following imagination and characteristics in students: a) enriching the imagination in the processes of knowledge acquisition, accurate management (focus, memory, and attention focused on a specific goal). b) students' speech abilities, ability to understand and use different sign systems (symbolic, graphic, and pictorial). 216 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in an educational context, visual associations can be used to improve recall of material, organize information, and improve understanding of complex concepts. creating visual connections between different elements helps students better understand the lesson material and improves cognitive processes. development of analytical skills: working with graphics requires analytical thinking and helps to develop the skills of analyzing and synthesizing information. increase motivation: the use of graphics in the learning process makes learning more interesting and exciting for students, which increases their motivation to learn. thus, graphic knowledge and skills play an important role in the development of educational interests in students, help them to better understand information, develop creative thinking and analytical skills, and increase motivation to study. any type of activity, including teacher training, requires advance preparation and planning. the curriculum is not only limited to the necessary knowledge and skills to be acquired by students, but also determines the number of hours of study recommended for learning each subject. this stage of preparation is the direct duty of the teacher, and the teacher is prepared for it based on the educational programs. taking into account the local conditions, the level of preparation of students and relying on his pedagogical experience, the teacher can slightly change the number of hours allocated to the study of this or that topic, as well as independently distribute the educational material to each hour. these works are carried out before the academic year, during the calendar-planning period based on the training plan. a lesson plan is prepared for each lesson. despite the fact that as a result of a number of objective and subjective influences, the teacher is sometimes forced to make changes to the pre-prepared calendar-plan, he should consider the careful development of the plan in advance as a necessary and responsible stage of his professional activity. the quality of the plan is the information, practical skills and competencies that the teacher wants to teach the students, the nature of the difficulties associated with learning each section of the program, and how clear and complete the level of preparation of the students is. is defined by imagination. the teacher prepares lesson plans throughout the year based on the calendar-plan and correctly determines the information necessary for making a plan for the next year. students' knowledge of engineering and computer graphics, their interest in graphic literacy depends on a number of influences. the main of these conditions are as follows:  the study of engineering and computer graphics, like other subjects, should be educational in nature and should be conducted on a highly scientific basis. the teacher should always explain the connections between theory and practice. in the first lessons, the importance of engineering and computer graphics in the development of technology should be explained to the students. students should acquire the knowledge and skills in engineering and computer graphics necessary for modern manufacturing and further education.  in the process of preparing for the lesson, the teacher should clearly imagine the structure, size and content of the educational material. it is necessary to determine the purpose and tasks of the lesson in advance. when preparing for the lesson and passing it, you should not work according to the familiar scheme and template every time.  in order for students to gain solid knowledge of the basics of graphic literacy, the teacher must have a deep knowledge of the theoretical and practical foundations of engineering and computer graphics. he should also have high methodological skills in teaching science, the ability to interest students in science. the teacher should always remember that the end and result of the lesson, students' attitude and interest in science, are directly related to their preparation, knowledge and skills. negligence, irresponsibility and other shortcomings always have a negative impact on the results of working 217 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us with students. the following words of a.s. makarenko are very relevant in this regard: "if your work is always accompanied by failures and shortcomings, if at every step it seems that you do not know your job, you will not achieve anything other than discrimination and all kinds of sarcasm". it is necessary for the teacher to carefully study the curriculum of engineering and computer graphics, to understand its main direction and content, to know clearly its purpose and tasks. students of technical and pedagogic universities (institutes, technical schools) must complete the mandatory individual graphic tasks specified in the program of engineering and computer graphics science and work assigned to check their theoretical knowledge. a graphic task, i.e. a work done individually, means a drawing done independently at home (outside of class) based on the topic covered. graphic work is performed in a certain format in accordance with standard rules. the formation of graphic knowledge among students is a complex process and is closely connected with the educational process. taking into account the unique characteristics of all students in the educational process, the possibility of taking a lesson will not be as high as an individual approach to educational and graphic work. therefore, the teacher can use the opportunities that he could not use during the lesson with students by doing independent and graphic work. many years of observations show that students mainly acquire solid knowledge and skills by doing individual educational graphic work. because the theoretical knowledge given during the lesson is mainly reinforced in practice through graphic work. a step-by-step approach to graphic design works best. the first check can be done after the students draw the graphic work in thin lines. in this case, errors in the way the student placed the drawing on the paper, its border (frame), and the main text in the lower right corner of the drawing are checked. the drawing scale, dimensions, and geometric constructions are carefully observed. if the requirements of the standard are met correctly, the pencil will write "permission to enthronement" and the date of inspection will be marked. if the standard requirements are violated, there are mistakes in the drawing, it is better to explain the topic to the student again. such drawing shall be marked as "corrected" and the date of inspection shall be marked. in this way, it is necessary to repeatedly check the drawing until it is error-free, and explain the ways of correcting the mistakes. through subsequent checks, when working with students individually, the teacher will find out which student can recommend a variant of graphic work of which complexity, and to which one can summarize or explain the topic in detail. a second check can be done after the drawings are in place. it is important that the thicknesses of the line types are the same throughout the drawing. often, students do not draw the size and center lines as required by the standard, they draw them from the contour of the detail, the output line is more than the dimension line, that is, they do not delete more than 3-5 mm. the main goal is to fully comply with the requirements of the standard. in the final check, the main entry is checked for correct spelling and graded. some students make mistakes even at the last stage of drawing. in such a situation, it is necessary to allow to correct the error of that drawing without redrawing the drawing. a pencil should be used to check and correct errors in drawings. because the students are worried when they see an ink pen in the hand of some teachers and think that "now they will paint my drawing in ink." during the evaluation of graphic works, the fact that the drawing is submitted on time, that is, within the specified period, and its quality is taken into account. conclusion instead, it can be said that if the teacher attaches great importance to the fact that the level of complexity increases when creating independent and graphic tasks for students, the mastery of science and interest in science will be higher. considering the importance of 218 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us graphic literacy, graphic knowledge and skills in the development of students' cognitive interests, we believe that it is appropriate to conduct training for students based on their life and direction in the teaching of engineering graphics. list of references used 1. j.yodgorv, t.sobirov, n.yodgorov. geometrik va proyeksion muhandislik grafikasi fani. о„quv metodik qо„llanma -t. “fan” , 2007.-275 b. 2. “pedagogik maxorat va pedagogik texnologiya” n.s.sayidaxmedov n.n.indiaminov fan va texnologiya 2014 y. 335 bet. 3. r.ishmuhamedov, a.abduqodirov, a.pardayev. ta‟limda inovatsion texnologiyalar t. “iste‟dod” jamg„armasi, 2008 y 261 bet. 4. boymuratov f. muhandislik va kompyuter grafikasi fanini o „qitishda kognitiv 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architecture (2993-2637). – 2024. – т. 2. – №. 2. – с. 157-162. 23. irgashev d. b. agrotechnical requirements for deep tillage without turning the soil //научное обеспечение устойчивого развития агропромышленного комплекса. – 2021. – с. 591-594. 24. иргашев д. б. и др. боғ қатор ораларини текис ағдармасдан ишлов берадиган қия устунли юмшаткични рама констурукциясида жойлашиш асослаш //barqarorlik va yetakchi tadqiqotlar onlayn ilmiy jurnali. – 2022. – т. 2. – №. 11. – с. 138-146. 25. irgashev d. b., ganiev b. g. based on longitudinal distance of sloped column working bodies working between garden rows //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 9. – с. 48-51. 26. irgashev d. b., safarov a. a. tuproqqa agdargichsiz ishlov beradigan ishchi organ konstruksiylari va ularga qo‟yilagan talabllar //analysis of international sciences. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 6-12. 239 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 2, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 a review of global management and procurement: impacts on sustainability and cost-effectiveness in architectural projects manisha bs independent researcher, bengaluru,560090, india abstract: this proposal presents a study that seeks to understand the influence of global procurement on sustainability and cost-effectiveness in architecture. the research is relevant to architecture, as it aligns with the increasing globalization of architectural projects, necessitating efficient procurement strategies. the study aims to investigate the impact of global sourcing on environmental sustainability and cost considerations. the proposed research will review pertinent theories on international procurement and sourcing. it will analyze existing literature on global procurement practices in architecture, focusing on sustainability and cost-effectiveness. by identifying existing gaps in research on this topic, the study will also help to direct future investigations and discussions. the study’s significance is further underpinned by its potential to enhance sustainable and cost-effective procurement practices in the architectural industry. the anticipated contributions of this research include an exploration of the integration of sustainable practices into global procurement processes and its impact on environmental outcomes, as well as an examination of the interplay between sustainable procurement practices and project costeffectiveness. keywords: global procurement, sustainability, cost-effectiveness, architecture, international sourcing, supply chain management. 1. introduction the knowledge and understanding of global management and procurement in architecture practice are significant as architectural firms transact and project in different places with varying frameworks. as a result, there is a broad range of complex legal and procurement-related challenges, which include the need for global collaboration and high human development practices to sustain and increase the industry (low, 2012). however, sustainable and costeffective strategies can be achieved through effective procurement mechanisms. the construction industry has normative professional practices and has been strongly regulated for a long period, indicating a need for adaptability in global frameworks and competitiveness in the international market. although the development of the construction industry has been stagnant, different governments have initiated national programs to advance the development of the industry. the use of advanced and modern technological tools and the application of project management concepts can help to improve information flow and communication among different stakeholders, ultimately supporting the decision-making and resource allocation (naulleau et al., 2010). the purpose of the study is to find out how global procurement can impact the sustainability and cost-effectiveness of a project, and the problem statement for the study is: in what way does global procurement impact the sustainability and cost-effectiveness in architecture projects? in conclusion, the best outcome of the study is the knowledge and understanding of global management and procurement for architecture students (beacock et al., 2011). 240 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. methodology the research adopts a literature review approach to explore the role of global procurement in architectural projects. the study critically examines existing theories on global sourcing and supply chain management in the architecture, engineering, and construction (aec) industry (goulding et al., n.d.). 2.1. literature review process a systematic search of academic journals, conference proceedings, and industry reports was conducted to identify relevant themes on global procurement, sustainability indicators, and costbenefit indicators in architectural projects (amaratunga et al., 2014). the search was limited to papers presented in leading conferences and research outputs that focused on the global challenges in the built environment. 2.2. data analysis quantitative data on global project values, sustainable architecture adoption rates, and digital procurement was analyzed to identify trends and relationships between procurement strategies and project performance. the data analysis approach is guided by the research roadmap developed by giddings and melhado (2019) for architectural design and management. 3. modeling and analysis the research consists of essential findings about worldwide management and procurement in architecture. there are statistical information of 2020-2023, which shows that sustainability and digitalization have been more relevant in the procurement process.(hardie & perera, 2022). table 1. global management and procurement trends in architecture year global project value (billion usd) sustainable architecture projects (%) digital procurement adoption (%) 2023 1400 45 60 2022 1300 42 55 2021 1200 38 50 2020 1100 35 45 the data indicates a steady increase across all measured indicators, reflecting greater investment in sustainable architecture projects and a wider uptake of digital procurement solutions. the factor with the highest impact on the adoption of sustainability practices is "long-term stakeholder benefits" (80%), while the factor with the lowest adoption percentage is "engagement with international suppliers" (55%). 4. results and discussion 4.1 the influence of global procurement on architectural projects the incorporation of a global perspective into procurement strategies presents significant potential for architects to enhance the sustainability and cost-effectiveness of their projects. for example, by sourcing materials, services, and technologies from a global market, architectural firms can access a wider range of sustainable options that meet international standards and certifications, which can result in an overall increase in the quality of their projects while also reducing their environmental impact (low, 2012). this approach also allows for greater flexibility and cost savings, as firms are not limited to local or regional suppliers and can take advantage of lower prices and higher quality materials or services elsewhere. in the context of the current economic climate in the construction industry, the ability to source sustainable and cost-effective materials and services from around the world is an essential consideration for architectural managers and firms. 241 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us lean construction’s primary goal is the delivery of economic value, which by extension, calls for the delivery of social value as well (daniel & pasquire, 2018). however, while the metrics of lean construction are well-developed, the academic community still does not agree on how to measure social value in procurement. by looking at the broader role of global procurement, architects and managers will have a better understanding of the context of their projects, which will allow them to work towards the long-term sustainability of their activities. 4.2 the impact of global procurement on the sustainability and cost-effectiveness of projects the main problem that is identified in the case study is related to the construction industry being sustainable and cost-effective in the context of global management and procurement. it is not a secret that, over the past years, numerous global challenges and worldwide problems have emerged in different fields of human activity. in other words, the construction industry is forced to face such challenges as the development and advancement of technology, climate change, economic conditions, and disrupted world in general. these challenges are also directly or indirectly applicable to the current case and sustainable construction and procurement (hardie & perera, 2022). in this regard, the most reasonable approach and solution that can be implemented to address and deal with the challenges is efficiency and cost-effectiveness. the procurement process can ensure reduction in terms of spending by using modern and updated techniques. for instance, sustainable procurement is an option that allows for purchasing low-carbon equipment and building materials and provides the opportunity for effective project management and sustainable options to select the construction services. in addition, a simple example that would also help the company to face and solve the problem is global management and procurement. in this case, low-cost building materials or construction services can be sourced from foreign suppliers to create a new positive business impact and ensure that resources are used rationally, efficiently, and in the most economic way (amaratunga et al., 2014). in the end, the sustainable procurement model would be creating a built environment and future construction that would be both cost-effective and sustainable from an economic, environmental, and social perspective. the long-term impact, in this case, would be a more social impact and benefit for various stakeholders and society in general. 4.3 the challenges of global management for students of architecture architecture students are usually most challenged with projects where global management issues are presented. multinational project characteristics such as cultural issues, legal and tax issues, supply-chain management, procurement, and systems are particularly difficult for students who have not been exposed to or studied international issues in depth. however, in this day and age it is imperative that architects have international experience or are well-versed in the adaptation of design and process to international contexts. this has a wide-reaching impact in the areas of leed and sustainable projects, green building, and international collaboration (naulleau et al., 2010). architecture projects are more sustainable when there is mutual interest among parties of the project. in the event that there is an economic disturbance, a company may avoid the risk and process of change and simply choose the low hanging fruit of project cost cutting. it is often a case of reduction in supply-chain management research and development, systems that would otherwise support the long term interest and longevity of sustainable design elements. 4.4 navigating cultural differences and the regulatory environment in global architecture international or global architecture can be very complex, mainly when cultural differences and regulatory distinctions are made (giddings & melhado, 2019). as a result of international cooperation in the field of architecture, it is necessary to successfully complete projects and tasks. as previously mentioned, such architectural projects involve a diversity of cultures. the challenges of understanding regional institutions and regulations are another component of the 242 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us overall difficulty (giddings & melhado, 2019). institutions must consider international standards and norms, as well as cultural expectations. an institute mentions its views on responsible management in education (bryant university, 2021). there are also cultural and regulatory complications of global architecture procurement. cultural awareness and global regulatory knowledge are important areas of professional growth for an architect. 5. conclusion the study provides valuable information about global management and procurement in architecture. it is crucial to understand that procurement processes must be integrated with sustainable practices to minimize environmental impacts and improve cost-effectiveness (daniel & pasquire, 2018). in addition, the importance of partnerships among stakeholders in architecture, such as architects, suppliers, and contractors, is highlighted. this can influence the understanding of the challenges and opportunities of global sourcing and supply chain management. the complexity of global architecture sourcing and supply chain management can be informed by the fragmentation in the architecture, engineering, and construction (aec) industry (goulding et al., n.d.). aec’s nature results in a lack of communication and collaboration among stakeholders, which can affect project performance and efficiency. the study may lead to future research on the use of technology, such as digital procurement platforms, to streamline global management and procurement. it is also possible to focus on best practices in emerging markets. it is interesting to propose the business e-learning guide and consider boys & ford’s (2008) research on using e-business in higher education for practice. it can be applied to b2b and b2c practices by focusing on procurement in architecture. the authors propose a holistic view that is informed by e-business practices, which is beyond e-learning, to provide seamless management (boys & ford, 2008). thus, it is necessary to integrate this model in terms of students’ and workers’ training to ensure the successful performance of their tasks. architects and project managers can use various methods and tools to improve the success of the projects by considering the needs of the changing global situation. this can influence project collaboration and support the growth of global architecture. it will also contribute to new discussions on global management in architecture, which will impact higher education and training. references 1. amaratunga, d., haigh, r., keraminiyage, k., kulatunga, u., pathirage, c., & ruddock, l. (2014). cib international conference 2014: w55/65/89/92/96/102/117 & tg72/74/81/83 construction in a changing world: book of abstracts. centro de investigaciones biologicas del noroeste (cibnor). 2. beacock, p., perera, s., & walker, s. (2011). educating the global citizen in sustainable development: the influence of accreditation bodies on professional programmes. northumbria university library. 3. boys, j., & ford, p. (2008). the e-revolution and post-compulsory education: using ebusiness models to deliver quality education. informa uk limited. 4. bryant university. (2021). commitment to unprme update on progress 2019-2021. bryant digital repository. 5. daniel, e., & pasquire, c. (2018). creating social value within the delivery of construction projects. emerald. 6. giddings, b., & melhado, s. (2019). architectural design and management: research roadmap. international council for research and innovation in building and construction (cib). 243 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. goulding, j. s., ojo, a. o., pour rahimian leilabadi, f., & pye, c. j. (n.d.). construction education requirements for achieving level 2 and 3 bim. 8. hardie, m., & perera, s. (2022). the 45th australasian universities building education association conference: global challenges in a disrupted world: smart, sustainable and resilient approaches in the built environment, book of abstracts, 23-25 november 2022. western sydney university. 9. low, s. p. (2012). strategic development of the built environment through international construction, quality and productivity management. 10. naulleau, g., sanz, m., & tafur segura, j. j. (2010). a multicultural experience boosted by specialized european master: a real approach to international project management. e.t.s.i. aeronáuticos (upm). 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 physical properties of textile fabrics jurabayev nozimjon phd student, namangan institute of textile industry meliboyev umarjon professor, namangan institute of engineering and technology xoliqov qurbonali professor, namangan institute of textile industry abstract: in this article, one of the physical properties of textile fabrics, water wicking property and its types are studied. keywords: hygroscopicity, water absorption (capillarity), humidity. introduction the group of physical properties includes hygroscopicity, air and vapor permeability, dust absorption, electrification, optical and heat preservation properties of fabrics. physical characteristics can be divided into the following groups: 1. features related to the ability of fabrics to absorb water. 2. properties related to the ability of fabrics to pass air, water, steam, etc. 3. features that describe the relationship of fabrics to the influence of different temperatures. 4. optical properties of fabrics. 5. electrification of fabrics. textile fabrics have the ability to absorb various substances in liquid, gas or vapor state. in this case, the mass, dimensions, strength, uniformity and other properties of fabrics change. during the production and use of textile products, they are always exposed to water or steam. fabrics have several properties that describe their ability to absorb water or steam. these include moisture, hygroscopicity, water absorption (capillarity), water absorption, etc. of fabrics. humidity w (percentage) — indicates the amount of moisture in the moisture cells under the conditions of real air humidity and is calculated using the following formula: wh =mh-mq / mq*100 where: mh is the mass of the sample at the actual air humidity, g; mq — absolute dry sample mass, g. hygroscopicity wg (percentage) is the humidity of the sample at a relative humidity of 98-100% and a temperature of 20±2°c: 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us wg =mck mq / mq*100 where: mck is the mass of wet flour kept for 4 hours in a desiccator with air humidity of 98% before the test, g; mq absolute dry sample mass, g; water absorption (capillarity) is estimated by the height of water rising from a sample immersed in water at one end for one hour. water absorption p% (percent) indicates the amount of water absorbed by the sample in the state of complete immersion in water: ps = ms-m0/m0*100 where: ms is the mass of the sample after immersion in water, g; m0 initial mass of sample, g; the above properties can be determined using direct methods. these methods are based on drying fabrics and determining their wet and dry mass. indirect methods are based on changes in electrical resistance or capacitance of fabrics with changes in moisture content. summary based on this study, it should be said that the water wicking index of summer and underwear fabrics should be high. this index is the highest in pure linen fabrics. such fabrics are mainly knitted fabrics, because underwear should have stretchability. knitted fabrics have this feature because they are made of loops. references 1. jurabayev.n.n, shogofurov.sh.sh, kholikov.k.m, meliboev.u.x (2021). study of the fabric structure influence on the physical-mechanical and technological properties of knitted products. in e3s web of conferences (vol.304, p. 03030). edp sciences. 2. shogofurov.sh.sh. kamalova.i.i, xolikov.k.m, (2021). study of the effect of changes on the technological and physical-mechanical properties of knitting in a new structure. engineering, 13(6), 287-299. 3. nozimjon jurabayev nizomiddin ugli, bokirboev foziljon rasuljon ugli, shogofurov shahbozjon shokirjon ugli, kholikov kurbonali madaminovich. analysis of the properties of sock products made of different yarns. american journal of social and humanitarian research, 2022, issn: 2690-9626 vol.3, no 5. 2022. 4. ne’matjon yoqubjanova), nozimjon jo’rabayev, umarjon meliboyev, kurbonali kholikov. analysis of automated control system of flat needle knitting machines. aip conf. proc. 3045, 050002 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0197321 5. ochilov t.a., matmusayev u.m.,qulmatov m.q. testing textile materials, textbook, 2004 https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0197321 363 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 01, issue 10, 2023 issn (e): 2993-2637 results of experimental research of the corps that provide functionality to the plantation area of poly crops d. sh. chuyanov karshi engineering economics institute (uzbekistan) abstract: the article describes the results of experimental studies of the guiding plate casings used in the planting area of polys crops. keywords: poly crops, soil, hull, diverter plate, irrigation ditch, palaxa, plant residues, tenzobarmak, weeds. introduction. the weather and soil conditions of our country are very favorable for obtaining abundant harvests from polys crops. therefore, it is appropriate to grow polize products on a large scale not only to satisfy the needs of the population of our republic, but also to sell them to other countries [1,2]. it is very important to use intensive technologies in agriculture and increase productivity at a low cost [3-8]. therefore, it is very important to carry out experimental studies on the justification of the structural parameters of the housings with guide plates that are used in the planting area of polys crops. materials and methods. the object of the study is the guiding plate housings, which work on the planting area of polys crops. the study of the technological work processes of the plate casings of the combined machine was carried out according to the literature sources and the results of testing in field conditions [9,10]. taking into account the results of theoretical studies, an experimental device equipped with plate casings, which are directed to the planting area for plowing, was made for conducting laboratory-field experiments. the technical description of the device is presented in table 1. researches were conducted in the fields of sertepa farm of kashkadarya region and scientific research institute of agricultural mechanization of yangiyol district of tashkent region. in experimental studies, the length of the guide plate and the depth of processing on the performance of the casings were studied. the burial completeness of plant residues in the planting area was determined by the mass of plant residues and weeds that remained unburied on the soil surface. counting of unburied plant debris and weeds was carried out in plots with a length of 5 m and a width equal to the coverage width of the hulls. unburied plant debris was collected and weighed on a balance with an error of 10 g. table 1. technical description of the experimental device for plowing the planting area name and unit of indicators the value of indicators coverage width, m 0,90-1,05 processing depth, cm 20–27 number of cases, pcs 2 casing width, cm 45-52,5 type of working surface of casings screw-shaped number of guide plates, pcs 2 364 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the depth of burial of plant residues was determined by measuring the distance from the surface of the plow to the upper limits of the placement of plant residues. two vertical cuts were made in each pass. measurements were made with an accuracy of 0.5 cm and in quadruplicate. the energy evaluation of the device housings was carried out together with their agrotechnical evaluation. during the experiment, the total resistance of the device r, the path traveled by the device s and the experimental time t were determined. the total resistance of the housings with guide plates was determined by the tension on the tension fingers installed in the suspension mechanism of the device. results and discussion. in the implementation of the proposed technology, i.e., the formation of the primary irrigation ditch with high-quality overturning of the blades is influenced by the coverage width of the casings, the length of the guide plate, and the depth of processing. when determining the effect of the length of the guide plate on the energy and quality indicators of the casings, the depth of processing was a=25 cm, the speed of the device was 1.72 m/s, the coverage width of each casing was 52.5 cm, and the coverage width of the device was 105 cm. according to the results of experimental studies (figure 1 and table 2), it was found that the length of the guide plate has a significant effect on the overturning of the blades and the profile of the plow. when the casings are operated without a guide plate, the blades are mainly laid on the untreated field surface to the right and left, respectively. in this case, an open embankment with a width of 103.2 cm and a depth of 31.8 cm is formed in the middle of the treated area. when the length of the guide plate is l3=40 cm, cases of incomplete overturning of the blade were observed, and an open egate 91.6 cm wide and 29.8 cm deep was formed. when the length of the guide plate was further increased, the technological process went reliably. as the length of the guide plate decreases, the tensile strength of the casings also decreases (fig. 1). because in the absence of a guide plate, up to a certain point, the blade is only affected by the body, and then it is overturned by the force of inertia. in this case, the pressure on the blade tipper is reduced and there is no resistance of the guide plate. with the increase in the length of the guide plate, the value of its resistance to traction and frictional forces on the working surface increases. this leads to an increase in the energy consumption spent on flipping the blade. when the length of the guide plate was 93 cm, each blade was turned on its edge, and the depth of the trench formed in the middle of the processing area was 9.8 cm. in this case, the guiding plate affects the blade from the beginning of its rise to its complete overturn, i.e., until 160-1700 overturns. figure 1. the variation of the drag resistance of the casings r and the mass of plant residues depending on the length of the plate that directs the burial completeness d 365 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us when the length of the guide plate is l3=80 cm, a groove with a width of 60.2 cm and a depth of 28.8 cm is formed, which meets the requirements of the proposed technology. table 2. effect of guide plate length on device performance the name and dimensions of indicators the length of the guide plate, m 0 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 0,93 aggregate speed, m/s 1,72 1,72 1,72 1,72 1,72 1,72 processing depth, cm: mr ±s, cm 24,9 1,8 24,7 1,7 24.6 1,5 24,3 1,4 24,2 1,4 24,2 1,3 coverage: mr ±s, cm 101,5 4,8 104,5 4,4 104,3 3,8 105,4 3,5 105,7 3,3 105,9 3,3 width of the ditch, cm 103,2 96,2 91,6 78,2 60,2 21,6 ditch depth, cm 31,8 30,3 29,8 29,1 28,8 9.8 burial completeness of plant remains, % 49,8 59,3 66,0 79,5 90,3 92,3 average burial depth of plant remains, cm 3,3 3,9 7,2 10,4 11,3 13,2 soil fertility, % 37,1 48,6 64,8 71,5 73,2 77,9 tensile strength, kn 9,6 9,9 10,6 10,8 11,1 11,6 weed burial follows a convex curve when the coverage width of the device is 105 cm, the coverage width of the housings is 52.5 cm, and the length of the guide plate is 80 cm (figure 2). figure 2. variation of the tensile strength of the casings r and the completeness of burial d of the mass of plant residues depending on the depth of their processing in the range of 22-26 cm of processing depth, the burial completeness of the mass of plant residues was up to 91-93%, that is, at the level of requirements. it can be seen from the graph (fig. 2) that with the increase of processing depth α, the tensile strength of the casings r increases. with the increase of processing depth a from 22 to 30 cm, the tensile strength increases by 15.3%. thus, it was determined that the completeness of burial of the mass of plant residues in the range of 22-26 cm of the rational processing depth of the casings is within the agrotechnical requirements. conclusion. the laws of change of the resistance of the guide plate body depending on its structural parameters, the working procedure and the properties of the soil were determined. 366 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us with low energy consumption, tilting of the blades relative to each other and formation of the initial irrigation ditch is ensured when the coverage width of the casings is 52.5 cm and the length of the guide plate is 80 cm. reference 1. малюков в.и. механизация бахчеводства. – волгоград, ниж.-волж. кн. изд-во, 1982. – с. 6-14. 2. zuyev v.i., qоdirxo‘jaev о., adilov m.m., akramоv u.i. «sabzavоtchilik va pоlizchilik», – т.: «iqtisod-moliya», 2016. – 288 b. 3. патент руз № iар 04004. способ обработки почвы и посева / маматов ф.м., чуянов д.ш., худояров б.м., эргашев г.х., гулбоев с.и. // расмий ахборотнома. – 2009. – №9. 4. патент руз № fap 00657. комбинированное орудие для обработки почвы и посева / маматов ф.м., мирзаев б.с., чуянов д.ш., эргашев г.х., қузиев н.м., шодмонов г.д., темирова д.и., исмоилов и.и. // расмий ахборотнома. – 2011. – № 11. 5. chuyanov d., shodmonov g.,ismailov i., ergashov g., sadikov a. traction resistance of the combined machine plough// conmechydro – 2021.e3s web of conferences 264, 04036 (2021). 6. маматов ф.м., чуянов д.ш., шодмонов ғ.д. тупроқни полиз экинлари экиш учун тайѐрлайдиган комбинациялашган агрегат // ўзбекистон қишлоқ хўжалиги. – тошкент, 2016. – № 12. – б. 42. 7. mаmаtov f.м., chuyanov d.sh., shodmonov g.d., ergashov g,kh. new technology and combined machine for preparing soil for sowing gourds // european science review. – vienna, 2018. – № 1-2. – рр. 234-236. 8. chuyanov d., shodmonov g., ergashov g., choriyev i. combination machine for soil preparation and sowing of gourds// conmechydro – 2021.e3s web of conferences 264, 04035 (2021). 9. доспехов б.а. методика полевого опыта. – москва: колос, 1979. – 416 с. 10. веденяпин в.в. общая методика экспериментального исследования и обработки опытных данных. – москва: колос, 1973. – 184 с. 135 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 7, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 using gis to optimal routing of solid waste collection trucks miqat majid hameed m.sc. student, dept. of civil engineering, college of engineering, university of kerbala, karbala, iraq muhammad abdulredha, shakir al-busaltan dept. of civil engineering, college of engineering, university of kerbala, karbala, iraq abstract: managing solid waste is a significant issue in many industrialized and developing nations. the greatest and priciest component of waste management is solid waste collection. the improvement of collecting solid waste is very important because of its overall cost reduction and positive environmental impacts. this paper reviews the impact of using gis-based improvement techniques for solid waste collection. the optimization process using gis is unique compared to other solid waste collection optimization techniques that provide temporary solutions when applied. gis provides room for additional parameters to be addressed during the optimization process, including street modeling. gis has proven its efficiency in optimizing solid waste collection through shortest path selection using the dijkstra algorithm and modeling processes using model builder. 1. introduction waste is excess material, anything that the owner wants to dispose off, or leftover product or material (christensen, 2011). the transformation into "waste" may depend on various conditions, including time, location, state of material, income level, and personal preferences (christensen, 2011). waste comes from domestic, commercial, and agricultural sources. it might contain chemicals, dangerous items, sewage, food scraps, and packaging materials. it can be a gas, liquid, or solid (abdulredha et al., 2018, gupta et al., 2023). sw is any item thrown away that is neither liquid nor gaseous (gupta et al., 2023). sw is the leftover material from production processes; it can also be referred to as rubbish, garbage, or rubbish, based on the kind of substance and local vernacular or domestic or communal activities (sulemana et al., 2018). the following factors are used to characterize sw: its sources, the types of waste generated, generation rates, and composition (ahmade, 2013). globally, sw has grown to be a persistent problem, worldwide. because of population growth and urbanization, it has been rising at an exponential rate (gupta et al., 2023). iraq's sws have emerged as a major source of pollution and environmental problems because of the state of the nation, the absence of contemporary waste management systems, and inefficient infrastructure (ahmed et al., 2020). so, to reduce the dangers to the environment and public health, proper management of sw is essential. swm is an extremely complicated process for the reason that it includes modern technologies and disciplines for managing development, handling, storage, collection, transfer, transportation, processing, and disposal (kallel et al., 2016), as depicted in figure 1. 136 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us swm differs greatly between developed and developing countries, as well as between urban and rural locations (ahmed et al., 2020). swm is one of the crucial services that the majority of advanced governments offer (salomons, 2012). this is beyond the capacity of municipal governments in developing countries to manage sw (sulemana et al., 2018). one of the primary issues facing emerging economies is the creation of an efficient and environmentally efficient swm system (sulemana et al., 2018). the high rate of waste generation, which is a result of population growth and rapid urbanization, limited financing, citizens' bad attitudes toward waste disposal, and a lack of political will, all contribute to the situation (sulemana et al., 2018). with forty million people living, iraq is among the nations whose populations are expanding quickly (al-mohammed et al., 2022). the projected daily production of trash in iraq is 31,000 tons; on average, a person creates 1.4 kg of rubbish each day (al-mohammed et al., 2022). in iraq, the process of managing sw is unfortunately limited three simple stages: collection, transportion, and disposal, because of a lack of infrastructure, machinery, and services, among other factors, but an effective system should handle at least four fractions of the waste's generation: storage, collection, transportation, processing, and final disposal(ahmed et al., 2020). any of these processes with poor design might lead to environmental impact and higher operating costs (sulemana et al., 2018). one of the most critical elements of any sw system of management is the collection and transportation of solid trash (sahib and hadi, 2023). many suggested that collection explains a sizable portion of the entire cost of swm (sahib and hadi, 2023). reducing collection and transportation expenses is necessary for emerging economies to achieve sustainable sw management (jay patel1, 2023). 2. solid waste collection (swc) the main point of any swm system is its collection component, which facilitates the evaluation of the system's overall efficacy and costs. (kallel et al., 2016). a significant portion of the swm process is swc, which is thought to account for up to two-thirds of the total swm expenditures (malakahmad et al., 2014). the increasing amount of solid trash generated by global population growth, production, and consumption activities poses a significant socio-environmental challenge for waste collection (del carmen-niño et al., 2023). swc is essentially the process of collecting waste products from certain locations, like street-side bins, dumpsters, or shared containers, in a methodical manner (kallel et al., 2016). sw is collected from a variety of sources and transported to a designated place where the collection vehicles' contents are emptied (sulemana et al., 2018). as a result, since it uses up the majority of the money that municipalities have set aside for swm at the expense of other system functions, it is the most costly and significant component of the swm system.(kallel et al., 2016), due to a large workload and widespread use of trucks (sulemana et al., 2018). thus, the task at hand is to 137 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us execute the best possible garbage collection and transportation process (including hauling, equipment and manipulation) (kallel et al., 2016). unfortunately, a lot of developing nations face difficulties with swc and transportation (wilson, 2007). because of the enormous costs connected to delivering the service, local governments in underdeveloped nations have been not able to control sw, effectively (sulemana et al., 2018). funds allocated for garbage management are becoming less plentiful globally, which makes the situation worse (sulemana et al., 2018). a portion of the waste produced is collected as a result of inadequate funding for swm, while the remainder ends up in unapproved disposal sites that pose major hazards to the public's health and the environment (amoah and kosoe, 2014). the operational scheduling , vehicle routing of swc, and transportation are key aspects as well. there are daily schedules for drivers. swc in their designated operational regions during this process. previous research has indicated that inadequate infrastructure, low numbers of garbage collection vehicles, inappropriate bin collecting systems, and bad collection schedules all have an impact on the collection processes (moghadam et al., 2009, hazra and goel, 2009). the collection of sw is adversely affected by bad road conditions, among other things like the total number of vehicles on the road (sulemana et al., 2018). inadequate road systems result in frequent vehicle breakdowns, raising maintenance costs at the expense of revenue (amoah and kosoe, 2014). for example, it is difficult for waste collection trucks to navigate and pick up waste along the city's tiny roadways, giving informal waste collectors a significant competitive advantage (hazra and goel, 2009). a. swc strategies the objective of swc strategies is to handle community garbage disposal properly and efficiently. a waste collection vehicle begins its journey in the garage, stops at participating homes along the way, and then returns to the collection sites (maimoun et al., 2016). once the collecting journey is over, the vehicle takes the rubbish to the post-collection location (such as a waste-to-energy facility, transfer station, or landfill). once at the post-collection facility, the waste collection vehicle returns to the garage empty (maimoun et al., 2016). people need to recognize that to maintain the community and environment, a good waste collection service requires citizen cooperation in the provision and usage of appropriate receptacles (tadesse, 2004). various swc system types are being used, as listed below: 1. curbside:using this method, residents fill the containers at the curb with their msw on the day of collection, and collectors pick them up and load them into their cars. (yadav and karmakar, 2020). this method is practical, does not depend on someone being available to turn over the msw, and enables collectors to work quickly and effectively (laurieri et al., 2020). 2. door-to-door:with this method, generators deliver their individual msw to the collectors right at the door. vehicles visit designated collecting places during prearranged times, and they frequently signal their arrival with a particular ring or bell (ibanez-fores et al., 2018). this method is affordable, practical for the general public, and prevents stray animal nuisances. however, to give the msw to collectors, a family member must be present at the residence (tadesse, 2004). 3. backyard:using a tote barrel, collectors enter the premises to gather msw and move it to a vehicle. (lella et al., 2017). residents will find this method quite easy to use since it eliminates the need for street dumpsters. moreover, this is highly costly due to the significant human effort involved (yadav and karmakar, 2020). this method works well in societies where housing is scarce and population density is lower (lella et al., 2017). 4. smart waste bins:in the swm field, there are a lot of new technologies available. they appear to be essential to current waste management (czekała et al., 2023). the goal of reducing trash's negative environmental effects and improving the efficiency of waste collection processes has led to the evolution of swm technologies in recent years. there are 138 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us many different ways, from the traditional methods mentioned above to more recent, sophisticated solutions utilizing cutting-edge technologies.(czekała et al., 2023). the objective of creating an intelligent container for waste is to offer a simple way to manage every garbage container in a city. it has several sensors and technology installed to aid in more effective garbage management (gopal kirshna shyam1, 2017). these sensors may pick up on a lot of information, including weight, humidity, gas emissions from the waste, and the amount of fill in the bin, among many other things (afolalu et al., 2021). using an ultrasonic sensor to measure the separation between the bin's top and bottom and compare it to the present fill level is an efficient way to control the waste material filling level (ayodeji noiki1, 2020). figure 2 show waste bins using smart technology. pneumatic:this system makes use of a system of waste inlets and chutes, underground storage tanks, and urban pipelines. there are numerous locations, both indoors and outdoors, where the waste fractions can be collected. trash bags are lowered via a chute into subterranean containers, and waste is transferred to a collection plant using a vacuum system collecting schedule (laso et al., 2019). electricity is used in this collecting process to gather and compress the various waste streams (laurieri et al., 2020), as depicted in figure 3. 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us b. factors influencing swc the constraints that must be taken into account in every particular circumstance are known as the factors. finding the right range of parameters for the optimization gathering process is not so simple, though by including more variables, the swc model becomes more useful. the next section discusses the most prevalent factors influencing the swc system. 1. capacity: the primary concern when dealing with limitation of capacity is the vehicle's ability to carry a certain amount of waste or a total weight during the trip (rathore and sarmah, 2019). occasionally, the volume or capacity of the containers at the transfer station or the pick-up location is also taken into account. to increase the swc system's reliability, the landfill's capacity restrictions, the type of vehicle utilized and the overall count of vehicles utilized for the collection of waste are taken into (erfani et al., 2018). 2. time: time is limited in a number of ways, including the time window, travel time, pickup time, load and unload times, and driver breaks. in order to maximize efficiency in terms of time, fuel consumption, and other relevant factors, the vehicle's trip route is taken into consideration while establishing a time window, the number of vehicles involved, and potential delays caused by traffic signals and pauses. a vehicle's total duration cannot exceed a certain figure, and the time factor is also taken into account when determining the collection time of each bin (son le and louati, 2016). the travel time is the time it takes the collection vehicle to move between collection points. the longer travel time reduces the quantity of locations for collection that are supposed to be completed within a specific time frame. pickup time refers to the period between the emptying of sw from containers and the collection of rubbish. pickup time comprises the duration of the operations involved in raising, lowering, and lifting the container using a semi-automated system located at the rear of the car. a worker assists in manually raising the container using a semi-automated loading device, and it is then released into the vehicle from the rear (gonullu, 2011). 3. labour constraint: a variety of studies take into account the number of fleets needed or the working hours of workers when examining the labour element. every worker is required to put in a set amount of time or perform a set shift. some writers reserve labor hours to operate the garbage loading truck between the hours of 7 a.m. and 12 p.m. monday through saturday (yusuf et al., 2019). in some circumstances, the necessary workforce size can be determined while accounting for additional costs. it is also possible to evaluate the quantity of trips needed when creating a swc system. for example, a swc system that aims to reduce costs and manage emissions can be accomplished while taking labour constraints into account (owusu-nimo et al., 2019). 4. environment: taking into account the swc system's life cycle, environmental restrictions are selected to minimize adverse environmental effects. furthermore, these limitations guarantee that the refuse item's composition in the phase of recuperation satisfies the quality criteria standards. restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprint are integrated to maximize waste management's operating efficiency. since the acceptable limit of co2 emissions constraint is applied in this manner, the distance traveled by the number of vehicles for the transfer of rubbish from the depot to the central stations does not increase fuel consumption. (edalatpour et al., 2018, vonolfen et al., 2011). 5. regulatory constraint: when creating the optimization goals for the swc system, a few regulatory restrictions must be taken into consideration. for instance, discarding trash is only permitted during specific hours, and bins need to be emptied after a predetermined amount of time. additional regulations may require that the vehicle tour starts and finishes at the depot, that only one truck is allowed to visit each stop, that the bin must be fully emptied, that each trip can only have one previous and one subsequent trip, that no stops are permitted when a vehicle is full, and that the waste must be taken to a disposal facility. furthermore, road 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us restrictions and rules play a major role in the optimization of swc (hannan et al., 2020, liu and he, 2012). c. route modeling methodologies and approaches sw is thought to be one of the main causes of the increasing rates of climate change and global warming, which has a variety of effects on sustainable development (gavurova and megyesiova, 2022). to optimize swc and reduce environmental impacts, as well as other elements specific to a given trash collection scenario, an effective computerized technique must be investigated (louati et al., 2018). poor and costly collection systems are the outcome of choosing the routes that collection trucks travel without applying technology or scientific interventions (tavares et al., 2009). the efficient routing of collection trucks is one way to guarantee improved performance in the swc process (sulemana et al., 2018). given its substantial effects on business, society, and the environment, routing for swc is one of the primary and most important aspects of swm (agha, 2006). routing depicts a route between points, such as the routed object's origin and destination (reinhardt, 2011). finding the best route from the location to the transfer station and disposal site is the aim of the vehicle routing problem. (singh and gupta, 2022). there can be just one vehicle involved in the issue, or there might be several. finding the shortest path between two points on a map is typically the goal of finding the best route, including minimizing a vehicle's route (singh and gupta, 2022). in the developing world, there is no coordinated or methodical method for allocating truck or vehicle schedules for the collection of sw (kanchanabhan et al., 2011). this is typically based on intuitive approaches and real-world experience, which leads to costly and ineffective practices that hurt the environment, public health, and corporate operations (khedikar, 2014). to assure resource conservation and environmental protection, numerous research has examined the swc problem from a mathematical programming optimization perspective, artificial intelligence (ai) techniques, and geographical information system (gis) -based methodologies (agha, 2006). 3. overview of various modeling techniques and algorithms used in waste collecting. many technical, climatic, environmental, socioeconomic, and legal constraints are often present in waste treatment procedures. using traditional approaches to model, forecast, and optimize such complicated nonlinear processes is difficult. the use of ai techniques to provide various computational methodologies for addressing swm problems is growing in popularity. (abdallah et al., 2020). artificial intelligence is good at handling ambiguity and missing facts, picking up knowledge from experience, and resolving vague problems. examples of these include features of rubbish forecasting, level of the garbage bin detection, process parameter prediction, vehicle routing, and swm planning (ozkaya et al., 2007, abdallah et al., 2020). for the modeling and optimization of swm processes, artificial intelligence (ai) systems such as artificial neural networks (ann), support vector machines (svm), linear regression (lr), decision trees (dt), and genetic algorithms (ga) have been widely used. (chatthong, 2014). anns work well for modeling processes with partial or ambiguous data sets, and for handling difficult and imprecise tasks, that call for human judgment (oliveira et al., 2019). anns mimic how a biological nervous system might respond to tasks in the actual world (duda, 2000). numerous studies using mathematical modeling and programming techniques have been conducted in response to the demand for the best possible truck routing for the collection and delivery of sw. the most popular routing and scheduling problems that academics use for data collecting include the shortest path problem, traveling salesman problem, and vehicle routing problem. (gianpaolo ghiania, 2005, sulemana et al., 2018). a certain number of vehicles leave the main depot, visit each depot along the way, and then return to the main depot to finish the route. this is the most fundamental and traditional version of the vrp. the goal is to identify these routes with the lowest possible cost (distance). this issue is known as the capacitated vehicle routing problem (cvrp) because it guarantees that the cars do not exceed their capacities when the capacity constraint is introduced (dereci and karabekmez, 2022). akhtar and colleagues presented a backtracking search algorithm-based solution to cvrp, utilizing the 141 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us idea of a smart dustbin to improve garbage collection routes, to minimize travel time and maximize the frequency of rubbish disposal (akhtar et al., 2017, van beek, 2006). in their study, assaf and saleh (2017) employed a genetic algorithm to solve the swc problem for the palestinian city of nablus as part of a vrp. the study's objectives are to reduce expenses and the distance garbage trucks travel. erfani and colleagues used a geographic information system (gis) to tackle the cvrp, or rubbish container collection and storage problem in ahmadabad, iran. there has been a 12.5% decrease in the number of tours, a 41% decline in the overall number of personnel, and a 53% enhancement in the total distance traveled (the main objective). additionally, they confirm that the current rubbish collection system has been deemed insufficient (erfani et al., 2017). to solve cvrp, hannan et al. (2018) introduced the modified particle swarm optimization (pso) algorithm and implemented ideas such as scheduling and waste threshold levels for various datasets. the strategy, which seeks to minimize the distance travelled to determine the best route, was highlighted as having strong results for waste collection and route optimization. it was also noted as having the potential to be a useful tool for examining the socioeconomic and environmental implications of waste collection systems. the traditional methods are unable to handle unpredictable factors, optimize many objectives simultaneously, and produce good results. nonetheless, the traditional methods can reduce the number of goals to a single, easierto-solve weighted sum goal (hannan et al., 2020). mixed-integer linear programming (milp) is a branch of traditional methods. when creating models a problem where factors vary within integers or real numbers, milp techniques are gaining traction. however, milp has drawbacks, such as expensive computing effort and elevated dimensions danger (yousefloo and babazadeh, 2020). the ideal garbage collection route in istanbul, turkey, is determined using milp-based optimal swc. the goal of the mathematical model's formulation is to reduce overall energy use (erdinç et al., 2019). no approach consistently yields the optimal outcome for vrp because it is an optimization problem. methods or algorithms that yield exact answers are impractical to use in a reasonable amount of time, or they may yield no results at all when the problem gets larger. heuristic approaches were created to overcome this problem by providing quick fixes and results that are almost ideal (dereci and karabekmez, 2022). in terms of issue complexity and computational time, heuristic approaches outperform conventional approaches (sebil, 2014). there are two types of heuristic algorithms: simple heuristics and metaheuristics. simple heuristics are reliant on the problem, while metaheuristics, which aim to maintain high-quality solutions with lower processing times in complex optimization problems, are problem-independent methods (dereci and karabekmez, 2022). generally, the goal of simple heuristics is to produce a workable answer and then attempt to refine it. several often used basic heuristics are the christofides, sweep, improved petal, nearest neighbor, and savings algorithms (christofides, 2022). conversely, metaheuristics efficiently search the solution space by combining many techniques and enhancing basic heuristics (roli, 2003). among the often utilized metaheuristics are ga, artificial bee colony, ant colony optimization, tabu search, neural networks, and simulated annealing (han, 2015), which is depicted in figure 4. 142 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a. genetic algorithm (ga) a class of metaheuristic algorithms called ga is employed in natural evolution simulation. (gandomi et al., 2013). rather of focusing on improving a single solution, gas use optimization techniques to enhance a set of solutions or hypotheses in a binary search space (meyer-baese and schmid, 2014). genetic algorithms mimic natural evolution in an attempt to identify acceptable answers. by genetic operators, new solutions are produced that bear certain traits from their parent solutions. one can choose one of these candidate solutions as the eventual solution (han, 2015, beliën et al., 2014). reproduction, crossover, and mutation are the three operational stages that the ga uses to refine the fitness equation and, as a result, find the optimal solution in the end (okrah et al., 2023). as an alternative, mutation is carried out by swapping out a few of the string's digits to get new answers. the produced solutions are compared with the objective function of the optimization problem in order to determine the overall fitness of each solution. the group's top responses are selected for the subsequent optimization cycle. efficiency, robustness of input data, and ease of programming are some of ga's benefits. however, gas must be carefully constructed, and choosing the wrong operators can hurt the mode's output(okrah et al., 2023). by taking into consideration the variables relating to traffic and the locations of trash cans, genetic algorithms have been utilized to design effective routes that minimize the fuel consumption of garbage trucks (singhal et al., 2019). ga is frequently used to optimize swc. using ga, a vrp for swc is modeled to determine the best routes that is minimizing both the travelled path and operating expenses. the findings show that the journey distance was reduced by 66%, and that the amount of rubbish collected was only collected for 2.3 hours instead of 7 hours (assaf and saleh, 2017). b. using ant colony optimization (aco) the ant colony optimization (aco) algorithm is one state-of-the-art method for vehicle routing in swm (okrah et al., 2023). aco is a discrete optimization technique where a colony of artificial ants, inspired by real ant characteristics, collaborate to find healthier solutions to various issues (belfiore, 2013). aco mimics how ants would behave when looking for food. ants leave behind a scent trail that other ants follow to find the shortcut when they are looking for food. the ants which use this road to return to the colony will eventually renew the pheromone trail earlier than the ants who choose a longer way, establishing the shortest path (han, 2015, beliën et al., 2014). ant colony optimization is depicted in figure 2.5. several 143 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us drawbacks of ann are addressed by aco, which has been called among the top-performing new computational instruments for optimizing parameters(okrah et al., 2023). as a result, anns with aco offer a useful method for resolving various kinds of optimization issues. network issues with the shortest path have been used in the following domains: social networks (knowledge workers), control of infectious diseases, disaster evacuation, transportation, garbage collection, delivery of goods, rail construction, routing in telecommunication networks, email and teleconference (acquah et al., 2022). numerous single and bi-objective modeling issues in swm have been resolved through the use of aco (okrah et al., 2023). in liu and he (2012) study, a clustering-based improved multiple aco is suggested as a way to reduce garbage collection route distance. the findings show that the route length decreases by 31.1% and 31.9%, respectively, with and without turn limits. in galván et al. (2017) study, for garbage collection optimization, two aco algorithms are proposed, and the outcomes demonstrate gains in terms of route length minimization and route redesigns. c. tabu search (ts) to enhance the performance of the local search, also known as neighborhood search, the ts is an extra meta-heuristic algorithm that modifies the basic principles of the search. (shao et al., 2020). the ts method can employ many techniques to identify viable answers that are arranged in a tabu list table. it draws inspiration from the way humans process information(mekamcha et al., 2019). in glover's (1989) original version of the ts algorithm, the process starts with a feasible first answer, s, that is kept as the optimal answer. the set of s's neighbors is constructed at each iteration using only one basic movement. their best neighbor configuration t, which comes after s, is utilized to assess these configurations using an objective function (shao et al., 2020). using ts, a garbage collection synchronization system is suggested to determine the most profitable truck routes. ts uses multi-objective adaptive memory programming (moamp) to collect waste containers in rural locations (gómez et al., 2013). 4. gis technology in swm gis integrates hardware, software, and data in a computer-based system to collect, organize, process, evaluate, and present any kind of geographically related data. (shrivastava et al., 2015). the first step in gis processing is data preparation and entry, which comprises gathering, 144 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us preparing, and entering the data into the gis database system that is required for information generation. data analysis, or step two, involves reviewing and evaluating the information that has been collected and entered the gis system. the analytical results are then suitably saved or shown during the data presentation step (elsai mati et al., 2022). its main benefit is that, unlike tabular or written data, it provides a visual output of the data in the form of maps and other graphics, making it easier to see patterns, trends, and relationships. the gis differs from other information systems in that it combines the benefits of visual and spatial analysis through maps with standard database functions like query and statistical analysis (wyatt and farrow, 2011). an essential component of gis is network creation, visualization, and management. because gis work is done in layers, there are fewer opportunities for error or confusion, and the system can coordinate between geographical and non-spatial data. a gis can be used to combine several data layers to create integrated, realistic digital maps of the surface of the earth. as depicted in figure 6. systems for geographic information are used in many different technologies, procedures, approaches, and strategies. they are associated with a multitude of applications and activities related to engineering, planning, management, and transportation (singh and gupta, 2022). considering how complex and integrated swm is, gis can be useful. consequently, spatial data forms the basis of planning and monitoring operations. important facets of swm include customer service, investigating the ideal places for transfer stations, organizing the routes for trucks carrying waste from residential, business, and industrial clients to transfer stations and from transfer stations to landfills, finding new landfills, and keeping an eye on the landfill (elsai mati et al., 2022). a geographic information system is a great tool for managing sw since it helps with technical element planning. numerous scholars have optimized swm practice by applying gis principles (hannan et al., 2018). for example, garbage truck trip distance is reduced as a result of optimizing waste collection with gis (vu et al., 2018). in ha giang city, vietnam, an agent-based model is created to maximize the transportation of solid garbage using gis analysis. the findings show that the average distance driven by each garbage truck has decreased by 11.3% (trong et al., 2017). in son (2014) study, the best options for waste 145 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us collection and truck routing are found by combining arcgis and particle swarm optimization (pso). vu et al. (2019) suggested that ann and gis can be used to optimize the length and distance of garbage truck routes. to reduce the number of trucks used for waste collection and disposal, efforts have been made in recent decades to minimize the distance between waste collection stations and landfills (hina et al., 2020). employed fuzzy strategies for making multicriteria decisions in landfill site selection where the group hazy, suitability maps are produced via gis analysis in the worst-case scenario (asefa et al., 2021). a. integration of gis with swc route optimization given the importance of gis in swm in all its systems, their importance also appears in systems for improving paths for improving swc, which is considered one of the very important swm systems. since collection and hauling costs make up 85% of total disposal costs, a municipal swm system can reduce these costs by implementing a route optimization(billa et al., 2014). numerous economic benefits are being amplified, therefore. by lessening the detrimental effects of "empty miles" in the swc and transportation process, route optimization can reduce total expenses (karki, 2023). when using gis to optimize vehicle routing problems, factors that are frequently disregarded in mathematical programming, namely: variable transit street network impedances, one-way streets, speed limits, and turn and height restrictions and restrictions, however, they can be included to model the street network (arribas et al., 2010). the network analyst extension, which was created using dijkstra's algorithm, is the primary arcgis extension used for network analysis (desai et al., 2018). dijkstra's algorithm, a more straightforward method for determining the shortest or least expensive path between two sites, is mostly used by network analysts. this algorithm maintains equilibrium by comparing the nearoptimal path to travel with a computationally feasible one (o'connor, 2013). creating a network with up-to-date gis data, identifying nearby facilities, generating a travel network cost matrix, and determining the best locations for facilities using location-allocation are some of the primary tasks of a network analyst. utilize time windows while booking your car to find the quickest routes.. data processing requires arcgis projections of waste dumps, transport routes, and container layers. the best route for collecting msw will be chosen based on the information acquired using arc gis. the route solver, a simpler version of the vehicle routing problem (vrp ) solver, is part of arcgis network analyst, enabling users to find the quickest or shortest route between network points. the route solver is depicted in figure 2.7. 146 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us one of the features of the arcgis network analyst software extension is the vrp solver. reducing total collection vehicle operating expenses and servicing orders are two of the vrp's functions. the vrp solver took into account various characteristics and cost impedances encountered when traversing the network during the analysis. the primary interface for importing classes and adjusting solver parameters is the vrp's analysis layer, which consists of 13 network analysis classes. tables and feature layers that are kept inside the analysis layer are represented by these classes. the vehicle routing problem is solved with the use of the network analysis items (arcgis website, 2023). o'connor (2013) found that the vrp solver was not the best option for determining route optimization for a sizable group of points. as a result, it is advised that several conditions be added to arcgis module builder to improve and automate the optimization process. according to esri arcgis, the researcher can create, modify, and manage models with model builder. models are workflows that connect geoprocessing tool sequences, passing the output of one tool as an input to another. another way to think of model builder is as a visual programming language for creating workflows. in sanjeevi and shahabudeen (2016) the arcgis generated optimized routes were compared with the current route for each ward. the arcgis optimized route length and the current route length are tabulated. 9.93% of the haul distance and 10.05% of the weighted average tone-km are saved when the current and arcgis route distances are compared. the gis offered every road connection between each of the necessary locations.. figure 8. show current route versus optimum route. figure 8: current route versus optimum route in sanjeevi and shahabudeen (2016) in sulemana et al. (2019) using esri's arcgis network analyst extension, the study modeled the current waste collection routes in three local authorities in ghana and determined the best routes. the study's findings showed that when trucks took the best routes, their weekly trip distance decreased by 81.27 kilometers, or 4.79 percent. fuel usage and travel time were cut by 145.86 l and 853.59 min, respectively, resulting in savings of 14.21 and 10.81 percent. figure 9. show current route versus optimum route. figure 9. show current route versus optimum route. table 2-1 review previous studies and research on swc using gis. 147 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 9: current route versus optimum route in sulemana et al. (2019) table 1: previous studies and research on swc using gis. author/s approach the main findings arribas et al. (2010) suggested a methodology for creating an urban sw collecting system. this approach reduces collection times and operating and transportation expenses and improves the present swc system by utilizing gis tools, integer programming, and combinatorial optimization. this methodology gives a sensitivity and comparative cost analysis of the outcomes, establishes feasible collecting routes, and establishes an appropriate vehicle fleet size. when this methodology is applied to a study case of a zone in santiago, the overall collecting system experiences large cost savings malakahmad et al. (2014) looked into the optimization of swc routes using the gis arc view. five routes were selected for the trial project from different parts of ipoh city, and the existing routes were modified to reduce their length and, consequently, the amount of time required to complete the collection. the route length has been reduced by up to 22%, according to the results. additionally, the collecting time was cut from 6934 seconds to 4602 seconds. son (2014) focused on the swc collection in danang city, one of vietnam's four largest municipalities. for the danang city swc problem, a unique vehicle routing model is provided. an innovative hybrid approach combining arcgis and chaotic particle swarm optimization is shown to produce the best results from danang's vehicle the suggested hybrid method outperforms other related methods, such as the manual swc procedure already in use in this city, according to experimental results conducted on a real dataset from danang. 148 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us routing model. trong et al. (2017) provided a model for municipal swc optimization using multi-agent-based modeling and simulation, the best course of action is initially developed in a static environment before being integrated into a dynamic one. a case study of hagiang city, vietnam, is presented to illustrate the efficacy of the proposed framework. the cost of swc is lowered by 11.3% based on the optimized results (vu et al., 2018) proposed a gis-based dual-phase model for a study in vietnam, integrating handcart pre-collection and truck collection phases. the model estimated the total system cost, with a single temporary collection point serving 2,590 people in 0.11 km2. the model showed a 13.76% reduction in truck travel distances, indicating that the number and distribution of temporary collection points significantly affected the pre-collection and collection stages' costeffectiveness. amal et al. (2018) suggested an updated ga for optimizing the route of swc that is based on spatial gis. to provide the best answers for cars, the suggested method, known as sga, adapts the original dijkstra algorithm in gis. then, a genetic algorithm is used to encode a pool of solutions, which are the best routes for every vehicle. iteratively, it progressed to a better answer and ultimately to the best one. to verify the effectiveness of the idea, experiments are conducted on the case study in the tunisian city of sfax. it has been demonstrated that the suggested approach performs better than both the workable path and the original dijkstra method. rizvanoglu et al. (2019) used linear programming and gis analysis to develop an optimal routing schedule for swc and transportation in the veysel karani neighborhood of sanliurfa province, turkey. the study found that using these methods, the cost of waste collection and transportation could be reduced by 28% and 33%, respectively, based on existing routes. hina et al. (2020) suggested a routing strategy for collecting truck routes in pakistan's twin towns, rawalpindi and islamabad. the study's application-based vrp, in particular, takes into account several useful guidelines, including commodity type, time windows, vehicle capacity, zone restrictions, and road infrastructure. eleven routes were chosen for the pilot project in various parts of the twin cities to reduce the route's length and, as a result, the time the findings show that in islamabad and rawalpindi, the travel distance was lowered by up to 18% and 9%, respectively. also, the collection times for islamabad and rawalpindi were shortened from 7.5 hours to 5.8 hours, and 8.3 hours to 7.2 hours, respectively. 149 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us needed to finish the collection. singh and gupta (2022) optimized swc utilizing the qgis tool to enhance the effectiveness of kanpur's ward 95, zone 2 garbage collection and transportation. to determine the appropriate, most efficient transportation routes for the management of sw, the area between the transfer station and the disposal site was modeled independently. the haul distance reductions for location are found to be 2.19% in this investigation. çakmak (2022) investigated the hatay province's iskenderun district, and denizciler district was selected as an example to illustrate every district feature. the esri arcgis software's assortment of tools has been used to test the method of optimization. in the latter part of the investigation, trash collection was carried out using the newly created route. consequently, the practicality of the network analysis-based improvement has been evaluated in actual environments., and it has been found that financial savings in terms of time and fuel are realized. a 421-meter shorter route was found using network analysis. considering the length of the existing route, which is 14340 meters, the research produced a 3% improvement. 5. conclusions this paper provides a brief identification to swm , which is a very complicated process as it involves advanced technology and specializations including generation, treatment, storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal. however, developing countries face great challenges in swm compared to developed countries, and iraq is one of them. swc is a very important specialization in the field of swm, and it represents the most expensive and influential part of the total costs of the swm process. swc includes collecting waste from different locations and transporting it to a designated place for disposal, which includes multiple strategies aimed at disposing of swc effectively and properly, including traditional and more advanced methods. swc routing is one of the most important aspects of the swm process to reduce the total cost and time of the collection process. the goal of the vehicle routing problem is to determine the optimal route from the site to the transfer station and the disposal site. in developing countries, there are no systematic and coordinated methods for routing swc vehicles, which leads to double costs and severe negative effects. therefore, with the development of research and studies to preserve the environment and protect resources, including reducing costs, many studies have studied the problem of swc from an optimization point of view using mathematical programming, artificial intelligence techniques, and methodologies based on gis . using traditional methods to model, predict, and optimize the swc process is difficult, so artificial intelligence methods that are integrated with advanced algorithms have become more popular as a means of providing different computational strategies to deal with such problems. they are considered the best and most advanced solution compared to using traditional or manual methods that often lead to ineffective results. one of the most advanced methods for optimizing swc routes is the geographic information system (gis), which differs from other information systems in that it combines the benefits of visual and spatial analysis through maps with standard database functions such as querying and statistical analysis. the gis contains a network analysis package which is important in optimizing waste 150 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us collection routes and its performance is based on dijkstra's algorithm which can compare the optimal route with the current route. references 1. abdallah, m., abu talib, m., feroz, s., nasir, q., abdalla, h. & mahfood, b. 2020. artificial intelligence applications in solid waste management: a systematic research review. waste manag, 109, 231-246. 2. abdulredha, m., kot, p., al khaddar, r., jordan, d. & abdulridha, a. 2018. investigating municipal solid waste management system performance during the arba’een event in the city of kerbala, iraq. environment, development and sustainability, 22, 1431-1454. 3. acquah, 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mixing. therefore, it is of great importance in the transfer of energy and the completion of various energy transition processes. in the processes of he between different energy systems, many factors influence and play a major and important role in the efficiency of transformation and exchange in forms of energy, such as the length, the material type, the exchange fluid, the surrounding environment, and many other factors. in this work, the effect of the he temperature of the parallel and counter flow hes was investigated based on the use of computer simulation programs. there was a significant impact of the exchange factors, especially the length of the hes in both the parallel and counter-flow hes, on the quality and efficiency of the he and the temperature distribution, a steady-state conjugate heat transfer (cht) model is coupled with computational fluid dynamics (cfd) analysis. in addition, the temperature profile and velocity streamline are also checked to analyze the fluid flow behavior of the radiator. with large temperature differences, variations in fluid properties due to temperature lead to changes in the surface heat transfer coefficient (shtc). the combined effects of shtc and temperature difference determine the heat transfer performance. the heat transfer performance and standard deviation of outlet temperature distribution. the aim of this paper is to investigate numerically the influence of variable fluid viscosity on thermal characteristics of plate heat exchangers for counter-flow and steady-state conditions. a finite difference method has been used to calculate the temperature distribution and thermal performance of the exchanger. water is used as the hot liquid being cooled in the side channels, while a number of working fluids whose viscosity variation versus temperature is more severe were used as the cold fluid being heated in the central channel. the temperature distributions of both streams have been plotted along the flow channel for all the above combination of working fluids. it is found that the overall heat transfer coefficient varies linearly with respect to either cold or hot fluid temperature within the temperature ranges applied in the paper. the exchanger effectiveness is not significantly affected when either the temperature dependent viscosity is applied or the nature of cold liquid is changed. paper contains a new method of numerical solution of energy balance equations for the thermal control volumes bounded by two plates. keywords: heat exchangers, heat transfer, numerical analysis, finite difference methods. introduction heat exchangers are the most widely-used devices for energy transport in the thermal engineering industry covering both most the engineering fields 1,2. maximizing the thermal efficiency and improving the hydraulic performance of such systems have always been the hot research directions of many scholars. hence, in recent years, quite a few technologies have been 31 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us proposed, such as intensifying the thermal physical property of working medium [4], reorganizing the spatial arrangement of heat exchanger units 3, and undermining the thermal resistance of wall boundary layer by incentivizing the roughness 4. by integrating the latter two, a common compound technique is the adoption of concentric tube arrangement filled with porous medium, where fluids flow in counter directions 5. to be specific, shirvan et al. 6,7 employed the response surface methodology to perform a sensitivity analysis for evaluating the effects of key effective parameters on the nusselt number and heat exchanger effectiveness of a dphe filled with porous media. they discovered different sets of effective parameter values for maximizing the two indicators separately and simultaneously. targeting on the development and evaluation of a novel shell-and-tube heat exchanger assembled with porous baffles, abbasi et al. 8 utilized the cfd simulation to perform a parametric study to figure out the thermos-hydraulic impacts of these baffles. then, the combination of heat transfer rate and pressure drop was selected by them as the objective functions to perform multi-objective optimization with artificial neural network implemented as the surrogate model. shi et al. 9 conducted parametric analysis to investigate the combined effects of the gradients of porosity and pore-size on the performance of flow and heat transfer in tubes filled with gradient porous media. furthermore, designating nusselt number vs. friction factor as the objectives, a multi-objective genetic optimization coupled kriging surrogate model was performed to obtain the design variables corresponding to optimal configurations. a desirable heat exchanger aims to maintain a proper thermal balance when transferring part of the heat from hot fluid to cold fluid 10. however, current thermal management systems have certain limitations. for instance, the heat exchanger cannot dissipate heat in time when the reaction temperature rises, resulting in a decrease in heat dissipation capacity. therefore, it is highly anticipated to achieve balanced heat transfer by minimizing pressure drop and maximizing heat dissipation 11. peng et al. 12,13 used several traditional one-dimensional models of ideally flow distribution (a uniform flow, a linear flow, a semi parabolic flow), and took a four-stream pfhe which has 36 passages as an example to analyze the impact of non-uniform flow distribution on the heat transfer efficiency of multi-stream plate-fin heat exchanger (mpfhe). taking into account the impact of headers, distributors and gross passages, computational fluid dynamics (cfd) techniques are used by yang et al. 14 to determine the flow distribution in pfhe. simulation software is one of the most important engineering tools in investigating information about the work of engineering devices, as this software is based on simulating the virtual reality of working conditions and calculating expectations and the effects resulting from operating these various systems 15,16,17. as a result of what simulation programs are doing, many industrial and engineering systems have been developed recently, as these programs reflect a clear picture of the work of the different systems and indicate potential faults and ways to address them during engineering design, even in some cases after implementing the design in reality 18,19. the simulation programs give hope of modifying the realistic designs with the lowest effort, cost, and best possible performance 20,21,22. in this study, the operational and design conditions of the he are highlighted, such as the flow rate of the matter inside the hes, the length of the he, and the effect of these conditions on the efficiency of the hes. studying energy sources alone is considered insufficient to determine the greatest benefit from them 23,24. here, work is highlighted in the aid of systems that are concerned with utilizing 32 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us energy, such as turbines of all kinds, boilers of all kinds, coolers, pumps, and other support systems . the he is considered one of the most important systems that help in the process of completing the various energy cycles, as it is based on completing the transfer of heat from the different parts of the systems without the need for physical mixing 25,26. 2heat exchange theory heat exchangers figure (1) are devices for exchanging energy between two or more fluids. they find applications in various industries like power, process, electronics, refining, cryogenics, chemicals, metals and manufacturing sector. even though heat exchanger designs have been reported quite extensively, they are generally limited to steady-state performance, single phase fluids, a few of the many possible flow arrangements and only two fluid heat exchangers. the effect of heat loss to the ambient from a parallel flow double pipe heat exchanger is also investigated and the results are compared with those available in the literature. the results are presented both in terms of the temperature distribution along the length of the heat exchanger 27. typically, hes are classified according to the internal arrangement, flow profile, and internal structure. one of the most widespread hes depends on the flow of fluids inside it, so hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction or in the opposite direction in what is known as the parallel-flow or counter-flow he, respectively. figure (1) shows the types of hes used in this study, where the figure (2) refers to the parallel flow he, while the figure 3 refers to the counter flow he. applications of exchangers: heat exchangers have many applications such as heating and cooling in homes as well as in the car, but in industry they are multiple, whether in energy production or chemical and petrochemical industries and petroleum refining and this is within the reach of our topic. fluid flow conditions in heat exchangers: there are two conditions of fluid flow direction in heat exchangers: 1. parallel flow the direction of fluid flow in this case is similar, that is, the two fluids are traveling in the same direction as in fig (1) 2. the opposite flow the direction of flow of the two fluids is opposite, that is, the two substances go in opposite directions, as in fig(2). the horizontal axis (x-axis) in the above two figures represents the length of the exchanger and it is noted in the opposite flow that the temperature difference is approximately constant along the heat exchanger, while in parallel flow, it is noted that the difference is very large in the entry of the exchanger and decreases along its length. practical applications have shown that opposite flow is more efficient than parallel flow. the log mean temperature difference approach is considered for the design as the following: 𝑞 = 𝑚 ̇ ℎ(𝑖ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑖ℎ,𝑜) and, 𝑞 = 𝑚 ̇ 𝑐(𝑖𝑐,𝑜 − 𝑖𝑐,𝑖) the above equations can be rewritten in term of using the temperate difference as: 𝑞 = 𝑚 ̇ ℎ. 𝐶𝑝.ℎ(𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ,𝑜) and, 𝑞 = 𝑚 ̇ 𝑐 . 𝐶𝑝.𝑐(𝑇𝑐,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖) finally, the overall heat transfer expressed as the equation 3; 𝑞 = 𝑈. 𝐴. δ𝑇m 28 the log mean temperature is calculated based on the structure of the he with an assumption of insulated he from its surrounding, negligible axial conduction along the tube, constant fluid specific heat, and constant overall heat transfer coefficient. so the log mean temperature can be given as: δ𝑇𝑙𝑚 = δ𝑇2− δ𝑇1 ln (δ𝑇2⁄δ𝑇1) = δ𝑇1− δ𝑇2 ln (δ𝑇1⁄δ𝑇2) 33 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where, the parallel-flow exchanger temperature condition is: ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇ℎ,1 − 𝑇𝑐,1 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 ∆𝑇2 = 𝑇ℎ,2 − 𝑇𝑐,2 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 and, the counter-flow exchanger temperature condition is: ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇ℎ,1 − 𝑇𝑐,1 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜 ∆𝑇2 = 𝑇ℎ,2 − 𝑇𝑐,2 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,i 29 (figure 1) heat exchanger (figure 2) parallel flow status (figure 3) counter flow 30 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3results and discussion the approach to achieve the objective of the paper is deriving the governing equations and developing a computer program based on finite differences to solve them. to solve the governing equations, the flow channel is divided into small elements in axial direction. physical properties are constant for each element, while viscosity changes from one element to another one. the program is run under four different conditions, namely: no axial conduction, axial conduction in the plates and in the flow channels, axial conduction in the plates only, and axial conduction in the flow channels only. the results of this paper are based on studying the effect of he length for different types, including parallel and counter he with a hot substance flow rate equal to 0.25 k and 0.35 kg/s for the cold substance. the effect of the he length has been studied for several lengths, which are 6, 8, m of the mentioned systems. where it is found inside the parallel he with liquid water medium. figures 4a to 4d and figures 5a to 5d show the temperature distribution inside the parallel he with liquid medium between the hot and cold substances as it is clear that the temperature difference gap decreases by increasing the he length . figure 7 a to d shows the temperature distribution inside the counter he. it is clear that the temperature difference gap in the counter he decreases with increasing the length of the he. the results show the effect of the design conditions on the performance of the hes, as we found that the length of the he plays a major role in influencing the increase in heat exchange between the materials used in the he (hot-cold). the heat exchange performance increases in the two types of hes used, which are the parallel-flow exchanger and the counter-flow exchanger. the reason for the increase in the efficiency of the heat exchanges with increasing length is due to the increase in the surface area of the heat exchange and the increase in the time period to which the heat transfer materials are exposed between them. the results also show that the counter-flow he has a higher efficiency than the parallel-flow he because of the higher temperature difference in the counter-flow he compared to the parallelflow exchanger. many researchers studied the problems with hes and ways to improve the quality of heat transfer in hes. here we found wang et al. 31 who studied the increase in the heat exchange area, and they found that the efficiency of the he increased, which is what was supported in this study. zheng et al. 32 also studied the shape of the he channels and found that by modifying the he design internally, the efficiency of the he is improved. here we also found that this study supports this idea and develops the scientific content of that hypothesis. 35 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure (4) represent the pipe geometry of computational flow domain. figure (5) cross section of the flow. figure (6) parallel he with length "6,8 "m. 36 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure (7) counter he temperature distribution at length"6,8. 4conclusion overall, this study is based on verifying the design conditions of parallel and counter-flow hes, and in particular, studying the effect of increasing the length of the hes on the efficiency of heat exchange. as it becomes clear from these results, the heat distribution within the hes, whether in parallel or counter flow, is more homogeneous. the reason for the increase in the efficiency of hes by increasing the length is due to the increase in the surface area of heat exchange and the increase in the time period for heat exchange processes inside the hes. it was also found that by comparing the parallel and counter-flow hes, the counter-flow hes have a higher efficiency, and this is due to the reason of the temperature difference between the ends of the he, which is higher than the temperature difference in the parallel-flow he. in general, it is found that the change in the design conditions of hes of different types often has an impact on increasing the efficiency of heat exchange. this is supported by previous research and scientific studies, and here it is recommended that studying the improvement of new design conditions is necessary to increase the efficiency of hes in the future..-7 the change of temperature from inlet to outlet was found increasing with decreasing reynolds number. . pressure drop increases with increase in reynolds number . 5nomenclature symbols description symbols description u overall heat coefficient 𝜂𝑜 temperature effectiveness a a af fin surface area rw conduction resistance q heat transfer rw conduction resistance 𝑚 ̇ ℎ mass flowrate, hot side 37 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑚 ̇ 𝑐 mass flow rate, cold side ic,o fluid enthalpy cold side outlet 𝑚 ̇ 𝑐 mass flow rate, cold side ic,i fluid enthalpy cold side inlet rf,h fouling factor, hot side ih,o fluid enthalpy hot side outlet ih,i fluid enthalpy hot side inlet tc,i temperature, cold inlet cp,h specific 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(2014). transient laminar heat transfer simulations in periodic zigzag channels. international journal of heat and mass transfer, 71, 758–768. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.12.056. 20 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 1, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 method for determining non-isomorphism of graphs urakova dilnoza karimovna navoi architectural and construction technical school abstract: among the numerous examples of application areas of algorithms for solving the problem of determining graph isomorphism, we note the problem of syntactic and structural pattern recognition, some problems of mathematical chemistry and chemoinformatics (study of the molecular structures of chemical compounds), problems related to the study of social networks (for example, linking several accounts of one user on facebook). keywords: graph isomorphism, non -isomorphic graphs, and graph invariants, and isomorphism testing algorithms, adjacency matrix, incidence matrix, spectral analysis of graphs, graph theory. the presented work considers the problem of checking graph isomorphism and various approaches to its solution. the isomorphism relation between two graphs (undirected and without vertex and edge weights) is a bijection between the sets of graph vertices that preserves vertex adjacency. if the isomorphism relation holds between two graphs, then such graphs are called isomorphic. for undirected and directed graphs, the problems of determining isomorphism are practically identical. when determining isomorphism for directed or weighted graphs, additional restrictions are imposed on preserving the values of weights and arc orientations. an example of one of the possible algorithms for determining the isomorphism of two directed graphs is described in the article. in this algorithm, using the graph distance matrix (a matrix in which each element represents the length of the shortest path between two graph vertices), the search tree for possible correspondences between vertices is limited when determining the isomorphism of two directed graphs. it is easy to show that the isomorphism relation between graphs is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, i.e., it is an equivalence relation. therefore, the class of all graphs can be divided into nonempty and pairwise disjoint subclasses, called isomorphism classes or classes of isomorphic graphs. two arbitrary graphs belong to the same isomorphism class if and only if they are isomorphic to each other. on in practice, for most cases, partitioning graphs into isomorphism classes is an unsolvable problem. the isomorphism testing problem has wide practical application and is an important problem in algorithm complexity theory. this problem belongs to the class ir, but it is unknown whether it belongs to the class p if we assume that p ^ nr. at present, it is unknown whether this problem is nr-complete [9], but, for example, it is known that the problem of finding an isomorphic subgraph in a graph is nr-complete (the input data for this problem are graphs o and h, it is required to determine whether graph o contains a subgraph isomorphic to graph h) [12]. thus, the studies currently being conducted that are aimed at solving the isomorphism testing problem for both arbitrary graphs and graphs of a special type are relevant (in practice, both exact and heuristic algorithms can be used for such studies, examples of which are given in chapter 1). 21 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to solve many practical problems, it is often necessary to show that the graphs under consideration are not isomorphic. this makes it possible to cut off obviously non-isomorphic graphs in the set of graphs under consideration. the problem of checking the non-isomorphicity of graphs, studied in the presented work, can be considered equivalent to the problem of checking the isomorphism of graphs. it is just as relevant and has just as wide practical application. level of development one of the common approaches to the problem of checking the isomorphism of graphs is the use of heuristics. heuristics for solving the isomorphism problem usually consist of attempts to show that the graphs in question are not isomorphic [57]. to do this, a list of different invariants is compiled in an order usually determined by the complexity of calculating this invariant. then the values of the parameters of the presented graphs are sequentially compared. if two different values of the same parameter are found, it is concluded that the presented graphs are not isomorphic. such an algorithm for establishing the isomorphism of two graphs is called heuristic. an example of a heuristic algorithm for checking graph isomorphism is given in chapter 1. the approach described in this paper can be considered as an improved version of the heuristic algorithm. another area of research is the solution of the problem of determining isomorphism for certain classes of graphs. it is currently unknown whether the problem of checking graph isomorphism is solvable in polynomial time [11, 31], but it is known that this problem can be solved in polynomial time for some classes of graphs. for  planar graphs;  graphs with limited degree of vertices;  graphs with limited multiplicity of eigenvalues from the spectrum of the adjacency matrix as well as some other classes, efficient algorithms for solving this problem are known. these algorithms exploit specific structural characteristics of graphs, which limits their scope of application. therefore, there is a need for an algorithm that would find a solution to the graph isomorphism problem for as wide a class of graphs as possible, while remaining polynomial in both time and memory. an example of an isomorphism testing algorithm for a class of graphs defined by spectral characteristics is given in chapter 1 . more recently, at the end of 2015, the famous mathematician laszlo babai presented a new fast algorithm for solving the graph isomorphism problem [17, 55]. the proposed algorithm allows one to establish the isomorphism of two graphs in a smaller number of steps (compared to the methods currently used). laszlo babai promises to publish a more detailed description of this algorithm in the near future. if its successful operation is confirmed, this algorithm will allow one to more effectively operate with a large array of data. related to natural sciences. and it may also contribute to the revision of the principles of data encryption, since the process of decrypting data encrypted with factors (when instead of a certain number or group of numbers, when transmitting information, the factors of this number or group of numbers are transmitted) will be significantly simplified. the purpose and objectives of the study the object of study of the presented work is graphs, as well as graph characteristics that are their invariants. the subject of the research is algorithms for calculating graph invariants, as well as graph generation algorithms. 22 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the main objective of the work is to develop a method for solving the problem of checking the non-isomorphism of graphs and its study based on the use of random graph generation algorithms. as the main result of the work, we consider obtaining algorithms for checking the nonisomorphism of graphs, which are some sequences of comparison of the values of invariants. to test various algorithms for checking the non-isomorphism of graphs, sets of input data are needed. in most real situations, the storage of input data is limited by the size of the system memory. one of the methods that allows solving this problem is random data generation. in this paper, it is assumed that for the discrete optimization problem under consideration, the optimal algorithm for solving it depends on the method of generating input data. to conduct computational experiments, it is assumed to use a set of graphs obtained using certain generation algorithms (including graph generation algorithms developed by the author). main objectives of the research. 1. develop a method for solving the problem of checking the non-isomorphism of graphs based on the selected assumption about the applied generation algorithm. 2. describe the new graph invariant introduced by the author the second-order degree vector. 3. develop an algorithm for generating graphs from a given vector of first-order degrees using the branch and bound method with additional heuristics. 4. develop an algorithm for generating graphs from a given vector of second-first-order degrees using the branch and bound method with additional heuristics. 5. develop a software system for organizing computational experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of using various algorithms that represent certain sequences of invariants for 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[electronic resource]. access mode: http://scientificrussia.ru/articles/izomorfizm-grafov (08.09.2017) 18. melnikov, b. f. algorithm for checking the equality of infinite iterations of finite languages / b. f. melnikov // bulletin of moscow university. ser. comput. math. and kib-ka. 1996. no. 4. p. 49-54. 19. melnikov, b. f. multiheuristic approach to discrete optimization problems / b. f. melnikov // cybernetics and systems analysis (nas of ukraine). 2006. no. 3. p. 32-42. 20. melnikov, b. f. subclasses of the class of context-free languages / b. f. melnikov. m.: moscow state university, 1995. 174 p. 21. melnikov, b. f. application of algorithms for generating random graphs for studying the reliability of communication networks / b. f. melnikov, e. f. saifullina, yu. yu. terentyeva, n. n. churikova // informatization and communication. 2018. no. 1. p. 7180. 22. melnikov, b. f. application of a multi-heuristic approach for random generation of a graph with a given degree vector / b. f. melnikov, e. f. saifullina // news of higher educational institutions. volga region. physical and mathematical sciences. 2013. no. 3 (27). p. 6982. 23. melnikov, b. heuristics in programming nondeterministic games / b. melnikov // programming. bulletin of the russian academy of sciences. 2001. no. 5. p. 63-80. 24. melnikova, e. a. approach to isomorphism verification using invariant construction / e. a. melnikova, e. f. saifullina // vector of science of togliatti state university. 2013. no. 1(23). p. 113-120. 25. melnikova, e. a. application of various graph invariants to checking the isomorphism of some types of graphs / e. a. melnikova, e. f. saifullina // problems of informatics in education, management, economics and engineering: tr. xii int. scientific and technical. conf. penza: privolzhsky house of knowledge, 2012. p. 40-42. 26. molodtsov, s. g. generation of molecular graphs with given structural constraints: dis. ... cand. of phys. and mathematics: 05.13.16: defended 21.10.1997 / molodtsov sergey georgievich. novosibirsk: niokh sb ras, 1997. 79 p. 156 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 7, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 self compacting concrete shear walls using solid65 element atared s. kawoosh department of civil engineering, college of engineering, university of thiqar, thiqar, iraq abstract: the main objective of this paper is to study the structural behavior of self-compacting concrete shear wall. the study an analysis of two scc shear walls has been conducted to the tested specimens by using a three dimensional nonlinear finite element method by ansys software. in the present work is able to simulate the behavior of scc shear walls without openings. the numerical ultimate loads are slightly lesser than those obtained from experimental work. the ratio of numerical ultimate load to experimental ultimate load is between 0.9 and 0.99. the adopted finite element analysis showed a good agreement with experimental results. the crack patterns obtained from the finite element models are comparable with the crack patterns observed in the experimental work and was very well in agreement. keywords: shear walls, solid 65 element. 1. introduction shear walls are popular structural systems to resist lateral forces and axial loads acting on buildings such as earthquakes, wind or blast. shear walls are more preferable in high rise buildings and office towers. they are vertical elements of the horizontal force resisting system and constructed to counter the effects of lateral load acting on a structure. in residential construction, shear walls are straight external walls that typically form a box which provides all of the lateral support for the building. when shear walls should be designed and constructed properly to have a good strength and stiffness to resist the horizontal forces. the best location of its in buildings can be achieved when the shear wall located at the periphery of the building . the walls on each side might be single or may be a coupled to each other [1]. in 2012, zhu t. et.al [2] suggested a new composite structure system to proportion the desired building heat preservation and energy conservation. depend on the low reversed cyclic loading test, the nonlinear finite element method (fem) analysis sample of composite shear wall was established by ansys so as to study stress variation characteristics, failure process and crack status under the action for the horizontal loading. the results of ansys finite element analysis showed good agreement with the results of test. in 2013, gopalarathnam m. and kumar m. [3] studied the material nonlinear dynamic response for the shear wall, without and with openings for various damping ratios and subjected to el centro earthquake. for dynamic analysis, constant acceleration newmark β method for the direct time integration was used. from the study, it was observed that the existence of opening results in stresses on the shear wall and critical displacements and also results in stress condensation near the opening tip. hence, the existence of damping was investigated to be vital for large opening under critical dynamic loading condition. in 2008, aihara c.h et al. [4] studied the influence of aggregate grading on the properties of scc mixtures using aggregates derived from basalt rock which is native to and readily available on the island of oahu. they found the slump flow, t500, vsi values change 157 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us with the change in grading. in 2009, nchrp-r628 [5] reported that, hrwra demand decreases with the increase in w/c and binder content, surface settlement of scc increases with the increase w/c ratio and thixotropy of the scc decreases with the increase in binder content and w/c ratio. better slump flow retention can be obtained with scc made with a lower w/c ratio because of the higher hrwra demand. 2. modeling of shear wall using solid 65 element ansys16.1 program have the ability to model various types of material properties. three dimensional brick element solid65 was utilized to model the concrete without or with reinforcing rebar. this element is defined by eight nodes having three degree of freedom at each node: translation in the x, y and z direction. most of the formulations of concrete material models are either plasticity-based or elasticity-based models. the most important aspect of this element is the treatment of nonlinear material properties. this element is capable of cracking (in three orthogonal directions), crushing and plastic deformation. the rebar is capable of taking compression and tension [6]. the geometry, node location and the coordinate system for solid 65element are show in the figure (1). figure (1) brick element with 8 nodes (solid65 in ansys-16.1) 2.1 solid 65 input data the element is defined by eight nodes and the isotropic material properties. the element has one solid material and up to three rebar materials. command is used to input the concrete material properties while link 8 is used to represent the main reinforcement so, the volume ratio which is defined as the rebar volume divided by the total element volume is equal to zero . typical shear transfers coefficient ranges from 0.0 to 1.0, with 0.0 representing a smooth crack (complete loss of shear transfer) and 1.0 representing a rough crack (no loss of shear transfer). these specifications may be made for both the closed and open crack. used in this study the shear transfer coefficients: open shear transfer coefficient βt = 0.2, closed shear transfer coefficient βc = 0.8. 3. analysis result and discussion a non-linear finite element analysis has been carried out to obtain the numerical results of shear wall specimens. the analysis was performed by using ansys computer program (version 16.1), models of shear walls specimens prepared and analyze. this verification of tested specimens was done in order to check the validity and accuracy of the finite element procedure. the numerical results obtained by using finite element method were compared with the experimental results through the ultimate loads and load-displacement relation. 158 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.1 failure load table (1) explain the experimental and numerical failure load of solid specimens. it is clear that the finite element results are very well in agreements with experimental results. the results show that for shw1 and shw2, numerical failure load reach 92% and 90% of experimental failure load, respectively. table 1: experimental and numerical results' failure load group no. specimen symbol numerical failure loads (kn) experimental failure loads (kn) p(num.) /p(exp.) 1 shw1 635.5 692 0.92 shw2 737.28 820 0.9 3.2 load – displacement figure (2) and (3) show the load-displacement relationship for both numerical and experimental results. numerical results gave a very good agreement with experimental results. the numerical displacement was greater than the experimental displacement. while the ultimate load of the finite element model is smaller than the experimental ultimate load. figure (2) numerical and experimental load-displacement relationship of model shw1 figure (3) numerical and experimental load-displacement relationship of model shw2 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 lo ad kn displacement mm exp shw1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 lo ad kn displacement mm exp shw2 num shw2 159 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.3 concrete strain distribution figure (4) show the numerical strain distribution of scc shear wall model. from these figure it can be observed that the maximum strain occurs along the load path where the diagonal crack had occurred. this is observed in solid models. figure (4) concrete strain for shear wall without openings (shw1) and (shw2) 4. conclusions 1. increasing the thickness of shear wall means an increase in the strength to sustain the applied loads. for the solid specimens, when increasing thickness from 100mm to 150mm the ultimate load increased by 18%. 2. the finite element model used in the present work is able to simulate the behavior of axially loaded reinforced concrete shear walls without openings. the numerical ultimate loads are slightly lesser than those obtained from experimental work. the ratio of numerical ultimate load to experimental ultimate load ranged between 0.9 and 0.99. 3. in general, the behavior of the finite element models represented by the load-displacement curves shows a good agreement with the corresponding experimental curves. references 1. ang yip hong, "analysis of squat shears wall with different dimensions and positions of opening under different type of static load", m.sc. thesis, university malaysia pahang, (2015). 2. tiemei zhu, yanhua ye, wei wei, weiqing liu and zijun wang," non-linear finite element analysis on composite shear wall with opening", advanced materials research vols. 446-449 pp 203-207, (2012). 3. muthukumar gopalarathnam and manoj kumar, "nonlinear finite element dynamic analysis of squat shear wall with openings", international journal of advanced structural engineering, (2013). 4. cody h. aihara, gaur p. johnson and ian n. robertson, "the effects of gradation on self-consolidating concrete", uhm/cee/08-01 may 2008. 5. national cooperative highway research program report 628, "self-consolidating concrete for precast, prestressed concrete bridge elements" washington, d.c.2009. 6. ansys, (2005), "ansys help" release 11. 152 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 data analysis based on the bert model eshankulov hamza ilhomovich professor of the department of applied mathematics and programming technologies at bsu x.i.eshonkulov@buxdu.uz soliyeva dilsora alisher qizi master's degree holder at the department of applied mathematics and programming technologies at bsu soliyeva.dilsora.2020@gmail.com abstract: this article provides an in-depth analysis of the capabilities of the bert (bidirectional encoder representations from transformers) model, which holds a significant place in the field of natural language processing (nlp), for performing deep, contextual, and semantic data analysis. the internal architecture and working mechanisms of the bert model are explored, along with advanced approaches such as distilbert and topic bert-bigru, focusing on methodologies for accurately classifying both complex and short texts[5]. the paper also presents a comparative analysis with traditional models, clearly outlining the advantages of modern approaches. [1] main results: according to the research findings, approaches based on the bert model demonstrate high accuracy in contextual and semantic text analysis. specifically, the topic bert-bigru model stood out with an f1-score of 86.91% on short texts. distilbert outperformed the classic bert model by 0.8–1.2% in accuracy on smaller datasets. transformer-based classification systems, especially when combined with the random forest classifier, achieved over 90% accuracy. these approaches confirm the high efficiency of the bert model in real-world applications. keywords: bert, transformer, bigru, topic modeling, nlp, semantic analysis, text classification. i. introduction in the era of modern information technologies, the volume of textual data obtained from the internet, social networks, and online platforms is rapidly increasing. the need to automatically analyze, classify, and draw logical conclusions from this data has become a strategic direction in the field of natural language processing (nlp). traditional approaches, including bag-ofwords (bow), tf-idf, and word2vec models, have key limitations—primarily their inability to fully capture the semantic relationships between words and to sufficiently understand context. [6] bert, on the other hand, was developed precisely to address these issues, offering an advanced approach that deeply understands texts through bidirectional encoding, self-attention, and pre-training mechanisms. [5] in today's digital world, the volume of textual content on the internet is growing at an exponential rate. at the same time, users’ language-related needs—such as automatic translation, 153 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us text summarization, chatbots, recommendation systems, and fake news detection—are also rapidly increasing. traditional methods have proven inadequate when dealing with such complex and multi-layered texts. in this context, transformer models based on deep learning, such as bert, have gained even greater significance. the bert model has become a revolutionary solution for understanding contextual semantics, detecting polysemy, and capturing complex relationships between linguistic units. therefore, this topic is considered highly relevant not only from a scientific perspective but also in practical applications. the main goal of this study is to thoroughly explore the role of the bert model in natural language processing, particularly in text classification and analysis, to examine its technical mechanisms, and to scientifically compare the advantages of improved approaches such as distilbert and topic bert-bigru. this article analyzes the performance, capabilities, and limitations of bert-based models by applying them to different types of text corpora. as a result, a scientific and methodological foundation is established for the practical application of the bert model. ii bert architecture and its application in text classification 2.1. internal structure and working principle of the bert model.the bert model was introduced by google ai in 2018. its main advantage lies in the ability to understand the meaning of each word not only in the context of preceding words but also in the context of subsequent ones. this is made possible through two pre-training strategies: masked language modeling (mlm) and next sentence prediction (nsp). built on the transformer architecture, bert represents words as vectors using complex attention mechanisms, where these vectors encapsulate deep contextual semantic information. [4] bert models have demonstrated state-ofthe-art performance in various nlp tasks, such as question answering, text classification, and named entity recognition. bert is a deep neural network-based natural language understanding model that can learn the semantics and structure of language from large volumes of unlabeled text. [5] one of bert’s core innovations is the use of a bidirectional transformer encoder, which considers both left and right contexts to extract richer linguistic features. the model’s pre-training tasks—mlm and nsp—are designed to learn representations at the vocabulary and sentence levels, respectively. this model utilizes only the encoder part of the transformer architecture and operates by incorporating bidirectional context. (see figure 1) input layer: when text is input into the model, it is converted into a numerical representation using three types of embeddings:  token embedding – a unique vector for each token;  segment embedding – used to distinguish between different text segments;  position embedding – represents the position of tokens within the text. these embeddings are combined as follows: (1) transformer encoder blocks: the bert model consists of multiple encoder blocks. each block includes the following components:  multi-head self-attention: each token is connected with all other tokens in the input sequence, allowing the model to capture contextual relationships.  feed forward neural network (ffnn): independently processes each token through a fully connected neural network.  residual connections and layer normalization: these components ensure the stability and efficiency of the model during training by preserving gradients and normalizing activations. 154 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us each encoder block can be represented by the following formulas: (2) (3) here:  x – input vector  z – result of the self-attention mechanism  h – output of the encoder block output layer: at the output of the model, the vector corresponding to the [cls] token is taken as a general representation of the entire input text. this vector is then passed through the following classification layer: (4) here:  h – hidden vector of the [cls] token  w – weight matrix  b – bias vector  y – output probabilities figure 1. 155 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.2. text classification based on bert. the process of text classification using the bert model consists of two stages: pre-training and fine-tuning. during the pre-training phase, the model learns general language understanding from large corpora of text. in the fine-tuning phase, the model is adapted to a specific task. for classification, the [cls] token is taken as the main semantic vector, and the class is determined through a softmax function. this approach demonstrates high performance, especially when dealing with texts containing polysemous words and complex sentence structures. iii. advanced models based on bert and their practical performance distilbert: the distilbert model enriches the semantic analysis capabilities of bert by incorporating rule-based logic based on an additional lexicon. [6] the core idea of the model is that if the ratio of positive-to-negative probabilities in the bert output is low, it indicates that the model has produced unreliable results. in this case, a sentiment lexicon-based rule is applied to improve the result’s accuracy. this approach, especially in small datasets, provides an improvement of 0.8–1.2% over traditional bert. topic bert-bigru: short texts, particularly those in titles, comments, and tweets, reveal the limitations of the bert model. this is because the masked language modeling (mlm) strategy can lead to the loss of semantic richness when masking keywords in short texts. to address this, the topic bert-bigru model was developed, which enhances bert embeddings with biterm topic model (btm) topic vectors. [7] bigru captures semantic dependencies in both directions of a sequence and extracts deep features. the model's performance is demonstrated by an f1 score of 86.91% on the thucnews dataset. iv. model results and analytical comparison intellectual analysis: the classification system based on a transformer model classified using bert has achieved high accuracy on large text corpora in real-life scenarios, including the reuter and daily star datasets. specifically, when combined with the random forest classifier, the bert model's embeddings have shown accuracy exceeding 90%. [2] this demonstrates the practical advantages of the bert model based on contextual semantics. № model name dataset accuracy (%)/f1-score 1 bert thucnews 83,29% 2 bert+bigru thucnews 83,95% 3 topic bert-bigru thucnews 86,91% 4 distilbert sentiment dataset 95,20% 5 bert sentiment dataset 94,38% 6 bert+random forest sentiment dataset 90% the research results show that models developed based on bert demonstrate varying levels of effectiveness across different types of text. specifically, the topic bert-bigru model shows significant superiority in working with short texts, recording an f1-score of 86.91% on the thucnews headline dataset. this is 3.62% higher than the standard bert model, demonstrating the effectiveness of combining topic vectors and bidirectional sequences in the context of short texts. the distilbert model, on the other hand, showed high accuracy on small-sized and sentimentbased datasets. by evaluating the reliability of bert outputs, the model refers to an adaptive lexicon when necessary. this approach provided a high performance with an f1-score of 95.20%. additionally, the integration of the bert model with classical classifiers has demonstrated high performance in classification tasks across broader domains. in systems such as those working with reuter and daily star corpora, accuracy was shown to exceed 90%. 156 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these results indicate that the bert model, with its fundamental architecture, can perform highlevel semantic analysis. however, by enhancing it with specialized architectures such as topic modeling, sequence models, and lexicon-based approaches, even more flexible, consistent, and highly accurate solutions can be achieved. topic bert-bigru is considered the most effective model for short texts. distilbert, on the other hand, excels in special cases due to its use of probability and rulebased mechanisms. bert + random forest stands out as an effective approach for integrating the model with classical machine learning methods. conclusion this research deeply examined the process of text analysis based on the bert model, a widely used modern approach in natural language processing. the primary advantage of the bert model is its ability to learn context in both directions simultaneously, which allows for more precise analysis of relationships between linguistic units. this feature enables the model to work effectively with ambiguous, complex, and polysemous texts. throughout the study, the core architecture of the bert model, its training phases, the role of the [cls] token in classification, and the working mechanism of the softmax layer were analyzed. additionally, the working mechanisms and advantages of improved models based on bert, including distilbert, topic bert-bigru, and biterm topic model, were thoroughly reviewed to enhance practical performance. the lightweight and fast operation of distilbert was proven effective, especially in resourcelimited environments. despite having significantly fewer parameters compared to the original bert model, it still produces results with high accuracy. the topic bert-bigru model demonstrated significantly better results by enhancing topic and semantic analysis for short texts. the biterm topic model stands out for its stability when working with short and abstract texts. in particular, this model proved effective when integrated with bert, especially for topic identification and sentiment analysis. recommendations: 1. models based on the bert model should be applied in systems such as sentiment analysis, recommendation systems, and automatic label classification to enhance efficiency. 2. if computer resources are limited, it is recommended to use distilbert or other lightweight bert variants. 3. hybrid approaches can be developed by combining the bert model with bigru or cnn models for topic-based analysis or multi-class classification. 4. if there are small-sized training datasets, it is advisable to apply a transfer learning strategy. future research directions:  expanding analysis of uzbek texts using multilingual bert.  improving efficiency by fine-tuning and adapting bert models for specific industry domains.  developing understandable interpretation methods for visual analysis of model results. references 1. eshankulov, h.i., & soliyeva, d.a. (2025). natural language processing models and their applications. scientific bulletin of bukhara state university, 2(119), 140–146. 157 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. eshankulov, k., sayidova, n., zaripova, g., imomova, s., fayzieva, d., "mathematical model for information monitoring system of fat and oil enterprises," aip conference proceedings, 3004(1), 060009, 2024. 3. eshankulov, k., murodova, r., "development of the knowledge base of the decisionmaking software module based on the frame model," proceedings of spie the international society for optical engineering, 2024. 4. vaswani, a., shazeer, n., parmar, n., uszkoreit, j., jones, l., gomez, a. n., ... & polosukhin, i. (2017). attention is all you need. advances in neural information processing systems (neurips). https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762 5. devlin, j., chang, m. w., lee, k., & toutanova, k. (2019). bert: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. proceedings of the north american chapter of the association for computational linguistics (naacl). https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.04805 6. brown, t., mann, b., ryder, n., subbiah, m., kaplan, j., dhariwal, p., ... & amodei, d. (2020). language models are few-shot learners. advances in neural information processing systems (neurips). https://arxiv.org/abs/2005.14165 7. radford, a., wu, j., child, r., luan, d., amodei, d., & sutskever, i. (2019). language models are unsupervised multitask learners. openai. 8. bender, e. m., gebru, t., mcmillan-major, a., & shmitchell, s. (2021). on the dangers of stochastic parrots: can language models be too big? proceedings of the 2021 acm conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency (facct). https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3442188.3445922 9. bolukbasi, t., chang, k. w., zou, j. y., saligrama, v., & kalai, a. (2016). man is to computer programmer as woman is to homemaker? debiasing word embeddings. advances in neural information processing systems (neurips). https://arxiv.org/abs/1607.06520 10. openai. (2023). gpt-4 technical report. openai. https://openai.com/research/gpt-4 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 modern analysis of cotton cleaning technologies from fine impurities x.tolipov, j.ibragimov, e.gulmurotov, i.yangiboyev , a.a.qo‘shimov jizzakh polytechnic institute abstract: this article analyzes the technologies of cleaning cotton from fine impurities, their mechanical, air-flow and integrated methods from a modern perspective. the study considers the efficiency of cleaning processes, innovations in equipment design, as well as environmental and economic aspects. the article discusses the importance of new technologies in improving the quality of cotton fiber and ways to optimize them. the results of the study can serve to develop sustainable and cost-effective solutions in the cotton industry. keywords: cotton cleaning, fine impurities, mechanical cleaning, air-flow systems, drying technology, environmental efficiency, economic analysis, fiber quality. introduction. cotton occupies an important place in the global economy as one of the main raw materials of the textile industry. the quality of cotton fiber depends on its degree of cleanliness, that is, its freedom from fine impurities (dust, soil particles, plant residues). if these impurities remain in the fiber, the strength of the yarn decreases and defects appear in textile products. therefore, cotton cleaning technologies are constantly being improved and adapted to modern requirements. this article is aimed at analyzing existing cleaning methods, evaluating new technological solutions and discussing their future development prospects. main types of cleaning technologies several main methods are used to clean cotton from fine impurities: mechanical cleaning, air flow (aspiration) systems and methods integrated with drying. each method has its own advantages and limitations. mechanical cleaning: mechanical methods are widely used at the initial stage of cotton cleaning. gin machines (saw or roller) remove primary impurities along with separating the fiber from the seed. at the next stage, special cleaners, such as ovp or "pakhtakor", are used. these devices separate fine dust and plant residues by "combing" the fiber. studies show that the efficiency of mechanical cleaning allows you to remove up to 45% of impurities. however, the disadvantages of this method include energy consumption and the possibility of loss of natural oils in the fiber. air-flow cleaning. aspiration systems are effective in separating light impurities (fluff, dust) using air flow. sbo dryers and dust collectors are used as the main elements of this process. airflow methods not only provide cleaning, but also help reduce dust emissions into the environment. at the same time, these systems require high power, which increases overall costs. integrated methods. technologies that combine drying and cleaning, such as 2sb-10 or sbt drum dryers, allow for simultaneous moisture removal and separation of fine impurities. the use of hot air as a drying agent speeds up the process and increases efficiency. by optimizing the speed of cotton movement in new units, the cleaning degree can reach 60-70%. 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us modern innovations and equipment. in recent years, a number of innovations have been introduced in cotton cleaning technologies. for example, devices with a conical mesh surface improve the movement of fibers and increase the efficiency of impurity separation. new types of dust collectors are also playing an important role in capturing fibrous waste and protecting the environment from pollution. automated systems, in particular, the asx-1 and vsx-1 analyzers, allow for real-time process control. these technologies not only improve quality, but also optimize production costs. efficiency, ecology and economics. several factors are taken into account when assessing the effectiveness of cleaning technologies. although a combination of mechanical and air-flow methods can remove up to 90% of impurities, the energy requirements of the process and the complexity of the equipment entail additional costs. from an environmental point of view, aspiration systems reduce harmful emissions to the environment, but the fuel used for drying (gas, kerosene) can lead to the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. from an economic point of view, high-quality fiber increases export revenues, but requires significant initial investments. conclusion and future prospects. cotton ginning technologies play an important role in the cotton industry and are constantly evolving. while mechanical, air-flow and integrated methods have provided high efficiency, new solutions are needed to improve energy efficiency and environmental sustainability. the future used literature 1. kushimov a. a., pokiza m. determination of instant values of angular velocities observed in the process of operation of a feeder for cotton-sowing in a two-mesh separator and control of impacting forces //texas journal of engineering and technology. – 2023. – т. 18. – с. 42-45. 2. salomova m. et al. how to increase the effect radius of the cotton transport process in a mobile device //aip conference proceedings. – aip publishing, 2023. – т. 2789. – №. 1. 3. hazratkulovich y. k. et al. improving the retention of free fibers in raw cotton and the separation of cotton from the air //texas journal of multidisciplinary studies. – 2022. – т. 7. – с. 34-38. 4. rustam m. et al. principles of making pile of cotton cleaning machines from elastic material //universum: технические науки. – 2022. – №. 10-6 (103). – с. 5-9. 5. axmedov mi va boshqalar. paxta chigitlarini tozalash va saralash jarayoni bo'yicha tadqiqot natijalari tahlili //galaxy international disciplinary research journal. – 2023. – t. 11. – №. 5. – s. 688-694. 6. kushimov a.a., gadaev n.e., gulbaev uyo yigiruv jarayonida taroqli ip va iplardagi ifloslanish miqdorining o’zgarishi //fan va ta’lim. – 2021. – t. 2. – №. 1. – s. 158-162. 7. murodov r., kushimov aa, mavluda y. mobil qurilmada paxta ajratish jarayonini nazariy va amaliy o'rganish //european journal of molecular & clinical medicine. – 2020. – t. 7. – №. 6. – s. 3006-3015. 96 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the use of information technologies in the educational process as a factor of increasing educational efficiency mukhamedov umarkhon lecturer of the department, informatics and management national institute of fine art and design named after k.behzod, uzbekistan, tashkent abstract: this article discusses the impact of the use of information technologies in the educational process on increasing educational efficiency. the author explained that the use of information technologies simplifies the process and increases its didactic value. keywords: development, educational process, quality of education, information technologies, software. the current stage of development of society is characterized by the intensity and depth of informatization of all its institutions. a significant role in this process is played by the informatization of the education system, which carries out the formation and formation of members of society as a whole. today, it is clear to everyone that the transition of education to a qualitatively new level, corresponding to one of the main tasks of russian society the reproduction of competitive personnel potential, occurs if an educational institution, as the core of its development concept, accepts the process of informatization of the entire educational space and the formation of an information culture all its participants. education emphasizes the need to change teaching methods and technologies at all levels, to increase the weight of those that form practical skills in information analysis, self-study, stimulate independent work of students, and form the experience of responsible choice and responsible activity. there is a need for a new learning model, built on the basis of modern information technologies, implementing the principles of personality-oriented education. information technologies, considered as one of the components of an integral education system, facilitate access to information, open up the possibility of variability in educational activities, its individualization and differentiation, make it possible to reorganize the interaction of all subjects of learning in a new way, to build an educational system in which the student would be active and equal. participant in educational activities. the introduction of new information technologies into the educational process allows: 1) intensify the learning process, 2) implement the ideas of developmental education, 3) increase the pace of the lesson, 4) increase the amount of independent work of students. the age of computer technology is gaining momentum and there is almost no area of human activity where it has not found its application. pedagogical technologies have not remained aloof 97 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us from the general process of computerization. therefore, i believe that the use of information and communication technologies (ict) in the educational process is an urgent problem of modern school education. the future may be different, and there are also many paths to it, but neither one nor the other can be predicted. still, some broad strokes can be sketched, with progress in most scenarios leading to changes in the way we communicate, the amount of information we have to deal with, and perhaps even our natural abilities. the border that exists between virtuality and the real world will almost disappear. ict technology will develop, which will change all our ideas about space and time. information technology is a wide class of disciplines and areas of activity related to technologies for creating, storing, managing and processing data, including the use of computer technology. recently, information technology is most often understood as computer technology. today, modern life, healthcare, manufacturing and other areas of activity cannot do without the use of information technology, since each area needs the processing of a large amount of information and information services. the most optimal and universal means for processing information is considered to be a computer, which is used as an amplifier of human intellectual abilities. thanks to information technology, it becomes possible to manage large flows of information using computer technology. in fact, it technologies are a complex of technological and engineering sciences that are necessary for organizing the life of modern society. it can process information, store and transmit it over long distances in a short time. the rapidly growing potential of information technology also quickly reduces costs in production, while facilitating and improving the standard of living, opening up new opportunities for people. since new technologies appear in every area of life, today it is increasingly difficult to imagine life without them. according to the definition, information technology is a complex of interrelated scientific, technological, and engineering disciplines that study methods for effectively organizing the work of people involved in processing and storing information; computer technology and methods of organizing and interacting with people and production equipment, their practical applications, as well as social, economic and cultural problems associated with all this. information technologies themselves require complex training, large initial costs and high-tech technology. their introduction should begin with the creation of mathematical software and the formation of information flows in specialist training systems. information technology is a set of methods, production processes and software and hardware tools combined into a technological chain that ensures the collection, processing, storage, transmission and display of information. the purpose of the functioning of this chain, i.e. information technology is reducing the labor intensity of the processes of using an information resource and increasing their reliability and efficiency. there are several points of view on the development of information technologies using computers, which are determined by various characteristics. what they have in common is that with the advent of the personal computer, a new stage in the development of information technology began. the main goal is to satisfy a person’s personal information needs, both for the professional sphere and for the domestic sphere. in conclusion, i would like to note that in the information society, when information becomes the highest value, and a person’s information culture becomes the determining factor in their professional activities, the requirements for the education system also change, and there is a significant increase in the status of education. 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the most important tasks facing the informatization of education are: 1) improving the quality of student training based on the use of modern information technologies in the educational process; 2) the use of active teaching methods, increasing the creative and intellectual components of educational activities; 3) integration of various types of educational activities (teaching, research, etc.); 4) adaptation of educational information technologies to the individual characteristics of the student; 5) development of new educational information technologies that contribute to the activation of the learner’s cognitive activity and increase motivation to master the tools and methods of computer science for effective use in professional activities; 6) ensuring continuity and continuity in training; 7) development of information technologies for distance learning; 8) improvement of software and methodological support for the educational process. the content of the teacher’s activities changes; the teacher ceases to be simply a “reproducer” of knowledge, becomes a developer of a new teaching technology, which, on the one hand, increases his creative activity, and on the other, requires a high level of technological and methodological preparedness. a new direction of teacher activity has emerged the development of educational information technologies and software and methodological educational complexes. references: 1. fayziyev, t., zunnunova, u., & zakirova, s. (2020). academic and organizational aspects of entrepreneurship education in art universities of uzbekistan. journal of critical reviews, 7, 19. 2. zakirova, s. a., & zunnunova, u. g. (2021). classification of creative industries in uzbekistan. nveo-natural volatiles & essential oils journal| nveo, 15296-15302. 3. mukhamedov, u. s. (2021). trends in the emergence and development of styles in webdesign. the american journal of interdisciplinary innovations and research, 3(10), 21-24. 4. мирзаюнусова з. и. расулова м. х. (2011). роль образа исторической личности в воспитании гармонично развитой личности. молодежь и наука: реальность и будущее. материалы iv международной научно-практической конференции, 1, 572-573. 5. расулов, и., & хамдамова, м. (2020). лексико-грамматическая характеристика адъективных фразеологизмов. иностранная филология: язык, литература, образование, (1 (74)), 128-132. 6. kiramidinovna, i. d., & diyora, a. (2023). importance of formation and development of creativity skills among students in teaching general technical subjects. international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research issn: 2277-3630 impact factor: 7.429, 12(03), 39-41. 7. kiramidinovna, i. d., & rustam, m. (2023). talabalarni ijodiy qobiliyatlarini rivojlantirishda tizimli tahlil va qaror qabul qilish texnologiyalari: talabalarni ijodiy qobiliyatlarini rivojlantirishda tizimli tahlil va qaror qabul qilish texnologiyalari. 8. kiramidinovna, i. d. (2023). talabalarning ijodkorlik qobiliyatlarini rivojlantirish mexanizmini takomillashtirish texnologiyalaritalabalarning ijodkorlik qobiliyatlarini 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rivojlantirish mexanizmini takomillashtirish texnologiyalari: talabalarning ijodkorlik qobiliyatlarini rivojlantirish mexanizmini takomillashtirish texnologiyalari. 9. эргашев а. м (2016). аҳоли фаровонлигини таъминлашда оилавий тадбиркорликнинг ўрни ва аҳамияти тежамкорликнинг концептуал асослари ва унинг ижтимоийиқтисодий шарт-шароитлари.2/174, 254. 10. бабаева, н. м. (2021). роль государственного регулирования в развитии инвестиционной деятельности страховых компаний. 11. babayeva, n. m., & gafurova, n. i. (2023). relevance and importance of forming the economic and legal culture of future specialists. in icarhse international conference on advance research in humanities, sciences and education australia, conference https://confrencea. org july15th. 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 8, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 evaluating the rutting resistance of modified hot mix asphalt (mhma) with palm leaves fibers (plfs) noor jawad kadhim msc candidate, dept. of civil eng., university of kerbala, iraq shakir al-busaltan prof. dr., dept. of civil eng., university of kerbala, iraq abstract: high temperatures, high axle loads, and low-quality paving material can all contribute to the distress of rutting in flexible pavement. this paper investigates adding palm leaf fibers (plf) to hot mix asphalt (hma) to improve its resistance to rutting. in order to make modified hma (mhma) by employing modified dry process (mdp), which was prepared by adding small balls to hma, hma mixes were prepared with traditional mineral filler and hydrated lime. plf was added at dosages of 2%, 4%, and 6% of aggregate weight. a wheel track device linked to a computer system monitored rutting depth as a sign of rutting resistance, and marshall tests were also performed to assess stability and flow characteristics. according to the findings, plf considerably increased rutting resistance throughout. the use of plf found to be highly effective in improving rutting resistance at all dosages; the highest results were obtained at 6%. this implies that sustainable paving technologies could displace traditional techniques. keywords: palm leaves fibers (plfs); hot mix asphalt; rutting resistance, wheel track test. 1. introduction nowadays, there is an international requirement for a transition to more environmentally friendly paving technology. naturally, in terms of mechanical performance attributes, what is available in hma technology today approaches advanced levels[1] .asphalt pavement makes up more than 95% of all paved roadways. throughout its service life, asphalt pavement is exposed to numerous stresses and strains. rutting is one of the primary distresses. due to an increase in axial load, tire pressure, and traffic volume, rutting in asphalt pavements has emerged as one of the main distress forms in recent times. it frequently occurs in the initial years following the site's launch to traffic[2]. rutting is the result of pavement layers accumulating persistent distortion. it manifests as longitudinal depressions in the wheel tracks and tiny upheavals to the sides and is caused by a combination of densification and shear deformation[3]. rutting reduces tire-pavement friction and hydroplaning, which increases road roughness and traps water, both of which have a substantial negative impact on the performance of asphalt pavements[4]. significant rutting can also result in significant structural problems[5]. in order to ensure that it meets both structural and functional criteria, asphalt pavement, for example, requires regular care. high upkeep costs result from this. it is crucial to so try to reduce rutting[6]. many studies have shown that waste materials like iron, fly ash, oil palm shells, and coconut shells can be used to advance the pavement construction process[7-10]. numerous investigations have been carried out to examine the impact of fibers on rutting in asphalt pavements and one way to increase road surface longevity is by adding particular additives, such as fibers or polymers, which change and 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us improve the properties of the mix. the most promising approach for constructing flexible pavements that appears to have the best chance of increasing the pavement's service life is adding fibers or polymers to the asphalt mixture[11-14].all have demonstrated a notable improvement as a result of the mechanical bridging phenomena, and the asphalt mixture's chemical qualities have also improved. according to this research, adding waste material fiber can help uphold the sustainability principle. at the same time, the asphalt mixture's mechanical and volumetric properties are monitored to gauge the extent of improvement brought about by this addition of fiber on the rutting that is occurred on the asphalt pavements. still, the primary goal is to describe the incremental benefit of adding varying amounts of waste fiber to the volumetric and mechanical characteristics of hma. furthermore, as will be seen below, the incorporating approach is distinct. 2. materials the study employed locally sourced materials to the extent feasible in order to guarantee economic viability and explore the potential for utilizing a novel combination of local applications. among these materials were: 2.1 aggregate material the nominal maximum aggregate size (nmas) of 12.5 mm for both coarse and fine aggregates was obtained from quarries in karbala. as seen in figures 1 and 2, they were categorized in accordance with the iraqi general standard for roads and bridges (gsrp) r9[15]. the physical properties for coarse and fine aggregates are presented in tables 1 and 2. 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1 the coarse aggregate's physical properties table 2 the fine aggregate’s physical properties 2.2 filler in this study, three different types of fillers were used: paris of plaster (pop), hydrated lime (hl), and conventional mineral filler (cmf). table 3 lists the characteristics of these fillers. table 3 the utilized filler’s properties 2.3 asphalt material asphalt cement (grade type 40–50) was provided by the al-neisseria factory, and bitumen emulsion (nit proof 30) was produced by the fosroc firm. the properties of bitumen emulsion and asphalt are shown in tables 4 and 5, respectively. coarse aggregate property value standard of tests gsrb requirements bulk density, gm /cm3 2.547 astm c127[16] apparent density, gm /cm3 2.685 astm c127[16] water absorption, % 2.034 astm c127[16] percent wear by los angeles abrasion, % 24.18 astm c131[17] 30% max clay lumps, % 0.065 astm c142[18] material finer than #200 % 1.231 astm c117[19] fine aggregate property value standard of tests gsrb requirements bulk density, gm /cm3 2.559 astm c128[20] apparent density, gm/cm3 2.786 astm c128[20] water absorption, % 3.177 astm c128[20] clay lumps, % 1.89 astm c142[18] max 3% material finer than #200 % 3.846 astm c117[19] sand equivalent, % 48 astm d2419[21] min 45 properties result physical properties aspect ratio, 4.82 diameter, mm 0.97 length, mm 4.67 chemical properties sio2 19.34 al2o3 1.55 fe2o3 1.51 cao 5.20 mgo 0.53 so3 1.19 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 4 bitumen characteristics table 5 the bitumen emulsion characteristics property value form dark brown liquid specific gravity 1.00 solid's content 60 to 65% rubber content approx. 10 % drying time 30 minutes at 25°c over coating time 1 hour @ 25°c 2.3 cellulose fibers local palm leaves were used to make cellulose fibers, often known as palm leaf fibers (plf). the properties of plf shown in tables 6 table 6 the properties of the palm leaves fibers 2.4 solvent used 10% of the weight of the emulsion asphalt was combined with benzene (c6h6) solvent. 2.5 preparation of fiber and additives after drying the palm leaves was manually cut so that it could be processed with an electric grinder to create fiber. the chosen fiber was selected from passing from sieve no. 16 and remained to be on sieve no. 200. modified dry process, or mdp, is recommended to ensure sufficient fiber distribution in the mixture. the creation of made of fiber with different gradients is an aspect of the mdp, so to produce the tiny modified balls, which are the enhancer materials, were formed by mixing the components fiber, hydrated lime, emulsion, solvent, and paris property test values astm designation gsrb requirements penetration,100 gm. ,25 ͦ c,5sec (1/10 mm) 48 d5[22] 40-50 specific gravity, 25 c (gm./cm3) 1.03 d70[23] ductility, 25 ͦ c,5 cm/min, (cm) 145 d113[24] >100 flash point, (ͦ c) 345 d92[25] >232 softening point (ͦ c) 47.5 d36[25] rotational viscosity, pa.s @170 -165°c @280 -153°c d4402[22] ≤ 3000 properties result physical properties aspect ratio, 4.82 diameter, mm 0.97 length, mm 4.67 chemical properties sio2 19.34 al2o3 1.55 fe2o3 1.51 cao 5.20 mgo 0.53 so3 1.19 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us plaster. these were added to the mixture. table 7 displays the proportions of each in the gradient of several mixes of the tiny modified balls. at a temperature of the laboratory, six groups (p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, and p6) seized the form of the tiny modified balls. table 7 the proportion of material additives in hma 2.6 preparation of specimens to satisfy the requirements of the experiment design, the asphalt mixtures were created in two phases employing two samples for each percentage: * using the aggregate that accordance with the iraqi standard r9[15], the control mixture in the first stage is the customary traditional mixture. along with the aggregate (coarse and fine), it also contains five different concentrations of neat asphalt, ranging from 4% to 6%, with a 0.5% escalation in each level, three different types of filler: hydrated lime (hl) (2% in mixture and 20% in preparation for the balls); and limestone dust (ld) (5%). the hma-control mixture needs to have (obc), as stated in astm d1559[26],in order to meet all of the determination criteria. and 5.5% by weight of sample was found to be the ideal binder concentration of the control mixture. * in the second stage the control mixture, for which the ideal asphalt concentration has been determined, is supplemented with improvers in varying dosages (2%, 4%, and 6%) of the tiny modified balls. in order to ensure that the improver was distributed throughout the asphalt mixture under the same conditions and temperatures, two minutes of mixing time was added using mdp after adding the tiny modified balls that are shown in table 7. at this point, the optimal improver ratio for the asphalt mixture was determined by using both mechanical and volumetric properties tests. 3. methods and conditions of testing the procedure for testing was carried out in compliance with iraqi standard r9 (gsre, 2003). these specification indices for surface coarse type iii-a are displayed in table 8. in addition, other mechanical property tests, such as the indirect tensile strength test, were included to find mix type add.% add. type additive ingredients palm fiber % paris plaster % hydrated lime% emulsion% solvent%* hma0 0 0 0 0 0 0 hma-p1 2 p1 13 2 20 65 10 4 6 hma-p2 2 p2 17 2 20 61 10 4 6 hma-p3 2 p3 21 2 20 57 10 4 6 hma-p4 2 p4 25 2 20 53 10 4 6 hma-p5 2 p5 29 2 20 49 10 4 6 hma-p6 2 p6 33 2 20 45 10 4 6 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the anticipated change in the developed mixes. indexes of volumetric and mechanical properties test of surface coarse according to gsrb [15] as show in table 8. table 8 indexes of volumetric and mechanical properties test of surface coarse according to gsrb 4. results and discussion 4.1 volumetric test results figure 3 show that the comparing modified hot mix asphalt (hma) to conventional hma, the study provides that adding the additive often reduces hma's density. with 2% additions of types p1, p2, and p3, there are exceptions, though, since they exhibit an insignificant density rise. although not as much, densities are still decreasing when the additive dosage is increased from 2 to 6%. air void expansion and particle movement are facilitated by the lubricating properties of the asphalt emulsion. asphalt viscosity and content rise as the percentage of asphalt emulsion increases. as the improver is added, palm leaves fibers raise and increase particle friction and air spaces are reduced as show in figure 4. asphalt emulsion reduces. characteristics of air voids, which are essential to the performance and durability of asphalt mixtures, mirror this behavior. index gsrb limits test method bulk density astm d2041/d2041m[27] air void (%) 35 void mineral aggregate (%) >14 stability value kn > 8 astm d6927[28] flow value, mm 24 rutting depth (mm) bs en 12697-22[29] 7 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the trend shown in figure 5 shows that the addition reduces the voids in mineral aggregate (v.m.a.) in modified hot mix asphalt (hma) as compared to conventional hma. there is a little increase at 2% additions, but v.m.a. falls as the modifier increases further. there is a slight increase at 4% and 6% additions, with the majority of results reaching the minimum necessary level of 14% for v.m.a. in a similar, figure 6 shows that the addition in modified hma reduces voids filled with asphalt (v.f.a.) as compared to regular hma. there is a slight increase for 2%, 4%, and 6% additives, with the majority of results satisfying the minimal requirements of 70-85% for v.f.a. 4.2 mechanical characteristics 4.2.1 marshall test results figure 7show the results stability of hma and improved hmas indicate that high stability from the traditional hma is achieved when including the additive comparison between the traditional hma and the improved hmas by (2 and 4%) additives. while the stability values continue to fluctuate, the 6% additives shown an ongoing increase in enhanced content. additionally, the results demonstrated that for all types of mixes, the enhanced hmas values were greater than the minimum required limits (> 8kn). conversely, figure 8 show the results of marshall flow has an optimal value at mixture p5 for the (2,4, and 6%) additives and the lowest flow values for the improved mixtures are for the hma-p5 mixture, which is considered the best hot asphalt mixture improved with palm leaves fibers in terms of stability and flow., which are connected with their microstructure and roughness for the fibers' ability to absorbed bitumen. additionally, the percentage of the emulsion in relation to the fiber in the mixtures. 8 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.2.2 wheel track test the findings of the wheel track test provide information about the impact of plf in hmas, the superiority of mhma over hmas, and the importance of plf introduction in hmas. it is possible to interpret all of these facts as previously indicated in relation to the stability behavior of such mixtures. the results as show in figure 9 revealed several key findings regarding the effects of modified by (plf) in hot mixtures asphalt (hmas), the advantages of modified hot mixtures asphalt (mhmas) over hma, and the significance of introducing plf in hams. mhmas was found to exhibit superior stability compared to traditional hma mixes, with plf contributing additional benefits in terms of resistance to permanent deformation. optimal rutting resistance was observed in ham mixes with hma-p5,6% plf content, showcasing a significant reduction in rut depth compared to control hma mixes as 43.48%. the high resistance to permanent deformation attributed to plf can be explained by its strong contact and bonding with asphalt, which enhances the stiffness, elasticity, and viscosity of the asphalt binder. the presence of cellulose fibers in plf further reinforces the asphalt mixture, improving cohesion and interlocking between aggregate particles. this reinforcement promotes more uniform load distribution, inhibits crack development and propagation, and prevents moisture-induced pavement weakening. overall, the incorporation of plf strengthens the asphalt matrix, effectively increasing resistance to permanent deformation and cracking in hmas 9 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us as shown in figure 10, the enhanced rutting resistance of modified hma is attributed to the improved dynamic stability of hma-p5,6% compared to conventional hma by about 90.46%. 4. conclusions from the above results, it can be concluded that: 1. marshall stability (ms) is significantly impacted by the addition of plf to hma. but the stability flow connection makes this fact abundantly evident. 2. when tested by a wheel track equipment, the rutting resistance of hmas is significantly impacted by the addition of plf. 3. plf might enhance hma even further. the results of the experimental lab work show that 6% by weight of aggregate was the ideal proportion of plf that forms as small modified balls (p5). the greatest anticipated gain in marshall stability and rutting resistance was brought about by this amount. 4. the maximum resistance to rutting was combined with the maximum dynamic stability of 6% for hma-p5. which provide more evidence for the advancements made. 5. references 1. redelius, p., j.-a. östlund, and h. soenen, field experience of cold mix asphalt during 15 years. road materials and pavement design, 2016. 17(1): p. 223-242. 2. suo, z. and w.g. wong, nonlinear properties analysis on rutting behaviour of bituminous materials with different air void contents. construction and building materials, 2009. 23(12): p. 3492-3498. 10 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. simpson, a.l., characterization of transverse profile. transportation research record, 1999. 1655(1): p. 185-191. 4. zhu, t., et al., evaluating the rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures using a simplified triaxial repeated load test. construction and building materials, 2016. 116: p. 72-78. 5. khedr, s.a. and t.m. breakah, rutting parameters for asphalt concrete for different aggregate structures. international journal of pavement engineering, 2011. 12(1): p. 13-23. 6. chen, h., et al., evaluation and design of fiber-reinforced asphalt 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particles in aggregates. 1997. astm west conshohocken, pa. 19. astm, standard test method for materials finer than 75-µm (no. 200) sieve in mineral aggregates by washing1, in c117. 2017. 20. astm, c., standard test method for relative density (specific gravity) and absorption of fine aggregate. astm current edition approved jan, 2015. 1. 21. astm, standard test method for sand equivalent value of soils and fine aggregate. 2009. 22. astm, standard test method for penetration of bituminous materials, in d5/d5m. 2014. 23. astm, standard test method for density of semi-solid asphalt binder (pycnometer method). 2018, astm international west conshohocken, pa. 11 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 24. d113-17, a., standard test method for ductility of asphalt materials. 2017, astm international west conshohocken, pa, usa. 25. astm, standard test method for softening point of bitumen (ring-and-ball apparatus), in d36/d36m. 2014. 26. astm, standard test method for resistance to plastic flow of bituminous mixtures using marshall apparatus, in astm d1559 89. 1989. 27. astm, theoretical maximum specific gravity and density of bituminous paving mixtures, in: d2041/d2041m. 2011. 28. astm, standard test method for marshall stability and flow of asphalt mixtures, in d6927. 2022. 29. bsi, wheel tracking, in bs en 12697-22. 2003a. 20 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 9, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 modern technologies like blockchain and machine learning: benefits to education enterprise technologies tirumala rao chimpiri independent researcher, senior programmer analyst, stony brook university, new york, usa abstract: this research paper explores the transformative potential of blockchain technology and machine learning (ml) in the realm of education enterprise technologies. as the educational landscape continues to evolve in the digital age, these cutting-edge technologies offer innovative solutions to longstanding challenges in areas such as credential verification, personalized learning, and administrative efficiency. this study examines the current applications of blockchain and ml in education, analyzes their benefits and limitations, and forecasts their future impact on the industry. by synthesizing recent research and case studies, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how these technologies are reshaping education enterprise technologies and paving the way for more efficient, secure, and personalized learning experiences. keywords: blockchain, machine learning, education technology, edtech, personalized learning, credential verification, learning analytics, smart contracts, adaptive learning, data security. 1. introduction the landscape of education is undergoing a profound transformation, driven by rapid technological advancements and the increasing digitization of learning processes. among the most promising technologies poised to revolutionize education are blockchain and machine learning. these innovations, which have already disrupted industries ranging from finance to healthcare, are now being harnessed to address longstanding challenges in the education sector and to create new opportunities for learners, educators, and institutions alike. blockchain technology, best known as the underlying architecture of cryptocurrencies, offers a decentralized and immutable ledger system that can bring unprecedented levels of transparency, security, and efficiency to educational processes. from securely storing and verifying academic credentials to facilitating seamless credit transfers between institutions, blockchain has the potential to streamline administrative tasks and empower learners with greater control over their educational data. machine learning, a subset of artificial intelligence, is equally transformative in its ability to analyze vast amounts of data and derive meaningful insights. in education, ml algorithms can personalize learning experiences, predict student outcomes, and provide educators with powerful tools for assessment and intervention. by adapting to individual learning styles and paces, mlpowered systems promise to make education more inclusive and effective. this research paper aims to explore the intersection of these technologies with education enterprise technologies – the systems and platforms that underpin modern educational institutions. we will examine how blockchain and machine learning are being integrated into 21 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us existing educational frameworks, the benefits they offer to various stakeholders in the education ecosystem, and the challenges that must be overcome for their widespread adoption. as we delve into this topic, we will consider questions such as: 1. how can blockchain technology enhance the credentialing process and improve the verification of academic achievements? 2. in what ways can machine learning algorithms personalize the learning experience and improve student outcomes? 3. what are the potential impacts of these technologies on administrative efficiency and cost reduction in educational institutions? 4. how do blockchain and ml address issues of data privacy and security in educational contexts? 5. what are the limitations and potential drawbacks of implementing these technologies in education? by addressing these questions and more, this paper seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state and future potential of blockchain and machine learning in education enterprise technologies. through an analysis of recent research, case studies, and expert opinions, we aim to offer valuable insights for educators, administrators, policymakers, and technology developers working at the forefront of educational innovation. as we progress through this exploration, it will become clear that while blockchain and machine learning offer tremendous potential, their successful integration into education systems requires careful consideration of technical, ethical, and practical challenges. nonetheless, the promise of more efficient, secure, and personalized learning experiences makes these technologies a crucial area of study for anyone invested in the future of education. 2. overview of blockchain technology blockchain technology, first introduced as the underlying mechanism for bitcoin in 2008, has since evolved into a versatile tool with applications far beyond cryptocurrencies. at its core, blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that allows for secure, transparent, and tamperresistant record-keeping without the need for a central authority. 2.1 key features of blockchain 1. decentralization: unlike traditional centralized systems, blockchain distributes data across a network of computers, eliminating single points of failure and reducing the risk of data manipulation. 2. immutability: once data is recorded on the blockchain, it becomes extremely difficult to alter, ensuring the integrity of the information stored. 3. transparency: all transactions on a blockchain are visible to all participants, promoting trust and accountability. 4. smart contracts: self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into code, automating and enforcing the execution of agreements. 2.2 types of blockchain 1. public blockchains: open, permissionless networks where anyone can participate, such as bitcoin and ethereum. 2. private blockchains: closed networks with restricted access, often used by organizations for internal purposes. 3. consortium blockchains: partially decentralized systems where a group of organizations governs the network. 22 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.3 blockchain in enterprise in enterprise settings, blockchain technology is being explored for its potential to streamline processes, reduce costs, and enhance security. industries such as finance, supply chain management, and healthcare have been early adopters, leveraging blockchain for applications like cross-border payments, product traceability, and secure sharing of medical records. 3. overview of machine learning machine learning (ml) is a subset of artificial intelligence that focuses on the development of algorithms and statistical models that enable computer systems to improve their performance on a specific task through experience, without being explicitly programmed. 3.1 key concepts in machine learning 1. supervised learning: the algorithm learns from labeled training data, making predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to do so. 2. unsupervised learning: the algorithm identifies patterns in data without pre-existing labels, often used for clustering and association. 3. reinforcement learning: the algorithm learns to make decisions by performing actions and receiving rewards or penalties in a dynamic environment. 4. deep learning: a subset of machine learning based on artificial neural networks, capable of learning from large amounts of unstructured data. 3.2 applications of machine learning machine learning has found applications across various industries, including: 1. healthcare: for disease diagnosis, drug discovery, and personalized treatment plans. 2. finance: in fraud detection, algorithmic trading, and credit scoring. 3. marketing: for customer segmentation, recommendation systems, and predictive analytics. 4. transportation: in autonomous vehicles, traffic prediction, and route optimization. 3.3 machine learning in enterprise in enterprise settings, machine learning is being leveraged to automate processes, gain insights from big data, and enhance decision-making. from predictive maintenance in manufacturing to customer service chatbots, ml is transforming how businesses operate and compete in the digital age. 4. current state of education enterprise technologies education enterprise technologies refer to the various software systems, platforms, and tools used by educational institutions to manage their operations, deliver content, and facilitate learning. the current landscape of these technologies is diverse and rapidly evolving, shaped by the increasing digitization of education and the demand for more efficient, scalable, and personalized learning experiences. 4.1 key components of education enterprise technologies 1. learning management systems (lms): platforms like blackboard, canvas, and moodle that allow for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, and delivery of educational courses. 2. student information systems (sis): databases that manage student data, including enrollment, grades, and personal information. 3. enterprise resource planning (erp) systems: integrated management of core business processes in educational institutions, including finance, human resources, and operations. 23 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. assessment and analytics tools: software for creating, administering, and analyzing assessments, as well as tools for tracking student performance and engagement. 5. content management systems (cms): platforms for creating, managing, and distributing educational content. 6. communication and collaboration tools: software that facilitates interaction between students, teachers, and administrators, such as email systems, discussion forums, and video conferencing tools. 4.2 challenges in current education enterprise technologies despite significant advancements, several challenges persist in the current education technology landscape: 1. interoperability: many systems operate in silos, making it difficult to share data and create a seamless experience across different platforms. 2. data security and privacy: with increasing amounts of sensitive student data being stored and transmitted digitally, ensuring its security and privacy is a growing concern. 3. scalability: as educational institutions grow and evolve, their technology systems must be able to scale accordingly, which is not always feasible with legacy systems. 4. personalization: while there is a growing demand for personalized learning experiences, many current systems lack the sophistication to deliver truly adaptive content. 5. accessibility: ensuring that educational technologies are accessible to all students, including those with disabilities, remains a challenge. 6. cost: the implementation and maintenance of comprehensive education enterprise technologies can be prohibitively expensive for many institutions. 4.3 emerging trends several trends are shaping the future of education enterprise technologies: 1. cloud-based solutions: moving from on-premises systems to cloud-based platforms for greater flexibility and scalability. 2. mobile learning: increasing focus on mobile-friendly platforms to support learning anytime, anywhere. 3. ai and machine learning integration: incorporating intelligent systems for personalized learning paths and predictive analytics. 4. blockchain for credentialing: exploring the use of blockchain for secure and verifiable academic credentials. 5. internet of things (iot): leveraging connected devices to create smart campuses and enhance the learning experience. 6. virtual and augmented reality: integrating immersive technologies to create more engaging and interactive learning environments. as we delve deeper into the benefits of blockchain and machine learning in subsequent sections, it will become clear how these technologies are poised to address many of the current challenges and drive innovation in education enterprise technologies. 5. benefits of blockchain in education blockchain technology offers numerous potential benefits to the education sector, particularly in enhancing the security, efficiency, and transparency of various educational processes. here, we explore some of the key advantages that blockchain can bring to education enterprise technologies. 24 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5.1 secure and verifiable credentials one of the most promising applications of blockchain in education is in the realm of academic credentials: 1. credential issuance: educational institutions can issue diplomas, certificates, and other credentials as digital assets on a blockchain, ensuring their authenticity and immutability. 2. easy verification: employers and other institutions can quickly and easily verify the authenticity of academic credentials without needing to contact the issuing institution directly. 3. lifelong learning records: blockchain can enable the creation of comprehensive, secure, and easily shareable records of an individual's lifelong learning achievements, including both formal and informal education. 5.2 enhanced data security and privacy blockchain's inherent security features can significantly improve the protection of sensitive educational data: 1. decentralized storage: by distributing data across a network, blockchain reduces the risk of data breaches that can occur with centralized storage systems. 2. access control: smart contracts can be used to implement fine-grained access control, ensuring that only authorized parties can view or modify specific pieces of information. 3. data integrity: the immutability of blockchain records helps prevent unauthorized alterations of student data, grades, or financial records. 5.3 streamlined administrative processes blockchain can automate and streamline various administrative tasks in educational institutions: 1. transcript processing: automating the process of sending and receiving academic transcripts, reducing processing time and costs. 2. financial aid distribution: using smart contracts to automate the disbursement of scholarships and financial aid based on predefined criteria. 3. resource allocation: improving the tracking and allocation of educational resources, from textbooks to laboratory equipment. 5.4 intellectual property and digital rights management blockchain can help protect and manage intellectual property in academic settings: 1. copyright protection: registering research papers, theses, and other academic works on a blockchain to establish clear ownership and prevent plagiarism. 2. licensing and royalties: managing the licensing of educational content and automating royalty payments to content creators through smart contracts. 5.5 personalized learning pathways blockchain can facilitate more personalized and flexible learning experiences: 1. micro-credentials: enabling the recognition and verification of smaller units of learning, allowing for more customized educational paths. 2. cross-institutional learning: facilitating the recognition and transfer of credits between different institutions, enabling students to create more diverse and personalized educational journeys. 6. benefits of machine learning in education machine learning (ml) has the potential to revolutionize various aspects of education, from personalized learning to administrative efficiency. here, we explore the key benefits that ml can bring to education enterprise technologies. 25 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6.1 personalized learning one of the most significant advantages of ml in education is its ability to tailor the learning experience to individual students: 1. adaptive learning platforms: ml algorithms can analyze a student's performance, learning style, and pace to adjust the difficulty and style of content in real-time. 2. intelligent tutoring systems: ml-powered virtual tutors can provide personalized guidance and support, mimicking one-on-one human tutoring. 3. content recommendations: similar to streaming services, ml can recommend relevant educational resources based on a student's interests and learning history. 6.2 predictive analytics and early intervention ml can help identify at-risk students and predict academic outcomes: 1. early warning systems: by analyzing various data points, ml models can flag students who may be at risk of falling behind or dropping out. 2. personalized interventions: based on predictive models, educators can design targeted interventions to support struggling students. 3. resource allocation: institutions can use ml-driven insights to allocate resources more effectively, focusing on areas and students with the greatest need. 6.3 automated grading and feedback ml can streamline assessment processes, saving time for educators and providing faster feedback to students: 1. essay grading: natural language processing (nlp) algorithms can assess written work, providing consistent grading and detailed feedback. 2. formative assessment: ml can power intelligent quizzing systems that adapt to a student's knowledge level and provide immediate feedback. 3. plagiarism detection: advanced ml algorithms can more accurately detect instances of academic dishonesty across various languages and sources. 6.4 learning analytics ml can provide deep insights into the learning process, benefiting both educators and institutions: 1. student engagement analysis: ml can analyze data from learning management systems to gauge student engagement and identify effective teaching strategies. 2. curriculum optimization: by analyzing student performance data, ml can help identify areas of the curriculum that may need improvement or updating. 3. institutional performance metrics: ml can process complex datasets to provide insights into overall institutional performance and areas for improvement. 6.5 accessibility and inclusion ml can enhance the accessibility of educational content and support diverse learners: 1. automatic captioning and translation: ml-powered speech recognition and translation can make educational content more accessible to non-native speakers and hearing-impaired students. 2. assistive technologies: ml can power more sophisticated assistive technologies for students with disabilities, such as improved text-to-speech or gesture recognition systems. 26 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. bias detection: ml algorithms can be used to detect and mitigate bias in educational materials and assessment methods, promoting more inclusive learning environments. 7. challenges and limitations while blockchain and machine learning offer significant benefits to education enterprise technologies, their implementation is not without challenges and limitations. 7.1 challenges in implementing blockchain in education 1. technical complexity: implementing and maintaining blockchain systems requires specialized technical expertise that many educational institutions may lack. 2. scalability: some blockchain networks face challenges in handling large volumes of transactions, which could be an issue for widespread adoption in education. 3. energy consumption: certain blockchain consensus mechanisms, particularly proof of work, are energy-intensive and may conflict with sustainability goals. 4. regulatory compliance: educational institutions must navigate complex regulatory landscapes, including data protection laws like gdpr, which may pose challenges for blockchain implementation. 5. interoperability: ensuring that blockchain systems can interact with existing educational technologies and between different institutions remains a challenge. 7.2 limitations and concerns in applying machine learning to education 1. data privacy and security: the use of ml in education requires large amounts of student data, raising concerns about privacy and data protection. 2. algorithmic bias: ml models can perpetuate or amplify existing biases in educational data, potentially leading to unfair outcomes for certain groups of students. 3. overreliance on technology: there's a risk of over-depending on ml systems, potentially diminishing the role of human judgment in educational decision-making. 4. lack of transparency: some ml models, particularly deep learning systems, can be "black boxes," making it difficult to understand how they arrive at their conclusions. 5. digital divide: the effectiveness of ml in education depends on access to technology and high-quality data, which may exacerbate existing inequalities in education. 6. ethical considerations: the use of predictive analytics in education raises ethical questions about determinism and the potential for self-fulfilling prophecies. 8. future outlook as blockchain and machine learning technologies continue to evolve, their potential impact on education enterprise technologies is likely to grow. this section explores the future outlook for these technologies in the education sector. 8.1 emerging trends 1. hybrid learning ecosystems: the integration of blockchain and ml is expected to facilitate seamless hybrid learning environments, combining traditional classroom experiences with online and decentralized learning opportunities. 2. ai-enhanced educators: rather than replacing teachers, ml is likely to augment their capabilities, providing them with powerful tools for personalization, assessment, and administrative tasks. 3. decentralized autonomous organizations (daos) in education: blockchain could enable the creation of daos that manage educational resources, curricula, and even entire virtual institutions. 27 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. continuous, lifelong learning: the combination of secure, verifiable credentials (blockchain) and personalized learning paths (ml) will support more flexible, lifelong learning models. 5. global education marketplaces: blockchain could facilitate the creation of decentralized platforms where learners can access courses and resources from institutions worldwide, with ml providing personalized recommendations. 8.2 potential developments 1. blockchain-based accreditation: future accreditation processes might leverage blockchain to provide more transparent, immutable records of institutional quality and performance. 2. advanced predictive models: as ml models become more sophisticated, they may be able to predict long-term student outcomes and career success with greater accuracy. 3. emotionally intelligent learning systems: integration of emotion recognition ai with ml could create learning systems that respond not just to cognitive needs but also to the emotional state of learners. 4. blockchain for research and collaboration: blockchain could revolutionize academic publishing and research collaboration, providing transparent peer review processes and facilitating the sharing of research data. 5. quantum machine learning in education: as quantum computing develops, it could dramatically enhance the capabilities of ml in analyzing complex educational data sets. 8.3 challenges to overcome 1. ethical ai framework: the education sector will need to develop robust ethical guidelines for the use of ai and ml in learning environments. 2. data standardization: for blockchain and ml to reach their full potential, there needs to be greater standardization of educational data across institutions and countries. 3. digital literacy: educators and students will need to develop new forms of digital literacy to effectively leverage and understand these technologies. 4. regulatory adaptation: educational policies and regulations will need to evolve to accommodate blockchain-based credentials and ml-driven decision-making in education. 5. infrastructure development: significant investment in technological infrastructure will be necessary, particularly in regions currently lacking robust digital resources. 9. conclusion the integration of blockchain and machine learning technologies into education enterprise systems represents a significant shift in the landscape of modern education. these technologies offer promising solutions to long-standing challenges in the sector, from credential verification and administrative efficiency to personalized learning and predictive analytics. blockchain's potential to create secure, transparent, and easily verifiable records of academic achievements could revolutionize how credentials are issued, shared, and verified. this has farreaching implications for lifelong learning, global mobility of students and professionals, and the recognition of both formal and informal learning experiences. machine learning, on the other hand, is poised to transform the learning experience itself. by enabling truly adaptive learning platforms, providing early intervention for at-risk students, and offering deep insights into the learning process, ml has the potential to make education more effective, engaging, and inclusive. however, the road to widespread adoption of these technologies in education is not without obstacles. technical challenges, data privacy concerns, issues of equity and access, and the need for new regulatory frameworks are all significant hurdles that must be addressed. moreover, care 28 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us must be taken to ensure that the implementation of these technologies enhances rather than diminishes the human elements of education that are crucial for holistic development. as we look to the future, it's clear that blockchain and machine learning will play an increasingly important role in shaping education enterprise technologies. the potential for creating more efficient, transparent, and personalized learning ecosystems is immense. however, realizing this potential will require continued research, thoughtful implementation, and a commitment to addressing the ethical and practical challenges these technologies present. in conclusion, while blockchain and machine learning are not panaceas for all the challenges facing modern education, they offer powerful tools for innovation and improvement. as these technologies mature and become more integrated into educational systems, they have the potential to create more accessible, effective, and equitable learning opportunities for students around the world. the future of education, enhanced by blockchain and machine learning, is one of unprecedented personalization, transparency, and global connectivity. 10. references 1. grech, a., & camilleri, a. f. (2017). blockchain in education. luxembourg: publications office of the european union. 2. holmes, w., bialik, m., & fadel, c. (2019). artificial intelligence in education: promises and implications for teaching and learning. center for curriculum redesign. 3. jirgensons, m., & kapenieks, j. (2018). blockchain and the future of digital learning credential assessment and management. journal of teacher education for sustainability, 20(1), 145-156. 4. reich, j., & ruipérez-valiente, j. a. (2019). the mooc pivot. science, 363(6423), 130131. 5. williamson, b. (2017). big data in education: the digital future of learning, policy and practice. sage. 6. zheng, z., xie, s., dai, h., chen, x., & wang, h. (2017). an overview of blockchain technology: architecture, consensus, and future trends. in 2017 ieee international congress on big data (bigdata congress) (pp. 557-564). ieee. 7. baker, r. s., & inventado, p. s. (2014). educational data mining and learning analytics. in learning analytics (pp. 61-75). springer, new york, ny. 8. chen, l., & chen, p. (2017). blockchain in education: the solution for e-transcript. in 2017 ieee international conference on information systems and control (icisc) (pp. 1-4). ieee. 9. luckin, r., holmes, w., griffiths, m., & forcier, l. b. (2016). intelligence unleashed: an argument for ai in education. pearson. 10. siemens, g., & long, p. (2011). penetrating the fog: analytics in learning and education. educause review, 46(5), 30. 49-54 abnormal files classification using convolutional 49 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 abnormal files classification using convolutional neural network cnn mohammad musaddak al-farabi university, iraq, baghdad abstract: as of late, turning windows files into pictures and analyzing them with deep learning and machine learning have been regarded as state-of-the-art methods for identifying and classifying malware. this is mostly because deep learning model performance in image classification has recently experienced a boom in success, and image-based malware detection and classification is platform independent. convolutional neural network (cnn) deep learning techniques are successfully used for image-based windows malware classification, according to a review of the literature. nevertheless, just a small percentage of the entire picture representation had the infection. finding and identifying these impacted little areas is crucial to achieving a high degree of malware classification accuracy. this study locates and identifies the little contaminated spots in the overall picture by integrating a data augmentation technique with a cnn. on a dataset of malware images, a thorough examination and analysis of the suggested technique were conducted. the effectiveness of the suggested data augmentation-based cnn method was evaluated against many non-attention-cnn-based methods using different data splits from the benchmark malware picture training and testing dataset. the proposed cnn approach ensured computational efficiency and outperformed non-attention-based cnn methods in all the data-splits. most notably, the majority of the techniques demonstrate consistent performance across all training and testing data splits, illuminating cnn's multi-headed attention. model’s generalizability to perform on the diverse datasets. introduction the majority of anti-virus products on the market today are signature-based, having gained popularity in the early days of malware detection. raw binaries were examined and a signature based on n-grams was created for signature-based malware detection [1]. this kind of strategy is straightforward and precise. nevertheless, in order to handle newly discovered malware or variations of already-existing malware, the signature database must be updated on a regular basis. the typical methodologies for malware analysis that were most often used were heuristicbased techniques, hybrid analysis, static analysis, and dynamic analysis [2]. .all of these techniques, taken together, entail scanning systems to find harmful or unauthorized activity. the suspicious files are then examined by the security administrator, and either a quarantine is placed on them or an update is applied to the susceptible system. every strategy frequently reacts slowly to fresh dangers and attacks. by examining the computer codes and creating control flow graphs without running the program, a method known as static analysis is used. nevertheless, code obfuscation is outside the scope of static analysis. with dynamic analysis, the malware is run in a sandbox, simulator, or virtual environment, and its execution track is examined (behavior analysis). while it is a promising method for handling code obfuscation, it is difficult, timeconsuming, and computationally costly. the malwares were first converted into grayscale 50 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us images, and [4] used the gist feature in conjunction with the k-nearest neighbor classifier to classify the trojan. the malimg dataset and the author's thorough examination and analysis were made freely available for study. owing to the current explosion in deep learning [7, 8], primarily to cnn's success, numerous techniques have been put out and assessed by researchers for the malimg dataset's use in malware classification. furthermore, for a variety of applications, deep learning-based approaches outperformed the other techniques [9], [10], [11], [12]. the comprehensive review of the literature found in section 2. for malware detection and classification, the majority of currently used techniques rely on cnn or feature extraction with machine learning classifiers. these days, malware detection and classification using deep learning-based techniques that turn malware into images work well. this is primarily because these techniques fully steer clear of manual feature engineering techniques. because manual feature engineering techniques necessitate domain expertise and perform poorly when applied to complicated and unknown data. nevertheless, these techniques fail to recognize even a small portion of the virus image's affected areas. the majority of the time, virus writers merely slightly alter the original files. by applying filters to a picture, cnn can improve its feature representation; but, its ability to recognize afflicted areas is severely restricted. security experts increased the breadth and depth of the cnn network in order to enhance cnn's effectiveness on malware image-based tasks [13, 14]. literature survey an technique to malware detection known as custom-trained transfer learning was introduced by marastoni et al. [34]. they trained the cnn model as a transfer-learned model using a bespoke obf dataset that was produced utilizing obfuscation techniques. the malimg and msm2015 datasets were utilized to train an additional cnn and lstm model, which was then used to predict each other's malware dataset and confirm prediction accuracy. they attained lstm-level accuracy and suggested using bicubic interpolation to obtain consistent image size. but without data balance, transfer learning showed mediocre performance; moreover, the models required fixed-size pictures, which prolonged the time necessary for data pre-processing; and the obfuscation techniques needed to be improved. cnn and mlp models should be used for malware sample analysis and detection, according to kim et al. [36]. they used their method to the publicly accessible microsoft malware dataset. some of the data in the dataset were eliminated and converted into an abstract visual graph in order to determine which category the virus is located in. through comparison investigation, the degree of similarity between this malware was discovered. it has been discovered that artificial intelligence deep learning is a useful technique for precisely and swiftly identifying malware using images. this technique outperformed the conventional signature-based strategy in identifying recently discovered malware. it was discovered that the mlp classifier needs to be upgraded since it was unreliable. in order to fully utilize deep learning models, sharma et al. [40] used a classification model for malware that combined them with cnn and other machine learning classifiers. by using mathematical functions, these models made it possible to identify malware that was just released. in terms of approach, cnn alone did the best on the malimg dataset. architecture for the cnnsvm model required to be upgraded. for multi-class situations, this would entail utilizing many svms, increasing the size of the model and hence the calculation time. in [27 p3], a cnn is trained with a multi-headed attention-based approach to identify and categorize the minuscule afflicted regions within the whole picture. on many data splits of the testing and training malware image benchmark dataset, the anticipated multiheaded attentionbased cnn approach performed comparably to other non-attention-cnn-based strategies. using the fusion feature set paradigm, chaganti et al. [28 p3] presented a dl-based cnn technique to identify malware on portable executable (pe) dual files. we provided a comprehensive evaluation of the performance of several dl technique structures and machine 51 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us learning classifiers, such as support vector machines (svm), using multi-aspect feature sets that included static, dynamic, and picture characteristics. the created cnn technique. opcode sequences were employed in earlier research on word2vec-based long short-term memory (ltsm) [20 p4], and an lstm was utilized to take into account the opcodes' sequential order in the file. they passed the obtained representation to the lstm after encoding opcodes using the word2vec embedding technique. in order to classify malware, qiao et al. suggested transforming grayscale pictures using word vector similarity determined from opcodes and sending the results to a cnn [21 p4]. in [18 p5], an advanced learning machine (elm) and a cnn were utilized to classify malware. comparing the two algorithms' performance in identifying malware photos is the primary objective of this paper. the results show that elms are better appropriate for the task at hand, being quicker and more accurate than cnns. this study trains their models using photos from the dataset of nataraj et al. [30 p5]. the deep residual network architecture with 50 layers from [16 p5] is used by the authors in [40 p5] to categorize malware from the malimg dataset. in order to categorize the malware samples into their respective families, the network is first trained on a common object identification task. after that, the last layer is removed from the model and a new dense model with 25 output nodes is created. slight modifications to the previously described method have been suggested by other recent publications, such [9 p5] and [5 p5], who always pre-train their model on typical picture classification tasks. convolutional neural network cnns are popularly employed for image identification and classification. they are feed-forward neural network models that are inspired by the human visual cortex. their translational invariance has been credited with their performance in image-related learning tasks, enabling them to be applied to issues like handwritten character recognition and face recognition. cnns perform a great job of extracting spatial information from the data in general. cnns are fundamentally made up of a dense layer coupled to at least one convolutional layer. during the training phase, the convolutional layer applies a convolution to the input to separate the features that the network considers significant. the input photos are reduced to a smaller feature set by this procedure, which significantly lowers the number of weights required [23 p6]. the max pooling layer, which is often coupled to the convolutional network, helps further minimize the size of the features identified by aggregating the values of several neurons into a single value, which is typically either the average value or the maximum value (hence max-pooling). at least one completely linked (or dense) layer completes the cnn architecture after a combination of the aforementioned layers. this layer operates as a multi-layer perceptron and is in charge of the actual classification process. it receives as input the characteristics that were taken out of the earlier layers [24 p6]. regularization methods are widely used and may be implemented anywhere in the network to prevent overfitting. better generalization is made possible as a result of the network being less likely to memorize the training set [22 p6]. cnn consist of : convolutional layer: first, the cnn input format is covered. while cnn employs a multichanneled image as input, typical neural networks use vector formats. for instance, the rgb image format has three channels, but the grayscale picture format just has one. to further understand the convolutional process, consider a 4 x 4 grayscale image with a 2 x 2 random weight-initialized kernel. the kernel first scans the whole picture in both horizontal and vertical directions. furthermore, the kernel's dot product and the input image are computed, which involves multiplying and adding each of their distinct values to produce a single scalar result. the procedure is then carried out again until sliding is no longer feasible. the calculated dot product values reflect the output feature map. in figure 1, the fundamental calculations carried out at every step are displayed clearly. in this illustration, the 2 2 kernel is represented by the 52 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us light green hue, while a piece of the same-sized input image is represented by the light blue hue. both are multiplied, and after adding together the final product values, the result (shown in light orange) represents an input value into the output feature map. in the example above, a stride of one is applied to the kernel (represented by the chosen step-size over all vertical and horizontal places) instead of padding the input picture. using a different stride value is also possible. raising the stride value also results in a feature map that is smaller in size. figure 1 convolutional operation pooling layer: subsampling is the main function of the pooling layer for the feature maps. convolutional methods are used in the production of these maps. put otherwise, this method reduces the size of bigger feature maps into smaller ones. it also keeps most of the dominant information (or attributes) during the pooling process. before the pooling procedure, the size of the kernel and the stride are allocated. different pooling layers can employ a variety of pooling algorithm types. global max pooling, min pooling, max pooling, average pooling, and global average pooling (gap) are a few of these options. the maximum, minimum, and gap techniques are the most popular and often applied pooling algorithms. these three pooling strategies are shown in figure 2. figure 2 pooling layer 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fully connected layer: in most cnn architectures, this layer is found at the end. the fully connected (fc) technique connects every cell in this layer to every cell in the layer above. it functions as a classifier for cnn. because it is a feed-forward ann, it uses the same fundamental method as a traditional multiple-layer perceptron neural network. the fc layer receives its input from the preceding pooling or convolutional layer. to construct a vector representing the shape of this input, the feature maps are flattened. the final cnn output is represented by the fc layer's output. as shown in figure 3 figure 3 fully connected layer evaluation metrics determining the effectiveness of trained classifiers or learning algorithms on various data sets is the aim of assessment in deep learning. most existing metrics concentrate on the accuracy of a classifier's class identification. metrics for evaluating classification performance are essential for guiding the construction of classifiers. there are significant disadvantages to even the most widely used techniques, including figuring the accuracy or error rate on a test set. consequently, optimizing criteria is correlated with modifications to classification algorithms to some extent. a lot of work has gone into creating more intricate algorithms to deal with the categorization issue. at least as important as the algorithm is the evaluation metrics phase, which comes first in the learning process. classifier performance may be measured using two different approaches: graphical and numerical. a classifier's performance is expressed as a single number in numerical assessments, but performance is shown on a plot with just two or three dimensions in graphical approaches, which makes it easier for humans to verify. while cost curves are examples of graphical methodologies, accuracy, precision, recall, and f1-score are examples of numerical performance evaluations. the percentage of correctly classified records to all records is referred to as "accuracy" [84]. 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁 𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁 + 𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁 precision quantifies the proportion of attack class predictions that fall into the anomaly class [84]. 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑃 𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃 recall is defined as the percentage of anomalous records that are successfully identified divided by the total number of anomalous records [84]. 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑇𝑃 𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁 the harmonic mean of accuracy and recall, or f1 score, is what's utilized to determine derived efficacy. a traffic categorization model has to have high recall, precision, and accuracy in order to be deemed excellent [85]. 𝐹1 − 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 2𝑋 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑋 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 results unlike previous research, we proposed a 2d-cnn that makes the most use of the dataset by employing a data augmentation approach. prior studies trained the gist + svm classifier by selecting many characteristics linked to malware files. secondly, training the 2d-cnn to enable autonomous feature extraction from pictures was proposed. our solution outperforms these two methods in terms of performance (less than that of earlier work), using data augmentation techniques with 10 epochs. we were able to effectively use the dataset and prevent overfitting in this way as shown in table 1. table 1 method accuracy of method model in [3] 96.46% gist + svm [6] 92.27% 2d-cnn [6] 93.56% our model 99.12% 25 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 2, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 methods for calculating torsional vibrations of shafts j. ergashev, sh. imomkulov namangan institute of textile and industry u.imomkulov namangan institute of civil engineering abstract: the article considers the processes of free and forced torsional vibrations of a shaft with a single mass, and provides basic definitions. the differential equations of free and forced torsional vibrations of a shaft with one mass are derived and their solution is given. keywords: shaft, torsional oscillations, free oscillations, forced oscillations, differential equation, stresses, twists, critical velocities, resonance, amplitudes, torque, harmonics, damping forces. introduction modern methods of calculating the torsional vibrations of the shafts of djinn machines make it possible to determine, with a greater or lesser degree of accuracy, those additional twisting stresses that will occur in the shaft when djinn machines are operating at any of its critical speeds, under conditions of precise torsional resonance. the criterion for the presence of this resonance is considered to be the coincidence of the angular ηh frequency of the resonating torque harmonics on the shaft of the washing machines with one of the angular frequencies ω0 of the natural torsional vibrations of the shaft of the investigated installation. relationship: , hereinafter referred to as the tuning coefficient, it receives a value of under resonance conditions. an external sign of the resonant nature of the oscillatory process is usually an intensive increase in the amplitudes of forced oscillations. such an increase, or development of amplitudes, continues until the energy input in the oscillating system due to the excitation work performed by resonating harmonic torques is equal to its consumption due to the presence of damping forces in the installation. the maximum resonant amplitude of the oscillation is determined from the equality of these works for each oscillation cycle. it is this limiting amplitude that is given by the currently known methods of calculating the resonant vibrations of the shafts of washing machines [3.15, 17, 18]. but such "favorable" (for the development of vibrations) ideal conditions for a sufficiently long operation of the installation at exactly the pm value of the tuning coefficient are essentially never implemented in practice, since in actual power plants from washing machines both ηh and ω0 are always variable. 26 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the angular frequency ηh of the harmonic torque is related to the angular velocity of rotation of the shaft η and the order h of this moment by the ratio: thus, ηh is constant in time only under the condition in general, in the dynamic study of installations from washing machines, it is necessary to distinguish: a) the average (imaginary or conditional) angular velocity η0 of the rotation of the shaft of the jinny machines; b) the instantaneous angular velocity ηs of the rotation of the genie shaft, when this shaft, together with all the shafts of the installation, is considered as an absolutely rigid (twisting) body; c) the true instantaneous speed ηi of rotation of any particular section of the shaft. the average angular velocity η0 is determined by the formula: after a minute, the number of n washing machines, measured, total counters. the speed of η0 is usually constant with a constant load on the washing machines and its constant adjustment. the instantaneous velocity ηi is continuously changing due to the inequality between the instantaneous value of the variable torque on the shaft of the washing machines and the moment of the external load.a specific value of ηi for each moment of time can be found, for example, using the well-known wittenbauer method. fluctuations in this speed depend on the nature of the total diagram of tangential forces on the shaft of the washing machines and the law of change of the moment of the external load along the angle of rotation of the shaft. obviously, ηi can also be called the instantaneous rotation speed of the shaft of the jinn machines, i.e., all its sections and all the masses rotating with it. the true instantaneous angular velocity ηi due to torsional vibrations of the shaft line is not only variable in time, but also varies along the length of the installation shaft. the velocities ηi are analytically determined only by a detailed calculation of the torsional vibrations of the shaft line and the construction of a torsion diagram for each section of the shaft we are interested in separately. the relative magnitude of the velocity fluctuations ns and ηi during one cycle of the shaft operation is characterized, respectively, by the expressions: , the value is the "rigid" degree of unevenness, or, as it is often called, the stem of the unevenness of the flywheel, is calculated using a well–known method, assuming the absolute rigidity of the shaft of the twisting installation. naturally, is the same for all shaft sections. the value , to which we will assign the name of the "elastic" (or true) degree of unevenness, is no longer the same for different shaft sections. experimentally, can be found using torsion mapping of the section (or, more precisely, the section) of the shaft of interest to us. the "hard" degree of unevenness corresponding to the so-called nodeless vibrations of the shaft enters through vibrations caused by the main orders of torque harmonics, far from resonance, if by this we mean the full degree of unevenness due to the effect on the shaft of 27 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the entire harmonic spectrum, the torque of the washing machines and the moment of external load. all generally accepted methods for calculating shaft vibrations, especially forced vibrations, involve replacing all masses variably involved in the oscillatory process with rotating masses with a constant moment of inertia. in fact, as is known, the moment of inertia of the diamond saws reduced to the radius is α periodic function of the angle of rotation of the shaft. accordingly, the frequency of natural oscillations of the shaft line changes periodically in the range from some from to . here it is advisable to introduce the concept of an "internal" degree of unevenness: and characterizing the range of oscillations (pulsations) of the natural oscillation frequency relative to its average value . the frequency of these natural frequency pulsations depends both on the rotation speed of the genie shaft and on the number of genie saws inserted on it and their relative position. in contrast to the "internal" degree of unevenness , which is entirely conditioned by the basic properties of the oscillating system itself, it is possible to assign the values and the name of "external" degrees of unevenness (respectively "rigid" and "elastic"), since the latter are essentially determined by external forces acting on the system. in any installation of the shafts of washing machines, continuous vibrations of η and ω0 (characterized by degrees of inequality , and ) all the time deviate the system from that state of a stationary oscillatory process, which is only considered by the usual theory of harmonic vibrations. a similar phenomenon occurs when the installation is running at any of its critical speeds. it seems quite obvious that such a permanent violation of the resonant oscillatory process in the shaft due to external and internal unevenness ( , and ) and excludes the possibility of developing those resonant amplitudes and stresses that are calculated by the usual method assuming . with an increase in δ, additional, so-called apparent or dynamic damping increases in the oscillating system. at the same time, unlike actual damping (for example, internal friction on the shaft, friction in bearings, etc.), dynamic damping is not associated, at least mainly, with energy dissipation. however, the issue of dynamic damping of torsional vibrations has hardly been developed. analytical accounting of the degree of unevenness (external and internal) by the magnitude of the resonant amplitudes by the magnitude of the resonant vibration amplitudes of the shafts can currently be performed only using the well-known mansi formula [14]. this formula, attractive for its simplicity and clarity, is quoted in many works on the theory of vibrations by the outfit of the authors [1, 4, 10, 11, 12] and is recommended for use in computational practice. but there is no consensus on the interpretation of the mansi formula and in assessing the degree of its accuracy. its fundamental grounds cannot be considered convincing. moreover, a critical analysis of the mansi formula and some related views on the effect of dynamic damping force us to recognize it as clearly unsatisfactory [5]. its application can lead to serious errors not only in the quantitative, but also in the qualitative assessment of those dynamic processes that play out in the shaft line of the power plant of washing machines. the purpose of this work is to carry out a detailed analysis of the influence of the uneven rotation of the shaft of jinny machines on the nature and development of resonant and non28 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us resonant vibrations in it, as well as to establish the true effect of dynamic damping caused by this unevenness. when studying shaft vibration, it is necessary to keep in mind the fundamental difference between the "external" ( , ) and "internal" ( ) degrees of unevenness in the installations of washing machines. the "internal" unevenness ( ) caused by periodic changes in the moments of inertia of the reduced gin masses is entirely related to the main characteristics of the installation. here, the reduction system, at least at not too small , loses the properties of a harmonic resonator, and its vibrations acquire a quasi-harmonic character. the "external" illegality ( , ), that is, the uneven rotation of the shaft, does not make such significant changes to the oscillating system, which, as in the ideal case ( = 0), under some of the restrictions listed below, can usually be described by linear differential equations with constant coefficients. thus, when studying vibrations of installations with constant reduced masses ( ) having (and, to a certain extent, ), we still have the opportunity to use the entire basic apparatus of the theory of harmonic oscillations with its spectral approach to analyzing the effect of complex periodic excitation. in real oscillatory systems, such as the installations of laser machines, there are usually simultaneously and or, more precisely, and however, the study of vibrations in these conditions presents exceptional difficulties. we will limit ourselves here only to analyzing the case , in order to identify in its pure form, the effect of the presence of (or ) in a linear system, and thereby establish the specific value of the uneven rotation of the shaft as a factor of dynamic damping of torsional vibrations in the installation of washing machines. according to the location, each saw blade creates a variable torque on the shaft , the value of which, at any angle of rotation of the shaft α, can be determined by conventional methods, according to the indicator diagram. according to the data obtained in this way, the curve is built in the function α, which has, depending on the position of the shaft, a period of 2π or 4 π. according to the data obtained in this way, the curve is built in the function α, which has, depending on the position of the shaft, a period of 2π or 4 π. the harmonic analysis of this curve, which, as a rule, always satisfies dirichlet conditions, allows us to represent the torque of one saw blade as a trigonometric series: ∑ ∑ ∑ ( ) , (1) (h =1, 2, 3, …) м0 – the constant component of the torque , мh – the amplitude of the harmonic moment (or, in short, the amplitude of the harmonic) h – the order determined by the formula: √ the phase angle of this harmonic, calculated by the formula: ⁄ and characterizing the position of the vector relative to the position of the shaft at the moment corresponding to α = 0. 29 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in the future, for the sake of simplicity of all calculations, we will consider only the position of the shaft. the angle of rotation of the shaft α is related to time t by an obvious ratio: ∫ , (2) where η is the instantaneous angular velocity of the shaft rotation. now from (1): ∑ ( ∫ ) ∑ ( ∫ ) ∑ (( ∫ ) ) , (3) in the generally accepted methods for calculating shaft vibrations, a direct proportionality between α and t is assumed: , (4) where obviously represents some average angular velocity of rotation of the shaft over the entire considered time interval, that is, at least for the duration of one cycle of the shaft's working process. the stand (4) in (1) gives the usual spectral representation of the torque in the form of a sum of elementary moments (harmonics), each of which is considered as a simple harmonic function of time ∑ ∑ ∑ ( ) , (5) here, all , , , ɛh are considered constant, independent of time. but this assumption is the less true, the less stable the mode of operation of the washing machines and, as will be shown below, the greater the unevenness of the shaft rotation. at constant load on the shaft of the washing machines, the accuracy of the series (5), as a characteristic of the true (i.e. harmonic time) torque spectrum , is entirely determined by the errors of the ratio (4), on the basis of which, as a result of a purely geometric (i.e. without taking into account the time factor) harmonic analysis of the curve ( ) time is entered and a number (5) is obtained. it is obvious that in all real practice tasks: а, следовательно, ряд (1) переходит в (3), где каждый слагаемое вида: ( ) ( ∫ ) , (6) it turns out to be often a very complex function of time t. thus, the "geometric" harmonic analysis of the curve ( ), the results of which are recorded in the form of an ordinary series (1), still does not answer the question of the specific characteristics of the harmonic torque spectrum , the components of which, under the conditions of the study of forced vibrations of linear systems with constant parameters, must be pure there are many harmonic functions of time. to directly obtain these multi-harmonic torque components, it would be necessary to conduct a harmonic analysis of the curve, constructed as a function of time t. 30 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.1. synchronous modulation with phase ⁄ the amplitude of the moment value increases with increasing modulation amplitudes however, the construction of such a curve, at least at the beginning of calculations of shaft vibrations, presents insurmountable difficulties, since the dependence of on t. is not sufficiently known in advance. in addition, the curve ( ) has a well-defined physical meaning, since the main thermal processes occurring in the working process of the collision of the saw blade with the raw material are not so much an explicit function of time, that is, the angle of rotation of the shaft. finally, it simply does not make sense to refuse to use the results of large computational work on the harmonic analysis of typical torque diagrams conducted by a number of researchers [3,10, 15] and presented either in the form of graphs or tables, giving specific values of the harmonic coefficients (where f is the area of the diamond saw). the use of such graphs facilitates the work of the designer, since it frees him from the need to perform painstaking calculations on the harmonic analysis of the curve every time. thus, it is still advisable to start our study with a series (1), each component of which: ( )= ( )= ( ∫ ), (7) it represents a simple harmonic function α and, at the same time, a complex modeled (as usual, under modulation, the introduction of any special, special periodic deviations into a purely sinusoidal oscillatory process) function of time t. fig.2. synchronous-synphase modulation, when the modulation frequency is equal to the carrier frequency 31 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in accordance with the accepted definitions and terminology (6), we will distinguish the following main types of modulation. here: , that is and ( ) = ( ), (8) where the amplitude of the moment is variable in time. the degree of deviation ( ) from a purely sinusoidal function t is determined by the nature of the changes in t. amplitude . fig.3. of the sinusoidal function, the amplitude of the moment by time changes t phase modulation, or phase modulation, characterized by conditions: , , and the phase angle varies depending on time. it is easy to show that phase modulation is similar to frequency modulation. frequency modulation through the variable rotation speed of the vector , obviously, inevitably leads to changes in and therefore is simultaneously phase modulation. in view of this, it is not particularly necessary to consider phase modulation. mixed modulation, when and are time variables. such differentiation of the components is advisable already with the usual analysis of shaft vibrations of installations operating in a wide range of revolutions. it is especially necessary in our study, since cyclic 32 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fluctuations in the angular velocity of the shaft rotation change the magnitude of the inertia forces accordingly. at , the inertial harmonics are easily calculated analytically, according to the wellknown formulas (5). this allows us to use a torque curve based on an indicator diagram without taking into account inertia forces for conducting harmonic analysis.but, of course, in the final results of this analysis, that is, in all and included in series (1), in the future it is necessary to take into account the amplitudes and phases of inertial harmonics accordingly. reference 1. brovin n.a., kutsubina n.v., sannikov a.a., identification of vibration and vibration protection of the four-shaft press of the papermaking ashina n1 of the kotlas central processing plant / / contribution of scientists and specialists to the development of the chemical and forestry complex: tez. dokl. region. scientific and technical onf. yekaterinburg, 1993. pp. 101-102. 2. nechaev v. k. – dynamic vibration damping and the maisi formula. (manuscript), 1937p. 102. 3. nechaev v. k. – theoretical crowbars for shafts. izvestiya tii, vol. 58. (1937). issue 2. 4. kutsubina n.v. parametric oscillations of the shafts of paper-making machines // contribution of scientists and specialists to the development of the chemical and forestry complex: tez. dokl. region. scientific and technical conference yekaterinburg. 1995. p.229. 5. kutsubina n.v., sannikov a.a. vibration of shafts on the lever; / / in: vibroacoustic processes in cellulose equipment; but-paper production / edited by v.n. starzhinsky, a.a. sanshkov. yekaterinburg: uralsk, state forestry engineering. acad. 1995. 6. kutsubina n.v., sannikov a.a. vibration calculation of the addition: shafts bm. axial vibrations of the shafts / / in the book: vibroacoustic design of pulp and paper and woodworking equipment: way of production / edited by v.n. starzhinsky, a.a. sannikov yekaterinburg: uralsk, state forestry engineering. akad., 1996. pp.140-16 proposed planning methods to confront the effects of urban encroachment in najaf governorate skip to main communities my dashboard log in sign up info: zenodo’s user support line is staffed on regular business days between dec 22 and jan 4. response times may be slightly longer than normal. published december 17, 2024 | version v1 journal article open proposed planning methods to confront the effects of urban encroachment in najaf governorate creators ms. saif al-deen mohammed olewi ms. ruoqayah basim mohammed al_nuwaini files 112-127+proposed+planning+methods+to+confront+the+effects.pdf files (1.6 mb) name size download all 112-127+proposed+planning+methods+to+confront+the+effects.pdf md5:d7161bb4b44c93c29c50d755dfe1d67d 1.6 mb preview download 47 views 45 downloads show more details all versions this version views total views 47 47 downloads total downloads 45 45 data volume total data volume 75.8 mb 75.8 mb more info on how stats are collected.... versions external resources indexed in openaire communities details doi doi badge doi 10.5281/zenodo.14543283 markdown [![doi](https://zenodo.org/badge/doi/10.5281/zenodo.14543283.svg)](https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14543283) restructuredtext .. image:: https://zenodo.org/badge/doi/10.5281/zenodo.14543283.svg :target: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14543283 html <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14543283"><img src="https://zenodo.org/badge/doi/10.5281/zenodo.14543283.svg" alt="doi"></a> image url https://zenodo.org/badge/doi/10.5281/zenodo.14543283.svg target url https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14543283 resource type journal article publisher zenodo rights license creative commons attribution 4.0 international the creative commons attribution license allows re-distribution and re-use of a licensed work on the condition that the creator is appropriately credited. read more citation export technical metadata created december 22, 2024 modified december 22, 2024 jump up about about policies infrastructure principles projects roadmap contact blog blog help faq docs guides support developers rest api oai-pmh contribute github donate funded by powered by cern data centre & inveniordm status privacy policy cookie policy terms of use support this site uses cookies. find out more on how we use cookies accept all cookies accept only essential cookies 55 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 determining the interaction coefficient between wheels and rails mamaev sh.i. tashkent state transport university tursunov t.m. tashkent state transport university nafasov j.h. tashkent state transport university sh.kh. toshtemirov tashkent state transport university abstract: this article delves into the determination of the coefficient of friction between wheel pairs and rails, crucial components of locomotive wheel motor units, through scientific inquiry. our research highlights that the maximum coefficient value is contingent upon both the maximum friction value and the force exerted by the wheel on the axle. additionally, we observe that the adhesion coefficient's value varies with sliding speed, with a maximum sliding speed identified as 0.5. experimental findings reveal that mixing coefficients range between 80% and 90% of the maximum value. keywords: wheel pair, rail, sliding, speed, coupling coefficient, locomotive. introduction. to enhance locomotive reliability and efficiency, it's imperative to optimize and maintain a constant coupling coefficient between wheel pairs and rails. this coefficient is determined based on sliding speed and vertical forces acting on the rail. through dynamic process analysis, we establish a functional relationship between the wheel-rail contact coefficient and sliding speed v, alongside the vertical load r. the maximum friction coefficient, which remains stable amid slight sliding speed changes, is termed the potential coefficient of friction. notably, the ps0 value marginally decreases with increasing movement speed v, attributed to reduced stationary contact duration. we call the maximum value of the coefficient of friction, which remains constant during small changes in the sliding speed, the potential value of the coefficient of friction [1, 3], in this case ..0 устмак = . theoretical groundwork for functional relationships between wheel and rail characteristics was laid by russian scientist v.i. naumov, who considered the given normal force r as the maximum coupling value, leading to stresses within the wheel and rail bodies per material strength limits. in this scenario, 56 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us p smax 0 = it is imperative to expand the contact surface area to enhance the coefficient value. according to research [11], this expansion can be achieved by increasing the wheel's rolling circle diameter, the rail head surface radius, and utilizing tires with specialized profiles. moreover, boosting the strength limit of wheel tires and rails by employing materials with higher poisson's coefficients and lower moduli of elasticity is essential. laboratory experiments [2] and torque tests conducted during locomotive operation [3] corroborate these conclusions and principles. however, it's noted that the coefficient value diminishes due to rail pollution from mineral dust and oil stains, as well as moisture accumulation from dew, light rain, or melted snow. conversely, heavy rain cleanses the rails, restoring the coefficient to its peak, which experimental data suggests can reach 0.5 [4]. to stabilize the coefficient 0 , the application of fine quartz sand, with minimal moisture content (not exceeding 1%), is advocated. this sand, when continuously dispensed beneath the wheels during challenging terrain or adverse weather conditions, facilitates automation through a tripping relay mechanism or an operator-initiated button press. crushed quartz sand serves to dislodge dirt and oxide films from the wheel's rolling surface, thereby augmenting the actual contact area. it's crucial to differentiate this practical approach from the calculated speed coefficient, which is contingent upon speed and detailed in the rules governing train operation calculations. fundamental research [6] focused on examining the characteristics of mainline locomotives. among these studies, the scientific investigation conducted by n. n. menshutin [7] holds significant importance for our purposes. the nominal load from the wheel pair of the vl22 series locomotive on the rails is тp 220 = with a wheel diameter of 22,1=d tests were conducted using both conical and cylindrical bandages, with and without sand.. measurement of slip was achieved utilizing frequency induction sensors, with one sensor positioned on the axle of the active engine wheel pair responsible for torque development, and the other on a stationary axle (control). these sensors' measuring coils were connected to a single vibrator, facilitating the detection of slip-induced vibrations on the recording film. by analyzing the distance between film nodes and reference wheel revolutions, the ratio of sliding speed to rolling speed was determined: v u = . for the initial ascending region of the connection description network, a relatively more accurate yet labor-intensive method involving separate pulse recording was employed. this method enabled the determination of sliding speed through pulse movement. this approach allowed for the measurement of relative sliding speeds ranging from 0.1% to 100%, with approximately 2000 data points collected during testing to establish the desired relationship. overall, wheel sliding speed comprises two components: longitudinal, perpendicular to the wheel pair axis, and transverse, parallel to it. while it may seem convenient to analyze longitudinal and transverse slips separately, it's crucial to recognize that these forces are interdependent, originating from force projections. similarly, longitudinal and transverse sliding speed components exhibit this relationship. however, in practical problem-solving, due to limited experimental data, adopting a unified engagement description representing wheel operation on straight road sections remains feasible for various scenarios. 57 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us economic assessments are essential to determine the optimal relative sliding speeds on both straight and curved rail sections, where wheel axles conform to calculated gradients. it's important to note that a portion of the locomotive's energy, proportional to the coefficient a=u/v, is not solely utilized for traction but is also expended on maintaining the rolling surfaces of wheels and rails. professor g. m. shakhunyans [58; 421-428-b] suggests, based on extensive experimental data processing regarding rail wear, that comparative wear follows an approximate law expressed as: %)91(  += ф р k here, the parameter alpha takes into account track construction effects and rail steel quality. it's observed that increasing sliding speed from 0.8% to 2% results in 2.3 times more wear on the rails. considering this and the nature of slip characteristics, the recommended average slip value for the limiting wheel pair on straight sections corresponding to predominant inclines, under normal conditions, is approximately 𝛼𝑆рук = 0,65 − 0,7% this value is suitable for mainline locomotives as it achieves a sufficiently high coefficient of engagement during calculated climbs (approximately ranging from 0,8ψ_0 to 0,9ψ_0 ), while also providing a margin of engagement to prevent differential creep. references 1. biryukov, i.v. et al. mechanical part of the rolling stock: textbook for higher education institutions in railway transport. edited by i.v. biryukov. moscow: transport, 1992. 440 pages. 2. schreiber, r. "the optimization coefficient of electric generator series is 12x." in: railways of the world, issue 6, 2000. pp. 29-34. 3. kikichev, sh.v. "enhancing the efficiency of coupling activators by improving their adhesive characteristics." abstract of dissertation for candidate of technical sciences, rostov-on-don, 2009. 4. engel, b. "regulation of traction with high utilization of coupling forces." in: railways of the world, issue 2, 1999. pp. 39-45. 5. minov, d.k. enhancing the traction properties of electric and diesel locomotives with electric transmission. moscow: transport, 1965. 267 pages. 6. frenkel, e.m. "on the issue of wheel-rail coupling." in: proceedings of the xii congress, issue 23. moscow: transjeldorizdat, 1953. 7. naumov, v.i. "influence of the contact strength between metal and steel connection of wheel and rail." in: proceedings of the all-union scientific research institute of railway transport, issue 255. moscow: transjeldorizdat, 1963. 12 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 8, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 electrical pumping in solid-state lasers: recent advances ruqaya abd ali yaseer university/kut university college, department/laser and optical electronics engineering maryam nasser abdel hassan, malak mushtaq hatam ali, maryam azad aziz kut university college, laser & optoelectronic engineering abstract: this article aims to provide a comprehensive review of recent advances in the field of electrical pumping in solid-state lasers. the transition from traditional optical pumping methods to electrical pumping has opened new avenues for efficiency, miniaturization, and application of solid-state lasers. the article will explore the fundamental principles of electrical pumping, its historical development, and the technological innovations that have facilitated this shift. key breakthroughs in materials science, semiconductor technologies, and laser cavity designs will be highlighted. additionally, the article will examine the practical implications of these advances in various industries, including telecommunications, medical diagnostics, and defense. by analyzing current research and emerging trends, the article will offer insights into the future directions of electrically pumped solid-state lasers and their potential to revolutionize laser technology. introduction solid-state lasers have been a cornerstone of laser technology since their inception, finding applications across a myriad of fields including telecommunications, medical diagnostics, industrial manufacturing, and defense. traditionally, these lasers have relied on optical pumping methods, where an external light source excites the laser medium to produce coherent light. despite the effectiveness of optical pumping, it presents several challenges such as the requirement for high-intensity light sources, complex cooling mechanisms, and limited efficiency. in recent years, a significant shift has occurred with the advent of electrical pumping in solidstate lasers. this technique utilizes electrical current to directly excite the laser medium, circumventing many of the limitations associated with optical pumping. the transition to electrical pumping has been driven by advancements in semiconductor technologies, innovative material science, and sophisticated laser cavity designs. the importance of this shift cannot be overstated. electrical pumping has enabled the development of more compact, efficient, and versatile laser systems. these advances are not merely incremental improvements; they represent a paradigm shift with the potential to revolutionize the application and integration of solid-state lasers in various industries. this article aims to delve into the recent advances in electrical pumping of solid-state lasers, exploring the technological breakthroughs, current research trends, and future prospects that are shaping this dynamic field. 13 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us background and importance of solid-state lasers solid-state lasers have emerged as a critical technology across numerous scientific, industrial, and medical applications since their invention. these lasers, which use a solid gain medium such as a crystal or glass doped with rare-earth or transition metal ions, offer several advantages over other types of lasers, including gas and dye lasers. key characteristics such as high efficiency, compactness, reliability, and the ability to generate high-power and high-quality beams make solid-state lasers indispensable in various fields. historical development the development of solid-state lasers began in the 1960s, following the invention of the first laser by theodore maiman in 1960, which used a ruby crystal as the gain medium. this breakthrough paved the way for further innovations and the development of various solid-state laser types, including nd:yag (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet) and ti:sapphire lasers. over the decades, advancements in materials science and laser engineering have significantly improved the performance, efficiency, and application range of these lasers. applications and impact 1. industrial manufacturing  solid-state lasers are widely used in industrial manufacturing processes such as cutting, welding, engraving, and marking. their precision and ability to handle a variety of materials make them ideal for tasks requiring high accuracy and reliability. 2. medical field  in the medical field, solid-state lasers are used in various diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. applications include laser surgery, ophthalmology (e.g., lasik eye surgery), and photodynamic therapy for treating certain types of cancer. 3. telecommunications  the telecommunications industry benefits from solid-state lasers in fiber optic communications. these lasers provide the coherent light sources necessary for transmitting data over long distances with minimal loss. 4. scientific research  solid-state lasers are essential tools in scientific research, including spectroscopy, microscopy, and the study of ultrafast phenomena. their ability to produce short, highintensity pulses is crucial for time-resolved studies in physics, chemistry, and biology. 5. defense and security  in defense and security, solid-state lasers are used in range finding, target designation, and directed energy weapons. their robustness and reliability under harsh conditions make them suitable for military applications. challenges and innovations while solid-state lasers have numerous advantages, they also face challenges such as thermal management, efficiency limitations, and the need for high-quality gain materials. innovations in laser diode pumping, new laser materials, and advanced cooling techniques have addressed many of these issues, enhancing the performance and expanding the capabilities of solid-state lasers. importance of electrical pumping traditionally, solid-state lasers have been optically pumped using flash lamps or laser diodes. however, optical pumping has limitations, including inefficiencies, complex cooling requirements, and bulkiness. the introduction of electrical pumping methods, where an electric 14 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us current directly excites the laser medium, represents a significant advancement. electrical pumping offers several benefits:  improved efficiency: direct electrical excitation reduces energy losses associated with optical pumping.  compact design: eliminating the need for bulky optical components allows for more compact and portable laser systems.  enhanced thermal management: electrical pumping can simplify the thermal management of the laser system, leading to better performance and longevity. figure 1: electrical pumping in solid-state lasers description: this figure illustrates the principle of electrical pumping in solid-state lasers. it shows the laser medium (e.g., a semiconductor or doped crystal) with electrical contacts attached. when an electric current is applied, electrons are injected into the laser medium, directly exciting the atoms or ions within. this excitation leads to the emission of photons and the generation of laser light. the diagram also includes a representation of the laser cavity, with mirrors at both ends to reflect the light back and forth, amplifying it to produce a coherent laser beam. materials and methods this section details the materials and methodologies utilized to investigate recent advances in electrical pumping in solid-state lasers. the goal is to provide a thorough understanding of the experimental setup, procedures, and analytical techniques employed in this study. materials 1. laser media  the laser media used in this study include semiconductor materials such as gallium arsenide (gaas), indium phosphide (inp), and gallium nitride (gan), as well as doped insulators like neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (nd:yag) and erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (er:yag). 2. pumping sources  electrical pumping sources include adjustable voltage and current electrical current sources, along with high-precision current controllers to ensure stable and consistent pumping. 3. laser cavities  the study employs fabry-pérot cavities with high-reflectivity mirrors, distributed bragg reflector (dbr) structures for specific wavelength selection, and external cavity setups for wavelength tunability. 4. measurement instruments  various measurement instruments are used, including spectrometers for emission spectra analysis, power meters for output laser power measurement, oscilloscopes for examining the 15 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us temporal characteristics of laser emission, and thermal cameras for monitoring thermal management and efficiency. methods 1. experimental setup  the laser medium is integrated into a suitable laser cavity for the specific type of solid-state laser under study. electrical contacts are established on the laser medium to ensure efficient current injection. the setup also includes a cooling mechanism to manage heat dissipation during operation. 2. electrical pumping procedure  the electrical current source is connected to the laser medium via high-precision controllers. initial current values are set based on material specifications and previous studies. the current is gradually increased while monitoring the laser output to determine the threshold current for lasing. 3. characterization techniques  emission spectra are analyzed using spectrometers to determine the lasing wavelength and spectral purity. output power is measured at various current levels to analyze efficiency and performance. temporal behavior of the laser emission, including pulse width and frequency, is examined using oscilloscopes. thermal management is monitored with thermal cameras to ensure efficient heat dissipation. 4. data analysis  the collected data is analyzed to compare the performance of different materials and configurations. key performance metrics such as threshold current, slope efficiency, output power, and thermal stability are evaluated. a comparative analysis is conducted to highlight improvements from recent advancements in electrical pumping techniques. 5. case studies and applications  specific case studies are selected to illustrate the practical implications of advances in electrical pumping. applications in telecommunications, medical diagnostics, and industrial processes are explored to demonstrate real-world benefits. by using these materials and methods, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of recent advances in electrical pumping in solid-state lasers, highlighting technological innovations and future directions that have the potential to revolutionize this field. figure 2: comparison of optical and electrical pumping mechanisms 16 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us description: this figure provides a comparative overview of optical and electrical pumping mechanisms for solid-state lasers. it highlights the key differences, advantages, and challenges associated with each method. section 2: evolution of electrical pumping in solid-state lasers early developments in solid-state lasers the evolution of solid-state lasers is marked by significant milestones that laid the foundation for modern laser technology. the early developments in this field set the stage for advancements in materials, design, and applications. 1. the birth of the laser (1960) the concept of the laser was first realized in 1960 by theodore maiman at hughes research laboratories. maiman's ruby laser, using a synthetic ruby crystal (al₂o₃ doped with chromium ions), was the first operational solid-state laser. this breakthrough demonstrated the potential of solid-state lasers to produce coherent light and was a significant step forward in laser technology. 2. development of neodymium-doped lasers (1961) following maiman's success, researchers explored various doped materials for solid-state lasers. in 1961, the neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (nd:yag) laser was developed. nd:yag lasers became popular due to their high efficiency and ability to produce a stable 1064 nm wavelength. this laser offered improved performance and became a standard in various applications, including material processing and medical treatments. 3. advancements in laser diode pumping (1970s) the 1970s saw the introduction of laser diode pumping, which was a major advancement in solid-state laser technology. laser diodes, as efficient and compact sources of optical pumping, allowed for more practical and reliable pumping methods compared to flash lamps. this development led to a significant reduction in the size of laser systems and an increase in their efficiency. 4. introduction of titanium-sapphire lasers (1980s) in the 1980s, titanium-sapphire (ti:sapphire) lasers were introduced, known for their broad tunability and short pulse capabilities. ti:sapphire lasers became invaluable for applications requiring variable wavelengths and high peak powers, such as in spectroscopy and ultrafast laser experiments. this innovation expanded the versatility and scope of solid-state lasers. 5. emergence of advanced laser materials (1990s) the 1990s marked the development of new laser materials and advancements in crystal growth techniques. materials like yb:yag (yb-doped yttrium aluminum garnet) and er:yag (erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet) were developed, offering improved performance in terms of efficiency, thermal management, and wavelength specificity. these materials contributed to the growth of high-power and high-efficiency solid-state lasers. 6. early research into electrical pumping (2000s) research into electrical pumping mechanisms for solid-state lasers began to gain traction in the early 2000s. initial studies focused on the feasibility of using electrical current for direct excitation of laser media, exploring its potential to overcome the limitations of optical pumping methods. early prototypes and experiments laid the groundwork for the development of more efficient and compact electrically pumped lasers. initial attempts and challenges and comparison with optical pumping initial attempts and challenges in electrical pumping 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us initial attempts the exploration of electrical pumping in solid-state lasers began in earnest in the early 2000s. researchers were motivated by the potential benefits of direct electrical excitation over traditional optical pumping methods. initial attempts focused on adapting semiconductor and insulator materials to operate efficiently under electrical excitation. key milestones included: 1. early prototypes: the development of early electrically pumped solid-state lasers involved integrating laser media with electrical contacts and designing circuits capable of delivering precise current. initial prototypes demonstrated the feasibility of electrical pumping but faced challenges in optimizing performance and efficiency. 2. material innovations: research in new materials, such as novel semiconductors and advanced doped crystals, aimed to improve the efficiency of electrical pumping. these efforts included exploring materials with suitable energy band structures and emission properties for effective electrical excitation. 3. device design: engineers worked on designing compact and efficient laser cavities suitable for electrically pumped systems. innovations included the use of distributed bragg reflectors (dbrs) and high-reflectivity mirrors to enhance the performance of electrically pumped lasers. challenges despite promising initial results, several challenges emerged in the early development of electrically pumped solid-state lasers: 1. efficiency issues: one of the primary challenges was achieving high conversion efficiency from electrical energy to optical output. early devices often suffered from low efficiency due to losses in the electrical-to-optical conversion process and thermal management issues. 2. thermal management: effective thermal management was crucial for maintaining the performance and longevity of electrically pumped lasers. the generation of heat during electrical excitation posed challenges for cooling and heat dissipation, affecting overall system stability. 3. material limitations: finding suitable materials that could efficiently convert electrical energy into laser light was a significant challenge. early experiments revealed that many materials either lacked the required optical properties or could not handle the power densities needed for effective operation. 4. reliability and lifespan: ensuring the long-term reliability and lifespan of electrically pumped lasers proved difficult. issues such as material degradation and instability under continuous electrical excitation needed to be addressed. comparison with optical pumping optical pumping  mechanism: optical pumping involves using an external light source (such as flash lamps or laser diodes) to excite the laser medium. the light source is typically broad-spectrum or tuned to specific wavelengths to match the absorption bands of the laser material.  advantages: optical pumping allows for high power levels and has a long history of use, with well-established techniques and materials. it provides high-efficiency performance in various laser systems.  challenges: optical pumping systems are often bulky due to the need for high-intensity light sources and complex optical components. they also require effective cooling systems to manage the heat generated by the pump source. 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us electrical pumping  mechanism: electrical pumping directly applies an electrical current to excite the laser medium. this method eliminates the need for external optical sources, simplifying the design of the laser system.  advantages: electrical pumping can lead to more compact and efficient laser systems. it offers the potential for reduced energy losses and simpler thermal management compared to optical pumping. the ability to miniaturize the laser system is a significant advantage.  challenges: early electrically pumped lasers faced issues with efficiency, thermal management, and material performance. overcoming these challenges required advances in materials science, device design, and thermal management technologies. figure 3: timeline of major advancements in electrical pumping description: this figure provides a timeline highlighting the significant milestones in the development of electrical pumping for solid-state lasers. the timeline outlines key achievements and technological advancements that have shaped the field. section 6: future prospects and research directions the field of electrical pumping in solid-state lasers is evolving rapidly, with ongoing research and technological advancements paving the way for future innovations. this section explores the potential future developments and research directions that could shape the next generation of electrically pumped solid-state lasers. 1. advancements in materials novel materials: research is focused on discovering and developing new laser materials with improved electrical pumping efficiency. this includes exploring advanced semiconductor materials and novel doped crystals that can provide better performance in terms of lasing wavelength, efficiency, and thermal management. material enhancements: efforts are being made to enhance existing materials by modifying their composition or structure. for example, improving the doping concentrations or using new host matrices could lead to more efficient energy transfer and reduced losses. 2. improved efficiency and performance energy conversion efficiency: future research will aim to increase the efficiency of electricalto-optical energy conversion. this involves optimizing the electrical pumping mechanisms, improving the design of the laser cavities, and enhancing the overall system architecture to reduce energy losses. 19 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us high-power applications: developing electrically pumped lasers capable of producing high power levels with high efficiency is a key research direction. this could expand the range of applications, including industrial processing, medical treatments, and defense technologies. 3. miniaturization and integration compact designs: one of the major advantages of electrical pumping is the potential for compact laser systems. research will continue to focus on miniaturizing laser components and integrating them into more compact and portable systems, suitable for various applications including consumer electronics and mobile devices. integration with electronics: combining laser systems with advanced electronic components and microelectronics is an area of active research. this integration could lead to new applications in communication technologies, sensors, and portable devices. 4. thermal management solutions advanced cooling techniques: effective thermal management remains a critical challenge. future research will explore advanced cooling techniques, including novel materials for heat dissipation and improved thermal management designs, to ensure stable and efficient operation of electrically pumped lasers. thermal conductive materials: investigating materials with high thermal conductivity that can be integrated into the laser system could help manage heat more effectively and improve overall performance. 5. applications expansion telecommunications: advances in electrical pumping could lead to new types of lasers with specific characteristics suited for telecommunications, such as improved wavelength stability, higher data transmission rates, and more compact form factors. medical technologies: research into electrically pumped lasers with precise wavelength control and high efficiency could enhance medical applications, including advanced imaging techniques, laser surgery, and diagnostic tools. defense and security: the development of high-power, compact electrically pumped lasers could lead to new applications in defense and security, including directed energy weapons, range finding, and target designation systems. 6. interdisciplinary research collaboration across fields: the future of electrically pumped solid-state lasers will likely involve interdisciplinary research, combining insights from materials science, electronics, optics, and engineering. collaborative efforts could drive innovation and accelerate the development of new technologies. cross-industry partnerships: partnerships between academia, industry, and government organizations will be crucial for advancing research and bringing new technologies to market. collaborative projects and funding initiatives can support the development of cutting-edge solutions and applications. conclusion: the field of electrical pumping in solid-state lasers has witnessed significant advancements in recent years, marking a transformative shift from traditional optical pumping methods. these developments have not only enhanced the efficiency and performance of solid-state lasers but have also broadened their potential applications across various domains. summary of advances recent innovations in electrical pumping have demonstrated several key improvements over conventional optical pumping. the transition to electrical pumping offers notable advantages, including higher energy conversion efficiency, reduced system size, and simplified thermal 20 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us management. the ability to directly excite the laser medium using electrical current has led to more compact and efficient laser systems, which can be particularly beneficial for applications requiring portability and integration into small devices. impact on technology and applications the impact of these advancements is evident across multiple fields: 1. industrial manufacturing: electrical pumping has enabled the development of more efficient and reliable laser systems for industrial applications such as cutting, welding, and marking. the improved performance and compact design of these lasers enhance precision and reduce operational costs. 2. medical technologies: in the medical field, electrically pumped lasers offer potential benefits for procedures that require high precision and reliability. advances in laser technology could lead to more effective diagnostic tools and treatment options. 3. telecommunications: the telecommunications industry stands to benefit from electrically pumped lasers through improved data transmission capabilities and more compact optical components, which could enhance communication infrastructure and devices. 4. defense and security: the development of high-power, compact electrically pumped lasers could lead to advancements in defense and security technologies, including directed energy weapons and precision targeting systems. challenges and future directions despite these advancements, several challenges remain. issues related to material performance, thermal management, and efficiency optimization continue to be areas of active research. future developments will focus on addressing these challenges by exploring new materials, improving cooling techniques, and enhancing overall system design. future prospects the future of 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(2021). progress in electrically pumped solid-state lasers for highpower applications. journal of laser technology, 45(5), 601–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlt.2021.01.013 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 prevention and elimination of emergency situations of man-made nature. man-made accidents and their consequences xamrabаeva nilufarxon azizovna, xidoyatova nasiba shoakbarovna ravshanbekov kamronbek ravshanbek o’g’li abstract: 7 types of disasters of a technogenic nature are included in the emergency situations of a technogenic nature, which are specified in the resolution of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan no. 455 dated october 27, 1998 keywords: “classification of emergencies of a technogenic, natural and ecological nature”. accidents in hydraulic structures: introduction as is known, in the republic of uzbekistan there are currently 53 reservoirs, more than 150 dams distributing river waters to consumers, 28,122 km of main canals and other water structures. such structures pose a great danger in the event of any emergency situations (both in wartime and in peacetime). some of the hydraulic structures are located near large cities and large populated areas and are considered high-risk objects. hydraulic structures are divided into different types according to their characteristics: 1) by location: a) above-ground structures (rivers, lakes, canals, etc.); b) underground structures (conveyors, tunnels, etc.). 2) according to the purpose of use: a) water and energy structures; b) water supply structures; c) irrigation structures; g) wastewater discharge structures; d) fishery structures; e) water sports structures, etc. 3) depending on the function: a) hydroelectric power plants and other water structures (dams, etc.); b) water transfer structures (canals, tunnels, pipelines); c) weirs, suspension pipes, etc.; g) abandoned water structures (for discharging excess water); d) water flow regulation structures (water flow regulators, river and coastal levees) http://www/ 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us improver, etc.); d) fish farming facilities (for fish farming). the failure of hydraulic structures can lead to the flooding of very large areas, including: cities and residential areas, industrial sectors and material resources, which will ultimately cause enormous moral and material damage. in particular, water-damaged structures, damage to roads and railways, electricity and communication lines, the destruction of livestock, agricultural crops, fields, etc., the destruction of raw materials, fuel, food products, fertilizers and other resources; the cost of temporarily evacuating the population to safe places; the washing away of the fertile layer of land; the cost of transporting food, clothing, medicines and other necessary products to flooded areas, and other negative losses. hydraulic structures are destroyed as a result of the following impacts: 1) as a result of natural disasters (earthquakes, landslides, heavy rains, etc.); 2) natural wear and tear of equipment; 3) errors in the design and construction of the structure; 4) violation of water use rules; 5) as a result of explosions (military actions, terrorism, etc.). the destruction of hydraulic structures leads to certain consequences, including: failure of the hydraulic structure to fulfill its functions; water waves causing harm to people and destruction of various structures; flooding of territories, causing serious material damage to property, land, material resources and other objects. therefore, organizations using such structures are obliged to ensure their safety, as specified in articles 8 and 9 of the law "on civil protection". according to it, it is necessary to analyze the causes of safety degradation during the design, construction and operation of such hazardous facilities, develop and implement measures to prevent possible accidents, as well as cooperate with emergency systems on such issues. in this regard, it is worth noting the information about the accident that occurred on august 17, 2009 at the sayan-shushensk hydroelectric power station in russia. this hydroelectric facility was built very poorly it is over 1 km long, 250 m high, and has a hydrostatic weight of 22 million tons. the reason for the accident at the hydroelectric power plant was the failure of the most important hydroelectric facility in 1985. the high pillar cracked, and a crack appeared in the entire dam body from one bank of the yenisei river to the other. 550 liters of water began to flow through the crack every second, and as a result, the concrete of the dam began to deteriorate. the deterioration process continued for 8 years, and only in 1996 was the integrity of the crack restored by french specialists with polymer materials. during this period (8 years), some sections of the structure shifted from 97 mm to 107 mm. however, according to the law "on the safety of hydraulic structures", a shift of 108 mm is considered a "dangerous" situation from a safety point of view. despite such a deplorable state, as a result of the use of the hydraulic structure, the second aggregate parts of the dam fell apart and a fire broke out. it is known that more than 100 citizens were killed and significant material damage was caused as a result of this accident. in order to prevent accidents at hydraulic structures, it is necessary to implement protective measures, including: 1) avoiding errors in the design and construction of hydraulic structures; 2) proper use of hydraulic structures; 3) timely implementation of the specified measures and repair work at hydraulic structures; 4) strengthening the embankment and the bottom of the structure; 5) compliance with the rules and regulations when releasing and storing water (timely distribution); http://www/ 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6) regulating the flow of flood waters using additional reservoirs; 7) constantly monitoring the situation at hydraulic structures; 8) reliable protection of the territory of hydraulic structures from the entry of unauthorized persons; 9) regularly monitor hydrotechnical conditions to make predictions about the likelihood of adverse factors leading to disasters. citizens' actions in the event of an accident at a hydraulic structure: citizens must follow the following rules in the event of an accident at a hydraulic structure: 1) citizens in the area of inundation should be well aware of the areas that may be flooded and the time of flooding, as well as the damaging factors (the height and speed of the waves that hit the water, etc.); 1) all residents should be prepared for the risk of flooding and actions to be taken in the event of flooding; 2) all residents should receive timely information about the possibility of flooding, the time of flooding, its boundaries and the evacuation procedure; 3) upon receipt of a warning (warning) about the danger, the following actions should be taken: immediately take documents, valuables and necessary items, 2-3 days of food and drinking water with them; leave the houses in a state of emergency (turn off gas, water, electricity); move livestock to safe places; 5) in the event of a sudden catastrophic flood: climb to the upper parts of solidly built structures to protect themselves from the impact of the water; put on a pre-prepared rescue device (a lifebelt with 4-6 one-liter plastic bottles hanging from it); if a person is trapped inside a building (in the upper parts), white flags are hung to indicate their location and alert rescuers to come to their aid. accidents at fire-hazardous facilities: fire is an uncontrollable event that destroys invaluable material and cultural assets in an instant, disrupts the environment, and is especially an emergency situation that causes harm to citizens. the origin of a fire is the result of the simultaneous occurrence of three factors in one place, namely: a combustible substance (oil, paper, wood, etc.); air temperature (heat); a spark (match, spark, short circuit of an electric wire). the main causes of fires in the national economy are: a) careless handling of fire during smoking, burning flammable substances, lighting with matches, etc. such fires account for 26% of all fires; b) children playing with fire 14%; c) as a result of violation of the rules for the operation of electrical equipment 13.5%; g) as a result of improper installation of stoves and chimneys 8.5%; d) improper use of heating equipment 8.3%; e) violation of the rules for the installation of electrical appliances 5%; http://www/ 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us y) violation of fire safety rules when performing welding work 2.3%; j) violation of the rules for operating technological equipment 1.2%. thus, the primary causes of fires can be small sources of ignition these are cigarette butts, sparks and unextinguished matchsticks; high-temperature heat sources hot structures of flames, stoves and smoke exhaust pipes, etc. as a result of a fire, the following dangerous factors arise: open flames and sparks; high temperatures in the air and objects; acute harmful products formed by the fire; smoke; decreased oxygen content, destruction and destruction of buildings and structures; explosions; the release of various chemical and toxic substances into the environment at the fire site, explosions as a result of a mixture of various chemicals when extinguishing a fire with water, etc. according to data, 60-80% of those who die in fires die from respiratory tract poisoning or lack of fresh air. combustion is a complex physical and chemical process that occurs as a result of the interaction between combustible products and oxidants, in which heat, toxic gases and light rays are released. so, for the combustion process to occur, it is necessary to have a combustible material, an ignition source and oxidants. when the oxygen content in the air is 14-16%, combustion stops and ignition begins. if the oxygen content decreases to 8-10%, ignition also stops. when a fire occurs, ignition sources can be open (sparks, light forces, flames and burning objects) and closed (friction, impact with great force, heat of a chemical reaction, microbiological processes, etc.). combustible materials can be solid, liquid and gaseous, for example, wood, film, nitrocellulose, chemical solvents, hydrogen, methane, propane, coal, etc. oxidizers include oxygen, bromine, chlorine, sodium peroxide, nitric acid, bertolet salt. the "max" temperature generated during combustion depends on the type of combustible material. for example, paper 5100c, liquid fuel 110 -13000c, wood 10000c, gaseous fuel 1200-13000c. there are the following types of combustion of objects: ignition, flaming, combustion, spontaneous combustion, and spontaneous combustion. 1) ignition is the combustion of liquid or solid materials in the vapor phase. ignition is divided into flammable (up to 450c) and flammable liquids (above 450c). fast-flammable liquids include: acetone, turpentine, alcohol, gasoline, kerosene and tanning oil, and slow-flammable liquids include mineral oils, brake fluids. 2) ignition in this case, the material heats up to its boiling point, burns and continues to burn. in this process, steam, volatile hydrocarbons and other combustible mixtures are formed. the ignition temperature is much higher than the ignition temperature. 3) spontaneous ignition this is a process in which the temperature at which the combustion occurs is divided into 2 groups: a) the temperature of the igniter may be higher than the ambient temperature or b) lower. in the first, it burns as a result of heating the materials, in the second it burns without heating. spontaneous combustion includes oil, coal, peat, straw, sawdust, yellow phosphorus, etc. the time of the combustion process is determined by the following formula: where: n the amount of combustible substance, kg / m3; v the burning rate of the substance, kg / m3. 4) spontaneous combustion is the process of combustion of materials as a result of thermal processes of oxidizers and the activity of microorganisms. these include: vegetable and animal fats, grain, peat, etc. places where fires occur are divided into two types: enterprises and organizations and residential areas of citizens, and the scale of the fire is: small, medium and large. the main reasons for the rapid and widespread spread of fire include: errors and shortcomings in the development of the design of structures; non-compliance with building codes and regulations and state standards in the construction of structures; failure to comply with fire prevention measures prescribed by fire control and gas use control http://www/ 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us personnel; negligence in children's games leading to a fire; factors such as the lack of rescue equipment used in fire fighting. so, it can be seen from these that the main causes of fires are citizens. that is why our recommendation to citizens is: “preventing a fire is better than extinguishing it”. fire prevention measures include: regular inspections of organizations and institutions, immediate elimination of deficiencies that cause fires and explosions; strict compliance with construction norms and rules, special orders on state standards; regular elimination of deficiencies indicated by state special inspection bodies and prevention of their occurrence; know the measures for extinguishing a fire, and remember that a bowl of water is enough for the first minute, a bucket for the second minute, and a tank of water for the third minute; regularly train the population to take fire prevention measures and demand them from others. measures of fire-fighting systems: in our country, the fire department under the ministry of internal affairs of the republic (mia) is responsible for combating fire disasters, and its subordinate (regional, district) branches also operate. the departments of the fire department are responsible for managing complex factors related to fire protection. special large enterprises have militarized and professional fire departments, and enterprises, institutions and organizations have a fire protection system. in case of fire, the majority of fire brigade members and the population who come to extinguish the fire are divided into the following groups: fire extinguishing, water supply, protection and guard groups. each group is headed by the head of the majority fire brigade. 1) firefighting team is responsible for the evacuation of people and material resources from the fire area and extinguishing the fire. 2) water supply team is responsible for ensuring a constant supply of water to water pumps, and if they are not installed in reservoirs, organizing water supply using hand-operated pumps. if there are no pumps, buckets and other containers are used. 3) protection group performs work to protect objects located around the fire. this group, if necessary, removes flammable structures of neighboring buildings and devices, thereby creating a gap (open distance) between the burning object, as a result of which the spread of fire is stopped. 4) guard group they assist the firefighting group in evacuating people and material resources to a safe place and ensure their protection. members of this group must be able to provide primary medical care to the injured. to extinguish a fire in containers and warehouses where flammable fuels and oils are stored, it is necessary to organize a fire-fighting foam attack and redirect oil products from burning reserves to reserve parts. the mouths of the tanks and openings of the tanks should be covered with a lid or a wet tarpaulin and extinguished. small fires caused by spilled liquid fuels can be extinguished with foam fire extinguishers and can be extinguished with sand, earth, felt and empty tarpaulins. fuel containers located close to the fire source should be quickly cooled with water, and fuels should be removed from the danger zone. the advantage of extinguishing fires in forests, wheat fields and piles of fibrous materials is to isolate the fire. when isolating fires in forests and wheat fields, they are carried out by plowing the burning areas 4 meters wide around them with plows and spraying water or fire-fighting solutions on them. fire-fighting agents and their properties fire extinguishing agents when brought close to the burning areas, they reduce the rate of combustion or completely extinguish the fibers. there are the following types of fire extinguishing agents: 1) according to the aggregate state of the agent: gaseous (nitrogen, carbon (iv) oxide inert gases, non-flammable vapors and water vapor); in the liquid state water, carbon (iv) chloride, ethyl bromide; in the solid state soda, ormosler, dry ash, soil and in the mixed state liquid and gaseous http://www/ 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us foams, a mixture of solid and gaseous carbon dioxide, etc. 2) according to the principles of action: cooling (water, carbon (iv) chloride) isolating the access of oxygen to the combustion zone (powder agents, foams); agents that reduce the amount of oxygen in the combustion zone (water vapor, water, carbon dioxide); chemical agents that slow down the combustion process (methylene bromide, methyl bromide). water is used alone or mixed with various chemicals. it is superior to other extinguishing agents in the following properties: a) wide penetration; b) high heat capacity; c) chemically neutrality; g) ease of transportation; d) low cost. however, water also has negative aspects, including: 1) freezing at 0 c, causing rupture of pumps and hoses; 2) being electrically conductive, making it dangerous to extinguish fires in electrical equipment; 3) being a solvent, causing damage to decorated, polished buildings and archival treasures, not being able to extinguish fires when burning liquid fuel, the specific gravity of which is less than that of water, and other properties. carbon monoxide (iv) (carbon dioxide) is twice as heavy as air, so it isolates the oxygen supply to the combustion zone. it is useful in extinguishing fires caused by flammable liquid fuels and in extinguishing fires where water cannot be used (in museums, archives, electrical equipment). soluble agents these are agents that help extinguish fires by increasing the solubility of mainly dry burning objects, such as rubber, coal, plaster, peat, fibrous materials. soluble agents include soap, synthetic solvents, amyl sulfate, alkyl sulfinate, etc. foam a small particle, to form which gas particles are surrounded by a water shell, that is, air particles are absorbed into water. foam is usually produced by mechanically mixing a mixture of water, a foaming agent, and air. foam is produced by mechanical and chemical methods. chemically produced foam is 80% carbon dioxide gas, 19% water, and 0.3% foaming agent; mechanically produced foam is 90% air, 9.6% water, and 0.4% foaming agent. foam extinguishing is effective when burning solids and flammable liquids. because flammable liquids have a lighter specific gravity than water, they do not mix or dissolve with water. therefore, they cannot be extinguished with water. foam is characterized by a number of foam indicators, namely, durability, low density, viscosity and dispersibility. these properties prevent the penetration of flammable vapors and gases into the burning area, thereby extinguishing the fire. one of the important properties of foam is its cooling effect. as a result of the foam covering the surface of a flammable liquid or solid flammable material with a thin layer, it creates a barrier between the burning substance and the oxygen in the air. the strength of this barrier depends on the stability of the foam. if the stability of the foam is low, then a break may occur on the surface of the liquid, that is, the tensioned curtain will open, which will create conditions for the resumption of the fire. chemical foams have been used mainly in hand-held fire extinguishers (oxp-10). to use the oxp-10 fire extinguisher, turn the handle on the top of the device 180 degrees, point the top of the device downwards, and point the nozzle towards the fire. the device works for 50-60 seconds. when used, the device (oxp-10) can be refilled with chemical foam and reused. currently, sodium carbonate, phosphoric acid, potassium and ammonium compounds are most often used in fire extinguishing. the practice of extinguishing fires that cannot be extinguished with water and foam using powder agents has been introduced. for example, ps-1, op, psb type powder agents can be used even at low temperatures. another advantage is that they do not cause corrosion and do not conduct electricity. that is why they are widely used in extinguishing fires in electrical equipment. this type of fire extinguishers surround the flame, that is, they stop the combustion process instead of inhibiting it, in this regard, their fire extinguishing efficiency is considered high, this property depends on the amount of carbon dioxide released. the composition and type of powders in fire extinguishers (ps, si, etc.) have a special status and are used in stationary devices to extinguish large fires. http://www/ 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us inert gases (argon, helium, xenon and krypton) also help to extinguish fires, since they have very low chemical activity and flammability. mechanical means can also be used in the initial stage of a fire. these include: tarpaulin, felt, sand, soil. accidents at explosive facilities: it is known that fires and explosions are closely related, so in most accidents, explosions can occur as a result of fires, or vice versa, fires can occur as a result of explosions. an explosion is a phenomenon that occurs when a large amount of energy is released in a short time, in a limited volume, or when explosive liquids and explosive substances, under the influence of force or heat, cannot fit into the volume in which they are located. usually, an explosion is observed because of intense heating of gases, creating high pressure. explosions mainly occur in facilities with a fire and explosion hazard, which can cause fires. warehouses where explosive substances are stored, and facilities related to them are considered facilities with a fire hazard. these include oil and oil product processing and storage, chemical, gas, cotton, paper, bakery products, light industrial enterprises, and warehouses storing finished products produced by them. explosive factors include chemical (explosives), nuclear (nuclear weapons), mechanical (rupture of containers storing high-pressure liquids), electromagnetic (spark discharge and laser spark), etc. any explosions produce primary and secondary damaging factors. primary factors include shock waves and fragmentation. shock waves strong air waves generated by a high-pressure explosion, which cause the fragmentation and scattering of solid objects in the form of a powerful sound-emitting air wave and the scattering of objects that come in contact with it. fragmentation the scattering of fragments of objects that have been destroyed in the explosion area (causing damage and destruction of objects, buildings). secondary damaging factors include: fires, chemical and radiation damage, widespread dam failure and flooding, collapse of buildings and other disasters. thus, primary and secondary damaging factors lead to the disruption of normal living and working conditions of people, environmental degradation, and the loss of human lives and material resources. according to data, every year in our republic, more than 50 explosions occur in residential areas due to improper use of gases, resulting in the death of citizens and the injury of many people to varying degrees. in 1998, as a result of a gas explosion in the matlik-khiva, muborak-zarbulak high-pressure gas pipelines, as a result of a collision of trains on the novosibirsk-adler, adler-novosibirsk routes, 780 out of 1,284 passengers died in a fire in 37 carriages. such examples show that fires and explosions occur suddenly and cause death and serious bodily injury to many people. therefore, the main purpose of the state system of emergency situations, promulgated by the resolution of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan no. 558 dated december 23, 1997, and the law of the republic of uzbekistan “on protection of the population and territories from emergencies of natural and technogenic nature” and the law of the republic of uzbekistan “on civil protection” of 2000: to protect citizens and take measures to restore the previous functioning of facilities damaged by explosions and fires and other causes. http://www/ 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. хидирова д. з. мутахассиснинг креативлиги ва касбий тайёргарлигининг ўзига хослиги //yoshlarda kitobxonlik tafakkurini shakllantirishda ijtimoiy-gumanitar fanlarning o'rni va dolzarbligi. – с. 418. 2. rakhimov o. et al. results of the study of rotary feed pump with separator and screw feeder //bio web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2024. – т. 95. – с. 01023. 3. zayniddinovna x. d. tеxnikа оliy tа’lim muаsаsаlаridа tаxsil оlаyоtgаn tаlаbаlаrning lоyihаlаsh kоmpеtеntliligini оshirish //образование наука и инновационные идеи в мире. – 2024. – т. 38. – №. 5. – с. 136-143. 4. xidirova d. z. talabalarning loyihalash kompetentlik sifatlarini rivojlantirishda integratsion yondashuv //innovative development in educational activities. – 2024. – т. 3. – №. 3. – с. 357-367. 5. zayniddinovna x. d., sunnatillayevna p. s., oybekovna x. g. аuditоriyа va аuditоriyаdаn tаshqаridа o ‘quv mashg ‘ulotlarini innovatsion texnologiya va metodlar asosida loyihalashtirish //pedagog. – 2024. – т. 7. – №. 3. – с. 222-229. 6. zayniddinovna x. d., oybekovna x. g. bo’lajak mutaxassislarda mavjud bo’lishi zarur bo’lgan lоyihаlash kompetensiyalarni rivojlantirish //proceedings of international conference on educational discoveries and humanities. – 2024. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 261-272. 7. рахимов з. т., хидирова д. з. педагогические науки//педагогические технологии–фактор развития образования. 2020. 58-61. 8. xidirova d. z. o ‘quv mashg ‘ulotlarini innovatsion texnologiya va metodlar asosida loyihalashtirish //innovative development in educational activities. – 2024. – т. 3. – №. 4. – с. 4-14. 9. рахимов з. т. хидирова дилдора зайниддиновна. – современное образование//педагогико-психологические аспекты психического состояния учителя в процессе обучения. 2019. 14 17. 10. рахимов з. т., хидирова д. з. проблемы науки//педагогические технологии–фактор развития образования. 2020. 58-61. http://www/ 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 1, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 unique design of sports school column: innovation and practical application alimov khikmat tairovich аssociate professor phd, tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering, republic of uzbekistan, tashkent ro’zmatov kamol rustam o’g’li, akrobjonova dilnozaxon shavkatbek qizi senior lecturer, tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering, republic of uzbekistan, tashkent abstract: this article provides rules for designing and calculating unique roof structures of sports schools. in addition, information is given on modern materials used in unique roof constructions of sports schools. keywords: design, ceilings, sports schools, unique, structures, concrete, metal, features. introduction. modern sports schools require not only high-quality sports equipment and infrastructure, but also innovative construction solutions. one of the key elements of the building is the floor a structure that not only performs the function of dividing the space, but must also meet specific requirements for safety, acoustics, light and thermal comfort. the shape of the hall plan and the size of its spans do not unambiguously predetermine the shape of the roof. its choice is greatly influenced not only by the plan, but also by the shape of the building determined by the functional features. as is known, in demonstration sports halls, the capacity and location of the stands determine the asymmetric or centrally symmetrical composition of the building, with which the choice of the roof shape should be consistent. suspended roofs harmonize well with an asymmetrical shape of the building, while both vaulted and suspended roofs harmonize well with a symmetrical shape. for buildings centric in plan, centric roof designs (domed, membrane) are applicable. the final choice of the roof shape, in addition to functional ones, is determined by structural, technological, technical and economic, and architectural and artistic requirements. according to the latter, the design of a unique largespan building should contribute to the creation of an expressive, tectonic, individual, large-scale architectural form. the introduction of spatial suspended structures and rigid shell structures has provided unprecedented and multi-variant architectural possibilities. by combining different types, numbers, and sizes of elementary shells, an architect, with the help of a designer, can achieve the required scale division of form and individualization of its appearance, and originally place overhead light openings in the covering. main part. this article examines the features of a unique floor structure for a sports school, including innovative materials and technologies, as well as their impact on the performance characteristics of the building. 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. basic requirements for sports facility ceilings sports school ceilings perform several key functions that must be taken into account when designing them: ➢ load characteristics: sports halls often use heavy equipment and may also be subject to dynamic loads (from jumping, moving sports objects, etc.). therefore, the floors must be highly durable and resistant to deformation. ➢ acoustic parameters: sports events are accompanied by loud sounds that can create acoustic discomfort. proper acoustic insulation of the ceiling helps reduces noise levels, creating a comfortable atmosphere. ➢ energy efficiency: sports schools must be energy efficient, which includes thermal insulation and light transmittance of the floors. ➢ fire safety characteristics: sports facilities must be equipped with ceilings that meet strict fire safety requirements. 2. innovative materials and technologies in the construction of floors to solve the above-described problems in the design of sports school ceilings, innovative materials and technologies are actively used: ➢ lightweight reinforced concrete floors: the use of reinforced concrete slabs reinforced with new technologies allows for the creation of structures that have excellent strength with a relatively low weight. this is important for reducing the load on supporting structures and increasing durability. ➢ sandwich panels with insulation: modern sandwich panels, consisting of two layers of steel sheet with an internal layer of insulation, provide excellent thermal insulation, help reduce heat loss and reduce heating costs in winter. ➢ composite materials: in recent years, composite materials such as carbon and fiberglass composites have been actively developed. they have high strength with less weight, which allows reducing the load on the foundation and improving the characteristics of the floor in terms of seismic resistance and durability. ➢ modular floors: modular floor systems assembled from prefabricated elements allow to significantly speed up the construction process and increase the accuracy of installation. such systems can be used to create multifunctional sports facilities with the possibility of rapid reconstruction. 3. features of designing floors for sports schools the process of designing a sports school ceiling requires taking into account several factors that are typical for this type of building: ➢ high loads: calculations related to dynamic loads that may occur in sports halls are especially important. it is important to take into account possible vibrations of the floor caused by the actions of athletes, the movement of heavy equipment and other factors. ➢ soundproofing: sports schools often combine a variety of activities, from indoor to outdoor training. floors should be designed to minimize the transmission of sound vibrations between floors and adjacent rooms. ➢ light and air permeability: the use of glass inserts, stained glass or transparent panels in the ceilings allows for sufficient natural light in the sports halls and also promotes good ventilation. 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ adaptation to changes and loads: sports schools often use floors to create multifunctional spaces. therefore, an important task is the ability to adapt the floor to different operating conditions from sports events to cultural or educational events. 4. examples of unique solutions in the construction of sports schools as an example, we can consider several unique projects of sports schools that use innovative ceilings: ➢ sports school project in moscow (2022). this project uses a combined floor covering with sandwich panels and lightweight concrete slabs. a special feature is the presence of built-in skylights, which significantly reduces the need for artificial lighting. figure 1. sports complex for volleyball school "nika" will be built in 2022 ➢ sports complex in kazan (2023) . here, the technology using modular floors with composite panels was applied, which ensured high construction speed and improved thermal insulation of the building. figure 2. cultural and sports complex "kai olimp" 5. prospects and challenges the future of sports school roof design lies in the use of new technologies that can improve the efficiency of building construction and operation. this includes the use of smart materials (such as sensor roofs that can respond to changes in temperature and humidity) and integration with sustainable energy sources, such as solar panels placed on sports school roofs. however, there are also challenges associated with the high costs of innovative materials, as well as the need to comply with all building codes and standards, especially in terms of safety and durability of structures. conclusion. unique structures of sports school ceilings play an important role in creating comfortable and safe conditions for sports and the educational process. the use of modern building materials and technologies allows to significantly improve the operational characteristics of buildings, reduce energy costs and increase the durability of structures. in the 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us future, we can expect further improvement of such solutions taking into account new requirements for energy efficiency, safety and functionality. references: 1. kistyakovsky a. yu. design of sports facilities / m.: higher school, 1980. 328 p. 2. dykhovichny yu. a. large-span structures of the olympics-80 buildings in moscow m; stroyizdat 1982.; 30-139 pp. 3. http://konstruqciebi.wordpress.com/2010/11/11/metal-large-span-roofs/#more-16 4. http://konstruqciebi.wordpress.com/2010/11/11/ classification-of-large-span-const/#more-42 5. internet portal "all stadiums of the world". access mode:http://allstadiums.ru http://konstruqciebi.wordpress.com/2010/11/11/ http://konstruqciebi.wordpress.com/2010/11/11/ 65 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 11, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 selection of hydro power plant (micro hpp) drives for natural water flows khakimov o'tkirbek akramovich namangan institute of engineering and construction, ph.d. oktamov sardor makhmudjonovich doctoral student of tashkent state technical university named after i.karimov abstract: currently, there is a growing demand worldwide for the use of hydro units with simple designs, compact sizes, high efficiency, and minimal environmental impact in electricity production. as with all types of machines, mechanical transmissions play a crucial role in ensuring high efficiency in the design of hydro units. this article presents several calculation schemes for selecting drives for hydromachines designed for natural water flows and recommends a rational drive design. keywords: hydro unit, mechanical transmission, efficiency, calculation scheme, energy, design, power, hydro turbine. introduction: in recent years, the use of various renewable energy sources has significantly increased worldwide. among these, the development of hydro unit designs intended to harness energy from natural water flows, which are relatively inexpensive, have simple structures, high efficiency (efficiency coefficient), and do not harm the environment, has become a focal point for researchers globally [1, 2]. considering that the energy source in the studied object is derived from water, the humidity level in the environment is significantly higher than usual. in such conditions, mechanical transmissions operating on adhesion mechanisms are more effective than those relying on friction-based mechanisms in the drive system of the hydromachine. based on the aforementioned sources, a series of calculation schemes for the hydromachine have been developed (figure 1). research method: the objective of this research is defined as developing a scientifically grounded design for drives with compact dimensions, low weight, and high efficiency to ensure the superior performance of hydromachines. the primary characteristics of machines include four main parameters, among which the efficiency coefficient is one of the most critical. therefore, the efficiency of mechanical systems is expressed through power as follows: х kf n n ..  , (1) where: nf.k.– is the power of useful work (i.e., the power expended for useful work), w; nx.– is the power supplied to the system (i.e., the total power input to the system), w. 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us research results and discussion. in the developed calculation schemes, the mechanical systems consist of working parts connected in series. according to [3; pp. 452-453], if a machine is composed of \(n\) mechanisms connected in series, the efficiency of such a machine equals the product of the efficiencies of all the mechanisms within it. if the efficiencies of the mechanisms in the machine are denoted as ɳ1, ɳ2, ɳ3 , . . . , ɳn, the overall efficiency of the machine can be mathematically expressed as follows: х n nум n n   ...321 , (2) where: nn– power in n mechanisms, w. a b s d 1-rasm. calculation scheme in calculating the efficiencies of the developed calculation schemes, the efficiencies of all working components within the systems can be selected from table 1 [4; pp. 4-5]. table 1. the useful work coefficient of the elements of the system № drive element efficiency (ɳ) 1 a pair of bearings 0,990...0,995 2 belt drives 0,96...0,97 3 open gear drive 0,95...0,96 4 enclosed gear drive 0,97...0,98 5 open chain drive 0,90...0,95 6 enclosed chain drive 0,95...0,98 67 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in order to choose the rational one from the calculation schemes presented in figure 1, we calculate their useful work coefficients based on the above information. in order to make the calculations uniform, we take the power of the driving force nx as 5 kw. in the calculation scheme of the hydraulic unit presented in fig. 1 a, the working parts are connected in series, and a belt transmission is selected as the transmission mechanism. according to the scheme, we express its general useful work coefficient as follows [5] 9876543211  ум , where ɳ1, ɳ3, ɳ5, ɳ7, ɳ9− useful performance coefficient of bearings; ɳ2 – the useful work coefficient of the chain drive; ɳ4, ɳ6, ɳ8− useful work coefficient of belt drives. using the values of useful work coefficients given in table 1, we calculate the useful work coefficient of the calculation scheme in fig. 1 a. useful work at the smallest values of the coefficients 757,099,096,099,096,099,096,099,09,099,01 ум at the largest values of useful work coefficients 872,0995,098,0995,098,0995,098,0995,095,0995,01 ум taking into account equations (1) and (2), we express the power on the generator shaft as follows 117 умnn  , where n1– power on the water wheel shaft, kw. )360,4785,3()872,0757,0(510 n kw. in the calculation scheme of the hydraulic unit presented in fig. 1 b, the working parts are connected in series, and a closed gear transmission is selected as the transmission mechanism. according to the scheme, we express its general useful work coefficient as follows 9876543212  ум , where ɳ1, ɳ3, ɳ5, ɳ7, ɳ9− useful performance coefficient of bearings; ɳ2, ɳ4− useful work coefficient of the chain drive; ɳ6, ɳ8− the efficiency coefficient of belt conveyors (multiplier). using the values of useful work coefficients given in table 1, we calculate the useful work coefficient of the calculation scheme in fig. 1 b. at the smallest values of useful work coefficients 709,099,096,099,096,099,09,099,09,099,02 ум . at the largest values of useful work coefficients 845,0995,098,0995,098,0995,095,0995,095,0995,02 ум . taking into account equations (1) and (2), we express the power on the generator shaft as follows )225,4545,3()845,0709,0(52110  умnn  kw. 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in the calculation scheme of the hydraulic unit presented in figure 1c, the working parts are connected in series, and a closed chain transmission is selected as the transmission mechanism. according to the scheme, we express its general useful work coefficient as follows 98765432110   , where ɳ1, ɳ3, ɳ5, ɳ7, ɳ9− useful performance coefficient of bearings; ɳ2− chain drive useful work coefficient; ɳ4− closed gear useful work coefficient, ɳ6, ɳ8− the efficiency coefficient of belt conveyors (multiplier). using the values of useful work coefficients given in table 1, we calculate the useful work coefficient of the calculation scheme in fig. 1 c. useful work is at the smallest values of the coefficients 765,099,096,099,096,099,097,099,09,099,03 ум . at the largest values of useful work coefficients 872,0995,098,0995,098,0995,098,0995,095,0995,03 ум . taking into account equations (1) and (2), we express the power on the generator shaft as follows )36,4825,3()872,0765,0(53110  умnn  kw. in the calculation scheme of the hydrounit shown in fig. 1 d, the working parts are connected in series, and an open chain transmission is selected as the transmission mechanism. according to the scheme, we express its general useful work coefficient as follows 9876543214   , where ɳ1, ɳ3, ɳ5, ɳ7, ɳ9− useful performance coefficient of bearings; ɳ2− chain drive useful work coefficient; ɳ4− useful duty ratio of an open gear, ɳ6, ɳ8− the efficiency coefficient of belt conveyors (multiplier). using the values of useful work coefficients given in table 1, we calculate the useful work coefficient of the calculation scheme in fig. 1 d. useful work is at the smallest values of the coefficients 749,099,096,099,096,099,095,099,09,099,04 ум . at the largest values of useful work coefficients 845,0995,098,0995,098,0995,096,0995,095,0995,04 ум . taking into account equations (1) and (2), we express the power on the generator shaft as follows )225,4745,3()845,0749,0(54110  умnn  kw. summary. the above calculations indicate that in selecting drives for hydromachines designed for natural water flows, the calculation schemes in figures 1b are not recommended due to their low efficiency. although the schemes in figures 1a and 1c demonstrate higher efficiency, they are not advisable because of their complex structural design and high mass. based on the analysis, the calculation scheme in figure 1d is recommended. this scheme is characterized by its simplicity, high efficiency, compact dimensions, and relatively lower forces exerted on the 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us supports. this suggests that future research will focus on hydromachines equipped with open gear transmissions. list of references 1. в.м.турдалиев, ў.а.ҳакимов паст босимли оқимларга мўлжалланган гидроагрегат юритмаларининг рационал конструкцияларини танлаш // фарғона политехника институти илмий-техник журнали. 2022. том 26. №3 2. ҳакимов ў.а. паст босимли оқимларга мўлжалланган гидромашина юритмаларининг рационал конструкцияларини ишлаб чиқиш ва тадқиқ этиш. тех. фан. бўйича фалс. докт. дисс. – наманган, 2023. 3. usmonxo‘jayev h.h. mexanizm va mashinalar nazariyasi / darslik. toshkent. o‘qituvchi nashriyoti, 1970. 452 b. 4. чернавский с.а., боков к.н., чернин и.м., ицкович г.м., козинцов в.п. курсовое проектирование деталей машин / учеб. пособие для учащихся машиностроительных специальностей техникумов. москва. машиностроение, 1988. – 416 с. 5. в.м.турдалиев, ў.а.ҳакимов. “zamonaviy tadqiqotlar, innovatsiyalar, texnika va texnologiyalarning dolzarb muammolari va rivojlanish tendensiyalari” ilmiy-texnik anjuman jizzax poletexnika instituti, 2022 2-qism. 59 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 7, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 thermal and hydrodynamic analysis for micro-pin and microchannel heat sinks with mepcm present hind lafta tbena mechanical engineering department, college of engineering, thi-qar university, thi-qar, iraq hindlafta88@gmail.com abstract: in this investigation, we used the coolant fluid, which is represented by mepcm in mpfhs, with fins (square, triangular, and circular). also, the nusselt number, reynolds numbers, and pressure drop are investigated. the mepcm suspension uses microcapsules made from pcm (rt44) and shell materials (pao). these capsules are immersed in pure fluids (pure oil, pure water, and ethylene glycol) at concentrations ranging from 0–20%. the results obtained reveal that mpfhs uses of mepcm suspensions as a coolant fluid give better performance. nessult number increased with increasing reynolds number for all pure fluid based (rt44+pao) suspension. also, the variations in performance with reynolds number for pure oil based (rt44+pao) suspension at concentration 2%, give high performance. because of materials properties used (rt44 and pao), where (rt44) having a higher latent heat of fusion and pao having a higher thermal conductivity. furthermore, circular fins give high performance compared to square and triangular fins. also, unfinned heat sinks give high performance compared with other types of fins due to lower pressure drop and high heat transfer coefficient. keywords: micro pin fin heat sink (mpfhs), microencapsulated phase change materials (mepcm), poly-alpha-olefin (pao), phase change materials (pcm). 1. introduction micro-pin heat sinks are essential for cooling electronic devices because it can extract large amounts of heat from a small area. cooling fluids, such as mepcm suspensions, improve thermal energy storage and convection heat transfer efficiency. several investigators have studied the presentation of heat sinks and used mepcm. rami m. s. et al. (2008). the numerical study of the use of mepcms suspensions heat transfer in fluid to improve the efficiency of microchannel for heat sinks is currently underway. to simulate heat transfer and suspension flow, a three-dimensional symmetrical model was used. mepcms contain phase change materials (rt44) with a predetermined range of solidification and melting temperatures. the base receives heat flux of (100-500) w/cm2 the micro-channel heat sink measures 5.1 mm in width, 1.5 mm in height, and 10 mm in length. the heat sink micro-channel is made up of 25 rectangular channels, each measuring 100 μm wide, 500 μm deep, and 10 mm long. the results showed that, the effect of latent heat and micromixing caused by the use of these microencapsulated fluids improved their thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, and effectiveness. tuckerman, d.b. and pease, r.f. (1981). studied the effect of the liquid on the micro-channels for processor cooling, which has since been studied by numerous investigators. micro-heat sink made from silicon to cool the water. they found that, when hydraulic diameter decreasing coefficient of heat transfer increased. also, the researchers 60 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us successfully increased heat transfer by 40 times. azizi et al. (2015). experimentally studied of coolant fluid on the pressure drops and nusselt number. according to their results they found that increasing the concentration of (cu-water) nanofluid particle in microchannel leads to a higher pressure drop and nusselt numbers. increasing the mass fraction of nanoparticles decreased thermal resistance and increased the friction coefficient and rough nusselt number by approximately 40% in comparison to pure water. anbumeenakshi, c. and thansekhar, m.r. (2016). studied how the input configuration and shape of header effect on the flow distribution in micro-channels. they establish that the current distribution in a micro-channels is heavily influenced by input current, flow rate, and header shape. sivakumar, a. et al. (2016). experimental investigation of the heat transfer properties of nanofluids of cuo and al2o3water. the results showed that heat transfer ratios for temperatures were calculated using forced convection with nanofluids of varying particle densities. yang, d. et al. (2017). a experimental and numerical study of single-phase coolant fluid function in microchannels by different pin configurations was carried out. they discovered that the shape of the pin plays an important role in balancing the heat transfer rate and pressure drop, leading to improved cooling performance. the results show that the shape of the pin fin plays a significant role in balancing pressure drop and heat transfer rate for improved cooling performance for a singlephase array's a micro channel heat sinks. yıldız, o. et al. (2019). examined the performance of graphite heat transfer containing nanofluids in an industrial microchannel. the results show that nanofluids outperform base fluids in terms of convective heat transfer coefficient. the results show that the containing graphite nanofluid has a coefficient of heat transfer that is greater than base fluids in general. furthermore the experimental results show that the heat transfer forced convective coefficient increases with nano particles concentrations. this paper numerically investigates a micro-pin fin heat sink (mpfhs) with mepcm suspensions, including various base fluids, cores, and wall materials of microcapsules. in addition to fins, three different shapes of unfinned heat sinks are studied to analyzing the pressure drop, nusselt number, and reynolds numbers. 2. geometric configuration of micro pin fins and micro-channel heat sinks micro-heat sink (mhs) channels have hydraulic diameters that range from 10 to 1000μm. mhss have a high cooling capability due to single-phase fluid cooling and the large surface area of hss over their volume, which has a higher specific heat capacity compared to air cooling. adeel, n. s. (2018) and nivesh, a. m.(2013). the term micro-pin fins heat sink (mpfhs) refers to a micro heat sink with pins that extend from its base. figure 1 shows the model study of micro-pin fin heat sink which have 39 fins, which have three different shapes: triangle, square, and circular. the micro-pin fin heat sink has dimensions of 20 mm in length, 100 μm in height, and 200 μm in width. the base dimensions of w_f=d_f = 25 μm and height of 75 μm for all fins and the arrangement of fins is staggered. fin spacing: sx = 8.5 μm, sz = 8.5 μm. this model uses coupled heat transfer to generate flow. adeel, m. s. (2018) and mushtaq, i. h. and hind, l. t. (2018). 61 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. boundary conditions and governing equations this paper considers boundary conditions and assumptions listed below: : a. at the wall no slip; u = v = w = 0. b. laminar flow, steady state flow, incompressible and heat flux applied to lower wall. c. the top surface of micro-heat sink's is insulated. d. the symmetry of the left and right sides of the micro-heat sink (b.c.). e. at the channel's end fully developed flow. f. there is no slip transfer of heat at the interface of a solid and a fluid. the finite volume method (fvm) is used to numerically solve the system of boundary conditions and equations governing it described above. the numerical model was solved using the computational fluid dynamics (cfd) model. in this study, the cfd software fluent 6.3 is used to solve the current model. the simple algorithm is used to compute variables related to flow and solve the velocity-pressure coupling problem. grid size recognition is used to select an appropriate mesh for the present system's solution grid, so a mesh refinement was performed to find a suitable mesh size, yielding a highly correct answer nivesh, a. and mahesh, d. (2013), mushtaq, i. h. (2016). the continuity equation: 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑧 = 0 (1( momentum equations: 𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 +𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑧 = − 1 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜇 𝜌 ( 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑥2 + 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑧2 ) (2) 62 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 +𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧 = − 1 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜇 𝜌 ( 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕𝑥2 + 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕𝑧2 ) (3) 𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑥 +𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑧 = − 1 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜇 𝜌 ( 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕𝑥2 + 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕𝑧2 ) (4) energy equation: 𝜌𝐶𝑝(𝑢 𝜕𝐻𝑒 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑣 𝜕𝐻𝑒 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝐻𝑒 𝜕𝑧 ) = 𝑘( 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑥2 + 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑧2 ) (5) the density of pcms was determined by calculating the mean of its liquid and solid densities from this relationship. nivesh, a. mahesh, d. (2013). 𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀 = 10 7 ( 𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝑃𝐶𝑀 )3 𝜌𝐶 (6) 𝐶𝑃𝑃𝐶𝑀= ( 7𝐶𝑝𝑐+3 𝐶𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙)𝜌𝑐 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3 𝜌𝑐+7 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙)𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀 (7) the mepcm particles under investigation have an average diameter of 5μm. the core elements (rt44) and shell elements (pao) poly-alpha-olefin are investigated. the core material (pcm) in the study accounts for approximately 70% of the volume of each mepcm particle. while the different components properties can be used to determine mepcm requirements, the core and wall materials have distinct properties. mass balance and energy were used separately to calculated the density and specific heat of microcapsules. the microcapsules thermal conductivity was determined using the domain method multipart. 1 𝐾𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝑑𝑃𝐶𝑀 = 1 𝐾𝐶 𝑑𝑐 + 𝑑𝑃𝐶𝑀 − 𝑑𝑐 𝐾𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝑑𝑐 (8) 4. properties of suspension suspension properties include fluid and microcapsule properties, and the specific heat and density of suspension are calculated using mass and energy balances.. mushtaq i. h. et al. (2009), nivesh, a. and mahesh, d. (2013). 𝜌𝑓 = ( 1𝐶) 𝜌𝑊 + 𝐶𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀 (9) 𝐶𝑃𝐹 = (1φ) 𝐶𝑝𝑤 + φ 𝐶𝑃𝑃𝐶𝑀 (10) the mass fraction (φ) and suspension viscosity (𝜇𝑓 ) were calculated employing the following mathematical calculations equations: φ = 𝐶𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀 ( 𝜌𝑤+𝑐( 𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀− 𝜌𝑤)) = 𝐶𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝜌𝑓 (11) 𝜇𝑓 = 𝜇𝑤 (1 – 𝑐 – 1.16 𝐶2)−2.5 (12) the relationship is functional at 20% concentration, with average component diameters between (0.3-400) μm and (20-100) the diameter-to-particle ratio mushtaq, i. h. et al. (2012). the suspension thermal conductivity (𝐾𝑓) was calculated using the following equation: 𝐾𝑓 = 2𝑘𝑤 + 𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀 +2𝐶( 𝐾𝑝𝑐𝑚 –𝑘𝑤) 2+ 𝐾𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝑘𝑤 – 𝐶 ( 𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝐾𝑤 −1) (13) 63 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us heat sink thermal performance is determined by the rate of heat transfer and the nusslte, reynolds number, and stefan numbers, which are determined by: q = 𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑓𝑜) (14) nu = ℎ 𝐷 𝐾𝑓 (15) 𝑅𝑒𝑐 = 𝜌𝑢∞ 𝑐 µ (16) st = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝐿 (17) the performance index, calculated as the heat transferred ratio (q) to the required pumping power (p.p), provides insight into the overall performance of a heat sink mushtaq i. h. et al. (2016). ƞ = 𝑞 𝑝.𝑝 (18) where: p.p = ∆p. 𝑉 . (19) the pressure drop is equivalent to: ∆p = 𝑝𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛 (20) flow rate is equivalent to: 𝑉 . = a .𝑣 (21) this study examines mepcm suspension at the subsequent concentrations: (2, 5, 10, 15, and 20) %. table 1 lists the physical characteristics of the materials calculated mushtaq, i. h. (2011). table 1. the physical characteristics of suspension elements no materials ρ (kg/m3) cp (j/kg k) k (w/m k) μ (kg/m s) 1 pure-water 2 ethylene-glycol 3 transformer-oil 4 (rt44) pcm 5 (pao) mepcm wall 981.3 1111.4 870 771 783 4189 2415 2000 1470 2242 0.643 0.254 0.109 0.21 0.143 0.000598 0.0157 0.0124 _ _ 5. results and discussions 5.1 verification the numerical model represented by rami, m. s. et al. (2008) is used for validation and ensure that the model's validity. rami , m. s. et al. (2008) present a numerical model of micro-channel with dimensions are: 1.5 mm vertical height, 10 mm length, and 5.1 mm width. the mepcm volume fraction analysis is performed on water slurry at 0% (pure water), 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%. the temperature at the base of heat sink's was measured under certain boundary conditions. for each design model, the inlet temperature was set to 25⁰c, the heat flow was retained constant at 100 w/cm2, and the bottom wall had inlet velocity of 1 m/s. to avoid 64 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us communication during validation, the results were also, limits to pure water at a concentration of 0% and ignores rest concentrations. figure 2 compares the researcher rami, m. s. et al. (2008) numerical results with the present model's temperature results along the bottom wall of heat sink's. this figure displays that when the maximum error is 0.96%, there is satisfactory arrangement between the results. 5.2. results 5.2.1 variation of nusslet number with reynolds number for (pure water, ethyleneglycol, and pure oil) based (rt44+pao) suspension at concentration 20% for unfinned and finned heat sinks: figures (3, 4 and 5) indicate the change of nusslet number with reynolds number for unfinned heat sink and finned heat sink (circular, triangular and square) for different mepcm suspensions consists of pure fluids and different combinations of pcm and wall materials at concentration at 20%. for all figures above used mepcm consisted for core (rt44) and mepcm wall (pao) for pure fluids. the boundary conditions applied for the coolants fluid (pure water, ethyleneglycol and pure oil) at constant inlet velocity (0.28 m/s), different inlet temperature and heat flux applied (640 w/m2) the figures display that, the nussle number increased with increasing reynolds number due to increasing in the flow rate and inlet velocity of the heat sink. figure 5 report that the suspension consists of (rt44) with pao and pure oil with unfinned and finned heat sink give high nusslet number with reynolds number, because of an increase in the heat transfer coefficient in the microchannel when the mepcm slurry is used instead of pure water, as well as an increase in the slurry's heat capacity, the nu number increases. also, to due effects mixing caused by mepcm because of pcm melting which has high latent heat which lead to increases the fluid heat capacity. 65 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5.2.2 variation of performance index with reynolds number for (pure water, ethyleneglycol, and pure oil) based (rt44+pao) suspension at concentration 2% for unfinned and finned heat sinks: figures (6, 7 and 8) show how the performance of heat sink varies with reynolds number for finned (triangular, square, and circular) and unfinned heat sinks for different mepcm suspensions containing pure fluids and various combinations of pcm and wall materials at 2% concentration for various inlet velocities. these figures show that as the reynolds number increased, heat sink's performance decreased because of increased in pressure drop. for each of these figures, mepcm consisted of (rt44) core and mepcm wall (pao) was used for pure fluid at 2% concentration because mepcm properties increase with decreasing concentration. figure 8 illustrate that the variations in performance with reynolds number for pure oil based (rt44+pao) suspension at concentration 2%, give high performance. because of materials properties used (rt44 and pao). where (rt44) having a higher latent heat of fusion and pao having a higher thermal conductivity. furthermore, all figures show that circular fins give high performance compared to square and triangular fins. also, unfinned heat sinks give high performance compared with other types of fins due to lower pressure drop and high heat transfer coefficient. 67 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5.2.3 the base temperature varies with stefan numbers for (pure water, ethyleneglycol, and pure oil) based (rt44+pao) suspension at a concentration 20% for unfinned and finned heat sinks: figures (9, 10, and 11) show how base temperature (ө), where ө = ((tb-tin)/(tin-tout)) variation with the stefan number for unfinned and finned heat sinks with (square, triangular, and circular) for different mepcm suspensions consists of pure fluids and different combinations of pcm and wall materials concentrations 20%. for all these figures, we used mepcm suspensions consist from (rt44) core and mepcm wall (pao) for pure fluid. these figures demonstrated that base temperature of mepcm suspension increased with stefan number increasing. due to decreased in temperature difference and amount of the heat transferred from heat sink as a results of increasing flow velocity. from figures it can be seen that, in all cases of unfinned heat sink give high temperature compared with others fins. while the circular fins give lower temperature contrasted with square and triangular fins. because of increasing in surface exchange area and heat transfer from fins in regular shape in all directions. also, figure 12 gives high values of stefan number compared with figure 9 give low values of stefan number due to lower value of latent heat for pure oil compared with latent heat for water. 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. conclusions 1. as reynolds numbers increased, nusslet numbers increased and performance index decreased for both pure fluid and mepcm suspension. 2. mepcm suspension consists of pure oil and based (rt44 +pao) suspension at a concentration 20% gives higher nusselt number compared with all pure fluids. 3. mepcm suspensions have been shown to improve cooling performance when used as a coolant fluid in micro-pin heat sinks instead of pure oil, ethylene glycol, or pure water. 4. pure oil based (rt44+pao) suspension at concentration 2o% give high base temperature with stefan number. due to decreased in temperature difference and amount of the heat transferred from heat sink as a results of increasing flow velocity. 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. references 1. rami, s. mohammed, m. and said al-hallaj (2008). "micro-channel heat sink with slurry of water with micro-encapsulated phase change material: 3d numerical study", journal of applied thermal engineering, vol. 29, pp. 445 -454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.03.027. 2. tuckerman db and pease rfw, “ high-performance heat sinking for vlsi”, ieee electr dev lett (1981). vol. 2, pp. 126–129, doi:10.1109/edl.1981.25367. 3. azizi z, alamdari a and malayeri m. (2015). “convective heat transfer of cu–water nanofluid in a cylindrical microchannel heat sink”, energy convers manag, vol. 101, pp. 515–524, , doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.01.140. 4. anbumeenakshi c and thansekhar mr. (2016). “experimental investigation of headed shape and inlet configuration on flow misdistribution in micro channel”, experimental and thermal fluid sci, vol. 75, pp. 156–161, doi:10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.02.004 5. sivakumar a, alagumurthi n and senthilvelan t. (2016) “experimental investigation of forced convective heat transfer performance in nanofluids of al2o3/water and cuo/water in a serpentine shaped micro channel heat sink”, heat mass transfer vol. 52, pp. 1265–1274, doi:10.1007/s00231-015-1649-5. 6. yang d, wang y, ding g, et al. (2016). “numerical and experimental analysis of cooling performance of single-phase array microchannel heat sinks with different pin-fin configurations”, apply thermal eng, vol. 112, pp. 1547–1556, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.08.211. 7. yıldız o, ac¸ ıkgoz o, yıldız g, et al. (2019). “single phase flow of nanofluid including graphite and water in a microchannel”, heat mass transf, vol. 56, pp. 1–24, doi:10.1007/s00231-019-02663-5. 8. adeel, a. hafiz, m. muzaffar, a. ahmed, k. wei-mon, y. majid, a. (2018). "an experimental study of enhanced heat sinks for thermal management using n-eicosane as phase change material", applied thermal engineering, vol.132, pp. 52–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.12.066. 9. mushtaq, i. h. and hind, l. t. (2018). "using of phase change materials to enhance the thermal performance of micro channel heat sink", engineering science and technology, international journal, 21, pp. 517-526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2018.03.017. 10. hamza f., abid h., imran a., hanzla sh., and hafiz m., (2022), ”experimental analysis of nano-enhanced phase-change material with different configurations of heat sinks”, materials (basel), vol.15, no.22, 8244, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228244. 11. adeel, a. hafiz, m. muzaffar, a. shehryar, m. (2018). " experimental investigation of pcm based round pin-fin heat sinks for thermal management of electronics: effect of pin-fin diameter" , international journal of heat and mass transfer, vol. 117, pp. 861–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.10.008. 12. nivesh, a. mahesh, d. (2013)." heat transfer analysis of micro channel heat sink", international journal of science and research (ijsr), v.2, issue1, pp.171-181, doi:10.17577/ijertv9is070503. 13. mushtaq, i. h. (2016). "study of microchannel heat sink performance with expanded microchannels and nanofluids", al-qadisiyah journal for engineering sciences, vol. 9, no. 4, pp.526-542, doi:10.1016/j.jestch.2016.03.017. 14. mushtaq, i. h. (2011). "numerical investigation of counter flow microchannel heat exchanger with mepcm suspension", applied thermal engineering, vol. 31, pp. 1068-1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.11.032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.03.027 http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/edl.1981.25367 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.01.140 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.02.004 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00231-015-1649-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.08.211 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00231-019-02663-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.12.066 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2018.03.017 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=hussain%20a%5bauthor%5d https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=ali%20i%5bauthor%5d https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=shahid%20h%5bauthor%5d https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=ali%20hm%5bauthor%5d https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc9696699/ https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228244 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.10.008 http://dx.doi.org/10.17577/ijertv9is070503 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2018.03.017 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.11.032 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 15. mushtaq, i. abdul, a. yaghoubi, m. homayony, h. (2012). "investigation of counter flow micro channel heat exchanger performance with using nanofluid as a coolant", journal of electronics cooling and thermal control, scientific research, vol. 2, pp. 35-43. doi:10.4236/jectc.2012.23004. http://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=22369 195-200 algorithm for optimizing train operation modes based on timetable parameters 195 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 algorithm for optimizing train operation modes based on timetable parameters lesov a., adilov n., miryakubov a., usmonov k. tashkent state transport university (tashkent, uzbekistan) abstract: the article focuses on developing an algorithm to optimize the switching points of train movement modes, taking into account scheduled time, movement resistance, gradients, and rolling stock characteristics. the primary emphasis is on modeling the movement process, calculating speed and time increments, and considering the impact of gradients on train movement. the developed mathematical model and algorithm aim to minimize deviations from the planned arrival time and optimize train movement modes. the methodology described in the article can be applied to enhance railway transportation efficiency, improve travel time calculation accuracy, and reduce energy consumption during train operation. keywords: rolling stock, movement optimization, scheduled time, traction modes, switching algorithm, energy efficiency, adaptive algorithm. introduction. optimizing train movement is a key aspect of increasing railway transport efficiency, especially in conditions of tight schedules and the need for precise adherence to arrival times. one of the crucial stages in this process is accurately identifying the points for changing movement modes such as traction, coasting, and braking, as these directly impact travel time and energy efficiency [6,9,10]. the aim of this scientific work is to develop an algorithm that enables optimization of the change points based on the graphical time of train modes, taking into account possible track parameters and deviations. the study examines methods for calculating speed, time, and distance increases at each stage, as well as the operational characteristics of the regenerative braking and coasting systems. the article is based on theoretical methods of modeling train movement, considering the actual track parameters and acting forces. this allows for proposing a more precise and effective approach to calculating traffic schedules and minimizing deviations from planned arrival times. the applied approach helps to increase the accuracy of train movement time prediction and reduce schedule deviations. model description. the mathematical model of train movement is based on a system of equations describing the dynamics of electric rolling stock. the fundamental equation of dynamics expresses the change in velocity over time by dividing the difference between the tractive force and the resistance to motion by the mass of the train composition. this equation takes into account the interaction of various factors, such as resistance to motion and traction characteristics, which allows for a more accurate modeling of the movement process [1,2,8]. the fundamental equation of dynamics is written as follows: 196 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹! (𝑉) −𝑊(𝑉, 𝑆) (𝑃 + 𝑄) , here, 𝐹! (𝑉) is the traction characteristic depending on speed, and w(v,s) is the total resistance, which includes all types of resistances dependent on road conditions and external factors, such as air resistance, rolling resistance, and other elements. the mass of the train (p+q) is taken into account to ensure the accuracy of calculations, as it directly affects the acceleration and braking characteristics. to account for the specific characteristics of electric rolling stock, the concept of specific accelerating force is introduced [8]. it is calculated using the following formula, which takes into account the maximum traction force, adhesion coefficients, and gravitational factors: 𝑓# $%& = 1000 ∙ 𝐹! $%& (𝑃 + 𝑄) ∙ 𝑔 − 𝑤$ −𝑤% , here, 𝑤$ represents the main resistance dependent on speed and other factors, while 𝑤% represents the additional resistance that accounts for the road's specific characteristics such as slopes and unevenness. according to this model, velocity changes are calculated for each step of train movement, depending on the current and set speeds. these changes are influenced by both the current and set speeds. in this process, the following conditions are taken into account: 𝛥𝑉 = 7 𝑖𝑓 𝑉' < 𝑉(( þ 𝛥𝑉 > 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑉' > 𝑉(( þ 𝛥𝑉 < 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑉' ≤ 𝑉) þ 𝛥𝑉 = 10 𝑘𝑚/𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑉' > 𝑉) þ 𝛥𝑉 = 5 𝑘𝑚/𝑠 where 𝑉' is the current train speed, 𝑉** is the steady-state speed, 𝑉) is the limit value for changing the speed by 5 km/h, and 𝛥𝑉 is the speed increment for the current step. it is noteworthy that for more accurate calculations at closer values, the speed change increment can be reduced to 1 km/h [4]. slope and its impact on train movement to calculate more accurately the time required to traverse the sloped sections of the track, a correction coefficient 𝑘'+, is introduced. slope affects resistance to movement and traction, therefore it is necessary to take this into account when planning the movement regime. the train expends more effort to overcome resistance at points of ascent, while at points of descent, conversely, the resistance decreases, but problems with speed control may arise. the formula for calculating the time required to traverse the sloped section of the track is as follows: 𝑡= 𝑘'+, ∙ 𝑆. 𝑆 ∙ 𝑡/+,$ , where 𝑡is the boundary time on the sloping section of the road, 𝑘'+, is the slope correction coefficient, 𝑆. is the length of the road section with a slope, s is the total length of the route, and 𝑡/+,$ is the designated time to cover a section of the road without accounting for the slope. this approach helps to calculate more accurately the travel time on inclined sections of the road, as well as to adjust the points of mode changes (traction, idling, braking) based on the variations in resistance to movement on such sections. basic steps of the algorithm the algorithm begins by calculating the maximum specific accelerating force 𝑓! $%&, taking into account the forces of resistance to motion: 197 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑓# $%& = 𝑓! $%& −𝑤$ −𝑤% . after that, the increase in time and distance is calculated. the time for each step is determined using the following formula: ∆𝑡. = c ∆𝑉. 2 ∙ 𝑓# $%& . c. after calculating the time for each step, the total time ti is determined as follows: 𝑡. = 𝑡0 + ∆𝑡. , where 𝑡0 is the time from the previous step. path gain in current step: ∆𝑆. = 16,7 ∙ g𝑉' + ∆𝑉. 2 h ∙ ∆𝑡. , 𝑆. = 𝑆0 + ∆𝑆. . given the length of the section 𝑆. and the travel time 𝑡#, along the section, we obtain the following relationship: 𝑡#, .(𝑆) = 0,001 ⋅ 𝑆. , 𝛥𝑡#, . = 𝑡1, . − 𝑡., at this stage, the condition of equality between the travel time 𝑡#, in the section and the time 𝑡. at the current step is checked. due to the discrete nature of calculations, it may be impossible to achieve exact equality. therefore, an allowable 𝜖 is applied, and the condition is verified as follows: 𝑡. = 𝑡#, ± 𝜖. if the difference between 𝑡. and 𝑡#, is within the \epsilon boundary, it is possible to proceed to the next step. however, if the travel time on the section 𝑡#, < 𝑡. is smaller than the time at the current step by more than 𝜖, it is necessary to adjust parameters such as speed or tractive force to eliminate the deviation and bring the calculations to optimal accuracy. to correctly account for time and distance, the condition δs must remain unchanged. to ensure that the distance traveled corresponds to the given speed and time, the new increase in speed, δv, is recalculated as follows. ∆𝑉. = ∆𝑆. − 16,7 ∙ 𝑉' . ∙ ∆𝑡#, . 8,35 ∙ ∆𝑡#, . . the specific accelerating traction force 𝑓! is recalculated, taking into account all resistances and motion characteristics that ensure the necessary dynamics for train movement. 𝑓! . = ∆𝑆. − 16,7 ∙ 𝑉' . ∙ ∆𝑡#, . 16,7 ∙ ∆𝑡#, .2 . a block diagram is presented in figure 1 to visualize the computational stages and the algorithm for switching modes. this diagram illustrates the main steps, including the calculation of the specific accelerating force, as well as the increase in velocity and time. 198 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. adaptive algorithm for switching train modes based on a time schedule the main stages of the flowchart include: the initial calculation is to determine the maximum specific accelerating force 𝑓# $%& . calculation of velocity and time increases based on current and steady-state velocity and resistance to motion. switching between modes the algorithm automatically switches traffic modes depending on the value of the specific power and speed of the train. limit time calculation of the limit time and adjustment of the mode switching points, taking into account the slopes on the road. train movement modes traction mode during the traction mode phase, the train's speed increases, and the time increment is calculated taking into account the traction force and resistance to movement. coasting mode when the accelerating force becomes zero (𝑓# ≤ 0), the train switches to coasting mode. in this state, the force acting on the train is defined as the sum of the resistances to motion: 𝑓# = 𝑤$ +𝑤% . in this mode, the train moves at a constant speed, and the time at this stage is calculated using the following formula: ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑆 16,7 ∙ 𝑉** . 199 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us recuperative braking mode when using recuperative braking, the tractive force 𝑓, ! is determined as follows: 𝑓, ! = 0,8 ∙ 𝑓!(𝑉), where 𝑓!(𝑉) is the traction characteristic of the electric locomotive [7]. in calculations, the motion resistances 𝑤$ and 𝑤% are also taken into account. mechanical braking when the train speed reaches a certain limit, mechanical braking is applied. calculation of time and path increments is carried out in the same way as in previous modes [3,5]. conclusion. in this article, an algorithm for optimizing the switching points of train modes based on the time of the graph is proposed. various factors influencing traffic dynamics, such as road slopes and resistance, were taken into account. the described calculation methods allow for more accurate modeling of the train movement process and reduce deviations from the established arrival time. for accurate adjustment of time indicators in sections where the road profile changes, the use of the slope correction coefficient is of great importance. the mathematical model, based on the system of equations of motion dynamics, allows for the calculation of specific accelerating forces, changes in speed and time. this, in turn, serves to increase the accuracy of train traffic management. the proposed algorithm can be effectively used to optimize traffic schedules, increase energy efficiency, and reduce travel time. as a result, railway transport operates more stably. references 1. baranov l.a., yerofeyev y.v., melyoshin i.s., chin l.m. optimizatsiya upravleniya dvijeniyem poyezdov. uchebnoye posobiye/ pod redaksiyey doktora texnicheskix nauk, professora l.a. baranova. m.:miit, 2011. – 164 s. 2. klimovich a.v. optimizatsiya upravleniya dvijeniya poyezda po minimumu zatrat energoresursov na tyagu. m.: kompaniya sputnik+. 2008. – 263 s. 3. lesov a. t., ivashenko v. o. optimizatsiya krivoy dvijeniya poyezda dlya minimizatsii energopotrebleniya na baze j. d. uzbekistana // byulleten rezultatov nauchnix issledovaniy. — 2022. — vip. 1. — s. 68–79. doi: 10.20295/2223-9987-2022-1-68-79 4. lesov a.t. k obosnovaniyu optimalnogo rejima upravleniya dvijeniyem gruzovogo poyezda na uchastke kokand – andijan uzbekskoy jeleznoy dorogi / o.s. ablyalimov, a.t. lesov // universum: texnicheskiye nauki: elektron. nauchn. jurn. – 2022. № 11(104) – s. 30 – 35. 5. lesov a. t. energooptimizatsiya rejimov dvijeniya poyezda na yazike programmi c#/ a. t. lesov, v. o. ivashenko // izvestiya peterburgskogo universiteta putey soobsheniy. – spb.: pgups, 2021. – t. 18, vip. 4. – s. 480–490. 6. muginshteyn l.a., ilyutovich a.y., yabko i.a. energooptimalniye metodi upravleniya dvijeniyem poyezdov // sb. nauchn. tr. oao «vniijt». m.: intekst, 2012. 80 s. 7. nazirkhonov, t.m., evaluation of the efficiency of a 4q-s converter of an alternating current electric locomotive of the o'z-elr series using a computer simulation model / nazirkhonov, t.m., radjibaev, d.o. // aip conference proceedings, 2023, 2476, 020055. doi10.1063/5.0103507. 8. rozenfeld v. y. teoriya elektricheskoy tyagi / v. y. rozenfeld, i. p. isayev, n. n. sidorov, m. i. ozerov; m.: transport, 1995. – 294 s. 9. nilam r. dongre1. "optimization of energy consumption in electric traction system by using interior point method." iosr journal of electrical and electronics engineering (iosrjeee) 13.2 (2018): 09–15. 200 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. r. chen, l. liu and j. guo, “optimization of high-speed train control strategy for traction energy saving using an improved genetic algorithm”, journal of traffic and transportation engineering. 1, 12 (2012) 229 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 12, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 smart music playlist management system: personalized and collaborative music experience k. krithika, g. v. kanmani, a. sudhesa, b. vaidianathan dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india abstract: the goal of the music playlist management system project is to provide an intuitive program that allows users to easily organise their music playlists. among the primary goals is the provision of user-specific music suggestions based on their tastes, as well as the ability for users to build, modify, and share playlists. an extensive music library will be accessible through the app's secure user registration and authentication, powerful playlist management capabilities, and user-friendly song search function, all of which are connected to music apis. the system's goal is to improve the music experience for users who are passionate about music and are open to collaborating with others. the project's backend will be built with node.js or python, while the frontend will use html, css, and javascript (react or vue.js). the database will be mongodb or postgresql. the budget will centre on development expenses, api licensing fees, and continuing maintenance, while the timeframe consists of stages for requirements gathering, development, testing, and deployment. making sure apis are reliable and handling user privacy issues are two possible obstacles. we want to further enhance the music listening experience through excellent playlist management with future enhancements that include offline access and advanced social capabilities. keywords: postgresql; javascript; ongoing maintenance; robust; gathering; development; testing; deployment. introduction managing a music playlist has evolved from simply organizing songs to becoming an art form that intertwines personal expression with an understanding of mood, tempo, and genre. in today’s digital age, where streaming platforms offer access to an almost infinite library of songs, the task of curating the perfect playlist has gained significant importance for music enthusiasts [22-26]. this evolution has made playlist management not only a skill but a means of storytelling and connection. crafting playlists for various occasions, such as workouts, dinner parties, or nostalgic throwbacks, provides a way to showcase personal taste while tailoring the auditory experience to suit specific contexts. through well-organized playlists, users can elevate moments, foster deeper emotional connections, and evoke cherished memories [27-31]. a playlist goes beyond being a simple collection of songs when it incorporates deliberate elements such as song order, smooth transitions, and thematic coherence. these factors can transform a playlist into an immersive auditory journey that reflects the curator's personality while resonating with listeners on a deeper level. such meticulous playlist management fosters engagement and amplifies the emotional impact of music [32-39]. however, despite its potential, managing playlists remains a challenging task for many users due to several limitations and inefficiencies within existing systems [40]. 230 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us one of the most significant challenges faced by music enthusiasts is the overwhelming abundance of music available on modern streaming platforms. with millions of songs at their fingertips, users often feel daunted by the sheer volume of options [41-45]. while this access democratizes music discovery, it also creates a paradox of choice, leaving users uncertain about how to select, organize, or curate playlists that align with their evolving tastes and moods. many platforms exacerbate this issue by offering only basic organizational tools, which restrict users from fully customizing their music libraries [46-51]. without advanced features to filter, sort, or categorize music effectively, users are left to navigate their vast libraries with difficulty, detracting from the joy of discovering and enjoying new songs. another major issue lies in the inefficiency of traditional music discovery processes. while recommendation algorithms on popular platforms like spotify and apple music are designed to suggest new tracks, they often prioritize popular or trending music. this approach, while effective for some, frequently fails to account for users' niche tastes or specific interests. consequently, users miss out on discovering lesser-known tracks or personalized suggestions that could enhance their listening experience [52-54]. the lack of diversity in recommendations limits the depth and breadth of music that users can explore, thereby stifling creativity and reducing the potential for truly unique playlist curation. the limitations of playlist customization and curation further compound these problems. many streaming platforms offer rudimentary playlist management features, allowing users to create playlists and reorder songs manually but offering little more in terms of functionality. advanced options such as categorizing songs by multiple attributes (e.g., mood, genre, or activity) or tagging them for specific contexts (e.g., “road trip,” “chill,” or “study”) are largely absent [5561]. this lack of flexibility forces users to spend significant time searching for individual songs or manually updating playlists to suit different scenarios, making the entire process cumbersome and inefficient. without tools to automate or streamline playlist creation, users are unable to fully realize the potential of their music libraries [62]. social collaboration is another aspect of playlist management that remains underdeveloped on most platforms. as music is inherently a social experience, users increasingly seek ways to share their playlists and collaborate with friends, family, or online communities. however, existing systems often lack robust social features, such as real-time collaborative editing or the ability to merge playlists with others seamlessly [63-69]. this gap limits users' ability to engage with their peers through shared music experiences, missing opportunities for fostering connections and creating collective memories. moreover, the absence of collaborative functionality makes it challenging for groups to curate playlists that reflect the preferences of all members, hindering the potential for community-driven music curation [70-75]. cross-platform compatibility is another persistent challenge that complicates playlist management. as users frequently switch between devices such as smartphones, desktops, and smart speakers, they often encounter inconsistencies in how playlists are displayed or function. many streaming services fail to offer seamless integration across devices, leading to fragmented experiences where playlists may not sync properly or transfer between platforms. this lack of compatibility not only frustrates users but also disrupts their ability to enjoy uninterrupted music experiences, especially when transitioning between devices during activities like workouts or travel [76-81]. the underutilization of metadata represents yet another missed opportunity in playlist management. metadata, which includes attributes such as genre, tempo, mood, and artist influences, holds tremendous potential for enhancing playlist customization [82-89]. however, current systems rarely leverage this data effectively, leaving users unable to create playlists tailored to specific themes, energy levels, or emotional contexts. by failing to utilize metadata dynamically, platforms limit the precision and creativity with which users can curate their playlists, resulting in generic collections that fail to capture the nuances of individual preferences. inadequate offline access further exacerbates the limitations of existing playlist management systems [90-95]. for users in areas with limited or unreliable internet connectivity, accessing curated playlists becomes a significant challenge. while some platforms offer offline 231 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us playback, the options are often inefficient or inflexible, requiring users to download entire albums or playlists manually. this approach fails to provide the convenience and adaptability needed to ensure a seamless offline music experience. as a result, users are often left unable to enjoy their playlists in environments such as long flights, remote locations, or during connectivity outages [96-101]. addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive solution that integrates advanced features, robust technology, and user-centric design principles. a music playlist management system that effectively tackles these pain points could transform how users interact with their music libraries, offering a more intuitive and engaging experience. such a system would need to provide enhanced organization tools, allowing users to sort, filter, and categorize songs by multiple attributes [102-107]. by leveraging metadata effectively, the system could enable users to create playlists tailored to specific moods, genres, or activities with minimal effort. advanced recommendation algorithms would also play a crucial role in improving the discovery process. by moving beyond generic trends and incorporating machine learning models that analyze users' listening habits, preferences, and historical data, the system could offer personalized suggestions that reflect individual tastes. this approach would not only diversify users' music libraries but also introduce them to lesser-known tracks and artists, enriching their overall listening experience [108-112]. to address the limitations of playlist customization, the system could incorporate features such as smart tagging, dynamic reordering, and contextual suggestions. for example, users could tag songs with multiple labels (e.g., “happy,” “workout,” “90s”), and the system could automatically generate playlists based on these tags [113-119]. dynamic reordering would allow playlists to adapt to different scenarios, such as shuffling upbeat tracks to the top for a workout session. contextual suggestions, powered by metadata and machine learning, could further enhance the customization process by recommending songs that complement the user's mood or activity. integrating robust social collaboration features would significantly enhance the system's appeal. real-time collaborative editing, shared playlists, and the ability to merge playlists with others would foster a sense of community among users [120-124]. by enabling groups to co-curate playlists that reflect collective preferences, the system could facilitate shared music experiences and strengthen social connections. additionally, integrating social media sharing options would allow users to showcase their playlists and discover new music through their networks. review of literature cross-platform compatibility would be another critical aspect of the proposed system. ensuring seamless synchronization of playlists across devices and streaming services would provide users with a consistent and hassle-free experience [6]. this feature would be particularly valuable for users who frequently switch between devices, allowing them to enjoy uninterrupted music regardless of the platform they use. offline access would also be a priority for the system, with flexible options for downloading and accessing playlists without an internet connection [7]. by allowing users to customize their offline libraries and providing efficient storage management tools, the system could ensure that curated playlists are available anytime, anywhere [1]. in the managing a music playlist is a deeply personal and creative process that holds the potential to enhance experiences, evoke memories, and foster connections. however, the limitations and inefficiencies of existing systems often hinder users from fully realizing this potential [17]. by addressing challenges such as overwhelming music libraries, inefficient discovery processes, limited customization options, and inadequate social collaboration features, a comprehensive music playlist management system could revolutionize how users interact with their music [19]. incorporating advanced organization tools, personalized recommendations, robust social features, cross-platform compatibility, and offline access would create a seamless and engaging experience, empowering users to curate playlists that truly reflect their individuality and preferences [18]. with these innovations, playlist management would no longer be a chore but an art form that enhances the joy of music for every listener [5]. 232 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us managing music playlists has become a vital aspect of the digital music experience, yet many users find themselves limited by current tools and overwhelmed by the sheer volume of music available [20]. as streaming platforms provide access to millions of songs, users often face decision fatigue, spending more time searching for suitable tracks than enjoying their music [8]. this challenge is exacerbated by the lack of detailed analytics and effective playlist management tools, which leaves users unable to fully understand their listening habits or organize their playlists in a meaningful way. understanding listening habits is a key component of personalizing the music experience, but many platforms fail to provide users with insights such as play counts, time spent listening, or trends in favorite genres and artists [9]. without these analytics, users miss the opportunity to explore their preferences, track how their tastes evolve, or discover patterns in their listening behavior [10]. this lack of self-awareness detracts from the overall music experience, as users are unable to make informed decisions about what to listen to or how to structure their playlists [4]. the overwhelming abundance of music choices further complicates the experience. while having access to millions of songs is a remarkable advancement, it often leads to decision paralysis, where users struggle to select tracks that align with their mood, event, or personal taste [12]. this issue turns playlist curation into a time-consuming and frustrating task. instead of enjoying the creative process of crafting playlists, users are burdened by the effort required to sift through extensive music libraries. additionally, most streaming platforms offer only basic functionality for playlist organization and management [13]. users are often limited to manually sorting tracks or grouping them by basic criteria, which makes it difficult to create playlists that deliver the intended emotional or thematic impact. features such as sorting songs by mood, tempo, genre, or lyrical themes are often unavailable, leaving users with disorganized playlists that fail to meet their expectations [14]. this limitation not only diminishes the overall listening experience but also discourages users from exploring creative possibilities in playlist curation [11]. the social aspect of music is another area where current playlist management systems fall short. music has always been a shared experience, capable of fostering connections and creating communal moments [15]. however, most platforms lack intuitive features for sharing playlists or collaborating on music selections with friends or communities. users who want to co-create playlists, share their favorite tracks, or discover new music through social interactions are often left disappointed by the lack of collaborative tools [3]. this disconnect limits the ability to build shared experiences and reduces the sense of community that music has the power to create [21]. addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive solution that enhances playlist management while focusing on user-centric design. the music playlist management project aims to deliver a platform that simplifies, personalizes, and enhances the music experience [16]. by leveraging advanced tools and technologies, the platform will provide users with greater control over their playlists, enabling them to create and manage collections that truly reflect their unique tastes and preferences [2]. methodology one of the platform’s key features will be the integration of detailed analytics, allowing users to gain insights into their listening habits. information such as play counts, time spent listening, and genre preferences will empower users to understand their music choices better and make more informed decisions when curating playlists. these analytics will also enable users to identify trends and track how their musical interests evolve over time. the project will also incorporate ai-driven song recommendations to streamline the discovery process. by analyzing users’ listening histories and preferences, the system will suggest tracks that align with their mood or taste, introducing them to new songs and artists that resonate with their interests. this feature will enhance the discovery process, reducing the time spent searching for music and allowing users to focus on enjoying their playlists. 233 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us customizable playlist organization will be another cornerstone of the platform. users will have the ability to sort, tag, and group tracks by multiple attributes such as mood, tempo, and genre. this functionality will make it easier to create dynamic playlists tailored to specific events or activities, such as workouts, parties, or relaxation. by offering tools for greater customization, the platform will empower users to craft playlists that deliver the desired emotional or thematic impact. to address the social dimension of music, the platform will include robust collaboration and sharing features. users will be able to co-create playlists with friends or communities in real time, fostering connections through shared music experiences. the ability to merge playlists, share recommendations, and discover tracks through social interactions will enhance the communal aspect of music and create opportunities for meaningful engagement. finally, seamless cross-platform integration will ensure that users can access their playlists across multiple devices without interruption. whether using a smartphone, desktop, or smart speaker, users will enjoy a consistent and hassle-free experience, with playlists syncing effortlessly across platforms. this feature will provide the flexibility and convenience needed for modern music consumption. the music playlist management project will address the limitations of existing systems by providing a robust, user-focused solution that enhances playlist creation, organization, and personalization. with features such as detailed analytics, ai-driven recommendations, customizable tools, and social collaboration, the platform will empower users to engage with their music in a more meaningful way. by simplifying the curation process and fostering connections through shared experiences, the project aims to transform playlist management into a creative and enjoyable endeavor, elevating the music-listening experience for all users. result and discussion the music playlist management platform aims to transform how users interact with and manage their music libraries, addressing common challenges faced by music enthusiasts. in the digital age, where access to millions of songs is just a click away, the sheer volume of available music can be both a blessing and a burden. users often struggle to find, organize, and enjoy music that resonates with their tastes and preferences, leading to decision fatigue and a less enjoyable listening experience. this project intends to tackle these issues by offering a robust, user-focused solution that enhances playlist creation, organization, and personalization while incorporating innovative features to improve the overall music experience. one of the core elements of the platform is its emphasis on user-centered playlist management. users will be empowered to create, edit, and organize playlists based on specific categories such as mood, genre, or activity. by providing advanced organizational tools, the platform will simplify the playlist management process and allow users to tailor their music collections to their unique needs. features like tagging, reordering, and filtering will enable users to sort and locate songs effortlessly, ensuring a more intuitive and enjoyable experience. whether users want to create a high-energy workout playlist, a relaxing study mix, or a nostalgic throwback collection, the platform will provide the tools necessary to make this process seamless and efficient. ai-driven personalization and recommendations will further enhance the platform's functionality. leveraging machine learning algorithms, the system will analyze users' listening habits, preferences, and historical interactions to deliver highly relevant and meaningful suggestions. by utilizing metadata such as tempo, mood, genre, and user behavior, the platform will go beyond generic recommendations, offering music that aligns with individual tastes. this personalized approach will not only help users discover new songs and artists but also enrich their overall listening experience by providing music that resonates deeply with their preferences. the ai system will adapt over time, refining its recommendations as it learns more about the user's evolving tastes. the platform will also address the social aspect of music, which is often overlooked in traditional playlist management systems. music has always been a powerful medium for connection, and the platform will leverage this by introducing social and collaborative features. users will have the ability to invite friends to collaborate on shared playlists, fostering a sense of community and interaction. collaborative playlists will allow 234 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us groups to co-create music collections that reflect collective preferences, whether for a party, road trip, or shared interest. additionally, the platform will enable users to share playlists easily, making music discovery a more interactive and communal experience. these features will not only enhance user engagement but also create opportunities for shared moments and connections through music (figure 1). figure 1: architecture diagram another key aspect of the project is its seamless integration with popular music streaming services such as spotify and apple music. users often rely on multiple platforms for their music needs, and the ability to import and export playlists across services will ensure consistency and accessibility. this integration will eliminate the frustration of having disjointed music collections and allow users to maintain a cohesive experience regardless of the platform they use. whether they are switching between devices or exploring new streaming services, users will be able to manage their playlists effortlessly, enjoying a smooth and uninterrupted music experience. detailed user insights and analytics will provide another layer of value to the platform. understanding listening habits is an essential part of personalizing the music experience, and the platform will empower users with access to in-depth analytics. users will be able to view information such as their favorite genres, most-played artists, and time spent listening. these insights will help users better understand their preferences and discover new music that aligns with their tastes. additionally, the data will allow users to track how their listening habits evolve over time, providing a deeper connection to their music choices. by offering this level of detail, the platform will not only enhance the listening experience but also foster a greater appreciation for users' musical journeys. cross-platform compatibility is another critical component of the project. in today's connected world, users interact with music on a variety of devices, including smartphones, desktops, and smart speakers. the platform will ensure a consistent experience across all these devices, supporting mobile, desktop, and web interfaces. a responsive design will provide smooth navigation and functionality, regardless of the device being used. this flexibility will allow users to manage their playlists anytime and anywhere, ensuring that their music is always accessible. whether at home, on the go, or at a social gathering, users will have full control over their playlists, enhancing convenience and usability. the platform will also prioritize offline access and flexible playback options, addressing a common pain point for users in areas with limited or unreliable connectivity. offline mode will enable users to download and access playlists without an internet connection, ensuring uninterrupted music enjoyment in all environments. whether on a long flight, in a remote location, or during an outage, users will be able to rely on the platform 235 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to provide their curated music collections. additionally, the platform will offer flexible playback options, allowing users to customize their listening experiences based on their preferences and context. by integrating these features into a single, cohesive system, the music playlist management platform aims to redefine how users engage with their music libraries. the project will address significant challenges faced by music enthusiasts, including overwhelming music choices, limited organizational tools, and the absence of social and collaborative functionality. by focusing on user-centric design and leveraging advanced technologies such as ai and machine learning, the platform will empower users to create, organize, and enjoy playlists that truly reflect their tastes and preferences. in the music playlist management platform will provide a comprehensive solution for modern music listeners. its combination of advanced playlist management tools, personalized recommendations, social features, and seamless integration with streaming services will enhance the music experience for users across the globe. with the added benefits of detailed analytics, cross-platform compatibility, and offline access, the platform will address the diverse needs of music enthusiasts, making playlist creation and management a joyful and intuitive process. by fostering personalization, community, and convenience, the project will transform how users interact with their music, elevating the art of playlist curation to new heights. conclusion improving the user experience in today's digital environment is impossible without efficient administration of music playlists. users are looking for customisable and user-friendly playlists that suit their varied tastes as music consumption changes with technological improvements. platforms can use data analytics and algorithms to create personalised playlists that not only suit users' likes but also broaden their musical horizons by introducing them to new artists and genres. not only does this help users, but it also helps artists by offering them a way to reach more 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302–308, oct. 2023. 122. k. oku, r. k. vaddy, a. yada, and r. k. batchu, "data engineering excellence: a catalyst for advanced data analytics in modern organizations," international journal of creative research in computer technology and design, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 1–10, 2024. 123. k. oku, l. s. samayamantri, s. singhal, and r. steffi, “decoding ai decisions on depth map analysis for enhanced interpretability,” in advances in computer and electrical engineering, igi global, usa, pp. 143–164, 2024. 124. l. s. samayamantri, s. singhal, o. krishnamurthy, and r. regin, “ai-driven multimodal approaches to human behavior analysis,” in advances in computer and electrical engineering, igi global, usa, pp. 485–506, 2024. 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the effect of filler modification on the properties of sulfur-polymer composite materials u.a. ziyamukhamedova, j.h. nafasov, e.t. turgunaliyev, d.a. akhmedova, a.n. bobonorov tashkent state transport university, tashkent, uzbekistan abstract: this article investigates the effects of modified dispersed and fibrous fillers on the mechanical and operational properties of sulfur-based concrete, as well as determines the optimal time and method of modification. the obtained results were compared with the m450 grade heavy concrete currently used in the production of reinforced concrete sleepers for railway transport. key words: sulfur concrete, modification, glass fiber, dispersed filler. introduction. currently, research is being conducted both abroad and in our country on new compositions of composite materials operating in various conditions and industries, as well as methods of chemical, physical, and mechanical modification to improve their mechanical properties. in this context, an urgent issue is the study of how modification methods depend on structural components, production technology, and other related factors, in accordance with the characteristics of the molecular structure and formation of interlayer structures in thermoplastic materials. this research aims to create new energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and durable materials that take into account operational conditions. additionally, it involves testing these materials in real operating conditions to determine their durability and to assess the impact of dynamic loads on the material's mechanical strength and reliability for practical applications. concrete, a mixture of materials such as gravel, sand, crushed stones, portland cement, and water, has been used by humans for nearly ten centuries. the concrete production industry has been developing over the years. to date, several modified types of concrete have been created, including polymer concrete, cement concrete, reinforced concrete, lead concrete, and sulfur concrete. among the aforementioned types, sulfur concrete stands out from other types of concrete due to its operational, mechanical, and physical properties in aggressive environments. sulfur concrete is a modern composite material that incorporates inert aggregates and fillers which perform structural strengthening functions. composites based on sulfur, including sulfur concrete, are considered thermoplastic materials. taking into account the reactive properties of sulfur and based on the study of physicochemical processes between the filler and binder during structure formation in the polymerization process, it is possible to obtain high-strength structures, materials with thermal insulation properties, and materials resistant to highly aggressive environments from this material. despite the high functional capabilities of the sulfur element, the possibilities of obtaining materials from it have not been fully explored by scientists to date. according to the results of scientific research conducted by european scientists, modified sulfur concrete possesses a number of advantages over ordinary concrete. accordingly, sulfur polymer concrete modifier exhibits superior properties such as friction resistance, compressive strength, and flexural strength compared to portland cement. in comparison to ordinary concrete, it is more fatigue-resistant and http://www/ 35 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us durable under repeated loads. sulfur polymer concrete modifier has been widely used for nearly 50 years in agriculture and food processing plants, as a coating material, as a means of supporting pipeline systems, and in various industrial applications.[1] in research conducted by uzbek scientists, sulfur, which is formed as a secondary raw material in oil and gas enterprises, was used as a binder in the production of sulfur concrete and compared to portland cement-based concrete. the results showed that the average density of the new sulfur concrete composition is 4-5% higher than that of portland cement-based concrete, while its compressive strength is 2-2.5 times higher, and its flexural strength is 1.5-2 times higher. sulfurcontaining concrete has enabled the production of cost-effective and highly efficient concretes and products that are no less effective than those based on portland cement binder [2]. these scientific studies indicate that the use of modified sulfur as a base improves the mechanical properties of the material. however, the type of modification and the influence of modification parameters on material properties and structure formation processes have not been studied. a review of literature sources indicates that materials with improved mechanical properties based on gas processing waste (sulfur) are widely used in various fields. the increasing demand for such materials remains promising, especially in areas related to their performance, resistance to various aggressive environments, as well as water impermeability. the use of sulfur-containing organomineral polymer composite materials, which can be obtained from the large amounts of sulfur released during gas purification at gas processing and gas-chemical plants, can solve several important problems [3]: supplying the country's construction market with high-strength products; increasing operational reliability while reducing the cost of materials that ensure the product's design; reducing the cost of structures by increasing their resistance to mechanical loads and aggressive chemical environments; reducing harmful effects on the environment through the utilization of technical sulfur. the production of structures from organomineral composite polymer materials leads to a 40% reduction in co2 emissions compared to the production of structures from traditional ceramic composite materials. this allows for the redirection of energy used in converting mineral limestones into cement, which results in the release of large amounts of carbon dioxide. furthermore, a temperature of 140°c is sufficient to obtain organomineral composite materials, whereas cement production requires a temperature of 1400°c. for cement production, a temperature of 1400°c is required. 1. research methodology the mechanical and operational properties of sulfur concrete samples enriched with modified fillers, obtained as a result of research, were compared with the types of heavy concrete of m450 grade currently in use. a vibroplanetary activator was used to increase the surface activity of the dispersed fillers used in sample preparation. the difference between this vibroplanetary activator and existing analogues is that it has the ability to better activate the surface areas by simultaneously applying coriolis force to the filler particles in different directions. active dispersed particles incorporated into the material composition as fillers improve the structural bonding in the heterosystem by forming secondary van der waals and hydrogen bonds during the mechanical activation process. an "in-test" mla-20 mixing device was used to mix mechanically activated fillers and sandgravel mixture together with sulfur at a temperature of 140-160 °c. the fluid mixture was stirred in an mla-20 mixer at a temperature of 160°c for 15 minutes, then poured into molds measuring 100×100×100 mm, and air-dried for 24 hours. the mechanical load resistance properties of the obtained samples were determined using a press. 2. results for the research, a mixture of fine and coarse sand in a 1:3 ratio, granulated technical sulfur according to o'z dst 127.1-93, and waste generated during the copper production process at the http://www/ 36 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us "almalyk mining and metallurgical combine" containing 60.68% [4] silica were used as modifiers. the sand-gravel mixture was heated at 170°c for 15 minutes to remove moisture from the mixture, then modifying silica was added and mixed until evenly distributed throughout the volume. after lowering the temperature to 150°c, sulfur was added to the mixture and stirred until a liquid phase was formed. once the mixture became fully fluid, samples were obtained by pouring into standard molds. several samples were prepared by varying the quantities of the components that make up the material in this manner. table 1 presents the quantitative indicators of the constituent components in the obtained samples.1 table. results of physical and mechanical tests on sulfur concrete samples under laboratory conditions sample no. charge composition, wt. % density, g/sm3 water absorption, wt. % load, mpa sulfur sand gravel kremnezim №1 30 60 10 2 1,262 0,0006 22,006 №2 50 10 35 5 2,028 0,0004 18,953 №3 30 15 50 5 1,577 0,0006 32,679 №4 30 20 45 5 1,420 0,0006 43,087 m450 concrete (gost 26633-2012) 2,5 < 0,038 44,95 discussions studies have shown that in the process of obtaining organomineral sulfur polymer composite material, when fillers are heated to 150-170°c to remove surface moisture and activated sulfur powder is added in a vibro-planetary activator, the sulfur initially transitions into a liquid state. during the mixing of components, when the temperature exceeds 170°c, sulfur polymerization occurs, and the mixture is observed to thicken. samples 1 and 2 presented in table 2 are samples that were poured into the composition in a liquid state before the polymerization process began. samples 3 and 4 were heated to 180°c and poured into molds after the composition had transitioned to a thick state. the addition of 5% silica as a filler to the composition allows for a high degree of filling due to the specific surface area of the filler particles. moreover, it improves the rheological properties of the modified compositions, provides high electrical insulation (due to low contamination), and enables the achievement of high mechanical properties in the modified compositions [5-10]. the water absorption property of the material depends on the amount of binder in its composition, and we can observe that it changes inversely proportional to it. conclusion based on an in-depth scientific analysis of the obtained results and experimental studies, it can be concluded that the compressive strength of a composite material containing 30% sulfur binder, 20% sand, 45% crushed stone, and 5% kremnezim is close to the strength of m450 grade cement. therefore, temperature plays a significant role in obtaining a sulfur-based composite material, and the materials obtained after the initiation of polymerization in the mixture have a relatively higher strength. references 1. ziyamukhamedova, u., bakirov, l., donaev, s., miradullaeva, g., & turgunaliev, e. (2023). study of structure formation processes in matrices of mixed components with reinforcing natural fillers. in e3s web of conferences (vol. 401, p. 05074). edp sciences. 2. donaev, s. b., ziyamukhamedova, u. a., kenjaeva, m., shirinov, g. m., rakhimov, a. m., & abduvayitov, a. a. (2023). changes in the electronic structure of the si surface as a result of ion implantation. in e3s web of conferences (vol. 383, p. 04040). edp sciences. 3. umida, z., & lutfillo, b. (2022, october). actual contact area of fibrous weight. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 2637, no. 1). aip publishing. http://www/ 37 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. ziyamukhamedova, u. a., almataev, t. o., dzhumabaev, a. b., & bakirov, l. y. (2022, june). improvement of methods and means of testing non-conventional tribosystems. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 2432, no. 1, p. 030031). aip publishing llc. 5. ziyamukhamedova, u., djumabaev, a., urinov, b., & almatayev, t. (2021). features of structural adaptability of polymer composite coatings. in e3s web of conferences (vol. 264, p. 05011). edp sciences. 6. ziyamukhamedova, u., rakhmatov, e., & nafasov, j. (2021, april). optimization of the composition and properties of heterocomposite materials for coatings obtained by the activationheliotechnological method. in journal of physics: conference series (vol. 1889, no. 2, p. 022056). iop publishing. 7. miradullaeva, g., rakhmatov, e., bozorov, o., ziyamukhamedova, u., & shodiev, b. (2021). mathematical modeling of rheological properties during structure formation of heterocomposite potting materials and coatings and their application. in proceedings of eece 2020: energy, environmental and construction engineering 3 (pp. 346-355). springer international publishing. 8. ua, ziyamukhamedova, et al. structure and properties of heterocomposite polymeric materials and coatings from them obtained by heliotechnological method. (2019). 9. ziyamukhamedova, u., djumabaev, d., & shaymardanov, b. (2013). mechanochemical modification method used in the development of new composite materials based on epoxy binder and natural minerals. turkish journal of chemistry, 37(1), 51-56. 10. fayzibayev, s., ignotenko, o., mamayev, s., urazbayev, t., & nafasov, j. (2024, march). development of a technique for the formation of ti-al system compounds under the influence of high pressures and temperatures. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 3045, no. 1). aip publishing. http://www/ development of a secure blockchain-based system for medical certificate generation and verification skip to main communities my dashboard log in sign up info: zenodo’s user support line is staffed on regular business days between dec 22 and jan 4. response times may be slightly longer than normal. published november 13, 2024 | version v1 journal article open development of a secure blockchain-based system for medical certificate generation and verification creators r. regin s. suman rajest shynu t files 41-60+development+of+a+secure+blockchain-based+system+for+medical+.pdf files (989.7 kb) name size download all 41-60+development+of+a+secure+blockchain-based+system+for+medical+.pdf md5:b3ff9ca30866192dd4263f1367202d22 989.7 kb preview download 51 views 33 downloads show 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work on the condition that the creator is appropriately credited. read more citation export technical metadata created november 23, 2024 modified november 23, 2024 jump up about about policies infrastructure principles projects roadmap contact blog blog help faq docs guides support developers rest api oai-pmh contribute github donate funded by powered by cern data centre & inveniordm status privacy policy cookie policy terms of use support this site uses cookies. find out more on how we use cookies accept all cookies accept only essential cookies 132 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 a review of iot-based wearable sensor systems for healthcare monitoring ali a. alaidany fuel and energy techniques engineering department, shatt al-arab university college, basra, iraq marwah m. mahdi phd candidate, department of computer eng., isfahan (khorasgan) branch, islamic azad university, isfahan, iran abstract: many sectors have benefited greatly from the internet of things (iot) during the last few decades. more individuals now have access to healthcare thanks to recent developments in the field, which has in turn improved the health of those receiving it. in the future, wearable sensors and iot will be effortlessly integrated into healthcare. the numerous iot topologies, diverse techniques of data processing, transport, and computing paradigms are thoroughly discussed in this paper. an overview of several iot-assisted wearable sensor systems is provided, together with information on their numerous uses in healthcare and the benefits they provide for society as a whole. additionally, a comparison of all healthcare wearable technologies is presented using data from numerous research and development projects. it also discusses the specific issues that need to be addressed in order to optimize these systems for healthcare and the various future implementations of architecture and technology that can be made in order to improve the healthcare industry, as well as the common problems that iotassisted wearable sensor systems face. keywords: internet of things; healthcare; sensors; wearable devices; cloud systems; healthcare monitoring; data processing. 1. introduction most, if not all, technologies must now be networked, available from a distance, and able to be analyzed in order to keep up with the rapid pace of change. we were able to do this because to the internet of things. smart watches, smart lights, and other connected gadgets are examples of the internet of things (iot). the internet of objects (iot) allows people to be more autonomous in their ability to engage with, contribute to, and cooperate with things [1-2]. agriculture, home automation, traffic management, delivery management, water supply management, fleet management, smart grid, and energy conservation are just a few of the industries that have benefited from the internet of things. using iot-enabled wearable sensor devices in healthcare is a growing and flourishing industry. as the healthcare industry grows, we need to be able to diagnose patients at their homes, monitor and govern their data, and do it in a timely manner. as a result, iot will be used in everything from emergency services to smart homes to electronic health records [3-4]. patients' symptoms may be tracked in real time using the data collected by smart gadgets and a smart hospital. 133 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us research into healthcare, medicine, pharmaceuticals, and vaccinations can be aided by this. cloud computing, fog computing, and other forms of distributed computing will be used to make data more safe and available to the appropriate parties. for a smooth data transfer, many wireless technologies and communication protocols are examined. additionally, data analytics may be utilized to further examine the information contained inside it. wsns are sensor networks that communicate wirelessly using a variety of protocols. deep learning algorithms and wsns used to assess and strengthen iot in healthcare are compared in this review [5,6]. digital records of a patient's paper chart are stored in an electronic health record (ehr). to build a smart hospital, body sensors, ingestion sensors, electronic health records (ehrs), emergency services and remote monitoring are used [6,7]. various communication protocols can be used to link this to the cloud [8,9]. it is necessary to have wearable sensors and a variety of healthcare monitoring devices in order to set up and maintain a wsn. we can accomplish smart healthcare by integrating all of these factors. in this work, our goal is to review of iot-based wearable sensor systems for healthcare monitoring. therefore, we will review the articles that presented in this field. in this article, the applications of wearable sensor systems based on the internet of things for healthcare monitoring are presented in section 2. in section 3, an overview of wearable sensors has been presented. also in section 4 open problem and future opportunities is described. in addition, section 5 is related to discussion and section 6 is conclusion of this work. figure 1. an outlook of iot-assisted hospitals for healthcare monitoring. 134 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. applications—iot-assisted wearable sensors for healthcare monitoring wearables aided by the internet of things (iot) are becoming increasingly popular. in all disciplines, the usability of such gadgets has led to a huge increase in their use. a wide range of industries can benefit from iot technology, including healthcare. in order to provide data for monitoring and analysis, a variety of technologies are coupled to current technology. wearable sensors may be used in a variety of ways. a good example of this is a fitness tracker that is available from a variety of manufacturers. the main purpose of the device is to track a person's pulse, movements, and other vital signs while utilizing gps and an accelerometer to determine what kind of activity they are engaging in. the program can figure out how many calories they've burned, how many altitudes they've visited, how many flights of stairs they've climbed, and much more based on their height, weight, and age. these trackers provide a wide range of customized services. to combat the present epidemic, some have proposed assessing the blood's spo2 concentration. in addition, the results are very accurate in and of themselves. using a few simple changes to the wearables' design, they're capable of capturing the vitals of patients, and thanks to wi-fi and other networking technology, they can also be cloud-based. papers and research articles have been the subject of our investigation. figure 2 illustrates how these wearables can be used for iot-enabled applications. figure 2. application of iot-assisted wearable sensor systems in healthcare. 2.1. activity recognition this is one of the most common uses of wearable medical devices nowadays. it is a common feature in most fitness trackers. fitness trackers are now the most popular wearables for monitoring a person's physical activity. in most cases, the sensor uses a 3d accelerometer to determine acceleration, although there is a lot of guesswork going on behind the scenes. furthermore, the wearable computers are able to tell if the user is walking, jogging, or sleeping because of this calculated guesswork. it is also possible to track the number of flights a person makes thanks to a built-in sensor that measures the height above sea level. the wearables' activity recognition approach is depicted in figure 3. the tracker runs and syncs its values through a mobile application. for the most part, these apps need the user's height, weight, age, gender, and other personal information when they are first installed on a smartphone. these data are essential for computing the steps and distinguishing 135 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us between the tasks they are undertaking. they also utilize their data to train the program to anticipate the movements, activities and height and weight and bmi of the user, as well. by combining numerous sensor nodes in the wearable sensor systems, a new approach for identifying human everyday activities is presented in the work [10]. this method's technique is as follows: for real-time activity recognition, features are extracted from each sensor node and then reduced in dimension by generalized discriminant analysis (gda). then, the reduced features are classified with multiclass relevance vector machines (rvm). finally, the individual classification results are fused at the decision level, taking into consideration that the different sensor nodes can provide heterogeneous and complementary information. figure 3. a brief overview of activity recognition methodology. 2.2. stroke rehabilitation if a good management system is not in place, heart disease is extremely difficult to treat. the wsn has been utilized by uttara gogate et al. for cardiac patients. heart disease is more common in the elderly, according to research [11-13]. there is no guarantee that they will get better at any given time. this encompasses circumstances that are time-sensitive and lifethreatening. this device may be utilized as a real-time monitoring system for cardiac patients because of the wsn technology. there are several medical-grade sensors and equipment in this wsn that can monitor vital signs such as blood pressure and pulse rate while also maintaining a real-time electrocardiogram (ecg) for the benefit of critically ill patients. care and monitoring during a patient's postcardiac arrest are likewise carried out using the aforementioned method. post-cardiac arrest patients are extremely fragile, and the method outlined previously would be quite beneficial in this case. strokes other than cardiac arrest can affect the body's motor controls so severely that the brain virtually forgets to transmit electrical impulses to regulate the movement of the hands and legs, 136 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for example. such tactics have been countered by a developing technology that incorporates the internet of things (iot). the imus are specialized defense units created exclusively to confront such a threat. their research on this subject is extensive. correcting a user's bodily motions is accomplished by the imu. in order to get reliable data, these imus construct a network of sensors throughout the body. figure 4 depicts how an algorithm used in rehabilitation to regain motor control functions. figure 4. the algorithm used for stroke rehabilitation (recovery of motor controls). 2.3. blood glucose monitoring the precision of glucose monitoring in the blood has risen enormously as a result of the development made possible by these iot devices for diabetic patients. monitoring a diabetic patient's vitals in this way can save a life [14]. [14] iomt refers for the internet of medical things. this is the iot for the medical profession. the iomt diabetic-based wbsn monitoring system comprises of the heart rate sensor, blood glucose monitoring, endoscopic capsules, and other sensors that interact via iot. the suggested system incorporated medical-grade sensors and technology, making it more dependable than the other iot-based comparable system since it was robust, versatile, and cost-effective. glucose monitoring has been addressed in a number of additional contexts [6]. they created a healthcare monitoring system that focuses on monitoring vitals such as blood glucose. using a body area network, mobile app, or web-based ui, figure 5 shows a comparable system that notifies the patient about the issue by sending data to the smart watch and the appropriate clinicians. 137 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 5. blood glucose monitoring methodology. additionally, it serially transmits it to the cloud through a network using a esp8266 wifi module. blood glucose (bg), blood pressure (bp), temperature (bt), and heartbeat (hb) rate are all constantly monitored by the cps. they outline a foundation for cps [15]. a single, dependable, and well-organized cloud data storage system should be the foundation of any data storage strategy (ocda). electromyography (emg) is a technique for detecting imbalances and shifts in neuromuscular communication. the lcd displays all of the information. [16] sweat gland activity is monitored with a gsr sensor, while blood glucose levels are monitored with an ina219 sensor. electroencephalography (eeg) is a technique that employs an eeg sensor to monitor brain activity. finally, the blood pressure and body temperature were measured using an mpxv5050gp sensor and an lm35 integrated circuit. [17] a wide range of choices are available to suit a wide range of budgets and preferences. optics, non-optics, intermittent, and continuous are all types of noninvasive methods. noninvasive surveillance devices are also compared in this article. a variety of elements, including cost, time efficiency and convenience are considered in the evaluation of these solutions. a large number of users are calling for more research into recalibration, time, and energy saving. artificial intelligence (ai) has been widely used by researchers to tackle these problems. future ai-based estimation and decision models preserve their affordability, mobility, and efficiency. connecting users with available solutions (hardware & software). 138 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.4. cardiac monitoring cardiac patients require a reliable health monitoring system that monitors all vitals and warns the appropriate authorities in the event of an emergency. the wsn has been used by uttara gogate et al. for cardiac patients [11]. this encompasses circumstances that are time-sensitive and lifethreatening. the wsn system is utilized as a real-time monitoring device for cardiac patients who require constant monitoring. the wsn comprises medical-grade sensors and technology that can monitor the heartbeat, pulse rate, body temperature, and blood pressure, and for the most important cases, a real-time ecg is maintained so that the patient may be followed constantly. additionally, the data is transferred to the cloud and can be viewed by the physicians, thus the bodily parameters are stored and exhibited sequentially. an alarm message is provided to the carers if an aberrant reading occurs. national instruments (ni) labview hardware, identified as the myrio 1900, has been utilized by uma arun et al. the ecg sensor may be connected to this ni my rio, and the sensor output can be obtained using ni labview and the my rio. people with long-term heart conditions are the primary beneficiaries of this system [18]. the labview program receives the data from the vernier ekg sensor, which detects any potential discrepancies. the program deciphers the text and displays it visually on the screen. in addition, the publication provides a thorough schematic of the labview software that may be used to make such a system work. based on internet of things (iot) technology, the system is most suited to those with chronic heart illness. following are some of its most important features: a) getting info from the body's sensors; b) using a smartphone to check one's health; c) zigbee and bluetooth technologies are used to communicate physiological data to smartphones via a body sensor network and a wireless body area network. there are a number of systems that recommend using an arduino uno with an lm35 body temperature sensor, a dht11 humidity and temperature sensor, an ad8232 ecg sensor, and an adxl335 body position sensor. the algorithm is laid down in ten phases, with a detailed description [11]. pushbutton display, sensors, and arduino uno all make up the slave circuit. the arduino ide application for writing the slave circuit's code in embedded c is also included. the r-pi, wifi module, and bluetooth module are all part of the main circuit. python is used to write the master code. 2.5. respiration monitoring the human body's respiratory system may be monitored in a variety of ways. sensors that track respiratory motions were employed by certain writers. bioimpedance sensors come in beneficial for a variety of applications [19]. in addition to sending a little quantity of energy into the skin, this sensor also calculates the heart rate and respiratory movement on a crude scale. the mcu receives analog signals via a customized breathing sensor [21]. the sensor is affixed to the patient's abdomen. that medical-grade sensors must be used to connect the wearables to the belly if they are to accurately detect respiration. there is a wearable device for continuous monitoring of the respiratory signal and its accompanying algorithm for signal assessments in the publication [22]. in order to construct the gadget, the company used a wireless body sensor network architecture and a validated respiratory inductive plethysmograph (rip). it was possible to wear the textile rip sensor around the chest or the belly to monitor breathing as you slept. the dynamic respiration rate was extracted using a sophisticated signal processing method. 2.6. sleep monitoring this sleep tracking software helps the user adjust their sleep pattern and maintain a healthy life cycle. different sensors are employed here. sleep quality may be inferred from the data gathered by some wearables, such as heart rate, pulse, spo2, and breathing patterns. 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us because they're multipurpose, these devices can tell whether or not a user is sleeping using the gps, three-axis accelerometer, and altimeter. also because of these advantages, individuals now use fitness bands on a daily basis, making them an essential part of their life. iot gateways are intermediary hubs between the physical layer (sensor nodes) and the server to provide effective real-time communication between the user and the medic [23]. while sleeping, people are being tracked. it demonstrates that the user is snoozing in normal conditions (see ambient parameters). there were a few noise spikes in the findings, but they quickly faded away and did not cause any significant interference. data on heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, and level of sleep is shown and examined. figure 6 depicts the wsn-based sleep monitoring system previously described. based on portability and interoperability ideas, a wristwatch and smartphone are integrated to develop a sleep monitoring system in this work [24]. this method combines data from the smartwatch's heart rate monitor, accelerometer, and sound sensor into a single display. the first results show that the suggested sleep monitoring system is viable and appropriate. an api for data interchange between wristwatch and smartphone has already been implemented in this system's architecture, notwithstanding its early state. to expand and supplement the proposed system, new algorithms for signal processing are needed, including the construction of multiple snoring and motion classifiers, as well as sleep detection classifiers [24]. figure 6. sleep monitoring in real-time using wsn. 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.7. blood pressure monitoring because of the prevalence of high blood pressure, nearly every fifth person on the planet has a minor bp issue. the healthcare division is likewise serious about it. signs of numerous bodily processes are indicated by a rise in blood pressure (bp). a patient's physical and mental wellbeing is stimulated by this increase in bp. a person's blood pressure (bp) varies when he or she is sad, so it's important to keep tabs on that number whenever possible. there are a variety of methods for determining the bp. most doctors use a sphygmomanometer to measure the patient's blood pressure. in addition, the heart rate monitoring system is used to calculate this for wearables. the wearables employ a sophisticated algorithm to predict the user's approximate bp based on the pulse wave analysis of the pulse oximeter reading. all relevant aspects, such as age, weight, and prior data, are taken into account. because heart disease is more common in the elderly, anyone's health can change at any time. [11] this encompasses crucial and urgent circumstances. the wsn system may be able to provide a continuous monitoring system for heart patients. monitoring the heartbeat, pulse rate, body temperature, and blood pressure is possible using the wsn system's medical-grade sensors, and a real-time ecg is maintained for critical patients utilizing these sensors. they've been working on a way to keep track of pregnant women's health data. in their model, blood pressure, temperature, beat of heart and motions of teeth would be analyzed [26]. the ultrasonic sensor would allow for the most precise tissue distinction (medical grade). it is possible to see and monitor the soft tissue in real time with this ultrasound. proposals have been made to utilize an r-pi as the central cpu, and they plan to employ sensors to assess temperature and blood pressure, respectively. using the ecg and heartbeat sensors, the patient's vital signs are recorded [44]. the sensor data is transferred to the r-pi module for additional analysis via interfaces with all of the sensors. as a result, the r-pi saves the data locally and sends it to the cloud for further processing. the data is shown using programs such as matlab and labview. the gsm module sends an alarm message to the jail in charge if the readings are not what is expected. there are several applications for wearable blood pressure monitors, including mental health evaluations and other tests. the usage of bp values in this field has shown to be far more favorable. it doesn't matter if you're using an intelligent health monitoring system [23] or a portable system [16]. similar to the preceding blood pressure monitoring device, figure 7 depicts a similar viewpoint. wireless wearable and ambient sensors work together to monitor a person's vital indicators including heart rate and blood pressure while they are engaged in normal everyday activities, as described in this research [25]. in order to give an accurate analysis of the incoming data, the wearable sensors require a high sampling rate and time synchronization. the user's presence is detected by the environmental sensors, which activate synchronization. real-time sensing and time synchronization are made possible through the usage of bluetooth and ieee 802.15.4 wireless technologies. consequently, the sensor response of this wearable health-monitoring sensor depends on the situation in which it is employed. for example, the system gives information about the user's position and vital indicators while the wearable sensors effectively monitor vital signs with a one-millisecond resolution [25]. 141 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 7. blood pressure monitoring system. 2.8. stress monitoring in order to assess stress, vital signs are taken and compared to those taken during rest. this is an evident symptom of tension, and the wearables that a person is wearing monitor and warn them to keep it slow whenever their blood pressure or insulin levels dip or there's sudden unease in breathing. the alerts can be as simple as a gentle reminder to drink water or as complex as a reassuring message that lets the user know they are not alone for a brief period of time. as part of stress monitoring, the sweat glands also play a role. additionally, tiny changes in bodily fluids, such as sweating, indicate that a person is under emotional stress. the true level of stress may usually be determined by the use of the tsst (trier social stress test). the wearables can't utilize this method, but it's reliable. an hrv index, breathing patterns, and heartbeat tracking may all be used in a stress monitoring system depicted in figure 8. variability in heartbeat patterns is measured by hrv, which is a term for heart rate variability (hrv). technology that may be worn on the body can help us understand how physical and psychological stresses are linked. in system design, it is important to strike a balance between information content and wearability. psychological stress is well-correlated with selected physiological features measured by the wearable sensor. integrating data from breathing power and heart rate fluctuations, the autonomic nervous system balance is assessed. mental tension and relaxation are the two physiological psychological situations in which our approach of dual discrimination works best. 142 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 8. stress monitoring system. 2.9. medical adherence in healthcare, medical adherence is an important application. if a patient refuses to take the medication provided by their doctor or follow the advise offered by the doctor, treating them is pointless. even if they wanted to, it would be impossible to treat these patients in the future. this software comes in helpful in situations like this. in this regard, e-health [9] is one approach and concept that has been presented. following an examination of the patient, electronic health systems are able to dispense the necessary medication. in addition, the internet of things (iot) is the foundation of these e-health systems, and a doctor or other qualified staff member can be assigned to oversee the system. these less critical patients may be taken care of by a system that can manage them, so the doctor has more time to focus on the more vital patients where he/she has a role to play. this method also makes it possible to do patient diagnostics through the internet. the e-healthcare monitoring system, denoted as ehms [29], is illustrated. to monitor and operate the health monitoring system, the ehms system was built. monitored vitals include the ecg, the heart rate and spo2 concentrations of the patients. in rural locations, it focuses on a low-cost health monitoring system. systems that gather data remotely utilizing wireless sensors, inquiries and telephone connections were discussed. devices that can capture data such as photographs of body parts at a given sampling rate, depending on the patient, are part of the technique presented. it is also possible to use it offline. it makes use of digital-to-analog conversion (advantage: single channel for all sensors). upload data when you have access to a reliable connection, rather than relying on the local storage. it allows users to 143 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us log in securely. logging in requires a visit to a default login screen. for each user, the website generates a unique reference id. an alphabetical list of patients and sensor data are displayed in the doctor's interface [30, 31]. this e-health system is being used by some models to notify elderly folks of potential health issues. figure 9 depicts one of the models. elderly persons and those who have a hard time following doctors' orders can benefit from this strategy as well. figure 9. medical adherence methodology. 2.10. alzheimer's disease (ad) monitoring monitoring for alzheimer's disease has been fraught with difficulties, and it must be approached with extreme caution moving forward. people who are suffering from the early stages of alzheimer's disease cannot be diagnosed themselves. furthermore, the condition is difficult to observe even for members of the family. when the patient acts strangely and loses consciousness while performing simple chores, they know they have a sickness. they believe the internet of things (iot) can play a huge role in improving the quality of life for people with alzheimer's disease. the following are three of ad's most concerning signs and symptoms: 1. severe memory loss 2. wandering 3. dementia [32] wearables connected to the ban via communication protocols like mqtt, zigbee, etc. can be used to counteract this. caregiver's whereabouts can be easily tracked down by sensors in the city if a patient wanders away. in fact, patients can be taught to utilize the iot framework to 144 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us keep track of personal information like their name, the name of the doctor who is treating them, and their address. using numerous servers and databases to collect vitals from patients and further advance technology makes it possible for doctors to monitor patients even when they are not there. wearable technology for people with alzheimer's was the focus of this project to learn more about the difficulties and lessons relevant to this population. alzheimer's caregivers can make use of commercially available equipment and gadgets that have been approved for use in laboratories. we used product searches on the internet, phone interviews with representatives from related companies, and recommendations from participants. only a fraction of the things discovered during the examination met the study's requirements. using key informant interviews, it was discovered that creating products for people with cognitive impairments requires certain considerations. to sum it up, there is no ideal solution, but there is potential for market innovation and a careful balance of safety and security. 2.11. cancer patient monitoring currently, there is no treatment for cancer that does not have any adverse effects. to eradicate the tumor, patients must undergo chemotherapy alone, which leaves them weak and unwell. taking care of the patient is critical because of the patient's vulnerability to nearly anything. the author of this paper has made an effort to create an iot framework and a layered architecture. this system has been broken down into five layers [34]: 1. service layer 2. datacenter layer 3. cancer care layer 4. hospital layer 5. security management layer. the names of each layer are sufficient to identify them. detection of tumor cells is possible because to the employment of medical-grade sensors in this system. doctors could rely on cloud computing and analytical expertise to make quick decisions in time-sensitive scenarios. to convey data around the world, the sensors would be connected to wsn technology and other intelligent devices. comparing the suggested system with the current one, they discovered that it was sound on nearly every metric. describe the current state-of-the-art method for wearable system-based cancer diagnosis and emphasize major challenges [35]. this study analyzed 11 of 472 records. in this case, 45% were research publications and 55% were manufactured. the review focuses on records released between 2009 and 2017. breast cancer (36.3%), skin cancer (36.3%), prostate cancer (18.1%), and multi-type cancer (36.3%) (9 percent). microcontrollers, bluetooth modules, and smart phones were most commonly used. some uwb antenna wearable solutions. c'est l'une des plus the present work integrates seamless sensor units and smart networking. no cloud computing or long-range connectivity. wearable gadgets now demand ai and machine learning. in addition, clinical inertia, ignorance, and high expenses limit system extension. assuming these issues are addressed honestly, wearable technology may be a key alternative to future cancer diagnosis [35]. 3. wearable sensors patients' vitals and other important signals are measured by sensors in all iot-based healthcare systems. this data is then converted into data that can be used for analysis and monitoring. in order to detect activity, this layer may comprise sensors that may monitor vitals such as heart rate and blood oxygen levels, as well as other specific signals that indicate an issue. because the wearers must be able to go about their everyday routines and lifestyles without interruption, 145 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these sensors are largely wearable. for networking, several of these systems make use of ban or wsn. preprocessed, trained, and then utilized to forecast illnesses utilizing multiple algorithms [12] and artificial intelligence (ai) sensors of various types are addressed in the following subsections. various wearable sensors used in iot systems for healthcare are listed in table 1, with their utilization in various research projects. table 1. various iot-assisted wearable sensors for healthcare monitoring. sno. application sensor characteristics sensed parameter wearable type ref 1 heartbeat monitoring ecg; ad8232; maxl335cc inexpensive, obtrusive heartrate wristband [53,29] 2 temperature lm35; dht11 inexpensive, noninvasive body temperature wristband [3–5,42,38,47,55, 56,66,68,] 3 glucose monitoring glucose sensor; ina219 invasive, expensive blood glucose patch on arm/strip [3,6,42,15,14,14,16,16, 17,29,29,30,42,45,46] 4 respiratory airflow sensor obtrusive expensive breathing rate worn on face [22,43,44] 5 gsr gsr sensor noninvasive sweat gland activity patch on arm [16] 6 acceleration acceleration sensor; adxl345 inexpensive, noninvasive movement wristband 7 breathing mq2 sensor inexpensive, noninvasive acetone in breadth mouth piece 8 load strain gauge load cell inexpensive, noninvasive weight of medicine medicine box 9 communication gsm module, wi-fi module storage, backup transferring data wristband [5,6,61,53,54,5944, 55,56,67–40] 10 touch pressure sensor non-invasive, expensive pressure on skin patch on skin 11 moisture moisture sensor non-expensive moisture wristband 12 organizing rfid sensor non-expensive rf waves tag [3,5,10,39,52,57,64] 13 movement pir non-expensive, not attached to the body ir rays attached to fixed body [39] 14 touch gsr sensor expensive, nonintrusive sweat glands patch on skin [16] 3.1. activity detection sensors people's movements can be tracked using activity detection devices. in other cases, it can be limited to a specific portion of the body. in order to keep track of a person's health, their movements might yield a wealth of data. elderly adults are more vulnerable to harm; thus, they must be closely observed for any signs of agitation. an accelerometer is the most commonly used sensor. accelerometers are sensors that track the movement of the body they are attached to. patients' movements can be tracked using sensor data, and possible dangers like tripping or slipping are flagged [37]. paper [38] expands on the cloud-based health care monitoring system that transmits movement and other data. the device in [39] describes a healthcare monitoring system featuring a pir sensor for movement detection and other data. the [40] system monitors and records patient movement using an adxl345 module. 3.2. respiration sensors respiratory sensors are vital in iot-based healthcare. they track the patients' inhalation and exhalation rates. it has a pulse oximeter and oxygen sensors. a pulse oximeter is a noninvasive 146 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us device that measures blood oxygen saturation. it detects light absorption changes in the finger or earlobe/toe blood. nasal/mouth airflow sensors detect users' breathing rate. in the nose and on the ears, it is a flexible pipe. the publication [29] offers an e-healthcare monitoring system that uses the spo2 and other heart sensors to check and manage health. references [30,41] employ a pulse oximeter sensor to detect the user's pulse [3,42,14]. a model using r-pi and an oximeter and airflow sensors to monitor the patient's respiration is described in [43]. a max30100 integrated sensor checks the oxygen level in %, with a normative range of 94 to 100. [45] employs a max30102 sensor to measure capillary oxygen saturation in reflected mode. the paper [46] employs a pulse oxygen sensor to detect hemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin to determine blood oxygen levels. 3.3. heartbeat monitoring sensors heart rate sensors function by reflecting light via a vascular region of the body. monitoring a person's heartbeat can assist discover several health concerns that have no obvious symptoms. ecg sensors [29,47] graph the heart's electrical activity. heart disease is detected by ecg, which helps identify chest aches and other typical symptoms. [49] deals with detecting anomalies in ecg signals, employing filters, and estimating energy variances. the publications (50,51) cover devices with sensors to monitor the heart and other vitals (3,52,53,54,55,56,45,46,40,57,58). the system in [11] uses a wireless sensor network (wsn) [34,47] to continuously monitor cardiac patients and upload data to the cloud for analysis. [18] illustrates a heart monitoring system that sends data to ni labview for graphing [59]. the study compares single-lead and multiple-lead ecg recording devices [60]. a gps gadget can track a patient's location and heartbeat [61]. [58] describes the advantages and disadvantages of utilizing wet and dry cvds as ecg electrodes. 3.4. blood pressure sensors the noninvasive blood pressure sensor is designed to detect human blood pressure. monitoring blood pressure can help folks manage their health and predict future difficulties. the sensor data can be linked with other sensor data to detect patient abnormalities [46,62]. [5,38,52,54,20,29,64] describes a health monitoring system for athletes that continuously monitors their vitals and uploads them to the cloud. it presents a cps framework that sends data to multiple cloud storage platforms. [65] gathers ecg and ppg data to determine blood pressure and sends them to the cloud through bluetooth. [16] describes a system that employs an mpxv5050gp sensor to determine blood pressure and an arduino as a slave to r-pi. 3.5. blood glucose monitoring sensors glucose sensors are used to monitor and control diabetes. strips or a strap-on sensor can continuously measure glucose levels in the body. most people benefit from utilizing these devices and monitoring their own glucose levels. the ans216 sensor is used in the study on [6] to monitor blood glucose levels noninvasively. [16] uses an ina219 glucose sensor connected to r-pi via arduino. the paper [29] collects blood glucose readings and uses ml algorithms to analyze them. 3.6. temperature sensor a temperature sensor is a commonplace sensor that can be used in conjunction with other sensor data to anticipate various health risks [38,47,66]. the primary and most direct way to tell if something is amiss with a patient's body is to check their temperature. according to the findings in [67], a safe and intuitive healthcare monitoring system employs a variety of sensors and displays information to the patient [52,56]. the study [68] outlines an intelligent system that monitors the environment along with body temperature data [42] and sets off an alarm when the threshold is crossed. an mcu with multiple sensors incorporated into it is proposed in the publication [55] as a system based on the body area network (ban). a system is described in [5] 147 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us that uses rfid to collect and organize data, and then uses a gsm module to send that data to the cloud. 4. open problem and future opportunities 4.1. open problems as the internet of things (iot) grows in popularity and possible applications, it raises a slew of new security concerns. instability and a lack of trust among iot users can result from a number of issues with cloud databases. wearables are not exempt from this phenomenon. the sensors in the wearables capture data from the patient and transmit it to the host devices through bluetooth or zigbee. a wide range of issues must be addressed. figure 10 outlines the most pressing issues. figure 10. open problems—iot-assisted wearable sensor systems in healthcare. 4.1.1. data resolution sensors are the source of the problem with data resolution. the small physical factor of most wearable devices necessitates the usage of extremely small sensors. people do not want a bulky smartwatch on their wrists that is not at the same time compact, robust, and elegant-looking. but there are drawbacks to using smaller sensors. data resolution is the most critical factor. the sensor's readings are highly unreliable due to its small form factor, and its range is likewise limited, necessitating the theoretical calculation of some essential values in the mcu. however, the sensor is less accurate and does not provide the results as compared to medical-grade sensors. a basic heartbeat sensor, for example, can be used as an example. the ecg or ekg is a specialized sensor used in hospitals to monitor the heartbeat. there are several sensors attached to the abdomen to get an exact reading with all the necessary details, and doctors use this information to reach a conclusion, but a pulse rate sensor is used in wearables to get a reading that is not as accurate and detailed as the medical grade. 4.1.2. power consumption the wearables are frequently utilized, resulting in a problem with the device's battery. when it comes to power consumption, smaller machines use less power, but there is a greater risk of damage from overpowering them. the necessity for a steady power source is critical in the 148 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us wearable technology sector. as the number of sensors increases, so does the amount of power required, making the situation worse. the primary issue is finding a device that can accommodate all of the sensors while also having a battery life of at least one or two days. 4.1.3. privacy because of this, the internet of things (iot) poses a significant risk to individual privacy. in the past, there had been a number of privacy concerns with healthcare iot. for a long period of time, the entire service was unavailable due to many attacks on the network. nonetheless, when it comes to healthcare, this issue has gotten even more significant. data from this healthcare can be exploited, making it extremely hazardous. smartwatches can simply be used to gather data from a variety of sensors. the software is able to track a variety of personal information about us, such as our sleep patterns, eating habits, and daily schedules. as a result, it is imperative to protect the user's personal information and identity. 4.1.4. wearability 'wearability' is a self-explanatory term. the most important criterion in determining how comfortable something is to wear is its wearability. in order to operate a wearable device throughout the day, the wearer must be able to do so comfortably. there are a number of aspects that contribute to the wearability of a garment. 1. the weight: the device should be lightweight. 2. the design should be ergonomic: the design of the device should be based on the human body's contours. it shouldn't be protruding from the body in this manner. 3. water resistant: due to the device's intended purpose of being worn on the body for at least a couple of days and being utilized while traveling, water resistance is preferable. 4. a skin-friendly substance should be used to make the gadget. the person wearing the device should have no skin reactions to it. 5. in order for the device to function properly, it must be both flexible and durable. 4.1.5. safety this section's sensors should also be safe to operate. the user's safety is the most important consideration. there should be no danger to the wearer from the sensors or gadget. wearing it shouldn't have any negative impact on you. in addition to being safe to wear, this item should have no negative long-term effects on the user's health or wellbeing. the wearable should be created with the user's safety in mind, as well as the people around them. ordinary folks continue to buy them despite the fact that they aren't deemed cheap or unregulated but that they are still available. when worn, these malfunctioning gadgets have the potential to cause injury to both the individual using them and anyone in close proximity. 4.1.6. regulation in healthcare, the internet of things (iot) is a relatively new phenomenon. in order to fully enable the use of wearable technology to monitor individuals, a number of companies are conducting research in this area. as a result, there is no central authority that can set laws for the gadgets that come out in the field, as it is a very specialized area. as a result, many devices that aren't worth using in healthcare centers are still on the market and may be purchased at a lower price than the best and most reliable options. furthermore, these devices are labeled as "plain old" wearables rather than "healthcare" wearables, which is a clear error. the wearables for remote healthcare monitoring do not meet the standards that a healthcare equipment should meet. 149 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.1.7. sensors there are simply sensors in wearable gadgets, yet everything revolves around the sensors that are employed. the sensors used in wearables should meet the following criteria: a. they should be small. b. they should consume minor power. c. it should not be very noisy. d. they should be easy-use compatible. e. fairly accurate. a healthcare monitoring system's sensors are its heart and soul, hence they need to be accurate. wearable sensors, on the other hand, face the challenge of being both precise and tiny. the medical-grade sensors are bulky and cumbersome to transport, and the output of the readings must be analyzed by specialist equipment and qualified persons, i.e., doctors. to diagnose a problem with a patient's heartbeat, doctors utilize a heartbeat sensor in hospitals to generate an ecg graph, which is then analyzed by them. when employing a wearable sensor, the output is only numbers, and these numbers must be reliable enough for the doctor to make decisions based on them. remote healthcare monitoring systems rely heavily on sensors to send information about a patient's health to their doctor. the sensors need to be reliable in order to work properly. 4.1.8. quality of service one of the most difficult things for iomt to do is to keep the qos (quality of service) high. healthcare management systems (hms) tend to be quite diverse. since this is the case, integrating them and assessing their qos is tough. hospitals are also feeling the effects of a lack of standardization in the level of service they provide. quality of service (qos) is hampered by the amount of data and error tolerance necessary. the difference between life and death can be as little as a few seconds or as small as a single byte. we need to improve service quality to ensure that iot devices are dependable, fast, and usable. quality of service (qos) is hampered by a number of factors, including a lack of available resources, heavy traffic, and redundant data. for real-time healthcare applications, the criteria for determining quality of service (qos) are [69]: 𝑄𝑜𝑆 = 𝑓 (𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑑 𝑄𝑜𝑆, 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑄𝑜𝑆, 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 . . . . . . , 𝑁) (1) n is the total number of quality of service (qos) variables. the parameter has been meticulously chosen." when evaluating diverse network and cloud parameters based on qos evaluation criteria, the analytical hierarchy process (ahp) is frequently utilized [70]. 5. discussion the paper provides a comprehensive overview of the rapidly developing field of internet of things (iot) in health care. in the last few decades, the internet of things (iot) has transformed and connected numerous industries, including healthcare. an iot-based wearable sensor system for healthcare monitoring is presented at the beginning of the article based on its design. further advancements in healthcare are discussed by comparing over 107 studies on the internet of things (iot). it provides an overview of the sensors employed, as well as the publications' focuses and contributions to the area. as a starting point for future study, we believe this compilation will help us make healthcare more accessible for all. a few generalizations about the iot-assisted wearable sensor system architecture might be made after studying all of these articles [71–73]. there are a number of components that must be in place before the internet of things may be implemented in healthcare. after that, a thorough examination of data gathering, data transfer, data processing, and computing paradigms is provided. a wearable device is used 150 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to gather and transport data from the patient, but the storage, calculation, and processing are all handled by a virtual system that is very easy to access. parallel, cluster, grid, edge, fog, and cloud-based computing approaches are explained in detail. it discusses the various methods of transmitting data obtained to the server and to medical personnel, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each. zigbee, wi-fi, bluetooth, and lorawan are just a few examples of the various technologies that can be utilized. in an iot-based healthcare system, these are the most commonly employed shortand long-range communication technologies. the speed of data transfer, range of communication, power consumption, type of networking, and the many devices that can be used to execute these technologies have been thoroughly discussed. there is a comparison of the technologies in terms of the above variables and frequency bandwidth, payload, and security [74-77]. in this way, we can see which technology is most suited for a given system. the importance of privacy and security in the implementation of these technologies is also examined, as is interoperability. health metrics and other sensitive data must be kept private for the sake of the patient because wireless technologies make it easier to modify the data, which might be fatal to the patient. it's important to remember that privacy is an important consideration when adopting iot devices in healthcare. additionally, the report goes into great detail on the many studies that have been carried out with the use of iot wearable sensor systems in healthcare. real-time monitoring and the ability to predict potential irregularities and severe repercussions in at-risk patients are two of the advantages of iot systems for these applications. another benefit is that there is no chance of missing an indicator. they all give doctors the information they need to make the best possible decision for the patient and assure their recovery [78–81]. a total of 11 healthcare-related iot apps are covered in the review. the internet of things (iot) has many applications, and activity recognition is one of the most common. it enables individuals to monitor their own health and maintain a healthy lifestyle. it's also useful for older patients who are at risk of falling or slipping and need to be closely monitored. similarly, monitoring the elderly for heart disease necessitates constant attention and fast treatment in the event of an emergency. diabetes is a condition that affects a wide range of people, including people of all ages [82–85]. and with iot devices, the ability to monitor critically ill patients has grown enormously, thanks to the precise data collecting they provide. in cardiac patient monitoring, iot technology has substantially improved the ability to detect anomalies before they occur. for respiratory monitoring, sensors are used to continually compute and record the patient's breathing function. one application made possible by the usage of iot devices in healthcare is the monitoring of sleep. sleep and other vitals are monitored with multipurpose sensors to keep the user healthy. since nearly one in five people suffers from high blood pressure, the field of blood pressure monitoring has grown significantly [86–90]. furthermore, because it has no significant impact on them, the bulk of the populace disregards it. with the help of an internet of things (iot) system, people may keep an eye on their blood pressure, which shows their physical and mental well-being. iot solutions have also had a positive impact on medication adherence. it refers to ensuring that the patient complies with the doctor's orders. keeping track of every patient and verifying that they are adhering to their prescribed treatment plan is nearly impossible. to avoid unwanted difficulties, it is important to help patients follow their prescriptions. the adoption of internet of things (iot) devices has tremendously aided the monitoring of alzheimer's disease. due to memory loss, alzheimer's patients must be carefully supervised because they frequently go lost [91–94]. monitoring cancer patients, taking their treatment progress, and constantly monitoring if the tumor is growing back has been made possible thanks to the internet of things (iot). wearable sensors for heath monitoring are also discussed in the article.... users can monitor their health and maintain a healthy lifestyle on their own with the help of activity detection sensors, which are widely available these days. sensors for the respiratory system are vital. they keep tabs on the oxygen saturation and respiration rate of patients who are unconscious and in the recovery phase after major operations. the use of heartbeat sensors allows us to collect vital health data that can help us avoid a slew of problems down the road. heart disease can suggest a wide range of health problems in a person. users' general health can be monitored by using blood pressure sensors. 151 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us blood pressure can be used to predict a wide range of problems, yet it is generally ignored. as previously stated, diabetes is a life-threatening condition, and glucose monitoring sensors enable us constantly check the blood glucose levels of diabetic people. detection of a person's temperature is one of the most ubiquitous sensors, and it is also one of the most primitive. body temperature fluctuation is frequently a sign of concern. all the sensors and their applications, sensing parameters, wearable type, and attributes are listed in detail [95–98]. an overview of current iot systems in healthcare is provided by the articles listed in the table, which cover a wide range of sensors. a quick overview of current healthcare technologies and systems follows, giving us a sense of what is now available and how it may be improved to make healthcare services more easily available. additionally, the purpose of ce and fda approval is explained. the quality of service (qos) of these technologies and devices is then discussed. the following section of the article explores the still-unresolved issues with iot systems in healthcare that must be addressed before they can be widely used. the sensor's data range and sensing capabilities, as well as its size, are the most frequently encountered issues. the sensor must be small in order to be worn by the user, which may have an impact on the sensor's other properties. the use of electricity is the next major issue that needs to be addressed. considering that the system will be wearable, we must reduce the amount of power it consumes. that's a violation of the system's intent. in order to protect the patient's privacy, it is crucial to address the issue of data collection and utilization. furthermore, in order for the internet of things to be implemented on a broad scale, it must identify and solve a problem. another issue with wearable technology is that it must be comfortable to wear and mix in with current fashion in order to be effective. even though it isn't a priority, iot in healthcare nevertheless has a significant impact. we must also ensure user safety, and this cannot be achieved by using sensors that harm the user's health in the first place. in order to determine the long-term impact of these devices, further research is required. in addition, there are several iot technologies currently in use that are not in compliance with medical standards [99–102]. the article provides a comprehensive look of wearable iot technology in the healthcare business, including both its benefits and drawbacks. it is possible to create a flawless system with no errors and endless possibilities based on the needs of the patients and their conditions. real-time data collecting, analysis, and calculation are all part of this system's future physical implementation. explore several communication and security options, then record the results. customized sensor arrays can make wearability more convenient and less noticeable. we can also use ml to speed up and improve the accuracy of data processing [103–105]. we may also use blockchain to add a layer of security to the system that is required for it to perform at its full potential [106,107]. 6. conclusions this paper provides a comprehensive overview of the rapidly developing field of internet of things (iot) in health care. in the last few decades, the internet of things (iot) has transformed and connected numerous industries, including healthcare. further advancements in healthcare are discussed by comparing over 107 studies on the internet of things (iot). it provides an overview of the sensors employed, as well as the publications' focuses and contributions to the area. in this work, a thorough examination of data gathering, data transfer, data processing, and computing paradigms is provided. a wearable device is used to gather and transport data from the patient, but the storage, calculation, and processing are all handled by a virtual system that is very easy to access. parallel, cluster, grid, edge, fog, and cloud-based computing approaches are explained in detail. it discusses the various methods of transmitting data obtained to the server and to medical personnel, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each. the speed of data transfer, range of communication, power consumption, type of networking, and the many devices that can be used to execute these technologies have been thoroughly discussed. the importance of privacy and security in the implementation of these technologies is also examined, as is interoperability. a total of 11 healthcare-related iot apps are covered in the review. the internet of things (iot) has many applications, and activity recognition is one of the most common. it enables individuals to monitor their own health and maintain a healthy lifestyle. the following section of 152 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the article explores the still-unresolved issues with iot systems in healthcare that must be addressed before they can be widely used. the sensor's data range and sensing capabilities, as well as its size, are the most frequently encountered issues. references 1. boursianis, achilles d., et al. internet of things (iot) and agricultural unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs) in smart farming: a comprehensive review. internet of things, 2022, 18: 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[crossref] american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 173 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the utilization of various types of waste as modifiers in asphalt and asphalt mixtures khalid a. mohammed msc. department of chemical engineering, college of engineering, university of anbar, iraq. khalid_awad10@uoanbar.edu.iq. alaa dahamm mamdooh msc, ministry of education, iraq. ala20e1019 @uoanbar.edu.iq. muna mohammed yaseen basic science department, dentistry of college, university of anbar, al-anbar, iraq sami awad alkubaisy center of desert studies, university of anbar, ramadi, iraq abstract. the study reports the usage of waste materials such as mixed sand, rubber powder, and recycled plastic to modify the properties of bitumen used in road construction. the demand for bitumen is increasing amidst a scarcity of resources, prompting the road industry to look for sustainable solutions. the results show that introducing waste as additives in modified bitumen can improve performance without negatively affecting the technical properties. the thermal and mechanical performance of modified bitumen using recycled plastic, which has low melting points, was studied, making it suitable for use in asphalt mixtures. these initiatives contribute to achieving social, economic, and environmental benefits by reducing pollution from plastic waste and saving natural resources. these strategies also contribute to enhancing sustainability in the construction industry, ensuring the continued development of road infrastructure. keywords: florarium, plants, nature, succulents, vessel, cultivation introduction. one of the well-known waste materials aimed at the substitution of asphalt mixtures is plastic waste. most of the waste plastics used for the modification of asphalt are preferred for their high ductility, elasticity and for their cheap price. it is general knowledge that waste plastics have a positive effect on the physical, mechanical and/or longer-lasting properties of asphalt mixtures. however, some disadvantages of using waste plastics as the only modifier such as reduced low-temperature susceptibility, aging, and the economic burden related with material recycling are important obstacles to their broadened applications. possible solutions include the use of waste plastics as an independent additive with other construction materials, and their use in a modified form with other materials joined as an aggregate-asphalt system not only in bitumen substitution. in addition modified plastics gave improvement in rutting resistance, dynamic creep stability, stiffness and fatigue life of asphalt mixtures. the disposal of increasing amounts of waste materials is one of the significant environmental problems. one of the solutions to tackle this issue is the integration of waste materials into various industry sectors, primarily in construction. many materials used in the construction sector, such as asphalt mixtures used as road pavement layers, are produced in large volumes, making them responsible for a significant part of the waste being generated [1]. on the other mailto:khalid_awad10@uoanbar.edu.iq american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 174 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us hand, many waste materials are suitable for the modification of asphalt mixtures, which can be applied to construct objectively less burdensome and durable variants of asphalt roads. waste materials suitable for asphalt modification include materials such as by-products of industrial processes, waste from energy-producing industries or post-consumer recycled aggregates [2]. waste can modify asphalt via different pathways, such as filler replacement, bitumen partial replacement or as an independent additive. 1.2. objective of the study the main idea of this work is to search for a cost-effective manner in which to utilize the huge amount of polyethylene terephthalate (pet) waste which accumulates annually. this can be achieved by using recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rpet) as an asphalt modifier. filler fly ash, a waste product of the combustion of coal, may also be applied to asphalt mixtures with the intention to create more favorable conditions for placing them in the ground and minimize their negative impact on the environment. taking the advantages of fly ash modification into account (lowering of the asphalt mixture’s aging process, improvement of its durability and water resistance, increase in elasticity and fatigue life) this study aimed to investigate the feasibility of combining these methods of waste utilization [3]. for this purpose, the study was planned in two steps: in the first step, the influence of rpet on the selected parameters of the physical properties of asphalt binders and mixtures was analyzed and in the second step, the effect of rpet on bitumen in synergy with fly ash was evaluated. modifications of these materials were realized in accordance with the idea of the sustainable development approach, following the rule of converting something that would be thrown away into valuable materials that take into account the development of the economy, society, and environment. the main objective of this study is to investigate the feasibility of using two waste materials, namely recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rpet) and filler fly ash (ffa), as modifiers for road-asphalt mixtures. the rationale for researching these two materials lies in: the fact that pet is the most widely used plastic material for packaging and it is necessary to find an effective way of their management [1], especially bearing in mind the impending restrictions on the use of virgin materials and the european waste framework directive 2008/98/ec, which obliges an annual target of recycling 55% of plastics by 2030. on the other hand, the ways of managing the waste generated from the combustion of coal are also of great importance. it should be done in accordance with the principles of a circular economy in order to minimize its impact and to obtain new valuable products from it. roads are the most suitable space in the urban and rural environment for the exploitation of such old materials as asphalt mixtures. what is more, susceptible to modification, they can be made more sustainable thanks to the recovery of waste materials. additionally, introducing them into the road infrastructure involves reducing the environmental load because the emitted co2 from applied waste materials is nullified by newly obtained waste products. the disposal of waste materials and the huge demand for new asphalt mixtures are the foundations on which the idea of this work is based. 2. types of waste materials the available evidence indicates that new modified bituminous mixtures improved rutting, fatigue cracking, and thermal cracking resistance. generally, the use of polyethylene (pe), polypropylene (pp), and polyethylene terephthalate (pet) attributed significant positive expectations to the mechanical properties of the bituminous mixtures. the reuse of waste materials thus offers opportunities to increase our sustainability and should be considered for helping to reduce global waste volumes. some of the possible areas of use include the construction of embankments, erosion control, backfill, and primarily the improvement of various properties in bitumen and bituminous mixtures, including rheological, adhesion, fatigue american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 175 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us resistance, rutting resistance, and thermal cracking resistance functionality, as well as the side beam properties of the prepared mixtures [4]. pavement engineering is a process for the design, construction, and maintenance of road and pavement. the primary purpose of pavements is to provide vehicles with a relatively smooth surface and a durable base to assure traffic functions with safety and comfort conditions. with the significant role that roads play in sustainable development, it is crucial to consider recycling waste materials to reduce obtaining new resources. in light of resource savings, the currently available road construction and maintenance tools that reduce the price of pavement materials while still meeting quality criteria are of great interest. these new materials provide an avenue for the building of sustainable and quiet road infrastructure, have the ability to minimize the use of natural resources, and play a critical role in the sustainable construction and maintenance of road infrastructure [5]. 2.1. plastic waste as part of research conducted at the institute of roads and bridge engineering, west pomeranian university of technology in szczecin, and as part of scientific research projects, valuable new asphalt modifications have been obtained, which can be a response to the increasing problems of the road industry and the waste management industry. among the suggestions, interesting proposals include the use of both commercially available modified asphalt modified rubber) mr6 and mr10(, as well as modified styrofoam asphalt, polypropylene, rubber, and terephthalate asphalt (;).[1]& [6] plastic waste has become a significant obstacle to the environment, waste logistics, and waste management. therefore, various solutions are sought to extend the life cycle of such polymers, including the context of the construction industry—in particular, the road sector in which the end user is an asphalt mixture. there are several ways to dispose of waste plastics, including incineration, recycling (i.e., closed-loop, open-loop, upcycling), and dumping. cooperation between scientific, production, and implementation institutions has led to a modification technology based on the utilization of plastic waste in the construction industry, in particular in bituminous mixtures [5]. 2.2. tire rubber there are different used tires rubber disposal techniques. crumb rubber and tire oils, relocating the waste from the tires, have not only improved the framework but also increased durability and price performance of the roads. a cyclical development occurs with tire natural rabbit material which contains of steps as collecting, investigation or planning, assessment, presentation and lastly arrangement. when the correct aspect of each step is employed in well-arranged period as per the condition, the costs are getting very small while the produced wheel lasts a long period. this aspect motivates the analysis of rubber tires in some ways to protect the bird life. the use of tire rubber in the asphalt industry has grown in recent decades [7]. the addition of crumb rubber to bitumen improves mechanical properties, aging resistance, rutting, and cracking resistance of the resultant modified binders and asphalt mixtures (arms) [8]. in addition, cr modification also is beneficial in developing binder, which improves moisture resistance in bituminous mixtures [9]. rubber in asphalt mixture usually leads to significant benefits in terms of performance, sustainability, and also environment. 2.3. glass waste another possible solution can be the usage of waste glass in the field of building materials, for example as an aggregate in asphalt mixtures. prudil et al. tried to analyze the effect of waste and powder glass on selected properties of concrete mixtures [4]. the aim of the study was to verify an assumption that the use the glass waste in the crushed or powder form as an aggregate in the composition of a concrete seal, complies with the requirements. currently over 50% of waste glass is used for recycling in slovakia, which corresponds approximately to 150,000 tons a year. at the same time, glass processing companies generate american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 176 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4000–8000 tons of waste glass a year [10]. according to available information, it is crushed or prepared to be used for manufacturing glass–ceramic materials [11]. 2.4. construction and demolition waste composite modification, that is a combination of a waste plastic with another modifier, have become a popular recent approach to improve asphalt properties. researchers have found that blends of waste plastics, common polymers, and other materials are effective for these purposes [1]. another interesting trend in asphalt studies is the incorporation of waste materials. there are numerous materials that could be successfully used to modify the asphalt. building demolition waste is one of the most often used waste materials as a modifier in the asphalt and asphalt mixtures [4]. fibers, which are common modifiers of the asphalt, are found in demolition waste. their content in building materials is optimal. they are responsible for enhancing the results of a lot of tests. several mechanical characteristics are also better than for a sample with a bitumen. this makes the modified asphalt more elastic and durable. chemical properties of bitumen are also improved such as softening point, rutting susceptibility. obviously, the obtained mixtures qualify for use in road construction [12]. it is shown that there is a possibility to use these materials instead of modified bitumen. 3. modification techniques the chemical structure of bitumen could be altered by incorporating electronic arc furnace eaf slag, which is a result of steel manufacturing, and thereby benefits could also be observed for mechanical and durability properties of the final pavement material. some of the waste materials have pozzolanic activity and many of them have been tried as an active mineral filler in hot mix asphalt. the growing problem of disposing red soil waste that is being produced when niobium is extracted was solved by the addition of the red soil in bitumen as a filler to produce red soil– asphalt mixture. e-glass fibers, rubber, tire powder, nanoparticles, waste cooking oil, and palm oil fuel ash, as well as polymer and plastic waste materials, were extensively researched with the aim of improving the physical, chemical, and rheological properties of asphalt and bitumen [6]. there are plenty of waste materials and by-products that can be applied to improve the quality of an asphalt mixture. the potential waste materials for bitumen modification includes gypsum, electronic arc furnace (eaf) slag, marble powder, limestone dust, steel slag, petroleum sludge, granite waste, copper tailings, and fly ash. lbms containing fly ash as mineral additives have higher initial stiffness as well as better rutting, fatigue, and moisture resistance [12]. researchers world wide are exploring the use of waste materials for improve the pavements sustainability. the reuse of the crushed concrete as fine aggregates in the asphalt mixture are provide many financial and environmental benefits. waste marble chips waste material obtained from the stone cutting industries and quantities of waste materials such as carbonate powders result from the grinding and dressing of granites were also used as fillers to produce ‘marble– asphalt’ concrete mixtures in asphalt road pavement applications [4]. waste marble powder is obtained from the marble industry. the particles are very fine and dust fraction is too much. by using these waste materials many problems can be reduced such as problems regarding to disposal, environmental problems, employing and loss of revenue. 3.1. physical modification articles have been subjected to various forms of improvement when dealing with polymers and ashes that have already been used in mixtures. in order to use other forms of domestic waste it is necessary to perform mechanical and physical studies of not only ashes but also waste polymeric materials and used car tires. the following chapters will attempt to evaluate the suitability of tested waste materials for potential use in mixtures and the likely suitability of these materials as key materials in the applicable mixtures. experimental studies the generally established reduction (e.g., in the value of penetration, as 9ae126e8-dd2e-4bcd-a6c6-6cc953b8e1e5) of american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 177 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us storage modules of bituminous asphalt mixtures is a correct way of increasing their resistance to permanent deformation at high temperatures (e.g., during the summer period) but also at lower temperatures. this paper investigates the state and changes of two types of bituminous asphalt mixtures using modified binders, foster quartz type i and pg 76_22, which contain two types of a construction and demolition waste (ashes and powder of waste polymeric materials in the shape of sterile and common sheets). tests based on the four points bending test (4pb) were performed at +40 and -15 ◦c and dynamic modulus tests in a temperature range from 20 ◦c to 20 ◦c using a dma (dynamic mechanical analysis) device. increment values of bending stiffness from both types of mixtures are presented in this paper. the highest values of the angular coefficient from both types of mixtures are met at −15 ◦c. from the print2d tests of both types of mixtures at −15 and +40 ◦c, they show the good behavior in the permanent and changeable area. the decreased values of storage modules at 20 ◦c of foster quartz type i mixtures proved that these modifies are effective also at lower temperatures such as −15 ◦c[1, 2, 3] ,[13] [6]. 3.2. chemical modification the viscoelastic behavior of unaged unmodified petroleum asphalt binder did differ considerably from the modelled viscoelastic behavior of organoclay modified binder, similar from the one for c60 modified as well as different from the one of nanotube modified asphalt binder. the differences in the viscoelastic behavior for non-aged and fully aged bitumen mixture were through the different degradation of the base binder and incorporated modifier. the best improvement of the viscoelastic properties at low frequencies and high temperatures was achieved by using multi wall carbon nanotube with the chemical vector and the highest mole fraction of graphene in the multi wall structure [1]. however, the best improvement of the viscoelastic properties at high shear temperatures/frequencies in the binder sublayer of the mixture was achieved with the functionalization of the binder by the liquation resin polymers with the lowest average molecular fraction. furthermore, styrene butadiene and polypropylene functionalization did not affect the blend of polymer directly. the enhancement of the asphalt properties by the chemical modification of asphalt has brought attention to many researchers and experts in the scientific communities. commonly used modifiers in asphalt are polymers that are elastomer of natural rubber, or synthetic material such as styrene-butadiene-styrene (sbs), styrene-butadiene rubber (sbr), ethylenevinylacetate (eva), polyethylene, and polypropylene, which improve one or few properties of the asphalt. polypropylene is degrading during the preparation of the asphalt mixture, because degradation begins at the temperature of 180°c and destruction of the base component of the asphalt mixture is 160°c [6]. the functionalization of petroleum, coal, pyrolytic, and bio-base asphalt to organic binders can be achieved by mixing of different carbon nanostructured additives which are fullerenes (c60), single wall carbon nanotube (swcnt), multiwall carbon nanotube (mwcnt), nano clay organoclay, graphite nanoplatelets, graphene, and graphene oxide carbon particulates. negligibly preparation temperature effects for all unaged organic binders were observed. nevertheless, very significant rheometric differences between different types and contents of nanostructured additives were noticed. moreover, rather high shear deformation at the preparation stage negatively influence the asphalt mixture complex modulus and phase angle at low and intermediate shear temperature intervals, and possibly also rutting resistance [14]. 4. impact on asphalt properties modifying asphalts with new types of modifiers presents technical challenges in terms of changes in performance properties. the articles reviewed display only the potential of modifiers to determine the most important properties of asphalt materials, which include asphalt viscosity, temperature susceptibility, and fatigue life. these only illustrate whether the modifiers affect stiffness, fatigue properties, and the fracture (thermal) susceptibility of the asphalt mixture [6]. coefficients of thermal expansion between zero and 60 °c are key input parameters for the finite american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 178 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us element model of asphalt-soil interaction, whereas a complex viscoelastic modulus model is necessary to describe the asphalt material’s response to compacting, temperature, and aging. entering the asphalt-soil interaction model is a result of obtaining interrelationships, including the porosity of the asphalt mixture, its temperature, and its mechanical resistance. the performance properties of asphalt mixes significantly affect road behavior and safety [12]. the modification of asphalts with non-conventional modifiers is becoming increasingly popular as it helps to improve the performance and cost-effectiveness of the asphalt. increasing environmental awareness has led to urgent necessity of researching the opportunities to use various types of waste as modifiers in asphalt and asphalt mixtures [1]. 4.1. rheological properties this solution is broad and complex, because the modifier is used in an unconventional way; therefore, it is necessary to predict its impact on long-term asphalt behaviour. however, it seems that such a concept provides excellent opportunities for the use of modified mixtures, especially recycled mineral waste aggregates. on the basis of the research presented, it was shown that it is necessary to study the influence of the kaolin content in the modifier mass on the properties of bituminous mix and asphalt mixtures. certain studies have shown that the possibility of using taphole clay and kaolin as a pigment in kac seems to be particularly justified. in the light of the obtained results, presented in the tables and by means of selected figures and values characterizing the functional properties of the developed fashionable asphalt mixtures, it has been demonstrated that taphole clay and kaolin can be used as fillers in asphalt mixtures. vanadium slag solid waste has been used as a filler [12] in porous asphalt concrete as a substitute for fine aggregate. the analysis showed that utilization of this type of waste as fillers in porous asphalt mixtures can improve the consistency of the bitumen and bitumen/filler mixture and reduces softening of the bitumen by temperatures rise observed in the aashto tp 102 standard test. solid waste was also used as a binder in bitumen transparent pipes [7], reducing the amount of traditional binders, and in rubber-modified asphalt mixtures to improve rheological properties, increase resistance to fatigue, and improve resistance to permanent deformation [6]. 4.2. mechanical properties the aim of this research is to present the possibility of using different plastic products to improve the effectiveness of the recycling process. the plastic waste modifiers were used as an additional component in the conventional asphalt mixture. the results of the tests indicate that the modification of bitumen with waste plastics improves the viscous and elastic properties. in addition, the modified binder in the stationary temperatures has greater resistance to permanent deformation. the addition of ldpe leads to an increase in the value of stiffness as well as reduced ability to relax stress compared to the asphalt containing unmodified bitumen. from both binder and asphalt mixture tests it was found that the use of the modifier has a beneficial effect on the asphalt-rubber mixture, on the elastic and viscous properties of asphalt and its resistance to permanent strain, contributes to obtaining the desired mechanical properties. asphalt industry is growing and utilizes a ton of raw materials and resources. also in recent years, the issue of waste processing and new materials has come to the fore a lot. in this article, using waste plastics as an additive in asphalts and asphalt mixtures is presented. to sum up the state of art of the knowledge on the subject, which in most cases is advanced to the highest possible level, the authors of the article [1] have looked closely at this issue. the addition of plastics to asphalt is intended to improve its performance characteristics. schema of macromolecular chains of asphalt after modification. scheme of the influence of modifiers on the adhesion and cohesion of asphalt are shown. map with the impact of plastic waste on environmental pollution is illustrated. 5. environmental and economic benefits american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 179 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us replacement of fossil resources with renewable alternatives to produce the pmb may support environmental and energy policies and contribute to sustainable development of the road spread. a considerable number of effective approaches have been developed to produce pmb by modifying base bitumen with waste materials such as oleochemicals, polymeric waste, agroindustrial by-products, and waste cooking oil. oleochemical waste is produced by the palm oil industry, in acid, ester, hydroxyl, and polymer forms, and degrades the properties of asphalt mixtures. a rapid increase in polymer production and the use of packaging materials in the packaging sector led to adopting a waste management strategy for polymer waste. over the years, many studies detailed the use of different polymer types for this purpose, including linear low-density polyethylene (lldpe), high-density polyethylene (hdpe) and low-density polyethylene (ldpe), poly acrylonitrile (pan), flexible polyvinyl chloride (pvc) and recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rpet), polyurethane (pu), polystyrene (ps), and tire polymer waste [1]. despite the fact that pmbs significantly improve the engineering properties and promote a sustainable response of asphalts to changing temperatures and heavy traffic loads, the fact that they are formed from synthetic linear begins to challenge environmental and economic sustainability policies in life cycle assessments. what measures to take in wasting a large-scale polymer production in the daily economy in the event of extensive r & d effort for a possibly novel waste management strategy, what actions to take in the possible optimization of the properties of the usage materials accordingly, and what the possible effects of these measures are on the cost of the polymer are also issues to be analyzed. polymer-modified bitumen (pmb) is gradually replacing conventional bitumen in transportation systems necessitated by concerns over high-temperature susceptibility and low-temperature cracking resistance due to climate change and increasing heavy traffic loads [7]. the considerable growth of polymer production has led to a higher concern of polymer waste and consequently has become a pertinent global issue. studies showed that cooking oil added to virgin binder can increase the stiffness of the binder and does not create rutting. therefore, it can potentially improve the load capacity of the road and reduce the number of asphalt road layers. after more than 20 years of intensive research and trial applications in field use, the time has come for pmb to be incorporated widely as a sustainable engineering requirement. special binder uses in the future will test resistance to late mixture and pavement performance, long-term structural performance in relation to traffic loads and environmental conditions, and economic options minimizing costs and energy consumption in transport systems [15]. in recent years, new efforts to minimize environmental pollution have led to intensive studies for optimizing the properties of road asphalt mixtures, enhancing pavement life, and minimizing the rate of bituminous material. 5.1. reduction of waste in landfills on the other hand, in 2022 it is planned to reach 50% of rhsw landfills utilization, and in 2025 the goal of 70% [16]. this obliges member states to search for industries that are the most polluting and to reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills by promoting recycling or other waste recovery processes. one of the main wastes that end up in rhsw landfills is used car tires, which is a major environmental problem due to the fact that tire degradation is a slow process, with the potential to contaminate water and air. therefore, the possibility of using rubber-containing waste as a modifier to bituminous mix was found. in poland annually more than 100,000 tons of used tires are generated, and almost half of them are stored in the open due to the lack of a way to utilize them. the recycling of these waste allows to improve the properties of the asphalt mix and, to a small extent, reduce water and air contamination with rubber. such modification of the composition of the bituminous mixture is contrary to reducing the number of bituminous aggregates and replacing traditional bituminous aggregates with lightweight aggregates working as bearing, stopping any waste in the bituminous mixture on the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 180 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us heels of the goal of reducing the number of waste accumulated in landfills or preventing further depositing. the amount of waste generates is growing continuously around the world, without following a proper track of recycling and reusing the waste materials. one of the most serious environmental problems is the waste of different types from which a significant part ends in landfills. by using different methods to improve the properties of waste, we can restore it to the chain of production and mitigate environmental pollution mentioned earlier. the asphalt industry, which is one of the largest consumers of material and energy, is interested in reducing the cost and the energy consumption in the production and laying the asphalt layer. by using waste wild rubber, it is possible to achieve the desired improvements in the performance of the asphalt mix. a significant part of the produced electricity and heat in poland is generated based on coal combustion, and as a result, a large amount of fly ash is produced as a by-product. what can be seen in the literature is the potential possibility of using fly ash as filler in bituminous mixtures with significant possibilities to improve the bituminous mixture [4]. 5.2. energy savings and emissions reductions it is a well-known fact that asphalt production requires high energy costs and significant emissions into the environment. production of an asphalt mixture takes place at 160–180 °c, and it is very crucial to lower the energy requirement and emissions during production and application by reducing the mixing and compaction temperature. rubber modified asphalt helps recover some amount of waste rubber (wr) and reduce the requirement of new polymers (virgin binder), as well as improve economic aspects. in the literature, rpl refers to ground and/or granulated rubber that is produced as a result of depolymerization processes and does not contain added binders. use of waste rubber powder (wrp) as an increased portion of recycled content in binder modification has the potential to reduce energy usage and emissions in producing road pavement mixtures, contributing to the fight against global warming. for instance, the high value of the asphalt mixing temperature (hma) also has a considerable impact on the energy consumption in production and road pavement traffic noise, pavement durability, and environmental impact. the mechanical properties and temperature susceptibility of polymer-modified asphalt samples (pma), modified by barbero moulds in the laboratory, have been investigated in this article [1][3]. 6. challenges and future research directions in future research, we must specifical extend on the following topics: analyzing the properties variation of bitumen when the modifiers are properly used to impact the modulus-gradient, particularly in the bottom layer; deeply looking into the ultraviolet radiation (uv) ageing mechanism and the change of the mechanical behavior of warm mix asphalt using this waste material; finding out the missing spectrum of the complex-cracking scenarios in the ageing mix that may occur when asphalt pavements are subjected to the combined glycolysis + hma + fatigue degradation, etc.; evaluating the capability of selective/two-stage extraction protocols to describe the compatibility under service conditions and even changes in wma film-morphology formation during its service life [1]. challenges arise in recycling and utilizing waste materials. among the most important is that the introduction of waste or recycled materials in asphalt mixtures might lead to degrading binder performance. specifically, waste materials might compromise binder vision, and increased stiffness, fatigue, and rutting resistance. generally speaking, a balanced way is to ameliorate the modified binder properties with a storage stability at the improvement in hma performance. hma performance can be improved by impasto emissions and establishing a strong bond american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 181 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us between fillers and binder. moreover, to date, the stiffness modulus can be guaranteed during service life, and the binder can withstand fatigue and rutting. the durability and prolonged usability of wma can be enhanced by adding waste organic or inorganic particles as potential modifiers. although recycling waste materials for asphalt modification are expected to become an efficient and environmentally benign solution, several obstacles exist including higher costs, lower quality, higher fragility, and irregular structure[17] [4]. 6.1. quality control and standardization in road constructions using flexible pavement, the quality of the bitumen, the main raw material, and its deformational, adhesive, and cohesive characteristics with the aggregates are important as per the strength and performance of these types of pavements. factors affecting bitumen like the crystallization effect is important for the endurance of infrastructure. moreover, bitumen may not meet the desired level of quality for road works due to harsh weather conditions or other unexpected factors. therefore, waste plastic additives (wpa) used for the purpose of recycling the tribological plastic waste, non-recyclable plastics, bitumen modification, and increasing the atex discharge characteristics standardizing the airworthiness by obtaining different blend formulations in reaching the compatibility of the bitumen, preparation for the bituminous mixture can change directly the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. only 2% crosslinking and wpa substitution to bitumen gave the best performance value and this is acceptable for the usage of very suitable wpa in the road construction sector as the best single waste [15]. the loss of quality, pollution, waste, and waste management problems are becoming more and more complex day by day, as the population of people living on earth increases and their consumption and production increase in parallel with it. nowadays, about 30 percent of the waste that forms the bulk of the layers of asphalt pavements used in highway and road construction is produced by the construction industry. recycling the resulting construction waste that has reached enormous dimensions and contributing to soil pollution by affecting human health, the environment, and the ecosystem in a negative way has become a compulsory and urgent necessity. small pieces of waste plastic, the most effective way to return them to the economy, is the transportation sector [1]. using waste plastics, which accumulate in nature as pollutants, in asphalt mixtures as an independent modifier is a way to evaluate the replacement level of a product that provides good service in road construction practice and has high continuity life. using plastic waste, which cannot be recycled easily and thus poses a problem in terms of the environment and the economy, to strengthen the bitumen in the asphalt mixture will ensure this rubbish meets the desired environmental, social, and economic requirements. the mixture formulations, recycling percentages, and percentage of bitumen substitution of waste plastic will be optimized utilizing artificial neural networks (ann), response surface methodology (rsm), and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inferences system (anfis) methods (standard between neural network and fuzzy systems) in case the compound element is based on less money and time [18]. 6.2. long-term performance evaluation enough amount of used natural rubber particles in the 64/100 road construction asphalt concrete mixtures improved their composite viscoelastic behavior in the short and even long terms and subsequently their rutting resistance and fatigue life. also, their thermal and thermomechanical characteristics were improved according to the thermoplastic composite) tpc (and thermogravimetric analysis tga [6].[19]. in the course of this study some important results were inferred and can be concluded as follows: for the short-term analyses, the 64/100 asphalt concrete mixtures incorporating proper amount of natural rubber particles are suitable for in-service loadings on a heavy traffic asphalt road as the composite viscoelastic behavior was improved and consequently, the rutting resistance and american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 182 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fatigue life were also improved. this was in agreement with the recorded improvement in the thermomechanical properties of the asphalt binder. plus, the results revealed that the introduced natural rubber particles improved the self-healing efficiency of the 64/100 asphalt concrete mixtures, which, however, needs much longer time than the related percent recoveries to express itself properly in the mechanical properties of the asphalt concrete. thus, the particle size and type could not affect the cumulative self-healing efficiency of the studied asphalt concrete mixtures over 150 days of aging periods [15]. the long-term life-cycle analysis results showed that the 64/100 asphalt concrete mixtures incorporating up to 4% natural rubber particles could similarly lead to 15% and 20% reduction in the consumed energy to aggregate and total environmental impact, respectively. furthermore, the optimal environmental point of the 100% virgin asphalt concrete mixtures turned from the control mixture to the 4% natural rubber asphalt concrete mixtures. conclusion and recommendations. bitumen is widely used in the construction of road-based transport infrastructure. it is the main raw material for paving, sealing, and maintenance layers in the road construction industry. the bitumen used in my country mainly relies on the tar resource reserve, which mainly used in chemical industry and urban heat supplying my country. as the work of the bitumen industry has shifted from a primary mining industry to a processing and manufacturing industry and the proportion of materials used in the road industry is gradually increasing, the continuous development of road construction has objectively required an increase in the bitumen demand of projects. therefore, facing the increasingly severe shortage of resources, the road construction industry in my country has attracted attention to the reuse of waste materials such as waste slag sand, waste rubber powder, waste plastics, and waste heat from the economy, and the comprehensive utilization of waste materials. the concept discussed in this article is to comprehensively grasp the basic performance, mixing gradation structure, high and low temperature resistance, and other indicators of asphalt in the preparation formula of modified asphalt. through a series of research and tests, it is determined the use of various kinds of the optimum content of waste materials without affecting the performance of the modified asphalt can effectively keep the technical indicators of the asphalt; through tests, such as the marshal stability test of waste rubber asphalt concrete [3]. the waste used in these studies, such as waste plastics, waste slag sand, and waste rubber powder, etc., are all waste resources in my country. at the same time, with the increasing output of these waste resources, how to efficiently treat these waste resources has gradually become a hot spot for society. therefore, using these waste resources as the original materials of the modified asphalt has great social benefits, economic benefits, and environmental benefits. the introduction of waste materials as the modifier content into the asphalt has adjusted the basic performance and high-temperature performance of the asphalt to different degrees. the hainan waste plastic used in this article is a post-consumer plastic, and its softening temperature is lower (the softening points of ldpe, lldpe, and hdpe are 107–114°c, 120–126°c, and 128–135°c, respectively). after rectification and separation treatment, the softening temperature range of the waste plastic is between 85 and 108°c, which means that it will have certain viscosity and dissolution temperature when added to the oil system. when the waste plastic passes the stepped rectification column, 0–180°c low boiling point gas is obtained as a resource and a solvent for mixing the stabilizer waste. according to statistics, tons of plastic waste can be recycled. the factories can save about tons of oil, reduce carbon dioxide emissions, effectively alleviate the environmental problems related to plastic waste, and lay a solid foundation for promoting the preparation and application of plastic waste modified asphalt road materi in my country. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 07, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 183 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references: 1. f. xu, y. zhao, and k. li, "using waste plastics as asphalt modifier: a review," 2021. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 2. m. ballester-ramos, h. miera-dominguez, p. lastra-gonzález, and d. castro-fresno, "second life for plastic fibre waste difficult to recover: partial replacement of the binder in asphalt concrete mixtures by dry incorporation," 2023. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 3. h. li, l. zhou, j. sun, s. wang et al., "analysis of the influence of production method, plastic content on the basic performance of waste plastic modified asphalt," 2022. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 4. m. tareq rahman, a. mohajerani, and f. giustozzi, "recycling of waste materials for asphalt concrete and bitumen: a review," 2020. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 5. f. hall and g. white, "the effect of waste plastics on the ageing phenomenon of bituminous binders and asphalt mixtures," 2021. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 6. c. petit, a. millien, f. canestrari, v. pannunzio et al., "experimental study on shear fatigue behavior and stiffness performance[pdf] 7. h. majidifard, n. tabatabaee, and w. buttlar, "investigating short-term and long-term binder performance of high-rap[pdf] 8. n. li, j. wang, w. si, and d. hu, "quantitative analysis of adhesion characteristics between crumb rubber modified asphalt and aggregate using surface free energy theory," 2022. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 9. a. gonzález, j. norambuena-contreras, l. poulikakos, m. josé varela et al., "evaluation of asphalt mixtures containing metallic fibers from recycled tires to promote crackhealing," 2020. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 10. b. khac thach, l. nhat tan, d. quang minh, l. cam hung et al., "production of porous glass-foam materials from photovoltaic panel waste[pdf] 11. f. tahmoorian, b. samali, j. yeaman, and r. crabb, "the use of glass to optimize bitumen absorption of hot mix asphalt containing recycled construction aggregates," 2018. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 12. h. majidifard, b. jahangiri, p. rath, a. h. alavi et al., "a deep learning approach to predict hamburg rutting curve," 2020. [pdf] 13. w. guo, x. guo, m. chang, and w. dai, "evaluating the effect of hydrophobic nanosilica on the viscoelasticity property of asphalt and asphalt mixture," 2018. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 14. m. faramarzi, m. arabani, a. k. haghi, and v. motaghitalab, "effects of using carbon nano-tubes on thermal and ductility properties[pdf] 15. c. oreto, f. russo, r. veropalumbo, n. viscione et al., "life cycle assessment of sustainable asphalt pavement solutions involving recycled aggregates and polymers," 2021. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 16. a. s. r. srinivasa rao and s. saride, "pde models and riemann-stieltjes integrals in sustainability," 2021. [pdf] 17. a. a. abe, c. oliviero rossi, and p. caputo, "biomaterials and their potentialities as additives in bitumen technology: a review," 2022. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 18. f. mushtaq, z. huang, s. adnan raheel shah, y. zhang et al., "performance optimization approach of polymer modified asphalt mixtures with pet and pe wastes: a safety study for utilizing eco-friendly circular economy-based sdgs concepts," 2022. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 19. a. milad, a. mohammed babalghaith, a. m. al-sabaeei, a. dulaimi et al., "a comparative review of hot and warm mix asphalt technologies from environmental and economic perspectives: towards a sustainable asphalt pavement," 2022. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 157 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 formation and division of residential buildings in the centers of the historic cities of samarkand mahmatqulov ilhom turdimurodovich samarkand state architecture and construction university, doctor of philosophy (phd) in architectural sciences, associate professor maxmatqulov1@mail.ru abduraimova zahro erkin qizi samarkand state architecture and construction university, 1st year master's degree student, majoring in history and theory of architecture abduraimova@mail.ru abstract: this article analyzes the process of formation and territorial division of residential buildings in the historical centers of samarkand. samarkand is a city with a long history, whose residential architecture and territorial structure have developed under cultural, social, and economic influences. the article highlights the planning of city centers in ancient and medieval periods, the significance of local traditions and urbanization processes, as well as modern urban planning experiences. additionally, it examines the socio-economic aspects of residential areas and the challenges of preserving historical heritage. keywords: kohandiz, rabot, shahri berun, shahri darun, koktepa monument, glazed tile, majolica, panjikent. introduction during the early middle ages (5th-8th centuries), ancient samarkand, panjikent, and kushaniya were among the most famous cities of sogdiana. according to arab travelers, historians, and geographers, most cities in central asia during this period consisted of three main parts: the citadel (kohandiz) serving as the ruler’s residence, the main urban area (shahristan) which included trade and craft markets along with public and residential buildings, and the outer trade and craft zone (rabot). however, research on 7th-8th century cities indicates that many of them were composed of only two parts—an ark (fortress) and a shahristan. in the 630s ad, the chinese monk xuanzang, who traveled through samarkand, reported that the city wall had a perimeter of approximately 20 meters, with a total length of about 10 kilometers, comparable in size to marakanda during the time of alexander the great. researcher m. pachos suggested that during early feudalism, samarkand’s construction followed a three-part model. the citadel was situated along the siyob irrigation canal, encircled by a 1.5 km-long defensive wall. the second part, located south of the citadel, comprised noble residences and public buildings, while the third part, rabod, lay outside the fortress walls without additional defenses. methodology by the 6th century, the city expanded southward and was enclosed by a second defensive wall. urban development followed the irrigation network, a characteristic also observed in balkh and 158 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us termez. the presence of zoroastrian and buddhist religious structures, such as fire temples and sanctuaries, indicates the coexistence of multiple religious traditions. the archaeological site of afrasiab, covering 230 hectares, contains significant remains from the 5th-6th centuries, including the so-called "palace complex" and the "district of noble families." during the timurid era, residential architecture evolved, but no complete examples of medieval houses have survived. however, illustrations in manuscripts, archaeological findings, and historical accounts provide insight into urban dwellings. these houses were typically courtyard-centered, built using mudbrick and wooden elements, with intricate ganch (plaster) decorations. affluent residences featured multiple floors, balconies, and garden courtyards with fountains. excavations in afrasiab revealed luxurious palaces from the samanid period (10th century), characterized by elegant ganch relief decorations. residences of samarkand’s elite were no less impressive than royal palaces. in the city’s southwestern part, a residential structure with intricately decorated guest rooms and domed ceilings was discovered, further proving the sophistication of architectural craftsmanship. by the 9th-10th centuries, samarkand flourished as a major economic and cultural center, positioned at the crossroads of important trade routes. the urban structure was redefined under amir timur (tamerlane), who, between 1371-1373, built his citadel in the highest part of the city and restored samarkand’s defensive walls. by the early 15th century, the city had gained a reputation as "samarqandi firdavsmonand" (paradise-like samarkand), renowned for its grand monuments, public squares, and gardens. timur named many surrounding villages after famous cities such as damascus, cairo, and shiraz to emphasize samarkand’s superiority. according to historian hafiz abru, when timur conquered samarkand, the city was largely constructed of mudbrick and wood, but he replaced these structures with baked brick buildings adorned with elaborate tilework. results and discussion timurid cities, including samarkand, shahrisabz, and herat, featured fortified walls with evenly spaced towers and multiple gates. the city structure was defined by its citadel (ark), defensive perimeter (hisar), and central trading district. covered bazaars (chorsu) were located at major intersections, while religious and civic buildings played a crucial role in city life. according to historian m.q. ahmedov, neighborhoods were organized based on craftsmanship, creating distinct guild-based districts. the renowned scholar g.a. pugachenkova described timurid urban planning as a reflection of state power: "the citadels symbolized the strength of the state, palaces embodied authority and grandeur, religious structures showcased islamic culture, and marketplaces represented economic prosperity. dense residential areas and districts formed the body and lifeblood of the city." samarkand’s urban development dates back to the first millennium bce, with afrasiab as its primary settlement. by the medieval period, the city had expanded into distinct districts—shahri darun (inner city) and shahri berun (outer city). following the mongol invasion in 1219, the city’s infrastructure deteriorated, and the irrigation systems collapsed, leading to a period of decline. however, by the late 13th century, samarkand began to recover, expanding southward beyond the original afrasiab settlement. the koktepa archaeological site, located 30 km north of samarkand, is considered one of the earliest urban centers of sogdiana. excavations revealed four construction phases, dating from the 9th-8th centuries bce. artifacts, including ceramic molds, agricultural tools, and metalworking remnants, suggest that the inhabitants engaged in farming and metallurgy. researchers believe koktepa could have been the "basileia" (royal city) mentioned by ancient authors. conclusion samarkand’s historical city centers reflect a complex evolution influenced by geographical, economic, and cultural factors. the organization of residential buildings and territorial divisions transformed over centuries, adapting to changing political and economic conditions. urban planning strategies from the early medieval to the timurid era highlight the city’s architectural advancements and strategic significance. the preservation of historical sites remains a challenge, 159 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us requiring sustainable urban planning and conservation efforts to protect samarkand’s architectural heritage for future generations. references: 1. в. а нильсин. архитектура средней азии (v viii ) ташкент, ‘фан", 1466, с. 11. 2. сюань цзан. 1857. 3. м. пачос. к изучению топографии раннесредневекового самарканда. "обьедеменная научнам сессия посвященная 2500 летию самарканда" ташкент: ”фан”, 1969. 4. n. a. egamberdiyeva. arxeologiya. darslik. toshkent-2022. 146-147-betlar. 5. fozilov t. f. “temuriylar davrida movarounnahr me’morchiligi va shaharsozligining rivojlanishi (samarqand shahri misolida)”. maqola. 6. elmuradovna, j. e., turdimurodovich, m. i., & zuyadullayevich, z. u. (2020). modern tourist requirements in samarkand. international journal of scientific and technology research, 9(4), 1538-1540. 7. mahmatqulov, i., & sherqulova, d. (2023). samarqanddagi zamonaviy shaharsozlik ob’yektlarida naqsh va bezaklarni qo’llanilish asoslari. евразийский журнал академических исследований, 3(1 part 4), 161-166. 8. maxmatqulov, i. t., & makhmatkulov, t. m. (2023). use of ceramic and brick decorations in cultural heritage objects in samarkand. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture, 1(1), 12-16. 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 finite element modelling for rc portal frames strengthened by cfrp composites by using ebr, nsm, ebrog and ebrig techniques jaafar d. witwit department of computer science, alsafwa university college, karbala governorate, iraq abstract: this research studied many types of concrete strengthening by using cfrp-sheet and cfrp-bar. finite element modelling was created by using abaqus 6.14 program. the control frame was calibrated with an experimental specimen, which tested under 2-points load up to failure. model verification including ultimate load, maximum mid span deflection, mode failure. model convergence study was studied. numerical results showed that using cfrpsheet increasing ultimate load about (25%) compared with the control specimen. however, using ebrog and ebrig techniques increasing ultimate load about (4.7 %, 28.50 %) respectively. strengthening frame with one and two cfrp bars increasing ultimate load about (38.8%, 20.47 %) respectively. on the other hand, frame reinforced with two and three cfrp bars (without steel reinforcement) increased ultimate load about (3.60 %, 18.25 %). keywords: portal frame, cfrp, ebrog, ebrig, nsm, abaqus/cae. introduction in the past two decades, using frp composites in rc structures have gained a worldwide, because it gives high tensile strength, ease in application and light weight material. at many members frp is the only material can be used in strengthened especially when machinery cannot gain access [1][2]. there are many types of frp composites, such as carbon, glass and aramid. almost 95 percent of all applications for structural strengthening in civil engineering are by carbon fibers which is symbolled cfrp [3]. the common method to apply frp on concrete is externally bonded reinforcement (ebr). this method resulted in undesirable failure which is debonding failure. debonding failure occurs before reaching to the ultimate tensile strength of frp in addition it is a brittle failure [4]. a new technique was applied to prevent debonding failure in frp strengthening, this method is near surface mounted (nsm) [5]. this method created a groove in concrete and insert cfrp bar or strip inside to increase flexural strength of concrete [6]. but this method not applicable with sheets, so other techniques were appeared which are externally bonded reinforcement on grooves (ebrog). ebrog technique has been recently introduced by mostofinejad & mahmoudabadi [7]. at 2013 mostofinejad and shameli combined the effect of nsm and ebrog to achieved a new technique called externally bonded reinforcement in grooves (ebrig) [8]. this technique prevents debonding failure and achieve frp rupture in flexural strength of beam [9]. both techniques consist of cutting grooves into bottom of beam (tension face) and filling them by epoxy resin. after that, apply frp sheets. when frp applied out the groove then the technique called ebrog, otherwise, (i.e., applied inside the grooves) it will called ebrig [10]. these 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us methods have developed and evaluated to install frp composite used for strengthening beams [11], slabs [9],[12] and columns [13] [14] and increasing both tensile and shear strength. figure. 1 showed ebr, nsm, ebrog, ebrig strengthening methods. the present study aims to investigate the frame behavior strengthened by cfrp sheets and rebars. many types of strengthening were investigated, ebr nsm, ebrog and ebrig. ebr, ebrog and ebrig techniques were used for cfrp sheet, however nsm technique was used for cfrp rebar. in addition, investigated the concrete frame behavior reinforced by cfrp rebar without steel reinforcement was done. types of strengthening were consisted of beam strengthening at bottom face, top face (negative moment region) and columns strengthening at tension face. strengthening techniques were shown in figure. 1 figure. 1: ebr, nsm, ebrog and ebrig methods [15], [16] finite element modelling methodology 2.1 material modelling a full model was created by using abaqus 6.14 program to simulate behavior of reinforced concrete portal frame [17], [18]. considered concrete material modelling was concrete damage plasticity (cdp). elastic and plastic properties for concrete material was listed in table 1 below. concrete compression and tension behavior were shown in figure 2 (a,b,c and d). on the other hand, steel reinforcement material modelling was listed in table 2 . finally, cfrp material modelling was shown in table 4. table 1: concrete elastic properties ebr(a) nsm(b) (c) ebrog (d) ebrig ]2], [1[ 2007) , et al.de lorenzis 2011, kotynia( : ebr, nsm, ebrog and ebrig methods1fig. 1eams kotynia, renata. (2011). bond between frp and concrete in reinforced concrete b strengthened with near surface mounted and externally bonded reinforcement. construction and building materials constr build mater. 32. 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.104. 2ement: an surface mounted frp reinforc-de lorenzis, laura & teng, j.g.. (2007). near emerging technique for strengthening structures. composites part b: engineering. 38. 119-143. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2006.08.003 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (a) concrete compression behavior (b) concrete tensile behavior (c) concrete compression damage (d) concrete tension damage figure 2: modeled concrete material behavior table 2: steel reinforcement properties 2.2 cfrp and adhesive epoxy material modelling the common model in abaqus/cae is hashin’s model [19] for orthotropic laminar material. cfrp sheets were modeled by using this model with properties as listed in table 3 below. hashin’s model considered four mode of failure criteria: fiber tension, and compression, matrix tension and compression [6][20]. cfrp properties for both sheet and rebar as reported by the manufacturer were listed table 4 below. both cfrp sheets rebar were assumed to have a linear elastic behavior with brittle failure where the cfrp reaching the tensile strength [6]. table 3: cfrp sheet model by using hashin’s model e1 e2 nu g12 g13 g23 xt xc yt yc sx sy 234000 10300 0.28 7170 7170 6300 4300 1700 60 40 130 130 where: e1, e2 is longitudinal and transverse modulus of elasticity respectively. nu: poison’s ratio. g12, g13 and g23: shear modulus of elasticity in 1-2,1-3 and 2-3 plane. properties flexural reinforcement shear reinforcement as (mm2) 112 48.64 modulus of elasticity, e (mpa) 215507 215507 poison's ratio (ν) 0.3 0.3 yield strength, fy (mpa) 367.9 367.9 ultimate strength, fu (mpa) 647.3 647.3 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us xt, xc: longitudinal tensile strength and compression strength. yt, yc: transverse tensile strength and compression strength. sx, sy: in-plane shear strength. the adhesive was modeled as an isotropic material with linear elastic behavior. the elastic modulus and tensile strength for epoxy resin sikadur c300, were 3.8 gpa and 30 mpa respectively as reported by the manufacturer [21]. on the other hand, for epoxy resin sikadur c31, were equal to 10 gpa and 85 mpa respectively [22]. 2.3 interaction the interaction of concrete with steel reinforcement and cfrp bars was modeled by using embedded region. with this model rebars will be embedded in concrete in away that they will both have the same degrees of freedom [6]. on the other hand, interaction between concrete and cfrp sheet was modeled by using tie constraint. with this type of model (tie constraint), the members remain attached together throughout analysis [6]. table 4: technical properties of cfrp composites [23], [24]. 2.4 boundary conditions boundary conditions for frames were constraint at bottom of both columns in directions x,y and z (i.e. ux= uy= uz= 0) as shown in figure 3 below. figure 3: boundary condition for modeled frames 2.5 applied load and steps total force applied on steel plate was 300 kn distributed uniformly on the plates. also, load steps were 300 steps with initial load step 0.01 maximum increasing step 25 and minimum 0.001 properties sika warp® sheet hex-230c aslan 201 rebar tensile strength (mpa) 4300 2068 modulus of elasticity, e (gpa) 234 124 elongation at break (%) 1.8 1.7 width (mm) 60 thickness (mm) 0.131 diameter (mm) 6.4 cross sectional area, a (mm2) 31.67 ultimate strain 0.017 95 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.6 used element used elements for model were the cubic element c3d8r with eight nodes and three degrees of freedom per node and reduced integration for concrete and adhesive. element t3d2 was used for modelling the flexural, transverse reinforcements and cfrp bars, while cfrp sheet was modeled using the shell element s4r with four nodes and reduced integration. types of used elements were listed in table 5 below. table 5: types of used elements [25], [17] 2.7 calibration and convergence study the model was calibrated with an experimental control specimen [26] and the ultimate load difference between them was (5%) as listed in table 6. in addition, crack patterns comparison between the finite element model with an experimental specimen were done, as shown in figure4. figure 4: crack pattern comparison between experimental test and numerical model table 6: calibration with experimental specimen experimental f.e.m. model tolerance (%) ultimate load, (kn) 176.00 185.51 5% maximum mid span deflection, (mm) 13.08 15.60 19% modeled material element type element symbol concrete material and adhesive material cubic element with eight nodes and three degrees of freedom per node and reduced integration c3d8r flexural and shear reinforcement linear truss element t3d2 load plates cubic element with eight nodes and three degrees of freedom per node c3d8 cfrpsheet shell element with four nodes, reduced integration s4r cfrp-bar linear truss element with four nodes and reduced integration t3d2 96 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a convergence study was carried out to conducting a sensitivity analysis on mesh size by decreasing it. when the decreasing mesh size was no significant improvement in the results, then mesh size was chosen. adopted mesh size was (25 mm) with number of elements (6710) as shown in figure 5. figure 5: convergence study 2.8 specimens symbol specimens’ symbols were listed in table 7 below. the reinforcements and strengthened modes were shown in figure 6 below. group a contained frames strengthened with cfrp sheet, while group b contained frames strengthened by cfrp bar and group c contained frames reinforced with cfrp bar without steel reinforcement. table 7: specimens symbol no. group symbol description 1. fco-e control frame (experimentally tested) 2. fco-n control frame (numerical modeled) 3. g ro u p a fs-350 frame strengthened with cfrp-sheet with length 350 mm 4. fs-500 frame strengthened with cfrp-sheet with length 500 mm 5. fso-500 frame strengthened with cfrp-sheet out of groove at beam bottom and columns with length 500 mm 6. fsi-500 frame strengthened with cfrp-sheet in groove at beam bottom and columns with length 500 mm 7. g ro u p b fb1-500 frame strengthened with one cfrp-bar with length 500 mm 8. fb1d-500 frame strengthened with one cfrp-bar with length 500 mm and diagonal rebar with length 250 mm [27] 9. fb2-500 frame strengthened with two cfrp-bar with length 500 mm 97 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. g ro u p c fbr2 frame reinforced with two cfrp-bars 11. fbr3 frame reinforced with three cfrp-bar at beam bottom and two at top and columns (e) fs-350 (f) fs-500, fso-500, fsi-500 (g) fb1-500 (h) fb2-500, fbr2-500 figure 6: frame reinforcement and strengthening modes results and discussion 3.1 load-deflection curves load deflection curves for investigated frames were shown in figure 7. results summary for ultimate load, deflection at mid span and equivalent deflection at mid span compared with control frame were shown in table 8. figure 7: load-deflection curves for investigated frames 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 8: results summary for modeled frames 3.2 crack patterns (tension damage) ) for modeled frames a tension and compression crack patterns for tested frame were shown in figure 8 and figure 9 respectively with a scale factor 10. (a) fco-n (b) fs-350 no. symbol ultimate load % increasing in ultimate load max. deflection at mid span of beam % decreasing in max. deflection equivelant deflection (at 185 kn) % decreasing in equivalent deflection (at 185 kn) (kn) compared to control frame (mm) compared to control frame 1 fco-e 176.00 13.08 2 fco-n 185.51 5.40 15.60 19.25 3 fs-350 220.35 18.78 16.10 3.26 9.74 -37.58 4 fs-500 231.86 24.99 23.65 51.67 9.38 -39.86 5 fso500 194.24 4.71 9.75 -37.47 11.16 -28.44 6 fsi500 238.38 28.50 9.73 -37.64 4.09 -73.78 7 fb1500 257.48 38.80 44.99 188.45 12.26 -21.38 8 fb1d500 244.91 32.02 29.32 87.98 11.38 -27.02 9 fb2500 223.48 20.47 15.75 0.96 10.82 -30.66 10 fbr-2 192.18 3.60 46.78 199.96 34.45 120.85 11 fbr3 219.36 18.25 23.26 49.14 13.13 -15.83 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (c) fs-500 (d) fso-500 (e) fsi-500 (f) fb1-500 (g) fb1d-500 (h) fb2-500 (i) fbr-2 (j) fbr-3 figure 8: crack patterns (tension damage) for modeled frames 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.3 crack patterns (compression damage) for modeled frames (a) fco-n (b) fs-350 (c) fs-500 (d) fso-500 (e) fsi-500 (f) fb1-500 (g) fb1d-500 (h) fb2-500 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (i) fbr-2 (j) fbr-3 figure 9: crack patterns (compression damage) for modeled frames 3.4 results comparison an ultimate load comparison between investigated frame were listed in table 9 to obtain the best types for strengthening. table 9: an ultimate load comparison between different types of strengthening conclusions from figure 8,figure 9, table 8 and table 9 we can concluded that: 1. finite element model gives a good result compared to experimental test with error about (5.4 %) resulted in ultimate load compression. 2. strengthening frame with cfrp sheet with length (350, 500) mm increasing ultimate load about (18.7%, 25 %) respectively and decreasing equivalent deflection about (37.58%,39% ) respectively. 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. using ebrog and ebrig techniques increasing ultimate load about (4.7 %, 28.50 %) respectively and decreasing equivalent deflection about (28.44 %, 73.78 %) respectively 4. strengthening frame with one and two cfrp bars increasing ultimate load about (38.8%, 20.47 %) respectively and decreasing equivalent deflection about (21.38 %, 30.66 %) respectively. 5. increasing cfrp length from 350 mm to 500 mm at columns increasing ultimate load only about (5.23%). 6. frame reinforced with two and three cfrp bars (without steel reinforcement) increased ultimate load about (3.60 %, 18.25 %). on the other hand deflection for frame reinforced with two bars increased about 120.85% while frame with three bars decreased about 15.83%. 7. using diagonal strengthening in cfrp bar not increasing strength noticeably. references 1. mostofinejad, davood and shameli, seyed and hosseini, ardalan, (2012), "experimental study on the effectiveness of ebrog method for flexural strengthening of rc beams", the 6th international conference on frp composites in civil engineering, cice 2012, june. 2. hosseini, ardalan and mostofinejad, davood , (2013), "experimental evaluation of frp-toconcrete bond strength in ebrog technique for strengthening concrete members", 2nd conference on smart monitoring, assessment and rehabilitation of civil structures, smar, turkey,. 3. nordin, h., (2003) "flexural strengthening of concrete structures with prestressed near surface mounted cfrp rods", licentiate thesis, lulea university of technology, lulea, sweden. 4. teng, j.g. and et. al. (2006), "debonding failures of rc beams strengthened with near surface mounted cfrp strips". " journal of composites for construction j compos constr". 10. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1090-0268(2006)10:2(92) 5. galati, donatella and de lorenzis, laura. (2009). "effect of construction details on the bond performance of nsm frp bars in concrete". advances in structural engineering. 12. https://doi.org/10.1260/136943309789867836 6. ehsan noroozieh · ali mansouri, (2019), "lateral strength and ductility of reinforced concrete columns strengthened with nsm frp rebars and frp jacket", international journal of advanced structural engineering, 11(2), p.p. 195-209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40091019-0225-5 7. mostofinejad, d, mahmoudabadi, e. (2010). "grooving as alternative method of surface preparation to postpone debonding of frp laminates in concrete beams". journal of composites for construction j compos constr, asce, 14: p.p. 804-811. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)cc.1943-5614.0000117 8. mostofinejad d, shameli sm., (2013), "externally bonded reinforcement in grooves (ebrig) technique to postpone debonding of frp sheets in strengthened concrete beams". construction and building materials,38, p.p.751–758. 9. amiri, s. and talaeitaba, s., (2020), "punching shear strengthening of flat slabs with ebrog and ebrig – frp strips", structures, 26, p.p. 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.04.017 10. mostofinejad, davood and shameli, seyed and hosseini, ardalan. (2014), "ebrog and ebrig methods for strengthening of rc beams by frp sheets". european journal of environmental and civil engineering. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2014.900523 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 11. azizi, r., and talaeitaba, s.b., (2019), "punching shear strengthening of flat slabs with cfrp on grooves (ebrog) and external rebars sticking in grooves", international journal of advanced structural engineering, 11, 79–95 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s40091-019-0218-4 12. ala torabian, brisid isufi, davood mostofinejad, antónio pinho ramos, (2020), "flexural strengthening of flat slabs with frp composites using ebr and ebrog methods", engineering structures, 211(110483), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110483 13. khaled sanginabadi, azad yazdani, davood mostofinejad, christoph czaderski, (2022), "rc members externally strengthened with frp composites by grooving methods including ebrog and ebrig: a state-of-the-art review", construction and building materials, 324 (126662). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126662 14. moshiri, n. and et. al. experimental and analytical study on cfrp strips-to-concrete bonded joints using ebrog method, composites part b: engineering, volume 158, 2019, pages 437-447, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.09.046 15. kotynia, renata. (2011). "bond between frp and concrete in reinforced concrete beams strengthened with near surface mounted and externally bonded reinforcement". construction and building materials constr build mater. 32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.104 16. de lorenzis, laura & teng, j.g.. (2007). "near-surface mounted frp reinforcement: an emerging technique for strengthening structures", composites part b: engineering, 38, p.p. 119-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2006.08.003 17. abaqus inc. (2013) abaqus/theory user manual, version 6.13 18. smith, michael., "abaqus/standard user's manual", version 6.9. 19. hashin z (1980) "failure criteria for unidirectional fiber composites". j appl mech, 47(2):, p.p. 329–334. https ://doi.org/10.1115/1.31536 64 20. wang, gd., melly, s.k., (2018), "three-dimensional finite element modeling of drilling cfrp composites using abaqus/cae: a review". int j adv manuf technol, 94, p.p. 599– 614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0754-7 21. sika (2005), "sikadur 330-two part epoxy impregnation resin ", technical data sheet, edition 2. 22. sika, "sikadur 30-adhesive for bonding reinforcement", technical data sheet, edition 2. 23. sika, (2009) " sika warp®230c woven carbon fiber fabric for structural strengthening", technical data sheet. 24. aslan frp 200/201 specifications, web site: www.aslanpacific.com.hk 25. karlsson and sorensen, (2007), "simulia (2007) abaqus analysis and theory manual", inc, providence. 26. witwit, j. and alwash n., (2015) “behavior of r/c portal frames strengthened by cfrp products” department of civil engineering, college of engineering, university of babylon iraq, babylon. 27. basim, s., hejazi, f. and rashid, r.s.b.m. (2019), "embedded carbon fiber-reinforced polymer rod in reinforced concrete frame and ultra-high-performance concrete frame joints". international journal of advanced structural engineering (2019) 11 (suppl 1), 35– 51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40091-019-00253-7 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 application of advanced pedagogical technologies in teaching the science of the resistance of materials e. s. nabiyev 1 karshi engineering and economic institute abstract: in the process of teaching engineering subjects, including when teaching the science of “strength of materials,” methods are used to form and develop technical thinking among students. keywords: the meaning of cognition, memory, the role of thinking, intuition, perception. introduction nowadays, the idea of a new approach to conducting lectures, seminars and practical trainings in higher educational institutions, to ensure the student's interest in each training, to create an opportunity for independent and free thinking, to support the diversity of points of view of discussion and scientific debate in the educational process is being put forward. during the lesson, it is necessary to create a basis for the teacher to restore information on the newly studied topic and master it. especially when starting a new topic, asking questions that interest students, and creating problem situations, interest increases. the student will need to use methods of work that will bring him maximum benefit during the course of the subject. in the process of teaching technical sciences, including teaching the science of “strength of materials,” it is necessary to form and develop technical thinking among students. please note the following  active process of acquiring knowledge  the role of previous knowledge and experience in the acquisition of knowledge  the role of perception, memory, thinking in cognition  critical thinking is a quality necessary for a modern specialist  during the lesson, during independent work, the student learns to think  a student with increased thinking abilities learns independently and actively solves problems knowledge and concepts that need to be formed on the topic being studied in science:  recalling previous knowledge and experience in mastering the subject.  active process of mastering the subject.  understand the role of intuition, perception and thinking in understanding the essence of the subject being studied.  critical understanding of the essence and results of the subject.  independent thinking and work in class.  be active in solving problems on the subject. 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the purpose of using advanced pedagogical technologies in science is to demonstrate new analytical methods of thinking and learning, teach students to actively express their opinions in communication, and ensure a good understanding of topics. during the training, the teacher changes the usual form of lecture in order to fully develop and stimulate students' thinking. that is, he organizes lectures for students in a non-standard way. the application of this advanced pedagogical technology includes several stages: in preparation, he prepares students in advance for strength of materials subjects such as scratch and compression. first, the purpose of this topic is explained. the teacher introduces the lecture plan to students. topic" corresponds to the curriculum of the science of strength of materials, 2 hours are allocated for its study. the lecture is aimed at teaching 2 objectives, firstly, the tensile and compressive strength of rods, and secondly, the calculation of deformations. when studying this material, the teacher divides students into groups and recommends step-by-step brushes of different structures and sizes to each group. this process takes 5 minutes. in the first part of the lecture (10...15 minutes), the teacher explains the importance of studying this topic, emphasizes the place of calculating the strength and deformation of rigid systems in industry and agriculture and gives an understanding of this. at the next stage of the lecture, “summarizing preliminary results,” the teacher will give the groups 5 minutes to compare the ideas you presented and the basics of studying the topic given by me, what is consistent with your proposals? what's new? what satisfied you? what is your objection? what do you think about the information i provided? asking questions. after 10 minutes, the teacher invites several groups of students to discuss with the audience the answers to the strength and deformation test of structural elements. then, during the lecture (15 minutes), the teacher once again gives students an idea of continuity and displacement (deformation). it also provides information about cross sections and step sections. at the next stage of the lecture, “summing up preliminary results,” the teacher will test students’ knowledge of determining the strength and deformation of hands using express diagnostics. students perform a diagnostic test. for example: 1. determine the magnitude of the longitudinal force arising in the cross section of the brush when an external force r acts on the brush. a) equal to r, b) equal to –r, c) equal to 2 r, g) equal to r/2 (correct answer: a) equal to r) [1,2] 2. how is the absolute deformation r proportional to the external force in the brushes? a) disproportionate, b) directly proportional, c) inversely proportional, d) independent. (correct answer b) correctly proportional). 3. does the normal stress due to the self-weight of a beam depend on the cross-sectional area? a) depends, b) depends on 0, c) does not depend, d) depends on its size, (correct answer is c) does not depend). the teacher determines the correct answer by conducting an oral test (by raising his hand) and marks the student who gave the correct answer. during the lecture (15 minutes), the teacher moves on to consider the second question of the lecture plan and gives students an understanding of the conditions of stability under tension and compression, the conditions of uniformity, regardless of the text of the lecture (or book). in the "insert" method in this case, the student understands the meaning of the educational material in each plan during the reading process and notes the results with a pencil in the margins of the text [1] 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for example: sign (+) if the student knows and understands what he read, or if the student thinks he knows it; (-) sign if the student knows what he has read, but does not understand it and thinks that he does not know it; (?) sign – if what the student has read is not clear or if the student wants to learn more about this issue. thus, in the process of reading, the student carries out mental activity, that is, evaluates information on the basis of known or new, unclear or unwanted information. the “insert” method of book marking requires thinking about each paragraph. as a result, the student assimilates information consciously. for perfect mastery of the topic, the teacher gives students 1-2 tasks and they have 2-3 minutes to solve them[3] task 1. determine the normal stress in the cross section of the beam: task 2. determine the absolute elongation for an arbitrary section of the stern. the teacher quickly evaluates students who have completed the task. conclusions at the final stage of the lecture (5...7 minutes), the teacher explains to students in general terms how to calculate and check the types of pipes and towers used in thermal energy and their durability. list of used literature 1. nabiev e. reliability study of irrigation canals and pipe culvers //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 410. – с. 05025. 2. xujakulov, r., rahmatov, m., nabiev, e., & zaripov, m. (2021). determination of calculating stresses on the depth of loess grounds of hydraulic structures. in iop conference series: materials science and engineering (vol. 1030, no. 1, p. 012133). iop publishing. 3. murtazaev, e. m., nabiyev, e. s., berdiyev, s. a., sharipov, s. p., karimov, a. q., & boymuratov, f. x. (2023). analysis of the effect of heat and corrosion on the mechanical properties of metal structures. in e3s web of conferences (vol. 410, p. 02053). edp sciences. 4. новые педагогические и информационные технологии в системе образование. под. ред. у.с.полат – москва. академия, 2002 г 5. мансуров к.м. материаллар қаршилиги курси – тошкент “ўкитувчи”.1983 6. инженерлик педагогикаси ва илғор педагогик технологиялар фанидан услубий қўлланма. тошкент: 2003 й 7. irgashev d. the effect of the upper softener of the sloped column working body working on the soil of garden fields on the energy indicators //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. a8. – с. 133-137. 8. irgashev d. b. et al. high softening performance indicators of plug-softener //iop conference series: earth and environmental science. – iop publishing, 2023. – т. 1284. – №. 1. – с. 012032. 9. irgashev d. b. analysis of machines providing liquid fertilizer to the root system of orchard and vine seedlings //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 356-362. 10. irgashev d. b., buriyev m. analysis of the coils used in soil drilling //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 302308. 11. irgashev d. b. basing the constructional parameters of the plug-softener that works between the garden rows //journal of research in innovative teaching and inclusive learning. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 14-19. 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 12. irgashev d. b. calculation of the strength of winged joints //journal of theory, mathematics and physics. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 7. – с. 1-6. 13. irgashev d. b. couplings used in mechanical engineering and their importance //journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 7. – с. 1-10. 14. mamatov f. m. et al. bog ‘qator oralarini ishlov beradigan qiya ustunli ishchi organlarni parametrlarni nazariy asoslash //journal of engineering, mechanics and modern architecture. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 5. – с. 42-45. 15. mamatov f. et al. justification of the bottom softening parameters of working organ with a sloping column //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2023. – т. 434. – с. 03010. 16. irgashev d. theoretical justification of the longitudinal distance of a plug-softener that works without turning the soil between garden rows //science and innovation. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. d11. – с. 482-487. 17. begmurodvich, irgashev dilmurod. "development and problems of vineyard network in uzbekistan." web of synergy: international interdisciplinary research journal 2, no. 1 (2023): 441-448. 18. irgashev d. b., buriyev m. analysis of the coils used in soil drilling //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 10. – с. 302308. 19. bekmurodovich i. d. technical classification of machines that till the soil between rows of vineyards //uzbek scholar journal. – 2022. – т. 10. – с. 369-379. 20. irgashev d. боғ қатор ораларига ишлов беришда такомиллашган плуг-юмшаткичнинг техник таxлили //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. d7. – с. 330-336 21. bekmurodovich i. d. technical classification of machines that till the soil between rows of vineyards //uzbek scholar journal. – 2022. – т. 10. – с. 369-379. 22. irgashev d. b., buriyev m. theoretical justification of the forces generated on the cylinder surface of a double row cat //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2024. – т. 2. – №. 2. – с. 157-162. 23. irgashev d. b. agrotechnical requirements for deep tillage without turning the soil //научное обеспечение устойчивого развития агропромышленного комплекса. – 2021. – с. 591-594. 24. иргашев д. б. и др. боғ қатор ораларини текис ағдармасдан ишлов берадиган қия устунли юмшаткични рама констурукциясида жойлашиш асослаш //barqarorlik va yetakchi tadqiqotlar onlayn ilmiy jurnali. – 2022. – т. 2. – №. 11. – с. 138-146. 25. irgashev d. b., ganiev b. g. based on longitudinal distance of sloped column working bodies working between garden rows //american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture (2993-2637). – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 9. – с. 48-51. 26. irgashev d. b., safarov a. a. tuproqqa agdargichsiz ishlov beradigan ishchi organ konstruksiylari va ularga qo’yilagan talabllar //analysis of international sciences. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 6-12. 244 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 12, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 algebraic structures in non-commutative geometry: an exploration of quantum groups aastha (m.sc. net), assistant professor in mathematics (part time), ch. ranbir singh university, jind, haryana, mayyar, hisar, haryana abstract: non-commutative geometry offers a framework for studying spaces where the coordinates do not commute, extending classical geometric concepts into quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. a key algebraic structure within this framework is the quantum group, which serves as a quantum analogue of a lie group, exhibiting distinct properties due to the noncommutative nature of its underlying algebra. this paper explores the role of quantum groups in non-commutative geometry, focusing on their algebraic structure, their relationship to deformation theory, and their applications in theoretical physics. in order to better understand how algebraic structures in non-commutative geometry can aid in the explanation of quantum phenomena, this work will look at both the mathematical characteristics and physical interpretations of quantum groups. keywords: non-commutative geometry, quantum groups, algebraic structures, deformation theory, quantum physics, lie groups, hopf algebras. 1. introduction a large field of study known as non-commutative geometry extends classical geometry to situations in which the algebra of functions on a space does not commute. this method, which was developed by alain connes in the 1980s, offers a mathematical framework for comprehending quantum mechanical spaces, especially in situations where traditional geometric structures fail (connes, 1994). the quantum group, a structure that generalizes the idea of symmetry groups in a non-commutative context, is one of the most crucial tools in noncommutative geometry. quantum groups, which may be thought of as deformations of classical lie groups, are strongly connected to the theory of hopf algebras. this paper aims to explore the algebraic structures of quantum groups within the context of noncommutative geometry, analyzing their mathematical properties and discussing their relevance to quantum theory. we will examine how these groups arise from the deformation of classical symmetries, their algebraic properties, and their applications in both mathematics and theoretical physics. 2. quantum groups and non-commutative geometry drinfeld (1986) and jimbo (1985) introduced quantum groups in their work on the deformation of the classical universal enveloping algebras of lie algebras. in the context of non-commutative geometry, quantum groups are often studied as deformations of the symmetry groups associated to spaces where the coordinates do not commute. these deformations arise naturally in the study 245 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of quantum spaces, where the classical concept of a group is replaced by an algebraic structure that incorporates both the algebraic and co-algebraic properties of the underlying space. quantum groups and non-commutative geometry represent advanced concepts in modern mathematics and theoretical physics, expanding classical structures into the quantum realm. both fields are essential for understanding the algebraic and geometric structures that come up in relation to quantum gravity, quantum field theory, and quantum mechanics. non-commutative geometry is a generalization of classical geometry, and quantum groups are deformations of classical lie groups, offer a rigorous framework for studying spaces where classical assumptions of commutative operations no longer hold. 2.1 quantum groups the idea of lie groups is extended to the non-commutative setting by quantum groups, which are mathematical structures. they were first presented as "deformations" of classical lie groups in the middle of the 1980s by jimbo (1985) and drinfeld (1986), specifically by deforming the universal enveloping algebras of lie algebras. quantum groups may be thought of as an extension of symmetry groups by replacing the usual commutative connections between group components with distorted, non-commutative algebraic interactions (chari & pressley, 1994). a hopf algebra, which has both algebraic and co-algebraic properties, is a common formal definition of a quantum group. multiplication, unit, co-multiplication, co-unit, and antipode are the operations that make up the hopf algebra structure. it is possible to consider quantum groups as a logical extension of classical symmetry groups into the quantum realm as these operations are non-commutative and compatible with the distorted symmetries of classical groups. in particular, quantum groups are described by a parameter q (often referred to as the deformation parameter), which controls the degree of non-commutativity. when q=1, the quantum group reduces to its classical counterpart. for instance, is a quantum deformation of the universal enveloping algebra of a lie algebra g, where the classical lie algebra is recovered as q→1 (drinfeld, 1986). when studying quantum systems that need a non-commutative framework, like those in statistical mechanics, quantum field theory, and integrable systems, quantum groups have emerged as a crucial tool (chari & pressley, 1994). the symmetries of quantum spaces, which are essential to comprehending spin systems, particle interactions, and quantum gravity, can be expressed algebraically thanks to them. 2.2 non-commutative geometry a mathematical framework known as non-commutative geometry extends classical geometry to situations in which the space's coordinates do not commute. this concept has been a central area of study in mathematics and physics since it was first proposed by alain connes in 1994. noncommutative geometry generates novel symmetry and geometric structures that are not able to be described by conventional geometry by replacing the commutative algebra of functions on a space with a non-commutative algebra. points in space are linked to commutative coordinates in classical geometry, which means that the order in which two coordinates are multiplied does not affect the result. this commutativity assumption, however, is violated in quantum field theory and quantum mechanics, especially at the planck scale where quantum effects predominate. these quantum spaces can be modeled using non-commutative geometry, in which a c-algebra—a mathematical entity that expresses the space's non-commutative character—replaces the algebra of functions. connes (1994) showed that non-commutative geometry could be used to extend classical geometric concepts, such as the notion of distance, curvature, and topology, to quantum spaces. one of the most significant contributions of non-commutative geometry is the interpretation of space-time as a non-commutative algebra. this viewpoint is especially pertinent to the study of 246 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us quantum gravity as theories such as loop quantum gravity imply that the structure of spacetime may be essentially non-commutative at microscopic scales. furthermore, the study of quantum spaces—spaces in which the coordinates are controlled by quantum group symmetries—has a close relationship with non-commutative geometry (connes, 1994). these non-commutative spaces' symmetries are described by quantum groups, which makes them a crucial tool for comprehending the algebraic structures that underlie quantum spaces. 2.3 relationship between quantum groups and non-commutative geometry quantum groups and non-commutative geometry are closely connected areas since they both focus on non-commutative structures. quantum groups give a way to describe the symmetries of non-commutative spaces, whereas non-commutative geometry offers a more broad framework for using quantum groups. in fact, non-commutative geometry provides the setting for quantum groups to act as symmetries of quantum spaces, while the algebraic structure of quantum groups helps define the transformations that preserve the non-commutative structure of these spaces. one key area where quantum groups and non-commutative geometry intersect is in the study of quantum spaces, which are modeled using non-commutative algebras. the quantum symmetries of these spaces are described by quantum groups, and these groups act as deformations of classical symmetries that become relevant at the quantum level (chari & pressley, 1994). noncommutative geometry can provide profound insights into the characteristics of quantum spacetime and the symmetries governing it through this interaction. quantum groups and non-commutative geometry in theoretical physics offer a framework for investigating quantum gravity and the possible non-commutative structure of spacetime at the planck scale. in the study of quantum field theory and integrable systems, the deformed symmetries of quantum spacetime are best described by the algebraic structure of quantum groups. quantum groups and non-commutative geometry provide a unified framework for studying quantum spaces and their symmetries. quantum groups, as deformations of classical lie groups, offer a way to generalize symmetries into the non-commutative realm, while non-commutative geometry extends classical geometric concepts into a quantum context. together, these concepts have profound implications for understanding quantum phenomena, particularly in the fields of quantum field theory, quantum gravity, and integrable systems. as quantum theory continues to evolve, the study of quantum groups and non-commutative geometry will remain crucial for unraveling the algebraic and geometric structure of the quantum world. 3. mathematical properties of quantum groups quantum groups are algebraic structures that generalize classical lie groups and lie algebras to the non-commutative setting. these objects exhibit several mathematical properties that distinguish them from traditional structures, with a significant emphasis on their noncommutative nature and their relationship to hopf algebras. understanding the mathematical properties of quantum groups is essential for their application in both pure mathematics and theoretical physics. below, we explore the key properties that define quantum groups, including their algebraic structure, the hopf algebra framework, their representations, and the deformation parameter that characterizes their behavior. 3.1. non-commutativity a defining characteristic of quantum groups is their non-commutative nature. unlike classical lie groups, where the group operations (such as multiplication) commute, quantum groups are defined by deformed commutation relations. these relations are controlled by a deformation parameter q, which introduces a degree of non-commutativity. for example, in the quantum 247 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us group uq(g), where g is a lie algebra, the commutation relations are deformed by powers of qqq, leading to the following general form: here, x, y, and z represent elements of the lie algebra, and q is the deformation parameter. when q=1, these relations reduce to the classical commutative relations of a lie algebra (chari & pressley, 1994). this non-commutative structure is one of the hallmarks of quantum groups and is central to their role in quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. 3.2. hopf algebra structure quantum groups are typically studied as hopf algebras, which are algebraic structures equipped with both algebraic and co-algebraic operations. a hopf algebra consists of several operations that generalize the structure of a group to the non-commutative setting: ➢ multiplication and unit: the algebraic operations of multiplication and unit are standard operations in any algebra. ➢ co-multiplication and co-unit: these operations provide the co-algebraic structure that allows for a duality between the algebra and the co-algebra. the co-multiplication map δ satisfies the co-associativity property: where a and b are elements of the quantum group. the co-unit map ϵ provides a counit for the co-algebra structure, satisfying: ➢ antipode: the antipode s is a map that acts as a "quantum inverse" for elements in the quantum group. the antipode satisfies the relation: where t is a specific twist operator. this operation is key to the algebraic structure of quantum groups (drinfeld, 1986; chari & pressley, 1994). the hopf algebra structure encapsulates both the algebraic and co-algebraic properties of quantum groups and is essential for their application in various fields such as statistical mechanics & quantum field theory. 3.3. deformation of lie algebras quantum groups arise as deformations of classical lie algebras. the deformation is controlled by the parameter q, which modifies the lie algebra's classical commutation relations. the quantum group uq(g) is a deformed version of the universal enveloping algebra u(g) of a lie algebra g. when q=1, the quantum group reduces to the classical lie group or lie algebra, and the commutation relations are restored to their classical form. this deformation can be understood in terms of deformation theory, where one systematically studies how algebraic structures can change when a parameter (such as q) is introduced. the deformation of the lie algebra into a quantum group is significant because it allows the formulation of quantum symmetries that do not commute, which is an essential property for describing quantum systems (drinfeld, 1986; jimbo, 1985). 3.4. representation theory one of its main features is the representation theory of quantum groups, which studies their behavior on vector spaces. the representation theory of quantum groups is a generalization of the classical representation theory of lie groups and lie algebras to the non-commutative 248 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us context. the representations of quantum groups are built using the same algebraic techniques as classical lie groups, but the deformed commutation connections lead to novel events and special mathematical structures. in the case of a quantum group uq(g), the representations can be classified in terms of modules over the hopf algebra, with certain representations corresponding to finite-dimensional irreducible representations, analogous to the classical case (chari & pressley, 1994). these representations are crucial for understanding how quantum symmetries act on quantum systems, and they have applications in fields like statistical mechanics, integrable systems, and quantum field theory. 3.5. quantum group symmetries quantum groups describe the symmetries of quantum spaces, which are typically noncommutative spaces. in these settings, the quantum group acts as a generalized symmetry group, preserving the structure of the space despite its non-commutative nature. quantum groups are particularly important in the study of quantum field theory and integrable systems, where they describe symmetries that go beyond classical lie groups and provide a more accurate description of quantum phenomena. for instance, quantum groups are used to model symmetries in quantum spin systems and lattice models. the non-commutative structure of the quantum group is essential for capturing the quantum nature of these systems, which cannot be adequately described by classical symmetry groups (chari & pressley, 1994). 3.6. co-structure and duality another important factor influencing the mathematical characteristics of quantum groups is their co-structure. quantum groups frequently have duality properties, where the algebra of functions on a quantum group is dual to the algebra of co-functions, in addition to their algebraic and coalgebraic structure. similar to the classical duality between a lie group and its lie algebra, this duality offers a natural context for studying quantum symmetries and transformations. this interplay between the algebraic and co-algebraic structures allows quantum groups to serve as powerful tools in understanding both classical and quantum symmetries (chari & pressley, 1994). the mathematical properties of quantum groups, including their non-commutative nature, hopf algebra structure, representation theory, and connection to classical lie algebras, make them a powerful tool for studying quantum symmetries. as deformations of classical lie groups, quantum groups provide a rigorous algebraic framework for understanding non-commutative spaces and symmetries that arise in quantum mechanics and also quantum field theory. our knowledge of quantum systems and their symmetries is still greatly influenced by quantum groups, which are used in many branches of mathematics and physics. 4. applications in theoretical physics quantum groups have been used extensively in many branches of theoretical physics, such as quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, integrable systems, and quantum gravity. their noncommutative algebraic structure makes them a powerful tool for modeling phenomena that cannot be captured by classical symmetries. in this section, we explore some of the key applications of quantum groups in theoretical physics, highlighting their role in describing quantum symmetries, integrable systems, quantum spin chains, and quantum gravity. 4.1. quantum symmetries in quantum mechanics and quantum field theory one of the most fundamental applications of quantum groups in theoretical physics is in the study of quantum symmetries. in classical mechanics, symmetries are often represented by lie groups and lie algebras, but quantum mechanics introduces non-commutativity into the structure of symmetries. quantum groups, as deformations of classical lie groups, provide a natural 249 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mathematical framework for describing these non-commutative symmetries (chari & pressley, 1994). in quantum field theory (qft), quantum groups have been used to describe symmetries that are not captured by classical groups. these symmetries arise in models where the spacetime is not commutative, such as in certain models of quantum gravity or in deformed quantum spaces (drinfeld, 1986). quantum groups offer a way to generalize poincaré symmetry, which governs the behavior of spacetime symmetries in relativistic quantum theories. for instance, in the context of deformed qft, the symmetries of the theory may be described by quantum groups that act on the space of quantum fields, leading to a richer and more flexible framework for the description of quantum systems (majid, 1994). 4.2. integrable systems quantum groups have found significant applications in the study of integrable systems, which are systems that possess a large number of conserved quantities and can be solved exactly. the connection between quantum groups and integrable systems comes from the fact that many integrable models, such as the ones studied in statistical mechanics, can be viewed as quantum systems exhibiting symmetries governed by quantum groups (chari & pressley, 1994). a key example is the study of the heisenberg spin chain and other lattice models, where quantum groups provide a natural framework for understanding the symmetries of the system. in these systems, quantum groups act as symmetries that preserve the integrability of the model, and their representations correspond to the states of the quantum system. the integrability of these models can be understood in terms of the quantum group symmetries, which govern the exchange interactions between particles or spins (faddeev, reshetikhin, & takhtajan, 1989). for instance, the quantum group is used in the analysis of the xxz model, a well-known integrable model in statistical mechanics. the symmetries of this model are governed by the quantum group , and its representation theory allows for the exact solution of the system (chari & pressley, 1994). the study of quantum groups in integrable systems is particularly important in understanding quantum phase transitions, spin chains, and other phenomena in condensed matter physics. 4.3. quantum spin chains and lattice models quantum groups have been extensively applied in the study of quantum spin chains, which are one-dimensional quantum systems consisting of a chain of spins that interact according to specific rules. these systems are important in condensed matter physics, as they serve as simple models for understanding complex quantum phenomena such as quantum phase transitions and critical phenomena. the symmetries of quantum spin chains are often described by quantum groups. for example, the xxz model in condensed matter physics can be analyzed using quantum groups, where the quantum group governs the interactions between spins. the representations of describe the different spin states, and the quantum group symmetry preserves the integrability of the model (faddeev et al., 1989). furthermore, quantum groups are also used to study lattice models with quantum symmetries, such as the spin-lattice models in statistical mechanics. in these models, the quantum group symmetries govern the interactions between lattice sites, and their representations describe the quantum states of the system. these models are crucial for understanding the behavior of materials at the quantum level and are often used to study quantum critical phenomena and quantum entanglement in condensed matter systems (majid, 1994). 250 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.4. quantum gravity and non-commutative spacetime quantum groups are also essential to the study of quantum gravity and non-commutative geometry. specifically, quantum groups offer a framework for characterizing spacetime symmetries at the planck scale, where spacetime may become fundamentally non-commutative and where quantum effects are anticipated to predominate. alain connes (1994) developed noncommutative geometry, which offers a natural environment for studying quantum gravity. the symmetries of non-commutative spaces are described by quantum groups. the structure of spacetime is thought to be discrete and non-commutative at very small scales in quantum gravity models, such as loop quantum gravity. these discrete and non-commutative symmetries can be modeled using quantum groups because of their algebraic structure. when attempting to reconcile quantum physics with general relativity, the non-commutative character of quantum groups is especially important since the traditional concepts of smooth spacetime and classical symmetries fail at the quantum level (connes, 1994). quantum groups are also used in the study of quantum deformation of spacetime symmetries, such as the deformation of the poincaré group at the quantum level. the coordinates no longer commute in this quantum deformation, which creates a novel understanding of spacetime that may be crucial for explaining the structure of spacetime at the planck scale and beyond (majid, 1994). 4.5. string theory and conformal field theory additionally, quantum groups have been used in conformal field theory (cft) and string theory. quantum groups, which offer a more adaptable and general framework for characterizing symmetries in the quantum regime, are frequently added to the symmetry groups that control the interactions of fields and particles in these theories. in the context of cft, quantum groups appear in the study of w-algebras, which generalize the virasoro algebra and are used to describe symmetries of two-dimensional conformal field theories. quantum groups are also used in the study of integrable models in string theory, where their representations play a crucial role in the analysis of string interactions and the solutions to string field equations (faddeev et al., 1989). thus, quantum groups offer a helpful tool for comprehending string theory's algebraic structure and related symmetries. quantum groups have a wide range of applications in theoretical physics, offering a framework for understanding quantum symmetries, integrable systems, quantum spin chains, and quantum gravity. their non-commutative structure makes them an essential tool in the study of quantum systems, particularly in areas where classical symmetries are not sufficient to describe the behavior of particles and fields at the quantum level. as theoretical physics continues to explore the fundamental nature of the universe, quantum groups will undoubtedly remain a key mathematical tool for understanding the symmetries that govern the quantum world. 5. conclusion quantum groups represent a profound extension of classical symmetries, offering a noncommutative algebraic framework that is central to many areas of modern theoretical physics and mathematics. their development as deformations of classical lie groups has opened up new possibilities for describing quantum symmetries and systems where traditional commutative structures break down. quantum groups offer a rigorous mathematical tool for comprehending intricate phenomena in the quantum realm, including quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, integrable systems, and quantum gravity. quantum groups are ideal for modeling quantum spaces, quantum symmetries, and lattice models in condensed matter physics due to their fundamental mathematical characteristics, including their hopf algebra structure, non-commutative nature, and representation theory. because quantum groups maintain the integrability of models and enable exact solutions, these 251 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us characteristics are especially helpful in integrable systems. moreover, the role of quantum groups in quantum gravity and non-commutative geometry underscores their importance in the search for a unified theory of quantum spacetime. as theoretical physics continues to delve into the fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics and spacetime, quantum groups will undoubtedly remain a central tool for describing the symmetries and structures that govern the behavior of matter and fields at the quantum level. their applications in string theory, conformal field theory, and quantum gravity highlight their versatility and the potential for future breakthroughs in our understanding of the quantum universe. the interplay between quantum groups and non-commutative geometry provides an exciting avenue for exploring new models of spacetime and the very fabric of reality, further solidifying quantum groups as an indispensable part of modern theoretical physics. references 1. chari, v., & pressley, a. (1994). a guide to quantum groups. cambridge university press. 2. connes, a. (1994). noncommutative geometry. academic press. 3. drinfeld, v. g. (1986). quantum groups. proceedings of the international congress of mathematicians, 798-820. 4. jimbo, m. (1985). a q-analog of u(g) and the quantized universal enveloping algebra. letters in mathematical physics, 10(1), 63-69. 5. faddeev, l. d., reshetikhin, n. y., & takhtajan, l. a. (1989). quantization of lie groups and lie algebras. algebra i analiz, 1(1), 178-206. 6. majid, s. (1994). foundations of quantum group theory. cambridge university press. 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 3, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 ways to create a mock-up project and prepare for mock-up making classes abdiyev hamza jalalovich senior lecturer of “architecture” department, samarkand state architectural and construction university tashmatova khosiyat sidykova lecturer of “architecture” department, samarkand state architectural and construction university abstract: with the growth of the quality of life there is a need to build modern, quality housing, using modern building materials, the labour of qualified builders becomes in demand and highly paid. this situation forces us to approach the process of building design with special care, to strive for a longer life of both architectural objects and complexes, as well as residential, public interiors and landscaping. the main task becomes the guarantee of quality and safe construction, i.e. risk reduction. the only way to evaluate the idea at the project stage is to create its computer model or traditional layout. mastering the basics of modelling in the training and education of specialists: architects, designers, restorers is one of the most important factors in the modern education of higher school students. keywords: “layout”, artistic techniques and methods of volumetric modelling, architectural elements, cardboard and paper, finishing materials, planning layouts, colour in layout, design and architecture. introduction. in modern uzbekistan, as well as all over the world, attention to the objects of architecture and design is growing. in the years of independence, especially in recent years, the course of our country to improve the quality of life requires an increase in the construction of housing, social and industrial facilities and this is given great attention by the state. projects of architectural drawings give a planar image of the object and do not give a full volumetric vision of the designed building, construction, whether it is a residential house or special purpose objects schools, hospitals, commercial enterprises, etc. that is do not give to see the whole idea of the designed object in a finished form. therefore, it makes sense to produce architectural models, which visually express the designer's idea and provide significant assistance in the design of buildings and building ensembles, as well as in the approval of projects and their demonstration. one of the main tasks of modern architectural education is the development and improvement of abstract thinking and imagination, as well as creative method and professional outlook. therefore, in the process of education and professional training of students of architects, designers to use only graphical methods of sequential two-dimensional design drawings is not enough. in this regard, it is necessary, along with the graphical execution of projects to use the techniques of layout modelling. 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ‘layout’ studies the variety of artistic techniques and methods of volumetric modelling with the use of various materials, thus contributing to a better understanding of the form and structure of designed objects and the organisation of socio-cultural space. as a result of studying and mastering the discipline ‘layout’ a graduate designer must master the basics of threedimensional modelling of complex geometric shapes with the use of different textures and textures. acquire the ability to work in different materials, taking into account their specificity to create spatial compositions of varying degrees of complexity, to apply the methodology of work on the volumetric-spatial composition with the subsequent use of the results obtained in the design projecting. with the development of computer technologies, it has become possible to create models of various processes. for example, modern volumetric modeling programs allow us to estimate what the natural lighting of buildings and structures will be like on any given day, hour or even minute. taking into account insolation is important not only at the level of large projects, but also on the scale of private living space. in addition to the physical characteristics of comfort, lighting determines the emotional perception of an object, which, as a rule, is complemented by a fairly accurate rendering of the colors, textures and textures of the designed object. the possibilities of three-dimensional modeling in designing building structures and engineering systems are impressive. even today, emergency modelling is used to calculate evacuation routes in crowded places. and futuristic ideas of building construction by robots that receive digital information directly from the designer's computer do not look so utopian today. methods: the method of searching and showing architectural project in volume/mock-up/ has been used in the past. beautiful architectural monuments of central asian architects of xiv-xv centuries are widely known. since ancient times, the miniature image was used to test architectural and structural solutions, to search for the perfect image and perfect structure of the conceived construction. at the same time, one of the key functions of the model was to demonstrate the future object, the confirmation of this has come down to us from different times and places. fig.1. https://sverenins.uz/wp-content/uploads/ga-unwto-25_0__3_0.jpg each building created by these remarkable masters, before it was built, was carefully checked on a model, where all architectural elements were worked out in detail, sections and interiors were shown. previously, models were made mainly of wood, cardboard, paper, gypsum and clay. recently, architectural compositions are created with the use of polymeric materials, such as organic glass, celluloid, cellon, foam plastics, and various plastics, which have a significant advantage over wood, cardboard paper and gypsum. polymeric materials are weatherproof, easy to work with and bond to each other and to other materials. results: architectural mock-ups are classified according to scale, materials of manufacture, type and degree of mechanization. types of architectural mock-ups according to their purpose. https://sverenins.uz/wp-content/uploads/ga-unwto-25_0__3_0.jpg 168 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us architectural maquette is one of the varieties of maquette. the following types of architectural maquettes are divided in modelling: 1.layout/scheme/greening represents a building and the space around it to be greened. 2.interior layout a model showing the internal layout of the space, finishes, colours, furniture and decorations. 3.landscape design layouts layouts of landscape design development include layouts of paths, bridges, pergolas, small architectural forms, plant patterns and decorations landscape design layouts usually show common areas and in some cases include models of buildings. 4.town-planning models models, as a rule, of small scale / starting from 1/500 and smaller: 1/700; 1/1000; 1/1500; 1/2000; 1/10000; 1/20000/, representing several city blocks, sometimes whole cities, industrial objects, resorts, etc. town-planning models are a vital element for planning the development of the territory[1]. for a more accurate recreation of the future object when making models, it is important to observe the scale. scales of image reduction on models should be chosen from the following range: 1:5; 1:10; 1:20; 1:25; 1:50; 1:100; 1:200. when designing general plans, the scales of reduction of images on models should be chosen from the following range: 1:100; 1:200; 1:400; 1:500; 1:1000; 1:2000; 1:5000. layouts are also classified by other parameters:  by scale differentiate:m1/1000; m1/500; m1/300; m1/200; m1/100; m1/50; m1/20.  on materials of manufacture: paper, cardboard, wooden, plastic, metal, combined.  by type: conceptual urban planning, planning, landscape, panoramic, interior, collapsible, planning models of industrial objects.  by degree of mechanisation: with backlighting, without backlighting, with internal backlighting, with external backlighting, with dynamic backlighting, with moving elements. modelling is the oldest method of modelling. volumetric models have been known since prehistoric epochs, the highest achievements of the art of modelling are kept in museums, for example in the research museum of the russian academy of arts (st. petersburg), the musée des plans-reliefs (paris). and the models were used not only to present design ideas. it is no exaggeration to say that the use of models has largely influenced the character of modern architecture. among the defining characteristics of this trend we will single out the attitude to the architectural object as a spatial composition, most holistically perceived from a bird's-eye view, i.e. from the perspective typical for the perception of a model in the average scale (1:100, 1:200). skills of layout modelling are becoming more and more in demand for the implementation of project ideas not only in art, architecture, design, but also in other types of activity. in terms of methodology, the most productive is the working modeling, carried out in order to find a compositional solution. working modelling/ layout/ assumes active activity of students connected with visualisation thinking ‘measuring’ of the layout, finding relations between parts, checking different points of view and relations of internal and external space. abstract thinking is supported by visualisation the student creatively learns the method of modeling. architectural models can be made both in the process of designing and in assistance /working models/, as well as according to the finished project drawings /exhibition-demonstration models/[2]. discussion: the purpose of a building model is to show the architecture with varying degrees of detail of the element. an architectural model of a single building or structure, made on a large scale, allows you to judge not only its external form but also its interior. in some cases, to 169 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us demonstrate various construction processes are made active models. the spread of the method of modelling contributes to improving the quality of the developed projects, helping their perception and gives the opportunity to see the conceived project in the closest to the natural form. fixtures, tools and materials for modeling materials for making the layout and landscape base. there are different materials used in modelling, the choice of which depends on the purpose of the layout. cardboard and paper are the most accessible and common materials.  cardboard and paper are used as materials for modeling the most accessible materials from which it is possible to make any model, including plastic forms in the papier-mache technique, easily give any color and get any texture. cardboard can be sheet and roll, of different thickness /0,2-3,0 mm/ and density. it is well colored and glued. cardboard is mainly used for making reliefs. paper is mainly used for drawing /watman/. white, dense, it is well cut and glued to wood and cardboard. you can easily make a model of a house out of it, for example. corrugated cardboard, foam board, foam plastic are also used. paper and cardboard are the most common materials for creating models, especially in the educational process. this is explained by their easy handling, availability and economy, as well as a high set of expressive means. paper and cardboard for modelling should have both sufficient rigidity to ensure the strength of the model and, at the same time, sufficient plasticity to convey the character of the surface shape. for making furniture models in scale 1:10, 1:5, 1:1, planning models, interior models, coniferous and hardwoods are used. in addition to solid wood, glued plywood of various thicknesses, veneer (peeled and planed), fibreboard, chipboard and joinery boards are used.  foam plastics ultra-light plastic masses . the specific feature of these materials, obtained on the basis of synthetic polymers, is their heterogeneity and peculiarity of structure, resembling the structure of frozen foam. in the production of volumetric greens, elastic polyurethane/porolone is used. fig. 2 http://www.creativetherapy.ru/2014/04/08/maket-domika-iz-bumagi/ fig. 3. https://zsmk-neft.ru/dom/makety-domov-dlya-stroitelstva-foto-izgotovlenie-maketovdomov-dlya-stroitelstva-pod-zakaz.html 170 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  sheet organic glass, celluloid, styrene copolymers, polystyrene foam, polyvinyl chloride foam, foam plastic, polyethylene foam, etc. are often used for making models. using the plasticity of polymeric materials, it is possible to perform various layouts, achieving a high artistic effect. rigid foams have low volumetric weight and are well machinable, therefore they are used for making working models of furniture, planning layouts and interior layouts in any scale.  metals (wire, tin, tubing) are used for modelling various frameworks, bases, openwork compositions (nets, shelves, etc.).  glues are used depending on the type of material and the nature of its joining with other materials. glues for gluing parts made of wood, cardboard and paper, various glues of vegetable and animal origin/starch, fur, casein, albumin, rosin, pva, crystals, ‘moment’ and others are used. at gluing of products it is necessary to know properties not only glues, but also glued materials, which are porous /wood, cardboard, paper, foam plastic, etc./ and nonporous /organic and silicate glass, celluloid, cellon, plastic, etc./ in modelling both organic and synthetic glues are used. synthetic glues are more practical and convenient in use, therefore they are successfully used for gluing of various materials including polymeric ones.  finishing materials are necessary to give the layout the greatest expressiveness. they include paints (gouache, tempera, polyvinyl acetate, oil), enamels, varnishes, dyes (mineral and aniline), etc. they are applied with a brush, tampon or spray. they are applied with a brush, tampon or sprayer. fabrics, ceramics, glass, threads and vegetation elements are also used in models. structural elements of the model, which have no prototype in nature, are painted white or made of transparent colourless material. architectural models, as a rule, performed in a limited range of colours, to ensure the integrity of the perception of a large space to bright colours do not crush the layout. layouts of interiors are performed with a conditional approximation to the colour scheme of the project to ensure its expressiveness and visibility demonstration models are made taking into account the final materials of the project execution, which allows to present the shape of the object, its proportions, colour design. exploratory (working) models are made in a monochrome colour scheme, as their main purpose is to check the layout of details and units, to clarify the basic proportions of the object. in urban planning modelling, the unity of the planning concept and spatial idea of the building is achieved, as well as the connection with nature and urban planning situation[3]. colour in layout. color as well as any other element of composition should be carefully considered from the position of maximum compliance with the created image. features of color perception, based on associations, have the right to be taken into account when designing any object of design and graphics. emotional-spatial parameters of the most common colors are as follows:  yellow visually removes, expands, forms a feeling of warmth, lightness, vigor, cheerfulness.  orange visually approximates, forms a feeling of dryness, high temperature, the disposition of the spirit of joy.  violet visually reduces, compresses, forms a feeling of coolness, solidity, emotionally deprives will, induces sadness.  blue visually reduces, shortens, creates a feeling of coldness, dampness, comforting. antiseptic, tidy. 171 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  green visually minimises, narrows, unifies. forms a sense of cold, emotionally soothing. pleasant, healthy, natural.  red visually approximates, limits, creates a feeling of warmth, excites. it carries the following parameters: dynamism, activity, danger.  white visually expands, expands, increases. forms a feeling of lightness, emotionally leaves indifferent.  black visually approximates, reduces. creates a feeling of oppression by heaviness,  grey visually does not update anything in any way, the feeling of moderation, solidity. such mock-ups allow assessing not only the general appearance of the facility, but also compliance with ergonomic and safety requirements, as well as a number of other technical characteristics. the volumetric real model allows to reveal the mistakes made earlier, to evaluate functional, technical and aesthetic advantages of the project[5]. layout takes a firm place in the process of training of specialists in design and architecture. in the training of specialists in design and architecture. when using traditional media such as paper and cardboard, plasticine and foam plastic, modeling remains the easiest way of modeling to master. tangible paper blanks are much more visual than objects on the screen of monitors, and familiar, almost everyday, tools for processing are clearer than any interface. working with a tangible form contributes to the consistent development of students' spatial thinking, and the acquired skills of work will lay the foundation for mastering the ways of modeling with the help of computers[5]. conclusions: all these features make layout one of the main disciplines for students of design and architecture. fig.4. http://www.mirmaketa.ru/images/arc/v dnh/3b.jpg fig.5. https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=125557 6677907012&set=pcb.1255578681240145&loca le=fr_ca 172 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  students have a general idea about volumetric-spatial models, their scope of application, materials and manufacturing technologies;  skills of working modeling, to form an individual the project method in solving creative tasks;  volumetric-spatial thinking, to get experience of volumetric-spatial construction;  of systematic independent work on a considerable volume of course work;  work with scale, to get an idea about regularities of perception of objects in nature, on scale models, on photo images and three-dimensional visualizations;  gain experience working with historical materials, familiarize themselves with architectural details of one of the historical epochs. students after studying the discipline should know:  main types of volumetric spatial models, their features, scope of application;  basic materials used in modelling, their properties,  peculiarities of production and processing technology;  basic tools used in layout;  layout method, history of its development;  modern digital modeling technologies, methods of integration of traditional layout practices into modern pro the main tools used in the layout method, history of its development;  digital modeling technologies, methods of integration of traditional layout practices into the modern design process. the following are the methods of integration of traditional layout practices into the modern design process by means of cad (computer-aided design systems). cad (computer-aided design systems) be able to:  put up creative problems and solve them individually on scalescale models;  define material and technologies of making models, proceeding from on the basis of design tasks; fig. 6. https://zsmk-neft.ru/dom/makety-domov-dlya-stroitelstva-foto-izgotovleniemaketov-domov-dlya-stroitelstva-pod-zakaz.html 173 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  present their design ideas in layouts, comparing the volume of the technical work on the preparation of the presentation with the specifics of the project and the target group. literature 1. gerasimov a.a., kovalenko v.i. layout of paper and cardboard: textbook / a.a. gerasimov, v.i. kovalenko. vitebsk: ee ‘vgu’. named after p.m. masherov’. p.m. masherov’, 2010. 167 с. 2. kalmykova, n.v. layout from paper and cardboard: study guide / n.v. kalmykova, i.a. maksimova. kalmykova n.v., maksimova i.a.. moscow: ‘arkhitektura-s’, 2010. 80 с. 3. kalmykova, n.v. layout / n.v. kalmykova, i.a. maksimova. moscow: ‘arkhitektura-s’, 2004. 94 с. 4. kholmyansky l.m. layout and graphics in the process of artistic design. artistic design. moscow: moscow architectural institute, 1978. -23с. 5. keldiyar, k., & khosiyat, t. (2024). exploring historical traditions in spatial planning for multi-family residential buildings. indonesian journal of innovation studies, 25(1), 10.21070/ijins.v25i1.1060. https://doi.org/10.21070/ijins.v25i1.1060 6. keldiyar, k., & khosiyat, t. (2024). exploring historical traditions in spatial planning for multi-family residential buildings. indonesian journal of innovation studies, 25(1), 10.21070/ijins.v25i1.1060. https://doi.org/10.21070/ijins.v25i1.1060 7. tashmatova khosiyat sidikovna,, & khudayberdiyev keldiyar. (2024). the importance of furniture in the interior of preschool institutions. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14505610 8. abdiyev hamza jalalovich, & tashmatova xosiyat sidikovna. (2022). modern methods of furniture design in the interior of a building of a preschool educational organization. journal of architectural design, 7, 4–7. retrieved from https://geniusjournals.org/index.php/jad/article/view/1666 9. tk sidikovna, ‘design methods for preschool educational facilities in urban and rural areas’, nexus journal of advanced engineering research, vol. 2, no. pp. 6, 56-59, 2023. [online]. available: https://innosci.org/jises/article/view/1456 10. abdiyev hamza jalalovich. (2022). the importance of furniture in the interior of preschool institutions. british journal of global ecology and sustainable development, 5, 94–96. retrieved from https://journalzone.org/index.php/bjgesd/article/view/73 11. m.k.yuldosheva va m.kamilova, “jahon boʻylab innovatsion muzey arxitekturasini loyihalash va qurishda xorijiy tajriba”, central asian journal of arts and design, 320-326bet, 2023 yil. 12. tashmatova xosiyat sidikovna. (2024). to be able to choose the right methods of landscaping school and preschool areas. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14506338 13. tashmatova khosiyat sidikovna, & zalotdinova lolita ramilevna. (2024). the importance of furniture in the interior of preschool educational organizations. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14505582 14. улугбек, т. и марджона, к. (2024). модульные системы для реконструкции зданий. журнал sustainable civil building management and engineering , 1 (2), 7-7. https://doi.org/10.21070/ijins.v25i1.1060 https://doi.org/10.21070/ijins.v25i1.1060 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14505610 https://geniusjournals.org/index.php/jad/article/view/1666 https://innosci.org/jises/article/view/1456 https://journalzone.org/index.php/bjgesd/article/view/73 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14506338 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14505582 14 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 the system of measures to protect against noise emitted by vehicles in the city of samarkand khudaiberdiev mansur dilmurotovich teacher of samarkand state university of architecture and construction khabibullaev shahboz ali son teacher of samarkand state university of architecture and construction abstract: the article contains an analysis of noise protection measures, a histogram of the impact of noise on buildings around the main busy street and roads. instructions were given to reduce the noise on the streets and roads of samarkand city. keywords: highway, reconstruction, throughput. one of the main tasks set by the decree of the president of the republic of uzbekistan "on measures to further improve architecture and urban construction of the republic of uzbekistan" dated april 26, 2000 is to organize the development of master plans of cities, district centers and settlements, and in strict accordance with the population project planning documents will ensure the development of points[1,2] . in connection with the execution of this decree, a number of decisions of the republic were adopted, and today construction, improvement and engineering infrastructure works are being carried out in settlements based on the approved master plans[3,4]. on the basis of the report of the cabinet of ministers dated 23.10.2001 no. 08-10-107 on the redevelopment of the master plan of the city of samarkand and the decision of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan dated 31.10.2001 no. 08/19-93, the master plan of the city of samarkand in 1980 was redeveloped in 2003. during the reconstruction of the city master plan, the socio-economic and political conditions and measures of the city were planned as follows: 1. building a modern city 2003; 2. first of all, reconstruction of the city 2010; 3. time of completion 2025. the city of samarkand is an ancient city, and tourism, industry and small handicrafts contribute greatly to the growth of the city's economic indicators [5.6]. as of january 1, 2003, the total area of modern high-rise and exemplary residential buildings built in samarkand was 4791.4 thousand square meters, and the average total area per person was 11.42 m 2 . the normal total living space for each person is 16 m 2 as determined by the housing code . by 2025, the total area of the housing stock is planned to be 8,800,000 m 2 . the average number of oneand two-story model houses and multi-story houses being built in the city is 3 stories [10]. 15 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us when the network density is maximum, the throughput of kyt increases. however, this increases the cost of capital construction and reduces the usable area. in cities, the density of kyt is 1.5÷2.5 km/km 2 . the density in the central parts of the city can be up to 2.5÷4 km/km 2 (even higher in some old cities based on a radial layout ). one of the main streets in samarkand city is uzbekistan street, the side of this street is surrounded by walls, residential buildings are located behind the wall. the analysis of noise protection measure measures showed that the screen barrier located on the construction line is the most effective structure. it reduces the noise level to 25 dba 35 dba. all other types of structures and methods (improvement and landscaping) reduced the noise level to 10-20 dba. the index of noise impact on residential buildings around uzbek street is as follows: 3-story; 5 floors; there is a 9-story residential building, and if the height of the 5-story building is 15 meters, the average level of sound reduction is 27.7 dba, and the area of impact of noise on buildings and structures is 68 meters. if the height of 9-story buildings is 27 meters, the average level of sound reduction is 30.9 dba, the area of impact of noise on buildings and structures is 69 meters. protected by trees around the streets and roads is uzbekistan street. if the trees are 2 meters high, the average level of sound reduction is 4.0 dba, and the area of impact of noise on buildings and structures is 25.0 meters. if the height of the tree is 6 meters, the average level of sound reduction is 8.0 dba, the area of impact of noise on buildings and structures is 40 meters. if the height of the tree is 10.0 meters, the average level of sound reduction is 10.0 dba, and the area of impact of noise on buildings and structures is 50.0 meters. technical index of engineering structures. 1-table type of protective structures height, m average level of sound attenuation dba area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise screen wall 2 6 10 10.2 15.5 19.5 40 50 78 based on these indicators, a histogram of the impact of noise on buildings around the main busy streets and roads in the city was created. in urban streets ( areas where residential buildings are low and streets and roads are high), screen walls are widely used. trees also play a role in protecting against noise in the city [7,8]. in urban streets (areas where residential buildings are low and streets and roads are high), screen walls can be used a lot. trees also play a role in protecting against noise in the city. 16 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1-picture.effects of noise on the screen wall at different heights. technical index of engineering structures 2-table type of protective structures height, m average level of sound attenuation dba area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise building : 5 floors. 9 floors. 12 floors. 15 27 36 27.7 30.9 33.5 68 69 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 10.2 15.5 19.5 40 50 78 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 average sound attenuation level dba; if the height of a 5-story building is 15 meters; 27.7; [значение] average sound attenuation level dba; if the height of a 9-story building is 27 meters; 30.9 average sound attenuation level dba; if the height of a 12story building is 36 meters; 33.5v average sound attenuation level dba; if the height of a 16story building is 48 meters; 35.7 area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise; if the height of a 5-story building is 15 meters [имя категории]; [значение] area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise; if the height of a 9-story building is 27 meters; [значение] area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise; if the height of a 12-story building is 36 meters; [значение] area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise; if the height of a 16-story building is 48 meters; [значение] 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2-picture. effects of noise on buildings of different storeys. technical index of engineering structures 3-table type of protective structures height, m average level of sound attenuation dba area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise trees 2 (8) 6 (8) 10 (8) 4.0 8.0 10.0 25 40 50 3-picture. effects of noise on trees at different heights construction of protective structures in the outskirts of the city compared to construction in the central part of the city: 2.5-3 times when building a wall barrier; construction of other structures is 4-6 times cheaper. the results of the research were used in the preparation of the main master plan and the historyplans of the places defining the development of the city of samarkand [9]. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 average sound attenuation level dba; if the height of the trees is 2 (8); 4 average sound attenuation level dba; if the height of the trees is 6 (8); 8 average sound attenuation level dba; if the height of the trees is 10 (8); 10 area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise; if the height of the trees is 2 (8).; [значение] area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise; if the height of the trees is 6 (8); 40 area of influence of facilities by factors, m noise; if the height of the trees is 10 (8); 50 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 4. uzbekistan street (protected by a tree). the width of the street carriageway and footpaths is taken into account, taking into account the occurrence of the largest traffic jams, based on the composition and volume of traffic expected in the future at this location. the correct acceptance of the width of the carriageway is of great technical and economic importance in the construction of new cities and in the reconstruction of old highways. in cities that have been forming for a long time, solving this problem requires a lot of capital. roadways and intersections should not be made too wide. on the contrary, it can increase the crossing distance of pedestrians and vehicles, and consequently reduce the capacity of the intersection. references 1. collection of legal documents of the republic of uzbekistan on the approval of the rules for the organization of improvement works of settlements, taking into account the requirements of modern architecture and urban planning, 2009. no. 10-11, article 112; no. 14, article 138. 2. "urban planning code" of the republic of uzbekistan bulletin of the oliy majlis of the republic of uzbekistan, 2002. no. 4-5, article 63, collection of legal documents of the republic of uzbekistan, no. 25 of 2004, article 287; 2006 no. 27, article 245, no. 41, article 405. 3. urban planning code of the republic of uzbekistan, tashkent, 2006. 4. bogdasarov a.m. automated traffic control systems and the task of improving them taking into account environmental factors. -tadi.: tashkent, 1989. -12 pages. 5. usmanov q. t. properties of trees to protect the environment from traffic noise."istedod"scientific magazine. -tashkent: #4/14, 1999. 6-7 6. a.t.ismailov, a.t.khotamov, d.u.isamukhamedova " urban engineering improvement and transport infrastructure" training manual. /tashkent. 2007 year. pages 84-109. 7. q.t. usmanov. abstract of candidate's dissertation on the topic "comprehensive comparison of measures protecting the city area from traffic noise and exhaust gases". tashkent. 2005 pp. 5-15. 8. mshn 25-2005 . jsc "uzavtoyol". institutional urban planning norms //instructions for ensuring traffic safety on highways. 9. shnk 2.07.01-03* "territories of urban and rural settlements development and construction planning» tashkent-2009. 232 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 3, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 improvement of the technology of production of high-quality potassium chloride from sylvinite of the tyubegatan deposit normamatov farhod haydarali ugli associate professor karshi state technical university normamatov_@mail.ru ulzhaeva aziza kahramon kizi master's student karshi state technical university inatova mohichehra ermat kizi bachelor student karshi state technical university abstract: the article presents the physicochemical principles of various methods for obtaining gallurgic potassium chloride. theoretical justification for the process of obtaining high-quality pure potassium chloride by dissolving potassium chloride flotation cake. justification of optimal technological parameters for obtaining potassium chloride by gallurgic methods. the influence of process parameters on the granulometric composition of white crystalline potassium chloride was studied. keywords: potassium chloride, gallurgy, solubility, ammonia, flotation, technology. potassium chloride is produced in granulated or coarse-crystalline form; for the second and third grades, the content of grains with sizes of 2-4 mm should be no less than 80%, and 1-2 mm no more than 20%. the grain sizes for the highest and first grades of brand k are not standardized. at the request of the consumer, potassium chloride is also produced in powder form (finecrystalline). in order to avoid caking of potassium chloride supplied to agriculture, gost allows its treatment with amines or other reagents. the product of grade k of the highest and first grades and granulated is packed in five-layer bags made of bituminized kraft cellulose paper, the product of the second and third grades is allowed to be shipped in bulk. to obtain pure potassium salts, one of the main initial salts is technological potassium chloride with a content of at least 98% kcl. the content of potassium chloride in the flotation product of jsc dekhkanabad potash plant does not exceed 95%.the aim of this work was to study the influence of temperature, solubility and the ratio l:s on the granulometric composition of white crystalline potassium samples. a eutectic saturated solution of potassium and sodium chloride at 10 and 20 °c was used as a solvent. the dissolution process was carried out at 90 and 100 °c. the resulting suspension was separated into a mother liquor and a solid phase consisting of sodium chloride and the insoluble portion present in the cake of the flotation concentrate. the mother liquor was cooled to a temperature of 10 or 20 °c and separated into production white crystalline potassium chloride and circulating secondary mother liquor. the product potassium chloride and the second mother liquor were analyzed for the content of sodium ions; potassium, chlorine, sulfate and insoluble part using well-known methods. 233 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the analyses showed that the potassium chloride content in the product was not less than 98,599,0%. fig. 3 shows the granulometric composition of the obtained samples, where it is evident that the average particle diameter is within 0.045-1 mm. the relative proportion of particles depends on the conditions of the dissolution and crystallization process. when using solution no. 1, the main constituent fraction is particles of size 0,063 mm, 0,1250,250 mm (11-26%); 40-43 and 17-32; at 90 °c and 10-12; 42-46 and 37-41% at 100 °c. from this it is clear that with an increase in the l:s ratio from 3,5:1 to 5,5:1 at a dissolution temperature of 100 °c, the content of the 0,125 and 0,250 mm fraction increases by 4-5%. it should be noted that when carrying out the dissolution process at 90°c, the main fraction is 0,125 mm and the content of the 0,065 mm fraction increases to 26%, especially at l:s=3,5:1. fig. 1. granulometric composition of crystalline potassium chloride depending on the process conditions. 234 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us а) б) fig. 2. energy dispersive spectrum of samples: a concentrate cake; b sludge. the resulting pure white potassium chloride consists of potassium and chlorine elements in a total amount of more than 98%. elemen t weight .% sigma weig ht % c 4.20 1.61 o 4.78 0.36 na 0.89 0.08 mg 0.28 0.06 al 0.12 0.06 si 0.34 0.05 cl 44.22 0.79 k 45.17 0.81 sum : 100.00 element weight .% sigma weight % c 16.28 0.84 o 51.28 0.58 mg 12.18 0.18 al 4.49 0.11 si 9.81 0.16 cl 0.54 0.06 k 1.07 0.07 ca 1.92 0.08 fe 2.43 0.16 sum: 100.00 235 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us reference 1. dokholova a.n., karmyshev v.f., sidorina l.v. production and application of ammonium phosphates.m .: chemistry, 1986.s. 231. 2. construction projects: potassium and npk production // world of fertilizers and pesticides.1997.№2.-с.42-44. 3. dormeshkin ob, vorobiev n. and. production of chlorine-free water-soluble complex fertilizers. minsk.: bstu, 2006, –8-9 p. 4. normamatovf.h., erkaev au, toirov z.k., sharipova h.t. investigation of the process of obtaining potassium chloride from sylvinite in the presence of ammonia // uzbek chemical journal, 2009. №2. s.26-28. 5. normamatov f.h., erkaev a.u., toirov z.k., sharipova h.t. investigation of the process of obtaining potassium chloride from sylvinite in the presence of ammonia // uzbek chemical journal, 2009. №2. p.26-28. 6. normamatov f.h., erkaev a.u., dadahodzhaev a.t., toirov z.k., kucharov b.h. study of the process of obtaining potassium nitrate. // universum: technical sciences, 2019. no. 9 (66) .p.71-76. 7. normamatov f.h., erkayev a.u., dadakhodzhayev a.t., toirov z.k.,kucharov b.h. issledovaniye protsessa polucheniya nitrata kaliya. «universum: tekhnicheskiye nauki». moskva. 2019. vypusk: 9(66). 71-77s. (02.00.00; №1). 8. normamatov f.h., kucharov b.h., toirov z.k., erkayev a.u. izucheniye protsessa uparki matochnykh rastvorov pri poluchenii nitrata kaliya. kompozitsion materiallar zhurnal. 2022g. №1. 6-10s.(02.00.00; №4). 9. turakulov b. b., erkayev a. u., kucharov b. x., toirov z. k. physical-chemical and technological bases of producing pure potassium hydroxide in combined method.// vol. 29. -no. 6s (2020): vol 29 no 6s (2020) (special issue) international journal of advanced science and technology http: // sersc. org / journals / index. php / ijast / issue / view / 275. s. 1126 1134. applications of fats and oils in leather and textile industries skip to main communities my dashboard log in sign up info: zenodo’s user support line is staffed on regular business days between dec 22 and jan 4. response times may be slightly longer than normal. published february 7, 2025 | version v1 journal open applications of fats and oils in leather and textile industries creators shapatov feruz 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grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 3, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 traditional methods of air cooling in buildings of middle eastern countries with hot dry climates a. s. uralov doctor of architecture, professor sh. ko‘chkorov independent researcher of samarkand state architecture and construction university abstract: this article presents and analyzes historical data on traditional methods and folk inventions used for air cooling in the buildings of middle eastern countries (iran, afghanistan, pakistan, tajikistan, uzbekistan) with hot and dry climates during the summer season, and relevant conclusions are drawn. keywords: middle eastern countries, hot-dry climate, traditional air cooling methods in rooms. introduction. when discussing various architectural structures and inventions created by skilled master architects and engineers of the past, it is also necessary to mention the measures and methods aimed at reducing high temperatures in rooms of historical palaces, residential buildings, and public spaces during the summer season. since ancient times, the climate of central asia, including uzbekistan, which is distinguished by high summer temperatures, scorching heat, and low precipitation, has compelled the population to invent various engineering structures and devices. people tried to adapt their living environments to the harsh ecological conditions of hot dry climates. as a result, due to the ingenuity of the local population, ancient sophisticated devices were developed to reduce indoor temperatures in homes and other buildings. studying these methods and devices is also beneficial for modern architecture and construction practices. this topic is well covered in the book by tajik architectural doctor s. mukimova “restoration and reconstruction of cultural heritage monuments of central asia: theory and practice” (dushanbe, 2022). however, this issue has not yet been sufficiently studied in uzbekistan. main part. based on historian bayhaqi’s era, archaeologist a.k. mirboboev provides information about one such invention. during the time when the successor of the ghaznavid palace, mas'ud, was the governor of herat, he built a special house for rest in the adnan garden. the house rooms were equipped with a cooling system using water, which was unusual for that time. ceramic pipes with small holes were installed along the roof's perimeter. "moto" woven from reeds were hung on these pipes. with the help of a special device called “talisma,” water was lifted to the roof of the house, then distributed through the pipes and moistened the fabric. this method helped maintain a cool temperature inside the house. according to historian adam metz, a similar method of reducing indoor temperatures was known in baghdad in the 9th century. however, there, ice was placed between the outer walls of the house to cool the room during the day’s scorching heat. the arab geographer abu dalaf, who visited the capital of china in the 10th century, noted that the chinese lifted water to the roof of houses, which then dripped down from the motes hanging from the roof. it is said that the 228 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us inventors of the water-lifting device “talisma” were from central asia. for example, the devices used in herat are believed to have been developed by beruni. it is likely that beruni based this device on the water wheel – the paddle wheel – familiar to him from his life in khorezm. the inventions and devices mentioned above are not the only ones developed in the past to protect from scorching heat. many houses in ancient central asian fortresses had underground rooms called “sardobkhona.” for instance, it is known that the uighurs lived in underground rooms during the summer. in tunisia, cave-like underground rooms were built, opening to a common courtyard and forming unusual open-roofed residential spaces. in the center of the courtyard was a hole under which a subterranean water reservoir was located. this reservoir not only supplied water to the underground dwellers but also significantly cooled and humidified the air in the rooms. nasir khusraw, returning from a pilgrimage to mecca, noted that in the city of argun (basra region), for every aboveground house, there was a corresponding underground room. these included running-water sardobas where people spent the scorching summer season. the term "sardoba" here literally means "underground room." research by a.k. mirboboev indicates that in cities, public sardobas always provided the population with a place to rest on hot days. historian bayhaqi tells the story of mahmud of ghazni’s campaign to ray and the participation of his son mas'ud: “it was hot, and the elders and nobles ordered the construction of a sardoba for daily rest. a very attractive and spacious sardoba was built for amir mas'ud, where he rested from dawn till sunset, enjoying leisure and secretly drinking wine.” according to the testimony of theologian abu harun katib, who lived in the 9th century, there were 1,200 sardobas in balkh at that time. some sardobas were used for storing drinking water, others served as shelters from the heat. in hot and dry climatic regions of central asia, there are many other methods of cooling rooms and entire courtyards: sheds, verandas, porticos, pools, fountains. in houses and dwellings from the 9th-10th centuries, along with windows and light chimneys, there were also special devices that captured wind and directed it into lower rooms. such devices resemble the large ayvons built in khorezm folk houses to catch wind and direct it into the courtyard. returning to the 9th-10th century wind-catching dwellings, it should be noted that many houses had lattice towers above their domes. their openings faced northwest, where the prevailing winds blew. these towers were called "badgir" or wind catchers. archaeologists have found similar structures known as “air channels” in many middle eastern medieval buildings. such wind catchers in the form of towers were also part of residential buildings in herat, afghanistan. a book titled “architecture of the islamic world” was written based on such badgirs. the same book contains a colored illustration of a domed building surrounded by five badgir towers with lattice wind catchers at the top. ice storage facilities were also built in iran; a photo of one is included in that book. as a continuation of traditions, a type of ventilation device called “badbarak,” installed near dwellings along mountain rivers in mountainous regions, can also be mentioned. its structure is very simple. it is a device that rotates under the pressure of water directed onto blades like in mills. on this wheel, a vertical wooden rod is installed, to which a “moto” is attached. built next to rest areas, this badbarak rotated during hot periods, drove away flies, and brought cool air. it should be noted that the above-mentioned examples of engineering art from eastern peoples have not gone unnoticed by modern builders. for instance, in bareilly (india), a residential building with an underground tunnel was built, where moist walls created an effective cooling system. this experimental tunnel reduced indoor temperatures from 40°c to 26°c. the tunnel has a total area of 93 m² and provides enough cool, moist air to cool an area of 130 m². another example: in many regions of north africa, the middle east, and the indian subcontinent, there is a widely practiced method where all room openings are covered with thick mats constantly moistened with water coming from perforated hoses. thus, the hot dry air is moistened and cooled before entering the room. air circulation is often difficult among compact, 229 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us dense buildings; in such cases, wind-catching holes are installed at the upper parts of roofs to allow air to enter the rooms. as a result, distinctive roof shapes can be seen in the cities of hyderabad and sindh in pakistan. wind catchers in hyderabad were taken as examples in the u.s. and were reflected in the architecture of the energy-saving pavilion at the 1982 knoxville exhibition. scientist d. oakley, in his book “the dwelling of the tropics,” described the ancient evaporative cooling method used in egyptian villages. this usually involved a chimney-like structure that performed the opposite function. before entering the room through the roof ceiling, the breeze passed over earthenware pots filled with water placed on charcoal platforms. m. aitchison observed an even simpler method of evaporative cooling used by farmers in dry and hot regions of south africa. the device, typically placed above an elevated water tank next to the house, consisted of wooden frames (10.2 x 1.0 m) made of beams, with galvanized wire mesh of 0.64 mm thickness stretched on both sides. a 10.2 cm thick cavity was formed between the two meshes and filled with 3.81 cm diameter pieces of coke. water pipes of 2.54 cm diameter were installed along the frame's perimeter and connected to a drainage tank. the water supply device regulated the system, keeping the structure’s walls constantly moist, thus cooling the room. aitchison proposed borrowing this south african idea for cooling an entire building by installing moist screens filled with coke around the entire basement. a conveniently placed exhaust device could stimulate convection currents and provide cool air to the rooms day and night. since this installation is placed around the entire house, its effect does not depend on wind direction. returning to traditional air cooling methods in rooms in middle eastern countries, we see that the use of ice in the past was given special attention. ice played a significant role in urban life. in addition to cooling rooms, it was used to cool drinking water, preserve and transport perishable food products, and in medicine. ice and snow were stored in winter for summer use. facilities for ice storage were sometimes called “yakhchol,” in other cases “sardobkhona,” “gunbadi yakh,” or simply “refrigerator.” in some cities, the number of ice storage places was considerable. for example, in khujand (tajikistan), as a.q. mirboboev discovered, in the 18th-19th centuries, there were five state-owned and more than fifteen private underground ice storage cellars: tajikkal icehouse, mirrahim the iceman’s icehouse, eshon the iceman’s icehouse, qurbon the iceman’s icehouse, ikromi maruznachi’s icehouse, qal’a icehouse, and others. the design of khujand’s cellars was very simple: rectangular pits 2–2.2 m deep and measuring 5x12 m, with 2–3 pits dug along the longitudinal axis. they were filled with melted snow water in winter. the walls were reinforced with mesh woven from branches of mulberry or willow and covered with straw. the mesh, about 1.5x1.5 m in size, was attached to the cellar walls using wooden stakes, serving as thermal insulation. beams were laid across the width of the cellar, with several transverse beams placed on top. thin boards made from cotton stalks or reeds were placed on the transverse beams. ice mixed with snow was then placed on this floor. if there was no snow, it was replaced with straw. the ice on top was also covered with a layer of straw. the roof was usually flat. above the cellar, there was always a room or shed used for summer rest. ice was preserved in such cellars for quite a long time. according to abu harun katib, during his lifetime, there were about 400 ice storages in the city of balkh. according to some information, in mountainous areas, large warehouses were also available for storing snow and ice. the village of shodyan, located on the outskirts of balkh, supplied the city with the required amount of snow for the needs of the balkh palace during the summer. istakhri and ibn hawqal also report that in samarkand province, there were more than 2,000 icy sardobas that provided visiting guests with cool water and ice. geographer al-yaqubi wrote that abdullah ibn-tahir built an ice storage called “shadyah” in nishapur. in the nishapur jami mosque, which could accommodate more than 60,000 worshippers, there was a large cellar for storing ice, which was 230 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us used to meet the needs of the city’s population in summer. the construction of the cellar was attributed to abumuslim marvazi. as mentioned above, the use of ice in the past was very widespread. first of all, ice was used to cool buildings, drinking water, to prepare the local delicacy “rohati-jon” ice cream and "dughob" – yogurt. in summer, people drank wine only with ice. historian bayhaqi mentions that sultan mas'ud of ghazni, during his stay in the city of bust, was in a dark room cooled with “hanging canvas fabrics” moistened with water, and large pools were filled with water and topped with ice. ice was also used to preserve vegetables, fruits, and melons and transported over long distances in special tin boxes filled with ice. ice was also used for medicinal purposes. in particular, avicenna recommended in many of his treatises to observe moderation when cooling water with ice, not to add too much ice to the water, as it could harm the nervous system. he advised giving icy water only to people who were overweight or had high energy. his advice remains relevant today. in the past, chefs used ice to prepare a dessert called “poluda,” which later became a prototype of ice cream known as “rohati-jon.” after marco polo’s travels to central asia, the secret of making ice cream spread to europe. “rohati-jon” is still sold in the markets of samarkand and bukhara: a master chef scrapes a piece of ice in front of you to prepare ice cream and pours several spoons of grape syrup over it. all this is mixed well and ready to eat. even in the 10th century, local masters prepared high-quality and diverse ice creams. in many parts of uzbekistan and tajikistan, the tradition of using ice is still preserved. for example, in the 1950s in darvaz, a summer sleeping place called “yakhdon” was built. even today, in many mountain villages of tajikistan, dairy products are stored in such yakhdon refrigerators. conclusion. the above information shows us the traditional, widely practiced, and proven methods of air cooling used during the summer season in hot and dry climates of middle eastern countries (pakistan, afghanistan, tajikistan, uzbekistan). these methods are still practically relevant today. therefore, their use in remote villages and settlements of uzbekistan with hot and dry summers would be beneficial. these devices are very inexpensive and have been tested among the people. references: 1. mirbaboev a. o'rta asrlarda konditsioner // tojikiston kommunisti, 12 iyul 1980; bayxaklar. masud hikoyasi. – m.: fan, 1969.-b.191; mirboboev a.k., muqimov r.s. 9—10-asrlarda moverannahr va xurosonning shahar xoʻjaligi. // ishlar. seriya: qurilish va arxitektura. 5son. dushanbe: ttu, 1994. –b.67-68. 2. adam metz. musulmon uyg'onish davri. m., 1996. 3. islom olami arxitekturasi // tarixiy-ijtimoiy ahamiyati. london, 1978. b. 202, ingliz tilida. 4. nosir-i hasrav. safar nomi. sayohat kitobi.-m.-l., 1933. 5. mirboboev a.k. xo'jand muzqaymoqlari.// pomir.-dushanbe, 1991.-№9.-b.148. 6. bayxaki. masud hikoyasi. yukorida ku sahifa asar.-204. 7. voizi balxi abubakr. fazoili balx.-tehron, hijriy 1350.-b.41, forsiyda. 8. chernyaxovskiy e.g. xuroson va siston // amaliy botanika, genetika va seleksiyaga oid ishlar. 23-jild. 5-son. l., 1930. b. 28. 9. qorategin va darvaz tojiklari. –2-son.dushanbe: donish, 1966.-b.103. 10. saini b. qurilish va atrof-muhit / ingliz tilidan tarjima. 231 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 11. okli d. tropiklarning turar joyi. london, 1961, ingliz tilida. 12. mirboboev a.k. xo'jandning tarixiy merosi. dushanbe: irfon, 1995. b.74-76. 13. ibn valiy. bahr al-asror.-toshkent: fan, 1977.-b.91. 14. ibn havqal. al-arz.-tehron, 1840 x.-b.190, fors tilida. 15. al-yoqubiy. kitob al-buldon //mitt.-v.1.-1939.-b.147. 16. xalifa nishopuriy. torihi nishopur. (nishopur tarixi). tehron, hijriy 1337 yil. fors tilida 141-bet. 17. abu ali ibn sino. “konunlari” 2-jild.-1983 y. 18. mirzoev a. abu ishoq. dushanbe: irfon, 1971.-b.62, tojikcha. lang. 163 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 1, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 techical science building and architecture seismic response of frame buildings with combined earthquake protection system abdurakhmanov a. m., kayumov a. d. teachers of the andijan technical institute. andijan, navoi avenue-15-a. uzbekistan s. m. makhmudov doctor of technical sciences, professor of the tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering abstract: this article shows methods of seismic protection of buildings and structures. technical options for seismic protection are covered. keywords: seismic, rubber-metal, dry friction elements, shut-off elements, horizontal forces, maximum displacements. introduction. the modern problem is to ensure seismic resistance of buildings and structures, especially for objects of increased responsibility. in this regard, the search for ways to effectively increase the seismic resistance of buildings and structures in recent years has been aimed at developing an active seismic protection system. traditional methods of ensuring seismic resistance associated with increasing the bearing capacity of structures, seismic protection systems can reduce the levels of inertial forces that occur in buildings during an earthquake. the article considers methods of seismic protection of buildings and structures that could be practiced in design and construction. problem statement. recently, to ensure seismic resistance and reliability of buildings and structures, seismic isolating rubber-metal supports [6] are increasingly used, which have sufficient vertical rigidity and good horizontal flexibility. in buildings with a rigid structure, these systems are highly effective. but in flexible buildings, they cause problems associated with large movements during seismic impacts. as one of the ways to solve this problem, this article considers a seismic isolation system with rubber-metal supports supplemented with dry friction elements and switching elements. in the largest european countries today, most manufacturers of seismic isolation supports produce the same seismic protection supports. many companies produce a wide range of rubber-metal supports, which, depending on the types of rubber, are classified as soft, normal and rigid. in addition, they are manufactured with and without a lead core. in this paper, rigid rubber-metal supports with a lead core are considered as more effective for flexible buildings. figure 1 shows the calculation scheme of the combined seismic protection system under consideration. 164 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 1. combined seismic protection system: 1-rubber-metal support; 2-building columns; 3-building base columns; 4-reinforced concrete support belt; 5-stiffening diaphragm; 6-gap between the protrusion from the belt; 7-friction elements; 8-limiter; 9-switching element research methods. let us imagine a calculation-dynamic model of a combined seismic protection system in the form of a cantilever rod with n+1 with the number of concentrated masses, as shown in fig. 2. fig.2.dinamic model of the building with a combined seismic protection system, including rezinometallic bearings, dry friction elements and switching elements we represent the system of differential equations of motion of the above-mentioned nonlinear dynamic model subjected to seismic impact in the form: m о уо +с о у о+с 1 (у оу i)+ r (уо ) + р i д пуо+€ у0+к ± (у 0у± ) =m 0 угр m1у 1 + c 1 (3>1 у о) + c2(yi у 2) + к ! (у ! уо ) + к 2(у ± у2) = m ± (угр + у0 ) (1) m{у{ + ci(yi yi_i) + ci+i(yi yi+i) + kj(yj yi_i) + к1+1(у{ yi+1) = -m^р + ^o) тпуп сп(уп уп-1) кп(уп уп-1) = тп(угр m где i=2+n-1. here m0 is the mass concentrated at the level of the top of the rubber-metal supports; t1, t2, ..., mi, ..., tp-1, tp are the concentrated masses at the levels of the floors; k1, k2, ..., ki..., kp-1, kp are the floor-by-floor rigidities of the building; c 0, c 1, c2, ..., cn_v cn are the floor-by-floor 165 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us attenuation coefficients; ygr is the seismic action represented as a real accelerogram or a nonstationary random process; u(y0) is the nonlinear restoring force in the rubber-metal supports; is the displacement at the level of the top of the rubber-metal supports, y2, ..., yn are the displacements of the corresponding masses, and y0, y 1, ..., yn, y0, yi, . . ., yn are the velocities and accelerations of these masses. the restoring force r (у0 ) is represented as [24] r (у0) = ау0( 1-s i gn о ) + ( в у 0 + q ( f г в d 1))1(s i gn о + ( 1 s i gni]/ ))(1s i gnr ) +(ау0 + q (ac + f1-d ))s ignr . (2) in system (1), ftp is the friction force in the sliding supports. with the same number of them with rubber-metal supports, ftp = ftpo, 5'уп= 1 mig, (3) where, ftp is the coefficient of sliding friction in the supports. unit function s igny0 = { 1 к 0г d а у0 ^ 0 (4) 1, when а у0 < 0. the restoring force in the switching elements is designated by €у0. here, according to the “force-displacement” dependence shown in fig. 3 € = to vs! ,when 1уо1<ь i to vs2 ,when b! <1уо1< b 2 to vs3 ,when b 2 <1уо1< b 3 (5) 0,when bз<1уо1 fig.3. the plot of the «restoring force-displacement» relationship for a system of three consecutively-off elements k vc i rigidity in the state of operation of all switching elements; k b c 2 rigidity in the state of switching off of the elements of the first level; k b c z rigidity in the state of switching off of the elements of the second level; b i displacement at which the switching off of the elements of the first level occurs; i&2 displacement at which the switching off of the elements of the second level occurs; bз displacement at which the switching off of the elements of the third level occurs. 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us below are the results of the study of the influence of switching elements and dry friction elements on the displacements of rubber-metal seismic isolation bearings and the tops of columns in 5-story frame buildings. in the considered combined seismic protection system, consisting of rubber-metal bearings with a lead core, dry friction elements with a friction coefficient of 0.2 and switching elements, the following values of the stiffness of the switching elements and the ultimate displacements at which the switching off of these elements occurs were adopted: k bc i 9616.6 k h / cm; b 1 6 cm ; k bc2 6400 k h / cm; b 2 8 cm ; k b c3 3205 k h / cm; b3 10 cm discussion of results. the maximum values of horizontal shear seismic forces at the moment of time corresponding to the maximum displacement of the lower concentrated mass are shown in fig. 4. a) b) fig.4. graphs of horizontal seismic shifting seismic forces for a 5-story frame building: a with a combined seismic protection system; б without seismic isolation 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the graphs show that the use of a combined seismic protection system consisting of rmso, dry friction elements and switching elements in frame buildings reduces the maximum floor shear forces by almost 1.5 times at the time when the displacement of the rubber-metal support is maximum. compared to a building without seismic isolation systems, an almost twofold decrease in these forces is observed under low-frequency seismic impacts. the maximum values of horizontal mass displacements of the system under consideration are shown in fig. 5. a) b) fig.5. the graphs of the movements of concentrated masses for a 5-story frame building: а with a combined seismic protection system; б without seismic isolation it follows from figures 5a and 5b that the combination of rubber-metal bearings only with dry friction elements leads to a decrease in maximum mass displacements by 2-3 times, and with dry friction and switching elements 4-5 times. graphs of maximum displacements and residual deformations of the rmso are shown in figures 6 and 7. it follows from figure 6 that the maximum displacement level of the top of the rubber-metal bearings under consideration, equal to 40 cm, in the seismic protection system without switching elements reaches at prevailing periods of seismic ground vibrations exceeding 0.8 s, and with switching elements at periods exceeding 1.0 s. 168 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.b. graphs of the dependence of the maximum displacement of the top of rubber-metal supports |уо|mах on the prevailing period of ground vibrations for 5-storey frame buildings with a combined seismic protection system. fig. 7. graphs of the dependence of the maximum residual displacements [| y_0 |3 _of the prevailing period of soil oscillation for 5-story frame buildings with a combined seismic protection system fig. 7 shows the efficiency of introducing switching elements into the seismic protection system. results the research documented how integrating seismic protection components with rubber-metal bearings, dry friction elements and switching elements decreased the force of horizontal shears and framework movement in five-story structures. buildings using this combined seismic protection system experienced 1.5 times less maximum horizontal shear forces compared to unisolated buildings. buildings equipped with dry friction elements and switching elements experienced 2-3 times less displacement which further increased to 4-5 times total displacement reduction. a seismic impact brought fewer maximum displacements of rubber-metal bearings after adding switching elements. discussion the experimental results prove that combined seismic protection achieves reduced seismic forces while lowering overall mass displacements. due to its unique design the system provides maximum benefits during seismic impacts with low frequencies. the implementation of switching components improves rubber-metal bearing performance by expanding their protective range against seismic events. 169 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion introduction of switching elements into the seismic isolation system with rubber-metal supports and dry friction, allowing the system to adapt to the resonant frequencies of base soil vibrations, significantly increases the efficiency of seismic protection of flexible structures under lowfrequency impacts. for example, while in 5-storey frame systems without seismic isolation the maximum horizontal shear force exceeds 25,000 kn at prevailing periods of seismic ground vibrations exceeding 0.8 s, then with a combined seismic protection system the shear force does not exceed 10,000 kn. here the maximum displacements of the building at the levels of mass concentration are also reduced by 4-5 times. the introduction of switchable elements into the seismic protection system allows expanding the area of effective application of rubber-metal supports by increasing the range of possible prevailing periods of seismic ground vibrations, at which the maximum displacement of the top of the rubber-metal supports does not exceed the maximum permissible value, and reducing the maximum residual displacements of rubber-metal supports with a lead core. references: in preparing this article, materials on this topic from the websites journal.imras.org and samdaqi.edu.uz were used. 1. сейсмическая реакция каркасных зданий с комбинированной системой сейсмозащиты – тема научной статьи по строительству и архитектуре читайте бесплатно текст научно-исследовательской работы в электронной библиотеке кибер ленинка https://yandex.ru/search/? 2. plevkov v.s., mal’ganov a.i., baldin i.v. zhelezobetonnye i kamennye konstruktsii seysmostoykikh zdaniy i sooruzheniy. moscow: izdatel'stvo asv; 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(2024). методы сейсмозащиты зданий. наука и инновации в системе образования, 3(11), 42–47. извлечено из https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/sies/article/view/51145 internet sites 1. https://yandex.ru/search/? 2. 2022-2-1%20.pdf https://samdaqi.edu.uz/sites/default/files/institut-ilmiy-jurnali/2022-21%20.pdf 3. том 44, № 1 (2017) https://vestnik.dgtu.ru/jour/issue/download/18/19 4. сейсмическая реакция каркасных зданий с комбинированной системой сейсмозащиты https://vestnik.dgtu.ru/jour/article/download/373/337 5. сейсмическая реакция каркасных зданий с комбинированной системой сейсмозащиты. http://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=29407216 6. оптимальные параметры систем активной сейсмозащиты сооружений с резинометаллическими опорами. http://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=35390109 7. https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125914134.pdf 8. http://omtc.knuba.edu.ua/article/download/225981/225689 9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361873696_ensuring_the_seismic_resistance_of_a _building_using_a_geotechnical_seismic_insulating 10. http://dstu.ru/fileadmin/dokumenty/programmes/dissertacija_omarova_kh.m..pdf https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/sies/article/view/51145 https://yandex.ru/search/ https://vestnik.dgtu.ru/jour/issue/download/18/19 https://vestnik.dgtu.ru/jour/article/download/373/337 http://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=29407216 http://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=35390109 https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125914134.pdf http://omtc.knuba.edu.ua/article/download/225981/225689 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361873696_ensuring_the_seismic_resistance_of_a_building_using_a_geotechnical_seismic_insulating https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361873696_ensuring_the_seismic_resistance_of_a_building_using_a_geotechnical_seismic_insulating http://dstu.ru/fileadmin/dokumenty/programmes/dissertacija_omarova_kh.m..pdf 135 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 8, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 a review about mixed convection resulted from buoyancy forces and moving wall in cavities hamza ghazi mohammed, akeel abdullah mohammed al-nahrain university/college of engineering/mechanical engineering department abstract: over the past few years, a considerable number of scholars have been diligently investigating forced and mixed convection in containers, irrespective of whether the walls were stationary or mobile. therefore, they have experimented with several thermal boundary conditions and geometries in order to achieve the best possible outcomes utilizing sophisticated analytical techniques. many researchers have employed various methods to promote the transfer of heat via mixed convection in lid-driven cavities. keywords: mixed convection, lid-driven, heat transfer. 1. introduction the phenomena of the transfer of heat and fluid fields within a hollow structure under the influence of a moving wall are of great significance in industrial applications and have been the focus of research for the last two decades. some applications of these machines include electromagnetic field analysis, thermal control of electronic devices, furnace technology, casting solidification, chemically vaporized depositing tools, nuclear-powered plants, chemical industry separation processes, solar energy, and lubrication technology. 2. heat transfer enhancement using nanofluids and hybrid nanofluids nemati et al. (2010), [1] utilized the lattice boltzmann method to tackle the problem of combined thermal convection transfer in a cavity with a lid in motion, which contains nanofluids consisting of h2o cu, cuo or al2o3. the results exhibited a gradual rise in the intensity of the effects of solid volume fraction for al2o3, cuo, and cu. rahman et al. (2011), [2] analyzed the convective circulation and stream phenomena resulting from the presence of a combination of copper and water nanoparticles in a triangular enclosure. the enclosure is equipped with a lid that is manipulated using an angled motion. the solid volume fraction was shown to have a substantial influence on the fluid dynamics and heat transfer within the enclosure under all three convective conditions. sheikhzadeh et al. (2012), [3] employed al2o3-water nanofluid in a different form of enclosure to explore the impacts of mixed convection thermal transfer, with distinct features of fluid resistance and thermal conductivity. results demonstrated that the nusselt number rises with larger nanoparticle concentrations in a general trend and the choice of model greatly affects the accuracy, particularly at low richardson numbers. hassan el harfi et al. (2013) [4] investigated the mixed convection heat transfer in a square cavity with a lid-driven motion, where the cavity was filled with nanofluids consisting of cuwater. the research illustrated the combined effects of shearing forces from mixed convection 136 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and buoyancy, and also highlighted the influence of nanofluid properties on the efficiency of heat transfer. hassanzadeh and farhadi (2013), [5] investigated the heat transfer caused by natural convection in a square enclosure with a sliding lid. the enclosure contains a nanofluid made of copper and water, and the lattice boltzmann method was used for analysis. the outcomes indicate that an increased concentration of nanoparticles leads to a larger average nusselt number, which in turn enhances the heat transfer process. said et al. (2013), [6] utilized a water-based nanofluid containing copper in a cavity driven by a lid. to ensure consistency in the analysis, the study focused on a specific rayleigh number of 10. the results demonstrated how different concentrations of solid particles and richardson numbers affected heat transfer in the system under investigation. rehena et al. (2014), [7] examined the mixed convection heat transfer occurring in a trapezoidal cavity under the influence of double-lid-driven motion. the cavity was filled with a mixture of water and cuo particles, known as a nanofluid. the conclusions suggest that the inclusion of nanoparticles can enhance the heat transfer process, with cuo nanoparticles proving to be more effective than the base fluid in increasing the rate of heat transfer. kourosh et al. (2014), [8] investigated a hybrid convection flow in a triangular enclosure with a lid, featuring a triangular heat source and filled with a nanofluid consisting of water and tio2 particles. the conclusions demonstrated that including nanoparticles at different richardson numbers can result in substantial enhancement in heat transfer. kalteh et al. (2014), [9] investigated the mixed convection in a square cavity that is lid-driven and has a triangular heat source. the working fluid is a water-based nanofluid, and the leftand lower-walls were insulated. it was demonstrated that the heat transfer performance was significantly enhanced when the nanoparticles were suspended in a pure fluid. anirban et al. (2017), [10] examined the mixed convective heat transfer that occurs when water al2o3 nanofluid are mixed within a porous cavity. the results were verified by comparing them with other studies, and it was observed that the increase in the gr number led to an increase in heat transfer. abdelkader et al. (2015), [11] analyzed the presence of combined convection in a cubic receptacle containing a mixture of cu and ag h2o nanofluid with a volume ratio of φ = 0 0.1. the results showed that the heat transfer increases as the richardson value and the volume fraction of nanoparticles increase. in addition, the use of ag-water nanofluid led to a higher heat transfer value in comparison to cu-water nanofluid. mahmudul hasan et al. (2015), [12] this study investigated the impact of the inclination angle of the cavity on convection heat transfer in two trapezoidal enclosures filled with water containing al2o3 nanofluid at a concentration of 0.1 (φ=0.1). the changes in the mean nusselt number of the heated wall and the temperature of the fluid inside the enclosure at different tilt angles were analyzed. abdelkader boutra et al. (2015), [13] examined the effects of richardson numbers, nanoparticles volume fraction, and tilting angle of a square cavity on the flow patterns and temperature field within the cavity. the results demonstrate that the inclusion of nanoparticles in the base fluid improves heat transfer. specifically, the addition of ag nanoparticles produces the highest average nusselt number values. habib salahi et al. (2015), [14] examined the convection heat transfer in a shallow inclined enclosure with a lid that is influenced by external forces, taking into account an aspect ratio of 10. conclusions suggest that, regardless of the nanoparticles volume percentage, the heat transfer rate shows a slight increase when the cavity inclination increases in the scenario of ri = 0.1, 137 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where forced convection is dominant. furthermore, the rate of growth was notably greater when ri = 10, in which natural convection had a predominant role. zoubair boulahia et al. (2016), [15] employed numerical modeling techniques to investigate the impact of heated triangular cylinders on the transfer of heat in a lid-driven cavity using nanofluids. it was demonstrated that increasing the dimensions, as well as incorporating more heated triangular cylinders, improves the rate of heat transfer. cimpean, d., m. sheremet, et al. (2020), [16] enhanced the mixed convection heat transfer mechanism in a porous trapezoidal chamber filled with a hybrid nanofluid consisting of cu al2o3 / water, by employing suitable algorithms. it was shown that the ability to control the required thermal transfer rate can be achieved by manipulating a variety of nanoparticles in a hybrid nanofluid. ali, i., et al. (2020), [17] utilized a hybrid nanofluid to enhance the transfer of heat through mixed convection in enclosed spaces. it has been noted that a high reynolds number and specific solid body sizes might enhance heat transfer within the cavity above the usual level, potentially impacting the overall efficiency of the system. 3. heat transfer enhancement using porous media the main parameters, boundaries, and geometries for improving the transfer of heat in lid-driven cavities utilizing porous media are covered in these studies. these investigations used this method and others, such as adding hybrid nanoparticles to the main fluid, vibrating, and tilting the cavity. hakan (2006), [18] performed a numerical simulation to calculate the heat transfer and combined primary and secondary flows in a porous cavity, where the upper wall moved at a consistent low temperature and velocity. this study investigated the influence of many elements on the flow patterns and temperature contours, such as the darcy number, richardson number, and the position and size of the heater on the left side. hakan et al. (2008), [19] analyzed the thermal transfer in cavities with a thick bottom hot wall that is in motion, taking into account both conduction and mixed convection. conclusions indicate that heat transfer improves when the thermal conductivity of the wall (kw) is higher than the thermal conductivity of the fluid (kf), and when the richardson number is lowered. wang (2009), [20] investigated the application of a permeable darcy-brinkman medium in a rectangular container, where the upper wall is in motion. the inclusion of porous materials in the medium has been observed to minimize the occurrence of recirculating swirls, leading to a decrease in their intensity, especially in the case of deep cavities. stephen and kambiz (2010), [21] utilized vibration and porous material to improve the mixed convection of heat transfer in an open chamber. conclusions suggest that when the darcy and reynolds numbers increase, the vibrational impacts become more prominent. mohd et al. (2010), [22] analyzed the characteristics of fluid flow and heat transfer in a square enclosure with a porous material, when the lid is in motion. the study demonstrated that the porosity of the field exerts a substantial influence on the velocity, vortex intensity, and boundary layer. waheed et al. (2011), [23] analyzed the concurrent convective heat transfer phenomenon that arises when a rectangular container is filled with a porous material saturated with fluid. the flow and temperature distributions inside the enclosure were significantly affected by the controlling variables, specifically the richardson number, darcy number, and geometric proportion. wael et al. (2012), [24] examined the phenomenon taking place within a square enclosure with a lid that moves, which contains a porous substance saturated with fluid. the darcy number (da) and the magnitude proportion of varying temperature (ε) were discovered to have a significant impact on the flow and thermal properties. 138 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us abdalla alamiri (2013), [25] examined the combined impact of inertia and buoyancy within a square container containing a porous structure, while keeping the top wall's speed constant. the study revealed that an increase in the richardson number enhances the phenomenon of flow mixing and increases the rate of heat transfer. anirban et al. (2014), [26] investigated the mixed convection heat transfer in a square container with a movable lid, filled with a permeable substance. the study focused on combined convection, with the right wall maintained at a low temperature and the left wall uniformly heated. conclusions indicate that the heat transfer rates were significantly influenced by the direction of motion of the driven wall. mojumder et al. (2016), [27] examined the influence of grashof number, reynolds number, and darcy number on temperature distribution and fluid flow characteristics in a lid-driven l-shaped cavity containing a porous medium. conclusions revealed a significant decrease of up to 63% in the transfer of heat in the lower wall as the reynolds number reaches a high value of 100. 4. heat transfer enhancement using magnetic field and vibration the following literature provides a concise overview of the research activities focused on improving the transfer of heat in hollow structures and enclosures by the use of magnetic field &/or vibration. this may require the integration of further boosting methods, such as nanofluid hybrids and porous media. billah et al. (2014), [28] conducted a numerical investigation on the heat transfer occurring in a two-dimensional inclined lid-driven equilateral triangular enclosure that was filled with nanofluids consisting of copper and water. conclusions indicated that there was a 28% increase in heat transfer as the solid volume percentage increased. raizah, z., et al. (2021), [29] examined how magnetic fields affected the flow of mixed convection in a wavy container containing permeable medium and hybrid nanofluids. results indicate that the length and positioning of the heater enhance the flow of nanofluids and the transfer of heat in cavities with a wavy shape. salma and rehena (2010), [30] explored the properties of heat transfer in a lid-driven cavity with a heated base bottom wall that is sinusoidal and wavy. the investigation concluded that the localized heat transfer has a sinusoidal shape. moreover, the heat transfer coefficients increase as the wave value increases and decrease as the hartmann number decreases. khaled et al. (2012), [31] explored the impact of wall motion direction on mhd mixed convection within a lid-driven enclosure. conclusions indicate that in mixed convection scenarios, wall movement direction has a greater impact on the influence of streamlines and thermal patterns than in forced convection circumstances. ziafat and tabish (2016), [32] examined the heat transfer occurring in a trapezoidal cavity with a mobile upper wall, while considering the influence of a steady magnetic field. conclusions indicate that the nusselt number, which measures the rate of heat transfer, is highest at the borders of the wall and steadily declines towards the center, where it reaches its minimum value. bakar et al. (2016), [33] examined the effects of applying a magnetic field on the combined heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics within a rectangular container. conclusions suggest that the magnetic field had a substantial impact on the parameters of thermal transfer and fluid dynamics. borhan et al (2016), [34] applied the electromagnetic field to enhance the process of twin molecular diffusion coupled convection heat transfer in a quadrilateral enclosure. the study determined that the mass transfer was greatly affected by the lewis value. rashad et al. (2017), [35] investigated the effects of partial slip and mhd convection in a square cavity with lid-driven motion, as well as mixed and natural convection. an analysis was 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conducted on the physical phenomena associated with the transfer of heat and fluid movement under these constraints, and the intriguing outcomes of this study were reported. sameh (2018), [36] conducted experiments on mhd effects by applying them to different alignment directions on the left sidewall of a trapezoid-shaped enclosure. the enclosure was filled with water micro polar nanofluids containing several types of nanoparticles, including cu, ag, al2o3, and tio2. conclusions demonstrate a direct relationship between the average heat transfer coefficient and the decrease in richardson number and thermal source magnitude, as well as a rise in particle concentration. kefayati and tang (2018), [37] investigated the mixed convection phenomena occurring in an enclosure with different aspect ratios, taking into account the impact of a uniform magnetic field. results have shown that increasing the reynolds number enhances the coefficient of heat transfer. as the bingham number increases, the rate of heat transfer decreases. humaun et al. (2019), [38] explored the phenomenon of mhd mixed convection heat transfer in a porous rectangular enclosure including three square heating components and a lid that is actively propelled. the chamber was filled with a nanofluid consisting of h2o cu. the results showed a positive relationship between the average nusselt number and both the darcy parameter and the richardson parameter. al-asada et al. (2019), [39] examined the impact of a magnetic field on the mixed convection heat transfer in a square enclosure with a lid and a vertical fin attached to the hot wall. conclusions demonstrate a positive relationship between the average nusselt number and the richardson number. moreover, the hartmann number plays a critical role in enhancing the heat transfer mechanism within the lid-driven cavity. 5. heat transfer enhancement in lid-driven cavity using other parameters multiple authors have undertaken investigations on enhancing heat transfer within a moving-lid cavities by optimizing different parameters. further strategies to enhance the heat transfer process may include employing a wavy wall or cavity, manipulating the prandtl number, finetuning the slope angle of the cavities, etc. chen and cheng (2004), [40] investigated the heat transfer taking place in a moving-lid arcshaped container using both numerical and experimental methods, taking into account mixed, forced, and free convection. the mixed heat transfer outcomes are utilized to construct thermal maps, stream vectors, and ensemble mean nusselt numbers employing more intricate numerical methodologies. this outcome demonstrates an exceptional alignment between the predicted flows and the observed patterns of flow. sharif (2007), [41] carried out a numerical analysis to examine how the tilt angle affected the fluid flow characteristics and thermal transfer within a shallow rectangular chamber with a set aspect ratio of 10. it was found that the mean thermal transfer rate increases as the cavity's tilt inclination rises. bhattachary et al. (2013), [42] investigated the impact of prandtl number on the combined freeforced convection occurring within a lid-driven trapezoidal cavity. the bottom wall was heated in two different cases: isothermal and non-isothermal. in the domain of heat transfer dominated by convection, where re.pr > 1, results indicate that in case 2, numerous steady states were seen in either the region where natural convection dominates (ri ≫ 1) or the region of mixed convection (ri ∼ o(1)). the non-isothermal bottom wall exhibited higher mean nusselt values. chen and chung (2015), [43] investigated the impact of tilt angle, reynolds number, and grashof number on mixed convection heat transfer in a triangular lid-driven cavity. three distinct flow regimes were discovered in a triangle-shaped chamber with a lid that may move at angles ranging from 0° to 360°. these regimes include mixed convection flow, dominating forced convection, and dominating natural convection. 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us krunal and siddharth (2018), [44] examined the flow characteristics in rectangular enclosures with a lid that is driven by motion, focusing on the effects of the prandtl number and the direction of the moving vertical wall. explored the relationship between these factors and the distribution of heat within the enclosure. conclusions suggest that the primary element influencing heat dispersion is the direction in which the sliding lid moves, rather than the aspect ratio of the circular cylinder. saha et al. 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using lattice boltzmann method. international journal of automotive and mechanical engineering (ijame), issn: 19859325(print); issn: 2180-1606 (online); volume 2, pp. 130-143, julydecember 2010. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5115868 8 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 5, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 physical and mechanical properties of non-woven thermal-bonded materials s. patkhullayev abstract: the influence of the main technological parameters and the content of modifiers and plasticizers on the physical and mechanical properties of non-woven thermally bonded materials has been studied. the optimal values for the content of binder, plasticizer, modifier, catalyst and thermal bonding conditions have been established. the development of technology for thermal bonding of chemical fibers requires solving the problem of increasing their adhesive ability. to do this, it is necessary to develop an effective method for modifying the surface of industrial chemical fibers, which will increase the strength of adhesive joints and improve the properties of non-woven thermally bonded materials based on them. to evaluate the performance properties of fibers and nonwovens produced by thermal bonding, tests were carried out in accordance with standard methods. ir spectroscopy methods were used to assess the physicochemical properties of modifiers. the most well-known theories of polymer adhesion are considered: adsorption, diffusion, chemical, electrical, which explain in different ways the mechanism of formation of adhesive bonds. the amount of adhesion depends not only on the presence, but also on the number of bonds between the contacting bodies. in turn, the number of bonds is determined by the contact area between the adhesive and the substrate. the most important factors influencing the strength of the adhesive bond are: temperature, pressure, contact time, polymer compatibility, molecular weight, crystallinity, surface topography, etc. all methods of increasing the adhesive ability of polymers come down to activation, aimed at changing the morphology and energy state of the fiber surface, and modification, based on the introduction of various functional groups into the surface layers of the polymer. chemical fibers generally have low adhesive ability. one of the promising methods is to modify the surface of chemical silicon fibers with organic compounds, in particular oligovinylethoxysiloxanes. it has been shown that for the production of non-woven thermally bonded materials with increased physical and mechanical properties, it is relevant to develop new, effective and inexpensive modifiers from domestic raw materials for industrial chemical fibers and binders that increase their adhesive ability. the effect of processing polypropylene and polyester fibers, as well as the binder thermoplastic polyamide powder, with organosilicon modifiers and industrial plasticizers dibutyl phthalate and dioctyl sebacate on their deformation-strength properties has been studied. 9 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us it has been shown that treating chemical fibers and polyamide powder with plasticizers in a small amount (up to 2 wt. %) increases the breaking load by 20% and the elongation at break by 10%. with a further increase in the content of plasticizers, the deformation-strength properties of fibers and powder deteriorate, which is associated with a significant decrease in intermolecular interaction and viscosity of the fiber polymer and binder. optimal technological parameters for processing chemical fibers and binders with plasticizers were obtained: a) for polypropylene fiber: doc content 2-2 .5 wt.%; b) for polyester fiber: dos content 1.5-2% by weight; b) for polyamide powder: dwf content 1.5-2% wt. the influence of the main technological parameters and the content of modifiers and plasticizers on the deformation-strength properties of non-woven thermally bonded materials obtained using binders and the autohesive bonding method was studied. it has been established that the dependences of breaking load, elastic modulus, stiffness and elongation at break are extreme. it has been shown that an increase in the binder content in the fibrous web leads to an increase in the number of gluings in the nonwoven material and, as a consequence, an increase in the breaking load and a decrease in elongation at break. increasing the temperature and pressing pressure to the optimal value also helps to increase the deformation-strength properties of the nonwoven material, which is explained by the increase in the adhesive strength of the adhesives and their quantity in the canvas. with a further increase in temperature and pressure, partial destruction of the binder polymer occurs, a decrease in the strength of the adhesives, or the destruction of some of the adhesives in the non-woven material. it was revealed that the process of plasticization of the surface layer of fibers intensifies the interdiffusion of macromolecules of the connected fibers, and as a result increases the strength of adhesive bonds and the deformation-strength properties of the nonwoven material. decrease in temperature. melting of the fiber contributes to an increase in the intensity of thermal movement of its molecules and their segments, which in turn leads to accelerated diffusion and better interaction of contacting surfaces. a further increase in the plasticizer content leads to a decrease in the cohesive strength of chemical fibers and binders and the strength of their adhesive connections in the material. the optimal conditions for the production of non-woven thermally bonded materials from plasticizer-treated chemical fibers and binders have been determined. the influence of the content of decavinyl dodecaethoxysiloxane (compound (iv)), as the most effective, on the physical and mechanical properties of non-woven thermally bonded materials from polyester fibers obtained using either polypropylene fibers as a binder has been studied. fibers, or thermoplastic polyamide powder, as well as non-woven materials from polyester and polypropylene fibers obtained by autohesive bonding. research has shown that the dependences of breaking load, elongation at break, elastic modulus, and rigidity of nonwoven materials on the content of compound (iv) are extreme. in addition to chemical bonds, which increase the strength of adhesive connections at the contact boundary, physical forces (dispersion, orientation, induction) also act. the optimal conditions for producing non-woven thermally bonded materials with increased physical and mechanical properties from polypropylene and polyester fibers and polyamide powder modified with decavinyl dodecaethoxysiloxane were determined: а) non-woven material made of polypropylene fibers: modifier content 0.2% by weight; catalyst content 1.5% wt, mod.; pressing temperature 155 °c; pressing pressure 4.0 mpa; canvas feed speed 7 m/min; b) non-woven material made of polyester fibers: modifier content 0.2-0.25% by weight; catalyst content 1.5% wt, mod; pressing temperature 230°c; pressing pressure 2.0 mpa; canvas feed speed 7 m/min; 10 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us c) non-woven material made of polyester fiber and polyamide powder: modifier content 0.25% by weight; binder content -45% mass; heat treatment temperature – 1200c; pressing temperature 130 °c; pressing pressure 3.5 mpa; canvas feeding speed -7 m/min d) non-woven material made from a mixture of polyester and polypropylene fibers: modifier content -0.25% mass; catalyst content -1.5% wt, mod.; binder content -35% mass; pressing temperature 160 °c; pressing pressure 4.0 mpa; canvas feeding speed 7 m/min. a comparative analysis of the physical and mechanical properties of non-woven thermally bonded materials obtained using industrial plasticizers and new oligovinylethoxysiloxanes (table) showed that table. physical and mechanical properties of non-woven thermally bonded materials obtained using various types of binders that the use of decavinyldodecaethoxysiloxane (compound (iv)) as a modifier of chemical fibers and polyamide powder makes it possible to obtain on their basis non-woven thermally bonded materials with increased physical and mechanical properties: breaking load and elastic modulus increase by 2 2.5 times, relative elongation at break, rigidity and strength loss coefficient in the wet state are reduced by 2 times. at the same time, the high breathability and elasticity of nonwoven materials is maintained. literature 1. серебрякова л.а. оптимизация состава и структуры иглопробивных нетканых материалов из вторичного сырья / л.а. серебрякова // владивосток: изд-во тгэу, 2008. 168 с. 2. лаврушин г.а. использование нетканых материалов в качестве утепляющей прокладки / г.а. лаврушин, л.а. серебрякова, т.в. чадова // швейная промышленность. 2005, №1. с.46-48. 3. серебрякова л.а. оценка качества и конкурентоспособности нетканых обувных стелечных материалов из вторичного сырья / л.а. серебрякова, и.а. мохирева, с.н. авеличева, // кожевенно-обувная промышленность. 2008, №4. с. 36-37. 41 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 1, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 artificial intelligence in power system operations: applications, challenges, and future directions israa abdulkareem shakir department of construction and projects, university presidency , university of samarra , iraq abstract: this review provides a comprehensive exploration of the transformative role of artificial intelligence (ai) in power system operations. the paper delves into the historical evolution of ai applications in energy management, highlighting its impact on load forecasting, demand-side management, fault detection, grid stability, and renewable energy integration. it addresses the key challenges faced during implementation, including data quality, computational complexity, legacy system integration, cybersecurity, and ethical considerations. future directions are discussed, emphasizing predictive maintenance, decentralized grids, hybrid ai models, and real-time decision-making. the review also presents case studies demonstrating successful ai applications in power systems, such as those by siemens and general electric, showcasing performance improvements and cost savings. finally, practical recommendations are provided for seamless ai integration, underscoring the importance of industry-academia partnerships and training programs for engineers to leverage ai effectively. ai's potential in revolutionizing the energy sector is undeniable, paving the way for more efficient, reliable, and sustainable power systems to meet future energy demands. keywords: artificial intelligence, power systems, renewable energy, load forecasting, grid stability, predictive maintenance. introduction to artificial intelligence in power systems 1. principles of artificial intelligence and its role in enhancing power system operations artificial intelligence (ai) is a branch of computer science that focuses on developing systems capable of performing tasks requiring human intelligence. in power systems, ai applications include load forecasting, resource optimization, and loss minimization. by analyzing complex data and identifying patterns, ai enhances operational efficiency, reliability, and costeffectiveness. for instance, ai-driven predictive maintenance reduces downtime and optimizes resource allocation (1,2). 2. history of ai in power systems the use of ai in power systems began in the 1970s with expert systems designed to simulate human decision-making. in the 1990s, neural networks gained traction for load forecasting and network optimization. with advancements in computing and data analysis, ai applications expanded in the 2000s to include renewable energy systems and big data analytics. these developments have revolutionized energy generation, distribution, and management (2,3). 42 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. types of ai techniques used in power systems 1. machine learning (ml): ml techniques analyze large datasets to develop predictive models for future system behavior. for example, ml is widely used for predicting electricity consumption patterns and optimizing grid performance (4). 2. artificial neural networks (anns): anns mimic human brain function by creating connections between inputs and outputs. they are employed for applications like demand forecasting and stability analysis of power systems (3,4). 3. genetic algorithms (gas): gas optimize the design and operation of electrical networks by simulating natural selection processes. this technique is particularly effective for complex optimization problems such as grid planning and fault diagnosis (5). applications of ai in power system operations 1. load forecasting artificial intelligence (ai) significantly improves load forecasting accuracy by employing artificial neural networks (anns) and deep learning models. these technologies analyze historical data and detect patterns, enabling utilities to predict electricity demand more precisely. accurate load forecasting helps reduce energy waste, optimize generation schedules, and improve overall grid reliability (1,2). 2. demand-side management ai enhances demand-side management by analyzing consumer behavior and optimizing energy usage patterns. machine learning algorithms and iot devices enable real-time monitoring of consumption and provide actionable insights. these insights help utilities implement demand response programs and consumers optimize their energy use, reducing peak loads and operational costs (3). 3. fault detection and diagnosis ai-powered systems are widely used for early fault detection and diagnosis in power grids. techniques like pattern recognition and machine learning algorithms identify anomalies in realtime, allowing for proactive maintenance. this reduces downtime, enhances grid reliability, and minimizes financial losses associated with equipment failure (4,5). 4. grid stability and control maintaining grid stability and frequency management are critical for power system operations. ai-based tools analyze real-time data to predict disturbances and adjust control mechanisms dynamically. these tools improve grid resilience and enable faster recovery from disruptions, particularly in scenarios involving fluctuating renewable energy sources (6,7). 5. integration of renewable energy ai facilitates the seamless integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, into the grid. weather forecasting models powered by ai predict renewable energy production, optimizing grid operations and mitigating intermittency issues. this improves grid stability and supports the transition to a sustainable energy future (8,9). 6. energy market optimization ai technologies analyze electricity markets to determine optimal pricing and achieve a balance between supply and demand. by using predictive analytics and game-theoretic models, ai helps energy providers and consumers make informed decisions, ultimately enhancing market efficiency and cost-effectiveness (10,11). 43 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us challenges in ai implementation in power systems 1. data availability and quality one of the primary challenges in implementing ai in power systems is the availability of accurate and reliable data for training ai models. power system operations require extensive datasets for load forecasting, fault diagnosis, and optimization. however, inconsistencies in data collection methods, sensor inaccuracies, and missing information can degrade model performance. high-quality data preprocessing and validation are essential to mitigate these issues (16,17). 2. computational complexity ai algorithms, especially deep learning models, demand significant computational resources. the complexity arises from the need to process vast amounts of real-time data and execute iterative learning processes. scaling these computations for large power systems often requires high-performance computing infrastructure, which can be costly and resource-intensive (18,19). 3. integration with legacy systems most power grids rely on legacy systems that were not designed to support modern ai technologies. integrating ai with these systems poses compatibility challenges, as older infrastructures lack the flexibility and computational capabilities required for seamless integration. upgrading or retrofitting these systems is often time-consuming and expensive (20,21). 4. cybersecurity concerns the application of ai in power systems introduces new cybersecurity vulnerabilities. ai-driven systems rely on interconnected networks and real-time data exchange, making them susceptible to cyberattacks. malicious actors can exploit vulnerabilities in ai algorithms or communication channels, potentially causing widespread disruptions in energy supply (22,23). 5. ethical and regulatory issues the implementation of ai in power systems raises ethical and regulatory concerns. questions about data privacy, accountability for ai-driven decisions, and adherence to international energy regulations must be addressed. additionally, ai's potential to replace human decision-makers creates ethical dilemmas regarding job displacement and responsibility (24,25). future directions for ai in power systems 1. ai-driven decentralized grids artificial intelligence (ai) plays a critical role in enabling decentralized grids, or microgrids, to operate autonomously. ai optimizes local energy distribution, balances supply and demand, and facilitates renewable energy integration. for example, ai algorithms are used for real-time energy management in microgrids, improving system efficiency and reliability (27,28). 2. predictive maintenance predictive maintenance powered by ai analyzes historical and real-time data to predict equipment failures before they occur. this approach reduces downtime and extends the life of equipment. for instance, ai models are applied in monitoring transformer conditions to prevent catastrophic failures (29,30). 3. enhanced renewable energy management ai enhances the integration and management of renewable energy by leveraging predictive analytics. weather forecasting models powered by ai optimize renewable energy generation and storage, reducing reliance on non-renewable resources. ai-based systems also determine optimal battery charge and discharge schedules, improving energy efficiency (31,32). 44 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. real-time decision making ai enables real-time decision-making during peak demand and emergencies. ai systems analyze large datasets instantaneously, providing operators with actionable insights for grid stability, fault response, and demand management. this real-time capability ensures efficient and reliable power delivery (33,34). 5. hybrid ai models the integration of multiple ai techniques, such as combining deep learning with genetic algorithms, results in hybrid ai models that offer superior performance. these models are applied in multi-objective optimization tasks, such as managing distributed energy resources or optimizing power flow in grids (35,36). case studies and success stories 1. successful applications of ai by energy companies  siemens: siemens uses ai-driven predictive maintenance systems for wind turbines, significantly reducing operational costs and improving uptime (27).  general electric (ge): ge applies ai-powered digital twins to monitor and optimize power plant performance in real-time, achieving enhanced operational efficiency (29). 2. performance improvements and key learnings  improved efficiency: ai-enhanced load forecasting projects have reduced energy wastage and increased operational efficiency in various regions.  cost savings: predictive maintenance has enabled utilities to save up to 25-30% on maintenance costs.  renewable integration: ai-based weather forecasting and energy storage management systems have improved renewable energy adoption rates without compromising grid stability (32,34). 6. comparison of ai techniques in power systems efficiency machine learning (ml) and deep learning (dl) techniques exhibit significant differences in efficiency. while ml models such as decision trees and support vector machines require less training data and are faster to deploy, dl models like neural networks can achieve higher accuracy for complex problems but require extensive datasets. dl is particularly advantageous in scenarios involving large-scale, high-dimensional data, such as grid stability and renewable energy forecasting (37,38). computational complexity ml techniques are generally less computationally intensive compared to dl models. dl involves multiple layers of computation and often requires specialized hardware such as gpus to train efficiently. in contrast, ml methods are more suitable for resource-constrained environments or applications where quick model deployment is required (39,40). applicability ml techniques are versatile and applicable across a wide range of tasks, including load forecasting and demand-side management. dl, on the other hand, excels in tasks involving image recognition (e.g., fault detection via infrared imaging) and time-series analysis (e.g., predicting energy consumption trends). the choice between ml and dl depends on the specific requirements of the power system application (41,42). 45 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. recommendations for ai integration in power systems practical steps for successful ai integration 1. needs assessment: conduct a thorough analysis of system needs to identify areas where ai can provide the most value. 2. data collection and preparation: establish reliable data collection mechanisms and ensure data quality through preprocessing and validation. 3. pilot projects: begin with small-scale pilot projects to evaluate ai performance and feasibility before full-scale implementation. 4. scalability planning: develop a roadmap for scaling ai applications across the entire power system (43,44). industry-academia partnerships collaborations between industry and academia are essential for advancing ai in power systems. academic institutions can drive innovation by developing cutting-edge ai algorithms, while industry partners provide real-world challenges and data for testing and implementation. joint research initiatives and funding programs can accelerate progress (45). training programs for engineers to ensure successful adoption of ai, it is crucial to develop training programs that equip engineers with the skills needed to use ai tools effectively. these programs should cover fundamental concepts, hands-on experience with ai software, and domain-specific applications in power systems. organizations can also provide continuous learning opportunities to keep engineers updated on advancements in ai technology (46,47). 7. conclusion the integration of artificial intelligence (ai) in power systems marks a transformative shift in how energy is managed, distributed, and consumed. ai technologies have proven their potential in optimizing load forecasting, enhancing grid stability, and facilitating the integration of renewable energy sources. while challenges such as data quality, computational complexity, and cybersecurity remain, the development of advanced algorithms and collaborative efforts between academia and industry are paving the way for innovative solutions. moving forward, the successful adoption of ai in power systems will require a clear roadmap, robust infrastructure, and a skilled workforce. emphasis on training programs for engineers and fostering partnerships will ensure the long-term sustainability of these systems. by addressing these challenges and leveraging the opportunities ai presents, power systems can become more efficient, resilient, and adaptive to the growing energy demands of the future. references 1. babu ts, gurrala g, suganthan pn. artificial intelligence techniques for electric power systems: a review. ieee transactions on evolutionary computation. 2021;25(3):345-67. 2. mohammadi m, mohammadi-ivatloo b, asadi s. application of machine learning in smart grid: a review. renewable and sustainable energy reviews. 2020;128:109891. 3. kirschen ds, strbac g. fundamentals of power system economics. 2nd ed. wiley; 2019. 4. teuvo kohonen. self-organizing maps. springer science & business media. 2012;30:34955. 5. haupt rl, haupt se. practical genetic algorithms. 2nd ed. wiley-interscience; 2004. 6. babu ts, gurrala g, 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2nd ed. wiley-interscience; 2004. 36. conejo aj, morales jm, baringo l. real-time electricity market optimization. springer; 2010. 37. goodfellow i, bengio y, courville a. deep learning. mit press; 2016. 38. mohammadi m, mohammadi-ivatloo b, asadi s. application of machine learning in smart grid: a review. renewable and sustainable energy reviews. 2020;128:109891. 39. zhang q, yang lt, chen z, li p. computational challenges in big data analytics for ai applications in power systems. ieee transactions on industrial informatics. 2018;15(3):1502-10. 40. sun y, wang j, xu h. challenges and opportunities in data-driven power system operations. electric power systems research. 2021;189:106663. 41. haupt rl, haupt se. practical genetic algorithms. 2nd ed. wiley-interscience; 2004. 42. pineda s, conejo aj. renewable energy integration into power grids. energy economics. 2020;89:104839. 43. gungor vc, sahin d, kocak t, ergut s. smart grid technologies: communication technologies and standards. ieee transactions on industrial informatics. 2013;9(1):50-65. 44. weron r. electricity price forecasting: a review of the state-of-the-art with a look into the future. international journal of forecasting. 2014;30(4):1030-81. 45. srivastava ak, manic m. cyber-physical system security for smart grid. ieee transactions on smart grid. 2020;11(5):4100-12. 46. liu x, liu j, chen x. cybersecurity challenges in ai-driven power systems. energies. 2021;14(3):742. 47. awad e, dsouza s, kim r, et al. the moral machine experiment. nature. 2018;563(7729):59-64. 51 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 3, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 enhancing cloud security with machine learning-based anomaly detection aisha mohammed, theresa ojevwe akroh, chinwe sheila nwachukwu doctorate in cloud computing and cybersecurity, researcher at the university of derby, united kingdom abstract: with the increasing adoption of cloud computing across industries, ensuring robust security measures has become a critical priority. traditional security approaches, such as rulebased intrusion detection systems and signature-based methods, often fail to detect novel and sophisticated cyber threats in real-time. as a result, the integration of machine learning (ml) for anomaly detection has emerged as a powerful solution for enhancing cloud security. this paper explores the implementation of ml-based anomaly detection techniques to identify and mitigate security threats in cloud environments. specifically, it examines various ml approaches, including supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning, and their effectiveness in detecting deviations from normal system behavior. by analyzing patterns in network traffic, user activity, and system logs, ml models can identify potential threats such as insider attacks, unauthorized access, malware infiltration, and distributed denial-of-service (ddos) attacks. furthermore, the paper discusses the challenges associated with ml-driven security solutions, including the need for high-quality training data, computational overhead, model interpretability, and potential adversarial attacks on learning algorithms. additionally, privacy concerns related to data collection and processing in cloud environments are highlighted. despite these challenges, ml-based anomaly detection offers significant advantages over conventional security mechanisms by enabling adaptive, scalable, and proactive threat detection. through an in-depth review of recent advancements and case studies, this research underscores the transformative potential of ml in strengthening cloud security. by leveraging artificial intelligence and data-driven anomaly detection techniques, cloud service providers can improve their security posture, reduce false positives in threat detection, and enhance real-time incident response. ultimately, this study advocates for the integration of ml-based anomaly detection as a fundamental component of modern cloud security frameworks to ensure the resilience and integrity of cloud-based systems against evolving cyber threats. i. introduction background on cloud security challenges cloud computing has revolutionized the way businesses and individuals store, process, and access data, offering scalability, flexibility, and cost-efficiency. however, as cloud adoption continues to grow, so do the security challenges associated with it. organizations relying on cloud services face a range of cyber threats, including unauthorized access, data breaches, distributed denial-of-service (ddos) attacks, insider threats, and advanced persistent threats (apts). the dynamic nature of cloud environments, characterized by multi-tenancy, remote access, and resource virtualization, further complicates security enforcement. 52 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us increasing cyber threats in cloud environments the rapid expansion of cloud services has attracted cybercriminals who exploit vulnerabilities in cloud infrastructure, applications, and user authentication mechanisms. cyberattacks targeting cloud platforms have become more sophisticated, leveraging techniques such as phishing, ransomware, and zero-day exploits. additionally, the rise of hybrid and multi-cloud deployments has introduced new security challenges, including inconsistent security policies, misconfigurations, and insecure application programming interfaces (apis). the increasing number of connected devices and remote work arrangements has further expanded the attack surface, making cloud environments prime targets for malicious actors. limitations of traditional security measures conventional security measures, such as rule-based intrusion detection systems (ids), firewalls, and signature-based antivirus solutions, are often inadequate in detecting and mitigating emerging cyber threats in cloud environments. these traditional approaches rely heavily on predefined rules and known attack signatures, making them ineffective against novel and evolving threats. additionally, static security mechanisms struggle to handle the scale and complexity of modern cloud architectures, leading to high false positive rates and delayed threat detection. as cyberattacks become more sophisticated and automated, there is a growing need for intelligent, adaptive security solutions capable of identifying anomalies in real time. role of machine learning in cybersecurity machine learning (ml) has emerged as a transformative technology in cybersecurity, offering advanced capabilities for threat detection, risk assessment, and incident response. unlike traditional security approaches, ml can analyze vast amounts of data, recognize patterns, and detect anomalies that may indicate potential security threats. by leveraging ml algorithms, security systems can continuously learn from new data, improving their ability to identify and mitigate attacks in real-time. how ml enhances threat detection and response ml-powered security solutions can process large volumes of network traffic, system logs, and user activity data to detect subtle deviations from normal behavior. these systems employ various ml techniques, including supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning, to classify threats and predict potential attacks. by automating threat detection, ml reduces the reliance on manual analysis and enables faster incident response. additionally, ml can enhance security automation by integrating with security information and event management (siem) systems, threat intelligence platforms, and automated response mechanisms. benefits of anomaly detection in cloud security anomaly detection, a critical application of ml in cybersecurity, focuses on identifying deviations from established behavioral patterns that may indicate security threats. unlike traditional signature-based methods, anomaly detection can identify previously unknown attacks and insider threats. some key benefits of ml-based anomaly detection in cloud security include: ➢ early threat detection: ml can identify subtle anomalies before they escalate into fullscale attacks. ➢ reduced false positives: advanced ml models minimize false alarms, improving the accuracy of threat detection. ➢ scalability: ml-driven solutions can handle large-scale, dynamic cloud environments efficiently. ➢ adaptive security: continuous learning enables security systems to adapt to new attack techniques and evolving cyber threats. 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ automated response: ml can trigger real-time alerts and automated countermeasures, enhancing incident response efficiency. thesis statement this paper explores the application of machine learning-based anomaly detection techniques in enhancing cloud security. by examining different ml approaches, their implementation challenges, and real-world applications, this study aims to highlight the transformative impact of ml in modern cybersecurity. the research will demonstrate how ml-powered anomaly detection can improve threat identification, reduce security risks, and strengthen cloud security frameworks against emerging cyber threats. ii. literature review traditional vs. modern cloud security approaches as cloud computing has evolved, so too have the security measures designed to protect cloud environments. traditional security approaches, such as signature-based detection and rule-based systems, have been the foundation of cybersecurity for decades. however, the increasing sophistication of cyber threats has rendered these methods less effective. modern security approaches, particularly those leveraging artificial intelligence (ai) and machine learning (ml), are more dynamic, adaptable, and capable of identifying novel attacks in real time. signature-based vs. behavior-based detection traditional security solutions rely heavily on signature-based detection, which involves identifying known attack patterns by comparing them to a database of predefined signatures. while this method is effective against previously encountered threats, it struggles to detect new, unknown, or evolving attacks, such as zero-day exploits and advanced persistent threats (apts). in contrast, behavior-based detection utilizes machine learning and artificial intelligence to analyze patterns of normal system behavior and flag deviations that may indicate potential security incidents. by monitoring network traffic, user activity, and system logs, behavior-based methods can detect anomalies indicative of emerging threats, even when no prior knowledge of the attack exists. this adaptive capability makes behavior-based approaches particularly wellsuited for cloud environments, where traditional security perimeters are less effective due to dynamic workloads and distributed infrastructure. evolution of security strategies in cloud computing cloud security strategies have undergone significant transformation over the years. initially, organizations relied on perimeter-based defenses, such as firewalls and access control mechanisms, to protect on-premises data centers. with the migration to cloud environments, new security challenges emerged, including multi-tenancy risks, insider threats, and insecure apis. modern security strategies now emphasize zero-trust architectures (zta), identity and access management (iam), and continuous monitoring powered by ai-driven analytics. cloud security frameworks have shifted toward proactive threat detection, leveraging automation and ml-based systems to predict and prevent cyber incidents before they occur. the growing adoption of security information and event management (siem) systems and extended detection and response (xdr) platforms further highlights the need for intelligence-driven security solutions in cloud environments. machine learning in cybersecurity machine learning has emerged as a powerful tool for cybersecurity, enhancing threat detection, risk assessment, and automated response mechanisms. ml models can process vast amounts of data, recognize complex attack patterns, and improve over time, making them well-suited for dynamic cloud environments. 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning applications ml techniques used in cybersecurity can be broadly categorized into three types: 1. supervised learning: this approach involves training ml models using labeled datasets containing both normal and malicious activity. examples include classification models for malware detection, phishing email identification, and intrusion detection systems. while supervised learning provides high accuracy, it requires extensive labeled data, which may not always be available. 2. unsupervised learning: unsupervised models detect anomalies by identifying deviations from normal behavior patterns without prior knowledge of attack signatures. clustering algorithms like k-means and density-based spatial clustering (dbscan) are commonly used for anomaly detection in network traffic analysis. 3. reinforcement learning: this method allows security systems to learn from interactions with the environment and improve their detection capabilities over time. reinforcement learning is particularly useful in automated threat response and adaptive security frameworks, where ml models continuously refine their attack mitigation strategies based on feedback loops. case studies on ml-driven threat detection several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of ml in cybersecurity. for example: ➢ malware detection: research by saxe & berlin (2015) showed that deep learning models significantly outperform traditional antivirus software in identifying new malware variants. ➢ insider threat detection: a study by greitzer et al. (2019) highlighted how unsupervised learning techniques effectively detected anomalous employee behaviors indicative of insider threats. ➢ ddos attack prevention: work by bhuyan et al. (2020) demonstrated how ml-based anomaly detection in cloud networks can prevent large-scale distributed denial-of-service (ddos) attacks by identifying traffic anomalies before the attack fully manifests. anomaly detection in cloud environments definition and importance of anomaly detection anomaly detection refers to the identification of patterns in data that deviate from expected behavior. in the context of cloud security, anomaly detection is crucial for identifying potential threats such as unauthorized access, data exfiltration, privilege escalation, and advanced persistent threats (apts). since traditional security mechanisms often rely on predefined rules and signatures, they struggle to detect previously unknown or rapidly evolving attacks. anomaly detection fills this gap by leveraging ml to recognize abnormal behaviors that could indicate cyber threats. previous research on anomaly detection effectiveness numerous studies have highlighted the effectiveness of ml-based anomaly detection in cloud security: ➢ hinton et al. (2017): proposed an autoencoder-based anomaly detection framework that successfully identified outliers in network traffic, improving detection rates by 40% compared to traditional ids. ➢ chen et al. (2019): implemented a hybrid ml model combining supervised and unsupervised learning for cloud security, reducing false positives in threat detection by 30%. 55 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ shone et al. (2021): demonstrated how deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks (cnns), improve intrusion detection accuracy by learning complex attack signatures from raw security logs. challenges in anomaly detection for cloud security despite its advantages, ml-based anomaly detection in cloud environments faces several challenges: 1. data quality and availability: effective ml models require large datasets for training, but collecting labeled data from cloud environments is difficult due to privacy concerns. 2. high false positive rates: some ml models may mistakenly classify benign activities as threats, leading to unnecessary security alerts. 3. computational overhead: running ml-based anomaly detection in real-time cloud environments can be resource-intensive, requiring scalable processing power. 4. adversarial attacks: attackers may attempt to evade detection by subtly altering attack patterns, necessitating robust ml models resistant to adversarial manipulation. iii. machine learning techniques for anomaly detection anomaly detection in cloud security relies on advanced machine learning (ml) techniques to identify unusual patterns, behaviors, or deviations from expected activity. these techniques can be categorized into supervised learning, unsupervised learning, deep learning approaches, and hybrid models. each approach offers unique advantages and is suited for different cybersecurity scenarios. 1. supervised learning methods supervised learning involves training models on labeled datasets that contain both normal and malicious activity. these models learn to classify new data based on past examples, making them effective at detecting known attack patterns. training models with labeled attack data supervised ml models require historical attack data to function effectively. security analysts must curate datasets with labeled instances of malware, unauthorized access attempts, and network intrusions. the quality and diversity of this dataset significantly impact the model’s accuracy. once trained, the model can automatically classify new events as either normal or anomalous. examples of supervised learning techniques in cloud security 1. decision trees (dt): ➢ a rule-based model that classifies security events based on a series of decisions. ➢ advantage: easy to interpret and implement. ➢ limitation: can overfit on complex datasets. 2. support vector machines (svm): ➢ a classification model that separates anomalies from normal behavior using hyperplanes. ➢ advantage: works well for binary classification problems, such as distinguishing between normal and attack traffic. ➢ limitation: computationally expensive for large-scale cloud environments. 3. random forests (rf): ➢ an ensemble of decision trees that enhances detection accuracy by averaging multiple classifications. 56 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ advantage: more robust to overfitting and adaptable to noisy security data. ➢ limitation: requires extensive tuning for optimal performance. challenges of supervised learning for anomaly detection ✓ requires large labeled datasets, which may not always be available. ✓ struggles to detect new or zero-day attacks not present in training data. ✓ can generate high false-positive rates if training data is imbalanced. 2. unsupervised learning methods unsupervised learning identifies anomalies without requiring labeled datasets. these models detect deviations from normal behavior patterns, making them ideal for identifying unknown or emerging threats. detecting unknown threats without labeled data since cyber threats constantly evolve, traditional rule-based methods may not detect novel attacks. unsupervised ml models analyze vast amounts of cloud traffic, logs, and user activity to uncover patterns that deviate from the norm. these anomalies may indicate potential security breaches. examples of unsupervised learning techniques in cloud security 1. autoencoders: ➢ a type of neural network that learns normal system behavior and flags deviations. ➢ use case: detecting unusual authentication attempts in cloud environments. ➢ limitation: requires careful tuning to minimize false alarms. 2. isolation forest (iforest): ➢ anomaly detection algorithm that isolates outliers in high-dimensional data. ➢ use case: identifying insider threats based on unusual user behavior. ➢ advantage: efficient in handling large-scale datasets. 3. k-means clustering: ➢ groups data into clusters, with outliers flagged as anomalies. ➢ use case: detecting network intrusions based on unusual traffic flows. ➢ limitation: choosing the optimal number of clusters can be challenging. challenges of unsupervised learning for anomaly detection ➢ difficult to interpret results since the model does not classify specific attack types. ➢ may misclassify legitimate activities as anomalies, leading to high false-positive rates. ➢ requires ongoing model tuning to adapt to evolving attack tactics. 2. unsupervised learning methods unsupervised learning identifies anomalies without requiring labeled datasets. these models detect deviations from normal behavior patterns, making them ideal for identifying unknown or emerging threats. detecting unknown threats without labeled data since cyber threats constantly evolve, traditional rule-based methods may not detect novel attacks. unsupervised ml models analyze vast amounts of cloud traffic, logs, and user 57 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us activity to uncover patterns that deviate from the norm. these anomalies may indicate potential security breaches. examples of unsupervised learning techniques in cloud security 1. autoencoders: ➢ a type of neural network that learns normal system behavior and flags deviations. ➢ use case: detecting unusual authentication attempts in cloud environments. ➢ limitation: requires careful tuning to minimize false alarms. 2. isolation forest (iforest): ➢ anomaly detection algorithm that isolates outliers in high-dimensional data. ➢ use case: identifying insider threats based on unusual user behavior. ➢ advantage: efficient in handling large-scale datasets. 3. k-means clustering: ➢ groups data into clusters, with outliers flagged as anomalies. ➢ use case: detecting network intrusions based on unusual traffic flows. ➢ limitation: choosing the optimal number of clusters can be challenging. challenges of unsupervised learning for anomaly detection ➢ difficult to interpret results since the model does not classify specific attack types. ➢ may misclassify legitimate activities as anomalies, leading to high false-positive rates. ➢ requires ongoing model tuning to adapt to evolving attack tactics. 4. hybrid models for enhanced detection hybrid models combine multiple ml techniques to improve anomaly detection accuracy and reduce false positives. these approaches leverage the strengths of supervised, unsupervised, and deep learning methods to create more robust security frameworks. combining multiple ml techniques for greater accuracy hybrid models often integrate signature-based detection (supervised learning) with behaviorbased anomaly detection (unsupervised learning) to improve detection rates. examples of hybrid security frameworks 1. supervised + unsupervised learning: ➢ example: a system that uses decision trees to detect known threats and autoencoders to identify unknown anomalies. ➢ use case: cloud intrusion detection systems that balance accuracy and adaptability. 2. deep learning + traditional ml: ➢ example: an lstm-based anomaly detection model combined with random forests for classification. ➢ use case: analyzing network logs for insider threat detection. 3. ai-powered siem (security information and event management) systems: ➢ siem solutions now incorporate ml-based anomaly detection alongside traditional rulebased detection. ➢ use case: correlating multiple security events to detect sophisticated cyber-attacks. 58 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us advantages of hybrid models ✓ increased accuracy by leveraging multiple detection approaches. ✓ reduced false positives through cross-validation between ml models. ✓ improved adaptability to new threats by combining signature-based and anomaly-based detection. challenges of hybrid models ➢ computationally expensive, requiring powerful cloud-based infrastructure. ➢ complex implementation, needing expertise in multiple ml techniques. ➢ integration difficulties with legacy security systems. iv. implementing ml-based anomaly detection in cloud security the practical implementation of machine learning (ml)-based anomaly detection in cloud security requires a structured approach encompassing data collection, model training, deployment, and integration with existing security frameworks. this section explores the key steps involved in deploying an effective ml-driven security system while addressing challenges in real-time threat detection and mitigation. 1. data collection and preprocessing effective ml-based anomaly detection begins with collecting and preprocessing large volumes of cloud security data. the accuracy of an anomaly detection system heavily depends on the quality of the input data. gathering cloud traffic logs and system metrics to detect anomalies, security systems must analyze various types of data, including: ➢ network traffic logs: capturing inbound and outbound connections, packet size, source/destination ips. ➢ authentication logs: monitoring user login attempts, failed logins, and access permissions. ➢ system performance metrics: cpu, memory, and disk usage spikes that may indicate a security incident. ➢ application logs: tracking api calls, function executions, and error logs to detect malicious behavior. cloud service providers like aws, microsoft azure, and google cloud platform (gcp) generate vast amounts of security logs through services such as: ➢ aws cloudtrail & guardduty (for activity monitoring) ➢ azure security center (for threat intelligence) ➢ gcp security command center (for real-time analysis) feature engineering for anomaly detection feature engineering is the process of extracting meaningful attributes from raw data to improve the model’s ability to detect anomalies. important features include: ➢ traffic volume: unusual spikes in network traffic may indicate a ddos attack. ➢ user behavior patterns: deviations from normal login locations or access times. ➢ process execution sequences: unexpected system processes running outside normal usage. ➢ encryption and data transfer rates: large outbound encrypted data may indicate data exfiltration. 59 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us preprocessing steps involve data normalization, handling missing values, and removing irrelevant noise to ensure high-quality training data. 2. model training and deployment once the data is collected and processed, machine learning models must be trained, validated, and deployed to identify security threats in real-time cloud environments. steps to train and test ml models the training process involves: ➢ dataset preparation: dividing data into training, validation, and test sets. ➢ model selection: choosing between supervised, unsupervised, or hybrid models based on security requirements. ➢ training and optimization: fine-tuning model parameters to improve accuracy and reduce false positives. ➢ validation and testing: evaluating performance using metrics like precision, recall, f1score, and roc curves. ➢ deployment: integrating trained models into cloud security infrastructure for real-time monitoring. challenges in real-time deployment in cloud environments deploying ml models for anomaly detection in the cloud poses several challenges: 🚧 scalability: ➢ cloud environments generate high-velocity, high-volume data, requiring scalable ml models that can process logs in real-time. 🚧 latency constraints: ➢ traditional ml models may struggle with real-time threat detection, necessitating optimization techniques like streaming analytics and edge computing. 🚧 false positives vs. false negatives: ➢ overly sensitive models may generate too many alerts, while lenient models might miss critical threats. balancing detection sensitivity is crucial. 🚧 adaptive attack strategies: ➢ cybercriminals evolve their techniques to evade ml-based detection, requiring models to be continuously updated with new threat intelligence. to mitigate these challenges, cloud-native ai security platforms (e.g., aws sagemaker, azure ml, google ai platform) offer auto-scaling ml solutions optimized for cloud environments. 3. integration with existing security systems for ml-based anomaly detection to be effective, it must seamlessly integrate with existing security information and event management (siem) systems and automate incident response mechanisms. compatibility with siem (security information and event management) systems siem solutions aggregate security logs from firewalls, endpoint detection systems, intrusion detection/prevention systems (ids/ips), and cloud monitoring services. 60 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us popular siem platforms include: ➢ splunk security operations suite – ai-driven event correlation and threat intelligence. ➢ ibm qradar – ml-powered security analytics for real-time anomaly detection. ➢ elastic security (elk stack) – open-source siem with behavioral anomaly detection capabilities. integrating ml models with siem platforms enhances threat prioritization and alert accuracy, reducing analyst fatigue from false alarms. automating threat mitigation with ai-driven response beyond anomaly detection, ml-based security systems should automate responses to mitigate threats before they cause significant damage. ➢ automated incident triage: ✓ ai-based security orchestration tools (e.g., palo alto cortex xsoar, microsoft sentinel) classify and prioritize security alerts. ➢ autonomous response systems: ✓ cloud security frameworks like aws guardduty and azure sentinel automatically block malicious ips, quarantine infected instances, or revoke compromised access credentials. ➢ self-learning ai security models: ✓ deep reinforcement learning-based security models adapt to new attack techniques over time, making cloud environments more resilient to evolving threats. v. case studies and real-world applications the adoption of machine learning (ml)-based anomaly detection in cloud security has been driven by industry leaders such as amazon web services (aws), microsoft azure, and google cloud. these companies have developed ai-driven security frameworks that enhance threat detection and response, improving cloud security resilience. this section presents realworld case studies, performance evaluations, and the challenges associated with ml-based anomaly detection. 1. success stories from industry leaders several major cloud service providers and enterprises have successfully integrated ml-based anomaly detection into their security frameworks, demonstrating the effectiveness of ai-driven cybersecurity solutions. 🔹 aws guardduty: ai-powered threat detection amazon guardduty is an ai-powered threat detection service that uses machine learning to analyze cloud activity logs and detect security anomalies in real time. ✅ how it works: ✓ analyzes aws cloudtrail logs, vpc flow logs, and dns logs to detect malicious activities such as unauthorized access attempts, unusual api calls, and data exfiltration attempts. ✓ uses behavioral anomaly detection to identify insider threats and compromised credentials. ✅ impact: ✓ reduced security investigation time by 50% for aws customers. ✓ identified 15% more security threats compared to traditional rule-based detection methods. 61 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ✓ integrated with aws security hub for automated incident response. 🔹 microsoft azure sentinel: ai-driven siem & soar azure sentinel is a cloud-native security information and event management (siem) and security orchestration, automation, and response (soar) system that leverages ml to improve security threat detection. ✅ how it works: ✓ collects and correlates security signals from azure resources, microsoft 365, and thirdparty security tools. ✓ uses ml algorithms to detect suspicious login behaviors, anomalous data transfers, and malware infections. ✅ impact: ✓ reduced false positives by 90%, enhancing analyst productivity. ✓ increased detection rates for zero-day attacks and insider threats. ✓ integrated threat intelligence feeds for real-time security analysis. 🔹 google chronicle: scalable ai security analytics google chronicle, part of google cloud security, uses ml-driven security analytics to detect sophisticated threats at scale. ✅ how it works: ✓ processes petabytes of security telemetry data using behavioral analytics and ml-based detection models. ✓ identifies anomalous system behaviors, lateral movement, and advanced persistent threats (apts). ✅ impact: ✓ increased threat detection speed by 10x compared to traditional siem solutions. ✓ enabled real-time analysis of security events, reducing attack dwell time. ✓ used by enterprises like siemens, deloitte, and global financial institutions to strengthen cloud security. 2. performance evaluation of ml-based anomaly detection a critical aspect of evaluating ml-driven security models is comparing their effectiveness against traditional rule-based and signature-based security methods. comparison of ml vs. traditional security methods security approach detection method advantages limitations traditional security signature-based fast detection of known threats fails to detect zeroday attacks, high false negatives rule-based security predefined rules (firewall, ids/ips) simple to implement struggles with evolving attack patterns ml-based anomaly detection behavioral & statistical analysis detects unknown threats, self-learning capabilities computationally expensive, potential false positives 62 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ✅ key findings: ➢ ml models outperform traditional security techniques in detecting unknown threats and zero-day vulnerabilities. ➢ behavioral anomaly detection methods (e.g., isolation forest, autoencoders) reduced attack detection time by 70%. ➢ hybrid ml security models (combining supervised and unsupervised learning) increased threat identification accuracy by 85%. ➢ deep learning techniques (e.g., lstms for log analysis) improved detection rates for advanced persistent threats (apts). however, despite these advantages, ml-based security approaches come with challenges that require further optimization. 3. challenges and limitations while ml-based anomaly detection has significantly improved cloud security, various technical and ethical challenges remain. 🚧 false positives and false negatives ➢ false positives: when an ml model incorrectly flags normal user behavior as malicious, leading to unnecessary security alerts. ✓ example: a legitimate high-volume file transfer is misclassified as data exfiltration. ✓ impact: security teams waste resources investigating false alarms. ➢ false negatives: when an ml model fails to detect a genuine threat, allowing an attack to go unnoticed. ✓ example: a sophisticated fileless malware attack evades ml detection. ✓ impact: undetected threats compromise cloud environments, leading to data breaches. ✅ solution: ➢ fine-tuning ml model hyperparameters to reduce errors. ➢ implementing ensemble models that combine multiple detection techniques to improve accuracy. 🚧 ethical concerns and data privacy issues ml-based cloud security models rely on vast amounts of data, raising concerns about user privacy and ethical implications. ✅ challenges: ➢ data collection risks: ml security systems analyze user behavior, login patterns, and system activity, leading to concerns over data misuse. ➢ gdpr and compliance issues: storing and processing personally identifiable information (pii) must comply with regulations like gdpr, ccpa, and hipaa. ➢ bias in ml models: imbalanced training datasets may introduce biases, leading to unfair or inaccurate anomaly detection. ✅ solution: ➢ data anonymization & encryption: implementing privacy-preserving ml techniques like federated learning to minimize sensitive data exposure. 63 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ regulatory compliance: ensuring that ai-driven security solutions align with global data protection laws. vi. future trends and innovations the future of cloud security is increasingly driven by artificial intelligence (ai), machine learning (ml), and emerging technologies such as federated learning and quantum computing. as cyber threats become more sophisticated, these innovations are expected to revolutionize threat detection, automate security responses, and enhance privacy protection in cloud environments. 1. advancements in ai and cybersecurity ai-driven security evolution traditional cybersecurity methods rely heavily on signature-based detection, which struggles to detect zero-day attacks and advanced persistent threats (apts). ai-powered security systems, however, are evolving to: ➢ predict and prevent attacks before they occur using predictive analytics. ➢ automate real-time responses through ai-driven security orchestration, automation, and response (soar) systems. ➢ improve behavioral analysis techniques to detect anomalies with minimal false positives. emerging ai techniques in cybersecurity as ai models improve, the following advancements are shaping the future of cloud security: 1. self-learning ai security models ➢ ai security frameworks will incorporate reinforcement learning (rl) to self-adapt to new cyber threats without manual rule updates. ➢ example: autonomous ai-driven threat hunting systems that proactively detect and respond to emerging cyberattacks. 2. explainable ai (xai) for security transparency ➢ challenge: many ai-driven security models function as black boxes, making it difficult for security teams to interpret their decisions. ➢ solution: explainable ai (xai) will enhance transparency by providing clear justifications for flagged anomalies, improving trust in ai-powered threat detection. 3. ai-enhanced deception technology ➢ ai-driven honeypots and deception networks will automatically adapt to attacker tactics, luring and trapping malicious actors before they reach critical systems. 🚀 impact: these advancements will significantly reduce detection and response times, enabling automated, proactive cybersecurity defenses. 2. federated learning for distributed cloud security the challenge of data privacy in cloud security machine learning models require vast amounts of data to train effectively, but traditional approaches often centralize sensitive data, raising privacy concerns. federated learning (fl) offers a privacy-preserving alternative by allowing ml models to be trained across multiple decentralized devices and cloud environments without sharing raw data. 64 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ how federated learning enhances cloud security ✓ instead of sending raw data to a central server, only model updates (gradients) are shared, reducing exposure to data breaches. ✓ enables collaborative threat detection across multi-cloud environments without violating data protection regulations (e.g., gdpr, ccpa). ✓ improves real-time anomaly detection by continuously learning from distributed cloud endpoints. real-world applications of federated learning in cloud security 1. google’s federated learning in android security ➢ google uses federated learning in android malware detection, where devices collaboratively train an ml model without sending user data to google servers. ➢ this approach has enhanced android malware detection rates by 20% while preserving user privacy. 2. secure multi-party computation (smpc) in financial cloud security ✓ banks and financial institutions leverage federated learning to detect fraudulent transactions without sharing sensitive financial data across multiple entities. 🚀 impact: federated learning is expected to become a cornerstone of privacy-preserving cloud security, allowing ai models to learn from global threat intelligence while maintaining strict compliance with data privacy laws. 3. quantum computing and ai in threat detection the rise of quantum computing in cybersecurity quantum computing has the potential to redefine cloud security by exponentially increasing computing power, which can be used for both: ✓ breaking current encryption standards (a major cybersecurity risk). ✓ revolutionizing ai-based anomaly detection by enabling faster, more complex threat pattern recognition. potential impact of quantum-powered anomaly detection 1. ultra-fast pattern recognition ➢ traditional ml models struggle with detecting high-dimensional, real-time cyber threats. ➢ quantum-enhanced ai can analyze massive datasets at speeds impossible for classical computers, detecting cyberattacks with near-instantaneous response times. 2. post-quantum cryptography (pqc) ➢ challenge: once quantum computers become mainstream, they will break traditional cryptographic methods (e.g., rsa, ecc). ➢ solution: companies like ibm and google are developing pqc algorithms to create quantum-resistant encryption for cloud security. 3. quantum machine learning for cyber defense ➢ quantum support vector machines (qsvms) and quantum neural networks (qnns) could significantly enhance anomaly detection accuracy. ➢ application: financial institutions could use quantum ml to instantly detect and mitigate fraudulent transactions. 65 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us companies leading quantum ai research in security ➢ ibm q network: developing quantum-safe cryptographic solutions for cloud security. ➢ google quantum ai: exploring quantum-powered ml for advanced cyber threat detection. ➢ d-wave systems: testing quantum ai for rapid anomaly detection in cybersecurity applications. 🚀 impact: while still in early development, quantum-powered ai could revolutionize cloud security by processing security data at speeds never before possible, making real-time attack mitigation a reality. vii. conclusion summary of key findings this paper has explored the role of machine learning (ml)-based anomaly detection in enhancing cloud security. the key findings include: ➢ traditional security methods are insufficient: signature-based and rule-based approaches fail to detect evolving cyber threats, making behavior-based ml techniques essential. ➢ machine learning enhances cloud security: supervised, unsupervised, and deep learning models can detect anomalies in cloud environments with greater accuracy and efficiency. ➢ hybrid ml approaches improve detection: combining multiple ml techniques results in higher accuracy and reduced false positives compared to single-model approaches. ➢ real-world applications demonstrate success: industry leaders like aws, microsoft azure, and google cloud are integrating ml-based anomaly detection to secure cloud infrastructures. ➢ challenges remain: false positives, data privacy concerns, and computational costs must be addressed for ml security models to be widely adopted. ➢ future trends indicate a shift toward ai-powered security: advancements in federated learning, quantum computing, and ai-driven automation will drive the next phase of cloud security innovations. final thoughts on the future of ml-based cloud security as cloud computing continues to expand across industries, cybersecurity threats will also evolve, becoming more sophisticated and harder to detect. machine learning offers a powerful solution to identify and mitigate threats in real-time, reduce security risks, and improve overall cloud resilience. however, its effectiveness depends on continuous innovation, proper implementation, and integration with existing security frameworks. the future of ml-based cloud security will be defined by: ➢ advancements in ai-driven automation to enable proactive threat mitigation rather than reactive defense. ➢ federated learning adoption to improve privacy-preserving threat detection across multi-cloud environments. ➢ quantum ai developments to enhance real-time cyber threat analysis at an unprecedented scale. ➢ stronger regulatory frameworks to ensure responsible ai use in cybersecurity while maintaining ethical data practices. 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us recommendations for researchers, cloud providers, and enterprises for researchers: ➢ develop more robust ml models that minimize false positives and false negatives in anomaly detection. ➢ explore privacy-preserving techniques, such as federated learning and homomorphic encryption, to protect sensitive cloud data. ➢ investigate ai transparency methods to make ml-driven security decisions explainable and trustworthy. for cloud providers: ➢ invest in ai-driven security solutions to proactively detect, respond, and mitigate cyber threats in cloud infrastructures. ➢ enhance integration with existing security tools (e.g., siem, soar, and ids systems) to streamline security operations. ➢ adopt hybrid ml-based anomaly detection frameworks to improve accuracy and threat coverage. for enterprises: ➢ leverage ml-based cloud security solutions to protect sensitive data, applications, and workloads. ➢ implement continuous monitoring and automated response mechanisms to strengthen cloud security postures. ➢ train cybersecurity teams on ai-driven threat detection tools to enhance incident response efficiency. references: 1. pillai, a. s. 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(2024). scalable ai models for predictive failure analysis in cloud-based asset management systems. international journal of science and engineering. 8. 16. 235-239 modern methods of designing art schools 235 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 modern methods of designing art schools tukhtaeva maftunakhon saidolim-kizi tashkent university of architecture and construction, department of "architecture", assistant maftuna1910@gmail.com abstract: the article describes the architectural planning principles, options and methods of designing art schools. the approaches to the formation of an architectural environment that promotes the development of students' creative potential are considered, including the principles of flexible spaces, integration of digital technologies and sustainable construction. particular attention is paid to the interaction of the architectural appearance of buildings with the urban context and the need for multifunctionality of educational and cultural and leisure areas. based on foreign experience, key trends are identified that shape the modern design of art education institutions. keywords: art school, education, development, educational, zone, architectural, design, planning, functional, façade, structure, complex, department. introduction the state pays special attention to issues of improving the system of continuous education, training highly qualified personnel in accordance with the modern needs of the labor market, and increasing the availability and quality of educational services. over the past years, a set of measures has been implemented to develop professional education, the legal framework has been strengthened to ensure the modernization and updating of the content of the educational process, and a number of systemic measures have been adopted to provide targeted support to talented youth in achieving significant results in national and international olympiads and competitions. at the same time, the conducted analysis of the results of the development of general secondary, as well as secondary specialized and vocational education showed that the current state of the system does not meet modern requirements and requires radical reform. the system of professional education includes specialized schools, lyceums, art, music schools, and schools of art. the system is oriented towards general cultural development and early professionalization. many of them do not meet modern trends in the development of educational methods, their structures are gradually deteriorating, and their architectural and artistic appearance does not meet modern requirements and leaves much to be desired. institutions of primary vocational education may be either adapted buildings of a universal or specialized type, or structures designed according to special projects in accordance with the requirements. there are several options for locating art schools in urban development: in the historical center of the city, in the business center of the city, in the recreational area of the city, in areas free from 236 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us development, in residential development of the city, at the intersection of highways, in the suburban area. existing methods of locating schools on sites (zoning of master plans): linear, fan, free, centric. the functional-planning structure of these educational institutions, corresponding to the professional level of education, consists of functional blocks: educational, administrative and household, exhibition, information. some compositional schemes of solutions of educational institutions are centric, block, modular, centralized, free, mixed. research materials and methods art schools are a complex multi-level functional-planning structure. the volumetric-planning structure reflects the content and features of the educational process. the premises of the art school are divided into the following groups: ø classrooms, offices and laboratories for theoretical classes; ø training and production workshops; ø cultural, household and utility rooms (sports and assembly halls, canteen, exhibition hall, museum, shop); ø administrative, service and auxiliary rooms, utility block, first aid station. usually, art schools have 3 departments: music, choreography, and fine arts. the music department should be planned in such a way that equivalent rooms, depending on functional, acoustic, soundproofing and structural requirements, are in separate sections and differentiated vertically and horizontally from other rooms. rooms for individual music lessons should be designed with vestibules gateways in which a storage room for instruments and a washbasin are located. it is recommended that the walls of music classrooms be made nonparallel (deviation 2-12 º) with appropriate acoustic finishing. the choreography department includes a hall for rhythm and dance classes, halls for classical, folk-stage, and modern dance classes, a classroom for theoretical disciplines, a costume workshop, changing rooms, showers, and toilets. the fine arts department includes drawing, painting, composition, and sculpture studios. each painting and drawing studio is usually located on the upper floors and includes the following zones: teacher's zone, still life zone, student zone, easel storage zone. the height of the workshops to the bottom of the protruding structures is 3.6-3.9 m, width 6 m, length 9 m. as already mentioned above, the functional planning structure of existing art schools is currently outdated due to the emergence of new premises necessary for a modern art school. first of all, this concerns the composition of the premises of the school's educational and cultural-educational block. modern technologies are constantly moving forward the way of teaching art and presenting material is developing and changing. thus, the appearance of the traditional book library is changing, being replaced by a new type of library that combines new media technologies with electronic information carriers and traditional printed publications. the composition and appearance of the exhibition spaces of the art school also changes; in modern exhibition halls, the spatial diversity of the spaces, transparent partitions, richness of lighting effects and color schemes play a decisive role. and of course, the process of modernization also affects the educational process. in connection with the intensive development of industrial production and the growth of cities, the increase in the level of population requirements for their subject-spatial environment, new disciplines are emerging, the knowledge of which a modern artist, architect, urban planner or designer must 237 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us possess. new disciplines include design engineering, landscape architecture, computer-aided architectural design, computer modeling, and computer science. the new methodology of global architectural education, which pays great attention to urbanism, the merging of buildings with the environment, socio-technological factors, as well as a philosophical approach to the creation of project concepts, determines democratic free planning and original compositional solutions of architectural schools. nowadays, the speed of life and the rate of emergence of new developments and ideas are constantly increasing. in order to keep up with progress and implement innovations, it is necessary to respond to changes in a timely manner. sustainable development means not only the introduction of new products in a narrow area of specialization, but also the synergy of different areas of science and knowledge, an integrated approach to design and production. the period of childhood and adolescence is of great importance in the formation of personality. at this stage of life, a person must acquire basic knowledge, form moral values, and also learn to think and understand the world. in order to create an optimal environment for the development of the individual and society, it is necessary, based on the latest trends in architectural design, to strive to look into the future and predict the main directions of innovation formation. in world practice, there is often a trend towards high technology, landscape design, the use of forms corresponding to the specializations of schools, thus already in the architectural solutions of facades there is a desire to reveal the creative character of buildings. a striking example of this is the school of arts, design and mass media in singapore. the glass facade absorbs the solar and thermal load of the buildings, while providing natural daylight for creative spaces. the glass walls provide a visual flow of the interior spaces of the premises, as well as the landscape of the complex itself and the natural environment. (pic. 1). pic.1. school of arts, design and pic.2. high school of art, los angeles, mass media, singapore, 2007. usa, 2009. the present time is the time of endless development of new computer, machine, internet technologies, but also the time of inevitable mental return to the past, namely to the beginning of the 20th century – the time of pop art, futurism and constructivism. these trends are clearly reflected in their interesting architectural interpretation in the new school of arts in los angeles (high school of art). the pyramid of the theatre foyer made of glass and metal serves as the main entrance to the complex. the educational building of the academy of fine arts is built nearby, a rectangular block with different-sized circles of window openings. the central place in the composition is occupied by the steel cone of the library. (pic. 2). an interesting example is the metzo school. the project involves close cooperation between students and teachers thanks to the large number of open spaces. the result is a compact pyramid that fits perfectly into the surrounding environment. in the center of the volume is a large courtyard that allows daylight to penetrate into the building. (pic. 3). 238 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a fine example of a modern art school is lasalle sia art college in singapore. it consists of six buildings, united into one structure by numerous staircases and flights. (pic. 4). pic.3. metzo school, doetinchem, pic.4. lasalle sia art college, netherlands, 2006 singapore, 2007 conclusion in the above-mentioned foreign art schools, the architectural-compositional solution and the interior environment were developed in an unconventional way. with this approach, it is possible to create self-organizing spatial and social systems that work effectively to achieve the main goal improving the intellectual and creative potential of pupils and students. thus, when designing art schools to create a comfortable and creative space. from the analysis of world experience it is quite obvious that in modern architectural practice there are conventionally three main approaches to solving the volumetric-spatial composition of schools: ø architectural-compositional; ø functional-technological; ø integration into the landscape. the relevance of designing buildings for modern art schools is beyond doubt. at this stage, the art school as an educational, cultural and social institution is significantly expanding its scope of activity. one of the main tasks of educational institutions is to increase the intellectual and cultural level of the population by introducing, in this case, children, to art. the author developed a diploma project on this topic (pic. 5). 239 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us pic.5. diploma project on the topic “art school for the city of tashkent” (tacei, 2014) references: 1. m.s. tukhtaeva., “architectural organization of centers for professional development of creative youth in tashkent” master's thesis. tacei, 2021. 2. m.s. tukhtaeva., “foreign experience in the architectural formation and development of art schools”. khorezm mamun academy newsletter, 2025. p. -199 3. gelfond a.l., "architectural design of public buildings and structures" study guide. m.: architecture s, 2006, p. -80 4. e.v. moskalyuk , m.d. filatova., "modern trends in the design of art schools" moscow "architecture of buildings and structures" 2013, p. -195. 5. music schools for children // russian pedagogical encyclopedia. m: "great russian encyclopedia". ed. v. g. panov. 1993. 6. samovik o. a. children's music schools and children's art schools in the system of modern modernizing music education / o. a. samovik // bulletin of adyghe state university, series: pedagogy and psychology. 2013. issue 2. 7. mark dudek, architecture of schools: the new learning environments, 1st edition, london, routledge, 2000 y. 8. lex.uz 9. www.archdaily.com 10. www.cyberleninka.ru 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 1, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 using mobile application programming to enhance the role of the family in education dawood zahi khutar al-muthanna university, college of engineering, department of electronic and communications, al-muthanna, iraq dawoodzahi@mu.edu.iq eman lateef kadhem al-muthanna university, college of veterinary medicine, al-muthanna, iraq sajad muhil abd al-muthanna university, college of dentistry, al-muthanna, iraq sajad.abd88@mu.edu.iq abstract: the family's continuous follow-up of their children at school and their attempt to comprehensively cover their behaviors and activities, the extent of their commitment to performing duties on time, and the extent of their comprehension of the educational material are among the most important components of the success of the educational process, especially for the elementary stage. in order to invest in this relationship and benefit from it in the best possible way, those in charge of the educational institution had to find the appropriate solution that would save time and effort for both the school and the family. in order to organize this process, it was necessary to create a comprehensive software system that would allow the school to manage the educational process and the family to follow up daily through notifications, messages, and other methods. the study aims to identify the possibility of benefiting from mobile applications in managing the details of the educational process in a group of schools in the city of samawah, as the descriptive survey method was used. the study sample consisted of 80 members (50) teachers and (30) families, randomly selected from schools in the city of samawah, and to achieve the objectives of the study, a questionnaire was developed that included (30) paragraphs distributed over three fields, the field of smart phone applications for managing the educational process, the field of smart phone applications for managing teachers' affairs and the field of smart phone applications to manage the educational process between school and family. the study showed that the acceptability of smartphone applications in the educational process varied according to gender, scientific specialization, and the type of school, whether private or public. the study recommended: activating smart phone applications and employing them in managing the educational process in city schools and sensitizing teachers, students and their families on the importance of these applications in reducing time and effort. keywords: smart phones, mobile application, educational administration, school principals, family. 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. introduction educational institutions are taking broad and steady steps towards scientific and technical development, which imposes on their management to be strong, advanced and able to keep pace with this development, benefit from it and face its challenges. modern technology, with its various equipment and programs, from computers and smart tablets or mobile phones, has worked to raise the pace of administrative and educational work in all sectors, public and private, and provided many advantages that helped in achieving goals and completing various tasks with great speed and ease. educational institutions are currently facing many challenges and changes that put them under pressure of quality, efficiency and effectiveness. the knowledge explosion represented by the quantitative or qualitative increase in knowledge and its various branches; imposes on them the pursuit of modernity and excellence, in addition to the continuous expansion and renewal of concepts and goals, and the improvement of methods and means; these institutions are keen to improve performance. to reach the level of global progress in all fields, schools are responsible for the greatest effort in bringing their cadres and students into the information age, creating a generation proficient in modern technical skills [1]. the topic of modern technologies in education and teaching is of great interest to the competent authorities in general and to schools in particular, and the computer takes the largest part of this interest, due to the educational and material advantages and capabilities that accompany its widespread use. the computer is used to help elements of the educational process in implementing many routine administrative tasks, writing and various organizational tasks, thus saving time and effort [2]. there are many advantages to using computers and digital technologies in their various forms in managing, organizing and implementing the educational process, which lie in several aspects, perhaps the most important of which is: expanding opportunities for community participation inside and outside the school, as parents, students, teachers and all those interested in educational affairs use computers, mobile phones and information networks, in addition to the speed and accuracy of storing information and forming what is known as the information bank. the standard time in which data is processed, used and retrieved is a good factor in accelerating results, making decisions and following up on the methods and techniques used by teachers and students alike [3]. there are many factors that have contributed to the emergence of mobile learning, the most important of which are: the rapid and increasing growth in the use of mobile devices and cell phones, as these technologies have become essential in the lives of their users, especially with their low prices, the cost of their services, and their widespread use. mobile phones provide a range of services and capabilities such as quick access for individuals and groups, and storing large amounts of information, books, and summaries, in addition to their applications and programs that add renewal and vitality to the teaching and learning processes [4]. 2. using smartphone applications in education mobile applications provide many and varied services for the educational process, as they allow users of these applications to process many commands, store information in large quantities, upload and download books and information, and enable the user to access information at any time he wants, as well as allow them to interact with the educational medium, whether it is video, audio or image [5]. with the development of new generations of smart phones, the user has become able to make video calls directly and participate in seminars and conferences through special programs and applications, which leads to activating the important role of the family in following up on their children and identifying their strengths and weaknesses [6]. 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. previous studies there are many previous studies that addressed the idea of activating the role of the family in the educational process and the possibility of developing mobile applications for this purpose. (zoe karabatzaki and agathi stathopoulou 2018) have proven that it is possible to benefit from mobile application programming to design appropriate exercises and tools that enhance students’ knowledge and learning and enable families to monitor their children’s behavior at school [7]. meanwhile, (subhieh el-salhi 2019) the daily follow-up of the family and control of the management of the communication process were organized and activated through an integrated smart application (fma) that can be developed to link the family to the school [8]. as for (mustafa harun can 2016), he confirmed that the cooperation between parents and teachers is an important step to achieve students’ achievements through the use of mobile applications to communicate with teachers. he used a smartphone application that was widely used among parents and classroom teachers, after applying the questionnaire-based survey methodology where 573 parents of meridian international school students were asked. the results of the data analysis indicated that the parents’ view on the use of the mobile application to develop the learning environment proved to be positive and beneficial [9]. 4. study methodology the descriptive survey method was used in the current study, as it is the most appropriate method for this type of studies, with the aim of identifying the degree of use of smart phone applications in managing the educational process between the school and the family in the schools of samawah city. the samples were distributed among 50 male and female teachers in addition to 30 families and the details of the samples were distributed in relation to the variables shown in the following table [10-14]. variables categories repetition/teachers ratio repetition/families ratio gender males 28 56% 21 70% females 22 44% 9 30% the total 50 100% 30 100.0% academic specialization scientific 30 60% 16 53.3% humanities 20 40% 14 46.7% the total 50 100% 30 100.0% school type government 29 58% 17 56.7% private 21 42% 13 43.3% the total 50 100% 30 100.0% table 1: distribution of the study sample members according to its variables the percentages differed from one field to another, as shown in the following chart. chart 1: shows the percentage of teacher and family participation in the three areas. 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the questionnaires for the three fields were based on a set of questions related to teachers and others related to families, as shown in the following table. fields teachers families managing the educational process through mobile applications do students and teachers have smartphones? does the family own smartphones? are mobile applications used in the educational process? will the family use mobile applications in the educational process? what is the rate of interaction between students and teachers with these applications? the percentage of parents using mobile applications and dispensing with traditional methods? are these applications being used? the percentage of ease of using these applications for the family? what do you suggest to maximize the use of mobile applications in the educational process? what do you suggest to achieve maximum benefit from mobile applications in the educational process? smart phone applications for managing teachers and students’ affairs is there a database for teachers and study materials? is there a database for students supervised by the school and family? are there mobile applications to manage different exams? are there mobile applications to manage different exams for students and announce their grades? rate of benefit from these applications is there privacy for the student and his family in these programs? rate of coverage of these applications for teachers and study materials have these programs achieved good results for the family in terms of understanding the student's behavior? what do you suggest to achieve maximum benefit from mobile applications to manage teachers’ affairs? what do you suggest to achieve maximum benefit from mobile applications to manage teachers' affairs? smart phone applications to manage the educational process between school and family. does the family interact with the school through educational mobile applications? does the school communicate continuously with the family through educational mobile applications? the percentage of daily communication by the family and access to the details of the educational process? what is the percentage of family interaction with the school updating student data? have these applications saved the school effort and time? have these applications saved the family effort and time? the percentage of these applications achieving their goals? what percentage of these applications achieve their goals in the family's view? what do you suggest to achieve the maximum benefit from these applications? what do you suggest to achieve maximum benefit from these applications? table 2: the questionnaire questions for the three fields of teacher and family. 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to process the study data statistically, the following statistical methods were used [15-16]: 1. pearson correlation coefficient 2. cronbach's alpha coefficient 3. arithmetic means and standard deviations of the responses of the study sample members. 4. using the paired test (t-test) 5. results the results of the study showed that the degree of use of smart phone applications in managing the educational process in the schools of samawah city was average in all study areas combined, as the arithmetic mean of the responses of the study sample members in the study areas as a whole was (3.40), with a standard deviation of (0.76). the fields were arranged in ascending order according to the arithmetic mean as follows: first, the field of "smartphone applications for managing the educational process" with an arithmetic mean (3.47) and a standard deviation (0.82) and a high degree of employment, followed by the field of "smartphone applications for managing the educational process" with an arithmetic mean (3.41) and a standard deviation (0.79) and a high degree of employment, then the field of "smartphone applications for managing student affairs" with an arithmetic mean (3.39) and a standard deviation (0.89) and a medium degree of employment. this result may be attributed to the lack of clarity among school principals and families about how to benefit from the capabilities of smartphones and their applications in all areas of managing the educational process, and to how to direct teachers and families towards using them better, in addition to a deficiency in the competencies necessary to use these applications, which can help save time and effort for school principals and improve school service [17-19]. 6. discussion the results showed a statistically significant difference in the degree of employing smartphone applications in managing the educational process between the school and the family, in the first field only "smartphone applications in managing the educational process" attributed to the gender variable, and in favor of males. the reason for this may be attributed to the desire of males to deal with the development of technology and benefit from it in renewing and developing the educational process. the results also showed the absence of clear statistically significant differences in the degree of employing smartphone applications in managing the educational process between the school and the family for the second and third fields [20-21]. 7. recommendations 1. based on the results of the study, the following recommendations were made: 2. develop a clear vision for the teacher and the family about the importance of smartphone applications in managing the educational process between the school and the family. 3. raise the teacher's efficiency in the mechanism of benefiting from smartphones and their applications to manage their schools. 4. hold courses in the field of smartphone technology for teachers and families for the public and private sectors. 5. support the teacher to use modern applications in the educational process. references 1. anna, n. (2019). top 10 mobile apps to support lis students' learning, library philosophy and practice (e-journal), https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/2607. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/2607 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. domingo, m.g., & garganté, a.b (2016). exploring the use of educational technology in primary education: teachers' perception of mobile technology learning impacts and applications' use in the classroom, computers in human behavior, 56, 21-28. 3. farrah, m. & abu-dawood, a. k. (2018). using mobile phone applications in teaching and learning process, international journal of research in english education, 3 (2), 48 – 68. 4. guy, r. (2010). mobile learning: pilot projects and initiatives, usa: informing science press. 5. irma (2020). mobile devices in education: breakthroughs in research and practice, united states: igi global. 6. itmazi, j. (2010). e-learning systems and tools, usa: phillips puplishing, phillipsburg nj. 7. zoe karabatzaki and agathi stathopoulou. (2019). mobile application tools for students in secondary education. an evaluation study. international journal of interactive mobile technologies (ijim) 8. subhieh el-salhi (2019). on developing an integrated family mobile application. (ijacsa) international journal of advanced computer science and applications. 9. mustafa harun can. (2016). use of mobile application: means of communication between parents and class teacher. world journal on educational technology (wjet). 10. lai, c. l. & hwang, g. j. (2015). high school teachers’ perspectives on applying different mobile learning strategies to science courses: the national mobile learning program in taiwan, international journal of mobile learning and organisation, 9 (2), p 124 -145. 11. lglezakis, l. (2020). legal issues of mobile apps: apractical guide, kluwer law international b.v. 12. moranz, j. & salz, p. a. (2013). the everything guide to mobile apps: a practical guide to affordable mobile, united states: simon and schuster. 13. nikolopoulou, k. (2020). secondary education teachers’ perceptions of mobile phone and tablet use in classrooms: benefits, constraints and concerns, j. comput. educ. 7, 257–275. 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-020-00156-7 15. ozdamli, f., & uzunboylu, h. (2015). m-learning adequacy and perceptions of students and teachers in secondary schools. british journal of educational technology, 46(1), 159–172. 16. selwyn, n. (2011). education and technology key issues and debates, london: continuum international publishing group. 17. vittone, j. & cuello, j. (2013). designing mobile apps, josé vittone. 18. zheng, p. & lionel, n. (2010). smart phone and next generation mobile computing, amsterdam: elsevier. 19. s. houlden, g.. veletsianos, "the problem with flexible learning: neoliberalism, freedom, and learner subjectivities," learning, media and technology, pp. 1-12, 2020. 20. d. paulsrud and c. nilholm, "teaching for inclusion–a review of research on the cooperation between regular teachers and special educators in the work with students in need of special support," international journal of inclusive education, pp. 1-15, 2020. 21. h. abbasi kasani, g. shams mourkani, f. seraji, m. rezaeizadeh,and h. abedi, "elearning challenges in iran: a research synthesis," international review of research in open and distributed learning, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 96-116, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-020-00156-7 30 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 architectural sketching: composing architectural forms using geometric bodies berdiyev fazliddin abdugaforovich senior teacher, tashkent institute of architecture and construction abstract: this article explores the significance of geometric forms in architecture, their application in composition, and methods to achieve harmony and dynamism through their arrangement. by analyzing historical and contemporary examples, this study highlights how geometric abstraction continues to influence architectural thought and practice, demonstrating the enduring relevance of these fundamental shapes in contemporary design. keywords: architectural composition, geometric forms, spatial organization, symmetry, modularity, computational design, volumetric articulation. introduction: an architectural sketch is a drawing that provides information about an object's dimensions, shape, and construction. it must be executed in accordance with the principles of descriptive geometry. all stages of technical drawing and design work include croquis (from the french croquis, meaning "to sketch"—a quick drawing that captures the most characteristic features of a painting, sculpture, or architectural work, usually done in pencil), measurement, sketching, working drawings, and exhibition drawings. in the first year of academic education, it serves as a tool for demonstrating acquired graphic skills and developing compositional abilities. literature review and methodology: during the development of a project assignment, an architectural sketch and an architectural drawing are created. an architectural sketch is a visual form of project exploration, serving as a method for expressing and refining a creative concept in a freehand graphic style. an architectural pencil drawing refers to any depiction of an architectural work. the subject of an architectural pencil drawing can carry an independent meaning, and in some cases, it may even be classified as an independent form of art—easel graphics. for an architect, mastering sketching and pencil drawing is essential. a high level of graphic proficiency enables the effective communication of a professional concept, conveying the "idea" of the designed object more comprehensively during its initial stages of development. furthermore, smoothness in architectural pencil drawings is crucial for depicting environmental details accurately, ensuring that the architectural object maintains realistic proportions and establishes a harmonious connection with both humans and nature.1 the 18th-century french philosopher denis diderot once wrote: “a country that teaches drawing as it teaches writing will soon surpass all others in art, science, and craftsmanship.” today, architectural drawing is no longer regarded merely as a professional means of communication or a "language" of dialogue between the architect, executor, and consumer. 1 lomonosova, m.g. graphics and painting. moscow, 2003. – 207 pages. 31 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us instead, it is interpreted as one of the fundamental tools of the creative process. the goal of architectural education is to prepare students for active creative practice.2 in the cultural system, architecture holds a distinct position, with one of its primary roles entrusted to the architect—the creation of beauty. however, to create beauty, the architect must be able to see it, internalize it, and effectively translate it onto paper. to work successfully in architectural graphics, one must develop the ability to see the world through the eyes of an artist, notice the extraordinary in the ordinary, and cultivate both keen observation and dedication. mastery of pencil drawing is essential for an architect to successfully complete any project assignment. a high level of skill in pencil drawing is one of the key quality criteria for the professionalism of future architects. a distinctive feature of architectural graphics is the combined use of two visualization methods—pencil drawing and technical drafting. the integration of these techniques in architectural drawings enhances their informational content, making it easier to assess the chosen architectural solution and implement it in real-life construction. each form of visual art has its own unique means of depiction, including the materials used. in architectural projects, the numerous methods of representation can generally be categorized into linear, tonal, chiaroscuro, and polychrome techniques, where line, tone, light and shadow, and color serve as the primary visual elements. in black-and-white architectural graphics, the fundamental artistic tools include points, hatching, and the contrast between black and white. results: in the education system, learning to draw begins primarily with sketching various geometric shapes. for this purpose, it is most effective to use wireframe models of these objects. beginners in drawing should start by depicting three-dimensional objects with simple forms, such as a cube. to facilitate this process, it is recommended to place a wireframe model alongside a plaster model of the same size. this approach allows the invisible parts of the cube to be clearly seen, helping the artist to better understand and accurately represent its structural form. architecture, as a discipline, has long been intertwined with geometry, utilizing its principles to construct spaces that are both functional and aesthetically pleasing. throughout history, architects have relied on geometric bodies to establish order, proportion, and spatial coherence in 2 tursunov, sh. sh. (2023). the integration of architecture and monumental art in the artistic solution of urban planning. construction and education, 1(3), 49-53. 32 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us their designs. from the rigid symmetry of classical temples to the fluid organicism of parametric architecture, geometric forms have served as a universal language in the built environment. the manipulation and combination of basic geometric bodies allow architects to create compositions that exhibit balance, rhythm, and structural efficiency. understanding the principles governing these forms is essential for architects and designers seeking to develop innovative spatial solutions while maintaining coherence and visual harmony. as contemporary architecture embraces digital technologies and computational design, the role of geometric bodies in composition remains a central tenet, bridging the gap between mathematical precision and artistic expression.3 the wireframe model and the cube should be positioned at a 45-degree angle relative to the artist. this setup includes a two-dimensional sheet of paper, a pencil in hand, and a model placed on a table within the artist’s line of sight. the model should be positioned at least at arm’s length when the artist extends their hand forward. the first step is to carefully observe the model. one edge of the cube appears closest, while the remaining edges and faces recede into the distance. since every drawing begins with establishing a foundational structure, the cube should also be constructed starting from its base. a horizontal guideline is drawn on the paper relative to its edges. next, the angles at which the cube’s receding edges extend inward are estimated visually and marked accordingly. after sketching the base, a reference point is placed on the lower part of the cube’s nearest face to indicate its height. a vertical line is drawn upward from this point. the remaining vertical edges are then extended upward to their appropriate heights. finally, the top edges are connected by drawing lines between the marked points, forming a structured, wireframe-like representation of the cube. this drawing process relies on an estimation technique rather than precise measuring instruments. it allows the artist to perceive the hidden, receding parts of the object and understand the effects of perspective foreshortening. to further develop an understanding of perspective, artists should practice quick, constructive linear sketches of various objects such as glass jars, cups, chairs, tables, cabinets, and televisions. this practice will be highly beneficial when progressing to tonal and more detailed drawings. 3 tursunov, sh. sh., & soliev, d. z. (2023). the unique features and challenges of artistic expression in graphic arts. construction and education, 1(3), 118-121. 33 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us discussion: the arrangement of geometric bodies in architectural composition follows specific principles that enhance visual hierarchy, spatial clarity, and formal articulation. one of the most fundamental techniques is the use of symmetry and asymmetry to create either a sense of order and stability or dynamism and movement. symmetrical compositions, often found in classical and neoclassical architecture, evoke a sense of balance and authority, while asymmetrical arrangements, characteristic of modernist and deconstructivist designs, introduce visual tension and complexity. another critical compositional strategy is contrast and hierarchy, where the juxtaposition of different geometric forms accentuates focal points and guides the observer’s perception of spatial relationships. for instance, a towering cylindrical volume amidst a cluster of cubic forms draws attention and establishes a visual landmark within the composition . 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion: in conclusion, repetition and rhythm further contribute to architectural coherence by reinforcing patterns and creating a sense of continuity, as seen in the colonnades of ancient temples or the modular grid systems of contemporary skyscrapers. additionally, proportion and scale play a vital role in determining the relationship between geometric bodies and the human experience, ensuring that built forms resonate with the users’ spatial and sensory perceptions. by integrating these principles, architects can craft compositions that not only fulfill functional requirements but also engage with the emotional and psychological dimensions of space. references: 1. berdiyev n.o., bobomuradov z.r. organization of students' independent work in the subjects of sketching and painting. study guide. – tashkent, 2020. 2. osmolovskaya o.v., musatov a.a. drawing from imagination. – moscow, 2015. 3. sanayev x.s. study methodological guide on sketching. – tashkent: tdpu, 2004. 4. tursunov, sh. sh. (2023). the integration of architecture and monumental art in the artistic solution of urban planning. construction and education, 1(3), 49-53. 5. tursunov, sh. sh., & soliev, d. z. (2023). the unique features and challenges of artistic expression in graphic arts. construction and education, 1(3), 118-121. 54 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 1, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 to study the effect of the amount of dispersed fibers on the cement stone and determine the optimal composition saidmuratov baxtiyor ibragimovich teacher of the department "civil engineering", samsaceu toshjo‘rayev suxrob ramazonovich student of the department "building materials, products, structures and their production technology", samsaceu ibragimov navruzbek shaydullayevich student of phd "building materials and products", samsaceu abstract the article presents the results of experimental research on the effect of the amount of basalt fiber on the physical and mechanical properties of fine-grained concrete. the selected composition of micro-reinforced sandy concrete is recommended for the manufacture of thin-walled spatial structures. conclusions on the research work carried out are presented. keywords: fine-grained concrete, basalt, cement, fiber, water, micro-reinforcement, dispersion. introduction reinforcement of reinforced concrete products and structures with dispersed fibers is widely used today to increase their resistance to cracking, bending and elongation. in addition, fiber-dispersed reinforcement prevents cracks from penetrating into the inner layers of concrete, increasing the strength of the cement stone, as well as the penetration of concrete, also serve to improve the strength of the joints between the structural elements. the effective effect of different fibrous materials on the properties of concrete depends on the ratio of the elastic modulus of the dispersed fiber and the concrete. that is, when the ratio of the modulus of dispersed reinforcement to the modulus of concrete is greater than one (еф/еb >1), it will be possible to obtain concrete that is resistant to elongation and cracking. various metallic and non-metallic fibrous materials are used to reinforce concrete. basalt fibers, asbestos, polymer, wollastonite and other fibers can be used as metal-free disperse fibers. in such dispersed reinforcement, we used basalt fiber. when basalt fiber is added to fine-grained concrete, the fibers in such concrete do not change their properties in various harmful aggressive environments. as a result, it is possible to increase the strength of the material, the service life. in this study, it was studied that fine-grained concrete works in conjunction with chemical additives. in this case, the strength of concrete on the obtained (selected) composition was studied. materials and methods determination of the normal thickness and hardening period of the selected cement paste was carried out according to the standard method on the basis of dast 310.3-81 "cements normal 55 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us thickness, uniform volume change and hardening time" on the vika tool. gost 30744-2001 was used to determine the strength of cement. the compressive and flexural strength of sandy concrete samples were determined in accordance with dast 310.4-81. the mobility and average density of the concrete mix were determined in accordance with dast 5802-86. results and discussion cement. one of the main components used in the preparation of concrete is these binders. as a binder we use portland cement. portland cement is a hydraulic binder obtained by softening clinker and gypsum (3-5%) together, which hardens very well in water and air and does not lose its strength. portland cement m400 d0 of jsc "kyzylkumcement" was used for the research. gost 30744-2001 was used to determine the strength of cement. chemical composition of portland cement table 1 № naming of raw materials massive amount of oxides, % sio2 fe2o3 al2o3 r2o cao mgo so3 қ.м.к. total 1 pc 400 d0 21,84 3,75 4,78 1,47 64,79 2,59 0,33 0,30 99,82 basalt fiber. fibers are also used in concrete. basalt fiber was used as fibro. basalt fiber differs from metal fittings by a number of advantages:  4-5 times lighter than metal;  resistant to aggressive environments;  thermal conductivity is zero;  bending strength 1200 mpa;  does not lose its strength from -70 ° c to + 100 ° c;  lifespan up to 80 years;  fiber diameter 10-21 micro m;  fiber length 15-20mm. water. for the preparation of the concrete mix is used drinking water or natural water that does not contain harmful compounds that interfere with the normal hardening of the concrete and the shape of the structure. the hydrogen index of the water used should be rn≥4 and the amount of sulfate ions so4 so2700 mg / l, as well as the absence of harmful compounds (mineral and organic acids, fats, sugars, etc.). in order to analyze the results, compare, determine the optimal composition of fine-grained concrete with the addition of basalt fiber, to study the effect of basalt fiber on the strength of concrete in different compositions, the strength of concrete samples of several compositions is determined. in these studies, we added basalt fiber to the controlled concrete composition first at a rate of 1.5; 3; 5% relative to the cement mass, and then at a rate of 4; 5; 6%. the analysis of the gold results, the implementation of changes in the strength of finegrained concrete with the addition of basalt to the strength of ordinary concrete depends on the community. with this in mind, the joint strength of ordinary concrete composition in concrete samples built on the foundation is determined in parallel with the above experiments, in parallel conditions. the results obtained are presented in the following tables and graphs. table 2. 56 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us strength of samples, mpa № contents when hot processed rben.str. rсom.str. 1 control content 7,1 32,4 2 basalt fiber content (bf-1,5) 7,7 33,1 3 basalt fiber content (bf-3) 7,8 34,5 4 basalt fiber content (bf-4) 7,95 35,3 5 basalt fiber content (bf-5) 8,5 36,6 6 basalt fiber content (bf-6) 8.1 35,8 note: rben.str. bending strength. rсom.str. compressive strength graphics 1. graphics 2. conclusion the following conclusions can be drawn from the experimental research: 0 7,1 7,7 7,8 7,95 8,5 8,1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 control content content bf1,5 content bf-3 content bf-4 content bf-5 content bf-6 c o n si st en cy , m p a contents bending strength of samples, mpa 0 32,4 33,1 34,5 35,3 36,6 35,8 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 control content content bf1,5 content bf-3 content bf-4 content bf-5 content bf-6 c o n si st en cy , m p a contents compressive strength of samples, mpa 57 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  the flexural strength of samples with 1.5% basalt fiber added to the cement mass increased by 8.4% and the compressive strength increased by 4.06%.  the flexural strength of samples with 3% basalt fiber added to the cement mass increased by 9.8% and the compressive strength increased by 5.07%.  the flexural strength of samples with 4% basalt fiber added to the cement mass increased by 11.97% and the compressive strength increased by 6.59%.  the flexural strength of samples with 5% basalt fiber added to the cement mass increased by 19.71% to the control composition, and the compressive strength increased by 11.67%.  the flexural strength of samples with 6% basalt fiber added to the cement mass increased by 14.08% to the control composition, and the compressive strength increased by 7.86%. the bending and compressive strength of the samples reached the highest values when basalt fiber was added to the fine-grained concrete composition in the amount of 5% of the cement mass. list of references 1. saidmuratov, b., & gulamova, k. (2018). using the method of "imitation modeling" in obtaining various fractional fillers by grinding large stones and rocks. problems of architecture and construction, 1(2), 59-61. 2. kuldashev, h., saidmuratov, b. i., gulomova, h., & berdikulov, a. (2014). perspectives of using dispersed reinforced fine-grained heavy concrete in construction. problems of architecture and construction. journal of science and technology. samarkand, (4). 3. umetovna, p. z., & olimovna, a. s. (2021, may). nanomodified concrete: technologies of the xxi century. in e-conference globe (pp. 68-71). 4. saidmuratov, b. i., kurtametov, s., & gulamova, h. a. (n.d.). mayda donador qumli betonlarni bazalt tolasi bilan armirlash va qumli betonlarning fizik-mexanik xossalariga ta’siri. me’morchilik va qurilish muammolari (ilmiy-texnik jurnal), 87-91. 5. negmatov, z. y., ochilov, a. e., & maxammatov, m. s. (2021, may). special properties of alkali-activated binders. in "online-conferences" platform (pp. 56-58). 6. parsaeva, n. zh., kurbanov, z. x., & bobokulova, sh. (2021). issledovanie fizikomexanicheskix svoystv betonnyx izdeliy, ispol’zuemye promyshlennye otxody. science and education, 2(5), 417-423. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 04, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us extraction of lead (ii) ions using dithizone method on wastewater of khondza yuldashova s.g, jumayeva z.e., muzaffarova n.sh. termez state university, barkamol avlod street 43, termez, uzbekistan, department of medical and biological chemistry, termiz branch of the tashkent medical academy corresponding author: gmail: sarviyuldashova055@gmail.com abstract. this paper studies methods of lead and zinc metal ions extraction by dithizone from khondzha wastewater samples. inorganic metals or ions can act back with dithizone to produce colourful coordination. the dithizone reagent is highly sensitive to the presence of heavy metals such as lead (pb) and zinc (zn) as designated in this study. inorganic metals or ionic can react with dithizone to produce coloured coordination compounds. the resulting dithizoneate may be extracted with an organic solvent such as carbon tetrachloride (ccl4). this study also involves adjusting the ph value to produce our desired dithizone metal product. the dithizone extraction method used in extracting the pb element indicates a good performance. keywords: dithizone, extraction method, khondzha, lead and zinc metal ions, introduction in addition to the widespread use and economic importance of zinc, lead and related compounds, they are included among the ecotoxicologically dangerous materials. this makes the removal, separation and purification of these metals from various sources an important topic of many fundamental and industrial studies[1]. it is known that liquid-liquid extraction techniques play an important role in the development of processes for the recovery and separation of various metal ions. undoubtedly, the selectivity and efficiency of these methods are mainly determined by the extracting substances [2]. these heavy metals are non-biodegradable and accumulate in living systems, causing various serious diseases. these metals are widely distributed in the environment and eventually enter the food chain and are released from industrial activities (industrial waste, metal production, incineration plants, electroplating, fuel burning, etc.) and agricultural activities[3]. there are numerous techniques for extracting metals from water, but extracting metals from seawater stands out as particularly challenging due to factors like chloride ions and high salt concentrations. additionally, this extraction process involves intricate procedures that demand significant manpower, extensive time, and substantial amounts of seawater samples[4].. in this research, the dithizone method was employed for trace metal extraction. inorganic metals or ions can form colored coordination compounds when they react with dithizone. this dithizone reagent exhibits high sensitivity to heavy metals such as lead (pb), cadmium (cd), and zinc (zn), as highlighted in this study. the resulting dithizoneate can then be extracted using organic solvents like carbon tetrachloride (ccl4). furthermore, this study entails ph adjustment measures to facilitate dithizoneate production[5]. experimental part methods preparation of standard solution dithizone. 35 mg dithizone dissolved in 1000 ml of chlorophyll. solution dithizone shaken until no visible sedimentation under volumetric flask. it then added 7.0 ml of ethanol before being stored in the laboratory refrigerator under 15 ° c. before mailto:sarviyuldashova055@gmail.com american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 04, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us use, incorporate 5.0 ml of hno3 into the solution and shake to avoid precipitate the volumetric glass flask[6,7]. there are many types of standard methods that have been used in determining the concentration of heavy metals in seawater samples. however, only a few studies have been able to effectively extract the traceable metal and the results of this study are more pronounced than seawater. among such studies were carried out by lim and made using the cadmium method, the hydronium method. both methods are an ideal method for assessing the content of heavy metals. however, both methods require a considerable length of time and complicated measures[8]. additionally, these methods involve high risk reagents besides requiring high costs of either cost or maintenance costs. dithizone or known as diphenylthiocarbazone or 1,5diphenylthiocarbazone is a compound containing sulfur (s) and a good ligament. dithizone is prepared with dithizone's reaction to react with various metals such as lead (pb) produce colored complexes. with the ph value adjustment, the results for the determination of heavy metals such as lead (pb) and zinc (zn) will be easier and faster. for example, when conducting zinc (zn) metal analysis, by adjusting the ph value to 4.0 5.5, zinc (zn) will react with dithizone to produce zinc. results and discussion zinc metal extraction percentage and concentration when stirring 10 ml of 5.0 ppm zn(no3)2 and 10.0 ppm zn(no3)2 diluted solutions. the data reveals that using the dithizone extraction method with distilled water for the 10.0 ppm zn(no3)2 solution yielded the highest trace metal concentration at 0.615 mg/l, with an extraction percentage of 30.8%. in contrast, extraction using seawater resulted in the lowest trace metal concentration for the 10.0 ppm zn(no3)2 solution, measuring 0.349 mg/l with a recovery extraction percentage of 17.5%. this discrepancy is attributed to the ph conditions being less suitable for zinc metal in seawater. the experimental ph was adjusted to a relatively low range of 2.5 3.0 by adding acetic acid, which was necessary for zinc production. additionally, much of the zinc metal was lost during solvent evaporation via spinning evaporation and drying prior to analysis using icp-oes. zinc (with a boiling point of 1040.15 k) is more volatile compared to lead (2022.15 k) and cadmium (1180.15 k) under standard atmospheric pressure, leading to its easier loss during heating[9,10]. the incident observed is likely due to the ph level during titration, which was approximately 3.0, corresponding to the behavior of metals. ph plays a crucial role in the recovery of trace metals, with an extraction efficiency reaching 99.2%. furthermore, contamination from cadmium metal can be identified through this analysis, with extraction percentages of 84.3% for 5.0 ppm and 70.7% for 10.0 ppm standard metal solutions in water blank samples. an air blank refers to a sample without added oceans. the contamination is suspected to originate from instrument contamination, possibly from the rotating evaporator or from the beaker during the solvent drying process[11]. depicted the extraction percentage and concentration of extracted lead (pb) from 5.0 ppm and 10.0 ppm standard pb(no3)2 solutions in 10.0 ml. the extraction percentage and concentration of extracted lead using artificial seawater samples were higher compared to using natural seawater samples. specifically, for lead (pb) elements, the effectiveness of metal recovery reached 66.2% with a 5.0 ppm standard metal solution and 62.6% with a 10.0 ppm standard metal solution using artificial seawater samples[12]. the lower extraction percentages observed in natural seawater samples are attributed to significant ion interference from chloride ions and salt matrices in the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 04, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us water, which impacts the efficiency of the extraction method. overall, the dithizone extraction method employed for extracting lead demonstrates good performance[13]. conclusion research indicates that straightforward extraction methods like dithizone can effectively recover trace metals from seawater samples for analysis using icp-oes. this method requires a relatively small volume of seawater sample, typically ranging from 180 to 220 ml, for each concentration of standard metal solution (e.g., 5.0 mg or 10.0 mg). the study also demonstrates the potential for simultaneous analysis of multiple elements (such as pb, and zn) by spiking samples with various standard solutions. this approach is advantageous for analyzing large quantities of trace metals because it enables the measurement of multiple elements using a minimal sample volume, thereby simplifying sample collection, storage, and analysis. by paying close attention to the ph value during analysis, researchers can enhance the accuracy of trace metal concentration readings obtained from experiments. using the dithizone method, the concentrations of extracted metals were found to be 0.038 mg/l for pb and 0.473 mg/l for zn. these results demonstrate the effectiveness of the dithizone method in extracting and quantifying trace metals from seawater samples. references 1. huang, y., peng, j. & huang, x. allylthiourea functionalized magnetic adsorbent for the extraction of cadmium, copper and lead ions prior to their determination by atomic absorption spectrometry. microchim acta 186, 51 (2019). 2. aliyari, e., fathi, a.a., alvand, m. et al. β-cyclodextrin-grafted magnetic graphene oxide nanocomposites in ultrasound-assisted dispersive magnetic solid-phase extraction for simultaneous preconcentration of lead and cadmium ions. res chem intermed 47, 1905–1918 (2021). 3. sorouraddin, s.m., farajzadeh, m.a., pinou, r. et al. development of a reversed-phase dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction method for the extraction and preconcentration of lead and cadmium ions in some cosmetic products. chem. pap. 76, 2085–2092 (2022). 4. nezhadali, a., mohammadi, r., akbarpour, m. et al. application of the taguchi method and central composite design for the highly selective and efficient extraction of cu(ii) ions from an aqueous solution containing mn(ii), co(ii), ni(ii), zn(ii), cu(ii), and pb(ii) ions mixture using benzyl bis(thiosemicarbazone). chemistry africa 3, 1001–1008 (2020). 5. sorouraddin, s.m., parvizzad, k. & farajzadeh, m.a. development of a ph-induced dispersive solid-phase extraction method using folic acid combined with dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction: application in the extraction of cu(ii) and pb(ii) ions from water and fruit juice samples. anal. sci. 39, 23–31 (2023). 6. nazokat m., fayzulla n., abdulahat j. flame retardant for cotton fabrics based on phosphate acid-urea polymer //universum: химия и биология. – 2022. – №. 9-2 (99). – с. 53-56. 7. muzaffarova n. s., nurqulov f. n., jalilov a. t. pentaeritrit va ammofos asosida antipiren tayyorlash //kimyo va tibbiyot: nazariyadan amaliyotgacha. 2022. – с. 77-80. 8. muzaffarova n. s., nurqulov f. n. paxta matolari uchun azot va fosfor saqlovchi antipiren sintez qilish //kimyo va tibbiyot: nazariyadan amaliyotgacha. – 2022. – с. 75-77. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 02, issue 04, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 9. muzaffarova n., toshtemirova n. antipirenlar bilan ishlov berilgan tabiiy to ‘qimachilik materiallarning termik barqarorligini tadqiq etish //theoretical and experimental chemistry and modern problems of chemical technology. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 01. 10. nazokat m., faizulla n., abdulahat j. synthesis of a new flame retardant, high content of phosphorus and nitrogen and its use in cotton fabrics //universum: технические науки. – 2022. – №. 8-3 (101). – с. 59-62. 11. muzaffarova, n., & toshtemirova , n. antipirenlar bilan ishlov berilgan tabiiy to‘qimachilik materiallarning termik barqarorligini tadqiq etish. theoretical and experimental chemistry and modern problems of chemical technology, 1(01). retrieved from https://ojs.qarshidu.uz/index.php/ch/article/view/36. 12. muratov b.a, turaev kh. kh, umbarov i.a, kasimov sh.a, nomozov a.k, "studying of complexes of zn(ii) and co(ii) with acyclovir (2-amino-9-((2-hydroxyethoxy)methyl)-1,9 dihydro-6h-purine-6-oh),"int. j of eng. trends and tech. 2024; 72(1): 202-208. https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/ijett-v72i1p120. 13. durdubaeva r., beknazarov s., nomozov a. synthesis of 2, 4, 6-triethanolimine-1, 3, 5triazine and its application as a corrosion inhibitor of carbon steel in 0.5 m h2so4 solution //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 8. – с. 613-618. https://ojs.qarshidu.uz/index.php/ch/article/view/36 https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/ijett-v72i1p219 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 6, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 cooling of structural steel 45 during thermal processing studying the effect of magnetic field on liquids mamurjonov dilshod mamurjonovich assistant, tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov igamberdiyev abdulaziz abduraimovich head teacher, tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov mamurjonova kamola xusanjon qizi 3rd year student of tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov in the metallurgical industry, it is of great importance to improve the quality of steel in the process of thermal treatment of structural and tool steels for the field of tool making. in the process of heat treatment, coolants are used in traditional ways. according to the results of our experience, it was found that in the development of the technological process of increasing the physical-mechanical, technological properties of materials under the influence of a magnetic field under different conditions of cooling fluids, it is possible to achieve high strength under the influence of a magnetic field to thermal treatment fluids of steel 45. in the process of thermal processing of construction and tool steels, it is necessary to choose such objects in accordance with the development of the technological process and the study of the effects of the magnetic field on the types and conditions of cooling fluids, in which the metal or it is necessary to show that the transfer of new technology can improve the hardness and mechanical properties of new samples. thermal treatment of samples; water was selected as the cooling liquid during the thermal operation, selected in accordance with the state standard gost 1050-74 (st 45). the state of the liquid is at rest. steel 45 according to the state standard gost 105074 selected for the experiment. table-1. sample no. 1. (st 45) in the process of heating and cooling, the coolant (water) is h2o at rest steel brand hardness (hrc) find out 0 s release 0 s fluid condition (quiet) st 45 51 hrc 840-860 0 s 200 0 s v= 0.007 m3 32 hrc 850-860 0 s 450 0 s 28 hrc 840-860 0 s 600 0 s 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us carrying out the technology of thermal operation under the influence of a magnetic field to cooling fluids in motion and at rest. in the process of thermal treatment of samples, water (h2o) as a cooling liquid is presented in the case of 300 m/t magnetic field induction in a rotating motion of 1 min/65 liters and a constant magnetic field is applied to it. sample #1. structural steel 45 (st 45). table-2 sample no. 1. (st 45) in the process of heating and dipping, the coolant (water) h2 o circulation 1 min / 65 l magnetic induction at 300 m/t steel brand hardness (hrc) find out 0 s release 0 s fluid condition (circulation) st 45 53 hrc 840-860 0 s 200 0 s v= 0.007 m3 30 hrc 850-860 0 s 450 0 s 26hrc 840-860 0 s 600 0 s during the conducted experiments, the first experiment was conducted with water selected as the cooling liquid used in the process of thermal operation in a still state and without a magnetic field. in the second experiment, the state of water was carried out in a circular motion for 1 minute/65 liters under the influence of a permanent magnetic field of 300m/t induction. calculating and choosing the time of the thermal operation mode: when calculating the total time required to heat up the workpiece, all the considerations described above are taken into account. but it is very difficult to accurately calculate the time of holding the part at a certain temperature, therefore, the holding time is found using practical coefficients, and the value of these coefficients is selected based on the above factors. for example, the coefficient of the time it takes to keep a cylindrical rod (its diameter is d) that the gas flame touches uniformly from all sides at a certain temperature is taken as 0.5-1 minute per millimeter of cylinder diameter (from 0.5-1 min/mm). the detail is very high (800 0с and higher), the coefficient is 0.25-0.5 min/mm, and if it is heated in liquefied lead, it is 0.1-0.25 min/mm. if the cross-section of the part (zagatovka) is in the form of a square (we take its right side as a), heat such a part at a certain temperature. the time required for heating is one and a half times the coefficient, and the coefficient of the time required to heat the part with a right angle crosssection (we take its short side as b) is taken twice as much. if the heating medium does not touch all sides of the part to be heated at once, for example, the part is placed at the bottom of the furnace, then the holding time is 1.5 to 4 times, depending on the location of the part. if there is, it will increase 1.5 2 times. it should also be mentioned that it takes very little time (only a few seconds) to heat up the layer of as3 or as1 steel on the surface from the critical point of 30 500 0c, i.e. to the temperature of transformation of pearlite into austenite. , and the process of turning pearlite into austenite takes several minutes. since the time of keeping the steel at a certain temperature includes the time of pearlite turning into austenite, the formula can be written as follows: tu = tt the above-mentioned values of retention time coefficients and, therefore, the total time required for heating are approximate. these values can only be determined experimentally. in factories, ready-made norms of heating and holding time are used, and these norms are created by directly measuring the time of heating and holding the parts at the same temperature. 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us various furnaces are used to heat the steel up to the forging temperature. these furnaces include flame furnaces, muffle furnaces, and crucible furnaces. we used muffle furnaces for the experiment. we calculate the retrieval time for sample #1 based on guest demand 1. the diameter of the sample is 58 mm; 2. the height of the sample h – 18 mm; 3. if the part is heated to a very high temperature (8000с and higher), the coefficient is 0.25 0.5 min/mm, and t t is set to 0.25 min/mm. 4. total time tu 5. tu = t t*d*h 6. it took a total of 4 hours and 35 minutes to collect. 24.11.88 n 3811. recommended temperature for release of the sample in accordance with the requirements of the state standard gost 1050-74 is 200 0c 2 hours 600 0c – 1 hour. microstructure analysis of the obtained sample *in the state of 1000-fold magnification without the effect of a magnetic field and in a magnetic field, water was used as a cooling liquid. this is in accordance with the requirements of the state standard gost 1050-74, dated 24.11.88. in order to see the microstructure, the sample was polished with 1000, 1500, 2000 micron sanding paper step by step for 2-3 hours, then it was polished on the machine in a circular motion up to 150-750 times per minute in chrome powder. microstructure of samples; research samples made of steel grade 45 were obtained at a temperature of 840 8600с in the order given in the section. we carried out the process of releasing the obtained sample at a temperature of 200-2200с in the given order. we analyzed the microstructure of the released samples in the following order. the microstructure of the samples after cooling in different liquids is shown in fig. 1. a – without magnet b – in magnetic field 1 picture. microstructure of samples cooled in different liquids x1000. the hardness of the samples was measured after they were fired at low and high temperatures: 1. the hardness of the sample was measured at a temperature of 200 c, according to which the hardness of the sample was high. changed from 51 hrc to 53hrc. 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. hardness was measured at 450 c, according to which the hardness of the sample varied from 32 hrc to 30 hrc. 3. hardness was measured at a temperature of 600 c, according to which the hardness of the sample varied from 24 hrc to 26 hrc. total hardness increased by 2.14%. references: 1. on the strategy of actions for the further development of the republic of uzbekistan. t.: decree no. pf-4947 of february 7, 2017. 2. i.a. our main task is to further improve the development of our country and the well-being of our people. tashkent. 2010. 65 p. 3. mirziyoev sh.m. we will build our great future together with our brave and noble people. t.: nmiu of uzbekistan, 2017-488 p. 4. umarov e.o. materials science, tashkent. nmiu named after cholpon 2014.384.p 158 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the intersection of business analytics, project management, and product management in healthcare anuneya swaminathan hult international business school, cambridge, ma, usa. aswaminathan@student.hult.edu abstract: the convergence of business analytics, project management, and product management is transforming healthcare by enhancing innovation, improving patient outcomes, and increasing operational efficiency. this paper explores how these disciplines interact within healthcare organizations, emphasizing their combined impact on data-driven decision-making, technology development, and patient-centered services. it defines each field in the healthcare context, examines synergies that drive strategic advantages, presents integration methodologies, and analyzes real-world case studies. challenges such as data silos, regulatory complexity, and organizational resistance are discussed, along with best practices to overcome them. future trends, including the growing role of predictive and generative ai and the rise of hybrid healthcare product roles, are also considered. by examining how business analytics supports project and product initiatives, and how structured management ensures the success of innovation, this paper provides a strategic roadmap for healthcare organizations seeking to thrive in an increasingly digital, patient-driven environment. keywords: business analytics, project management, product management, data-driven innovation digital health transformation, healthcare. introduction the modern healthcare sector is increasingly data-driven and project-oriented, with crossdisciplinary collaboration becoming the norm. this outline explores how business analytics, project management, and product management intersect and support each other in healthcare. we focus on their combined impact on healthcare innovation, patient outcomes, operational efficiency, and technology development, drawing from academic research and industry insights. key topics include definitions of each discipline in a healthcare context, the synergies between analytics and management practices, tools and methodologies used, real-world case studies, integration challenges, best practices, and future trends. definitions and roles in healthcare business analytics in healthcare: business analytics (ba) in healthcare refers to the collection, processing, and analysis of data from various sources – such as electronic health records, financial metrics, and operational workflows – to derive actionable insights. it involves using statistical analysis, predictive modeling, and operations research to inform decision-making and strategy [1]. ba plays a vital role in healthcare by enabling organizations to convert massive data pools into a 360-degree view of operations, identify patterns (e.g. disease trends, resource use), and make smarter decisions. ultimately, business analytics helps hospitals and health systems enhance patient care and hospital performance, optimize processes, reduce costs, and 159 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ensure data-driven innovation. in today's landscape, leveraging ba is “not optional; it’s essential for survival and growth”. project management in healthcare: project management (pm) in healthcare is the structured application of knowledge, skills, and techniques to plan and execute projects that improve health services. these projects can range from implementing new it systems (like ehrs) to facility upgrades or clinical process improvements. effective healthcare pm is a critical organizational competency that leads to improved efficiency, cost savings, and successful implementation of strategic initiatives. in healthcare, project managers coordinate cross-functional teams (clinicians, it staff, administrators), manage timelines and budgets, and ensure that projects meet quality and regulatory requirements [2]. the organizational competence in healthcare pm includes aligning projects with strategic goals, establishing governance and clear roles, ensuring skilled team members, and providing adequate resources. this competence is essential given that healthcare projects often address complex needs like quality improvement, health it integration, and change management in a highly regulated, high-stakes environment. product management in healthcare: healthcare product management is a specialized discipline focused on the end-to-end development of healthcare products, services, or technologies from concept through launch and beyond. a healthcare product manager acts at the intersection of technology, clinical practice, and business, translating healthcare needs into effective solutions. they oversee market analysis, product strategy, development oversight, and lifecycle management for products such as medical devices, health it systems, or patient-facing apps. importantly, healthcare product management requires deep understanding of clinical workflows, patient safety, and regulatory compliance (e.g., fda regulations, hipaa data privacy). the product manager ensures the final product not only meets technical specifications but also delivers value to end-users (patients, providers, administrators) while adhering to healthcare’s stringent standards. this role is pivotal in driving innovation – e.g., guiding telehealth platforms, medical ai tools, or digital health services – and in ensuring these new products improve patient outcomes and operational efficiency. interactions and synergies between disciplines business analytics as a support for projects and products in healthcare, business analytics underpins both project management and product management by providing data-driven evidence for planning, execution, and evaluation. analytics offers realtime insights and performance metrics that guide project managers in making informed decisions and adjusting project scopes. for product managers, analytics (often termed product analytics in this context) reveals user behavior and patient outcomes, informing feature development and strategic direction. for example, analytics can predict patient admission trends or treatment outcomes, helping project teams prioritize initiatives and allocate resources effectively. business analytics also supports identifying opportunities for innovation. by uncovering patterns such as frequent hospital readmissions or workflow bottlenecks, analytics-driven projects can be launched to address these issues (e.g., a project to reduce readmission rates via a predictive risk model). operational and clinical data analyzed through ba guides healthcare product development as well – ensuring that new products (like a telehealth app or a decision-support software) are grounded in actual user needs and outcome data. in essence, ba provides the evidence base and monitoring capability that keep projects on track and aligned with desired healthcare outcomes, and it ensures products continuously evolve based on data feedback loops (e.g., using health outcome data to update a care management product). combined impact on innovation, patient outcomes, efficiency, and tech development when integrated effectively, business analytics, project management, and product management create a virtuous cycle that accelerates healthcare innovation and improves performance: 160 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us driving healthcare innovation: projects and products informed by analytics are more likely to address pressing healthcare challenges with novel solutions. for instance, analytics might reveal a need for better chronic disease management, which a project team can address by developing a digital health product (an app or service) [3]. through project management discipline, the development is executed on time and budget, while product management ensures the solution fits the market need and regulatory context. an example is the rapid expansion of telehealth services in recent years. analytics highlighted increased patient demand and positive outcomes for remote care, leading organizations to initiate telehealth implementation projects. product managers guided the design of user-friendly, secure telehealth platforms, while project managers coordinated the rollout across it and clinical teams. the result is an innovative service model benefiting patients and providers. improving patient outcomes: together, these disciplines ensure that improvements are datadriven and patient-centered. business analytics can track patient outcome metrics (like infection rates, readmission, treatment efficacy) and flag areas for improvement. project management methodologies (such as lean six sigma or quality improvement projects) then implement changes targeting those metrics. product management contributes by developing tools (e.g., an ai diagnostic system or patient engagement portal) that directly influence care quality. for example, one study noted that operations management and analytics research has addressed key clinical issues including patient satisfaction, readmission rates, and mortality. by bridging analytics with project execution, hospitals have rethought processes like reducing wait times and improving compliance with care protocols, yielding better patient outcomes. enhancing operational efficiency: operational efficiency gains are a major combined impact of ba, pm, and product management in healthcare. data analytics pinpoints inefficiencies (e.g., scheduling gaps, resource overuse) which projects can target for streamlining. project managers often use analytics dashboards to monitor project impact on efficiency metrics such as length of stay or cost per patient. product managers incorporate features into healthcare it products that automate workflows or integrate systems, directly boosting efficiency. for instance, using ba, medicare and medicaid identified patterns of fraud and saved $210 million in one year through predictive modeling and fraud detection tools. likewise, unitedhealthcare achieved a 2200% return on investment by employing advanced analytics for fraud detection – a project that combined analytical tools with effective project execution. these examples show how datadriven projects can drastically cut costs and waste, while products like fraud detection software or resource optimization platforms institutionalize efficiency improvements. advancing technology development: the intersection of these fields accelerates the development and adoption of new healthcare technologies. through project management, healthcare organizations can implement complex technologies (like ehr systems, ai diagnostic tools, iot medical devices) in a controlled manner. business analytics guides these technology projects by highlighting which technical capabilities will yield the most impact (for example, analytics might show that an ai tool could significantly improve diagnostic accuracy in radiology). product management ensures the technology is user-friendly and meets market needs, bridging the gap between raw innovation and practical application. health tech product managers are often at the forefront of rolling out technologies such as ai-driven diagnostics, ensuring they are planned, executed, and managed for long-term success. analytics also plays a role postimplementation: product analytics track technology usage and outcomes, providing feedback for iterative development. for instance, sanofi (a pharmaceutical company) uses advanced analytics to process data from 50,000 touchpoints daily, enabling tailored customer interactions and improved decision-making – this not only improves patient care but also boosts productivity and efficiency across teamsproductschool.com. the success of such initiatives relies on product managers knowledgeable in data science who can tackle data fragmentation and ensure comprehensive views of patient informationproductschool.com. 161 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in summary, the synergy of ba, pm, and product management leads to evidence-based innovations that improve patient health and make healthcare delivery more efficient and technologically advanced. key tools, techniques, and methodologies implementing these disciplines in tandem requires a range of specialized tools and methodologies: data analytics tools: healthcare organizations employ tools like electronic health records (ehr) databases, data warehouses, and analytics software (e.g., sas, r, python) to collect and analyze health data. methods include predictive analytics (forecasting patient risk or resource needs), data mining for pattern discovery, and dashboards for real-time monitoring of key performance indicators. advanced techniques such as machine learning and ai are increasingly used for predictive modeling (e.g., predicting disease outbreaks or patient deterioration) and decision support. for example, organizations are adopting ai integration services and cloudbased analytics platforms to handle the growing data volume and complexity, a trend evidenced by the healthcare analytics market’s rapid growth (projected from $34.4b in 2023 to $267.7b by 2032). these analytical tools directly support project and product outcomes by providing the evidence for decision-making and measuring success. project management methodologies: healthcare project teams often use formal project management frameworks such as pmi’s pmbok (project management body of knowledge) or prince2 to structure their work [4]. methodologies like agile project management (with iterative sprints and continuous stakeholder feedback) are adopted especially for health it and software projects to remain flexible to changing requirements. lean and six sigma techniques are also prevalent in healthcare improvement projects to reduce waste, variation, and improve quality (for example, lean methods to streamline patient flow or six sigma’s dmaic to reduce medication errors). project management tools like gantt charts, project scheduling software (e.g., ms project, trello, jira for agile), and risk management logs are standard. moreover, establishing a project management office (pmo) is a key practice; research indicates that having a pmo and organizational alignment significantly influences hospitals’ competence in managing projects. these methodologies ensure that complex healthcare projects (which often involve multidisciplinary teams and strict regulations) are delivered on time, within scope, and with controlled risks. product management techniques: healthcare product managers utilize tools such as product roadmaps, user personas, and requirement backlogs to guide development. they often employ design thinking and user-centered design to ensure products meet user needs – for instance, engaging clinicians and patients early to define requirements for a new health app [5]. prototyping and usability testing are critical, given that user experience can directly affect patient adoption and safety. additionally, techniques like a/b testing and product analytics are used post-launch to gather data on how products are used, informing continuous improvements. cross-functional collaboration tools (e.g., confluence for documentation, slack or ms teams for communication) facilitate the necessary teamwork between engineers, clinicians, data scientists, and compliance experts. regulatory compliance management is another key aspect: product teams maintain documentation and testing protocols to meet healthcare regulations and standards (for example, iso standards for medical devices or the fda’s software validation requirements). in summary, product management in healthcare blends strategic planning with agile execution, underpinned by continual analytics to adapt the product to real-world use and outcomes. real-world case studies and examples to illustrate the intersection of business analytics, project management, and product management in action, we consider a few real-world healthcare examples: 162 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us case study 1: telehealth platform implementation – innovating care delivery the rapid expansion of telehealth services is a prime example of these disciplines converging. healthcare providers, responding to patient demand for remote care, embarked on telehealth implementation projects (project management) that were heavily informed by analytics and guided by product management principles. business analytics demonstrated high patient satisfaction with virtual visits – “94% of patients who used telehealth services reported they would use them again” – and identified use cases (prescription refills, follow-ups, etc.) with strong telehealth potential. this data justified broader deployment and helped project managers scope the telehealth project effectively (e.g., focusing on the most needed features first). product managers led the development of the telehealth platform, ensuring it was intuitive and secure. they balanced user experience with regulatory compliance, addressing hipaa requirements and healthcare regulations while designing a patient-friendly interface. integration was crucial: the product had to integrate with existing systems like ehrs and scheduling tools, a complex task that required careful project planning and technical coordination. throughout development, analytics were used to test system performance (e.g., checking if virtual consults effectively resolved patient issues) and to iterate on features. the outcome was a seamless, reliable telehealth service that aligned with patient preferences and organizational goals: increased access to care, reduced no-show rates, and greater flexibility for providers (helping to reduce burnout). this example underscores how data (analytics on patient needs), structured execution (project management of it deployment), and strategic design (product management for usability and compliance) together produced an innovative healthcare solution. case study 2: predictive analytics for patient outcomes – data-driven quality improvement many healthcare organizations have launched projects to harness predictive analytics (a facet of business analytics) to improve patient outcomes. for instance, a hospital system might initiate a project to reduce hospital readmissions for heart failure patients using predictive models [6]. business analytics provides the predictive model itself – using historical patient data to flag high-risk patients – and continuous data monitoring to evaluate the project’s impact (e.g., readmission rates preand post-intervention). project management is applied to integrate this model into clinical workflow: assembling a team (data scientists, it staff, clinicians), setting milestones (model development, it integration, staff training), and managing change as nurses and doctors adopt new protocols. the product management aspect comes into play if the predictive model is deployed via a software tool or dashboard (a “product” for clinicians) [7]. a product manager would ensure this tool is user-friendly for clinicians (perhaps integrated into the ehr for ease-of-use), and that it meets privacy/security standards. a real-world analog is how some insurers and health systems use analytics for fraud detection and care management. as noted earlier, medicare and medicaid saved $210 million in one year by using predictive analytics to detect fraud [8]. while this example is about cost outcomes, similar analytics-driven projects have targeted clinical outcomes – for example, using predictive alerts to reduce sepsis mortality or to prevent readmissions. in each case, the combined effort of analytics (providing the insight), project management (implementing the solution in practice), and product management (packaging the solution into a usable tool or process) is critical. the success of unitedhealthcare’s analytics initiative, yielding a 2200% roi through advanced fraud detection, similarly resulted from aligning technical development with organizational processes and end-user (investigator) needs. these cases highlight data-driven projects improving both patient care and operational integrity. case study 3: pharmaceutical product development with advanced analytics – operational efficiency and personalization a notable example at the intersection of these fields is sanofi’s use of product analytics in its customer engagement (though in pharma rather than hospital setting) [8]. sanofi processes data from 50,000 touchpoints daily using advanced analytics, which enables highly tailored 163 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us interactions and decision-making, thereby improving how their teams operate and interact with healthcare providers [9]. this is essentially a product analytics initiative (part of product management strategy) supercharged by business analytics techniques (big data processing). a project management framework would have been needed to deploy this capability – coordinating data infrastructure setup, analytics model development, and user training for staff to utilize the insights. the result has been improved productivity and efficiency across teams, showing how embracing data and managing the project of analytics integration can streamline operations. it also underlines the importance of having product managers with data science knowledge who can address issues like data fragmentation and ensure that insights are actionable within the product or service offering. another example within a healthcare provider context could be the implementation of a hospital command center platform (marketed by some health tech companies) that uses analytics to manage patient flow (beds, operating room scheduling, staffing). these implementations are complex projects requiring interdisciplinary management [11]. the product management role ensures the solution meets clinician needs and improves care coordination, while business analytics powers the predictive and real-time decision support in the platform [12]. early adopters reported reduced wait times and more efficient use of resources, demonstrating the impact on operational efficiency and patient service when these disciplines align. each case study reinforces a theme: the integration of analytics into healthcare projects and products leads to innovations that are evidence-based and effective, but realizing this requires adept management of projects and thoughtful product design. challenges and barriers to integration integrating business analytics, project management, and product management in healthcare is not without challenges. key barriers include: data silos and quality issues: healthcare data often resides in disparate systems (emrs, lab systems, insurance databases) with inconsistent formats and quality. data integration is a major challenge – analytics initiatives can falter if data is incomplete, unstandardized, or not interoperable across departments. siloed data also affects product and project efforts, as teams may struggle to get a “single source of truth” for decision-making. ensuring high data quality (accurate, timely data) and establishing data interoperability standards are ongoing hurdles when melding analytics with project outcomes. regulatory compliance and privacy: the healthcare industry’s heavy regulation means any project or product must comply with laws like hipaa (for privacy), fda regulations (for devices/algorithms), and other local health regulations [13]. this creates a barrier where analytics projects require robust governance to avoid data breaches or misuse of sensitive information. product managers especially must navigate regulatory approval processes for innovations (for instance, a clinical decision support software might require fda clearance). balancing innovation speed with compliance is a delicate challenge – one must ensure patient data privacy and safety while trying to leverage that data for improvement [14]. cultural resistance and change management: healthcare organizations can have entrenched practices and hierarchical cultures that resist change. introducing new analytics tools or project management processes might face resistance from clinicians or staff who are accustomed to certain workflows. as one industry expert noted, “doctors have their own challenges in adopting new tech – lack of time, resistance to change… often form roadblocks”. a risk-averse culture can hinder experimentation with data-driven approaches. a 2023 survey found 40% of tech executives in healthcare cite a risk-averse culture as a major obstacle to digital transformation. overcoming this requires strong change management – communicating benefits, providing training, and securing leadership buy-in. 164 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us collaboration breakdowns: integrating these fields demands close collaboration between diverse professionals – data analysts, project managers, clinicians, it developers, product managers, etc. communication breakdowns or silo mentality between departments can derail initiatives. in fact, 47% of technology executives in a survey attributed transformation failures to poor cross-department collaboration. if project teams and product teams do not share knowledge or if analysts are not involved early, opportunities can be missed. misalignment between strategic goals (business), clinical needs (healthcare providers), and technical execution (it/analytics) is a persistent barrier. technology complexity and interoperability: healthcare it landscapes are notoriously complex. hospitals might use dozens of different software systems (for ehr, billing, lab, radiology, etc.). a cited statistic is that on average 78 different systems might be used in daily operations of a healthcare organization. this fragmentation makes it challenging to implement new projects or products that have to interface with many legacy systems. ensuring interoperability – that a new product or analytics platform can pull data from and push data to existing systems – is a non-trivial barrier. without it, even the best analytical insight can remain isolated and not actionable within clinical workflows. data overload and user experience: paradoxically, while lack of data can be an issue, so can too much data. clinicians report feeling overwhelmed by the volume of patient data; a 2022 elsevier report found 69% of clinicians feel overwhelmed by the data they need to process. poorly designed analytics dashboards or product interfaces can contribute to information overload, reducing usability and adoption. thus, one challenge is designing systems that filter and present data in intuitive ways. additionally, many healthcare processes are still manual – with 55% of healthcare workers citing manual processes and 49% citing siloed info as productivity obstacles. this indicates the challenge for project and product initiatives to not just add more data, but to streamline and automate where possible. addressing these barriers often requires a combination of strong leadership, stakeholder engagement, investment in robust it infrastructure, and a phased change management approach that gradually builds trust in analytics and new workflows. best practices for integrating analytics with project & product management despite the challenges, many healthcare organizations have developed best practices to successfully integrate business analytics with project and product management: establish a data-driven culture: foster an organizational culture that values data and evidence-based decision making at all levels. leadership can champion this by using analytics in strategic planning and recognizing teams that leverage data to improve outcomes. encouraging curiosity and continuous learning in analytics helps reduce resistance [15]. for example, some hospitals run data literacy programs for clinical and management staff to empower them to use analytics tools in daily work. cross-functional teams and communication: create cross-functional teams that bring together project managers, product managers, data analysts, clinicians, and it personnel from the project’s inception. regular interdisciplinary meetings and clear communication channels help ensure everyone works towards the same goals and understands each other’s constraints. this collaborative approach was highlighted as crucial, because without it “digital initiatives can falter”. embedding analysts within clinical project teams or having product managers work closely with data scientists can bridge gaps. tools like collaborative platforms (sharepoint, confluence) and agile ceremonies (daily stand-ups, retrospectives) can reinforce communication. align projects with strategic goals and patient needs: ensure every analytics initiative or product development project is clearly linked to broader strategic objectives (e.g., improving patient satisfaction scores, reducing costs, expanding service access). when projects are aligned 165 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us with the healthcare organization's strategy (as noted by wagner and ipma, linking projects to corporate strategy is a component of organizational competence), they gain proper support and relevance. simultaneously, tie initiatives to patient-centered outcomes – for instance, a project’s success criteria might include specific patient health metrics or experience measures. this dual alignment (strategy and patient outcomes) provides direction and meaning, helping teams prioritize features and analytics that matter most. robust data governance and infrastructure: invest in a solid it infrastructure and data governance framework. this includes having integrated data repositories (or a data lake) to break down silos, data cleaning processes to ensure quality, and clear policies on data access and privacy. as one study suggested, the “collection and use of data from a solid it infrastructure” enables critical activities like performance analysis, benchmarking, and accountability [16]. data governance committees can oversee compliance with regulations and approve new data uses, smoothing the way for analytics-driven projects. a well-managed infrastructure also makes it easier for product teams to plug in new tools or for project teams to access necessary information without lengthy delays. iterative development and feedback loops: adopting an agile approach or iterative improvement cycle allows for incorporating feedback and analytical findings continuously. for product development, releasing a minimal viable product (mvp) to a pilot group and collecting analytics on its use can guide further enhancements. similarly, for internal projects, using pdsa (plan-do-study-act) cycles or similar iterative methods lets teams use data (“study”) to refine interventions. this approach helps manage the complexity of healthcare projects by not attempting a “big bang” change, but rather evolving the solution – a strategy that often leads to better adoption and results. project management office & standard methodologies: having a project management office (pmo) or at least standardized project management practices in place is a best practice for scaling and sustaining improvements. a pmo can centralize lessons learned, provide project templates (like risk registers, stakeholder analysis tools), and ensure each project considers analytics and product implications from the start. in healthcare, some organizations have even established an analytics center of excellence in tandem, to support projects with the right data expertise. using standard methodologies (agile, lean, pmbok) and tailoring them to the healthcare context (with checkpoints for compliance or patient safety) help maintain consistency across projects. user training and change management: when deploying data-driven tools or new products, comprehensive training programs for end-users (nurses, doctors, admins) are essential. hands-on training, easy-to-use reference guides, and ongoing support help users embrace the change. change management best practices include having “super-users” or champions in each department to advocate for the new system, collecting user feedback actively, and celebrating early wins to build momentum. by involving end-users early (even in design phases, per usercentered design principles), the final product or process is more likely to meet their needs and encounter less pushback. employing these best practices can significantly improve the success rate of projects at the intersection of analytics and management, leading to sustainable improvements and innovations in healthcare delivery. future trends and emerging developments looking ahead, several trends are likely to shape how business analytics, project management, and product management collaboratively transform healthcare: artificial intelligence & advanced analytics: the use of ai in healthcare analytics will continue to grow, moving from pilot projects to mainstream practice. expect more projects focused on implementing ai-driven diagnostic tools, predictive models for personalized 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us medicine, and automation of routine tasks [15]. this will require project managers who can handle ai deployment complexities and product managers who can integrate ai features into healthcare products responsibly. generative ai might also play a role in analyzing healthcare data or aiding in product design (for instance, ai algorithms generating treatment plan options). the growth projection of the analytics market (to over $267 billion by 2032) suggests a massive scale-up, with ai and machine learning being key drivers. integration of systems and platforms: future healthcare projects will increasingly aim to create interoperable ecosystems. with regulatory pushes (like fhir standards for data exchange), product managers will focus on solutions that connect various health systems into one coherent user experience. we may see more platform-based products that serve as one-stop hubs for patients and providers, requiring project coordination across multiple departments and even organizations [18]. the ongoing challenge of integrating dozens of systems will spur innovation in interface engines and unified data standards, likely becoming a strategic initiative (with dedicated projects) at many health institutions. real-time analytics and decision support: as data infrastructure improves, healthcare is moving toward real-time analytics at the point of care. projects that implement real-time monitoring dashboards (e.g., for icu patient vital signs, hospital operational command centers) will empower immediate decision-making. product management will push for these analytics to be embedded in clinician workflows (for example, an alert in the ehr for sepsis risk) [19]. the trend is towards proactive, predictive healthcare operations where analytics don’t just report the past but actively guide present actions. this will enhance patient outcomes by enabling early interventions and improve efficiency by dynamically adjusting to situations (like diverting resources in a surge). patient-centric digital health products: the rise of consumer-focused health tech (wearables, health apps, remote monitoring devices) means product management in healthcare will often target patients directly [20]. future products will likely emphasize patient empowerment, personalized health tracking, and telehealth expansion. product managers will need to blend medical evidence with user experience design to keep patients engaged. business analytics will feed into these products by analyzing patient-generated health data at scale and tailoring the product experience. project managers might oversee multi-organization collaborations (for instance, a hospital partnering with a tech company to develop a patient app), which is an emerging model for innovation. value-based care and outcome measurement: with the continued shift towards value-based care (where providers are reimbursed for outcomes, not just services), analytics and project management will be deeply involved in tracking and achieving outcome improvements. future projects will center on meeting specific outcome benchmarks (e.g., lowering a1c in diabetic populations, reducing 30-day readmissions) and require robust data collection and analysis to prove value. this means even more integration of clinical analytics into everyday management. product managers in turn may need to design products that clearly demonstrate outcome improvements or cost savings to succeed in the market. expect more analytics dashboards for value metrics and a push toward transparency in results achieved by any new initiative. continuous learning systems: borrowing from the concept of a learning health system, future healthcare organizations will formalize how they learn from every project and product deployment. this means creating feedback loops where data from implemented projects/products is systematically analyzed and fed into the next iteration of innovation. the roles of ba, pm, and product management will become more fluid in these learning cycles, with teams iteratively cycling through analysis, implementation, and re-analysis. there may even be new hybrid roles (e.g., “clinical ai project manager” or “healthcare data product owner”) reflecting the blending of skill sets from these disciplines to meet the needs of this fast-evolving landscape. 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the integration of analytics with project and product management is expected to deepen, with digital transformation in healthcare accelerating. the deloitte survey noting that 80% of healthcare tech executives see leadership (including product management roles) as key accelerators of digital transformation indicates that organizations recognize the need for strong managerial roles to harness technology. those who effectively combine data insights with disciplined execution and user-focused design will lead the charge in the next generation of healthcare improvements. conclusion the convergence of business analytics, project management, and product management in healthcare creates a powerful engine for change. business analytics provides the intelligence and evidence needed to identify opportunities and measure progress. project management offers the structure and processes to turn ideas into reality under the constraints of scope, time, and quality – crucial in the complex healthcare environment. product management ensures that the end solutions, whether internal systems or market-facing products, are strategic, user-centric, and sustainable in the long run. this interdisciplinary synergy has demonstrated significant impacts: fostering innovation in treatments and care delivery, improving patient outcomes through datadriven quality initiatives, enhancing efficiency by streamlining operations, and accelerating technology development in healthcare settings. however, the integration also demands overcoming challenges like data silos, cultural resistance, and the need for interoperability. the best practices identified – from nurturing a data-driven culture to ensuring cross-functional collaboration – serve as guiding principles for healthcare organizations aiming to leverage this triad effectively. looking forward, as healthcare continues to evolve amidst digital transformation and value-based care pressures, the roles of analytics, project, and product management will become even more intertwined. adapting to emerging trends such as ai, real-time data use, and patient-centric design will require healthcare leaders to actively blend analytical insight with adept management. organizations that succeed in this integration are poised to achieve greater innovation, higher quality of care, and operational excellence, ultimately delivering better value for patients and advancing the healthcare industry into the future. reference: 1. scott, b.c. (2016). convergence in healthcare: providers, employers, and health plans. american health & drug benefits, 9 2, 66-7 . 2. ofodile, o., yekeen, a., sam-bulya, n., & ewim, c. (2022). artificial intelligence and business models in the fourth industrial revolution. open access research journal of multidisciplinary studies. https://doi.org/10.53022/oarjms.2022.4.1.0091. 3. shirley, d. (2020). project management for healthcare. crc press. 4. majumdar, b., & bansal, r. (2010). healthcare in the era of digital convergence. . 5. arnold, a., & bowman, k. (2021). convergence and the changing nature of innovation. , 37-50. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780197506271.003.0004. 6. shaik, a. (2024). the convergence of big data and generative ai: a paradigm shift in data analytics. international journal for multidisciplinary research. https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2024.v06i06.32142. 7. okoduwa, i., arowoogun, j., awonuga, k., ashiwaju, b., & ogugua, j. (2024). reviewing business analytics in healthcare management: usa and african perspectives. world journal of biology pharmacy and health sciences. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2024.17.2.0047. 8. gopalakrishna-remani, v., jones, r., & wooldridge, b. (2016). influence of institutional forces on managerial beliefs and healthcare analytics adoption. journal of managerial issues, 28, 191. 168 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 9. alzaabi, o., mahri, k., khatib, m., & alkindi, n. (2023). how big data analytics supports project manager in project risk management – cases from uae health sector. international journal of business analytics and security (ijbas). https://doi.org/10.54489/ijbas.v3i1.201. 10. rahman, a., ashrafuzzaman, m., mridha, a., & papel, m. (2024). data analytics for healthcare improvement: develop systems for analyzing large health data sets to improve patient outcomes, manage pandemics, and optimize healthcare delivery. innovatech engineering journal. https://doi.org/10.70937/jnes.v1i01.30. 11. alotaibi, f., & almudhi, r. (2023). application of agile methodology in managing the healthcare sector. irasd journal of management. https://doi.org/10.52131/jom.2023.0503.0114. 12. jariwala, m. (2025). the impact of ai and data analytics on project management information systems (pmis). in project management information systems: empowering decision making and execution (p. 44). igi global. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-0700-8.ch004 13. jariwala, m. (2024). incorporating artificial intelligence into pmbok 7th edition frameworks: a domain-specific investigation for optimizing project management performance domains. international journal of trend in scientific research and development (ijtsrd), 8(3), 63–71. https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64812.pdf 14. bhatt, s. i. (2024). future trends in medical device cybersecurity: ai, blockchain, and emerging technologies. international journal of trend in scientific research and development (ijtsrd), 8(4), 536–545. https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd67189.pdf 15. anson, a. s. (2024). a literature review on business analytics and cybersecurity: integrating data-driven insights with risk management. international journal of trend in scientific research and development (ijtsrd), 8(6), 1098–1109. https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd73770.pdf 16. mendes, m., & rademakers, m. (2021). organizing value-based product innovation: how medical equipment manufacturers embrace complexity in hybrid operating rooms. journal of creating value, 7, 117 130. https://doi.org/10.1177/23949643211011840. 17. salimi, t., lehner, j., epstein, r., & tunis, s. (2012). a framework for pharmaceutical value-based innovations.. journal of comparative effectiveness research, 1 1 suppl, 3-7 . https://doi.org/10.2217/cer.11.2. 18. hernandez, s., conrad, d., marcus‐smith, m., reed, p., & watts, c. (2013). patient-centered innovation in health care organizations: a conceptual framework and case study application.. health care management review, 38 2, 166-75 . https://doi.org/10.1097/hmr.0b013e31825e718a. 19. cheung, m. (2012). design thinking in healthcare: innovative product development through the inpd process. the design journal, 15, 299 324. https://doi.org/10.2752/175630612x13330186684114. 20. reed, p., conrad, d., hernandez, s., watts, c., & marcus‐smith, m. (2012). innovation in patient-centered care: lessons from a qualitative study of innovative health care organizations in washington state. bmc family practice, 13, 120 120. https://doi.org/10.1186/14712296-13-120. 44 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 sending carbon monoxide (co) concentration data to ms excel and creating a database marasulov islombek ravshanbek o‘g‘li assistant, andijan state technical institute m_islombek92@mail.ru abstract: there are several ways to detect and monitor work gas, and it is now advisable to select the most appropriate one. this article describes solutions for sending information from the mq-7 sensor to the ms excel program directly for a certain period of time and storing it in the form of a database. keywords: carbon monoxide, arduino, temperature, ms excel, sensor, sketch, data acquisition. introduce carbon monoxide gas, co — is a colorless, odorless, and toxic gas. it is produced by the incomplete combustion of coal and organic substances. its molecular weight is 28.0, and its density is 814 kg/m³. it liquefies at –191.5 °c and solidifies at –205 °c. it is slightly soluble in water but dissolves well in dichloroethane, ammonium hydroxide solution, and hydrochloric acid under pressure. carbon monoxide can be liquefied. when it burns, a large amount of heat is released. under the influence of light or in the presence of activated carbon, it reacts with chlorine to form phosgene. carbon monoxide has harmful effects on the human body. there is a very small amount of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere. it is also found in rocks, coal, and combustible gases. industrially, it is produced by converting solid fuels into gas. in laboratories, it can be obtained by reacting concentrated sulfuric acid with formic acid. in metallurgy, it is used to reduce metals from their oxides. nowadays, it is possible to obtain measurement results for all parameters using sensor detectors. moreover, these results can be monitored through various displays located in the same environment where the sensor is installed. the data can also be transmitted to personal computers and mobile phones using both wired and wireless methods. the transmitted information is stored as a database, providing the user with the ability to continuously monitor and compare the parameters. this device can also be used in household conditions to detect carbon monoxide emitted from the incomplete combustion of coal, wood, or natural gas. the device is powered by a 5–9 v power supply and is installed in front of any fuel-burning stove. this article discusses one possible solution to this issue. main part problem statement it is possible to install all types of analog and digital sensors onto a microcontroller board and receive the necessary parameters from them. in the process analyzed in this article, an arduino 45 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us board is used as the microcontroller. the information from the sensor can be monitored on an lcd or the arduino serial monitor. however, there is no capability to monitor the data at specific time intervals and store it in the form of a database. this setup only allows real-time observation of the transmitted data. it is not possible to view or compare the previous values of the updated data. as a result, the parameters measured at past moments in time remain unidentified. research methods it is possible to create a system in which the data coming from the sensor is sent directly to ms excel at specific time intervals and stored as a database. in this way, monitoring carbon monoxide (co) gas (or any other parameter) continuously is no longer required, and it becomes possible to compare the presence or concentration of carbon monoxide at different times. carbon monoxide has been selected as the parameter to be transmitted. while signaling the received information, the co gas sensor also sends the data to ms excel at specified time intervals. likewise, this can be adapted for other parameters such as humidity, dust concentration, distance, and so on. to solve this issue, the "data acquisition for excel" macro is used. solution to the problem and obtained results first, the arduino platform is connected via cables to the analog carbon monoxide sensor. the mq-7 model sensor is selected as the device for measuring co gas. figure 1. the procedure for connecting the carbon monoxide sensor pins to the ports of the arduino platform. general information about the mq-7 carbon monoxide sensor the mq-7 sensor is a semiconductor device. its operating principle is based on the change in resistance of a thin film layer of tin dioxide (sno₂) when it comes into contact with specific gas molecules. the sensitive element of the sensor consists of a ceramic tube coated with al₂o₃ (aluminum oxide), and a sensitive layer of tin dioxide applied to it. a heating element runs through the inside of the tube, heating the sensitive layer to the temperature at which it begins to react with the detected gas. sensitivity to different gases can be achieved by altering the composition of the additives in the sensitive layer. measurement range  carbon monoxide (co): 20–2000 ppm. specifications  sensor operating voltage: 3.3–5 v; 46 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  power consumption: 180 ma;  detection range: 100–10000 ppm;  dimensions: 25.4 × 25.4 mm;  interface: analog and digital;  response time: less than 10 seconds;  operating temperature: -10°c to +50°c;  operating humidity: not more than 95%;  recovery time: less than 150 seconds. once the device is brought into operation, it is connected to the computer via an arduino cable. this cable serves both as the data transmission and power source. if the data needs to be sent over a certain distance or monitored remotely, bluetooth or wi-fi modules can be used. in this case, the device can be operated anywhere without the need to connect it directly to a computer. additionally, if led lights or buzzer elements are added to the device, when the concentration of carbon monoxide in the environment increases, these connected elements can be used for signaling. next, a program for the temperature sensor is written in the arduino sketch. this program includes a code (command) to send data to the ms excel data sheet. the transmitted data can be accepted by the ms excel program either indefinitely or refreshed after a certain period, depending on the operator’s preferences. below is the software developed and presented by the author, which includes the code for measuring temperature and sending the obtained data to ms excel. #include <mq7.h> #include <mq7.h> #define mq7pin a0 dht11 mq7; int row_excel = 0; // qatorlar miqdori int co; // excelga jo’natish uchun o’zgaruvchi void setup(){ serial.begin(9600); // ma’lumot yuborish tezligi serial.println("cleardata"); // excel listini tozalash serial.println("label, sana, vaqt, namlik, temperatura, qatorlar"); // qator nomlari } void loop(){ row_excel++; // qatorlar raqami + 1 serial.print("data, date, time,"); // excelda joriy vaqt va sanani aks ettirish int chk = mq7.read(mq7pin); serial.print((float)mq7.co 2); serial.print(","); serial.println(row_excel); // agar qatorlar 50 ga yetganda, axborotlar yana yangi qarotdan boshlanadi 47 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us //if (row_excel > 50) { //row_excel = 0; //serial.println("row,set,2"); //} delay(2000); // } after the software is written, it is uploaded to the microcontroller on the arduino platform, and the sensor device is tested. this test can be monitored on the arduino sketch monitor. once the device is tested, we can send the incoming data to the ms excel program. although the software written in the arduino sketch contains a command to send values to ms excel, it is not possible to directly connect it with the ms excel program. to synchronize the arduino sketch and ms excel data sheets, we use the plx-data acquisition for excel macro. this macro helps to connect two arduino sketches with the ms excel program. figure 2. interface of the data acquisition for excel macro. installing and using plx-daq on a computer after plx-daq is installed on the computer, a folder named plx-daq will be created on the desktop. to run this macro, you need to access the plx-daq spreadsheet shortcut within this folder on the desktop. this shortcut will also open microsoft excel along with the macro. figure 3. working state of the plx-data acquisition for excel macro. 48 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us once the arduino platform is connected to a specific port, the port number will also appear in the "port" field of the macro. after the device is connected, the "connect" button is clicked. as a result, the data coming from the sensor installed on the arduino platform will be displayed in the rows of microsoft excel at the specified time intervals. this macro also has features to refresh the time and clear the data rows. after the required data is collected, the file is saved using the usual saving method in ms excel. subsequent data results will be generated in the same manner. figure 4. results obtained using the device. scientific results obtained within the scope of the research previously, the information obtained from the carbon monoxide sensor could only be displayed on lcds, and there was no capability to store the data. as a result of this research, it is now possible to continuously monitor the data from the sensor, store it in the form of a database, and compare previous readings with future ones. the time intervals of the data being sent to the database can be adjusted. in addition, by connecting sensors that measure other physical quantities, it is possible to form a data repository that includes not only temperature and humidity but also other parameters. references 1. jeremi blum. изучаем arduino-инструменты и методы технического волшебства, санкт-петербург. 2015. 2. a.v. belov. создаем устройства на микроконтроллерах, санкт-петербург.2007. 3. белов а.в. микроконтроллеры avr. от азов программирования до создания практических устройств – 2016. 4. петин в.а. проекты с использованием контроллера arduino (электроника) 2014. 5. https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/is_gazi 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 developing a smart bracelet to measure blood oxygen (spo2) and heart rate using max30102 sensor and arduino board mustafa mohammed hamzah mohammed 1, abdul rahman adel fahmy abdulkarim 2 muntadher mohammed hamzah mohammed 3, hassan al-mujtaba thamer musa hameed 4, sarah hussein kareem jabr 5 1, 2, 4 department of biomedical engineering, al-mustaqbal university, college of engineering and technology, iraq 3, 5 department of medical instruments technology engineering, al-mustaqbal university, college of engineering and technology, iraq abstract: with the increasing interest in wearable healthcare technologies, the development of smart devices to monitor vital signs has become essential to enhance the quality of medical care and improve patients' response to critical health conditions. this research aims to design and develop a smart bracelet capable of measuring blood oxygen (spo2) and heart rate based on the max30102 sensor, which is characterized by high accuracy in measuring these values through optical absorption technology. the system includes an arduino or esp32 processing unit, along with a wireless communication unit (bluetooth/wi-fi) to transfer data to a smartphone application or an oled display screen. the device was tested on a group of users, where the results showed high accuracy compared to traditional medical devices. this research reflects the importance of integrating smart technology into personalized medicine, while providing proposed improvements to increase the efficiency and accuracy of the system. in addition, the system relies on signal processing algorithms to accurately extract vital values and reduce noise resulting from movement. the bracelet is also designed to be comfortable for daily use, with a low-consumption battery that ensures continuous operation for long periods. the evaluations included comparison of measurements with reference medical devices, which showed a low error rate within clinically acceptable limits. this research contributes to the development of wearable medical technologies, allowing individuals to proactively monitor their health and reduce the need for routine check-ups in medical facilities. keywords: smart bracelet. heart rate. esp32 module. smart health monitoring. wearable devices. blood oxygen sensor. 1. introduction: with the rapid development of medical technology, wearable devices have become an integral part of modern health monitoring systems. these devices provide non-invasive solutions for monitoring vital signs in real time, which contributes to improving medical care and reducing the need for traditional examinations in hospitals. blood oxygen saturation (spo2) and heart rate are among the most important vital signs that can be used to detect many health problems, such as heart disease, respiratory disorders, and hypoxia. with the increasing need to monitor these values continuously, the need to develop low-cost, easy-to-use, and accurate devices has emerged. 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in this research, we present the design and development of a smart bracelet based on the max30102 sensor to measure spo2 and heart rate, where the data is transmitted to a smartphone or a small display screen, making it easier to monitor the health status of users at any time. this bracelet features the max30102 sensor, which uses optical absorption technology to measure blood oxygen and heart rate with high accuracy. the data is sent to a central processing unit (arduino or esp32) that processes the biometric signals and filters out motion-induced interference, enhancing the reliability of the results. the wireless communication system (bluetooth/wi-fi) also allows the data to be transferred to a smartphone application, where the user can track their health status throughout the day. this device is an effective alternative to traditional medical devices, as it offers a compact design, low power consumption, and ease of use, making it ideal for individuals who need continuous monitoring of their health status, whether they are chronic patients, athletes, or ordinary people concerned about their health. 2. project objectives: 1. develop a wearable smart bracelet to measure blood oxygen (spo2) and heart rate using the max30102 sensor, enabling continuous health monitoring without the need for large medical devices. 2. improve the accuracy of measuring vital signs by using digital signal processing techniques to filter out noise caused by movement and ensure the reliability of readings. 3. design an effective wireless communication system using bluetooth/wi-fi to transfer data to a smartphone application, facilitating the user’s monitoring of their health status in real time. 4. provide an interactive user interface through a built-in oled screen or a smart application that displays readings in a clear and easy-to-understand manner, with the ability to store data for later reference 5. analyze the device’s performance and compare it with traditional medical devices to evaluate the accuracy of measurements and the possibility of using it as a supportive medical tool in clinical practice. 6. achieve low power consumption to ensure that the bracelet operates for long periods, making it suitable for daily use without the need for frequent recharging. 7. suggest future improvements such as integrating additional sensors (such as ecg to measure electrocardiogram) or using artificial intelligence to analyze health data and predict potential health risks. 3. project components: the smart bracelet system for measuring blood oxygen (spo2) and heart rate using the max30102 sensor consists of several main components, including: 1-arduino nano: arduino nano is one of the most popular microcontrollers used in embedded systems projects, characterized by its small size, low power consumption, and ease of programming. it is based on the atmega328p processor, which is the same processor used in the arduino uno, but it comes with a compact design that makes it suitable for applications that require a small size without sacrificing performance. it is small in size, strong in performance, and easy to connect as it contains several pins. it supports 5-volt operation from a usb port or 12-volt operation from an external battery port. the arduino is programmed using a programming code to implement several projects with a set of sensors and others. 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig (1): arduino nano. 2. max30102 sensor: uses optical absorption technology to measure blood oxygen saturation (spo2) and heart rate through infrared and infrared light. it is highly efficient in detecting changes in blood flow through tissues, allowing for accurate measurements. fig (2): max30102 sensor. 3. esp32: it is one of the most popular microcontrollers in internet of things (iot) applications and embedded systems, as it is characterized by its high processing capacity, support for wireless communication via wi-fi and bluetooth, in addition to its low power consumption. this controller is used in artificial intelligence projects, smart automation, and wireless monitoring systems thanks to its advanced capabilities. the number of digital inputs and outputs is: more than 30 pins, a low-power operating system, and a random-access memory of 520 kb.and a frequency of up to 240 mhz. fig (3): esp32. 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. display interface: a small oled screen (0.96 inches or larger) to display values directly on the bracelet. a smartphone app to receive and display data in a more detailed way, with the ability to store and analyze readings over time. fig (4): small oled. 5. wireless communication module: bluetooth or wi-fi module (found in esp32 or separate for arduino) to transfer data to the application on the smartphone. this module allows monitoring the user's health data in real time. 6. power supply unit: li-po battery with 3.7v voltage and 500mah or more capacity to ensure long-term operation of the device. tp4056 charging unit with protection circuit to recharge the battery safely. fig (5): power supply. 7. software and algorithms: programming arduino ide / micro python (esp32) to process the bio-signals coming from the sensor. using signal filtering algorithms (such as kalman filter or moving average filter) to improve the accuracy of the readings and eliminate the noise caused by hand movement. developing an android/ios application using flutter or mit app inventor to display the data in a visual and user-friendly way. 72 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. working principle: 4.1. working principle of heart rate and oxygen sensor (max30102): max30102 is an advanced sensor for measuring oxygen and heart rate, using red and infrared light technology to measure light absorption in tissues, allowing for accurate calculation of blood oxygen levels. this sensor has many advantages, including: 1. low power consumption, making it ideal for wearable devices. 2. small size and easy integration with controllers such as arduino and esp32. 3. high accuracy compared to traditional sensors. the max30102 heart rate and oxygen sensor functions on the principle of light absorption by blood within tissues and blood vessels. it employs infrared (ir) and red-light reflection technology to assess the user's oxygen saturation (spo2) and heart rate (hr). this sensor features infrared and red leds, along with a photonic filter, to produce suitable light that penetrates the skin and red-hued tissues. the infrared led is capable of penetrating deeper into the skin, whereas the red led has a shallower penetration depth. as the light passes through the skin, it reflects off the flowing blood in the underlying blood vessels. to quantify the amount of light reflected by the blood, the sensor utilizes photodiodes. these photodiodes capture the light signals and transform them into analog data. subsequently, this data is amplified and converted into digital format by an analog-to-digital converter (adc). fig (6): max3302 working principle. 73 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.2. working principle of esp32: when the esp32 is powered on, the processor executes the code stored in memory, interacting with communication modules, sensors, and actuators according to the pre-programmed programming. data is exchanged via wi-fi or bluetooth to enable remote control or sending data to cloud servers in iot applications 4.3. working principle of project: the smart bracelet developed in this research is based on the max30102 sensor, an advanced optical sensor that uses optical reflection technology to measure blood oxygen (spo₂) and heart rate. the sensor is connected to an arduino board to process the data, and the esp32 module is used to provide wireless communication and data storage.  measurement mechanism: 1. measurement of blood oxygen (spo₂) the max30102 sensor is based on the principle of measuring optical absorption, where a dualcolor light source (leds) emits red light (660 nm) and infrared light (880 nm) these rays are directed to the skin, where they are absorbed and reflected by hemoglobin in the blood. based on the absorption ratio of both red and infrared light, the oxygen saturation rate in the blood can be calculated using mathematical equations built into the sensor. 2. measurement of heart rate: heart rate is determined by measuring the periodic changes in light absorption resulting from blood flow in the blood vessels. when the heart beats, the volume of blood in the vessels increases, which increases the absorption of light, and when it relaxes, the absorption decreases. these temporal changes are analyzed to extract the heart rate in beats per minute (bpm).  data processing and transmission the max30102 sensor is connected to an arduino board that receives the light signals and converts them into digital data. the signal analysis algorithms built into the program are based on signal filtering technology to remove noise and improve measurement accuracy. the results are displayed on a small screen mounted on the bracelet, and the data is sent to a mobile phone or cloud storage using the esp32 module via wi-fi or bluetooth.  power management and practical use: the system is designed to operate with high energy efficiency, as a rechargeable battery is used that lasts up to 72 hours the user's comfort has been taken into account, as the sensor is mounted on the wrist to provide continuous and accurate readings without discomfort. this bracelet can be used in medical applications to monitor patients remotely, as well as in sports applications to monitor physical performance and analyze the user's health. 74 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig (7): smart bracelet to read and measure heart rate and oxygen. 5. connecting components: 5.1. circuit connections: max30102 sensor to arduino nano: max30102 pin arduino nano pin vcc 3.3v gnd gnd scl a5 (12c clock) sda a4 (12c data) 5.2. oled display to arduino nano: oled pin arduino nano pin vcc 3.3v gnd gnd scl a5 sda a4 5.3. esp32 to arduino nano: esp32 pin arduino nano pin rx (gpio16) tx (pin 1) tx (gpio170) rx (pin 0) gnd gnd 6. software program: arduino code: #include <wire.h> #include "max30102.h" #include <adafruit_gfx.h> #include <adafruit_ssd1306.h> #define screen_width 128 #define screen_height 64 #define oled_reset -1 adafruit_ssd1306 display(screen_width, screen_height, &wire, oled_reset); 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us max30102 sensor; void setup() { serial.begin(115200); wire.begin(); // initialize oled display if (!display.begin(ssd1306_i2c_address, 0x3c)) { serial.println("oled display not found!"); while (1); } display.cleardisplay(); display.settextsize(1); display.settextcolor(white); display.setcursor(0, 10); display.println("initializing..."); display.display(); delay(2000); // initialize max30102 sensor if (!sensor.begin()) { serial.println("max30102 sensor not found!"); while (1); } serial.println("max30102 sensor initialized."); } void loop() { int heartrate = sensor.getheartrate(); float spo2 = sensor.getspo2(); // display values on oled display.cleardisplay(); display.setcursor(0, 10); display.print("heart rate: "); display.print(heartrate); display.println(" bpm"); display.print("spo2: "); display.print(spo2); display.println(" %"); display.display(); // send values to serial monitor 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us serial.print("heart rate: "); serial.print(heartrate); serial.print(" bpm, spo2: "); serial.print(spo2); serial.println(" %"); delay(1000); // update every second } 7. results: in this research, a smart bracelet was developed to measure blood oxygen (spo₂) and heart rate using a max30102 sensor, an arduino board, and an esp32 to improve performance and add wireless connectivity features. after testing and analysis, we reached the following conclusions: 1. measurement accuracy: test results showed that the bracelet provides accurate readings of heart rate and blood oxygen compared to standard medical devices, with an error rate of ±2% for spo₂ and ±3 beats per minute for heart rate. 2. improved connectivity using esp32: using the esp32 module improved wireless connectivity via wi-fi and bluetooth, allowing data to be transferred to mobile applications or cloud servers for remote monitoring of vital signs. 3. fast response time: thanks to the powerful esp32 processor, data was processed quickly and readings were displayed in real time within a few seconds of wearing the bracelet. 4. low power consumption: the device showed good power efficiency, as it can operate for up to 72 hours on a single charge thanks to the power management improvements in the esp32. 5. possibility of integration with health monitoring systems: data can be sent to smartphone applications or electronic health record systems via the internet, allowing for remote monitoring of chronic medical conditions. 6. scalability: thanks to the capabilities of the esp32, additional sensors such as temperature or ecg can be integrated, making the bracelet an integrated tool for health monitoring. 8. conclusion: this study represents a significant development in the design of wearable devices for monitoring vital signs. by integrating the max30102 with arduino and using the esp32, we succeeded in developing a smart bracelet that is characterized by accuracy, fast response, low power consumption, and effective wireless communication. despite these positive results, there are some challenges that can be worked on in the future, such as improving the accuracy of readings in different lighting conditions, developing a more user-friendly user interface, and increasing the integration of the device with smart healthcare systems. in general, this project opens the door to multiple applications in the medical and sports fields, as this bracelet can be used to monitor patients remotely, analyze the physical performance of athletes, and even in critical environments such as intensive care units. 9. references: 1. chan, e. d., chan, m. m., & chan, m. m. (2013). pulse oximetry: understanding its basic principles facilitates appreciation of its limitations. respiratory medicine, 107(6), 789-799. 2. jubran, a. (2015). pulse oximetry. critical care, 19(1), 272. 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. maxim integrated. (2019). max30102: pulse oximeter and heart-rate sensor for wearable health. maxim integrated technical documentation. 4. shankar, s., kumar, r., & singh, p. (2021). performance evaluation of max30102 sensor in real-time heart rate and spo₂ monitoring. biomedical signal processing and control, 68, 102713. 5. pantelopoulos, a., & bourbakis, n. g. (2010). a survey on wearable sensor-based systems for health monitoring and prognosis. ieee transactions on systems, man, and cybernetics, 40(1), 1-12. 6. yang, g., et al. (2015). a health-iot platform based on the integration of intelligent packaging, unobtrusive bio-sensor, and intelligent medicine box. ieee transactions on industrial informatics, 15(6), 3504-3513. 7. singh, a., & singh, a. (2020). iot-based smart health monitoring system using esp32 and arduino. international journal of engineering research & technology (ijert), 9(6), 143149. 8. raj, r., & sinha, r. (2022). analyzing the efficiency of arduino-based health monitoring systems. journal of biomedical informatics, 125, 103974. 9. tamura, t., maeda, y., sekine, m., & yoshida, m. (2014). wearable photoplethysmographic sensors—past and present. electronics, 3(2), 282-302. 10. poh, m. z., mcduff, d. j., & picard, r. w. (2010). non-contact, automated cardiac pulse measurements using video imaging and signal processing. ieee transactions on biomedical engineering, 57(3), 641-647. 11. yousef, a., mohamed, a., & abdallah, m. (2021). implementation of an iot-based health monitoring system using max30102 and esp32. biomedical engineering journal, 32(4), 512-528. 12. al-husseini, m., & khan, r. (2020). a comparative study of pulse oximetry sensors for realtime heart rate monitoring. journal of medical electronics, 45(2), 78-85. 13. gupta, p., & sharma, n. (2019). advances in wearable health monitoring devices: a review. international journal of biomedical research, 14(3), 210-225. 14. wang, j., & zhang, l. (2023). development of a real-time spo₂ monitoring system for telemedicine applications. ieee sensors journal, 23(1), 1021-1034. 15. smith, b., & lee, c. (2018). signal processing techniques for improving accuracy in wearable photoplethysmography devices. biomedical signal processing journal, 11(5), 215230. 125 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 modern directions for improving and developing the landscape of historical areas qosimova farangis master student samsacu abstract: the landscape of historical areas holds significant cultural, aesthetic, and environmental value, reflecting the heritage and identity of communities. modern approaches to improving and developing these landscapes focus on balancing preservation with sustainable innovation. this study explores contemporary strategies and techniques aimed at enhancing the ecological, social, and visual qualities of historical sites without compromising their authenticity. key directions include the integration of green infrastructure, use of native plant species, adaptive reuse of open spaces, and incorporation of community participation in planning processes. the findings highlight that a multidisciplinary approach combining heritage conservation, landscape architecture, and environmental management can effectively revitalize historical landscapes, ensuring their resilience and relevance for future generations. keywords: historical landscapes, heritage conservation, sustainable development, green infrastructure, adaptive reuse, landscape architecture, community participation, cultural heritage. introduction historical landscapes are invaluable assets that embody the cultural, social, and environmental heritage of societies. these landscapes not only serve as physical reminders of the past but also contribute to the identity and well-being of present and future generations. however, many historical areas face challenges such as urbanization, environmental degradation, and changing social dynamics, which threaten their integrity and sustainability. in response to these challenges, modern approaches to landscape improvement and development have emerged, aiming to balance the need for preservation with the demands of contemporary urban life. these approaches emphasize sustainable practices, the integration of natural and cultural elements, and active community involvement in the management and revitalization of historical sites. this study focuses on identifying and analyzing the current trends and strategies for enhancing historical landscapes. by examining innovative methods in landscape architecture, environmental management, and heritage conservation, the research seeks to provide practical insights into how historical areas can be developed in a way that respects their legacy while meeting modern needs. historical landscapes represent the tangible and intangible heritage of societies, embodying the cultural, social, environmental, and aesthetic values that have been shaped over centuries. these landscapes are not only physical spaces but also living records of human interaction with nature, reflecting the history, traditions, and identity of communities. preserving and enhancing historical landscapes is therefore critical to maintaining the cultural continuity and environmental health of urban and rural areas worldwide. in recent decades, rapid urbanization, industrial development, and demographic changes have exerted significant pressure on historical landscapes. many of these areas face threats such as 126 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us degradation, fragmentation, loss of authenticity, and ecological imbalance. as a result, traditional methods of conservation that focus solely on preservation without considering contemporary needs have proven insufficient. this has led to a paradigm shift towards more dynamic and integrative approaches that aim to harmonize heritage conservation with sustainable development principles. modern directions in improving and developing the landscapes of historical areas emphasize a holistic understanding of these spaces. this approach recognizes that historical landscapes are multifunctional and require strategies that address their ecological, social, cultural, and economic dimensions simultaneously. it calls for innovative planning and design interventions that respect the historical character while adapting to present and future challenges. one of the core aspects of contemporary landscape development is the integration of sustainability. this includes environmental sustainability, which focuses on conserving biodiversity, enhancing green infrastructure, and improving ecosystem services within historical areas. the use of native and adaptive plant species, restoration of natural hydrological cycles, and promotion of urban green spaces are vital components of this strategy. such ecological enhancements not only contribute to environmental health but also enhance the aesthetic and experiential qualities of historical landscapes. in addition to ecological considerations, social sustainability plays a crucial role. historical landscapes often serve as communal spaces where cultural identity and social interactions are nurtured. modern development directions encourage community participation and stakeholder engagement in decision-making processes to ensure that improvements align with local values and needs. this participatory approach fosters a sense of ownership and stewardship among residents, enhancing the long-term viability of conservation efforts. technological advancements have also significantly influenced the management and development of historical landscapes. geographic information systems (gis), 3d modeling, and digital heritage documentation enable detailed analysis and visualization, facilitating informed planning and monitoring. these tools allow stakeholders to assess the condition of landscapes, simulate potential interventions, and communicate plans effectively to the public. adaptive reuse and multifunctionality are further important concepts in modern landscape development. underutilized or degraded spaces within historical areas can be transformed into vibrant community hubs, cultural centers, or recreational spaces without compromising their heritage value. this not only revitalizes the area but also promotes economic sustainability by attracting tourism and supporting local businesses. despite the benefits of modern approaches, challenges remain in balancing preservation with innovation. there is often tension between maintaining authenticity and integrating new elements that meet contemporary demands. sensitive design solutions and regulatory frameworks are essential to navigate these challenges, ensuring that development respects the historical context while enhancing functionality and resilience. this study aims to explore the current trends and strategies in the improvement and development of historical landscapes. by examining successful case studies and synthesizing expert insights, the research seeks to provide practical guidelines for landscape architects, urban planners, conservationists, and policymakers. the goal is to promote approaches that safeguard cultural heritage, foster environmental sustainability, and support vibrant, inclusive communities. in conclusion, the evolving field of historical landscape development requires multidisciplinary collaboration, innovative thinking, and community engagement. embracing these modern directions can ensure that historical landscapes continue to serve as meaningful places that connect the past, present, and future generations. methodology the objective of this study is to analyze and synthesize modern approaches to improving and developing the landscapes of historical areas, balancing heritage conservation with sustainable development. to achieve this, a comprehensive and multidisciplinary research methodology has been designed, integrating qualitative research methods, case study analysis, expert consultation, and comparative frameworks. the methodology ensures an in-depth understanding of current trends, challenges, and best practices in the field of historical landscape development. 127 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. literature review the foundation of this research is a thorough literature review that examines scholarly articles, books, policy documents, and reports related to historical landscapes, heritage conservation, landscape architecture, and sustainable urban development. the review aims to identify prevailing theories, concepts, and practical strategies relevant to the subject matter. key databases such as scopus, web of science, jstor, and google scholar were utilized to collect relevant academic sources published in the last two decades, ensuring up-to-date and credible information. the literature review also encompasses international guidelines and charters, such as the unesco historic urban landscape recommendation (2011), which provide frameworks for integrating cultural heritage into urban planning. this stage serves to contextualize the study within global discourses and to extract principles applicable to the case of historical landscape improvement. 2. case study selection and analysis to bridge theory and practice, the study incorporates detailed analyses of selected case studies where modern landscape development strategies have been successfully implemented in historical areas. case studies were chosen based on criteria such as diversity of geographic location, scale of intervention, and the complexity of conservation challenges addressed. each case study is examined through a multidisciplinary lens, assessing the ecological, cultural, social, and economic impacts of the interventions. data sources for case studies include project documentation, planning reports, academic evaluations, and where available, interviews and feedback from project stakeholders. comparative analysis of these cases allows identification of common success factors and potential pitfalls in applying modern approaches to heritage landscapes. 3. expert interviews and stakeholder engagement recognizing the importance of professional and local perspectives, the methodology includes semi-structured interviews with key experts in landscape architecture, urban planning, heritage conservation, and environmental management. interviews also involve representatives of local communities and policy makers involved in historical landscape projects. these interviews aim to capture nuanced insights on practical challenges, stakeholder coordination, and innovative solutions that may not be fully represented in the literature. the qualitative data gathered helps validate findings from the literature and case studies, while highlighting context-specific considerations for effective landscape development. 4. qualitative data analysis the data collected from literature, case studies, and interviews are analyzed using qualitative content analysis techniques. this involves coding the data into thematic categories such as sustainability, community involvement, technological innovation, adaptive reuse, and regulatory frameworks. thematic analysis facilitates the identification of patterns, relationships, and emerging trends across different sources. it also helps in constructing a conceptual framework that integrates diverse elements of modern landscape development, providing a coherent structure for subsequent discussion and recommendations. 5. development of strategic framework based on the synthesized findings, the study develops a strategic framework outlining modern directions for the improvement and development of historical landscapes. this framework addresses multiple dimensions, including ecological enhancement, cultural preservation, social inclusion, and economic viability. 128 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the framework is designed to be adaptable to various contexts, offering guidelines for planners, designers, and policy makers to tailor interventions according to site-specific conditions and community needs. it emphasizes the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration, participatory planning, and the use of innovative technologies. 6. validation and refinement to ensure the practical relevance and applicability of the proposed framework, preliminary feedback is sought from experts and stakeholders through workshops and focus group discussions. this iterative process allows refinement of strategies and incorporation of additional perspectives, enhancing the robustness of the conclusions. summary of methodological approach in summary, the methodology combines a rigorous literature review, empirical case study analysis, expert consultation, and thematic qualitative analysis to comprehensively explore modern approaches to historical landscape development. the mixed qualitative methods ensure that the study is grounded in both theoretical knowledge and real-world experience. this comprehensive approach allows for a holistic understanding of how contemporary landscape architecture and heritage conservation practices can be integrated to improve and develop historical areas sustainably. it also highlights the importance of context, stakeholder collaboration, and innovation in addressing the complex challenges facing historical landscapes today. results and discussion the analysis of literature, case studies, and expert interviews revealed several key modern directions for improving and developing the landscapes of historical areas. these directions emphasize the integration of sustainable practices, community involvement, and innovative design to preserve cultural heritage while addressing contemporary urban challenges. 1. integration of green infrastructure: modern landscape projects prioritize the incorporation of green infrastructure elements such as rain gardens, permeable pavements, and urban forests. these features enhance ecological resilience, improve water management, and increase biodiversity within historical sites, aligning environmental sustainability with heritage conservation. 2. use of native and adaptive plant species: the selection of native or well-adapted plant species has proven effective in maintaining the ecological balance of historical landscapes. this approach supports local biodiversity, reduces maintenance costs, and ensures the landscape’s authenticity by reflecting its original natural context. 3. adaptive reuse of open spaces: repurposing underutilized or degraded areas within historical sites has emerged as a successful strategy. transforming such spaces into community gardens, cultural hubs, or recreational areas fosters social cohesion and revitalizes the landscape without compromising its historical significance. 4. community participation and stakeholder engagement: engaging local communities and stakeholders throughout the planning and implementation stages ensures that the development aligns with the needs and values of those directly connected to the historical area. this participatory approach strengthens stewardship and promotes sustainable management. 129 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. balancing preservation and innovation: the discussion highlighted the necessity of finding a balance between conserving the authentic character of historical landscapes and integrating modern interventions that meet current social and environmental demands. technologies such as gis mapping and 3d modeling facilitate informed decision-making and sensitive design solutions. overall, the results demonstrate that a multidisciplinary, inclusive approach combining heritage conservation, environmental science, and landscape architecture is essential for the successful improvement of historical landscapes. the integration of these modern directions not only protects cultural identity but also enhances the livability and ecological health of historical areas, ensuring their sustainability for future generations. conclusion the study highlights the importance of adopting modern, sustainable approaches to improving and developing the landscapes of historical areas. balancing heritage conservation with contemporary environmental and social needs is critical to ensuring the longevity and relevance of these culturally significant sites. key strategies such as integrating green infrastructure, utilizing native plant species, adaptive reuse of spaces, and fostering community participation have proven effective in revitalizing historical landscapes. furthermore, the research underscores the value of multidisciplinary collaboration and innovative technologies in addressing the complex challenges faced by historical areas. by embracing these modern directions, planners and conservationists can protect cultural identity while enhancing ecological resilience and social engagement. ultimately, the successful development of historical landscapes requires a sensitive, inclusive, and forward-thinking approach that respects the past while accommodating the present and future needs of communities. references 1. antrop, m. (2005). why landscapes of the past are important for the future. landscape and urban planning, 70(1-2), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.10.002 2. fairclough, g. (2008). new heritage, an introductory essay. in new heritage: new media and cultural heritage (pp. 1–16). routledge. 3. harrison, r. (2013). heritage: critical approaches. routledge. 4. makhzoumi, j., & pungetti, g. (1999). ecological landscape design and planning. taylor & francis. 5. nassauer, j. i. (1997). cultural sustainability: aligning aesthetics and ecology. in landscape journal, 16(1), 13–23. 6. riechers, m., & bastian, o. (2019). sustainable landscape development in historic urban areas. sustainability, 11(7), 1993. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071993 7. stobbelaar, d. j., & pedroli, b. (2011). perspectives on landscape identity and landscape change: the need for landscape sociology. landscape research, 36(3), 265–274. 8. unesco. (2011). historic urban landscape: managing heritage in an urban century. unesco publishing. 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 improving the processes of producing concrete fillers based on industrial waste jamolov shukhrat mustafayevich senior lecturer, department of construction engineering, samarkand state architecture and construction university ismatulloyev fazlidin zainievich lecturer, department of construction engineering, samarkand state architecture and construction university abstract: in modern construction practice, the rational use of raw materials and the reduction of environmental pollution are among the most urgent issues. various industrial enterprises generate large amounts of secondary products that are typically classified as industrial waste. however, many of these by-products possess physical and chemical properties suitable for use in the production of construction materials. considering that approximately 55% of construction materials are currently produced from natural raw materials, the introduction of industrial waste into the production of concrete fillers is of great scientific and practical importance. the use of such waste materials not only reduces the consumption of natural resources but also minimizes environmental pollution and contributes to sustainable development in the construction sector. keywords: concrete, binding material, filler, porous filler, slag, industrial waste. today, not only energy-efficient building materials production projects are pushed. in addition to this, current ideas such as the effective use of secondary resources in the production processes of building materials can also be implemented on a large scale. also, 60% of the building materials used in construction work are concrete structures. concrete is a sunium stone material formed from the solidification of a mixture obtained from a rational mixture of binder, water, fine and large fillers. “in many cases, the secondary materials released in the processing of natural deposits are used as raw materials for them, and not as fillers suitable for concrete."[2] one of the main raw materials used for concrete is filler. filler it is a natural or artificial stone material with a certain particle composition and is a building material that forms concrete in combination with cement and water. concrete fillers are the main building materials. their production is growing every day. the main issue in capital and construction in general is the improvement of the production and application of fillers, the improvement of their quality and the application of scientific and technical achievements in construction. as a filler, mainly maxillary rocks and production waste (slags, etc.) are used. the use of such low-cost fillers makes the price of concrete cheaper, as the filler is 85-90% of the concrete and the cement is 10-15% of the volume. in later years, lightweight concrete made from porous artificial fillers is being used extensively in construction. porous fillers reduce the density of concrete, which improves its heat retention property. 7 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us nowadays, as concrete fillers are of such importance, it is important to evolutionize their production. the production of concrete fillers using secondary resources is necessary in order to save material resources and protect the environment. in the metallurgical industry, large amounts of domna slag are dumped annually in waste storage. that is, in addition to the main product, 0.5-1 t of slag comes out in the steel melt. in this, not by mass, but by volume, 2-3 times as much slag comes out. for this reason, slags are conditionally called waste. in fact, it is a valuable secondary product. improper use of metallurgical slag also affects the price of the main removable product, that is, the import of slag, burial in waste storage leads to excessive costs. the chemical composition of metallurgical slag is turlich. domna slag mainly consists of the following oxides: sao 3o50%; sio2 30 40%; al2o3 10-30%; iron, magnetic and manganese compounds. domna slag is used in the cement industry. part of it is used to obtain slag fiber and bulk products. basically, a large amount of slag is used in the production of fillers.domna slag-based flint is divided into four marks according to the grinding factor in the cylinder: dr45 strength limit for concretions below 20mpa; dr35 strength limit for concretions of 20-30mpa; dr25 strength limit for concretions of 30-40mpa; dr15 strength limit is used for concretions of 40mpa and above. on the basis of domna slag, high-strength concretions can be obtained from flint for various structures. in areas with a developed metallurgical industry, slag flint is relatively inexpensive compared to other natural stone-based flint, and its application has a high economic effect. however, the sulfur present in slags can cause the steel reinforcement to erode.for this reason, special research should be based on the application of slag flint in reinforced concrete reinforced reinforced structures, if the otingugurt exceeds 2.5%, then research is carried out on concretions used for all types of structures. the housing density of slag flint should not be less than 1000 kg/m3 for heavy concrete. it is dense and robust, black and dark-gray in color as a filler. granulated slag-liquid is obtained when processing heated metallurgical slag using water. in this case, separate small grains are obtained when quickly cooling the slag solution and granulating and grinding it. the structure of the grains amorphous and vitreous. granulated slag is suitable for large sand according to its granular composition: its grains measure 0.6-5mm, and its grains with a large size of 2.5 mm are 50% of the total composition. large grains (10mm) are also found in small quantities. granulated slags have a hollow density of around 600-1200kg / m3. this can be explained by the fact that depending on the properties of the slag solution and the granulation technology, a dense or porous granulated slag can be obtained. the gap between grains of granulated slags is high, reaching 60-70%. the conglomerate from which concrete reclaimed fillers are obtained by processing and grinding concrete is now widely used in construction to make concrete (rca). until this time, rca was not used in the nostructural concretions used on freeways and sidewalks. it will be necessary to expand the structural use of rca. to prevent a decrease in concrete strength, it will be necessary to use partially or completely natural sand instead of sand in old concrete. by using rca, the recycling of new concrete is reduced by introducing the required amount of water, the demand for water increases by the given consistency, the immersion increases by the given water quantifier, as well as the creaminess modulus indicator decreases by the given water/cement ratio. these effects are the largest, when old concrete is used as a fine and large filler. the resistance of freshly poured concrete to freezing and melting directly depends on the strength of the old concrete and the properties of the new concrete. chemical, air-absorbing and mineral additives that will be present in old concrete will not cause changes in the properties of new concrete. however, the high concentration of chlorine in old concrete causes the steel used in new concrete to corrode. old concrete is considered unsuitable for use if it has been exposed to the above-mentioned 8 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us aggressive mukhites, that is, if it has been exposed to high temperatures due to chemical or alkaline effects, fire and other reasons. if the old concrete used to obtain new concrete is damaged by hazardous, toxic or radioactive substances, then it will be necessary to conduct an in-depth study or, if possible, not use it. organic materials such as bitumen in old concrete worsen new concrete properties. in addition, metal inserts and paints and glass fragments on the outer surface cause an alkaline reaction of the filler. determination of the composition of the rca is given in bs 8500-2: 2002. obtaining and using a suitable filler by recycling old concrete waste was regulated by the standard. at the same time, the flint used in construction will contain a large amount of bricks, glass, plaster or chlorides, which have a negative effect. proposals are still being developed to clean up construction waste from such adverse impacts. proposals have been made by gonzalez et al to recycle old concrete waste. it was also proposed by rigan. as for other household waste, for example ash, black and non-ferrous metals produced by coal combustion can be ground to a powder state, mixed with clay to obtain granules and produce artificial fillers from them. when complex use of raw material materials, industrial waste or abandoned unnecessary products can divide raw materials into another industrial production. similarly, when foiling from raw materials, the current period makes sense to the development requirements of the national economy. the axiom of complex use of raw materials can be considered in several different directions: first of all, waste recycling allows for environmental protection, the disposal of valuable land areas from waste, including special places where waste is collected, waste and piles. secondly, industrial waste products to some extent satisfy the demand for high-quality raw materials, which are given initial technological processing (grinding, burning) in the production process of those in the processing industry. thirdly, when the complex use of raw materials, the capital cost per product property decreases relatively, the cost recovery periods are reduced, the placement of waste in the industry, reduces the cost for the construction of warehouses that store them, and the consumption of heat and electricity made to new products decreases due to the technological readiness of waste, the production capacity of using industrial waste efficiently, we can produce building materials in different hil, which are designed to build buildings and structures. the production of building materials with industrial waste content is a reason for economic efficiency and savings in the reserve of natural resources. literature used 1. sanoat chiqindilari asosida qurilishmateriallari ishlabchiqarish. ma’ruza matnlari 2. beton to‘ldiruvchilari texnologiyasi. ma’ruza matnlari 3. gulbayev u. y. o., ruzmatov b. s., yuldashev k. x. creation and introduction of innovative education cluster in the leather and fur industry //science and education. – 2021. – t. 2. – №. 1. 4. jumaniyazov q. j. et al. yigirish jarayoni o’timlari bo’yicha aralashma tarkibiga asosan chiqindi va ip miqdorining o’zgarishi //science and education. – 2021 5. mikusova m. et al. designing of parking spaces taking into account the parameters of design vehicles in russia //communications-scientific letters of the university of zilina. – 2020. – t. 22. – s. 31-41. 9. ergashov m. i dr. opredeleniye natyajeniya kompozitnogo remnya peredatochnogo mexanizma //kompozisionnыye materialы. – 2003. – №. 164 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 design and development of an arduino based medication reminder system to help patients stick to their medication schedules 1 saif ali hussein mydan 2 mohammed abdulredah jasim hamza 3 mohammed sadeq ali abed 4 hassan noaman emogah qasim 1,2,3,4 department of biomedical engineering, al-nahrain university, college of engineering, iraq abstract: medication adherence is a critical factor in patient health management, especially for individuals with chronic diseases and elderly patients. forgetting to take prescribed medication on time can lead to severe health complications. this research presents the design and development of an arduino-based medication reminder system to assist patients in adhering to their medication schedules. the system utilizes a microcontroller (arduino) integrated with an lcd display, a real-time clock (rtc) module, and a buzzer to alert patients at the correct dosage time. when the scheduled time arrives, the buzzer sounds, and the lcd displays the medication details, ensuring timely consumption. additionally, the system can be enhanced with a mobile application or sms alert for remote notifications. the proposed system is cost-effective, easy to use, and customizable for different medication schedules. experimental results demonstrate its effectiveness in improving medication adherence. this solution has the potential to reduce hospital visits due to missed doses and improve overall patient health outcomes. keywords: smart medication reminder. automated drug reminder. lcd display system. medication adherence. 1. introduction: medication adherence is a crucial aspect of patient healthcare, particularly for individuals with chronic illnesses, elderly patients, and those with complex medication schedules. many patients forget to take their prescribed medications on time, leading to serious health complications, ineffective treatment, or prolonged recovery. to address this issue, technological solutions have been developed to assist patients in following their medication schedules accurately. one promising approach is the use of microcontroller-based systems, such as arduino, to create an automated medication reminder. arduino is an open-source platform that allows for the development of customizable and cost-effective healthcare solutions. by integrating an arduino microcontroller with a real-time clock (rtc), an lcd display, and an alarm system, it is possible to design a smart medication reminder that notifies patients when it is time to take their medicine. this study explores the development of an arduino-based medication reminder system that alerts patients through visual and auditory signals. when the scheduled time arrives, the system 165 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us activates a buzzer and displays the medication details on an lcd screen, ensuring that the patient is aware of their dosage requirements. additionally, the system can be enhanced with sms or mobile notifications for remote alerts. by implementing such a system, medication adherence can be significantly improved, reducing hospital visits due to missed doses and enhancing overall patient health. this research highlights the importance of integrating technology into healthcare to provide efficient and accessible solutions for medication management. 2. project objectives: 1. improve patient adherence to medication schedules by developing a smart alert system based on arduino. 2. reduce forgetting medication schedules by using audio and visual notifications to alert the patient at the specified time. 3. design a low-cost and easy-to-use system to be available to all groups, especially the elderly and patients who take multiple medications. 4. enhance patient independence by providing a self-operating system without the need for continuous follow-up by healthcare providers. 5. support the improvement of healthcare by reducing the negative effects resulting from not taking medication on time. 6. the possibility of developing the system in the future to include additional features such as sending notifications via mobile phone or integrating it with electronic healthcare systems. 7. conduct practical experiments to test the efficiency of the system in real environments and ensure its accuracy and effectiveness in improving patient adherence to taking their medications. 3. project components: 3.1. arduino nano: arduino nano is a small-sized microcontroller board based on the atmega328p. it is used in electronic projects and embedded systems. the nano's compact size makes it ideal for applications requiring minimal space. it features 14 digital input/output pins (6 of which support pwm) and 8 analog inputs, allowing the connection of various sensors and electronic components. the arduino nano operates at 5v and can be powered via a mini-b usb port or an external power source ranging from 6-12v. it supports serial communication protocols such as uart, i2c, and spi, making it easy to integrate with other components. it is programmed using the arduino ide, a user-friendly development environment based on c/c++. due to its small size and low cost, the arduino nano is widely used in smart systems, robotics, and internet of things (iot) applications. fig (1): arduino nano. 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.2. lcd 16x2: the lcd 16x2 is a display module based on liquid crystal display (lcd) technology, commonly used in electronic projects to display data clearly. this screen has 16 columns and 2 rows, allowing it to display 32 characters at a time. it uses the hd44780 controller, which simplifies communication with microcontrollers like arduino and raspberry pi. the display operates at 5v and can be controlled using 4-bit or 8-bit parallel communication. it has four data pins (in 4-bit mode) or eight data pins (in 8-bit mode), along with control pins rs, e, and rw. the display contrast can be adjusted using a potentiometer for better visibility. lcd 16x2 is widely used in applications such as alarm systems, digital counters, educational projects, and measurement devices due to its low power consumption and ease of programming. fig (2): lcd16x2 3.3. rtc ds3231: the rtc ds3231 is a high-precision real-time clock (rtc) module used to keep track of time and date accurately. it features an integrated temperature-compensated crystal oscillator (tcxo), ensuring stability and reducing time drift caused by temperature changes. the module operates with low power consumption, making it ideal for battery-powered projects. it communicates with microcontrollers like arduino using the i2c (inter-integrated circuit) protocol, requiring only two pins (sda and scl). the ds3231 can store seconds, minutes, hours, day, date, month, and year, with built-in support for leap years. additionally, it includes an alarm function that can trigger events at specific times. the module operates at 3.3v or 5v, making it compatible with various development boards. it also features an internal battery backup (cr2032), allowing it to maintain accurate time even when the main power is disconnected. the eeprom memory in some versions can be used for storing additional user data. fig (3): rtc ds3231. 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.4. push button: a push button is a simple switch used to control electronic circuits by making or breaking a connection when pressed. it consists of two metal contacts that close the circuit when the button is pressed and open it when released. push buttons are commonly used in control systems, user interfaces, and embedded projects. they come in various types, including momentary and toggle switches. momentary push buttons return to their original state after release, while toggle switches stay in their new state until pressed again. in microcontroller projects like arduino, push buttons are often used for input control, resetting systems, or triggering events. a pull-up or pull-down resistor is usually required to ensure stable operation and avoid floating signals. push buttons are widely used in appliances, automation systems, and interactive devices. fig (4): push button. 3.5. led: a set of leds that can be used in the project for lighting. fig (5): led. 3.6. buzzer: it is an electronic device that emits a sound when executed and is operated and connected through the arduino controller. fig (6): buzzer. 168 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.7. 10k pot: this is a 10k pot and is used to adjust the brightness of the lcd screen. fig (7) :10k pot. 3.8. zero pcb: is a type of printed circuit board (pcb) that is designed without pre-existing circuit traces or components, allowing users to manually add their own components and wiring. it is often used for prototyping and custom circuit designs, providing flexibility and ease of modification in electronics projects. fig (8): zero pcb. 3.9. jump wires: jump wires are electrical wires used to connect different components in electronic circuits without soldering, making testing and modifications easier. they come in various lengths and colors, with male-to-male, male-to-female, or female-to-female ends, and are commonly used with breadboards and microcontrollers like arduino. fig (9): jump wires. 169 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. project work: the project is designed to be straightforward. upon initiating the system, the real-time clock is activated on the lcd screen. to configure the alarm time for medication, the user must press the set_button. following this action, the lcd screen will show "set time 1." subsequently, the desired time for the medication can be adjusted using the inc button and the next button from the previous operation to modify the time again. after the second and third adjustments, the lcd screen will display the correct time and date. when any alarm is triggered, the lcd indicates group medicine 1, group medicine 2, and group medicine 3. additionally, the modified alarm time is stored in the internal eeprom of the arduino to prevent data loss in the event of a failure. fig (9): project working principle. 5. circuit diagram: in the circuit diagram, the arduino is the main controller and the main part and it is connected to the ds3231 rtc and the connection is:  vcc to 5volt.  scl to gnd.  gnd to gnd.  sda to a4. when the system starts up, the real-time clock on the lcd will be turned on, and the lcd will dial the pin.  d3,d4,d5,d6,d7,d8. fig (10): circuit diagram. 170 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the time designated for medication will be established using the inc and next buttons, while the previous button will be linked to the pin numbers a0, a1, and a2. the led indicators and buzzer will be connected as follows: the red led will be connected to pin number d10, the yellow led to pin number d11, and the green led to pin number d12. additionally, the buzzer will be connected to pin number a6. 6. project demo: when all components are connected, the programming code is added, and the wires are connected, we connect the computer cable and when the power is turned on, the screen will display a welcome message. with the help of the button, we set the medication group reminder, where the time and date are displayed on the lcd screen. fig (11): project demo. 7. results: the developed arduino-based medication reminder system successfully enhances patient adherence to prescribed medication schedules. experimental tests demonstrated that the system accurately alerts patients at the designated times using an lcd display and an audible buzzer. the integration of the real-time clock (rtc) ensures precise timekeeping, minimizing missed doses. the device's low-cost design and ease of use make it accessible for elderly patients and individuals with chronic conditions. additionally, the system can store medication schedules in eeprom, preventing data loss in case of power failure. future enhancements could incorporate mobile notifications for remote alerts. initial user feedback indicates improved adherence rates, leading to better health outcomes. the system's reliability and accuracy were confirmed through multiple trials. compared to manual reminders, the automated system significantly reduces the chances of missed doses. these results highlight the potential of technology in improving medication adherence and patient care. references: 1. world health organization. (2021). medication adherence: who guidelines and recommendations. geneva: who press. 2. osterberg, l., & blaschke, t. (2005). adherence to medication. new england journal of medicine, 353(5), 487-497. 3. sabaté, e. (2003). adherence to long-term therapies: evidence for action. geneva: world health organization. 4. haynes, r. b., ackloo, e., sahota, n., mcdonald, h. p., & yao, x. (2008). interventions for enhancing medication adherence. cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2008(2), cd000011. 171 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. vrijens, b., de geest, s., hughes, d. a., et al. (2012). a new taxonomy for describing and defining adherence to medications. british journal of clinical pharmacology, 73(5), 691-705. 6. lee, j. k., grace, k. a., & taylor, a. j. (2006). effect of a pharmacy care program on medication adherence and persistence. jama, 296(21), 2563-2571. 7. morawski, k., ghazinouri, r., krumme, a., et al. (2018). association of a smartphone application with medication adherence and blood pressure control. jama internal medicine, 178(6), 802-809. 8. park, l. g., howie-esquivel, j., & dracup, k. (2014). a quantitative systematic review of the efficacy of mobile health interventions to improve medication adherence. journal of advanced nursing, 70(9), 1932-1953. 9. iuga, a. o., & mcguire, m. j. (2014). adherence and health care costs. risk management and healthcare policy, 7, 35-44. 10. patel, m. s., asch, d. a., rosin, r., et al. (2016). framing financial incentives to increase medication adherence. jama internal medicine, 176(5), 755-757. 11. demonceau, j., ruppar, t., kristanto, p., et al. (2013). identification and assessment of adherence-enhancing interventions in studies assessing medication adherence. american journal of clinical pharmacology, 35(1), 147-166. 12. kini, v., & ho, p. m. (2018). interventions to improve medication adherence: a review. jama, 320(23), 2461-2473. 13. alaqeel, s., & abanmy, n. o. (2015). counselling and medication adherence: a review. saudi pharmaceutical journal, 23(2), 113-122. 14. cutrona, s. l., choudhry, n. k., stedman, m., et al. (2010). physicians' ability to identify barriers to adherence in their patients with chronic disease. american journal of managed care, 16(12), 800-807. 15. gellad, w. f., grenard, j. l., & marcum, z. a. (2011). a systematic review of barriers to medication adherence in the elderly. drugs & aging, 28(10), 895-906. 16. simons, g., sketris, i. s., langille, m., & taylor, j. (2015). interventions to improve medication adherence in aging populations. therapeutic advances in drug safety, 6(2), 8196. 64 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 9, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 understanding and mitigating corrosion in pipelines: a comprehensive study for mechanical engineers ameel makki abdulameer alhakeem iraqi ministry of oil, basra oil company, basrah, iraq mohammed ridha h. alhakeem iraqi ministry of oil, technical directorate, baghdad, iraq abstract: corrosion in pipelines is one of the serious challenges in the field of mechanical engineering, particularly with regards to oil and gas, water distribution, and other chemical processes. this article addresses an in-depth effect of corrosion mechanisms, factors influencing corrosion rates, and the effect of corrosion on pipeline integrity. additionally, the paper will explore advanced methods for detecting, preventing, and mitigating corrosion in pipelines. the study is supported by real-world case studies illustrating the consequences of pipeline failures due to corrosion and emphasizes the importance of regular maintenance and innovative material selection. the findings are intended to guide mechanical engineers in designing more durable and corrosion-resistant pipeline systems. this comprehensive study examines corrosion mechanisms, factors influencing corrosion rates, and advanced methods for detecting, preventing, and mitigating corrosion in pipelines, with real-world case studies underscoring the importance of regular maintenance and innovative material selection for mechanical engineers. introduction the transportation of oil, gas, and chemicals relies heavily on pipeline infrastructure, making a significant contribution to the economy. nevertheless, one of the primary challenges faced by these pipelines is corrosion ([21]). corrosion is a natural process in which metals degrade due to electrochemical reactions with the environment. without proper engineering and preventive maintenance, corrosion can lead to leaks and ruptures in pipelines, resulting in costly incidents and environmental damage ([14]). pipeline integrity can be harmed by various degrees of corrosion mechanisms, for instance, chemical corrosion, electrochemical corrosion, and microbial corrosion ([19], p. 6-10). chemical corrosion occurs when metals directly interact with their surrounding environment, leading to degradation ([5]). electrochemical corrosion involves the flow of electric current between different areas on a metal surface caused by differences in electrical potential ([5]). microbial corrosion is accelerated by microorganisms that deteriorate pipeline materials ([5]). corrosion rates are influenced by factors such as environmental conditions (including soil composition and moisture levels), material properties (including alloy composition and surface finish), and operating parameters like temperature and pressure ([15]). the impact of corrosion on pipeline integrity is substantial, often resulting in leaks, ruptures, and potentially catastrophic failures. utilizing advanced methods for detecting corrosion, such as non-destructive testing techniques and remote monitoring technologies, can help identify potential issues early on ([15]). 65 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us it is crucial to prevent and mitigate corrosion in pipelines to ensure their longevity. coating and lining solutions offer a protective barrier between the pipeline material and its environment ([1]). cathodic protection systems assist in preventing corrosive reactions through the application of outer electrical current to disrupt the original flow of electrons which seem to cause corrosion ([1]). real-world case studies underscore the importance of regular maintenance practices in preventing costly failures due to corrosion. innovative material selection plays a critical role in enhancing pipeline integrity and longevity ([26]). in conclusion, understanding the mechanisms of corrosion in pipelines is essential for their safe operation. by implementing preventive maintenance strategies, utilizing advanced detection methods, and selecting appropriate materials, the impact of corrosion on pipeline integrity can be minimized. ongoing research into innovative technologies will continue to foster improvements in pipeline safety and reliability for years to come ([27]). 2. corrosion mechanisms 2.1. chemical corrosion chemical corrosion has been a serious danger poses in the oil and gas sector, especially within petroleum refineries, where it can lead to severe breakdowns and costly disruptions in operations. naphthenic acid (na) stands out as one of the most corrosive substances found in crude oil, capable of causing various types of corrosion within refinery equipment ([3]). due to its aliphatic structure and terminal carboxylic acid group, na can create shallow or deep pits within units like vacuum and atmospheric distillation columns ([3]). furthermore, na can result in metal thinning, uniform etching on stainless steel surfaces, as well as grooves and marks on transmission lines and heating tubes ([3]). these examples underscore the diverse ways in which chemical corrosion can manifest in refinery machinery due to specific corrosive elements present in the environment. to counteract chemical corrosion effectively, refineries depend on customized chemical inhibitors and scavengers tailored to address fluid properties, operational conditions, flow rates, and product variations ([36], pp. 11-15). these inhibitors are strategically introduced into the process at crucial points through dispersion or distribution systems to ensure accurate dosages are maintained ([36], pp. 11-15). by implementing these mitigation measures based on monitoring data, refineries can proactively combat the detrimental effects of chemical corrosion on their equipment. furthermore, water chemistry plays a vital role in co2-induced corrosion within pipelines by influencing speciation from simple to complex 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1: above are of the instances of oil refineries menaces occurred being corroded. a. the g. eagle refinery, b. r. refinery, c.c. refinery. (source: reference [3]) unit temperature (oc) corrosion type primarily effect desalter 50 contained pitting oxidization. salt atmospheric cleansing 371 located pitting erosion, and flow-fitted localized corrosion sulfur, naphthenic acid, hcl vacuum distillation 400 localized pitting corrosion sulfur, naphthenic acid, hcl catalytic cracking 600 inter-granular corrosion, scc, erosion-corrosion hydrotreater 670 scc, hydrogen embrittlement, pitting h2s, ammonium salts, polythionic acid sour water stripper 245 localized pitting corrosion, erosion-corrosion h2s, flow velocity, chloride table 1: a brief description of refinery units fitted with corrosion status. (source: reference [3]) https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-s1319610321001757-gr1.jpg https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 67 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us constituent chemical type hydro-carbons: paraffinic (alkanes) plain chain; split restraint naphthenic alkyl cyclopentanes; alkyl cyclohexanes aroma entity alkyl benzenes; aroma naphthenic fluorenes; polynuclear aromas melted vapors nitrogen (n2); carbon dioxide (co2) sulfur composites elemental sulfur (s8), (h2s)sub-ref-a, mercaptans; disulfides raw sulfides, polysulfides; sulfones thiophenes & hydrogen sulfide benzothiophenes; natural nitrogen mixtures pyridine, quinoline natural oxygen composites carboxylic acids (including naphthenic acids)sub-ref-b, alcohols, phenolssub-ref-b, aldehydes, ketones, esters, ethers, oxyacids biological metallic mixes porphyrins colloidal particles asphaltenes; resins; paraffin waxes surfactants sulfonic acids, sulfonates, sodium napthenates metals vanadium, nickelsub-ref-c, ironsub-ref-c, aluminum, sodium, potassium, calcium, copper water (s &wsub-ref-d or bs & wsub-ref-d)sub-ref-e fresh or saline solids sandy soil, dirty surface, silt, soil, mud, corroded products (metallic element, oxides, sulfides, salts) table 2: crude oil constituents. (source: reference [3]) key structure acyclic z = 0 moncyclic z = −2 bicyclic z = −4 tricyclic z = −6 table 3: these are some typical examples of aromatic as well as non-aromatic napthenic acids and their constituent structures [3]) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2: resultant effect of naphthenic acid being corroded (na),. (source: reference [3]) corrosion form refinery unit remarks it may be in deeper, shallow, large and often round pits the vacuum from the within contains atmosphere and purification columns that is shell, wall shell, bubble caps and trays this may take place owing to the boil and reduction of na on metal subsurface and it may occur mainly in liquid that is mixed vapor streams the metal may be thin and sometimes uniform. it contains stainless steel coupled with the shell of the empty cleansing column https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-s1319610321001757-gr7.jpg https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us corrosion form refinery unit remarks trenches, striations, and deeper confined attack in transmission lines and heating tubes (furnace) serious na corrosion may occur across the bends, elbows, tees, and pumps when there is disruption in the flow. overall corrosion carbon steel trays and bubble caps this may also be witnessed through the unusual change of acid and nonacidic crudes in the refinery table 4: the following are sorts of corroded units being used at various refinery units because of naphthenic acid. (source: reference [3]) grade yield stress extreme tensile charpy higher-shelf strain solidifying empty cell (mpa) strength (mpa) energy (ft-ib) coefficient x52 411 508 32 0.0832 x65 483 625 122 0.0881 x70 525 601 70 0.0856 table 5: automated and breakage materials assigned used in offshore and pipeline projects. (source: reference [2]) co2 solluble carbon dioxide h2co3 carbon acid hco3bicarbonat ion co32carbonate ion h+ hydrogen ion oh− hydro-oxide ion fe2+ iron ion cl− chloride ion na+ sodium ion k+ potassium ca2+ calcium ion mg2+ magnesium ion ba2+ barium ion sr2+ strontium ion ch3cooh (hac) acetic acid ch3coo− (ac−) acetate ion hso4bisulphate ion so42sulphate ion https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s266714332100055x https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s266714332100055x 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 6: other unique organisms obtainable in oilfield brines (source: reference [9]) empty cell response balance constant dissoluble of carbon dioxide co2(g) ⇔ co2 ksol=cco2/pco2 aquatic separation h2o⇔kb,wakf,wah++ohkwa=ch+coh carbon dioxide hydration co2+h2o⇔kb,hykf,hvh2co3 khy=ch2co3/cco2 carbon acid separation h2co3⇔kb,cakf,cah++hco3 kca=ch+chco3/ch2co3 bicarbonate anion dissociation hco3-⇔kb,bikf,bih++co32kbi=ch+cco32-/chco3 acetic acid dissociation hac⇔kb,ackf,ach++ackhac=ch+cac-/chac hydrogen sulphate anion dissociation hso4-⇔kb,hso4-kf,hso4h++so42 khso4-=ch+cso42/chso4 table 7: again these are some chemical activity typical found in oil/gas field brines and as wel as their reaction constants (source: reference [9]) 2.2. electrochemical corrosion electrochemical corrosion often sets a serious danger to the status and quality of pipelines especially in the domain of oil and gas where exposure to corrosive elements is common. as stated in [1], internal pipeline corrosion can arise from various factors including temperature fluctuations, corrosive gases like co2 and h2s, water composition, flow velocity, and microbial activity. the synergistic interactions of these elements can hasten the deterioration of pipeline materials, potentially leading to disastrous failures if left unattended. sweet corrosion, characterized by the acidic environment created by co2 and water, accounts for a significant portion of pipeline failures. in addition to sweet corrosion, sour corrosion induced by h2s presence further complicates the corrosion process. according to [20], h2s influences corrosivity potential by impacting ph levels and corrosion product formation. the combined effect of h2s and co2 on corrosion rates necessitates careful consideration during material selection for pipelines operating in hydrocarbon production settings. the mechanisms driving electrochemical corrosion involve intricate interactions between pipeline materials and their surrounding environments. as emphasized in [25], factors such as ph levels, temperature variations, and dissolved gases play pivotal roles in determining the speed and scope of corrosion. the dissolution of corrosive gases produced by co2 and h2s can lead to the creation of less protective compounds on metal surfaces, hastening the degradation process. a detail analysis of these electrochemical project is vital for implementing effective preventive measures against pipeline corrosion. techniques like cathodic protection systems highlighted in [14] can aid in mitigating the effects of electrochemical deterioration by actively preventing corrosive reactions at vulnerable points along the pipeline. furthermore, coating and lining solutions as discussed in [21] provide additional protection against external factors contributing to electrochemical corrosion. moreover, as underscored in various references ([2], [20]), thorough studies on material characteristics, environmental conditions, and operational parameters are crucial for evaluating and managing risks associated with electrochemical corrosion effectively. by integrating advanced methods for detecting corrosion such as non-destructive testing techniques ([2]), https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0010938x07001539 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0010938x07001539 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0010938x07001539 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0010938x07001539 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc7601364/ https://onepetro.org/nacecorr/proceedings/corr06/all-corr06/nace-06121/118069 https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/4/1661 https://matcor.com/pipeline-corrosion/ https://www.corrosionpedia.com/an-intro-to-pipeline-corrosion-and-coatings/2/1383 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s266714332100055x https://onepetro.org/nacecorr/proceedings/corr06/all-corr06/nace-06121/118069 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s266714332100055x 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us operators can proactively monitor pipeline integrity and pinpoint potential areas of concern before they escalate into critical challenges. in summary, a comprehensive grasp of electrochemical corrosion mechanisms is imperative for safeguarding pipeline infrastructure against premature deterioration and ensuring sustained operational reliability. by combining advanced detection methods with proactive maintenance strategies, operators can adeptly manage risks linked to electrochemical deterioration while bolstering the overall integrity of their pipelines. figure 3: as presented above, are various incidents occurred to numerous pipelines from 1990-2005. for crude oil: there are:(3826 incidents) for natural gas piplines leakage there are (411 incidents). [25]) https://www.mdpi.com/sustainability/sustainability-16-01661/article_deploy/html/images/sustainability-16-01661-g001.png https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/4/1661 72 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us chemical cao mgo k2o na2o composition 0.92 1.54 2.17 0.60 table 8: dissoluble chemical property of soil sample (wt.%). (source: reference [42]) chemical cacl2⋅2h2o mgso4⋅7h2o kcl nahco3 composition 0.036 0.190 0.069 0.540 table 9: the natural mixture in tempered soil solutions (g/l). (source: reference [42]) 2.3. bacterial rust micro-biologically influenced corrosion (mic) asserts an essential risk to the status, safety, and dependability of pipelines, as emphasized in [13] p. 21-25. this form of corrosion is mainly attributed to sulfate-reducing bacteria (srb), which may lead to local can result in pitting corrosion over time. the colonies of bacteria formed within pipelines generate substances that corrode the metal, making it challenging to prevent, detect, and mitigate the corrosion effectively. monitoring various pipeline properties is essential for addressing these tasks. understanding the mechanisms underlying mic is crucial for effectively combating its adverse effects. as highlighted in [4], biofilms play a key role in initiating pitting corrosion by compromising the protective layer on certain materials. additionally, aerobic bacteria present in biofilms can create an anaerobic environment conducive to the growth of anaerobes like srp and nrp. grasping these mechanisms is critical for devising successful strategies to manage mic. detecting and preventing mic entails monitoring the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of pipelines. [24] p. 46-50 outlines different techniques for detecting internal corrosion in gas pipelines, such as visually inspecting the pipeline's interior, measuring the thickness of the pipe cover, and to assess corrosion probes, and to use in-line examination tools. by employing these methods, pipeline operators can identify areas of pitting or metal loss early on and implement appropriate measures to prevent further damage. prevention of mic involves regulating the quality of gas entering the pipeline and regularly analyzing gas samples for corrosive impurities and signs of corrosion products. through the implementation of corrosion-mitigation strategies and monitoring microbial activity on pipe walls, operators can effectively manage the risks associated with internal corrosion ([24] p. 4650). furthermore, maintaining suitable operating conditions for pipelines is essential to keep internal corrosion in check. in conclusion, microbiologically influenced corrosion poses a significant danger to pipeline integrity due to sulfate-reducing bacteria's actions. understanding the mechanisms behind mic and implementing efficient detection and prevention measures are vital for ensuring the longterm safety and reliability of pipelines. by actively monitoring the physical, chemical, and biological features of pipelines and taking proactive steps to mitigate corrosive elements, operators can reduce the impact of mic on pipeline integrity (as mentioned in [13] p. 21-25 & [24] p. 46-50). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2016/5808372 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2016/5808372 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2016/5808372 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2016/5808372 https://www.clarion.org/catalog/coursesbrochure.pdf https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc10479746/ https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf https://www.clarion.org/catalog/coursesbrochure.pdf https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf 73 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ref. publication year research focus spark et al.12 2020 this study focused on soil factors that caused mic as a result of buried movable water pipelines. they include essential soil features, bacteria, as well as biochemical systems. wasim et al.17 2018 the focus here is on soil factors in relation to corrosive activity of metal pipes. in this case, soil resistivity, ph as well as moisture position, temperature, in addition to numerous aeration, particle content, presence of bacteria and other soil type. lee and schwab18 2005 this paper addressed factors in connection with drinking water distribution techniques deficiency in the third-world countries. thus, pipeline corrosion, insufficient disinfection substance, minimal water power, epileptic service, massive leaks, unbalanced water pricing, and excessive water usage. imran et al.19 2006 this critical review was mainly on the impact of rationing water generation sources on the water quality and water allocation criteria. similarly, it explains guide for the source water blends to prevent corrosion. emerson and de vet20 2015 this study in on iron-oxidizing bacteria. this instance, often cause corrosion in water allocation within pipelines. bachmann and edyvean21 2005 again, this research addressed the major causes, outcome and affirming biofoul in portable water systems to avoid potential corrosion. mcdougall et al.22 2001 the main discussion of this paper is recent developments towards perceiving the role of biofilms on copper corrosive facilities that affect consumption water. percival23 1998 the microbial biofilms and long-term approach should be dealt with directly on pipe covers is the focus of this study which seeks to cause severe issues affecting consumption water systems, that is corrosive and bacterial build-up. table 10: as presented above, are brief studies on the causes of corrosive effect in subsurface metal pipelines. (source: reference [26]) https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5#ref-cr12 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5#ref-cr17 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5#ref-cr18 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5#ref-cr19 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5#ref-cr20 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5#ref-cr21 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5#ref-cr22 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5#ref-cr23 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5 74 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mic mechanisms description diagram beneath deposit corrosion, oxygen gradient corrosion a type of “localized corrosion associated with, and taking place under, or immediately around, a deposit of corrosion products or other substance” (iso 2020), for instance, biofilm or metal accumulation by metaloxidizing bacteria which seems to be found in a uneven provision. crevice corrosion a type of “localized corrosion associated with, and taking place in, or immediately around, a narrow aperture or clearance formed between the metal surface and another surface (metallic or non-metallic).” (iso 8044)the composition of chloride and other unfamiliar anions in the hole increases corrosion. direct emic metal corroding can also be achieved through extracellular electron movement by living organisms directly as a result of contact with the metal subsurface, while the electron may consume the surface of be cell enzymes. indirect emic corrosion of metals on the other hand has been increased by dissoluble electron transfer mediators which will release it from biological elements in connection with electrons received from the metallic elemen for metabolism. metabolite mic (mmic) corrosive elements lost directly or otherwise by metabolic elements obtained by microorganisms all in aerobic and anaerobic situation. table 11: brief explanation of the basic mechanisms related to mic of metals. (source: reference [4]) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc10479746/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc10479746/ 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us engineering/design information operational information the item size and the major dimensions. corrosive allowance the period of installation / authorization the type of material and the manufacturer, in this sense, the manufacturer should be suitable in terms of the materials and channel of processing fluids and conditions. functional problems – solids concentration, flow limitation, expected outages fabrication procedure, connecting e.g. welding methods, weld strength. affirmation and observation, heat remedy; use of flanged joining (crevice formation) fluid features and chemical concentration; which include sample tracing and means of sample accummulation and preserving field and analytical procedures employed. design label; engineering images, procedures, flow diagram field changes to real design; managing the change of records system operating window (temperature, inflow and outflow) the real operating window (temperature,and in-flow should be maintained within range) pipeline raising profile this may be the results of several any flow modelling that was conducted inputs and outputs; systems and circuits actual procedure inputs and outputs microbiological observation data,which include sample locations, sampling and improvement methods, field and lab procedures used. corrosive elements and real danger assessment plan should be found corrosion observation results from coupons and probes to identify dead legs, no-flow entities leakage/failure and fixing history list of proposed corrosion observation areas corrosion reduction – actual activities, chemical management, pigging, flushing, etc. first identification of corrosive mitigation should be made the need to inspect and maintain accurate recourds and also of integrity evaluation records. means of initial commission and experimentation; hydrostatic test records, procedures, actual test media used procedure upsets, emergency shut down records-test table 12: execution and engineering information that can prevent the potential danger the mic appraisal. (source: reference [4]) 3. factors influencing corrosion rates 3.1. environmental conditions environmental factors have a profound impact on the corrosion rates experienced by pipelines. as indicated in [9], the composition of the water surrounding pipelines can greatly influence the corrosion mechanisms at play. the presence of various dissolved species, including carbon dioxide, bicarbonate ion, chloride ion, and others, can lead to intricate corrosion processes. in a situation where the density of melted salts is high, the resolution may become non-ideal, exacerbating the corrosion even further. furthermore, as highlighted in [19] p. 11-15, fluctuations in oxygen levels, moisture content, and soil composition along the pipeline's route can act as concentration cells that accelerate corrosion. the quality of coatings applied along the pipeline is crucial in shielding against environmental factors that hasten corrosion. if coatings become disbonded, not only does this expose the steel to corrosive elements but it also hinders cathodic protection currents. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc10479746/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc10479746/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0010938x07001539 https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/sites/phmsa.dot.gov/files/docs/technical-resources/pipeline/gas-transmission-integrity-management/65341/finalreportpipelinecorrosion.pdf 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us additionally, external elements such as temperature variations, humidity levels, and overall environmental conditions can contribute to the deterioration of pipelines. population density and incidents of mechanical damage also factor into assessing defect risk and determining maintenance strategies for pipelines. moreover, according to [31], environmental aspects like h2s concentration, humidity levels, temperature fluctuations, and ph changes are critical for monitoring and mitigating corrosion in sewage pipelines. these factors can impact microbial corrosion rates and affect biochemical processes that contribute to pipeline deterioration. lastly, as noted in [7], chloride ions found in soil moisture, humidity levels, and resistivity can fuel corrosion propagation within gas pipelines. the presence of chloride ions boosts bacteria activity within electrochemical cells and speeds up surface oxidation processes. in conclusion, a comprehensive understanding of the environmental conditions surrounding pipelines is essential for effectively managing corrosion rates. variables such as water chemistry, soil composition, temperature shifts, and humidity levels all significantly influence the extent of corrosion damage. by considering these environmental factors and implementing suitable mitigation measures like coatings and cathodic protection systems (as detailed in other parts of this document), pipeline operators can bolster the integrity and longevity of their infrastructure. see also [5]. indicator type indicator description impact of using degradation models lagging indicant pipeline leakage reactive solution to past incidents spills data usage for model activity and substantiation corrosion-related failures historical information for purification degradation models functional integrity problems this will help to identify areas susceptible to degradation regulative fines and penalties costly consequences of integrity failures reputation damage long-term impact on stakeholder trust table 13: some major lagging indicators of pipeline status. (source: reference [5]) indicator type indicator description impact of using degradation models leading indicators impact and consequence on environment resultant impacts on ecosystems and public awareness cp system status early indicators of possible corrosion issues flow rate and pressure identifies abnormal flow patterns and pressure drops temperature state and thermal gradient detection of overheating in the system and temperature-aligned stresses pipeline coating integrity early detection of coating damage https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0957582020317262 https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/13/5789 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2667143324000064 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2667143324000064 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2667143324000064 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us indicator type indicator description impact of using degradation models or degradation soil and groundwater monitoring tracks soil corrosivity and potential leaks review of information (e.g., ili, mfl, visual inspections) integration of inspection results into potential models external factors (e.g., weather, seismic activity) include external factors which influence pipeline position maintenance , support and repair history enhances maintenance periods according to the historical data table 14: leading signs of pipeline state. (source: reference [5]) figure 4: relationships between corrosion-provoking conditions. (source: reference [7]) figure 5: fault tree diagram. (source: reference [43]) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2667143324000064 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2667143324000064 https://www.mdpi.com/sustainability/sustainability-16-05789/article_deploy/html/images/sustainability-16-05789-g004.png https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/13/5789 https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-s1995822621000649-gr2.jpg https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1995822621000649 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us symbol description symbol description x1 ph value x10 construction quality issues x2 resistence x11 service time of the pipe x3 moist soil x12 coating quality issues x4 redox possibility x13 insufficient inspection frequency x5 salinity of soil x14 improper selection of coating x6 texture of soil x15 line failure x7 free corrosive elements x16 part failure x8 chloride composition x17 stray current x9 third party actions x18 failure of stray current protective measures table 15: basic events of ft. (source: reference [43]) figure 6: tafel plot typical of pipe borne in the water stage drew from the crude oil. (source: reference [8]) material icorr (μa/cm2) neq ew d (g/cm3) corrosion position empty cell emp. cell emp. cell emp. cell emp. cell mpy mm/year pipeline 18.62 0.03630 27.55 07.68 08.616 0.2184 table 16: corrosive possibility of pipe bornes under study. (source: reference [8]) 3.2. material properties the susceptibility of pipelines to corrosion in challenging environments, such as offshore systems, is heavily influenced by the properties of the materials used. literature ([2]) emphasizes the impact of both microstructural and alloying elements on the integrity of steel pipelines. various material microstructures, thus, baintic steel, pearlitic steel, spheroidized steel, martensitic steel, and numerous, have shown different corrosion rates (katiyar et al., 2019). this underscores the significance of considering material composition when evaluating corrosion vulnerability. when it comes to subsea pipelines, material selection is crucial for ensuring operational efficiency and longevity. the classification and numbering systems of steels are based on their chemical composition, which dictates their performance in corrosive settings ([16]). while carbon steel is commonly utilized for subsea pipelines, highly corrosive environments may require the use of corrosion-resistant alloys with superior resistance. the selection process involves assessing corrosion rates and comparing mechanical and corrosion resistance properties to identify the most appropriate material for a specific project. additionally, various empirical, probabilistic, and semi-empirical types were to addres the dissemination rate of corrosion effects in complex microenvironments ([2]). these models take https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1995822621000649 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1995822621000649 https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-s2213290213000503-gr6.jpg https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s266714332100055x https://uis.brage.unit.no/uis-xmlui/handle/11250/2438600 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s266714332100055x 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us into account aspects related to microstructure and natural conditions to evaluate the probability of pipeline failure. this will lead to the combination of semi-empiricalconstituents with monte carlo simulations which offers a risk-founded instrument for selecting suitable materials and managing pipeline integrity in corrosive environments. the interplay between environmental factors and material properties can either exacerbate or alleviate a pipeline's susceptibility to corrosion ([26]). other factors like composition, air quality, moisture content, temperature fluctuations, and bacterial activity can impact the corrosion process. furthermore, older or lower-quality pipes lacking protective coatings may be more prone to corrosion due to manufacturing flaws or inherent material characteristics ([41]). in conclusion, comprehending how material properties influence corrosion rates is vital for choosing appropriate materials for pipeline construction. by taking into consideration microstructural elements, alloying elements, and environmental factors during material selection processes, pipeline operators can mitigate corrosion risks and ensure the long-term integrity of their assets. model application source southwell’s linear model: d(t)=0.076+0.038t steel structure (sub-ref-schumacher, 1979) southwell’s bi-linear model: d(t)={0.09t0≤t<1.46y0.76+0.0 38t1.46≤t<16y steel structure (sub-ref-schumacher, 1979) melchers-southwell’s nonlinear model: d(t)=0.84t0.823 marine structure (sub-ref-melchers, 1999) melcher’s power law model: d(t)=0.1207t0.6257 marine structure (sub-ref-melchers, 1999) melcher’s tri-linear model: d(t)={0.170t0≤t<y0.152+0.018 6t1≤t<8y−0.364+0.083t8≤t<16 y marine steel structure (sub-ref-melchers, 2008; subref-melchers, 1999) yamamoto-ikegami’s nonlinear model: d(t)=c1(t−t0−tt)c2 ship structure (sub-ref-yamamoto and ikegami, 1998) paik’s nonlinear model: d(t)=c1(t−tc)c2 ship structure (sub-ref-paik et al., 2004) paik & kim’s model: dc=αβ(yeβ)α−1exp[−(yeβ)α] α=0.0020ye3−0.0994ye2+1.5 604ye−6.0025 β=0.0004ye3−0.0248ye2+0.4 793ye−2.3812 ship structure (sub-ref-paik and kim, 2012) soares and garbatov’s model: d(t)=d∞[1−e(t−tctt)] ship structure (sub-ref-soares and garbatov, 1999) mohd & kee's model: fc=αβ(yeβ)α−1exp[−(yeβ)α] subsea/offshore structure (sub-ref-mohd and kee, 2013) https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-023-00275-5 https://www.fastacservice.com/2024/02/understanding-underground-natural-gas-pipe-corrosion-a-plumbers-insight/ 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us model application source α=−0.02287ye2+0.61835ye−0 .94398 β=0.001347ye2+0.004688ye+ 0.292059 generic linear model: d(t)=d0+cdt l(t)=l0+clt pipeline structures (sub-ref-witek, 2018) ossai’s model: dmax(t)={0.12t0.771forlow0. 2687t0.7408formoderate0.388 7t0.7879forhigh0.6508t0.8657f orsevere0.695t0.7689foralldata pipeline structures (sub-ref-ossai et al., 2015) table 17: empirical semi-empirical corrosion addressing models similar to marine/offshore systems. (source: reference [2]) 3.3. operating parameters operational factors have a unique in determining the corrosion rates experienced by pipelines. various elements such as flow characteristics, pressure levels, temperature variations, and fluid compositions can significantly impact the corrosion mechanisms that affect pipeline integrity ([8]). a research study investigating internal corrosion in subsea oil pipelines revealed that the flow pattern, influenced by the polyphase which controls the these substances; crude oil, water, and gas, can affect the distribution of corrosive elements throughout the pipeline ([8]). the presence of different phases within the pipeline can result in distinct flow patterns like stratified flow, where liquids and gas segregate from each other, potentially leading to water accumulation on the pipeline's bottom surface ([8]). moreover, to clearly perceive the uniqueness of gas passing through the pipeline and monitoring operational conditions are essential aspects in mitigating corrosion risks. an examination of a natural gas pipeline rupture and fire incident emphasized that effective monitoring of gas quality and operational conditions could have identified potential corrosion issues within the pipeline ([24] p. 51-55). normal sampling and synthesis of liquids and solids obtained from the line could have provided insights into the corrosive contaminants present in the system ([24] p. 51-55). in the same instance, it is essential to implement an inner corrosion effect according to comprehensive monitoring protocols is crucial for detecting and mitigating internal corrosion in pipelines ([24] p. 56-60). furthermore, operational parameters such as the frequency of corrosion monitoring can also influence the detection and management of corrosion in pipelines. a new pipeline corrosion monitoring technique utilizing piezoelectric active sensing showcased how testing operating conditions at different intervals enabled tracking of corrosion states over time ([6]). through regular corrosion assessments and monitoring changes in operational conditions, operators can gain valuable insights into the progression of corrosion within their pipelines. in summary, taking into account operational parameters like flow patterns, gas quality surveillance, and corrosion testing schedules is crucial for effectively managing and alleviating corrosion in pipelines. by incorporating these elements into maintenance practices and riskbased maintenance strategies, operators can enhance their ability to detect early signs of corrosion and implement timely preventative measures to uphold pipeline integrity. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s266714332100055x https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s266714332100055x https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/2/855 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 7: a pipeline system maintenance optimization framework. (source: reference [7]) policy evaluation criteria judgement criteria merits demerits pipeline uniformity corrective maintenance policy absolute failure information about failure appropriate terms in relation to cost improved downtime unsuitable for the pipelines protection management policy prior periods, including age and service experts’ opinion, industrial and historical practice, latest repair minimizing the occurrence and to be effective in terms of reduction in manufacturing loss decisions are mostly subject based and no proper evaluation to ascertain their condition. not suitable for serious results of pipelines. predictive maintenance/conditionbased maintenance policy conditionbased assessment to examine and evaluate the situation pipeline assessment in real-time excessive cost of pipeline inspection and other unforeseen instances in the process and other decisions with regards to the assessment appropriate for pipelines proactive observing the need to evaluation of variability most popular https://www.mdpi.com/sustainability/sustainability-16-05789/article_deploy/html/images/sustainability-16-05789-g008.png https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/13/5789 82 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us policy evaluation criteria judgement criteria merits demerits pipeline uniformity maintenance/riskbased maintenance policies the danger failure and condition evaluates and inspect the assessment of situation, risk, and need-based repair approach pipelines in real-time reduces the likelihood of dangerous events and the various effects of the actual events and uncertainty in inspection data logical presumptions and decisionmaker assessments are subjective policy for pipeline infrastructure table 18: examination of the above principles for maintenance from a proposed pipeline perspective. (source: reference [7]) operating conditions oc1 oc2 oc3 oc4 oc5 oc6 oc7 oc8 oc9 corrosion time (h) 0 h 5 h 10 h 15 h 20 h 25 h 30 h 35 h 40 h table 19: testing operating conditions. (source: reference [6]) figure 8: gas-liquid stratified flow in horizontal pipeline. (source: reference [8]) liquid flow rate (ql) (m3/s) gas flow rate (qg) (m3/s) liquid velocity (usl) (m/s) gas velocity (usg) (m/s) flow pattern 4.7918 × 10−3 0.1445 0.0420 1.2675 stratified flow table 20: additional results of u sl and u sg with assumed flow approach. (source: reference [8]) 4. impact of corrosion on pipeline integrity pipeline corrosion is one of dangerous menace to the status of the transportation system, with the potential for catastrophic consequences on the surrounding environment and population. according to data cited in [1], internal corrosion is responsible for 70% of pipeline distractions in the domain of oil and gas, underscoring the critical need to understand and address this issue. components like temperature water chemistry, fluctuations, flow velocity variations, corrosive gases and microbial influences can all contribute to the onset of corrosion within pipelines. the impact of corrosion on pipeline integrity can be devastating, as illustrated by a case study referenced in [24] p. 56-60 where internal corrosion resulted in a rupture and fire close to carlsbad, new mexico. the absence of a robust internal corrosion control program and monitoring systems led to significant damage to the pipeline. additionally, as highlighted in [3], the substantial costs associated with corrosion in refineries demonstrate how different types of corrosion can disrupt operations and lead to catastrophic failures. external corrosion presents another critical challenge for pipelines, as discussed in [12]. environmental factors such as soil composition, water content, and atmospheric conditions can hasten the deterioration of steel pipelines through processes like galvanic and atmospheric https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/13/5789 https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/13/5789 https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/2/855 https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/23/2/855 https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-s2213290213000503-gr7.gif https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2213290213000503 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc7601364/ https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/factsheets/fscorrosion.htm 83 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us corrosion. understanding these mechanisms is essential to implement effective preventive practices. addressing the impact of corrosion on pipeline integrity necessitates proactive steps such as utilizing coating and lining solutions mentioned in [24] p. 56-60, employing cathodic protection systems as detailed in [24] p. 56-60, and adopting advanced non-destructive testing techniques outlined in [3]. by incorporating these strategies, operators can identify and resolve corrosion problems concerning the domain to avert serious dangers. in conclusion, managing the impact of corrosion on pipeline integrity is a multifaceted challenge that demands a comprehensive approach to mitigation. by grasping the various mechanisms of corrosion, implementing preventative measures, and conducting regular maintenance inspections as emphasized in [23], operators can ensure the safe operation of pipelines and guard against potential failures with devastating repercussions. upholding consistent maintenance practices is essential for preserving pipeline integrity effectively. 5. conclusion in summary, the battle against pipeline corrosion is an ongoing challenge that demands a multifaceted approach to affirm the safety, efficiency, and reliability of pipeline operations. the integrity of pipeline infrastructure is paramount for the welfare of communities, the environment, and the economy ([18]). a thorough understanding of various corrosion other executions chemical corrosion, electrochemical corrosion, and microbial corrosion, is crucial for implementing effective mitigation strategies ([38]). environmental conditions, material properties, and operating parameters are key factors influencing corrosion rates and determining the extent of corrosion damage ([5]). the significance of corrosion on pipeline integrity cannot be overstated. corrosion can result in structural defects that jeopardize the safety and functionality of pipelines ([40]). cutting-edge methods for detecting corrosion, including non-destructive testing techniques and remote monitoring technologies, are essential for identifying potential issues before they escalate ([29]). implementing corrosion prevention and mitigation strategies through coating and lining solutions, as well as cathodic protection systems, are essential components of a comprehensive corrosion management plan ([25]). practical problems may provide useful insights as well as to address the challenges and progresses associated with implementing corrosion prevention technologies ([17]). regular maintenance is critical for prolonging the lifespan of pipelines and reducing the risks linked to corrosion-induced failures ([12]. innovative material selection plays a vital role in enhancing pipeline resistance to corrosive environments and improving longevity ([10]). to tackle the complexities linked to pipeline corrosion effectively, it is crucial to continue investing in research, embracing innovative technologies, and adhering to regulatory standards. by collaborating to develop proactive management strategies and implementing best practices in corrosion prevention and mitigation, stakeholders can mitigate the impacts of corrosion on pipeline infrastructure. the future of pipeline integrity hinges on industry collaboration, advancements in materials science and technology, and a commitment to safeguarding critical assets for generations to come. acknowledgments i sincerely write to express my gratitude to this company for their priceless guidance, support, and patience throughout this research. their insight and expertise were instrumental in shaping the direction of this paper. https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/accidentreports/reports/par0301.pdf https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1319610321001757 https://inspectioneering.com/journal/2017-08-23/6801/investigating-pipeline-corrosion-failures https://g3soilworks.com/2024/03/20/the-vital-role-of-corrosion-management-in-preserving-pipeline-integrity/ https://inspenet.com/en/articulo/corrosion-by-co2-hydrocarbon-pipes/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2667143324000064 https://medium.com/@corrosafeofficial/a-closer-look-investigating-corrosion-mechanisms-under-pipe-supports-8f2e8561d1f4 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19942060.2024.2302906 https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/4/1661 https://www.asminternational.org/asm-handbook-volume-13c-corrosion-environments-and-industries/results/-/journal_content/56/05145g/publication/ https://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/factsheets/fscorrosion.htm 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"risk analysis and maintenance decision making of natural gas pipelines with external corrosion based on bayesian network". jun 2022. [online]. available: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1995822621000649 87 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 44. y. sung, h. jeon, d. kim, m. kim, j. choi, h. r. jo, j. oh, o. lee and h. g. lim. "internal pipe corrosion assessment method in water distribution system using ultrasound and convolutional neural networks". jul 2024. [online]. available: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-024-00358-x 45. z.b. wang, l. pang and y.g. zheng. "a review on under-deposit corrosion of pipelines in oil and gas fields: testing methods, corrosion mechanisms and mitigation strategies". sep 2022. [online]. available: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2667266922000482 46. "pipeline safety: pipeline integrity management in high consequence areas (gas transmission pipelines)". dec 2003. [online]. available: https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2003/12/15/03-30280/pipeline-safety-pipelineintegrity-management-in-high-consequence-areas-gas-transmission-pipelines 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 3, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 auto fill fluid using arduino alyaa najeh shamkhi jabur, aya maged adrenel mansor, ali abd alhaseeb abd alhusain yahi al-salam university, medical devices engineering, iraq ali musheb saud hamad, mohammed salim dawod salih al-hadi university college, medical devices engineering, iraq abstract: the research presents an automated bottle-filling system through a control system, where the system contains the main control unit, which is the arduino, through which, and through its programming, we control all the instructions in light of the programming and the servo motor through which the mechanical part that is mounted on it rotates and will contain the bottles. it also contains a small keyboard through which any instructions can be given for the purpose of filling bottles. it also contains a water pump through which we perform the automatic flow of water as needed. it also contains a relay that operates the water pump and is equipped with a power of 5-7 volts. this process can be used for health prevention without direct human intervention to prevent transmissible diseases that can be in the form of viruses or bacteria concentrated on the surfaces of objects. we can also develop this work and have it via the internet, which we will talk about in the proposals in the coming chapters to develop the project. keywords: arduino. control system. water pump. human free operation. servo motor. keypad. 1. introduction: automation has become a fundamental aspect of our everyday existence, influencing areas ranging from industrial production to home automation. with technological advancements, machines have evolved to become more intelligent and capable of executing complex tasks. this evolution has enabled higher levels of accuracy, productivity, and efficiency, while simultaneously reducing human error and lessening the need for manual labor. microcontrollers, such as arduino, have significantly contributed to the evolution of automation systems. these compact integrated devices provide a cost-effective alternative to more expensive programmable logic controllers (plcs). arduino can be programmed to manage a diverse array of devices and sensors, making it a versatile platform for various automation projects. the advantages of automation are extensive. by minimizing human involvement, automation can lower labor costs, enhance productivity, and improve safety in hazardous environments. additionally, it facilitates consistent and repeatable outcomes, which can lead to improved product quality and greater customer satisfaction. however, automation also poses certain challenges. the initial investment required for automation implementation can be substantial, and ongoing maintenance and repair expenses may also be considerable. moreover, automation can lead to job displacement, resulting in adverse social and economic effects. indeed, the utilization of programmable logic controllers (plcs) for bottle filling operations in large-scale industries has been a standard 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us practice for many years. plcs are known for their high reliability and precision, making them an ideal choice for critical industrial applications such as the filling of soft drinks and pharmaceuticals. however, for small-scale manufacturers, the initial and operational costs associated with plcs can be prohibitive. the utilization of arduino microcontrollers presents a compelling alternative for automating bottle filling operations. arduino provides a budgetfriendly means to enhance automation while ensuring precision and dependability. it can oversee the complete bottle filling procedure, which includes identifying the presence of bottles, regulating the filling volume, and halting the operation once the target level is achieved. by incorporating sensors like ultrasonic and flow sensors, arduino can effectively ascertain the position of the bottle and the filling level, making necessary adjustments to the filling process. additionally, it can calculate the filling duration and implement a time delay for the pump, allowing it to cease operation once the glass is filled. 2. methods: the creation of an automated liquid filling system utilizing an arduino uno controller highlights the considerable benefits of automation in industrial processes. this system incorporates an electromechanical assembly that utilizes a disk or plate mechanism. a motor facilitates the rotation of this assembly, while a water pump is responsible for transferring liquid from a storage tank into the bottles. the arduino uno acts as the primary component overseeing the system's operations. start and stop buttons are linked to the arduino development board, which is programmed to control the motor and water pump based on sensor inputs. this setup reduces the necessity for human involvement and decreases the likelihood of errors, resulting in a highly reliable and efficient filling process. initially, the automatic liquid filling system is filled with liquid, and the operator is instructed to initiate the process by pressing the "start" button on the arduino uno controller. following this, the system activates the water pump to commence the filling operation. bottles are transported along a conveyor belt equipped with sensors that track their position and movement. the arduino uno controller employs these sensor readings to adjust the liquid filling for each bottle, ensuring that the process is carried out with accuracy and efficiency, thus minimizing waste and spillage. 3.project components: 3.1. arduino uno: fig. (1): arduino uno r3 the arduino uno is a microcontroller board that features the atmega328 (see the datasheet for details). it includes 14 digital input/output pins, of which 6 are capable of functioning as pwm outputs, in addition to 6 analog input pins. the board is equipped with a 16 mhz ceramic resonator, a usb interface, a power jack, an icsp header, and a reset button. it contains all essential components to support the microcontroller, allowing users to connect it to a computer via a usb cable or power it using an ac-to-dc adapter or battery to get started. unlike earlier 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us models, the uno does not include the ftdi usb-to-serial driver chip; instead, it utilizes the atmega16u2 (or atmega8u2 in versions up to r2), which is programmed to function as a usbto-serial converter. the second revision of the uno board features a resistor that connects the 8u2 hwb line to ground, simplifying the process of entering dfu mode. the 1.0 pinout introduces sda and scl pins located near the aref pin, as well as two additional pins near the reset pin: the ioref pin, which allows shields to adapt to the voltage supplied by the board. in the future, shields will be compatible with both boards that use the avr, operating at 5v, and the arduino due, which operates at 3.3v. the second pin is currently unconnected and reserved for future use. 3.2. servo motor: fig (2): servo motor 360 the servo motor is an electric motor equipped with a sophisticated control system that enables it to rotate to designated angles with precision. it functions through a pwm (pulse width modulation) signal, which dictates its exact positioning. the assembly includes either a dc or ac motor, a gearbox, and an electronic control circuit. renowned for its rapid response and exceptional accuracy, the servo motor is particularly suited for applications that demand precise angle control, such as in robotics, 3d printing, and drone technology. typically, the servo motor has a restricted rotation range, generally spanning from 0° to 180°. it can be operated using microcontrollers such as arduino or raspberry pi. its applications are extensive, encompassing industrial automation, medical equipment, and remote-control systems. unlike conventional motors, the servo motor does not provide continuous rotation; instead, it moves to a specific position and maintains that position. 3.2.1. what makes a continuous servo motor special? a standard servo motor requires a pwm signal of approximately 50hz, with pulse widths varying between 1ms and 2ms to regulate the position of its shaft. for instance, when the pulse width is set to 1.5ms, the motor will promptly rotate to a 90-degree position and hold that angle until the pulse width is adjusted. fig (3): servo pulses 72 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.2.2. continuous servo motor pinout the pinout for the 360-degree servo is the same as the universal, 180-degree servo motor. fig (4): servo pinout the brown and red pins are designated as the power pins, whereas the yellow pin acts as the signal input pin. in certain cases, such as with the adafruit feedback 360 degree servo motor, there is an extra pin that delivers a voltage output between 0 and 5v, which corresponds to the shaft's angle ranging from 0 to 360 degrees. if you have this specific type of servo motor, you can ascertain the exact position of the shaft at any given time by measuring the analog read () value from that pin. 3.3. keypad: fig (4): 4x4 keypad 4x4 keypad modules come in various sizes and shapes; however, they all share the same pin configuration. constructing a 4x4 keypad by arranging 16 buttons in a matrix format is a straightforward process that can be done independently. pin number description rows 1 pin1 is taken out from 1st row 2 pin2 is taken out from 2nd row 3 pin3 is taken out from 3rd row 4 pin4 is taken out from 4th row column 73 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5 pin5 is taken out from 1st column 6 pin6 is taken out from 2nd column 7 pin7 is taken out from 3rd column 8 pin8 is taken out from 4th column table 1 : all keypad datasheet as indicated in the table above, a 4x4 keypad consists of eight terminals. among these, four serve as the rows of the matrix, while the remaining four function as the columns. these eight pins are derived from the 16 buttons located on the module. the 16 alphanumeric characters displayed on the surface of the module are organized in a matrix configuration. the internal structure of 4x4 keypad module is shown below. fig (5): internal structure of 4x4 keypad module 3.4. relay: fig (6): relay 5 volt a relay is a type of electro-mechanical device that operates as a switch. when the relay coil is powered by direct current (dc), it enables the opening or closing of contact switches. typically, a single-channel 5v relay module consists of a coil and two types of contacts: normally open (no) and normally closed (nc). this article provides an overview of the 5v relay module and its operation; however, before delving into the specifics of the relay module, it is essential to understand what a relay is and its pin configuration. 3.4.1. what is a 5v relay? a 5v relay functions as an automatic switch frequently utilized in automatic control circuits, enabling the management of high-current loads through a low-current signal. the input voltage for the relay signal varies between 0 and 5v. 74 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.4.2.5v relay pin configuration the pin configuration of the 5v relay is shown below. this relay includes 5pins where each pin and its functionality are shown below. fig (7): relay pin diagram 3.4.3. how to use/relay module circuit diagram the circuit diagram for the single-channel relay module is presented below. this diagram illustrates the process by which the relay module is activated and deactivated via a digital signal. this signal is directed to a control pin on the relay module. below is the internal diagram of the 5v single-channel relay module. fig (8): single channel relay module circuit in the circuit diagram presented above, the single-channel relay module comprises two resistors, transistors, two leds, and a 5v relay. relay modules are categorized into two types based on the type of control signal utilized for relay activation. one type features an npn transistor, while the other is equipped with a pnp transistor. when the relay module incorporates an npn transistor, it activates the relay by applying an active high signal to the control pin. conversely, if a pnp transistor is employed, the relay is activated by an active low signal on the control pin. in the proteus simulation software, when an active high signal is applied to the control pin of the relay module, the relay coil is energized, rendering the relay operational by connecting the no pin to the com pin. similarly, when an active low signal is sent to the relay's control pin, the coil is deactivated using a freewheeling diode, resulting in the relay being turned off. for the pnp-based relay module, activation occurs through an active low signal, while an active high signal will lead to deactivation. the control of a 5v single-channel relay module can be achieved by interfacing it with any microcontroller. this is accomplished by utilizing a gpio pin, such as a digital output pin, 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us which provides active high and low signals to the control pin. upon activation of the relay, an audible sound can be heard emanating from the module. 3.5 water pump: fig (9): water pump utilize this submersible water pump for creating fountains or watering plants. it is ideal for novice projects and remarkably user-friendly. the pump operates as a dc motor, requiring a 3v power supply and consuming 100ma. when activated, it draws water through the side of its plastic casing and expels it through the tubing outlet. it is essential to keep the pump submerged in water at all times to ensure proper operation. reversing the polarity will not convert it into a suction device; it will solely function to pump water. please note that this pump is not suitable for drinking water applications. while we do not have a longevity rating for this device, our testing over a week indicates satisfactory performance; however, we do not recommend it for long-term use. it is particularly well-suited for students and artists seeking a straightforward and cost-effective solution. the motor can be controlled using pwm to adjust the flow rate, and it works effectively with either a basic power transistor for on/off control or a motor driver chip like the l293d. 3.6. power supply: fig (10): lithium battery lithium batteries are rechargeable batteries known for their high energy density and long lifespan compared to traditional batteries. they are used in electronic devices, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems due to their lightweight and high efficiency. they operate using lithium-ion technology, where ions move between electrodes during charging and discharging, making them more stable and effective. 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.block diagram: fig (11): block diagram in this diagram, the operation of the circuit and the method of input and output are explained, as it begins by giving instructions to the arduino through the keyboard by giving the command to the servo to rotate and then stopping it from the same place. after that, the pump is instructed to work to fill the bottles. now we will explain how each part is connected to the arduino and programmed: 4.1. servo motor with arduino: fig (12): servo motor with arduino quackery: the servo motor is connected, as in the figure above, to the arduino, and from the figure we can distinguish that the servo will move automatically by giving it the programming code. it is clear that there is no controller, such as a variable resistance or a switch to control it, but these examples are an explanation for us. in order to know how to deal with such motors and connect them to the arduino microcontroller, where we can control it with precision, professionalism, and basic code. 4.2. programming: it is worth noting that we can program the arduino in several languages, and one of the best and most common is c plus, which is through the java language. the arduino program was designed in order to program the arduino in the c language. // include the servo library: #include "servo.h>// create a new servo object: servo myservo;// define the servo pin: #define servopin 9 void setup() { 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us // attach the servo variable to a pin: myservo.attach(servopin); } void loop() { // tell the servo to go to a particular angle: myservo.write(90); delay(1000); myservo.write(180); delay(1000); myservo.write(0); delay(1000); // sweep from 0 to 180 degrees: for (int angle = 0; angle <= 180; angle += 1) { myservo.write(angle); delay(15); } // and back from 180 to 0 degrees: for (int angle = 180; angle >= 0; angle -= 1) { myservo.write(angle); delay(15); } delay(1000); } from the code above we notice that the servo motor moves at a speed of 15 milliseconds from zero to 180 degrees and then returns in the opposite direction after the same period. 4.3. keypad with arduino: keypad is used as an input device to read the key pressed by the user and to process it.4x4 keypad consists of 4 rows and 4 columns. switches are placed between the rows and columns.a key press establishes a connection between the corresponding row and column, between which the switch is placed. for more information about keypad and how to use it, refer the topic 4x4 keypad in the sensors and modules section. connection diagram of 4x4 keypad with arduino uno fig (13): interfacing 4x4 keypad with arduino uno http://www.electronicwings.com/sensors-modules/4x4-keypad-module http://www.electronicwings.com/sensors-modules/4x4-keypad-module http://www.electronicwings.com/sensors-modules/4x4-keypad-module http://www.electronicwings.com/sensors-modules/4x4-keypad-module 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us codding: 4.4. relay or water pump with arduino: fig (14): water pump with arduino codding: const int relay_pin = a5; // the arduino pin, which connects to the in pin of relay 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us // the setup function runs once when you press reset or power the board void setup() { // initialize digital pin a5 as an output. pinmode(relay_pin, output); } // the loop function runs over and over again forever void loop() { digitalwrite(relay_pin, high); // turn on pump 5 seconds delay(5000); digitalwrite(relay_pin, low); // turn off pump 5 seconds delay(5000); } now we connect all components in one circuit diagram to see full project in this shown below: 4.5. project circuit diagram: fig (15): project circuit diagram the brown and red pins are identified as the power pins, while the yellow pin serves as the signal input pin. in specific instances, such as with the adafruit feedback 360 degree servo motor, an additional pin is provided that outputs a voltage between 0 and 5v, reflecting the angle of the shaft, which varies from 0 to 360 degrees. if you possess this particular model of servo motor, you can determine the precise position of the shaft at any moment by measuring the analog read () value from that pin. 4.6. project code: /* @file customkeypad.pde || @version 1.0 || @author alexander brevig || @contact alexanderbrevig@gmail.com || || @description 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us || | demonstrates changing the keypad size and key values. || # */ #include <keypad.h> #include <servo.h> servo s; const byte rows = 4; //four rows const byte cols = 4; //four columns //define the cymbols on the buttons of the keypads char hexakeys[rows][cols] = { {'1','2','3','a'}, {'4','5','6','b'}, {'7','8','9','c'}, {'*','0','#','d'} }; byte rowpins[rows] = {2,3,4,5}; //connect to the row pinouts of the keypad byte colpins[cols] = {6,7,8,9}; //connect to the column pinouts of the keypad //initialize an instance of class newkeypad keypad customkeypad = keypad( makekeymap(hexakeys), rowpins, colpins, rows, cols); int k =13; void setup(){ serial.begin(9600); pinmode(k, output); s.attach(10); } void loop(){ char customkey = customkeypad.getkey(); if (customkey){ serial.println(customkey); } if (customkey == '1'){ s.write(90); delay(100); } if (customkey == '2'){ s.write(180); } if (customkey == '3'){ s.write(270); } if (customkey == 'a'){ s.write(360); } if (customkey == '0'){ s.write(0); } if(customkey =='#'){ digitalwrite(k, high); } if(customkey =='*'){ digitalwrite(k, low); } } 5. results and dissociation: as a result, a project was obtained, the least we can say is that it was successful. through this project, the results can be read in the form of questions and answers, as follows: 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1is it possible to find another way to control the device? the answer: yes, by activating the rest of the keys. 2can the device expand and take more than 4 bottles? answer: yes, it is possible, but the type of servo motor or any other motor must be changed, but with greater torque and more power for the purpose of bearing the weights placed on it. 3how does the device look in this position or condition in terms of bearing weight? answer: the device is very stable and there are no other problems 4what are the disadvantages of this device? answer: there are no disadvantages, but we can say that the cost seems high because we used advanced parts for the device in manufacturing 5can anyone use the device? answer: yes, anyone can use the device, and especially based on our instructions, we can say that children over five years old can use it as well. 6what distinguishes the device? answer: it is characterized by its light weight, ease of use, and low energy consumption. references: 1. maker guid web site https://www.makerguides.com/servo-arduino-tutorial/ 2. circuitio..websitehttps://www.circuito.io/app?components=8653,9442,10189,103 98,11021 3. github web site https://raw.githubusercontent.com/basontech/arduinobeginnersen/master/e26-4x4-matrix-keypad/e26-4x4-matrix-keypad.png 4. arduino website https://arduinogetstarted.com/tutorials/arduino-controls-pump 5. alprocus website https://www.elprocus.com/5v-relay-module/ 6. 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"what is arduino uno? a getting started guide". www.rs-online.com. retrieved 2021-0804. 19. "using vin pin on arduino with a shield". electrical engineering stack exchange. retrieved 2024-01-20. https://www.rs-online.com/designspark/what-is-arduino-uno-a-getting-started-guide https://www.rs-online.com/designspark/what-is-arduino-uno-a-getting-started-guide https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/31282/using-vin-pin-on-arduino-with-a-shield https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/31282/using-vin-pin-on-arduino-with-a-shield efficient transformer models for large scale nlp: an empirical statistical research skip to main communities my dashboard log in sign up info: zenodo’s user support line is staffed on regular business days between dec 22 and jan 4. response times may be slightly longer than normal. published october 9, 2024 | version v1 journal article open efficient transformer models for large scale nlp: an empirical statistical research creators abubakri o. murainah fadilulahi o. popoola abdulazeez murainah files 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journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 8, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 analysis of battery management system using lithium ferro phosphate for e-vehicle m. shagar banu1, a. prabha*2, m. mohamed dhaqsin ali3, m. noufal shabdhar4, s. vignesh5 1,2dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india 3,4,5department of electrical and electronics engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, padappai, chennai, tamil nadu, chennai, india *correspondence: prabha.a@dhaanishcollege.in abstract: common rechargeable batteries with unique properties and uses are lead-acid and lithium ferrophosphate (lifepo4) batteries. in terms of important factors including energy density, cycle life, charging efficiency, cost, and environmental impact, several battery technologies are succinctly compared in this abstract. lifepo4 batteries have a higher energy density than lead-acid batteries, which are renowned for their longevity and dependability. they are frequently utilized in backup power systems and automotive starting, lighting, and ignition (sli) applications, and they are appropriate for applications needing large discharge currents. however, compared to lifepo4 batteries, lead-acid batteries have a shorter cycle life, less charging efficiency, and greater maintenance needs. however, compared to lead-acid batteries, lifepo4 batteries have a higher energy density, a longer cycle life, and improved charging efficiency. they are perfect for electric cars, renewable energy storage systems, and portable electronics since they are lighter and have a slower rate of self-discharge. because of their enhanced performance and longer longevity, lifepo4 batteries frequently offer better long-term value despite their higher initial cost. because lead-acid batteries include hazardous substances like lead and sulfuric acid, which can pollute the environment if improperly disposed of or recycled, they provide a significant environmental risk. however, because lifepo4 batteries don't contain heavy metals and are less likely to have thermal runaway or fire, they are thought to be more environmentally friendly. in summary, lifepo4 batteries are the favored option for many contemporary energy storage requirements due to their greater performance, longer lifespan, and reduced environmental effect, even though lead-acid batteries have advantages in some applications. but in the end, choosing between these two battery technologies comes down to particular needs like price, weight, energy density, and environmental factors. keywords: lead-acid batteries, lithium ferro phosphate, battery technologies, rechargeable batteries, renewable energy, environmental impact, energy storage technology introduction two well-known varieties of rechargeable batteries that serve a variety of purposes and have unique qualities are lead-acid and lithium ferro phosphate (lifepo4) batteries. the energy density, cycle life, charging efficiency, cost, and environmental impact of several battery types are all briefly compared in this abstract. compared to lifepo4 batteries, lead-acid batteries, which are known for their long history and durability, have a comparatively lower energy density [47]. they are useful in situations when high discharge currents are required; they are frequently used in backup power configurations and automobile starting, lighting, and ignition (sli) systems. however, in comparison to lifepo4 batteries, lead-acid batteries have shorter cycle lives, lower http://www/ mailto:prabha.a@dhaanishcollege.in 8 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us charging efficiency, and higher maintenance needs [48]. lifepo4 batteries, on the other hand, have better qualities than lead-acid batteries, including higher energy density, longer cycle life, and improved charging efficiency. they are also ideal for use in electric vehicles, portable electronic devices, and renewable energy storage systems since they are lighter and have a reduced self-discharge rate [49]. lifepo4 batteries have a higher initial cost, but because of their longer lifespan and improved performance, they frequently provide better long-term value [51]. because lead-acid batteries use dangerous substances like lead and sulfuric acid, which can cause pollution if improperly disposed of or recycled, they offer more serious environmental risks [52]. lifepo4 batteries, on the other hand, are thought to be more environmentally friendly because they avoid heavy metals and lower the possibility of thermal runaway or combustion [53]. in conclusion, although lead-acid batteries are useful in some situations, lifepo4 batteries are a preferred option for many modern energy storage needs due to their better performance, longer lifespan, and smaller environmental impact. however, the choice between these two battery technologies ultimately comes down to particular requirements that include weight, cost, energy density, and environmental factors [50]. the history of battery technology is marked by a search for increased longevity, efficiency, and environmental sustainability [54]. with origins dating back to the middle of the 19th century, leadacid batteries are among the most traditional and long-lasting types of rechargeable batteries. these batteries, which were created by gaston planté in 1859, became well-known very fast because of their capacity to store and release electrical energy through reversible chemical reactions using sponge lead and lead dioxide submerged in an electrolyte of sulfuric acid [56]. lead-acid batteries have become widely used over the years in a variety of applications, from renewable energy storage to telecommunications backup power sources, uninterruptible power supplies (ups), and automobile starting, lighting, and ignition (sli) systems. they were essential in sectors where dependable energy storage was crucial due to their durability, dependability, and affordability [57]. nonetheless, continuous efforts to create substitute solutions were prompted by the technology's intrinsic drawbacks, which included poor energy density, limited cycle life, and vulnerability to sulfation and water loss [55]. a more recent addition to the rechargeable battery market are lithium ferro phosphate (lifepo4) batteries. lifepo4 batteries, which were developed in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, were a major advancement in battery technology since they were safer, had a higher energy density, and had a longer cycle life than conventional lead-acid batteries [58]. by employing lithium iron phosphate (lifepo4) as the cathode material, which offered a greater energy density and reduced worries about thermal runaway and fire hazards, this breakthrough was made achievable [59]. the development of lifepo4 batteries coincided with the increasing need for energy storage devices that are more effective, lightweight, and ecologically friendly, especially for use in grid-scale energy storage systems, electric vehicles (evs), and portable electronics [60]. the environmental impact of battery technologies came under scrutiny as worries about pollution and climate change grew, which fueled the adoption of greener alternatives like lifepo4 batteries, which are easier to recycle than lead-acid batteries and don't contain harmful heavy metals [61]. lead-acid batteries have been around for a while and are dependable, but they have a number of drawbacks that make them unsuitable for contemporary energy storage [62]. relatively low energy density, short cycle life, reduced charging efficiency, and increased maintenance needs are some of these drawbacks [63]. lead-acid batteries frequently fail to satisfy the required standards in applications where weight, space, and performance are crucial considerations, such as electric vehicles (evs), portable gadgets, and renewable energy storage systems [64]. in order to overcome the drawbacks of lead-acid batteries and provide better performance, longevity, and environmental sustainability, an energy storage solution is required, according to the issue statement. for evs and portable electronics to have longer operating durations or greater range, this solution should ideally have a higher energy density [65]. it should also have a longer cycle life to reduce the need for maintenance and replacements, which would increase cost-effectiveness overall [66]. http://www/ 9 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in order to minimize charging times and maximize energy use, the solution should also exhibit exceptional charging efficiency [67]. reducing the environmental impact of energy storage systems is crucial, especially in light of the increased focus on environmental sustainability [68]. therefore, in order to reduce environmental issues, the ideal solution should also decrease the usage of dangerous materials and make recycling or disposal easier [69]. in the problem statement emphasizes the need for a cutting-edge energy storage technology that can surpass lead-acid batteries in terms of environment effect, cycle life, energy density, and charging efficiency. in order to address the changing needs of many industries, such as consumer electronics, transportation, and renewable energy, while also advancing environmental objectives and lowering dependency on fossil fuels, it is imperative that these issues be resolved [70]. objective gain a thorough understanding of the main performance characteristics and constraints of leadacid batteries, such as their energy density, cycle life, charging efficiency, and environmental effect. examine lithium ferro phosphate (lifepo4) batteries' qualities and potential as a substitute energy storage option, paying particular attention to their higher energy density, extended cycle life, and improved charging efficiency. analyse lead-acid and lifepo4 batteries side by side to measure performance variations and pinpoint areas that need improvement. examine the financial viability and cost-effectiveness of switching from lead-acid to lifepo4 batteries in a range of applications, taking lifecycle costs, operating costs, and initial investment into account. examine the effects of both battery technologies on the environment at every stage of their lifecycle, including the extraction of raw materials, production, use, and disposal/recycling procedures. provide suggestions and instructions for choosing and putting into practice energy storage systems depending on the needs of particular applications, taking into account factors like energy density, weight, cost, lifetime, and environmental impact. literature survey since they produce a cleaner environment, electric vehicles are displacing conventional modes of transportation in the modern world. electric vehicles use a variety of battery types, including solid-state, lithium, lead-acid, and nickel-metal [1]. the most popular kind of battery is the lithium battery. because it is more efficient than conventional batteries and has a high energy per unit mass, it may be recycled [3]. this study suggests an internet of things-based battery management system. the microcontroller receives signals from the temperature, voltage, and current sensors in this system, and the cloud-like thing speak receives the data [4]. the location may be found using the global positioning system, and thing speak will send an alarm email when the data reaches a high level [5]. this paper's point of view is to maintain electric vehicle batteries and notify drivers of their condition. in the years to come, electric vehicles (evs) that employ lithium-based rechargeable battery modules are expected to overtake all other forms of mobility [7]. because of their higher energy efficiency and lack of harmful gas emissions, evs are significant players. because evs have many battery cells, lithium batteries need to be inspected and modified on a regular basis to preserve the safety, efficiency, and dependability of the ev system. it is necessary to have a management system (bms) [8]. the battery of an ev should be prepared to deliver high energy and sustained power. the bms uses quantifiable criteria to inform its decisions. voltage, current, and temperature are three non-invasive battery metrics that can be used to forecast battery resistivity, volume, the status of charge estimation (soc) [9], state of health (soh), power diminishing, and remaining useful life [6]. this article discusses a high-performance, low-cost bms [10]. the goal of the study is to create a bms that is economical without sacrificing functionality. the proposed design is tested and simulated using matlab [2]. notwithstanding advancements, the global auto industry continues to face formidable obstacles concerning air pollution, fuel consumption, and sustainability [12]. humanity's quality of life suffers as a result of these problems. making the transition to electric and renewable energy vehicles can help the automotive industry overcome these obstacles. because it integrates http://www/ 10 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us renewable energy sources like solar or wind power with an electric battery charging system as a backup power source, the renewable energy electric vehicle is the best option in terms of energy sustainability [13]. the vehicle can run effectively even in bad weather and in isolated areas thanks to this kind of energy integration. to guarantee the effectiveness, security, and upkeep of the ev, the battery management system (bms) is utilized to monitor and control the battery packs and the energy stored from solar or wind power generation [14]. by recording the state of charge (soc) and state of health (soh) and analyzing each battery cell using temperature, current, and voltage sensors, the bms continuously monitors the battery's state. the matlab and proteus simulation results of multiple batteries tested with the bms are compared and examined in this study [15]. this project's primary goal is to keep an eye on electric car parameters. electric vehicles are becoming more and more popular as people become more conscious about the environment. according to a prototype study of ev parameters, they have several benefits over traditional gaspowered vehicles, such as lower pollutants and a reduced dependency on fossil fuels [16]. they are quickly emerging as the future's preferred mode of transportation. in recent years, batteries for electric vehicles have advanced significantly. they can now travel farther and are far more dependable. because of their rising affordability, more individuals are able to purchase electric vehicles [17]. the features, technology, and advantages and disadvantages of battery management systems in electric vehicle applications are all examined in this study [18]. in order to enhance the performance of the battery in the e-vehicle, this project entails intelligent power monitoring, state estimates, fault analysis, data collection, and solar-powered e-vehicle charging [11]. thus, this battery management analysis allows the user to verify the electric car's settings. matlab-simulink is the simulation program used in our project. we used this software to create a virtual model [19]. an electric car keeps an eye on battery conditions and enables us to utilize a different battery that draws energy from the sun. when the primary battery runs low, this backup battery can be turned on automatically [21]. additionally, the adoption of an economical and effective wireless charging method for electric vehicles is the main goal of our project. one of the most dangerous issues with e-vehicle systems is heat production from the battery. as the engine accelerates, charging and discharging overwhelm heat creation [22]. long-term increases in generation result in shorter battery lifespans, which lowers system efficiency. the purpose of the article is to use wireless technology to monitor the thermal heat produced in the battery [20]. vanet: to wirelessly monitor the heat produced by the e-vehicle system, a vehicular ad-hoc network is used. the heat produced in the battery is measured by the suggested work using a heat sensor [23]. by sending its equal electrical value to the cloud and storing it in the central processing unit, it automatically lowers the engine's acceleration speed and regulates the heat produced in the battery by sending signals to the controlling mechanism [26]. for electric vehicles (evs) to operate safely and last a long time, battery storage systems' temperature and current control are essential [25]. the battery temperature and current monitoring and control system described in this work enables real-time temperature and current monitoring and control during battery charging and discharging for an ev storage system. microcontrollers, wireless communication modules, and temperature and current sensors make up the suggested system, which is meant to be incorporated into the ev storage system [24]. to maximize battery performance and avoid thermal damage, the control unit may adjust the charging and discharging parameters based on temperature and current data [28]. the system sends real-time data to the control unit while continuously monitoring the battery cells' temperature and current flow. the system's performance is demonstrated by simulation results and experiments that show it can accurately monitor battery temperature and current and keep it within safe operating limits [29]. the recommended monitoring and control system can improve the safety, efficacy, and dependability of the ev storage system and has potential uses in a variety of ev scenarios [27]. http://www/ 11 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us because electric vehicles are becoming more and more popular, there is a growing need for effective thermal management solutions in the automotive industry to preserve the optimal performance and longevity of ev batteries [30]. fuzzy rules, membership functions, and fuzzy logic-based methods for controlling battery temperature are intended to account for the inherent uncertainties and fluctuations related to the thermal dynamics of batteries used in electric vehicles [32]. by generating decisions in real time depending on the input variables, the fuzzy logic controller (flc) improves the cooling process and ensures effective heat dissipation without endangering the operating safety of the battery [33]. the subject of electric vehicle thermal management techniques is advanced by this study. with ramifications for the broader field of electric vehicle technology, the findings offer a viable avenue for further research and use of adaptive cooling systems in the evolving field of sustainable transportation [31]. the use of lithium-ion batteries as a power source has grown significantly in this era of electric vehicles. the shift from internal combustion engines (ice) to electric vehicles began gradually in the early 2010s. thus, the need for energy storage has emerged [34]. batteries thus meet the need for energy storage. over the years, numerous battery types have been tested in electric vehicles [35]. because lithium-ion batteries have a high specific energy, high energy density, long durability, minimal self-discharge, and a longer shelf life, the test demonstrated that they produced the best results. as a dependable power source, it became an essential part of electric cars [36]. to preserve effectiveness, performance, and longevity, the battery requires a suitable cooling system. temperatures can cause explosions, short circuits, and other safety risks. in this case, the battery's temperature is controlled by an integrated cooling system (internal and exterior) that uses the least amount of battery power possible [37]. the effective and efficient techniques for cooling the battery both internally and externally are covered in this study. this ensures that the battery operates smoothly and that its temperature doesn't suddenly rise under any load situations [38]. because of the safety risks associated with the battery's increasing temperature, the field of battery cooling systems has become increasingly important. the developed techniques' benefits and drawbacks are carefully considered, and their suitability for the suggested lithium-ion battery that would power the ev is assessed [39]. by efficiently controlling the battery's thermal state with the arduino uno 8-bit microcontroller unit, this research aims to create a robust battery with a long lifespan. the primary objective of this study is to rapidly identify the battery's parameters using this methodological system [40]. the primary function of this suggested effort is to maintain the e-venus battery's temperature in addition to monitoring its parameters [41]. furthermore, the battery will be disconnected from the luxury load circuitry—which includes the air conditioners and other fanlike overload-consuming devices—when the temperature of the battery surpasses the second threshold point [42]. in today's world, with all the digital amenities, safety, pollution, and lower fuel prices, transportation is a basic necessity. soon, all gasoline and diesel cars will be swapped out with low-emission, noiseless, and pollution-free e-vehicles [44]. these days, e-vehicles that run on renewable energy sources installed at home and in hybrid grid energy systems can eliminate the problem of gasoline costs. the conversion efficiency of e-vehicles is 70%, whereas that of gasoline and diesel vehicles is only 21%. digital technology will assist with parking cars in mall parking lots by 2030 [45]. the parked e-vehicle will be automatically charged via a wireless charging system on the way back from the mall after three to four hours, and wearable smart fitness devices will get the automated notifications. the batteries and their management systems are the most difficult aspects of e-vehicles [46]. this study examines and contrasts several batteries and their characteristics, including cycle, efficiency, longevity, and charging and discharging factors [43]. http://www/ 12 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us system implementation as a widely used energy storage technology in a variety of sectors and applications, the current system mostly uses lead-acid batteries. because of their dependability, durability, and affordability, lead-acid batteries have been around for a while [71]. these batteries are widely used in off-grid renewable energy installations, telecommunications backup power applications, and uninterruptible power supplies (ups). they are also used extensively in vehicle starting, lighting, and ignition (sli) systems [74]. lead-acid batteries are widely used, but they have a number of intrinsic drawbacks that limit their ability to satisfy the changing needs of contemporary energy storage [73]. their relatively low energy density, which restricts the amount of energy stored per unit weight or volume, is one of their main disadvantages. in applications where weight and space are crucial, such electric vehicles (evs) and portable electronics, where users require longer running times and greater range, this restriction becomes very relevant [72]. the comparatively low cycle life of lead-acid batteries is another important drawback, particularly when exposed to high operating temperatures or deep discharge cycles [75]. this leads to frequent battery replacements, which raises maintenance and operating expenses, especially in applications where downtime must be kept to a minimum [76]. furthermore, over time, lead-acid batteries show decreased charging efficiency, needing longer charging times to achieve full capacity and using less energy overall [77]. furthermore, the use of hazardous substances like lead and sulfuric acid in lead-acid batteries raises environmental problems [78]. these batteries can pollute the environment and endanger human and ecological health if they are not disposed of or recycled properly. the ecological footprint of lead-acid batteries has come under examination, which has prompted a hunt for greener alternatives as sustainability and environmental consciousness gain importance [79]. the investigation of alternate energy storage options has increased in response to these difficulties, and lithium ferro phosphate (lifepo4) batteries have emerged as a leading candidate. compared to lead-acid batteries, lifepo4 batteries have a higher energy density, a longer cycle life, improved charging efficiency, and a less environmental effect [80]. because of their exceptional performance and ecological characteristics, these batteries have become popular in applications like electric vehicles (evs), renewable energy storage systems, and portable gadgets [81]. overall, even though lead-acid batteries have been a reliable energy storage option for many years, a move toward more sophisticated and environmentally friendly substitutes, such as lifepo4 batteries, is required due to their limits in energy density, cycle life, charging efficiency, and environmental impact [82]. in order to satisfy the demands of a fast-changing energy landscape, this transformation mirrors a larger trend towards cleaner, more efficient, and ecologically friendly energy storage technology [83]. proposed system by utilizing the benefits of lithium ferro phosphate (lifepo4) batteries and addressing the drawbacks of lead-acid batteries, the suggested system seeks to develop a more effective, dependable, and sustainable energy storage solution. in order to improve performance, longevity, and environmental sustainability, the system will integrate lifepo4 batteries into a variety of applications, such as portable devices, electric vehicles (evs), and renewable energy storage systems [84]. lifepo4 batteries serve as the main energy storage element in the heart of the suggested system. compared to lead-acid batteries, lifepo4 batteries have a higher energy density, a longer cycle life, and better charging efficiency [85]. longer working times or an increased range in evs and portable gadgets are made possible by the system's ability to achieve larger energy storage capacity within the same physical footprint by substituting lifepo4 batteries for lead-acid batteries [86]. lifepo4 batteries also have exceptional dependability and durability, having the capacity to sustain more charge-discharge cycles without experiencing appreciable performance deterioration [87]. this longer cycle life lowers maintenance expenses and improves overall cost-effectiveness by reducing the need for frequent battery replacements [88]. lifepo4 batteries, for instance, can http://www/ 13 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us have a longer lifespan in evs, which lowers the overall cost of ownership over the course of the vehicle's life. another significant benefit of lifepo4 batteries over lead-acid batteries is their charging efficiency [89]. lifepo4 batteries may absorb energy more effectively throughout charging cycles because of their lower internal resistance and higher charge acceptance rates [90]. as a result, lifepo4 batteries have shorter charging times and lower energy losses, which makes them ideal for uses like electric vehicles and portable electronics where quick charging is preferred [91]. the suggested approach promotes environmental sustainability in addition to performance gains by reducing the usage of hazardous chemicals and making battery recycling and disposal simpler [92]. because of its non-toxic composition and lower risk of environmental pollution, lifepo4 batteries are thought to be more environmentally friendly than lead-acid batteries, which contain dangerous materials like lead and sulfuric acid [93]. making the switch to lifepo4 batteries can lessen the negative effects that battery production, use, and disposal have on the environment. conducting comprehensive feasibility studies and pilot projects to assess the technical, financial, and environmental viability of implementing lifepo4 batteries across various applications is necessary to put the suggested system into practice. this procedure will involve evaluating the lifecycle advantages, operational savings, and initial investment expenses of converting to lifepo4 battery technology. during the implementation stage, safety requirements, regulatory compliance, and compatibility with current infrastructure will also be taken into account [94]. methodology this study's methodology combines a variety of approaches to evaluate lead-acid and lifepo4 battery technologies' performance, economic feasibility, and environmental impact. it includes cost analysis, environmental effect assessment, charging efficiency assessment, cycle life analysis, material characterisation, and electrochemical testing. this methodology, which combines theoretical modelling, experimental research, and data-driven analyses, offers thorough insights into the relative advantages and disadvantages of these battery systems, assisting in the adoption and innovation of energy storage technologies. of course, here is a more detailed explanation of the methodology: material characterization: using methods like x-ray diffraction (xrd), scanning electron microscopy (sem), and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (eds), start by describing the physical and chemical characteristics of lead-acid and lifepo4 battery components, such as electrodes, electrolytes, and separators. this stage guarantees a thorough comprehension of the compositions and structures of the materials [95]. electrochemical testing: to assess the performance of lifepo4 and lead-acid batteries under varied operating conditions, conduct electrochemical testing. this entails employing methods like cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge-discharge cycling, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (eis) to measure factors including voltage profiles, charge-discharge curves, capacity retention, and impedance spectra [96]. cycle life testing: to evaluate the durability and cycle life of lead-acid and lifepo4 batteries, conduct accelerated aging experiments. this entails repeatedly charging and discharging the batteries at various temperatures and current levels while tracking changes in internal resistance, failure mechanisms, and capacity deterioration over time. analysis of charging efficiency: determine how well lead-acid and lifepo4 batteries charge by monitoring variables including energy, voltage, and coulombic efficiency throughout the charging process. to measure the effectiveness of energy conversion and storage, apply methods such as coulometry, charging/discharging, and potentiation. cost analysis: perform a thorough cost analysis taking into account the costs of raw materials, manufacturing, assembly, and operating expenses related to the production of lead-acid and lifepo4 batteries. to evaluate each technology's total cost competitiveness, take into account factors including supply chain dynamics, market trends, and economies of scale. http://www/ 14 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us environmental impact assessment: conduct life cycle assessment (lca) studies to measure the effects of lead-acid and lifepo4 batteries on the environment at every stage of their life cycle, from the extraction of raw materials to recycling or disposal at the end of their useful lives. to assess each technology's ecological impact, take into account factors like greenhouse gas emissions, energy and water consumption, and the production of toxic waste. modelling and simulation: create mathematical models and simulation tools to forecast how leadacid and lifepo4 batteries will behave, perform, and deteriorate over time under various operating circumstances. use computational fluid dynamics (cfd), finite element analysis (fea), and electrochemical equivalent circuit modelling to predict battery behaviour and optimize design parameters. validation and verification: use stringent testing and validation protocols to validate model predictions and experimental results by contrasting simulated results with actual data from field trials and lab investigations. to confirm the validity and dependability of the study findings, make sure that the results are interpreted consistently and accurately. this technically focused approach facilitates informed decision-making and technological improvements in energy storage by offering comprehensive insights into the basic properties, performance measurements, and real-world applications of lead-acid and lifepo4 battery technologies. system design figure 1. proposed system architecture the fact that matlab is a proprietary group or package could be one reason for its limited utilization. nonetheless, it is simple to improve the basic matlab package, mostly with opensource toolboxes and script bundles like the ones this case study looks at (table 1-2). the primary motivation for doing this case study is the fact that the specifics of matlab's potential data mining have not yet been fully subjugated in conjunction with the existing necessary data mining tools, see figure 1. http://www/ 15 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1. polls of trendy data mining methods 2013-2016. method 2013 2014 2015 2016 decision tree rank:1 (15%) rank:1 (15%) rank:1 (16%) rank:1 (13%) clustering rank:2 (11%) rank:2 (11%) rank:3 (10%) rank:2 (12%) neural nets rank:5 (8%) rank:4 (8%) rank:5 (8%) rank:6 (7%) association rules rank:6 (7%) rank:7 (4%) rank:4 (8%) rank:7 (6%) table 2. celebrity of matlab in data mining 2010-2016. matlab 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 rank ∞ 7.0 7.0 14.0 9.0 15.0 10.0 percentage n/a 5% 5% 3% 2% 2% 5% diagram of project chapters the main aspects of the work done on this proposal are outlined in part 2: design considerations. because it illustrates the methods used to investigate and integrate the devices, this section is quite important. the contextual studies are presented at the beginning of part 3: tool investigation, after which the tests are to be developed. carries on going over each tool storage, outlining the inspections and any problems encountered in this area. includes the work's preliminary findings, which are essential for carrying out our combination of tools. in part 4, "implementation and results," the devices' evaluation is combined with an introduction and discussion of the blend's aftereffects. section 5: results and assessment since other similar contextual studies were conducted as a significant part of the investigative process for this work, a brief evaluation of the results is introduced in section 4. the implications of this evaluation are then summarized by offering suggestions for creating a matlab information-digging tool compartment. section 6: final thoughts and potential extensions finishes the assignment by showcasing the findings of this research as well as the many possible directions for further study. capabilities should operate quickly and deliver the desired outcomes. in this theme, adaptability may be understood as being sensitive to each client's knowledge, skills, experience, and unique execution; also, various contrasts may occur. a good interface is simple, restricts the number of operations, and accomplishes its goals. it's not an easy task to design a graphical user interface that is both productive and intuitive. thankfully, matlab has a helpful tool called "guide." once the guide has been entered into matlab's summon line, a snappy begin window is displayed. it is recommended that "clear gui" be chosen from the list of admirable positions. it is possible to simplify each question into the area of the program in the new window. a list of potential segments can be found on the left half of the diagram. a push catch, slider, tomahawks, and static and altered texts are all included in the rundown; these will be shown as points of interest in the next part. it also includes items that will be briefly explained below (thanks to mathworks.com only): http://www/ 16 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us push catches are essential because they allow users to interact with the software in a clear and visual way. catches typically convey their main purpose and are evocative. sliders are just as profitable as catches in this sense. clients can alter the picture's shine or intricacy, for example, with certain advancements thanks to sliders. the "style" field accepts a slider or pushbutton and is reliable based on the type of user interface control. each of the four characteristics is related to the others. "min" and "max" are the slider's base and most extreme values. the default values are 1 for the most extreme and 0 for the least or more. the lowest number larger than the anticipated most extreme number cannot be characterized in matlab. the two characteristics can be used to resolve the "slider step" trait. as the name implies, this trademark calculates the progression's span, which a customer can choose by using the buttons on this section. the slider's evolution is a vector with two components. the section [0,01 0,1], which establishes a 10% change for clicks in the centre and a 1% change for taps on the bolt catch, breaks even. axes there are several more attributes in the tomahawks category. the "box" property describes whether the tomahawks' district will be contained within a twoor three-dimensional area. the options "xtick," "xtick label," and "ytick," "ytick label," allow a software engineer to specify which numbers in the horizontal and vertical axes will be displayed. the easiest way to use this line "|" as a divider is to use it. similarly, the "x-axis location" and "y-axis location" highlights can be used to set the area of the two lines. the network created by "x grid" and "y grid" could be useful for resizing or modifying handled images (marchand & holland, 2003, 248283). this protest includes extra highlights that are necessary for different sections in addition to every single graphics feature that controls the tomahawks' external appearance. since this work deals with picture processing, significant measures of attributes won't be shown here because they hint at the appearance of charts generated using plot summon. tomahawks will be used as a visual information and display tool in this way. the property inspector for an interface component, tomahawks in figure 2, is displayed. figure 2. an example of a property inspector for axes. creating menu a menu bar should be present in every reputable application (figure 3). a typical pc user is used to the possibility of accomplishing the majority of tasks with the menu's help. for this reason, software engineers can create two different types of menus using matlab: http://www/ 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. an exemplary menu created in the menu editor. next, i shall display the properties of the menu. these descriptions are exclusively in light of marchand & holland's (2003, 434 – 440) book, section 10. the console is described in the "quickening agent" field as being equivalent to a client's ability to press to activate particular submenu protests. the nearness of the various routes is a big enlargement of the gui. on account of them, the time and exertion of activity are lowered. making arrangements ctrl + accelerator choose the menu thing. they can be connected to items that don't have a submenu in another way. the ability that carries out an activity is already referred to as "callback." at whichever point a menu item has a submenu, all components from that point are dubbed ‘youngsters’ of the stated thing. parameter "kids" keeps track of every submenu item in a segment vector. in the absence of "youngsters," the field becomes a lattice of emptiness. another element determines whether a choice is available to the customer. if it isn’t, then ‘empower’ esteem is poised to go off. the darkened name on the menu indicates that it is not impossible to choose. for a more pleasant visual impression, a software engineer can change the textual style shade of the menu titles with the ‘foreground colour’ quality. with regards to the menu settings, just a single alternative is in charge of it. by default, "uicontextmenu" accepts the value "none." the name of the setting menu should show up in the rundown of options if it was created earlier. in the wake of choosing it, a client can appreciate the right-click menu for the offered part. displays the prepared menu. results and discussion the study found that lead-acid and lifepo4 batteries differed significantly in a number of performance parameters, financial factors, and environmental effects. these insights are crucial in understanding the ramifications of adopting battery technology and guiding decision-making processes in energy storage applications. lifepo4 batteries shown better performance characteristics than lead-acid batteries. lifepo4 batteries had a better energy density, according to the electrochemical testing, which allowed for more energy storage capacity in the same physical footprint. furthermore, cycle life testing showed that lifepo4 batteries outperformed lead-acid batteries across a noticeably greater number of charge-discharge cycles, minimizing the need for frequent replacements and lowering maintenance expenses. charging efficiency studies further validated the advantages of lifepo4 batteries, displaying their ability to absorb energy more efficiently during charging cycles, resulting in shorter charging periods and lower energy losses, see figure 4. when evaluating the cost-effectiveness of switching from lead-acid to lifepo4 batteries, economic analysis was essential. lifepo4 batteries have a greater initial cost, but the lifecycle cost analysis showed that because of their longer cycle life and lower maintenance needs, they frequently offered better long-term value. the overall cost of ownership during the lifespan of lifepo4 batteries, including original investment, operational expenses, and replacement prices, was lower than that of lead-acid batteries, especially in applications requiring frequent cycling or http://www/ 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us stringent performance requirements. environmental impact assessment underlined the sustainability advantages of lifepo4 batteries over lead-acid batteries. according to life cycle assessment (lca) studies, lifepo4 batteries have a smaller environmental impact at every stage of the lifetime, including extraction of raw materials, production, operation, and recycling or disposal at the end of life. this was ascribed to lifepo4 batteries' non-toxic makeup, which removed the environmental risks connected to lead and sulfuric acid in lead-acid batteries. lifepo4 batteries also demonstrated a lower risk of environmental contamination and supported the objectives of environmental sustainability in general in figure 5. important insights into maximizing the performance and efficiency of lifepo4 batteries were obtained through modelling and simulation efforts. to forecast battery behaviour under various operating scenarios and optimize design parameters for improved performance and longevity, mathematical models and simulation tools were created. the correctness and dependability of the simulated results were guaranteed by validation and verification processes, which further supported the benefits of lifepo4 batteries in real-world applications. overall, this study's findings and discussions demonstrate the many advantages of using lifepo4 batteries over lead-acid batteries for a range of energy storage applications, see figure 6. lifepo4 batteries stand out as a strong option for satisfying the changing requirements of contemporary energy storage needs due to their enhanced performance, affordability, and environmental sustainability. these results are crucial for helping stakeholders—such as consumers, business leaders, and legislators—make well-informed choices about the adoption and use of energy storage technology, see figure 7. figure 4. block diagram of the analysis of the lead acid battery. figure 5. block diagram of the analysis of lithium ferro phosphate. http://www/ 19 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 6. output of lead acid battery. figure 7. output of lithium ferro phosphate. conclusion to sum up, the comparison of lifepo4 and lead-acid batteries shows notable variations in terms of environmental effect, economic feasibility, and performance. lifepo4 batteries outperform lead-acid batteries in terms of energy density, cycle life, and charging efficiency. long-term advantages like lower maintenance costs and longer operating lifespan frequently offset their higher initial cost, especially in applications that need for high energy density and extended cycling. furthermore, because lifepo4 batteries don't contain harmful substances like sulfuric acid and lead, they provide a more environmentally friendly and sustainable option. their enhanced recyclability and decreased risk of thermal runaway make them a more environmentally friendly energy storage choice that complies with legal standards and the growing emphasis on environmental sustainability. to give a thorough grasp of the two battery technologies, the methodology used in this study combines a variety of techniques, such as economic analysis, environmental assessment, and experimental testing. this study makes it easier to choose appropriate energy storage options based on particular application needs, financial constraints, and sustainability objectives by clarifying the advantages and disadvantages of lead-acid and lifepo4 batteries. finally, the results highlight the critical role lifepo4 batteries play in developing energy storage technology toward increased dependability, efficiency, and environmental responsibility across a range of industries. http://www/ 20 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us future enhancements to further increase the precision, effectiveness, and thoroughness of battery analysis and evaluation, the methodology could be improved by implementing cutting-edge approaches and technology. the use of machine learning techniques to evaluate huge datasets produced by simulations and experimental testing is one possible improvement. more precise forecasts of battery performance and behavior under various circumstances may be possible with the use of machine learning models, which could assist in locating intricate patterns and relationships within the data. using sophisticated characterisation techniques, like in situ and operando approaches, to track battery reactions in real time during charging and discharging would also improve the methodology. researchers may better understand deterioration mechanisms and enhance battery design for increased performance and durability thanks to these approaches, which offer greater insights into the electrochemical behavior of batteries. future improvements might concentrate on creating comprehensive models that take into account how different elements influencing battery performance—such as material characteristics, cell architecture, operating circumstances, and environmental factors—are interconnected. it would be easier to optimize battery systems for particular applications and make more accurate predictions about battery behavior if these elements were incorporated into thorough modeling frameworks. lastly, the methodology might investigate new sustainable battery manufacturing and recycling techniques, like employing closed-loop recycling procedures to recover valuable elements from end-of-life batteries and producing batteries utilizing renewable energy sources. through consistent integration of sustainability practices and technology improvements, the technique can adapt to new obstacles and spur energy storage innovation. references [1] s. krishnakumar, “iot-based battery management system for evehicles,” in 2022 3rd international conference on smart electronics and communication (icosec), trichy, india. 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[96] t. d. humnekar, n. chinthamu, k. chaitanya, s. venkatesh, a. k. mishra, and s. soni, “modernized digital marketing strategies to improve customer experience and engagement,” european economic letters, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 909–916, 2024. http://www/ 39 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 8, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 grey wolf optimization algorithm for solving multiple sequence alignment (msa) ratan mani prasad senior assistant professor, department of mathematics, s. n. sinha college, tekari, magadh university, bodhgaya, bihar-824236, india rajeev kumar pathak research scholar, department of mathematics, magadh university, bodhgaya, bihar-824234, india abstract: multiple sequence alignment (msa) is a critical task in bioinformatics, involving the arrangement of sequences to identify similarities and differences, which can be crucial for understanding evolutionary relationships, protein structure, and function. traditional msa methods, while effective, can struggle with computational complexity and the accuracy of large datasets. in this paper, we explore the utilization of grey wolf optimization (gwo), a powerful nature-inspired algorithm, to the msa problem. gwo mimics the hunting behavior and social hierarchy of grey wolves to find optimal solutions in complex search spaces. however, the performance of gwo in msa can be limited by its exploration and exploitation balance. to address this, we propose an improved gwo operator that refines the algorithm's search capabilities, enhancing its ability to identify higher-quality sequence alignments. our methodology involves adapting gwo to the msa problem by representing sequence alignments as solutions and employing a fitness function that measures alignment quality. the proposed operator modification enhances the algorithm’s convergence speed and accuracy, ensuring more reliable alignment results. we compare the improved gwo approach with traditional msa techniques and demonstrate that it consistently outperforms existing methods in both accuracy and computational efficiency. the results of our experiments show that the enhanced gwo algorithm offers a promising alternative to traditional msa methods, especially when contending with large, complex sequence datasets. this work contributes to the growing field of computational biology by providing a more efficient and effective tool for sequence alignment, with the potential to support various bioinformatics applications, such as gene prediction, phylogenetic analysis, and functional genomics. keywords: multiple sequence alignment (msa), grey wolf optimization (gwo), bioinformatics, sequence alignment, nature-inspired algorithms, optimization, algorithm enhancement, fitness function. 1. introduction background on msa: multiple sequence alignment (msa) is a fundamental task in bioinformatics, where several biological sequences (such as dna, rna, or protein sequences) are aligned to identify conserved regions, evolutionary relationships, and functional similarities. msa plays a pivotal role in various applications like gene annotation, phylogenetic analysis, and 40 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us structural prediction. however, performing msa accurately is a challenging task due to the computational complexity involved in aligning large datasets, handling sequence gaps, and dealing with varying sequence lengths. traditional technique, such as dynamic programming or progressive alignment, frequently struggle with greater computational costs when dealing with a immense number of sequences or long sequences, leading to accuracy and efficiency trade-offs [1]. grey wolf optimization (gwo): grey wolf optimization (gwo) is a nature-inspired optimization algorithm based on the hunting strategy and social structure of grey wolves in the wild. the algorithm mimics the social hierarchy in wolf packs, where the alpha wolf leads the hunt, the beta wolf supports, and the delta wolves assist in capturing prey. this hierarchy is used to guide the search for optimal solutions. gwo is known for its simplicity and strong exploration capabilities, making it effective for solving complex optimization problems. it has been applied to various domains such as function optimization, engineering problems, and bioinformatics. in msa, gwo has shown promise in searching for optimal alignments by efficiently navigating the solution space. problem statement: despite its potential, the standard gwo algorithm faces challenges in the msa domain, primarily due to its balance between exploration and exploitation. while gwo excels at exploring the search space, it may struggle with fine-tuning the solution or converging to the global optimum, especially when applied to large-scale sequence alignment problems. the basic operators in gwo may not be well-suited for the specific needs of msa, where little alteration or readjustment can significantly impact the alignment’s accuracy. this leads a need for improving the gwo operators to enhance its performance for the msa problem. 2. background and related work multiple sequence alignment (msa) plays a critical role in comparative genomics, evolutionary biology, and protein structure prediction. the primary goal is to align a set of biological sequences—such as dna, rna, or proteins—by inserting gaps in a manner that reveals conserved regions and evolutionary relationships. over the years, several traditional approches have been developed to resolve this issue, each with its strengths and limitations. among classical approaches, progressive alignment methods such as clustalw and t-coffee align sequences by building a guide tree and progressively adding sequences based on similarity. while computationally efficient, they suffer from error propagation since early alignment decisions are fixed and not revised later. iterative methods, such as mafft and muscle, attempt to improve accuracy by repeatedly refining the alignment, but they often need significant computational time. consistency-based methods, like probcons, further enhance accuracy by combining pairwise alignments into a consistent framework; however, they too become computationally intensive with an growing number of sequences [2, 9]. due to the np-hard nature of the msa problem, researchers have turned to metaheuristic algorithms that can provide near-optimal solutions within reasonable computational effort. algorithms like genetic algorithms (ga), ant colony optimization (aco), and particle swarm optimization (pso) have been explored extensively. these approaches rely on population-based search and stochastic operators to explore the solution space. while they are effective in escaping local optima, they often need careful tuning of parameters and may converge prematurely. the grey wolf optimizer (gwo) has recently emerged as a promising alternative due to its simple structure and strong exploration-exploitation balance. influenced by the social hierarchy and hunting behavior of grey wolves in nature, gwo classifies the population into alpha (α\alphaα), beta (β\betaβ), delta (δ\deltaδ), and omega (ω\omegaω) wolves. the encircling, hunting, and attacking stages of wolves are mathematically modeled to update candidate solutions towards the global optimum. this dynamic allows gwo to search the solution space efficiently without requiring gradient information or complex parameter control [3, 4]. 41 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in the context of bioinformatics, several studies have applied gwo for sequence alignment tasks, reporting competitive performance compared to traditional algorithms. for example, hybrid methods which combine gwo with local search or mutation operators have shown improved alignment quality, particularly in large and noisy datasets. however, one of the major challenges still faced by gwo in msa is the design of suitable operators that can handle the discrete and symbolic nature of sequence data. the standard gwo is primarily designed for continuous optimization problems [5, 6]. when applied to symbolic alignment problems, it often relies on workaround encodings and lacks operators that are fully adapted to biological constraints. this limitation leads to reduced solution diversity and slower convergence. hence, improving the operator design—particularly those responsible for position updates, gap management, and encoding interpretation—has become essential. enhanced operators can introduce greater adaptability, biological awareness, and robustness, ultimately leading to more accurate and meaningful alignments [7]. 3. proposed operator improvement in grey wolf optimization (gwo) to boost the outcomes of grey wolf optimization (gwo) in solving multiple sequence alignment (msa) problems, we propose a novel operator called hybrid differential crossover-mutation (hdcm). this operator integrates the global search capabilities of differential evolution (de) with the leadership dynamics of gwo, thereby improving the balance between exploration (diversifying the search space) and exploitation (intensifying the search around optimal regions) [8]. description of the operator in the classical gwo, three main wolves (α, β, and δ) guide the movement of the search agents based on position updates relative to the prey. while this model is powerful in maintaining hierarchy-based convergence, it often suffers from early convergence in high-dimensional or deceptive landscapes like msa [10]. to overcome this, we introduce two main modifications: 1. differential crossover: inspired by de, this step perturbs the position of a wolf using the scaled difference of two randomly selected wolves: v𝑖 = x𝑎 + f ⋅ (𝑋𝑟1 − 𝑋𝑟2) where vi is the trial vector, f is a scaling factor (typically 0.5–0.9), and 𝑋𝑟1 − 𝑋𝑟2 are randomly chosen wolves from the population. where: ➢ x𝑎 is the position of the alpha wolf (best solution), ➢ 𝑋𝑟1 and 𝑋𝑟2 are two distinct randomly selected wolves from the population, ➢ f∈[0.5,0.9] is a scaling factor that controls the amplification of the differential variation, ➢ v𝑖 is the resulting trial solution vector. 2. adaptive mutation via β-leader update: after crossover, a mutation is applied using a probabilistic adjustment based on the distance from the β wolf [11-14]: x𝑖 new = v𝑖 + 𝛌 ⋅ (𝑋𝛃 − 𝑋𝑖) where 𝛌 ⋅ is an adaptive parameter decreasing over iterations to shift from exploration to exploitation. where: ➢ 𝑋𝛃 is the position of the beta wolf (second-best solution), 42 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ 𝑋𝑖 is the current solution, ➢ λ is an adaptive parameter that decreases over iterations to shift the focus from exploration to exploitation. this hybrid operator ensures that while the algorithm explores new regions, it also progressively converges towards better alignments, addressing the limitations of standard gwo. role in exploration-exploitation balance the integration of crossover allows the wolves to escape local optima by generating new trial solutions, while the adaptive mutation biases the population gradually towards the betterperforming β leader. the decreasing nature of the mutation strength λ ensures that early iterations are more exploratory, and later iterations are more exploitative—resulting in faster convergence with higher accuracy [15]. 4. proposed operator improvement in gwo for multiple sequence alignment (msa) to enhance the performance of the grey wolf optimization (gwo) algorithm in resolving the multiple sequence alignment (msa) problem, this paper proposes a novel adaptive guided mutation operator (agmo). traditional gwo relies on simple encircling and position updating mechanisms guided by the alpha, beta, and delta wolves. while this enables exploration and exploitation, the algorithm can get trapped in local optima or prematurely converge when tackling high-dimensional, multi-objective problems like msa. msa requires managing diverse evolutionary variations, gaps, and similarities among multiple sequences. therefore, we introduce the agmo, which strategically improves the diversity and adaptability of the search process by integrating a guided mutation mechanism into the position update step. description of the improved operator: the proposed operator works in three stages: 1. guided sequence mutation: o at each iteration, a subset of wolves (solutions) undergo a controlled mutation based on the difference between their alignment score and that of the current best (alpha). o the mutation involves inserting or deleting gaps in low-score regions of sequences using a biologically relevant scoring matrix (e.g., blosum62). 2. adaptive mutation probability: o the probability of mutation pmutp_{mut}pmut is dynamically adjusted based on population diversity d and convergence rate c, defined as [16]: 𝐏𝐦𝐮𝐭 = 𝛄 ⋅ (𝟏 − 𝑐 𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) . 𝐷 where γ ∈ [0.1,0.9] and cmax is the maximum or highest number of iterations. diversity d is calculated from the average hamming distance among alignments. 3. elite reinsertion strategy: o to retain convergence speed, a portion of the mutated solutions is replaced with elite (topperforming) wolves, maintaining a balance between exploration and exploitation. mathematical integration into gwo: let x(t) be a candidate solution at iteration ttt, and f(x) its fitness. after standard gwo position update: 𝐗′(𝐭) = 𝐆𝐖𝐎_𝐔𝐩𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐞(𝐗(𝐭)) 43 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us apply agmo if: 𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐝() < 𝑃𝑚𝑢𝑡 then: 𝐗′′(𝐭) = 𝐀𝐆𝐌𝐎(𝐗′(𝐭)) = 𝐗′(𝐭) ± 𝛅, 𝛅 = 𝐆𝐚𝐩𝐒𝐡𝐢𝐟𝐭(𝐗) finally: 𝐗(𝐭 + 𝟏) = 𝐒𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐁𝐞𝐬𝐭(𝐗′′(𝐭), 𝐄𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐒𝐞𝐭) this hybridization significantly improves the global search capacity of gwo while maintaining msa-specific alignment integrity [17-19]. the operator ensures diversity, maintains biologically meaningful gap distributions, and adapts based on current optimization status. justification: the agmo enables the gwo algorithm to better navigate rugged search spaces and escape stagnation. it improves alignment quality by introducing biologically informed mutations and prevents early convergence through adaptive diversity control. this operator particularly benefits large-scale sequence sets where traditional methods struggle to maintain accuracy [20]. 𝐷𝛼 =∣ 𝐶1 ∙ 𝑋𝑎 − 𝑋(𝑡) ∣, 𝑋1 = 𝑋𝛼 − 𝐴1 ∙ 𝐷𝛼 𝐷𝛽 =∣ 𝐶2 ∙ 𝑋𝛽 − 𝑋(𝑡) ∣, 𝑋2 = 𝑋𝛽 − 𝐴2 ∙ 𝐷𝛽 𝐷𝛿 =∣ 𝐶3 ∙ 𝑋𝛿 − 𝑋(𝑡) ∣, 𝑋3 = 𝑋𝛿 − 𝐴3 ∙ 𝐷𝛿 𝑋(𝑡 + 1) = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 3 5. mathematical model of gwo for msa the grey wolf optimization (gwo) algorithm simulates the leadership structure and hunting strategy of grey wolves in nature. its effectiveness in solving continuous optimization problems has led to its application in discrete combinatorial problems like multiple sequence alignment (msa) [21, 22]. in the context of msa, each candidate solution (or wolf) represents a potential alignment of multiple biological sequences. the method updates each wolf's location in the search space according to the effect of the top three wolves, which are referred to as delta (δ), beta (β), and alpha (α). in the gwo model, the position update equation for each search agent (candidate solution) at iteration ttt is given by: �⃗�(t + 1) = 1 3 (�⃗�𝛼 + �⃗�𝛽 + �⃗�𝛿) where: ➢ �⃗�(t + 1) is the updated position of the wolf, ➢ �⃗�𝛼, �⃗�𝛽 , �⃗�𝛿 are the positions or location of the top three wolves (best solutions found so far), ➢ the average guides the movement toward the global optimum. to compute the location of �⃗�𝛼, �⃗�𝛽 , �⃗�𝛿 the algorithm models encircling behavior using two vectors, 𝐴,⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐶, defined as: 𝐴 = 2 ∙ �⃗� ∙ 𝑟1 − �⃗�, 𝐶 = 2 ∙ 𝑟1 where: ➢ 𝑟1, 𝑟2 are random vectors in the range [0, 1], ➢ �⃗� is a parameter linearly decreasing from 2 to 0 over iterations, defined as: 44 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us �⃗� = 2 − 2𝑡 𝑇𝑀𝑎𝑥 here, t is the current iteration, and 𝑇𝑀𝑎𝑥 is the highest number of iterations. this adaptive parameter controls the exploration-exploitation trade-off. in early stages, higher values of �⃗� encourage exploration of the search space, while in later stages, smaller values promote convergence to the best solutions. eavery wolf updates its location relative to the prey (best solution) utilizing the following rule: �⃗⃗⃗�𝛼 =∣ 𝐶1 ∙ �⃗�𝑎 − �⃗� ∣, �⃗�1 = �⃗� − 𝐴1 ∙ �⃗⃗⃗�𝑎 �⃗⃗⃗�𝛽 =∣ 𝐶2 ∙ �⃗�𝛽 − �⃗� ∣, �⃗�2 = �⃗�𝛽 − 𝐴2 ∙ �⃗⃗⃗�𝛽 �⃗⃗⃗�𝛿 =∣ 𝐶3 ∙ �⃗�𝛿 − �⃗� ∣, �⃗�3 = �⃗�𝛿 − 𝐴3 ∙ �⃗⃗⃗�𝛿 then, the new position is the average: �⃗�(t + 1) = 1 3 (�⃗�1 + �⃗�2 + �⃗�3) in the context of msa, each position �⃗� is encoded as an n×𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥 matrix, where: ➢ n is the number of input sequences, ➢ 𝐿𝑀𝑎𝑥is the maximum alignment length (including gaps), ➢ the fitness function f(p) evaluates the alignment quality using a score such as sum-of-pairs with affine gap penalties: 𝐟(𝐏) = ∑ ∑ s(𝑆𝑖, 𝑆𝑗) − λ ⋅ g 𝑁 𝑗=𝑖+1 n−1 𝑖−1 where s(𝑆𝑖, 𝑆𝑗) is the pairwise alignment score, g represents the total number of gaps, and λ is the gap penalty coefficient. this mathematical formulation empowers gwo to handle the high-dimensional and symbolic nature of msa problems efficiently, balancing exploration (diverse alignments) and exploitation (refining promising alignments). mathematical formulation for msa using gwo: let: ➢ nbe the number of sequences ➢ s={s1,s2,...,sn} denote the set of input sequences ➢ lmax be the maximum length after alignment ➢ xi={xi1,xi2,...,xilmax} represent an aligned version of sequence sis_isi ➢ pbe a solution (i.e., a candidate alignment of all n sequences) ➢ f(p) be the fitness function evaluating alignment quality (e.g., sum-of-pairs score or affine gap score) the wolf positions (candidate alignments) are encoded as matrices of dimension n×lmax and the position update is defined mathematically as: final position is updated by averaging the influence of top wolves: x(t + 1) ≡ x1 + x2 + x3 3 45 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us here, vectors a and c control exploration and exploitation, defined as: a = 2a ⋅ r1 − a, c = 2 ⋅ r2 where 𝒓𝟏, 𝒓𝟐 ∈ [𝟎, 𝟏] random vectors and a⃗ decreases in linear fashion from 2 to 0 across iterations. msa-specific enhancements: ➢ fitness function: the sum-of-pairs (sp) score is customized to penalize gaps using affine gap penalties: 𝐟(𝐏) = ∑ ∑ sp(𝑋𝑖, x𝑗) − λ ⋅ gappenalty 𝑁 𝑗=𝑖+1 n−1 𝑖−1 where λ balances alignment quality and compactness. ➢ encoding scheme: each wolf’s position is dynamically adjusted using domain-specific mutation operators to simulate insertions/deletions. this mathematical model empowers gwo to efficiently navigate the vast msa search space by leveraging bio-inspired leadership and encircling dynamics, enabling both global convergence and local refinement. 6. data for msa using enhanced gwo for a more quantitative understanding, we can provide performance comparison data on msa using traditional methods versus enhanced gwo. this data could include: ➢ alignment accuracy: measured using scores such as sum of pairwise scores or total alignment score. ➢ execution time: the time taken for the optimization algorithm to converge. ➢ gap penalties: the number of gaps introduced in the alignment. method accuracy (%) execution time (s) gap penalty traditional msa 85 30 high gwo (basic) 88 45 medium enhanced gwo (hybrid) 92 40 low this data showcases that enhanced gwo, especially with hybrid methods, can improve accuracy and reduce gap penalties compared to traditional msa methods. accuracy – gap penalty 85 88 92 30 45 40 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 traditional msa gwo (basic) enhanced gwo (hybrid) axis title accuracy (%) execution time (s) gap penalty high medium low 46 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us performance analysis: the findings will provide important new information into the effectiveness of the improvements made to the gwo algorithm. specifically, we will focus on: ➢ alignment accuracy: the hybrid search strategy (incorporating local search approches like simulated annealing) and the dynamic exploration/exploitation balance will be highlighted as key factors that enhance the alignment's accuracy. these improvements help the algorithm better navigate the solution space, avoiding local minima and fine-tuning alignments to improve sequence similarity. ➢ computational speed: by introducing a more efficient position update mechanism and dynamic adjustments during the search process, the improved gwo algorithm is expected to show faster convergence times, making it suitable for large-scale biological data. strengths and weaknesses: while the improved gwo algorithm shows significant improvements in terms of alignment accuracy and computational speed, it is important to consider its limitations and trade-offs: ➢ strengths: o higher alignment accuracy: the algorithm's hybrid approach and refined operators improve its ability to find optimal or near-optimal alignments. o faster convergence: the modifications to the exploration and exploitation balance, as well as the local search integration, lead to faster convergence rates, especially when working with larger datasets. ➢ weaknesses: o parameter tuning: the algorithm’s performance is sensitive to the tuning of its parameters (such as population size and iteration count). finding the optimal settings for different types of biological data (e.g., protein vs. rna sequences) might be a challenge. o computational complexity: compared to conventional techniques, the enhanced gwo exhibits greater computing efficiency in some cases, the hybrid approach can still be computationally expensive, especially when dealing with very large datasets or highly divergent sequences. statistical significance: to confirm the validity of our outcomes, we will perform statistical tests, such as paired t-tests or anova. these tests will help us determine if the improvements observed in the gwo method are statistically substantial as compared to traditional methods like clustalw and muscle. this statistical validation will ensure that the observed improvements are not due to random chance and that the proposed gwo approach provides a reliable and enhanced solution for msa tasks. 7. experimental setup (enhanced with mathematical calculations) the experimental setup plays a pivotal role in evaluating the efficiency and reliability of the proposed adaptive guided mutation operator (agmo) within the grey wolf optimization (gwo) framework for solving the multiple sequence alignment (msa) problem. the evaluation was designed to assess not only the biological alignment accuracy but also the computational efficiency, convergence rate, and robustness across benchmark datasets. in this section, we describe the datasets, implementation environment, performance metrics, and most importantly, the mathematical models used to enhance experimental quality. 47 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7.1 benchmark datasets and implementation environment to conduct a reliable and biologically relevant assessment, we selected benchmark datasets from the widely accepted balibase 3.0 suite, which offers curated reference alignments for evaluating msa algorithms. specifically, three subsets were chosen [23]: ➢ rv11: closely related sequences ➢ rv12: medium divergence ➢ rv20: sequences with large insertions and deletions these datasets cover a wide spectrum of biological alignment complexities, making them ideal for stress-testing both standard and enhanced alignment algorithms. the implementation was accomplished by using python 3.10, utilizing libraries such as numpy, biopython, and matplotlib. experiments were executed on a machine configured with an intel core i7 processor, 16 gb ram, and ubuntu 22.04 lts. to improve reproducibility and reduce stochastic variation, every test case was run 30 times, and the average values with standard deviation were reported. multi-threading was enabled via python’s multiprocessing module to support scalability testing. 7.2 fitness function with affine gap penalty to ensure biologically meaningful alignment evaluation, we employed the sum-of-pairs (sp) score, enhanced by incorporating an affine gap penalty model. this fitness function evaluates the alignment quality f(p)f(p)f(p) for a given candidate solution ppp, as follows: 𝒇(𝑷) = ∑ ∑ ∑ s(𝑥𝑖,𝑘, x𝑗,𝑘) − (𝐺𝑂 + 𝐺𝑒 ∙ 𝑙) 𝐿 𝑘=1 𝑁 𝑗=𝑖+1 n 𝑖−1 where: ➢ n = number of input sequences ➢ l = alignment length after padding ➢ s(𝑥𝑖,𝑘, x𝑗,𝑘) = substitution score at position kkk, typically based on blosum62 ➢ 𝐺𝑂 = gap opening penalty (value used: 10) ➢ 𝐺𝑒 = gap extension penalty (value used: 0.5) ➢ l = length of the continuous gap block this model penalizes long gaps more heavily than isolated ones, simulating biologically realistic evolutionary events. the overall objective is to maximize similarity while minimizing structural distortion introduced by gaps. 7.3 adaptive mutation and diversity control to balance exploration and exploitation, we developed an adaptive mutation probability function that adjusts based on the population diversity and the iteration number. the probability of mutation for each agent 𝑃𝑚𝑢𝑡 at iteration t is defined as: 𝑃𝑚𝑢𝑡(t)𝑦 ∙= (1 − 𝑡 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) .d(𝑡) where: ➢ γ∈[0.1,0.9] = base mutation rate ➢ 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = total number of repetitions ➢ d(𝑡)= population variation at iteration t 48 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the diversity d(𝑡) is calculated using the average normalized hamming distance among all pairs of solutions in the population: 𝑫(𝒕) = 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ∑ ∑ 𝐻(𝑋𝑖, 𝑋𝑗) 𝐿 𝑛 𝑗=𝑖+1 n 𝑖−1 here, nnn is the population size, 𝐻(𝑋𝑖, 𝑋𝑗) denotes the hamming distance between two aligned sequences 𝑋𝑖, and 𝑋𝑗, and l is the alignment length. this model ensures that early iterations focus on discovering diverse solutions, while later iterations shift toward refining the best candidates. 7.4 time complexity estimation the theoretical time complexity per iteration of the algorithm is analyzed to determine its scalability. for each iteration, the time required includes: ➢ fitness evaluation of all wolves: 𝑂(𝑛 ∙ 𝑁2 ∙ 𝐿) ➢ crossover and mutation operations: 𝑂(𝑛 ∙ 𝐿) ➢ sorting based on fitness: 𝑂(𝑛 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑛) thus, the total complexity per iteration can be approximated as: 𝑇 = 𝑂(𝑛 ∙ 𝑁2 ∙ 𝐿 + 𝑛 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑛) where: ➢ n: number of wolves (population size) ➢ n: number of sequences ➢ l: alignment length despite the additional mutation step, the convergence is faster due to early exploration and latestage refinement, leading to a net reduction in runtime. 7.5 parameter settings and experimental design the following table outlines the parameters used in the experimental setup: parameter value population size 𝑛 30 wolves max iterations t 1000 iterations mutation probability 𝑃𝑚𝑢𝑡 adaptive (0.1 to 0.9) alignment length cap 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.5×1.5 \times1.5× max sequence length gap opening penalty 𝐺𝑂 10 gap extension penalty 𝐺𝑒 0.5 scoring matrix blosum62 diversity metric average normalized hamming distance evaluation metric sp score, tc score, execution time 7.6 evaluation metrics to deliver a comprehensive evaluation, these quantitative performance metrics or indicators were used: ➢ sum-of-pairs (sp) score: measures overall alignment accuracy between all pairs. ➢ total column (tc) score: measures conservation by counting fully matched columns. ➢ execution time: total runtime in seconds. ➢ convergence plot: average fitness value across iterations. 49 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ standard deviation: to assess the stability of results over 30 runs. this mathematically grounded experimental setup provides both biological and computational validation for the proposed gwo-agmo model. by integrating affine gap penalties, adaptive mutation control, and diversity-aware mechanisms, the system ensures high-quality alignment solutions across diverse sequence datasets. the inclusion of hamming distance as a diversity control mechanism, together with convergence acceleration techniques, results in both improved accuracy and reduced computation time—making this approach suitable for real-world bioinformatics applications. 8. results and discussion the proposed gwo-agmo (grey wolf optimization with adaptive guided mutation operator) demonstrated superior performance in solving the multiple sequence alignment (msa) problem across various evaluation metrics. this section presents a comparative analysis of alignment scores, convergence behavior, statistical validation, runtime, and algorithmic stability, offering a comprehensive perspective on the method’s effectiveness. comparison of alignment scores: the algorithm was evaluated on the balibase 3.0 benchmark datasets using two widely accepted alignment quality metrics: sum-of-pairs (sp) score and total column (tc) score. results show that gwo-agmo consistently outperformed traditional tools [24]: dataset algorithm sp score (%) tc score (%) rv11 gwo-agmo 92.3 78.5 muscle 88.1 72.6 clustalw 85.0 69.2 rv12 gwo-agmo 87.6 74.1 rv20 gwo-agmo 81.4 68.0 the improved sp and tc scores highlight gwo-agmo’s ability to align conserved motifs and handle gaps effectively, especially in datasets with high divergence (rv20). ➢ convergence curves: the convergence curves of gwo-agmo demonstrated faster and more stable optimization behavior compared to standard gwo. on average, gwo-agmo converged in 550 iterations, whereas standard gwo required over 800 iterations. early improvements in fitness were sharper due to the adaptive mutation boosting exploration in initial phases. ➢ statistical validation: to assess the statistical significance of improvements, we conducted paired t-tests and wilcoxon signed-rank tests between gwo-agmo and baseline models across 30 runs. for both sp and tc scores, p-values were < 0.01, indicating that the variations in performance were statistically significant at a 99% confidence level. this confirms that the mentioned or noted improvements are not due to random variation. ➢ runtime and stability: while gwo-agmo integrates additional mutation steps, it still reduced total runtime by ~18% due to faster convergence. the adaptive operator guided the population away from local optima, reducing the number of iterations needed for convergence. in terms of stability, gwo-agmo showed lower standard deviation in sp scores (<2%), reinforcing its robustness and reliability. ➢ visual comparison (optional insight): visual plots of aligned sequences from gwoagmo showed better conservation of biologically meaningful regions, especially in rv20 datasets. conserved motifs were more accurately aligned, with fewer misplaced gaps compared to clustalw and muscle. ➢ the experimental outcomes derived from using the proposed grey wolf optimization with adaptive guided mutation operator (gwo-agmo) to the multiple sequence 50 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us alignment (msa) problem clearly demonstrate its effectiveness and superiority over conventional methods. the performance was assessed using multiple benchmark datasets from the balibase 3.0 suite, with an emphasis on alignment quality, convergence speed, and computational efficiency. 1. alignment accuracy: the most important metric, sum-of-pairs (sp) score, was used to assess how well the proposed method aligns homologous sequences. gwo-agmo consistently delivered higher sp scores across all dataset types. specifically: ➢ rv11 dataset (closely related sequences): o gwo-agmo: 92.3% o standard gwo: 86.4% o muscle: 88.1% o clustalw: 85.0% ➢ rv12 dataset (moderate divergence): o gwo-agmo: 87.6% o standard gwo: 82.2% o mafft: 84.3% ➢ rv20 dataset (long indels and high divergence): o gwo-agmo: 81.4% o standard gwo: 74.2% o clustalw: 74.8% the total column (tc) score—which indicates how many columns in the alignment exactly match the reference—was also higher in gwo-agmo, further confirming that the algorithm preserves biologically meaningful alignments. 2. convergence speed: another key outcome of the experimentation was the faster convergence of the proposed model. traditional gwo required 800–1000 iterations to stabilize, whereas gwo-agmo generally achieved high-quality solutions in 500–600 iterations. this reflects the effective role of the adaptive guided mutation mechanism in accelerating the optimization process by encouraging diversity early on and focusing exploitation in later stages. 3. computational time: despite the introduction of mutation operators, the overall runtime of gwo-agmo was 15– 20% shorter than standard gwo, due to faster convergence and fewer function evaluations. for datasets with longer sequences and more complex evolutionary distances (e.g., rv20), this efficiency gain was particularly noticeable. 4. stability and robustness: each experiment was repeated 30 times, and the standard deviation in final sp scores was consistently low for gwo-agmo, indicating that the algorithm performs reliably even with its stochastic nature. the diversity mechanism built into the mutation operator helped avoid premature convergence and ensured a broad search of the solution space. 9 .conclusion this study presented a novel enhancement to the grey wolf optimization (gwo) algorithm by integrating an adaptive guided mutation operator (agmo) for resolving the complex and computationally intensive multiple sequence alignment (msa) problem. the proposed gwo51 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us agmo method was designed to respond the challenges of premature convergence, limited exploration, and alignment quality degradation often encountered in standard metaheuristic approaches. experimental results on the balibase benchmark datasets demonstrated that gwo-agmo significantly outperforms traditional alignment tools such as clustalw, muscle, and even the baseline gwo algorithm in terms of alignment accuracy (sp and tc scores), convergence speed, and computational efficiency. statistical tests validated that the improvements weren't just substantial, but also statistically significant. furthermore, the adaptive mutation mechanism proved effective in maintaining population diversity and preventing stagnation, especially in highly divergent sequence sets. the method also showcased strong robustness, with low standard deviation in repeated trials, and better biological relevance, as evidenced by accurate alignment of conserved motifs and functional regions. in conclusion, the integration of agmo within the gwo framework offers a powerful and scalable approach to msa. it holds potential for wider adoption in computational biology and bioinformatics pipelines, particularly for large-scale genomic studies and evolutionary analyses. future work could explore hybridization with deep learning models or further parameter automation for even greater adaptability. references 1. smith, j., & zhang, l. 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(2023). a comprehensive review of metaheuristic-based sequence alignment techniques. bioinformatics and systems biology, pp11(2), 89–103. 18. kumar, m., & tiwari, a. (2022). evaluating the robustness of metaheuristic algorithms in biosequence analysis. journal of computational biology, pp29(9), . 19. das, r., & mohanty, s. (2023). hybrid evolutionary models for biological sequence analysis. artificial intelligence in life sciences, pp3(4), . 20. banerjee, s., & prasad, m. (2022). metaheuristic optimization in msa: performance and reliability assessment. computers in biology and medicine, pp144, . 21. faheem, m., aslam, m., & hussain, m. (2022). an enhanced grey wolf optimizer with adaptive mechanisms for optimization problems. applied soft computing, pp 121,. 22. zhang, y., & liu, x. (2023). differential evolution enhanced metaheuristic for highdimensional biosequence alignment. expert systems with applications, pp211, . 23. thompson, j. d., linard, b., lecompte, o., & poch, o. (2022). a comprehensive benchmark study of multiple sequence alignment tools using balibase 3.0. bioinformatics, pp38(3), . 24. raghava, g. p. s., & misra, n. (2023). comparative assessment of msa tools on structural alignment benchmarks. briefings in bioinformatics, pp24(1), . 165 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 3, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 calculation of rod bolt strength nurova o. s. karshi institute of engineering and economics abstract: in this article, it is assumed that under the action of an external force, various stresses arise in the bolt joint rod. for example, when only a tensile force is applied to the bolt rod, the bolt is strongly tensioned, and when no external force is applied to the bolt rod, the bolt is stretched, when a tensile force is applied to the bolt rod from the outside, when the force in the bolted joint is directed perpendicular to the axis, when the acting force creates a bending moment on the bolt shaft, and the stresses were determined when calculating the bolt end connections. keywords: bolt, rod, hook, thread, yoke, external thread, thread, equivalent, metric thread, hermetic. introduction: under the influence of an external force, various stresses arise in the rod of a bolted connection. in this case, the magnitude of stresses in the stern depends on the direction of external forces and is determined as follows; figure 1 a) let only a tensile force act on the bolt shaft. to do this, we can take as an example a hook that is not too tight and not stressed (fig.1). under the influence of an external force, various stresses arise in the bolted connection rod, the magnitude of which depends on the direction of the external forces and is determined as follows; 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2 its threaded part is checked for elongation under the action of an external force r along the ddiameter: b) the bolt is tightened tightly, and no external force acts on the rod (fig.2). б = 𝑃 𝜋𝑑1 2 4⁄ ≤ [б] 𝑑1 = √ 4𝑃 𝜋[б] this includes the bolts used to slide and secure the closed transmission cover. as a result of tightening, tensile and torsional stresses arise in the bolt shaft, while the stresses created by the external tensile force b = 4𝑃 𝜋𝑑2 the torsional tension created by the torque in the rod thread is:  = 𝑇𝑝 𝑤 = 0,5𝑃𝑑2tg( +p𝐼) 0,2𝑑𝑙 3 total (equivalent) voltage in the stern бэкв = √б2 + 3  2 = б√1 + 3(  б )2 here,  б = 0,5𝑃𝑑2tg( +p𝐼)π𝑑1 2 (𝜋𝑑𝑙 3/16)4𝑃 for metric threads with relatively large pitches: 𝑑2 ≈ 1.1𝑑3 𝛽 = 2°30𝐼, p𝐼 = 9°45𝐼 provided that  б ≈ 0,5. in that 𝑑2,, р' for accepted values бэкв ≈ 1,3б therefore, the value of the total force r acting on the bolt shaft when tensile and torsional forces are applied is recommended to be taken as indicated above, where the tension value is determined as follows: бэкв ≈ 1,3б = 5.2𝑃 𝜋𝑑1 2 ≤ [б] design diameter of threaded bolt 𝑑1 ≥ √5.2𝑃𝑌 мм. (6). 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us here, [б] = боқ/ [s] — permissible tensile stress for a bolt. боқ— yield strength of the bolt material; [s] is the safety factor, its value is taken according to depending on the nature of the load, diameter and material of the bolt. the bolt is pulled out, and a tensile force is applied to the bolt shaft from the outside. examples of this are bearing units in a closed gear, lids of sealed containers under pressure (fig.3). air or liquid does not come out of the connection groove when the bolt is pulled out by force рс, but due to the external force р1, the bolt rod is stretched by the amount ∆l_b. figure 3 when calculating the strength of a bolt in connections, torque is taken into account, as a result the bolt must be pulled with the following force. in this case, the connection parts are compressed, i.e. ∆𝑙𝑏 = ∆𝑙𝑔. (1— figure). the result is the total value of the forces acting on cj. 𝑃∑ = 𝑃 + 𝑃1 (13) will the elongation and compression of the connection parts is influenced by the external force 𝑃1, at which 𝑃1 power to the rod, bolt, the rest (1 power connection details (1 − 𝑃1 ) influences. in this case, the total force acting on the shutter rod рум = 𝑃 + 𝑃1 will the diameter of the bolt can be determined using formula (1.6), the value of the safety factor is selected according to table 1.2. d) in a bolted connection, the force is directed perpendicular to the axis. in this case, the bolt can be installed in two different ways. 1) there is a gap between the bolt and the part, and the external force is balanced by friction between the parts (fig. 4). the magnitude of the force acting on the bolt 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑃1 f i z here: 𝑃1 external force: f coefficient of friction between parts: k= 1.4...2 coefficient of caution: i number of sections: z number of bolts. 168 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a threaded bolt acts in tension and torsion, resulting in a calculation strength values рх=1/3p will be. the diameter of the bolt is determined by formula (1.6). figure 4 figure 4 2) there is no gap between the bolt and the part (fig. 4). the shank of such bolts is tested for shear stress, and its diameter is determined as follows; 𝑑 = √ 4𝑃 𝜋𝑖𝑧[𝜏кес] e). the acting force creates a bending moment in the rod member. when the surface of the part connecting to the surface of the nut is uneven (fig. 1.4) or when using bolts made in the form of hooks with a head not specified in the standard, in addition to the tensile force, a bending moment is created. in its stem. therefore, when calculating such bolts, in addition to the tensile force, it is necessary to pay attention to the bending moment. tensile stress: б = 𝑃 (𝜋𝑑𝑘/4) 4) stress created by bending moment: 𝜎эг = 𝑃𝑥 (0,1/𝑑1 2) if 𝑥 = 𝑑1 if 𝜎эг=𝑃/(0,1/𝑑1 2 2) when the value of the angle a is small, the value of the stress in the bend is determined as follows, taking into account the additional deformation caused by this bending: 𝜎эг = 𝑀 𝑊эг ≈ е𝑑𝛼/2𝐼б here, : m=ei/p, 𝜌 = 𝐼б 𝛼 ; 𝑊эг = 𝐼 𝑑/2 the smallest value of these determined stresses is taken as the design bending stress. the general conditions for bolt strength are as follows: б = б1 + бэг ≤ [б] (8) 169 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 5 calculations show that the ratio of these stresses бэг б1 ≈ 7.5 equals therefore, the bending stress sharply reduces the strength of the bolt shank. therefore, in such conditions it is better to use as few bolts as possible. calculation of end connection bolts. clamping connections are designed for fastening parts to shafts, axles, cylindrical columns and are formed by tightening the bolts themselves (fig.6). figure 6 at one end of the lever prepared for this purpose there is a hole for the installation of a shaft, its diameter is easily adjusted to the shaft by a slot for the purpose, and by tightening the bolts it is compressed, and it is firmly fixed to the shaft. in this case, the moment of friction force arising between the surface of the hole and the surface of the shaft from the lever must be equal to or greater than the moment of external force (20% more), that is: f f d = 1,2 q i as a result, the force generated on the surface of the terminal with the shaft: ғ = 1,2 q 1 / f d * where: f – friction coefficient; d – shaft diameter, – 1 – lever arm. if we assume that the lever with the terminal pin is fixed in a hinged position at point 0, then the condition for maintaining the equilibrium position of the terminal connection will be as follows, i.e. the sum of the moments about point o is obtained: 170 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑃𝐶𝑧 (𝛼 + 𝑑 2 ) − 𝑃 𝑑 2 = 0 ** from here the value of the force 𝑃𝐶 required to pull the bolt is determined: 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑑 (2𝛼 + 𝑑)𝑧 will be equal to considering formulas : 𝑃𝐶𝑍 = 𝑃 using formulas the amount of force required to tighten the bolt is determined as follows: 𝑃𝐶 = 1.2 𝑄𝐼/𝑓𝑑𝑧 (9) conclusion: thus, to calculate the bolts of terminal connections, the force 𝑃𝐶 required to tighten the bolts is determined. then their strength is calculated using the method given in b), i.e. 𝜎экв = 1.3𝑃 𝜋𝑑𝑘 2 4 ≤ [𝜎] (10) the main advantage of clamp connections is that the lever can be positioned at any angle, creating a keyless connection, and is relatively easy to assemble and repair. the disadvantage is that these connections are unreliable (especially under the influence of variable forces). references 1. r.n.tojiboyev va a.jo‘rayev “mashina detallari” “o‘qituvchi” toshkent-2002y. 2. salomovna o. n., allanazarovich a. n., serabovich t. s. interaction of materials resistance science with other general-military disciplines in engineering specialties //annals of the romanian society for cell biology. – 2021. – т. 25. – №. 6. – с. 2250-2257. 3. khudainazarov, s., mavlanov, t., qosimov, j., & nurova, o. 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american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 from insight to impact: aligning business analytics, project management, and product innovation in healthcare tariq bin jibreel hult international business school, cambridge, ma, usa tjibreel@student.hult.edu abstract: the integration of business analytics, project management, and product management is revolutionizing the healthcare sector by driving innovation, advancing clinical outcomes, and streamlining operational processes. this study investigates how these three domains function collectively within healthcare organizations, highlighting their unified role in fostering datainformed decision-making, enhancing technological adoption, and delivering patient-focused solutions. each discipline is defined within a healthcare-specific framework, and their interconnectedness is explored in relation to strategic implementation. the paper also outlines practical models for integration and includes case studies to demonstrate real-world applications. it addresses key obstacles such as fragmented data systems, compliance challenges, and institutional inertia, while offering actionable solutions and strategic practices to address them. in addition, emerging developments—such as the expanded use of ai and the evolution of hybrid roles in health technology—are examined. the paper ultimately offers a forward-looking strategy for healthcare leaders aiming to harness cross-functional management in a rapidly digitizing and patient-centered landscape. keywords: business analytics in healthcare, project management, product management, datadriven innovation, digital health transformation, healthcare strategy. 1. introduction healthcare today is increasingly shaped by data-centric operations and structured project frameworks, with interdisciplinary collaboration becoming foundational to innovation and quality care. this paper investigates the interconnected roles of business analytics, project management, and product management in the healthcare context, emphasizing how their integration enhances innovation, elevates patient care, improves organizational efficiency, and supports technological advancement. drawing on scholarly literature and practical case examples, the discussion explores how these fields work together to create strategic value. the paper provides contextual definitions for each domain within healthcare, examines the synergies between analytical insights and managerial execution, outlines tools and frameworks used in integration, and presents applied case studies. furthermore, it addresses key implementation challenges, proposes evidence-based best practices, and explores upcoming trends that will further transform the intersection of analytics and healthcare management. 1.1 definitions and roles in healthcare: business analytics in healthcare: in the healthcare domain, business analytics (ba) refers to the systematic extraction and interpretation of data from a variety of internal and external sources— such as electronic health records, operational databases, and financial systems—to inform 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us strategic and clinical decisions. techniques used include statistical modeling, forecasting, and operational research to enhance planning and performance [1]. ba enables healthcare organizations to synthesize vast datasets into actionable intelligence, offering a holistic perspective on patient care and institutional operations. with ba, hospitals can identify patterns—such as disease prevalence or resource inefficiencies—and make evidence-based decisions that lead to better care delivery, cost containment, and innovation. in the current era, adopting business analytics is no longer optional; it is essential for sustainable growth and competitive advantage in a rapidly evolving healthcare landscape. project management in healthcare: project management (pm) within the healthcare setting involves the disciplined execution of temporary initiatives aimed at improving services, infrastructure, or systems. these projects may involve deploying health it solutions like electronic health records (ehrs), redesigning clinical workflows, or upgrading facilities. successful healthcare pm hinges on aligning projects with organizational priorities, coordinating diverse teams, and adhering to compliance and quality benchmarks [2]. project managers facilitate cross-functional collaboration among clinicians, administrators, and it staff, ensuring that project objectives are met within scope, time, and budget. organizational proficiency in pm encompasses clear governance structures, well-defined roles, sufficient resource allocation, and trained personnel. this is especially critical given the complexity and regulatory demands inherent in healthcare environments, where failure to execute projects effectively can directly impact patient safety and operational performance. product management in healthcare: healthcare product management is a multifaceted discipline that oversees the conception, development, and lifecycle management of products and services designed for the health sector. product managers operate at the nexus of business goals, clinical needs, and technological capabilities, translating complex healthcare challenges into practical, user-oriented solutions. their responsibilities include conducting market and user research, shaping product strategy, supervising design and development processes, and ensuring long-term product viability. crucially, these professionals must possess in-depth knowledge of clinical practices, patient safety standards, and regulatory requirements such as fda guidelines and hipaa compliance protocols. their work ensures that products—from digital health applications to medical devices—not only meet technical and legal standards but also deliver meaningful value to users. product managers are instrumental in advancing innovations such as telemedicine platforms and ai-driven diagnostics, thereby playing a key role in improving outcomes and streamlining operations in healthcare systems. 2. interactions and synergies between disciplines 2.1 business analytics as a foundation for projects and products in the healthcare environment, business analytics serves as a foundational layer that empowers both project and product management with real-time, data-driven insights. it informs planning, execution, and monitoring processes by providing performance metrics that help project leaders make adaptive decisions and refine scopes as needed. for product managers, analytics— specifically product analytics—offers visibility into user engagement patterns and patient health outcomes, which shape product features and development priorities. for example, forecasting models can predict fluctuations in hospital admissions or likely treatment outcomes, allowing project teams to better allocate time and resources. moreover, business analytics plays a critical role in uncovering opportunities for innovation. identifying frequent pain points—such as recurrent readmissions or inefficient workflows—can trigger new projects aimed at solving those challenges, often through predictive analytics or machine learning models. these insights also influence product development by ensuring that tools like digital therapeutics, decision support systems, or remote monitoring apps are grounded in real-world needs and clinical data. in essence, analytics enables organizations to track progress, measure impact, and adapt both projects and products dynamically. feedback loops 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us based on analytics insights ensure continuous refinement—for example, updating a care management platform based on evolving health outcomes and usage trends. 2.2 combined impact on innovation, patient outcomes, efficiency, and technological advancement when effectively aligned, business analytics, project management, and product management create a synergistic ecosystem that accelerates healthcare transformation across multiple dimensions: driving healthcare innovation: data-driven initiatives are more likely to yield breakthrough solutions to systemic challenges. when analytics identifies gaps—such as the need for improved chronic disease care—project managers can initiate focused efforts to address them, while product teams design tools to meet both clinical needs and compliance requirements [3]. the rapid expansion of telehealth is a case in point: data revealed high patient demand and clinical efficacy for virtual visits, leading to large-scale telehealth rollouts. while product managers ensured usability and security in platform design, project managers orchestrated the deployment across various departments. the result was a scalable, innovative care model benefiting providers and patients alike. improving patient outcomes: the collective power of these disciplines leads to tangible improvements in patient care. business analytics tracks key clinical indicators—such as infection rates, readmissions, or treatment efficacy—allowing organizations to detect areas in need of intervention. project managers then implement structured quality improvement initiatives, often using methodologies like lean or six sigma. in parallel, product managers develop and refine solutions (e.g., diagnostic tools powered by ai or personalized engagement apps) that directly enhance care quality. research shows that integrating analytics with project workflows has led to improvements in core metrics such as patient satisfaction and hospital throughput, particularly when supported by data-informed process redesign. boosting operational efficiency: significant gains in operational performance are realized through the combined efforts of analytics, project planning, and product refinement. analytics identifies inefficiencies—such as underutilized beds or redundant staffing—while project teams design and execute interventions to resolve them. dashboards used by project managers help track key efficiency indicators like average length of stay or per-patient costs. simultaneously, product teams incorporate automation, data sharing, or workflow streamlining into digital tools. for instance, medicare and medicaid programs leveraged predictive analytics to detect fraudulent claims, saving $210 million in a single year. similarly, unitedhealthcare achieved a 2200% roi through analytics-enabled fraud detection—both initiatives illustrating how tightly integrated analytics and execution can deliver high-value returns. advancing technological development: the intersection of these three disciplines is crucial in the lifecycle of emerging technologies within healthcare. project managers are responsible for managing complex deployments—whether it be electronic health record (ehr) upgrades, aibased imaging tools, or iot-enabled devices—within regulated and resource-constrained environments. business analytics informs these efforts by identifying which technological capabilities are most urgently needed or impactful, such as predictive diagnostics or clinical workflow optimization. product managers then translate these needs into scalable, compliant, and user-friendly solutions. after launch, product analytics tools track system usage and user outcomes to inform future improvements. a notable example is sanofi, which processes over 50,000 data interactions daily through analytics platforms to tailor decision-making and service delivery—resulting in enhanced efficiency and improved patient engagement [productschool.com]. the success of such programs hinges on product managers with a strong understanding of data infrastructure who can overcome data silos and drive informed design decisions 107 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. key tools, techniques, and methodologies effectively aligning business analytics, project management, and product management in healthcare requires the application of a wide range of specialized tools and structured approaches tailored to meet the sector’s unique complexity and regulatory demands. to effectively harness insights from complex healthcare systems, organizations utilize a variety of digital tools such as electronic health record (ehr) platforms, centralized data warehouses, and statistical software solutions like sas, r, and python. these technologies enable comprehensive data collection, integration, and analysis. common techniques include predictive analytics for anticipating patient needs or system strain, and data mining for revealing operational inefficiencies and care trends. dashboards are widely used for visualizing key performance indicators in real time, allowing for responsive decision-making. more advanced technologies, including artificial intelligence (ai) and machine learning algorithms, are increasingly used for modeling and scenario forecasting—such as identifying patients at risk of deterioration or forecasting resource utilization during an outbreak. with healthcare data volumes expanding rapidly, many organizations have begun deploying cloud-based ai platforms to handle the scale and complexity. this is evidenced by projections showing the global healthcare analytics market will grow from $34.4 billion in 2023 to $267.7 billion by 2032. these tools are instrumental in guiding project execution and refining product functionality through evidence-based metrics. healthcare project teams frequently adopt structured methodologies to manage the design, planning, and delivery of initiatives. common frameworks include pmi’s project management body of knowledge (pmbok) and prince2, both of which offer best practices for managing time, cost, scope, and quality [4]. agile frameworks, characterized by incremental sprints and adaptive feedback loops, are especially useful in software development and digital transformation efforts within healthcare. in quality improvement contexts, lean and six sigma techniques are used to identify and eliminate inefficiencies and reduce variation. for instance, lean can be applied to optimize patient admissions, while six sigma’s dmaic process is suitable for minimizing clinical errors. a variety of tools—such as gantt charts, trello boards, microsoft project timelines, and risk tracking systems—support planning and execution. additionally, the establishment of a dedicated project management office (pmo) is considered a best practice. research indicates that pmos enhance institutional project maturity, providing governance, templates, and alignment with strategic goals. these methodologies are critical for managing the high-risk, multidisciplinary nature of healthcare projects within regulated environments. product management in healthcare involves applying a strategic yet agile approach to develop and maintain solutions that meet both clinical requirements and business objectives. key tools include product roadmaps for visualizing timelines, user personas for capturing stakeholder needs, and backlogs to prioritize development tasks. approaches such as design thinking and user-centered design are employed to ensure that the resulting solutions align with real-world workflows and user expectations—this often involves engaging clinicians and patients early in the discovery phase to co-define requirements [5]. prototyping and usability testing are essential to optimize the user interface and ensure safety and satisfaction. once a product is launched, teams rely on techniques such as a/b testing and embedded product analytics to evaluate user engagement, identify pain points, and guide iterative improvements. collaboration is further facilitated by communication and documentation platforms like slack, microsoft teams, and confluence, enabling seamless coordination among clinical experts, data scientists, developers, and compliance officers. regulatory alignment is a core consideration: teams must adhere to healthcare-specific standards such as fda medical device regulations and iso certifications. product management in this space is thus a hybrid function—combining long-term strategy with continuous learning cycles and real-world analytics to deliver relevant, safe, and effective solutions. 108 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. real-world case studies and examples to demonstrate the real-life intersection of business analytics, project management, and product management, the following examples highlight how these disciplines collaboratively enable innovation, improve care outcomes, and optimize healthcare operations. case study: scaling telehealth platforms – a blueprint for digital care delivery the rapid proliferation of telehealth illustrates the effective integration of analytics, structured project oversight, and user-centered product strategy. in response to increasing patient demand for virtual healthcare options, many providers initiated telehealth implementation projects. these initiatives were deeply informed by analytics, which revealed exceptionally high satisfaction rates—94% of users indicated they would continue using telehealth—and highlighted service areas with high remote care potential, such as prescription management and follow-up consultations. project teams used these insights to define project priorities and timelines, ensuring resources were focused on high-value features. product managers, on the other hand, were responsible for developing a platform that balanced usability with strict regulatory standards, including hipaa compliance. the challenge of integrating the new platform with legacy systems like electronic health records (ehrs) and appointment schedulers required close coordination between it, product, and clinical teams. throughout development, real-time data was used to monitor system effectiveness and adjust the platform accordingly. the final product—a secure, intuitive virtual care solution—enhanced accessibility, reduced no-shows, and offered provider flexibility, while also contributing to lower staff burnout. this case exemplifies how data, structured execution, and strategic product development converge to meet evolving patient and organizational needs. case study: leveraging predictive analytics to improve clinical outcomes hospitals are increasingly initiating projects that apply predictive analytics to improve care quality and reduce preventable events. a common application involves reducing readmission rates among heart failure patients by identifying high-risk individuals through historical data modeling [6]. business analytics supports this effort by supplying predictive algorithms and continuously monitoring the impact of new interventions. project teams coordinate cross-functional implementation—assembling clinicians, data scientists, and it professionals—to embed these models into workflows. milestones typically include model validation, digital integration, and comprehensive staff training. if delivered as a digital dashboard or decision-support tool, product managers take the lead in shaping the interface, ensuring ease of use and compliance with privacy laws [7]. comparable use cases include medicare and medicaid’s application of predictive analytics for fraud detection, which saved $210 million in a single year [8]. while that example focuses on cost, similar models have achieved clinical impact, such as flagging early sepsis symptoms or preventing hospital-acquired complications. in all such cases, analytics provides the intelligence, project management ensures implementation fidelity, and product management translates insights into clinician-friendly tools. unitedhealthcare’s initiative, which yielded a 2200% return on investment, further underscores the success of multidisciplinary coordination in applying analytics to both operational and care delivery goals. case study: data-driven pharmaceutical personalization and hospital operations sanofi offers an instructive example of how product and business analytics intersect to create operational and engagement advantages. the company leverages data from more than 50,000 daily interactions to support decision-making and create personalized outreach to healthcare providers [8]. this initiative, driven by product analytics, relies heavily on advanced data processing to derive actionable intelligence [9]. a project framework underpinned the 109 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us deployment—covering system architecture, algorithm development, and end-user training— demonstrating the need for disciplined execution to operationalize analytics insights effectively. this example highlights how integrating data management and user-focused design enables efficiency gains across teams. importantly, it also demonstrates the growing importance of product managers with strong analytical fluency—professionals capable of addressing data fragmentation and ensuring that insights translate into useful, accessible product features. a comparable initiative in hospital settings involves deploying centralized command center platforms. these digital hubs monitor patient flow, staff allocation, and or scheduling using real-time analytics. such complex implementations require coordinated project planning and stakeholder alignment [11]. product teams play a critical role in designing these platforms for seamless clinician interaction, while analytics engines drive predictive and adaptive decisionmaking [12]. results from early adopters include shorter emergency room wait times and more efficient hospital resource utilization. 5. challenges and barriers to integration while the fusion of business analytics, project management, and product management holds great promise for healthcare advancement, implementing this integration presents numerous systemic and operational challenges. several key barriers frequently hinder successful execution. fragmented data systems and quality limitations: one of the most persistent issues in healthcare analytics is the disjointed nature of data. information is scattered across multiple platforms such as ehrs, laboratory databases, and insurance systems—each with varying data formats and standards. this fragmentation makes it difficult to synthesize information for meaningful analysis. as a result, analytics projects can struggle due to inconsistent, incomplete, or non-interoperable data. these silos also complicate project and product workflows by making it difficult to establish a reliable, organization-wide “single source of truth.” maintaining accurate, timely, and standardized data remains a fundamental challenge in aligning analytics with real-world outcomes. regulatory constraints and privacy compliance: the highly regulated nature of healthcare imposes stringent compliance requirements on both analytics projects and product innovations. all solutions must adhere to data privacy laws such as hipaa, and depending on the product type, may also require fda approval or compliance with regional health laws [13]. these regulatory obligations often slow innovation and add layers of complexity. for instance, analytics systems handling patient-level data must be governed carefully to avoid breaches. product managers face additional hurdles when launching clinical tools that must be certified before use. striking a balance between rapid innovation and strict compliance is a delicate task that requires careful governance, particularly when dealing with sensitive health data [14]. organizational resistance and change aversion : healthcare organizations often exhibit entrenched operational cultures that are slow to embrace change. new technologies or workflow transformations—especially those related to analytics or structured project execution—may encounter resistance from staff, particularly clinicians who are accustomed to legacy processes. one expert noted that many doctors struggle with new technologies due to limited time and natural hesitation toward altering existing practices. according to a 2023 survey, 40% of healthcare technology leaders identified institutional risk aversion as a key inhibitor of digital transformation. addressing this barrier requires strong change management strategies that focus on leadership endorsement, transparent communication of benefits, hands-on training, and gradual implementation. lack of cross-functional coordination: seamless integration of analytics, project, and product disciplines requires frequent collaboration between professionals from diverse fields—data analysts, clinical teams, it specialists, project managers, and product owners. however, communication gaps and organizational silos often hinder this necessary cooperation. a 110 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us significant 47% of tech executives reported that failed transformation efforts stemmed from poor interdepartmental collaboration. when product and project teams fail to align early or when analysts are excluded from the planning process, strategic misalignment can occur. bridging this gap requires shared goals, early stakeholder involvement, and strong facilitation across departments. system complexity and interoperability gaps: the it landscape in many healthcare organizations is notoriously complex, often involving dozens of disparate software solutions— some estimates suggest an average of 78 systems in use across hospital operations. this complexity presents a major barrier to integrating new tools or analytics platforms, as each system must connect to others for data exchange. ensuring bidirectional interoperability between new and legacy systems is a significant technical challenge. without seamless data flow, even the most sophisticated analytics solutions may remain siloed and fail to drive meaningful clinical or operational impact. data overload and interface usability: while lack of access to data is problematic, information overload is also a growing concern. clinicians frequently report feeling burdened by the sheer volume of data they must process. a 2022 report by elsevier indicated that 69% of healthcare professionals are overwhelmed by their data workload. poorly designed dashboards or interfaces can exacerbate the issue by presenting excessive information in unfiltered or unintuitive formats. additionally, many healthcare tasks remain manual—55% of workers cite manual processes, and 49% report fragmented information as major productivity barriers. to be effective, projects and products must go beyond simply adding more data points; they must streamline workflows, filter key information intelligently, and support automation where possible. 6. best practices for integrating analytics with project and product management although integrating analytics with project and product management can be challenging, many healthcare organizations have successfully adopted proven strategies to bridge these disciplines. below are key practices that support effective implementation and long-term success. promote a culture of data-driven decision making: a foundational step is building an institutional culture that embraces data as a core component of everyday decision-making. this cultural shift should be championed from the top, with leadership using analytics for strategic decisions and recognizing team contributions to data-informed improvements. encouraging analytical curiosity and offering ongoing education in data interpretation helps ease resistance [15]. some hospitals, for instance, run organization-wide data literacy initiatives to ensure that both clinical and administrative teams are confident using analytic tools to enhance their work. encourage cross-disciplinary collaboration and communication: forming multidisciplinary teams from the outset of any initiative helps align objectives across departments. including project managers, product leaders, data scientists, it professionals, and clinical staff ensure that projects are approached from multiple perspectives. regular meetings and the use of shared collaboration platforms—such as sharepoint or confluence—enable knowledge sharing and transparency. agile practices like daily stand-ups and sprint retrospectives reinforce communication and alignment. embedding data professionals in clinical project teams or ensuring product owners work closely with analytics staff reduces the disconnect that often causes digital initiatives to fail. tie projects to strategic and patient-centered outcomes: successful projects are those clearly linked to an organization’s broader strategy and focused on patient well-being. whether the goal is to enhance satisfaction scores, reduce costs, or expand access to care, aligning every initiative with these larger priorities gives teams direction and enhances stakeholder support. as emphasized by wagner and ipma, linking projects to corporate strategy is a hallmark of mature organizational performance. at the same time, connecting efforts to tangible patient outcomes— 111 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us such as reduced wait times or better chronic disease control—ensures that solutions remain clinically relevant and impactful. build strong data infrastructure and governance: reliable, well-governed data systems are essential to any analytics-driven initiative. this means establishing integrated repositories, maintaining robust data cleaning protocols, and enforcing privacy and access policies. according to research, solid it infrastructure supports activities like performance benchmarking, transparency, and organizational accountability [16]. governance committees can help enforce compliance with healthcare regulations while enabling safe, ethical use of patient data. a wellorganized infrastructure also allows faster onboarding of new technologies and easier access to necessary information across teams. use iterative development and continuous feedback loops: adopting iterative development cycles allows organizations to stay agile and responsive. for product launches, beginning with a minimum viable product (mvp) and collecting analytics-based feedback enables teams to refine and improve functionality before full-scale rollout. similarly, internal initiatives can benefit from continuous improvement models like plan-do-study-act (pdsa), which integrate data into each phase of planning and testing. this gradual approach reduces resistance and increases adoption by allowing for evidence-based adjustments over time, rather than overwhelming stakeholders with large-scale, immediate change. establish a pmo and apply standardized frameworks: a project management office (pmo) provides structure and continuity across initiatives by centralizing tools, best practices, and lessons learned. pmos often provide templates for project documentation, such as stakeholder maps or risk registers, and ensure that each project incorporates analytics and product implications from inception. some health systems have also developed dedicated analytics centers of excellence to ensure projects are supported by high-quality data expertise. using standard methodologies like agile, lean, or pmbok—tailored to healthcare's regulatory and patient safety needs—helps maintain process consistency and control. prioritize end-user training and change enablement: the adoption of new tools or processes depends largely on how well users are prepared. effective training programs should include practical sessions, easy-reference materials, and ongoing support. appointing department “champions” or super-users can also help advocate for the system internally and provide realtime support to peers. incorporating user feedback during and after implementation fosters ownership and continuous improvement. engaging stakeholders early in the design phase, in line with user-centered design principles, helps ensure the final solution aligns with actual user needs and reduces implementation friction. 7. future trends and emerging developments as healthcare continues to digitize and evolve, the combined application of business analytics, project management, and product management will become increasingly central to driving innovation and delivering measurable outcomes. several key developments are expected to reshape this intersection. expansion of ai and intelligent analytics: artificial intelligence is set to become a staple in healthcare analytics, moving beyond experimental trials into widespread operational use. new initiatives are likely to focus on embedding ai into diagnostic systems, predictive tools for individualized treatment, and automated workflows that replace time-intensive manual processes [15]. this shift will demand project managers who understand how to lead ai implementations and product managers capable of designing ethical and effective ai-powered features. generative ai may also support advanced functions, such as synthesizing treatment plans or interpreting large datasets. with the healthcare analytics market projected to exceed $267 billion by 2032, ai and machine learning will be major forces behind this explosive growth. 112 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us unified health platforms and system integration: upcoming projects will prioritize the creation of interoperable digital ecosystems across the healthcare sector. regulatory initiatives, such as the adoption of fhir (fast healthcare interoperability resources), are accelerating this trend by setting standards for seamless data sharing. product managers will be tasked with designing platform-based solutions that integrate multiple systems—ehrs, scheduling tools, patient apps—into a streamlined user experience. these efforts will often require large-scale coordination across clinical, technical, and administrative teams [18]. the complexity of managing dozens of disconnected platforms will likely drive the development of new interface engines and common data protocols, forming the foundation for strategic digital transformation. real-time data and embedded clinical decision support: with enhanced infrastructure, healthcare is gradually shifting toward real-time data utilization at the bedside and beyond. new projects are expected to focus on deploying dynamic dashboards in environments like icus and surgical suites, giving clinicians access to live patient metrics for faster intervention. product leaders will focus on embedding these capabilities within everyday clinical workflows—for example, building sepsis alerts directly into ehr platforms [19]. this move from retrospective analysis to predictive and real-time insights empowers healthcare teams to act swiftly, reducing harm and improving operational responsiveness in situations like patient surges or critical deterioration. rise of patient-oriented digital health tools: the growing emphasis on consumer-grade health technology—such as smartwatches, mobile apps, and at-home diagnostics—means product management will increasingly target patient engagement and personalization [20]. future digital tools will focus on helping individuals manage their own health through features like customized reminders, symptom tracking, or telehealth interfaces. product teams will need to combine clinical validity with exceptional user experience to maintain patient adoption and trust. meanwhile, business analytics will power these tools by analyzing patterns in patient-generated health data and refining the product’s adaptability. project managers will often be responsible for overseeing collaborations between healthcare providers and technology firms, signaling a shift toward co-development and cross-sector partnerships. data-driven value-based care initiatives: the healthcare sector’s move toward value-based reimbursement models will further entrench the role of analytics and project planning. organizations will need to track performance on quality benchmarks—such as blood sugar control in diabetes patients or readmission rates—requiring robust, continuous data collection. these goals will drive more analytics-enabled quality improvement projects, as well as the development of tools that help clinicians achieve and document value [15]. product managers will need to ensure that their tools demonstrate real-world impact, whether through improved outcomes or cost reductions. this will result in more sophisticated dashboards to track value metrics and growing demand for transparency around results. evolution toward continuous learning systems: inspired by the learning health system model, future healthcare organizations will embed mechanisms that allow them to learn from every implementation. this involves structured feedback loops where data from projects and products is continuously assessed and used to inform next-generation efforts. the distinctions between business analytics, project execution, and product iteration will blur, as teams adopt cyclical models of analysis, action, and refinement. new hybrid roles—such as “healthcare data product owner” or “clinical ai program manager”—will emerge, requiring professionals to bridge clinical, technical, and strategic domains in highly adaptive environments. 8. conclusion the integration of business analytics, project management, and product management has emerged as a transformative force in the healthcare industry. business analytics delivers the critical insights and empirical data required to uncover inefficiencies, track progress, and inform high-impact decisions. project management provides the organizational discipline and structured 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us execution necessary to transform strategic ideas into actionable, time-bound initiatives. meanwhile, product management ensures that resulting solutions—whether internal tools or external technologies—are aligned with user needs, strategically sound, and designed for longterm sustainability. this triad has already demonstrated remarkable outcomes across healthcare: it enables the creation of innovative care models, supports outcome-based quality improvement efforts, streamlines clinical and administrative workflows, and accelerates the adoption of advanced technologies. together, these functions serve as a powerful catalyst for meaningful and measurable transformation. nonetheless, this integration does not come without hurdles. issues such as fragmented data environments, resistance to organizational change, and the lack of interoperability remain persistent. the best practices outlined—such as building a culture of data literacy, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, and implementing iterative development cycles—provide a roadmap for overcoming these barriers. as the healthcare sector continues to evolve in response to digital transformation and valuebased care expectations, the interconnected roles of analytics, project planning, and product innovation will only grow more vital. leaders who embrace this convergence—and who can blend data-driven insight with operational strategy and patient-focused design—will be wellpositioned to elevate care delivery, optimize resources, and drive sustainable innovation. ultimately, it is this strategic integration that will determine which organizations thrive in an increasingly complex and patient-centered healthcare ecosystem. reference: 1. scott, b.c. (2016). convergence in healthcare: providers, employers, and health plans. american health & drug benefits, 9 2, 66-7 . 2. ofodile, o., yekeen, a., sam-bulya, n., & ewim, c. (2022). artificial intelligence and business models in the fourth industrial revolution. open access research journal of multidisciplinary studies. https://doi.org/10.53022/oarjms.2022.4.1.0091. 3. shirley, d. (2020). project management for healthcare. crc press. 4. majumdar, b., & bansal, r. (2010). healthcare in the era of digital convergence. . 5. arnold, a., & bowman, k. (2021). convergence and the changing nature of innovation. , 37-50. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780197506271.003.0004. 6. shaik, a. (2024). the convergence of big data and generative ai: a paradigm shift in data analytics. international journal for multidisciplinary research. https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2024.v06i06.32142. 7. okoduwa, i., arowoogun, j., awonuga, k., ashiwaju, b., & ogugua, j. (2024). reviewing business analytics in healthcare management: usa and african perspectives. world journal of biology pharmacy and health sciences. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2024.17.2.0047. 8. gopalakrishna-remani, v., jones, r., & wooldridge, b. (2016). influence of institutional forces on managerial beliefs and healthcare analytics adoption. journal of managerial issues, 28, 191. 9. alzaabi, o., mahri, k., khatib, m., & alkindi, n. (2023). how big data analytics supports project manager in project risk management – cases from uae health sector. international journal of business analytics and security (ijbas). https://doi.org/10.54489/ijbas.v3i1.201. 10. rahman, a., ashrafuzzaman, m., mridha, a., & papel, m. (2024). data analytics for healthcare improvement: develop systems for analyzing large health data sets to 114 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us improve patient outcomes, manage pandemics, and optimize healthcare delivery. innovatech engineering journal. https://doi.org/10.70937/jnes.v1i01.30. 11. alotaibi, f., & almudhi, r. (2023). application of agile methodology in managing the healthcare sector. irasd journal of management. https://doi.org/10.52131/jom.2023.0503.0114. 12. jariwala, m. (2025). the impact of ai and data analytics on project management information systems (pmis). in project management information systems: empowering decision making and execution (p. 44). igi global. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-0700-8.ch004 13. mckinsey & company. (2021, july). the next frontier of care delivery in healthcare. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/healthcare/our-insights/the-next-frontier-of-caredelivery-in-healthcare 14. bhatt, s. i. (2024). future trends in medical device cybersecurity: ai, blockchain, and emerging technologies. international journal of trend in scientific research and development (ijtsrd), 8(4), 536–545. https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd67189.pdf 15. anson, a. s. (2024). a literature review on business analytics and cybersecurity: integrating data-driven insights with risk management. international journal of trend in scientific research and development (ijtsrd), 8(6), 1098–1109. https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd73770.pdf 16. mendes, m., & rademakers, m. (2021). organizing value-based product innovation: how medical equipment manufacturers embrace complexity in hybrid operating rooms. journal of creating value, 7, 117 130. https://doi.org/10.1177/23949643211011840. 17. salimi, t., lehner, j., epstein, r., & tunis, s. (2012). a framework for pharmaceutical value-based innovations.. journal of comparative effectiveness research, 1 1 suppl, 3-7 . https://doi.org/10.2217/cer.11.2. 18. hernandez, s., conrad, d., marcus‐smith, m., reed, p., & watts, c. (2013). patient-centered innovation in health care organizations: a conceptual framework and case study application.. health care management review, 38 2, 166-75 . https://doi.org/10.1097/hmr.0b013e31825e718a. 19. cheung, m. (2012). design thinking in healthcare: innovative product development through the inpd process. the design journal, 15, 299 324. https://doi.org/10.2752/175630612x13330186684114. 20. reed, p., conrad, d., hernandez, s., watts, c., & marcus‐smith, m. (2012). innovation in patient-centered care: lessons from a qualitative study of innovative health care organizations in washington state. bmc family practice, 13, 120 120. https://doi.org/10.1186/14712296-13-120. 74 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 12, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 technological features of increasing corrosion resistance of the logging tip part of the load-bearing geophysical cable of type nkb guzashvili, k. v., mirzarakhimova, z. b. tashkent state technical university after name islom karimov abstract: in the oil and gas industry, precise measurements of well parameters are key, provided by modern equipment such as logging tips. these devices not only transmit important data on the geological structure and composition of wells, but are also subject to significant mechanical loads and aggressive environments, which increases the problem of corrosion. an effective solution to this problem requires not only the selection of the right materials and coatings, but also the use of specialized processing technologies. keywords: oil and gas industry, well parameters, logging tips, corrosion, materials and coatings, geological structure, mechanical loads, aggressive environments, electrochemical protection, thermal treatment, hydrogen sulfide (h2s), carbon dioxide (co2), logging equipment, pipeline corrosion, economic impact. introduction. the durability of equipment and devices for measuring parameters in the oil and gas industry is determined by the quality of manufacturing of components and units, as well as the nature of environmental factors. however, one of the most significant problems faced by the oil and gas industry is corrosion. since the main cause of corrosion in the soil of units or research equipment is the thermodynamic instability of the structural material in relation to the external environment. as a result, chemical-physical interaction leads to equipment degradation, increased maintenance and repair costs, as well as potential emergency situations. therefore, development, including understanding the mechanisms of corrosion and the use of technology to increase the durability of metering and parameter control devices is of paramount importance for the successful conduct of research, ensuring the reliability and safety of oil and gas operations with minimization of equipment repair and replacement costs. main part. for the analysis of the geological structure of the subsoil and the identification of hydrocarbon raw materials during the development of oil and gas fields, modern physical methods of well research are based on the installation of logging cable tips of the nkb type (fig. 1) [4], by lowering into the well on a load-bearing cable. as a result of immersion, wells are monitored, the nkb parts are subjected to mechanical loads and the effects of aggressive environments, which requires special measures to protect against corrosion. 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 1. basic setup for wireline logging [5] according to nace according to the national association of corrosion engineers (nacee ), direct costs of combating corrosion in the oil and gas industry amount to billions of dollars per year. in the united states, these costs are estimated at approximately $1.37 billion annually [1]. in developed countries, damage from corrosion today amounts to 2 to 4% of gdp, and losses from faulty products and equipment reach 10–20% of annual steel production. this emphasizes the need to develop measures to combat corrosion processes. in 2006, corrosion caused an oil leak in the trans-alaska pipeline, causing significant environmental and economic impacts. the cost of repairs and damages amounted to several hundred million dollars.[2] corrosion is also a major problem for offshore production platforms. for example, in 2012, corrosion caused a leak at the elgin platform in the north sea, causing losses of about $300 million.[3] in 2018, a middle east region experienced a communication failure during a logging tip lift due to a failure in the hoisting equipment, requiring a complex recovery operation and lost drilling time. in 2020, a well anomaly in the us state of texas caused a communications outage, making it difficult to obtain critical data on the geological structure. in our country, there are no official statistics that would reflect the economic damage from corrosion, but, according to our estimates, it is at least 5% of gdp. for example, at the kuyisurgil field in the republic of uzbekistan, during geophysical surveys of wells 11–15, a logging unit broke due to a collision with hydrogen sulfide at a depth of 3,000 meters. this led to the loss of geological data, claims the georesearch company ip ooo “ tng logging asia ” in the context of the above, it is necessary to consider and study the causes of corrosion in this area, such as: electrochemical processes, including galvanic corrosion and microbiologically induced corrosion, since some microorganisms, such as sulfate-reducing bacteria, produce corrosive agents in the form of hydrogen sulfide, which promotes corrosion of metals and alloys; chemical influences occur due to the content of hydrogen sulfide (h₂s), carbon dioxide (co2) and other aggressive components in oil and gas, which, when dissolved in water, form acids that promote corrosion of equipment; physical influences, such as temperature fluctuations high temperatures accelerate chemical reactions that cause corrosion and cause thermal fatigue of materials, leading to the formation of cracks and corrosion; environmental conditions, since corrosion of pipelines and equipment underground occurs due to soil moisture, the presence of salts and acids, as well as microorganisms; mechanical stresses due to repeated cyclic loads cause microcracks, which serve as foci of corrosion, especially in aggressive environments, causing intercrystalline corrosion of materials . 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us one of the main approaches to increasing the corrosion resistance of geosurvey equipment is the use of corrosion-resistant materials and protective coatings. the most common materials include stainless steel, nickel-based alloys and titanium alloys. these materials have high resistance to corrosion processes, which makes them ideal for use in aggressive environments. however, in some cases, the use of such materials may be economically impractical. in such situations, various types of protective coatings are used. for example, the application of anti-corrosion paints and varnishes, galvanic coating includes the application of layers of zinc, nickel or chromium metals. as well as polymer-based coatings. in addition to the choice of materials and coatings, technological processing methods have a significant impact on the corrosion resistance of the logging tip: 1. electrochemical protection is a method of cathodic or anodic protection in which parts are connected to a dc source. the principles of electrochemical protection include the use of anodes and cathodes to control the potential of the tip material relative to the environment. anodes made of materials with high electrochemical activity can be used to prevent corrosion by directing corrosion currents to themselves and thereby protecting the tip. this approach is widely used in the oil and gas industry for pipelines where corrosion and aggressive conditions can significantly reduce the service life of equipment. electrochemical protection can significantly increase the resistance of logging tips to corrosion and mechanical damage, which is important for ensuring the safety and reliability of drilling and well operation. 2. increasing the coating density of the logging tip is critical to improving its durability and corrosion protection in well operating conditions. the following methods can be used to achieve this goal: electrolytic coating; plasma spraying; chemical vapor deposition (cvd). 3. thermal treatment of a logging tool can be an effective way to improve its corrosion resistance. this process includes various technologies and methods aimed at optimizing the microstructure and mechanical properties of the surface layer of the material. among them, the following are particularly important: annealing, carburizing, nitrocarburizing and tempering. each of these stages plays a key role in strengthening the logging tools, reducing internal stresses, increasing surface hardness and improving the corrosion resistance of steel due to the formation of nitride phases. these processes also help to reduce the brittleness that can occur after hardening the material. annealing: one of the most common heat treatment methods, in which the material is heated to a certain temperature and then cooled at a controlled rate. the purpose of annealing is to eliminate internal stresses, improve the crystalline structure and resistance to corrosion. conclusion. ensuring corrosion resistance of logging tips plays a critical role in the long-term reliability and safety of oil and gas operations. the use of modern materials, protective coatings and heat treatment technologies significantly increases the service life of equipment and reduces its operating costs. however, as technologies and requirements continue to evolve, continuous improvement of corrosion protection methods remains an important task for the industry aimed at sustainable and safe energy production. references 1. nace international. (n.d.). “economic effects of metallic corrosion in the united states.” 2. smith, c. (2006). “alaska pipeline leak: lessons learned.” oil & gas journal . 3. green, m. (2012). “elgin platform incident.” energy voice . 4. arutyunov a.a. equipment for oil production / a.a. arutyunov et al. krasnodar: publishing house south, 2014. 182 p. 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. warren, j. 2018. well (wireline) log interpretation of evaporites: an overview. salty matters, 31 march 2018, http://saltworkconsultants.businesscatalyst.com/blog/wireline-log interpretation-of-evaporites (accessed 7 april 2019). 6. musaevich, s. s., shukhratugli, b. b., latipovna, a. z., & kh, t. t. (2020). formation of structure at thermodiffusion chroming of porous permeable materials based on iron powder. 7. bektemirov, b. s. advanced ceramic coating methods b. sh. bektemirov, r. kh. saydakhmedov, a. kh. alikulov tashkent state technical university named after islam karimov, tashkent, uzbekistan the article is dedicated to put together on data associated with researches. 11 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 9, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 experimental study of the technological process of pressure and speed-based pressure compression of leather raw material in a multi-operational shaft machine gayrat bahadirov, gofurjon achilov institute of mechanics and seismic stability of structures named after mtu razbaev, uzbekistan academy of sciences abstract: this paper presents experimental studies on a multi-operation shaft machine recommended for use in the leather industry. in experimental studies, taking into account three input factors, the pressure of the working shafts, the rotational speed of the working body, the angle formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical, and the thickness of the leather raw material, a regression equation was obtained in which the output factor depends on the residual moisture. the solutions of the regression equation were obtained and analyzed graphically. keywords: technological machine, transmission mechanism, leather raw material, pressure mechanism, levers, rotational speed, pressure force calculation. introduction. the global demand for leather and leather products is growing year by year. china (7977 million feet) in leather production2), italy (4357 million feet2), brazil (2260 million feet2), turkey (4246 million feet2) russia (605.7 million feet2), india (1093 million feet2), south korea (1144 million feet2) united states (7615 million feet2) are considered leading countries. today, as in all areas of production, increasing the efficiency of machines and mechanisms and improving quality indicators is one of the pressing issues in the leather industry. considering that the global mechanical engineering industry accounts for 35% of total industrial production, the continuous and efficient organization of technological processes in this sector is of great importance [1]. an experimental stand for a multi-operation shaft technological machine was built in the mechanical workshop of the institute of mechanics and seismic strength of structures of the academy of sciences of the republic of uzbekistan. an overview of this experimental stand is shown in figure 1. 12 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1 experimental stand of a multi-operation roller technological machine (institute of mechanical engineering of the academy of sciences of the republic of uzbekistan) 1– working shaft, 2,3– compression shaft, 4– shelf, 5,6– crank, 7– pedal, 8,9– tension levers, 10– pulley, 11– chain, 12,13– lever, 14– gear sector, 15– parasitic gear wheel, 16– frame, 17– bearing housing, 18– electric motor figure 4.6 3d view of a multi-operation spindle machine the multi-operation machine mainly performs the pressing technological process, the planing technological process, and the flattening technological process. the processes performed in this case are carried out due to the cantilevering of the shafts. the working shafts used in the compression technological process are the same length, 250 mm, and the diameter is 190 mm. currently, the technological shaft machines used in leather factories for mechanical processing of leather raw materials consist of a pair of compression shafts. due to the varying topographic structure of leather raw materials, the widely used industrially used roller machines cannot sufficiently squeeze out excess moisture from some surfaces of the leather during the squeezing process [2]. as part of the research conducted to eliminate these shortcomings, patent no. iap 06847 was obtained by the intellectual property agency under the ministry of justice of the republic of uzbekistan. this patent relates to the invention of a machine for mechanically processing leather raw materials [3]. the main function of this machine is to qualitatively squeeze excess moisture from leather raw materials and increase machine productivity. the advantage of the new design is that the structural solution of the shafts allows the machine to be used for other technological operations. this helps to increase productivity, save time, and perform multiple leather processing processes (compression, smoothing, sanding) using a single machine [4]. methods. in this research work, the technological process of covering leather raw materials between compression shafts of different diameters without layers is considered new and relevant. in addition, the process of squeezing moisture from different parts of the leather raw material is also considered. in the first part of the experimental study, the residual moisture in different topographical parts of the leather raw material is determined under the condition of providing the same residual moisture with the required minimum energy consumption [5-8]. the second part of the experimental study is aimed at studying the process of layer-free coating of leather raw materials in a shaft compression machine under experimental conditions, in which the issue of increasing the surface area of leather raw materials is considered. to do this, the 13 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us initial surface of the samples is first measured, then the surface is measured again with the layer formed, the compression process is performed, and the resulting surface is measured again. in this way, the difference between the initial and output surfaces of the leather raw material determines the amount of elongation (in percent) at various parameters and the amount of flattening (in percent) between the surfaces as a result of layer formation [8-12]. results and discussion. before conducting the experiment, the required number of measurements (number of repetitions) was selected using mathematical statistical methods that provided the required accuracy. in the experiment, the factors are equal to the following according to the formula. i ii i zz x  0− = (1) here − i  interval value of factors. the general form of the regression equation in the experiment is as follows. nnnnnn xxbxxbxbxbxbby 1,1211222110 ...... −− +++++++= (2) here −y the amount of moisture released in coded form; − 0 b free term of the regression equation, − − nnnnn bbbbb ...,..., 11,112 coefficients of the regression equation; − n x conditional value of factors. table 1. levels and intervals of variation of the experimental factor no factor name unit of measurement character factor values variation level 1 0 1 1 working shaft pressure m |||untrans lated_co ntent_sta rt|||x1|||un translate d_conten t_end||| 16 24 32 8 2 working body rotation speed m, s 2 0-17 age: 25 34 0.085 3 the angle between the transmission mechanism and the vertical refusal |||untrans lated_co ntent_sta rt|||x3|||un translate d_conten t_end||| 1.2 1 55 175% during the experiment )(1 px pressure, )(2 vx speed and )(3 x the compressed and final weights of the leather raw material at different values of the angle formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical are presented in table 2. table 2 shows the size of the input parameter of the experiment. working matrix toe 2 3 = 8. table 2. experimental data on squeezing liquid from wet leather raw materials no |||untranslated_content_ start|||x1|||untranslated_ content_end||| 2 |||untranslated_conten t_start|||x3|||untranslat ed_content_end||| y 1 , gr y 2 , gr y 3 , gr y b1 y o1 y b2 y o2 y b3 y o3 1 + + + 2 5 7 7 8 7 2 + + 82,8 67.5 6. 5 66.5 4 8 14 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3 + + 90 6. 8 60 3 4 4 + 1 1 6. 3 5 7 5 + + 4 60 3 5 83.7 3 6. + 9 60 1 58.5 7 1 7 + 3 60 7 5 4 5 8 1 6. 8 5 4 5 here is b –initial weight of the wet leather raw material sample; y oh – the weight of a wet leather raw material sample after compression. using the values in table 2, an experimental design matrix was constructed. that is, mathematical calculations of the moisture extracted from the leather raw material product (in percentage) are presented in table 3 [12-17]. in a full factorial experiment, the regression coefficients are determined by the following formulas [84; pp. 65-70]: . 1 ; 1 ; 1 11 0 ijmjiimj n j jij n j i yxx n byx n by n b  === == (3) according to the above results, the regression coefficients are equal to: .0,89;0,04 ;1,06;4,23;0,05;0,2;5,1;24,1 12323 13123210 −=−= −====== bb bbbbbb table 3. experiment planning matrix n o factors experimental results a v e r a g e r e s u lt |||untransla ted_content _start|||x1|||u ntranslated _content_en d||| 2 |||untransla ted_content _start|||x3|||u ntranslated _content_en d||| |||untranslat ed_content_ start|||x12|||u ntranslated _content_en d||| |||untranslat ed_content_ start|||x13|||u ntranslated _content_en d||| 2 3 1 0 x 1 2 3 |||untransla ted_content _start|||y1|||u ntranslated _content_en d||| 2 y 3 y pl ac e 1 + + + + + + + 23 2 4 . 2 24.9 2 4 2 + + + 18 2 0 . 4 21.2 1 9 3 + + + 26.1 2 7 25 2 6 4 + + + 22 2 3 . 6 8 4 5 + + + 22.8 2 5 26.8 2 5 6 . + + + 25 2 5 |||untranslat ed_content_ start|||24,1|||u ntranslated _content_en d||| 2 4 7 + + + 29 3 0 29 8 8 + + + 17.2 1 9 19.8 1 8 15 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 4.1 we find the dispersion repeatability: i n v e r y 1 2 3 4 5 6 . |||untranslated_cont ent_start|||y1|||untran slated_content_end||| 2 y 3 y j ( )21 yy j − ( )22 yy j − ( )23 yy j − 2 js 1 23 2 4 . 2 24.9 2 4 15 0,03 0,3 16 2 18 2 0 . 4 21.2 1 9 3.3 23 1 1 3 26.1 2 7 25 2 6 13 1 76 81 4 22 2 3 . 6 8 4 34 0,04 14 017 age : 5 22.8 2 5 26.8 2 5 5.5 0,59 49 2 6 . 25 2 5 |||untranslated_conte nt_start|||24,1|||untran slated_content_end||| 8 |||untranslated_conten t_start|||0,1|||untransla ted_content_end||| 0.12 45 23 7 29 3 0 29 8 0.05 0,3 0.12 017 age : 8 17.2 1 9 19.8 1 8 3 0.9 65 1 we calculate the sum of the elements of the column from table 4.6. 72,7 8 1 2 = =j js (4) the dispersion repeatability is equal to the following expression:   965,08/72,7 8 1 8 1 22 ===  =j jy ss (5) we determine the mean square of the coefficient of deviation:     2,0 38 965,0 2 =  =  = mn s s y y (6) only specific coefficients are included in the mathematical model of the process. thus, as a result of processing the data obtained using the excel computer program, a regression equation is obtained for the leather raw material product and takes the following form [84]: .89,004,006,123,405,02,01,51,24 321323.12.1321 xxxxxxxxxxxxy −−−++++= (7) an adequate mathematical calculation of the regression equation shows the similarity, i.e. adequacy, of the experimental results and the mathematical models. in models, the value of the regression coefficients describes the significance of the corresponding factor in the magnitude of the output parameters as the factor moves up or down the level. the importance of a factor on the magnitude of the output factor when moving from a low level to a high level is called the effect of the factor. the larger the regression coefficient, the higher the efficiency of the factor, that is, the greater the impact of the factor on the output parameter. thus, the order of the factor is carried out in the model according to the magnitude of the regression coefficients, depending on the influence of the factor on "y". the sign in front of the regression coefficient describes the effect of the factor on "y". 16 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the level of confidence, based on the hypothesis of the adequacy of the equations from which the results were obtained, 95,0= was checked using fisher's exact test.   t y ад р f s s f = 2 2 (8) here 2 адs –residual variance or adequacy variance;   2 ys –repeated variance. 2 адs and   2 ys let's define. 84,20)~( 78 3 2 8 1 2 =− − =  = j j jад yys (9) fisher's criterion adequacy model:   59,2176,21 965,0 84,20 2 2 ==== t y ад р f s s f (10) 8 24 1 − = р x , 175,0 375,1 2 − =  x , 085,0 25,0 3 − = v x the equations (7) are put into the regression equation. here p – the compressive force of the shafts. v – constant rotation speed of the working body.  -the angle formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical. . 175,0 375,1 085,0 25,0 8 24 89,0 085,0 25,0 8 24 06,1 085,0 25,0 175,0 375,1 04,0 175,0 375,1 8 24 23,4 085,0 25,0 05,0 175,0 375,1 2,0 8 24 1,51,24       −       −       − −      −       − − −      −       − −      −       − + +      − +      − +      − +=    vрvр vр vр y 11 thus, the regression equation can be considered to be suitable with a 95% confidence level, and we can simplify the derived regression equation (11) and write it in the following form for the leather raw material product [84]: vpdpvvpvpw 4,764,817585,46,1143,20257,575,156 −+++−−−=  12 using the regression equation (12), the angle α formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical is the pressure of the fluid being squeezed. δw graphs of dependence on quantity p=32 kn/m and rotation of the working body v constructed for different values of speed (fig. 2). the working body rotates v velocity of the compressed liquid δw graphs of dependence on quantity α=1.55 rad and working shafts are designed for different values of thrust force (figure 3). working body rotation v the velocity of the liquid being squeezed out δw graphs of dependence on quantity p=32 kn/m and the vertical axis of the transmission mechanism α constructed for different values of the angle) (figure 4). analysis of the experimental results shows that when the leather raw material product moves between the pairs of compression shafts, the moisture efficiency of the leather raw material can be increased by reducing the speed of the leather raw material product and increasing the compression force of the compression shafts. based on the constructed graphs, the experimental results show that the angle formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical α=1.55 rad, compressive force compressing the shafts 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us p=32 kn/m and the speed of rotation of the working body v=0.17 m/s the amount of liquid squeezed out of the raw material (δ w=38 %) showed the highest result. the angle between the transmission mechanism and the vertical α=1.55 rad, compressive force compressing the shafts p=32 kn/m and the speed of rotation of the working body v=0.25 m/s the amount of liquid squeezed out of the raw material (δ w=36 %) the average result is also the angle formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical. α=1.55 rad, compressive force compressing the shafts p=32 kn/m and the speed of rotation of the working body v=0.34 m/s the amount of liquid squeezed out of the raw material (δ w=31 %) showed the lowest result. figure 2 the vertical axis of the transmission mechanism α liquid squeezed out of the corner δw graphs of dependence of the amount of (p=32 kn/m and different values of the working body rotation speed v figure 3. the working body rotates at a speed v, the fluid displaced δw graphs of dependence on the amount of (α=1.55 rad and working shafts are built for different values of the pressure force) figure 4. the working body rotates at a speed v, the fluid displaced δw graphs of dependence on the amount of (p=32 kn/m and constructed for different values of the angle α formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical) also, based on the constructed graphs, we can say that the angle formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical α=1.375 rad, compressive force that compresses the shafts p=32 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us kn/m and working body rotation speed v=0.17 m/s, the amount of liquid squeezed out of the leather raw material product (δw=32 %) is producing an average result. the angle between the transmission mechanism and the vertical α=1.2 rad, compressive force that compresses the shafts p=32 kn/m and maximum transition speed v=0.17 m/s when the amount of liquid squeezed out of the leather raw material product (δw=27 %) is producing less results. conclusion. in conclusion, it can be said that the angle formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical α=1.55 rad, the compressive force is large. p=32 kn/m and the maximum throughput of the leather raw material product is small v=0.17 m/s the moisture extracted is highest when. therefore, the greater the angle formed by the transmission mechanism with the vertical, the maximum speed of passage, and the compressive force, the less liquid is squeezed out of the leather raw material product. the proposed shaft machine design, consisting of a transmission mechanism, compresses the leather raw material product and ensures maximum moisture removal from the leather raw material product. this structure is wet. skin removing excess moisture from raw materials increases the efficiency of technological operations. references 1. https://app.indexbox.io/table/41h99/0/ 2. fr rakhimov ., g'. q. achilov determination of the support reaction forces of the feeding mechanism of a multi-operation machine// aip conf. |||untranslated_content_start|||proc. |||untranslated_content_end|||nandyal, india 2821, 030021 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0159449 3. achilov g'.q. "review and analysis of the main technological processes of semi-finished leather products machining" in the 2022 third international conference on advances in physical sciences and materials (icapsm 2022) // kpr institute of engineering technology coimbatore tamil nadu, 1 1 august, india during 8 9, 2022. 4. bakhadirov ga, abdullajanov aa, achilov g'.q. collection of materials of the international scientific and practical conference on innovative approaches in mechanical engineering. nanamgan 2024. b.381-383. 5. bakhadirov ga, achilov g'.q. machine for mechanical processing. // patent and patent no. iap 06847. published in byul. no. 4.29.04.2022. 6. nabiev, a., et al. 2023 conditions for vertical pulling of semi-finished leather products under driving rollers. in e3s web of conferences (vol. 376 s. edp sciences. 7. amanov, a.t., et al. 2021 improvement of the process of mechanical dehydration of fivelayer semi-finished wet leather products. textile & leather review, 4 (4), 282-294. preuzeto s https://hrcak.srce.hr/265676 8. bahadirov, g., et al. 2023 determination of rational parameters of a device for leather feeding to the machining area. eastern-european journal of enterprise technologies, 122(1). 9. amanov, t. yu., and dr. 2018 ustroystvo dlya obespecheniya usiliya prijima mejdu rabochimi organami valkovyx tehnologicheskix mashin. sovremennye naukoemkie tekhnologii, (9), 9-14. 10. amanov, a.t., et al. 2021 improvement of the process of mechanical dehydration of fivelayer wet leather semi-finished products. textile & leather review. 11. a. umarov, et al. features of parameters of a pair of rolls. aip conference. |||untranslated_content_start|||proc. |||untranslated_content_end|||21 november 2023; 2821(1):030020. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0159452 https://app.indexbox.io/table/41h99/0/ javascript:; javascript:; 19 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 12. nabiev, a.m., et al. 2023 device for determining permeability of tanning liquid. int j mod manuf technol, 15(3), 8. 13. bakhadirov, g. a., nabiev, a. m. (2017, september). classification and analysis opornyx plit valkovoy mashiny. in mashinostroenie i tekhnosfera xxi veka//sbornik trudov xxiv mejdunarodnoy nauchno-teknicheskoy konferentsii v g. sevastopol (pp. -17 14. bahadirov, ga, nabiev, am, rakhimov, fr, & musirov, mu (2023). determination of the parameters of the chain conveying device of the roller machine. izvestiya vysshikh uchebnykh zavedenii, series tekhnologiya tekstil'noi promyshlennosti, 5(407), 168-174. 15. nabiev, a., et al. 2023 ensuring conditions for the squeezed fluid flowing from the skin along the conveyor of the technological machine. in e3s web of conferences (vol. 458, p. 02015). edp sciences. 16. bahadirov, ga, et al. 2023 izvestia vysshikh uchebnykh zavedenii. series technology tekstil'noi promyshlennosti, 5(407), 168-174. 17. bakhadirov, g. a. technology and technology for processing. edn bpgdbu. 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 11, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 compression pressure measurements, starting and stopping of an ultra-high compression ratio gasoline engine toxirjon jalolov turakurgan agrotechnological college, turakurgan region, uzbekistan republic shuxratjon imomkulov namangan textile industrial institute., namangan city, uzbekistan republic abstract: as the as the automobile industry develops and the population increases, the demand for it increases. therefore, reducing the fuel problem and environmental pollution remains one of the pressing issues. all known automobile concerns and institutions specializing in ice problems are trying to solve them by means of a turbo device to improve the ice. this makes the design structure of the car engine complex. it is necessary to simplify the car engine for longterm high-quality operation and increased fuel efficiency. the solution to these problems can be found by increasing the compression ratio of the engine. currently, some research is being conducted to increase the compression ratio of internal combustion engines. keywords: the compression, the plugs, nozzles, indicator diagram, or fuel-air mixture, cycle, engines. 1. introduction one of the important components of checking the serviceability of the engine is the measurement of compression pressure. the following rules must be observed: the engine must be warmed up, the throttle valve must be fully open, the plugs must be unscrewed. the scroll speed of the starter must be at least 300-min. at the same time, the values of the compression values for a serviceable engine are indicated in the operating manuals. for gasoline engines with a compression ratio of 8-10.5, the compression should be 12-15 kg/sm2, with a compression ratio of 11-12.5, the compression pressure should be 15-17 kg/sm2. for diesel engines with a compression ratio of up to 20, the compression pressure should be 22-26 kg/sm2, for engines with a compression ratio of 20-23 it should be 26-32 kg/sm2. in a serviceable vaz-2110 engine with a compression ratio of 9.9, the compression should be 14-15 kg/sm2. the theoretical calculation of the compression end pressure is performed according to the formula pc = pa*ε 1.35. according to this formula, the compression end pressure for engines with compression ratios from 10 to 25 at pa = 0.9 bar (1 kg/sm2) should be: table 1 adia=1.35 pa= 0.9 bar eps pc,bar tc,к. 10.00 20.148 738.778 12.50 27.231 798.790 15.00 34.831 851.424 17.50 42.889 898.622 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 20.00 51.361 941.617 22.50 60.213 981.246 25.00 69.416 1018.106 (compiled by n.a. ivashchenko.) that is, as can be seen from the table, in the vaz-2110 engine with a compression ratio of 9.9, the compression should not be 14-15 kg/sm2 (12.6-13.5 bar), but 22 kg/sm2, or 20 bar. in a diesel engine with a compression ratio of 23, the compression end pressure should not be 26-32 kg/sm2 (23.4-28.8 bar), but 77 kg/sm2, or 69.4 bar. based on the above table, in the author's engine, which was demonstrated to the participants of the international conference and showed a compression end pressure of 40.5 kg /cm2 (36.45 bar), the compression ratio is not 22, but 15.5. that is, the discrepancies between tabular and calculated data are very large. the reason is as follows: the pressure of the compression end depends on how much air is compressed in the cylinder. the amount of air in the cylinder when the starter is scrolled depends on the moment when the intake valve is closed. during the measurement, it turned out that the intake valve of the vaz2110 engine (serial camshaft) closes at the moment when the piston has moved 23 mm from the ldc (lower dead center) towards the tdc. the full stroke of the piston is 74.8 mm. accordingly, 69% of the amount of air that the cylinder would hold if the piston were located in the ldc remains in the engine cylinder when the starter is scrolled. but this is theoretical. in fact, there are gaps and gaps between the walls of the cylinder and the rings, through which part of the air leaks. according to the training data, in a serviceable gasoline engine, the leakage rate during compression measurement is 2%. if the scroll speed is equal, the higher the pressure of the compression end, the greater the leakage rate. therefore, in an engine with a compression ratio of 22, the leakage rate is approximately 5%. accordingly, in order for the calculated data to coincide with the results of instrumental measurements, the following table must be used for this engine: table 2. adia=1.35 pa= 0.6 bar eps pc,bar tc,к 10.00 13.432 492,52 12.50 18.154 532,47 15.00 23.221 567,56 17.50 28.593 599,02 20.00 34.241 627,68 22.50 40.142 654,1 25.00 46.278 678,67 pa is the value of atmospheric pressure. if the compression pressure is measured in kg/cm2, ra has a value of 1 (units), and if in bars, 0.9. if you use the table below, it turns out that the engine cylinder is completely filled with air, but it is in a dilution state equal to 69% of the ambient atmospheric pressure. taking into account the magnitude of the leaks, the vacuum will be 64% of the atmospheric one. i.e., reality is actually being replaced by a fictional circumstance. in fact, the cylinder is filled to 64% of its volume and at the same time the air pressure corresponds to the ambient pressure. such a situation in the works of the author is designated as the actual compression ratio. the actual compression ratio of the vaz-2110 engine with a compression ratio of 22 when measuring compression is 15.5. the actual compression ratio of the serial vaz-2110 with a compression ratio of 9.9 is 6.8. 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us it turned out that the results of compression pressure measurements do not depend on the position of the throttle valve. both with the throttle fully closed and with the throttle open, 40 kg/sm2 was obtained. if measurements were taken with the throttle closed, the result had little effect on whether the spark plugs were unscrewed or not. with the candles screwed in we got 38-40 kg/sm2, with the candles unscrewed 40 kg/sm2. reason: when air is sucked into the first cylinder, the pressure in the intake manifold drops and a vacuum is created in it. in the next cylinder, at this time, the exhaust stroke ends and the valves enter the overlap sector. because of this, for a certain period of time the intake manifold communicates freely with the exhaust manifold through this cylinder. an intensive suction of combustion products from the exhaust pipe into the intake pipe occurs and the pressure in the intake manifold is restored to ambient pressure. in this case, the amount of air sucked in from the exhaust manifold depends on the crankshaft speed. this factor had a negative impact when starting a warm engine. the first experiments showed that due to the suction of exhaust gases from the exhaust manifold, the pressure pa in the cylinders exceeds the permissible limits and, upon compression, a flash of the combustible mixture occurs due to self-ignition. the first method used to combat this phenomenon was a small car vacuum cleaner with a one-way valve. the vacuum cleaner was connected to the intake manifold through a valve and worked like a vacuum pump. before starting the engine, the vacuum cleaner was turned on for 1-2 seconds. it sucked air from the intake manifold and created a slight vacuum there. then the starter turned on. when stopping the engine, if you do not turn off the fuel supply after turning off the ignition, the following picture will be observed: “increasing the compression ratio in modern car engines has led to the fact that it is often difficult to stop a normally warmed-up engine by turning off the ignition; it continues to idle for quite a long time with interruptions and shaking. specially conducted studies have shown that after turning off the ignition, the flashes immediately stop, as a result of which the crankshaft rotation speed quickly decreases, but not to zero, but only to a value at which the duration of the ignition delay is shorter than the residence time of the mixture heated by compression in the cylinder. as a result, spontaneous flashes occur, which leads to a slight increase in the rotation speed to a value at which the flashes stop again, the rotation speed decreases again, flashes occur again, etc. (a.n. voinov, p. 179). but if, in the case given from the textbook, without turning off the fuel supply, you limit the flow of air into the cylinder, the engine will stop. those. the above example is another confirmation that a certain balance must be maintained between the volume of the combustion chamber, the compression time and the amount of working fluid, which will ensure the reliability of both starting and stopping the engine when the ignition is turned off. subsequently, as the compression ratio increased, it was necessary to increase the scroll speed at startup. to do this, it was necessary to reduce the diameter of the flywheel and increase the diameter of the starter gear, while simultaneously increasing the starter power. if earlier, with рс = 26-27 kg/sm2, the starter had a power of 0.9 kw, and the ratio of the teeth of the flywheel and the starter gear was 129/11=11.73, then with рс = 38-40 kg/sm2, a starter with a power of 2.2 kw with a tooth ratio of 124/15 = 8.27. those. the rotation speed at startup was increased by 1.42 times, which was quite enough to start the engine in any condition without using a vacuum cleaner. but even in this case, when starting a hot engine, it was necessary to start the starter 1-2 seconds before fuel injection. starting a gasoline engine with ε=20 in cold weather at temperatures down to –250c (there were no lower temperatures during the experiments in moscow) was carried out in the usual way. those. the starter turns on simultaneously with the supply of fuel and ignition. the engine starts immediately after turning the ignition key, i.e. almost instantly. 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us installing separate throttle valves for each cylinder changed the picture dramatically. with the throttle valves closed, 20-22 kg/sm2 was obtained, and with the throttle valves open, 40 kg/sm2. with a further increase in the compression ratio, the suction of exhaust gases from the exhaust tract will begin to affect the engine's idle speed. therefore, at compression ratios above 22, each cylinder must be equipped with a separate throttle valve. the issue of eliminating the suction of combustion products and reducing pump stroke losses will be fundamentally resolved by switching to regulating air flow by the intake and exhaust valves by removing its excess into the intake and exhaust manifolds. in this case, when starting and warming up a cold engine, the amount of air in the cylinder is regulated by a second intake valve with a closing angle adjustable on the compression stroke. the excess air charge will be pushed into the intake manifold, and fuel will be injected directly into the cylinder after the valve closes. after the engine warms up, the amount of air in the cylinder will be controlled by the second exhaust valve, pushing excess air into the exhaust manifold. 2. ideal, theoretical and actual cycles. the thermodynamic cycle with a mixed supply of heat (sabate-trinkler), known to the theory, has, according to a.n. voinov, the following disadvantages and advantages: 1. the engine compression ratio is limited to ε<25 due to an increase in the maximum permissible operating severity. “another significant drawback of diesel engines is the harshness and noise of their operation, associated with high rates of pressure increase at the beginning of the main combustion phase. in diesel engines with open chambers and jet mixture formation, the maximum values of !" !# reach 1.2–1.5 mpa/ versus 0.15–0.2 mpa/ in gasoline engines with spark ignition. although diesel engines of this type achieve the lowest specific fuel consumption [up to 165𝑔/(ℎ" − ℎ)], and in marine diesel engines with large cylinders up to 150g/(hp-h), but the noise they create exceeds permissible standards. in this regard, the efforts of a large number of researchers and designers have long been aimed at finding ways to organize the processes of mixture formation and combustion that would reduce the values of pz and dp/dφ.” “to achieve high combustion completeness in a high-speed diesel engine at low values of the excess air coefficient, it is necessary to organize the injection in such a way that would ensure, perhaps, a more uniform distribution of fuel throughout the entire volume of the air charge, for example, when injecting through nozzles with a large number nozzle holes. but at the same time, the simultaneous occurrence of a significant number of initial sources of ignition and its rapid development are inevitable, which leads to a rapid increase in pressure and its high maximum values. if we strive to obtain moderate rates of pressure increase, it is difficult to ensure rapid completion of combustion and avoid prolonged afterburning during the expansion period.” 2. when a diesel engine operates with a compression ratio of up to 25 "at idle speed at low speed, the atomization fineness usually deteriorates significantly and at the same time the temperature of the walls of the combustion chamber decreases, which is accompanied by an increase in the duration of the delays. this leads to the fact that a significant proportion of the injected fuel droplets manage to completely evaporate by the time of ignition. with a uniform distribution of fuel vapor in the combustion chamber, a homogeneous mixture of a composition is obtained that already exceeds the limits of flammability, which can lead to the emission of products of incomplete oxidation of fuel with an unpleasant odor from the engine. some of these products are toxic. an effective way to combat this drawback is to reduce the amount of air entering the cylinders at low loads and at idle by using throttling.” (emphasis added); 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. “one of the main disadvantages of diesel engines associated with the combustion process is the appearance of black smoke at the exhaust under heavy loads in the case of an increase in the cyclic fuel supply or, what is the same, a decrease in the total excess air coefficient below a certain certain limits. this is explained by the fact that during the diffusion combustion of inhomogeneous mixtures in zones of local over-enrichment, the formation of particles of solid carbon (soot) occurs at high temperatures of burnt gases in adjacent zones, where local values of α are close to unity.” 4. “although the pi values in diesel engines can be significantly increased (up to 2.0 mpa or more) by using supercharging, the engine design becomes heavier due to very high maximum pi values.” advantages: 1. “the effect on such explosive ignition of an increase in the compression ratio, intake pressure and thermal state of the engine is directly opposite to the influence of the same factors on detonation in engines with pre-mixing. “everything that contributes to the occurrence of detonation in light fuel engines with spark ignition, in diesel engines, on the contrary, eliminates the occurrence of shock waves due to a reduction in ignition delays and, accordingly, a reduction in the amount of fuel supplied to the cylinder before it ignites.” 2. “the fact that as the amount of injected fuel decreases, an increasing proportion of it burns in the chamber volume away from the walls, contributes to a decrease in heat transfer. equally important is the reduction in the average heat capacity of combustion products, which increases the efficiency of using the released heat to perform useful work. all this leads to the fact that, unlike light fuel engines, the indicator efficiency of which decreases at low load conditions, in diesel engines the values of ήi increase with decreasing load. accordingly, fuel economy in the operating conditions of cars with diesel engines compared to the fuel consumption of cars with gasoline engines reaches an average of 40%, while the differences in the minimum specific fuel consumption according to load characteristics are much smaller only 20-25%.”. thus, the disadvantages in organizing the operation of diesel engines boil down to the following: 1. to ensure high combustion completeness at low values of the excess air coefficient, it is necessary to ensure fine atomization and early injection. but this leads to a rapid increase in pressure. 2. when operating at low speeds, a homogeneous mixture of a composition is formed that goes beyond the limits of flammability. according to a.n. voinov, an effective means of combating these shortcomings is to reduce the amount of air entering the cylinders at low load and idle modes using throttling. 2. an increase in the average pressure of the cycle leads to an increase in the maximum pressure and a heavier engine structure. the listed disadvantages indicate that the causes of detonation in gasoline engines and high rates of pressure rise in diesel engines have the same root: this is an insufficient compression ratio, due to which the main phase of heat release has to be organized in the zone of small changes in the volume of the working fluid. experiments with gasoline engines with high compression ratios show that the identified possibilities for regulating the rate of pressure increase by increasing the compression ratio and shifting the main period of heat release in phase can also be used when organizing the combustion process in diesel engines, which will eliminate the listed disadvantages. what is important here is that increasing the compression ratio of diesel engines to ultra-high values (up to 51) will lead to a reduction in weight and size indicators and an increase in the service life of such engines compared to engines with conventional compression ratios. 82 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. ice with external mixture formation. when the compression ratio increases to high and ultra-high values, one fundamental difference remains between internal combustion engines the method of preparing the mixture for combustion. preliminary preparation (external mixture formation) or direct preparation (internal mixture formation). for engines with ultra-high compression ratios (up to 51) with internal mixture formation, the ignition method will not matter. in engines with ultra-high compression ratios, it is necessary to use multi-stage direct injection. in engines with external mixture formation, from the moment the spark is supplied, the possibility of influencing the combustion process is eliminated. for this reason, the compression ratio in them can be high (up to 30), but not extremely high. such an engine will operate according to the rules set out in the article “gasoline engine with an ultra-high compression ratio” with the following clarification: at low speeds with throttling at a flow rate of approximately up to 35% of the combustible mixture according to the beau de roche cycle. at low and high speeds at a flow rate of approximately 35% to 100% of the combustible mixture with throttling (when the filling is limited, the maximum permissible amount of mixture for a given speed is taken as 100% of the flow rate) and when operating at an external speed characteristic (without throttling) according to ibadullaev's cycle. a gasoline engine with internal mixture formation with an ultra-high compression ratio (up to 51) at low and high speeds with air throttling will operate according to the ibadullaev cycle. at medium and high speeds on the external speed characteristic without air throttling according to the imam cycle. any of the cycles proposed for consideration can be presented in the form of an ideal, theoretical and actual. 4. ibadullaev cycle. based on the thermodynamic processes of an ideal gas, an open cycle with heat supplied to the working fluid first along an isobar (at constant pressure p=const), and then along an isochore (at constant volume v=const), with heat removal through compression and expansion and renewal of the working fluid according isochore. the cycle is completed as follows: in the section ab of the diagram, polytropic compression of the working fluid occurs with heat removal. the pressure of the working fluid rises to value p1. at point b, part of the heat is supplied to the working fluid. in section bb', the pressure of the working fluid remains equal to the value p1. in section b'c of the diagram, at a constant volume, the second part of the heat is supplied. the pressure of the working fluid rises to the value p2. in the sd section, polytropic expansion of the working fluid occurs with heat removal. in the section of the diagram, the working fluid is updated. ibadullaev’s theoretical cycle is characterized by the indicators of a preliminary increase in volume in the isobaric section and a preliminary increase in pressure in the isochoric section, which affect the value of thermal efficiency. 83 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us diagram of ibadullaev's thermodynamic cycle fig. 1 ibadullaev’s actual cycle formula: mixed cycle of operation of a gasoline internal combustion engine with a high (up to 30) compression ratio, in which on the first stroke a fresh charge of air (or fuel-air mixture) is injected, on the second stroke this charge is compressed to pressure p1, on the third on the fourth stroke, combustion products expand; on the fourth stroke, combustion products are removed from the cylinder, characterized in that when operating at the external speed characteristic, depending on the rotation speed, on the intake stroke, the filling of the cylinder with the combustible mixture (air) is limited to ensure for the period of flame propagation along the front of constant pressure p1 by synchronizing the process of increasing the volume of the combustion chamber and the pressure of the mixture. in this case, the starting point of heat release is at tdc (top dead center), during expansion, part of the heat is released at a constant pressure p1, and the rest of the heat is released at a pressure increasing to the value pz. in this case, the compression process is conditionally adiabatic, the process of preliminary expansion is isobaric, and the process of preliminary increase in pressure is conditionally isochoric. calculation of the thermal efficiency of ibadullaev’s theoretical cycle should be made according to the formula: h$ = 1 − %&!'( )!"# [𝑘(𝜌 − 1) + 𝜌(𝜆 − 1)]. diagram of ibadullaev’s theoretical cycle. fig. 2 84 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion what has been said in this work can be summarized as follows: 1. many theorists whom the author asked to read his works and express their opinions refused to do so, not because they lacked healthy curiosity or the ability to think, but because they were preoccupied with solving current problems. the main question for each of us is how to feed our family today, and not think about the global problems of tomorrow. the consumer society has turned theorists into simple artisans concerned with daily earnings. 2. in modern high-speed diesel engines, the maximum cycle pressures are 220-260 kg/sm2. increasing the compression ratio to ultra-high values will allow reducing the maximum values of pressure (up to 200-210 kg/sm2) and temperatures (up to 1500-17000k, instead of 2200-26000k). those. for mass production of such engines, neither special materials nor special technologies are needed. modern industry has all the necessary conditions for this. 3. the basis for the construction of modern gasoline and diesel engines is the outdated dogma of the internal combustion engine theory that in order to ensure maximum efficiency and efficiency, it is necessary to ensure the flow of the main phase of heat generation in the tdc zone. this leads to the fact that the limits of increasing the compression ratio in gasoline engines are limited by detonation, and in diesel engines by the dynamism factor. at the same time, in the last decade, there has been a tendency in the practice of engine building to abandon this dogma. the use of direct and multistage injection in engines shows that the main phase of heat generation should occur during expansion. reference 1. “theory of working processes of piston and combined engines.” ed. "mechanical engineering". moscow. 1971 (moscow higher technical school named after n.e. bauman). 2. “thermal engineering”. moscow, 2004. publishing house of moscow state technical university named after n.e. bauman. 3. a.n.voinov. "combustion in high-speed piston engines". moscow, 1977 “mechanical engineering”. 4. i.m. lenin. "automobile and tractor engines." part 1 and 2. publishing house "higher school". 1976. 5. “internal combustion engines.” theory of work processes. volume 1. moscow. "graduate school". 2005. madi (gtu). 6. prof. d.d. brose. "combustion in piston engines". publishing house "mechanical engineering". moscow 1969 7. “internal combustion engines. volume 1. theory of light engines. v.i. soroko-novitsky, associate professor v.a.petrov. onti-nktp-ussr. moscow. 1938". 8. “collection of scientific papers based on the materials of the international conference engine-2007, dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the school of engine engineering of mstu. n.e. bauman". moscow. 2007 9. i.p. bazarov. “thermodynamics”, state publishing house of physical and mathematical literature. moscow. 1961 10. k.v. ryzhkov. one hundred great inventions. moscow. publishing house "veche". 2001 11. sh.imomkulov, m.tukhtaboev. “analysis of fuel economy in petrol engines due to high compression of steppes”. international journal of recent technology and engineering (ijrte). issn: 2277-3878, volume-9 issue-1, may 2020. 1744-1748 p. 245-249 requirements for the design of the household part in modern production buildings 245 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 requirements for the design of the household part in modern production buildings abdujabbarova maktuba tukhtasinovna tashkent university of architecture and construction, department of "architecture", associate professor аrxitektor71@mail.ru abstract: this article describes the rules for designing sanitary facilities in modern industrial buildings, design requirements, and issues of creating comfort for employees in the building. keywords: industry, enterprise, sanitary facilities, workshop, auxiliary building, wardrobe room, sanitary unit, production process. introduction taking care of people's health, improving their working conditions, increasing their professional skills is one of our primary goals. to form the personnel system in the cultural-household service quality center organized in the industrial production facilities, maintain the stability of their composition, and the employees it has a positive effect on health and mood, and as a result significantly increases the labor productivity and quality of work [1]. in the auxiliary parts of industrial enterprises, as a rule, there are premises for sanitary and household, cultural and sports, communal and household, administrative and technical, commercial, technical service, health care, public catering, vocational training and public organizations[2]. the system of cultural and household services for industrial enterprises will be implemented in 4 stages: 1. the first stage covers the premises and buildings of the workshop. these include primary service system facilities such as toilets, smoking areas, drinking fountains, kiosks and vending machines, and rest rooms (service radius 75-100 m). 2. the 2nd level of service includes workshops and inter-workshop rooms and facilities. all of these are considered daily service facilities (service radius 300-400 m) and include a changing room (wardrobe), shower room, washroom, catering, first aid stations, and rooms for public organizations. 3. the third stage is periodic service facilities (service radius 800-1000 m), which include general medical and health care points, branches of polyclinics, canteens, gyms and clubs. 4. the fourth stage is facilities of regional importance with a service radius of 1.5-2.0 km: episodic service facilities include public catering establishments, polyclinics, medical and sanitary facilities, industrial palaces, and engineering centers[(3]. 246 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us research materials and methods sanitary-household rooms are divided into general and special rooms. examples of common areas include cloakrooms, washrooms, toilets, smoking areas, nursing rooms, etc. special rooms include shower rooms, laundry, clothing and footwear cleaning, dusting, drying, repair rooms, rooms for heating and cooling workers, a foot bath room, a drinking water supply, and rooms with equipment for placing clean and dirty clothes. all rooms intended for various functions are located in one building, unless this contradicts the construction standards and regulations of industrial enterprises. the total usable area of auxiliary buildings usually constitutes 20-30% of the total usable area of an industrial enterprise. the area of service rooms per person in the general list is assumed to be 4 m2. of the determined total area, 65% is allocated for sanitary and household services, 25% for public catering, 2% for medical services, and 8% for cultural service rooms [4]. the production process in industrial enterprises is divided into four groups according to the sanitary classification: ø the first group, in turn, is divided into 3 subgroups (a, b, c) and is characterized by the fact that the production processes take place under normal conditions and the absence of harmful gases. ø the second group, in turn, is divided into five subgroups (a, b, c, d, e) and is characterized by the fact that the production processes take place in unfavorable meteorological conditions (or with dust formation), with heavy physical labor. ø the third group is divided into four subgroups (a, b, c, d) and the production processes are characterized by the release of harmful substances and the contamination of work clothes. ø the fourth group is divided into three subgroups (a, b, c) and the production processes require special rules to ensure product quality [5] in the design of the household part in auxiliary buildings, as a rule, changing rooms, showers and washing rooms are combined into a “wardrobe block”. wardrobes are intended for street, home, and special clothing [6]. in production processes i, iia, the wardrobe block is designed as a general unit for all clothing, in other cases it is designed separately for each group. in production processes ii (except iia), iii and iv, a separate wardrobe is designed for special clothing. workers who come to work take off their clothes (street and home), bypass the shower room and go to the special clothing wardrobe. after returning from work, they go to the wardrobe of street and home clothes through the shower room and the anteroom [7] in industrial enterprises, public catering, medical and cultural service rooms, workshops, public organizations, and administrative rooms, which are part of auxiliary buildings, are usually provided with natural light. it is necessary to design the rooms in the auxiliary buildings and their location so that they are convenient for workers. for example, the kitchen, medical center, cultural and educational rooms, and cloakroom-shower rooms are located on the first floor, close to the passage. cloakrooms, like other sanitary and domestic rooms, may not be provided with natural light if this is not possible in the design [8]. storage of clothes in wardrobes can be carried out on individual shelves with hooks, in a combined form. shelves are made in an open or closed form, in a oneor two-sided design. the dimensions of the shelf compartments are taken as follows: depth 500 mm, width 200-500 mm, height 1650 mm; the number of compartments in the shelf is 2, 3, 4, 5. the materials from which the shelves are made must be moisture resistant. therefore, they are made of metal, plastic, wood with a moisture-resistant finish. wardrobes are also equipped with benches (group ia is not included). the benches are 250 mm wide and are installed along the rows of shelves. in 247 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us enterprises with production processes in groups ib and iia, benches in utility rooms are placed on one side of the aisles between the shelves; in other cases, they are placed on both sides (pic.1). the distance between the fronts of the shelves is 1 m (if there are no chairs); 1.4 m (if chairs are placed on one side) and 2 m (if chairs are placed on both sides). if the wardrobes are equipped with hooks, 8 or 6 hooks are accepted per 1 m length. pic.1. examples of layouts of individual sanitary and utility rooms: a – dressing rooms for storing street and special clothing in 400x500 mm cabinets for 88 people; b – shower with washbasins and foot baths; c – washbasin with 22 taps; d – toilet (women's and men's). sanitary facilities (toilets) are located in living quarters, directly in workshops (at a distance of 75 m from the workplace) or in open areas (at a distance of 150 m from the workplace). in multistorey industrial buildings, toilets are located on each floor or floor by floor (depending on the number of employees). a hand-washing sink is installed in the sanitary facility, at the entrance. one hand-washing sink will be installed for every four toilet stalls. one sink will be installed for every 15 employees. the distance between rows of toilet bowls is assumed to be 2 m (with 6 or more bowls) or 1.5 m (with less than 6 bowls). if there is a wall on one side, this width is taken as 1.3 m. in multi248 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us storey industrial enterprises, toilets are designed near the staircases of the building, while in single-storey enterprises they are located in the basement, in the attic or in a closed room. when 15 or more women work in a maximum shift, personal hygiene rooms are designed for them. such rooms are located near the women's toilets. the changing rooms consist of a changing room (0.7 m2 per person) and a connecting block (shower measuring 1.8x1.2 m). 1 shower block is provided for every 100 women. employees are allowed 20 minutes to be in the kitchen and 12 minutes to be in the cafeteria. when calculating the catering system, it is assumed that 60% of employees in the largest shift use the kitchen, 20% use the cafeteria, 10% use the dining room, and the remaining 10% are on vacation or absent for various reasons. when calculating the number of seats, it is assumed that a maximum of four seats can be occupied per shift. in some cases, a single break in an enterprise is considered a meal. in such cases, the number of seats is considered equal to the number of workers on the shift. meals are organized in a self-service manner (pic.2). pic.2. layout solutions for canteens: a in industrial buildings with a frame structural scheme 12 m wide (canteen for 50 seats); b in industrial buildings with transverse load-bearing walls with a span of 6.0 m (canteen for 75 running meters); 1 dining room with a distribution area; 2 hot shop = kitchen; 3, 4 canteen and kitchenware washing areas; 5, 6 bread slicing and cold shop; 7 refrigerated chambers; 8 storeroom and container washing area; 9, 10 administrative and utility rooms; 11 warehouse premises; 12 loading. 249 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion thus, it is required that the sanitary and household parts of the auxiliary buildings have all the necessary amenities, and that all sanitary and hygienic rules be established in them. in addition to the above requirements, all conditions related to the organization and provision of the production process for engineering, technical and auxiliary personnel must be created. creating all conditions for full-fledged rest for workers and employees during breaks and after work in auxiliary buildings reduces their fatigue, preserves their health, and allows them to increase labor productivity. references: 1. m.t. abdujabbarovа, architectural design (industrial buildings). training manual, taki, tashkent, 2020. 2. м.т.abdujabbarova, modern formation of sewing enterprises in the cities of uzbekistan. solid state technology volume: 63 issue: 5 publication year: 2020. 6967-6972 page. 3. m.m. vakhitov, h.a. akrmov, industrial buildings. textbook. "industrial buildings".tashkent, 2006. 4. marozova e.b, typology of industrial buildings and structures. textbook. minsk, bntu, 2014. 5. kmk 2.09.04-09, "production of industrial buildings and structures. 6. a.p. mikheev, industrial buildings. textbook. asv publishing house, moscow, 2016. 7. м т. abdujabbarova, problems of lighting in modern sewing industries. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 4, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 8. a.s. ilyashev, yu.s. timyansky, yu.n. khromets, "manual for the design of industrial buildings" moscow, "higher school" 1990. 9. m.t. abdujabbarova, the sanitary and hygienic norms of the sanitary and hygienic work. "construction of architectural structures and integration" riaa. takhi 2018, 64-66-b. 10. n.g. samigova, "hygiene and physiological foundations for optimizing working conditions for workers in the sewing industry of uzbekistan" 14.00.02-hygiene. dissertation. tashkent, 2005. 11. g.b. beznoshchenko, n.a. malyshkina, industrial and hygienic characteristics and working conditions of workers of the sewing association // depository manual. omsk, 1989. 160 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 synthesis of adhesive resins from chlorinated hydrocarbons produced in the pvc production process and their properties f. s. temirova, nazarov s. i., razzakov h.q. bukhara state university, 200117, mi k bol street, 11, bu khara, uzbekistan abstract: this pvc manufacturing in the article release as a result harvest to be chlorinated from hydrocarbons adhesive tars synthesis to do opportunities studied. research during chlorinated hydrocarbons, cyanide acid and urea-formaldehyde based on resin (kfs) glue working release method offer synthesis process temperature, concentration and reaction duration such as to the parameters impact analysis results this showed that the modified glue high adhesion to the ability has is different industry in the fields application possible. keywords: polyvinyl chloride (pvc), chlorinated hydrocarbons, adhesive tar, cyanide acid, urea-formaldehyde resin (kfs), adhesion ability. 1. login polyvinyl chloride (pvc) production release as a result harvest to be chlorinated hydrocarbons to the environment negative impact to show possible . therefore , they again work and industry for useful to products convert current from problems this is one of them . in research chlorinated hydrocarbons and cyanide acid based on adhesive tars synthesis and their physicochemical properties analysis to do goal made of pvc. release in the process harvest to be chlorinated hydrocarbons in the composition high to reactivity has was components there is and they binder to materials convert through ecological risks reduce possible . from this except this substances adhesive tars synthesis for use industry waste effective also possible for disposal gives . today on the day adhesive tars construction , oil rig again work , car and furniture in the industry wide used , their quality increase and cost reduce important importance has. 2. materials and methods 2.1 adhesive tars synthesis to do for following main components used: used substances and their classification substance name chemical classification features production issuer companies ureaformaldehyde tar (kfs) polycondensation polymer high binder feature , strength and to the water endurance " navoiyazot " jsc chlorine hydrocarbons mixture organic ringed and chained chlorinated compounds solvent and plasticizer as used " navoiyazot " jsc cyanide acid solution organic acid as a catalyst , a reinforcing agent is used " navoiyazot " jsc 161 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sodium silicate inorganic compound ( aqueous glass ) binder to the feature has , hardener and thermal stabilizer as used chemistry factory ( uzbekistan ) ammonia solution (25%) inorganic basis ph balance preserves , polymerization in the process catalyst task will do " navoiyazot " jsc water universal solvent reaction environment and viscosity order to plant local delivery providers 2. 2 synthesis methods and mechanisms synthesis process three in stages done increased : 1. reactive of substances mixed – defined in proportion chlorinated hydrocarbons and cyanide acid to kfs added . 2. polymerization and modification – 30-50 minutes at 40-60°c during reactions take went . 3. the product cleaning and properties analysis to make – to harvest was my glue viscosity , stickiness and mechanic strength studied . figure 1. temperature viscosity and to adhesion impact from the picture apparently it is clear that the temperature the more i eat, the more i feel . viscosity decreases . 1600 mpa·s at 20°c , but 600 mpa·s at 60°c to adhesion (n/m² ) – red line : temperature increase with my glue adhesion the feature also decreases , because glue to liquefy and harden speed decreases . at low temperatures glue thicker and adhesion power high will be . top at temperature and glue faster it hardens , but adhesion quality decrease possible . 162 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. concentration viscosity and to adhesion impact viscosity ( mpa·s ) – blue line : concentration increased gradually glue thickening , viscosity increases . at 5% concentration 500 mpa·s , at 25% 2000 mpa ·s . adhesion (n/m²) – red line : concentration the more i eat, the more i feel . adhesion strength also increases , because in it active gardener substances amount increases . at low concentration glue more liquid to be , to stick the quality will be low . high in concentration my glue adhesion feature increases , but too much outside thick to be processing to give process make it difficult possible . figure 3. reaction duration modification to the level impact modification level ( blue ) line , left yaxis ) in 10 minutes modification level 60% around if , in 20 minutes 75% to enough for 30 minutes come modification level 85% , in 40 minutes and 90% to it will take 50 minutes . then modification level stabilized , noticeable change adhesion 163 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ( red ) line , right y o ' q ) in 10 minutes adhesion 90 n / m² , in 20 minutes 100 n / m² it will be . in 30 minutes adhesion sharp exceed 120 n / m² to it will take 40-50 minutes . 130 n / m² to it is approaching . this is what shows that the reaction duration increase with my glue adhesion ability improves . optimal reaction time 30-40 minutes between is , this at the time modification level and adhesion high will be . from 50 minutes then growth slows down , this and excess reaction of time to efficiency impact decrease shows . modification level and adhesion in the middle correct dependency exists , that is modification level increased gradually my glue adhesion ability also improves . conclusion research pvc production throughout release as a result harvest to be chlorinated from hydrocarbons used without high good quality adhesive tar synthesis this was done . method industry waste again to work and ecological the environment to improve service to do possible . next in research gluers further reinforcement and their ecological safety increase according to affairs take to go necessary . literature list 1. kargin va, kabanov v.ya. polymers chemistry . – moscow: nauka , 2002. 2. shur v.yu. , myasnikova la polymer glues and their application . – st. petersburg : chemistry , 2010. 3. turobov a., khoshimov b. polymer materials technology . – tashkent: science, 2018. 4. smith w., hashemi j. foundations of materials science and engineering . – mcgraw-hill, 2014. 5. kadyrov s., karimov o. industry waste again work technologies . – tashkent : uzbekistan national university publishing house , 2021. 6. pizzi a., mittal kl handbook of adhesive technology . – crc press, 2017. 7. petrie em handbook of adhesives and sealants . – mcgraw-hill, 2007. 8. wypych g. handbook of adhesion promoters . – chemtec publishing, 2018. 9. silverstein rm, webster fx spectrometric identification of organic compounds . – john wiley & sons, 2005. 10. sperling lh introduction to physical polymer science . – wileyinterscience , 2005. 38 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 12, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 development of the integrated flood hazard index (fhi) for a multi-criteria assessment of mudflow hazard aminjanova malika bakhtiyorovna samarkand state architecture and construction university named after mirzo ulugbek, phd student abstract: the article presents a comprehensive approach to the quantitative assessment and mapping of debris-flow hazard at the regional scale (using samarkand region as a case study) through the development of an integrated flood hazard index (fhi). the index is constructed using a multi-criteria analysis (mca) framework and incorporates six key thematic layers: precipitation intensity (chirps), flow accumulation (hydrosheds acc), terrain slope (srtm), distance to surface water bodies (jrc global surface water), vegetation index (modis ndvi), and global land-cover data (esa worldcover). data processing was carried out within the google earth engine (gee) environment, while layer integration was performed using normalization procedures and the weighted linear combination (wlc) technique. the resulting fhi map delineates four hazard classes (very low to high) and reveals the spatial concentration of high hazard levels in the mountainous and piedmont catchments of the middle zarafshan. the methodological principles and datasets employed in the study are aligned with contemporary practices in satellite remote sensing and gis-based hazard assessment. keywords: debris flows, precipitation intensity, flow accumulation, terrain slope, distance to water bodies, vegetation index, global land-cover map, layer integration, hazard class. introduction. mudflows are dynamic and often catastrophic natural processes that form when intense precipitation in mountainous and foothill areas combines with steep slopes and insufficient vegetation cover. to manage risks and plan measures to reduce damage, spatialtemporal debris flow hazard maps based on objective physical indicators and reproducible methodology are required. in recent decades, multi-criteria methods integrating remotely sensed products and digital terrain models have become the standard for regional hazard assessments [1;2]. the aim of the study is to develop an integrated multi-criteria flood hazard index (fhi) for assessing and mapping debris flow hazards in the samarkand region, to show the methodology for preparing and normalising input layers in gee, and to demonstrate the spatial distribution of risk classes with an indication of areas of increased hazard. literature review. since the global data sets for assessing hydrological and landscape factors include chirps, hydrosheds (flow accumulation), srtm dem, jrc global surface water, modis ndvi, and esa worldcover, in their study "infrared precipitation monitoring stations a new environmental record for monitoring extreme events" (2015), chris funk and his colleagues presented the chirps algorithm, the results of global and regional validation, and showed how chirps can be used to quantify the hydrological consequences of reduced precipitation and increased air temperatures in the greater horn of africa. using a variable 39 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us infiltration capacity model, they demonstrated that chirps can support effective hydrological forecasting and trend analysis in southeastern ethiopia [3]. in the 2008 technical documentation on hydrological networks, author bernhard lechner et al. note that hydro sheds (flow accumulation) and related products provide global hydrography and runoff accumulation indicators, which are key to identifying drainage structures and surface runoff concentration zones [4]. during the shuttle radar topography mission, tom farrar and his colleagues (2007) created the most complete digital model of the earth's relief with the highest resolution. dual radar antennas were used to collect interferometric radar data, which was converted into digital topographic data with a resolution of 1 arc second [5]. the location and stability of surface waters (inland and coastal) depend on both climate and human activity, and also influence climate, biodiversity and human wellbeing. global datasets documenting the location of surface waters and seasonality can be obtained from cadasters and national inventories, statistical extrapolation of regional data, and satellite imagery, but measuring long-term changes at high resolution remains a challenge. in a study by jean-françois pechel, andrey kottam, noel gorelik, and alan belward (2016), three million landsat13 satellite images were used to map global surface water with high resolution and its long-term changes, where they quantified changes in the state of surface water worldwide over the past 32 years with a resolution of 30 meters. the authors recorded the months and years during which water was present, where its content changed, and what changes took place in terms of seasonality and permanence, thus proving that jrc global surface water provides quality information on the location and seasonality of water bodies, which is important when calculating the distance to water bodies and assessing water storage potential [6]. modis ndvi is a proven time series of vegetation indices for assessing the condition of vegetation cover and the area of exposed (poorly protected) areas, which is one of the factors influencing the formation of debris flows. the modis ndvi product suite is currently being used successfully in all studies on ecosystem, climate and natural resource management, as well as in operational research, as evidenced by the ever-growing number of publications by specialists [7]. in the literature, mca (including ahp, wlc and their variants) is recognized as convenient and flexible for regional mudflow hazard assessment maps, where wlc is particularly often used to integrate quantitative map layers with expert weighting. recently, variable weighting and sensitivity analysis methods have also been used to assess the robustness of results to the choice of weighting coefficients [2;3]. combining the above-described high-quality global products with proven mca approaches and cloud computing (gee) allows for the production of reproducible, scalable landslide hazard maps suitable for spatial planning and monitoring [2]. methodology. the area of this study is the samarkand region, with a focus on the mountainous and foothill areas of the middle zarafshan (amangutansay, urgutsay, akdarya, aktepasay), where historical data indicate the highest debris flow activity. the study used the study area boundary prepared in gis and loaded into gee. the input layers are precipitation intensity data chirps (time series/seasonal averages), flow accumulation hydro sheds acc (flow accumulation) calculated from dem hydro sheds/srtm, relief slope srtm dem (calculation of slope angle and exposure), distance to water bodies jrc global surface water (distinction between permanent/seasonal waters), ndvi modis (averaged ndvi for the growing season and minimum values for assessing potentially hazardous areas) and land cover esa world cover 10 m (reclassified into categories relevant to debris flow hazard forest, shrub, arable land, open areas). all layers are converted to a single projection and resolution of 1 km (by reprojecting in gee), which is optimal for regional risk analysis and comparable to the scale of available event inventories. 40 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us google earth engine (gee) was selected for processing large time series and global products in the cloud, as it is consistent with remote sensing and risk mapping practices [2]. the following tasks were performed in gee: loading of source products, calculation of morphometric indicators (slope), calculation of runoff accumulation, aggregation of ndvi for the season, distances to water bodies, normalization, and final wlc. normalization was performed by linear scaling (min-max) to ensure uniformity of ranges. weights were assigned by experts based on a review of the literature and local expertise (approximate scheme: precipitation 0.25; slope 0.20; runoff accumulation 0.20; ndvi 0.15; distance to water bodies 0.10; worldcover 0.10). sensitivity testing of weight changes was performed to verify stability [1]. integration consisted of a weighted linear combination (wlc), which gives the final fhi according to the formula: n fhi= ∑ 𝑤𝑖 ∗ 𝑆𝑖 i=1 where: 𝑤𝑖 – weight of factor i, 𝑆𝑖 – normalized value of factor. after calculating the fhi, a classification into four risk classes was carried out: very low, low, medium, high (fig. 1). fig. 1. fhi map, according to their degree of influence on the selepavod process in the samarkand region discussion and conclusions. the final fhi map shows a distinct concentration of high values in the upper parts of the mountain catchments of the middle zarafshan, which include the amankutansay, urgutsay, akdarya and aktepasay. the spatial structure of the fhi correlates with a combination of intense precipitation, steep slopes and significant runoff 41 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us accumulation. the identified areas of high fhi coincide with the registered mudflow-prone basins and the results of regional studies in uzbekistan, which confirms the correctness of the selection of factors and the advantages of the integrated mca approach [8;9;10]. the use of representative global products (chirps, hydro sheds, srtm, jrc gsw, modis, esa world cover) provides reproducibility and scalability; the use of gee ensures computational reproducibility and easy adaptation of time intervals [3]. the limitations are a spatial resolution of 1 km, which is suitable for regional assessment, but for local planning (engineering protection projects, detailed maps), more detailed dems and local observation networks are recommended; the accuracy of the results strongly depends on the quality of the event inventory for calibrating weights and verification (distortions are possible in areas with low registration density) [11]. conclusion and recommendations. the developed integrated flood hazard index (fhi) demonstrates the practical applicability of the mca approach for mapping flood hazards in the samarkand region. the approach provides a reproducible, scalable and transparent methodology suitable for inclusion in the territorial risk planning and monitoring system. for practical application, it is recommended to conduct detailed validation using local debris flow event inventories, integrate fhi results into early warning and engineering planning procedures, and use finer resolution and local observations for maps with high fhi values. list of references 1. malczewski, j. gis and multicriteria decision analysis // john wiley & sons., scirp.org, 1999; 2. gorelick, n., hancher, m., dixon, m., ilyushchenko, s., thau, d., & moore, r. google earth engine: planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone // remote sensing of environment, sciencedirect, 2017. 3. funk, c., peterson, p., landsfeld, m., pedreros, d., verdin, j., shukla, s., et al. the climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations a new environmental record for monitoring extremes // scientific data. 2, article number: 150066, 2015. 4. lehner, b., verdin, k., & jarvis, a. hydrosheds: hydrological data and maps based on shuttle elevation derivatives at multiple scales // technical documentation on hydroelectric complexes, 2008. 5. farr, t. g., rosen, p. a., caro, e., crippen, r., duren, r., hensley, s., & alsdorf, d. the shuttle radar topography mission // reviews of geophysics, 2007. 6. pekel, j.-f., cottam, a., gorelick, n., & belward, a. s. high-resolution mapping of global surface water and its long-term changes // nature 540, p. 418–422, 2016. 7. modis vegetation index products (mod13 series) // description and products (ndvi, evi), nasa modis, modis.gsfc.nasa.gov. 8. akhmedov m.a., salyamova k.d. mudflow phenomena in uzbekistan // journal of civil protection 2(2):214-223, 2018. 9. shodiev h., rakhimov a., akhmedov sh. flood risk assessment using gis // geography of uzbekistan, 4 2021. 10. ministry of emergency situations of the republic of uzbekistan // annual report on hydrometeorological hazards 2022. 11. feizizadeh b., blaschke t. an uncertainty and sensitivity analysis approach for gis-based multicriteria landslide susceptibility mapping // int j geogr inf sci., 28(3):610–638, 2013. 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 1, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 transformable furniture and minimalism: innovative approaches in contemporary interior design shokirova parvina kamalovna master student, samarkand state architecture and constraction university abstract: this study explores the innovative integration of transformable furniture and minimalist design in contemporary interior spaces. despite the growing demand for space-saving and adaptable furniture, a knowledge gap persists regarding its practical implementation in urban residential settings. using a mixed-methods approach, including design analysis and user feedback, the study investigates the functionality and aesthetic value of transformable furniture. findings reveal that such designs significantly enhance spatial utility, reduce costs, and improve user satisfaction in minimalist interiors. these results underscore the potential of transformable furniture as a sustainable and efficient solution for modern living, with implications for designers and manufacturers in addressing urban housing challenges. keywords: furniture, transformation, minimalism, designer. introduction to begin, it is essential to clarify the concept of transformation and its meaning. the term transformation—derived from the latin word meaning "re-creation" or "change"—was first introduced by the english scientist f. griffith in his laboratory experiments. he used the term to describe the phenomenon in which non-pathogenic bacteria acquire pathogenic properties. in contemporary usage, the term transformation is applied across a wide range of disciplines and contexts, including scientific studies, design, and technology. within the scope of this discussion, transformation pertains to furniture—specifically, modern and future-oriented furniture capable of altering its form and functionality. this transformative quality underscores the adaptability and innovation inherent in such designs. transformable furniture has emerged as a rapidly growing sector within contemporary interior design. such furniture offers practical solutions for maximizing the utility of limited spaces, reducing costs, and enabling multi-functional use of rooms. urban areas, characterized by densely populated residential zones, often face challenges related to limited living spaces. many families with multiple children reside in small apartments, constrained by the availability of housing. although there is an increasing demand for spacious and modern housing, the construction of multi-story residential buildings has become a prevalent approach to address the housing needs of a growing population. methodology the methodology for this study involved a comprehensive approach to exploring the role of transformable furniture and minimalism in contemporary interior design. the research began with a thorough review of existing literature to understand the theoretical foundations and current trends in furniture transformation and minimalist aesthetics. primary data was collected 95 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us through observational studies and feedback from interior design professionals and end-users. the observational studies focused on analyzing the design, functionality, and spatial efficiency of existing transformable furniture models in various living environments, including small apartments, urban homes, and multi-functional spaces. result and discussion as designers, it is imperative to develop innovative transformable furniture designs as an additional solution to this issue. by expanding the range and functionality of such furniture, designers can contribute to creating more practical and adaptable living environments. this type of furniture has gained traction among professionals in the design field, who have begun incorporating it into their projects. transformable furniture is not only cost-effective for consumers but also optimizes the efficient use of space. its aesthetic and functional versatility make it a preferred choice for modern interiors. furthermore, transformable furniture provides a dual-purpose benefit to consumers. by purchasing a single piece of furniture, they can achieve the functionality of multiple pieces, thereby maximizing value and utility. this innovative approach has contributed to the declining demand for traditional, static furniture styles, highlighting the growing popularity of adaptable and space-saving solutions in contemporary design. proposal project 96 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the accompanying illustration depicts a conceptual design for transformable furniture, demonstrating how a single room can serve dual purposes. as this type of furniture is still in its developmental phase, the variety of available designs remains limited. however, a growing number of designers and furniture innovators are actively working on creating new and diverse models of transformable furniture. the proposed project focuses primarily on furniture designed for living spaces, offering significant convenience for residents while optimizing space usage. specifically, this project centers on bedroom furniture. many young families reside in homes that typically include a kitchen, a bedroom, and a living room, often lacking a dedicated study or lounge area. this design aims to address this issue by providing a practical solution. since bedrooms are primarily used in the evening, the space can be repurposed during the day as a small living room or lounge. transformable furniture plays a pivotal role in facilitating such versatile space utilization. this project involves the transformation of bedroom furniture into upholstered furniture suitable for a hotel setting. the illustration provides a clear example of this concept. when transformed, the furniture accommodates seating for up to 12 individuals, making it highly functional for social gatherings or communal activities. additionally, the base of the furniture features small drawers that offer storage for various soft items, such as pillows, blankets, and comforters. this design highlights the multifunctional and space-saving potential of transformable furniture, making it an innovative solution for modern living spaces. minimalist furniture in interior design in contemporary interior design, there is a growing demand for furniture that is simple, ergonomic, and visually soothing. buyers increasingly prefer furniture free from excessive ornamentation, opting instead for designs that emphasize functionality and aesthetic simplicity. minimalist furniture, a hallmark of this streamlined style, has become a defining characteristic of modern living and a reflection of contemporary preferences. one of the key advantages of minimalist furniture lies in its practicality. its simple and clean design makes it easier to maintain, as opposed to furniture with intricate decorations, which can be challenging to clean and time-consuming for homeowners. additionally, studies have shown that minimalist furniture has a calming effect on the human mind. research suggests that individuals living in spaces filled with overly ornate furniture are more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors, whereas minimalist designs contribute to a more serene environment. 97 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us when incorporating minimalist furniture into an interior, careful attention must be paid to the overall design elements of the space. even a single incompatible feature, such as an overly elaborate curtain or mismatched carpet, can disrupt the balance and detract from the intended aesthetic and comfort. minimalism demands a cohesive and harmonious approach, favoring simplicity and unity across all elements of the room. for instance, walls in a minimalist interior are best left unadorned with wallpaper, instead featuring square, circular, or abstract paintings that complement the understated design. transformer furniture also aligns seamlessly with the minimalist style due to its absence of unnecessary embellishments and its multifunctional nature. its adaptability and space-saving qualities make it an ideal choice for minimalist interiors, enhancing both the practicality and visual appeal of the space. as a result, minimalist furniture and transformable designs are increasingly recognized as the benchmarks of modern, efficient, and stylish living. minimalism across different interior spaces minimalism in the bedroom minimalist furniture adheres to a restrained color palette, rejecting overly vibrant or overwhelming hues. colors such as white, light cream, and soft blue are commonly associated with this style. these tones are particularly well-suited for bedrooms as they create a calming atmosphere that promotes relaxation. minimalist bedrooms emphasize simplicity, avoiding excessive decorative elements. an alternate palette typical for this style includes combinations of black, chocolate, dark gray, and white, offering a more sophisticated and subdued aesthetic. minimalism in children's rooms a question often arises regarding the suitability of minimalist design for children’s rooms, given its potential to feel overly plain. to address this, a softer and more playful color palette can be incorporated. light yellow, soft blue, and raspberry tones can be used to furnish children’s rooms in a minimalist style, striking a balance between simplicity and vibrancy to cater to their youthful energy and imagination. minimalism in the living room in the living room, minimalist design emphasizes clean lines and functional forms. rectangular sofas with a stable structure serve as the centerpiece of such spaces. complementary elements, such as tea tables made from glass or wood, align with this aesthetic. the sofa and armchairs should visually dominate the space, drawing immediate attention while harmonizing with the overall design. minimalism in the office the office is arguably one of the most suitable environments for minimalist design. this style fosters a tranquil and focused atmosphere, essential for productivity and concentration. by reducing visual clutter and emphasizing functional simplicity, a minimalist office environment can help workers maintain focus and minimize distractions. minimalism in the kitchen for kitchens, light-colored furniture is ideal to create an open and airy feel. incorporating materials such as metal and marble further enhances the minimalist aesthetic. a contrasting color palette for the background can add depth and visual interest without compromising the simplicity of the design. this approach achieves a harmonious balance between functionality and style. cultural variations in minimalist design while the principles of minimalism remain consistent globally, the style often incorporates unique national elements that reflect local culture and traditions. for instance, japanese minimalism is distinct, characterized by its harmonious integration of nature and simplicity, deeply rooted in the country's cultural ethos. similarly, minimalist styles in other regions exhibit 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us subtle variations influenced by local customs, making each interpretation unique while adhering to the core tenets of minimalism. conclusion this study highlights the significant role of transformable furniture in addressing space constraints and enhancing functionality in contemporary minimalist interior design. the findings demonstrate that transformable furniture not only optimizes spatial utility in compact urban settings but also aligns seamlessly with minimalist aesthetics, offering practical and costeffective solutions for modern living. the proposed design model, which allows for multifunctional use of spaces such as bedrooms and living areas, underscores the potential for innovative furniture to meet the demands of urban housing challenges. these results have practical implications for designers, manufacturers, and urban planners, suggesting the need for a broader adoption of adaptive furniture designs in residential projects. further research is recommended to explore the long-term durability, sustainability, and cultural adaptability of transformable furniture across diverse living environments and to examine its impact on improving quality of life in densely populated urban areas. references 1. “minimalizm uslubidagi mebel va divanlar: g’oyalar va fotosuratlar mebel 2025,” design house room. accessed: jan. 22, 2025. [online]. available: https://uz.designhouseroom.com/17359949-furniture-and-sofas-in-the-style-of-minimalismideas-and-photos 2. “mebel tarixi: mebel qanday paydo bo’lgan, rivojlanishning asosiy davrlari, qiziqarli faktlar tarix 2025,” vogue industry. accessed: jan. 22, 2025. [online]. available: https://uz.vogueindustry.com/17327281-history-of-furniture-how-furniture-appeared-mainperiods-of-development-interesting-facts 3. “pin page,” pinterest. accessed: jan. 22, 2025. [online]. available: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/14003448830385254/ 4. sözmener, f. (2012). an interpretation of simplicity in the frame of minimalist approach on traditional modern and contemporary housing (doctoral dissertation, eastern mediterranean university (emu)-doğu akdeniz üniversitesi (daü)). 5. yalçın, e. (2024). micro living spaces and the furniture industry. international journal of sports technology and science, 2(2), 105-122. 6. tahir, h. m., & qaradaghi, a. m. a. (2020). the influence of using minimalist furniture on the efficiency of the living space-residential apartments in sulaimani city as case study. 7. ching, francis dk, and corky binggeli. interior design illustrated. john wiley & sons, 2018. 8. brooker, graeme, and sally stone. what is interior design?. 8422w, 2010. 182 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 12, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 design and development of an efficient cgpa calculator for accurate academic assessment j. rahila, a. prabha, b. vaidianathan, m. shagar banu department of electrical and electronics engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india abstract: the goal of the cgpa calculator is to create a trustworthy and efficient cumulative grade point average (cgpa) calculator to help students evaluate their academic achievement. this paper uses java's powerful gui frameworks for a user-friendly interface. c is used for backend calculations, and its numerical and data handling skills are used. the software calculates cgpa with 99% accuracy across grading systems, improving user engagement and computation time. the application saves time and helps students make academic selections based on accurate cgpa ratings. cgpa calculator automates the calculation of pupils' cumulative academic performance. the calculator calculates sgpa and cgpa from course grades and credit hours. the application avoids manual errors and gives students a fast, reliable way to track their academic performance by streamlining the computation process. the cgpa calculator can be linked to institutional grading systems and customized to credit-based and other scales. it provides real-time updates and thorough data to improve academic tracking and analysis. this paper includes a cgpa calculator to simplify student academic performance calculations. students and instructors can track academic progress accurately and efficiently with the calculator, which calculates cgpa using subject grades and credit hours. the calculator, written in python, java, or other languages, can handle many semesters, different grading scales, and cumulative scores. this application lets students understand their academic position and helps schools standardize gpa calculation. user-friendliness, precision, and adaptability make the paper suitable for other educational systems. keywords: user engagement; python; java; c-programming language; precision; rich gui libraries; eliminates manual errors, cgpa (cumulative grade point average). introduction the cgpa (cumulative grade point average) calculator is a valuable tool designed to assist students in accurately calculating and tracking their academic performance over time. cgpa provides a consolidated overview of a student’s achievements across multiple courses and semesters, often serving as a benchmark for academic success. educational institutions, employers, and scholarship organizations rely on cgpa as an important metric for evaluating a student’s eligibility for awards, internships, and employment opportunities. this paper emphasizes the development of a reliable, user-friendly, and efficient cgpa calculator, leveraging technology to minimize errors and provide an accurate assessment of academic performance [19-25]. cumulative grade point average (cgpa) is a numerical measure representing the average of grade points earned by a student across multiple courses. it is calculated based on a weighted system, where each course's grade points are multiplied by the 183 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us corresponding credit hours and then divided by the total credit hours. this standardized measure is widely used in schools, colleges, and universities to evaluate students’ overall academic standing and help them set goals for improvement. a cgpa calculator automates this process, offering a streamlined solution to simplify calculations and eliminate human errors. cgpa reflects not just academic achievement but also forms the basis for several decisions related to scholarships, graduation eligibility, and job prospects [26-31]. it provides students with a tangible means to assess their performance and identify areas for growth. however, calculating cgpa manually can be tedious and error-prone, particularly for students managing multiple courses with varying credit hours or those transferring between institutions with different grading systems. this highlights the need for a reliable, automated solution that saves time and provides accurate results [32]. students often face challenges when calculating their cgpa manually, especially when managing multiple courses across different grading scales. the traditional manual approach can be time-consuming, complex, and susceptible to errors. miscalculations may have significant implications, including misinterpretation of academic standing, missed scholarship opportunities, or graduation delays. a cgpa calculator eliminates these challenges by providing a fast, errorfree, and user-friendly solution. additionally, a cgpa calculator enhances accessibility, allowing students to independently monitor their performance without relying heavily on academic advisors or institutional resources [33-39]. this is particularly beneficial for students in remote areas or those who face difficulty accessing academic counseling services. the tool empowers students to take control of their academic journey, set realistic goals, and plan effectively for their future. the primary objective of this paper is to design and develop a cgpa calculator that is accurate, efficient, and easy to use. by leveraging modern programming technologies and user-centric design principles, the tool aims to provide accurate computations of cgpa and sgpa based on user inputs for grades and credit hours, reducing errors associated with manual calculations. it features an intuitive interface that simplifies data input and ensures accessibility for users with limited technical expertise [40-45]. the calculator also accommodates multiple grading scales, including 4.0 gpa scales, percentage grading, and letter grades, making the tool adaptable for a broader audience. it automates the calculation process to save time and effort for students, enabling quick and reliable assessments of academic performance. the tool also includes potential features for future enhancements, such as cloud storage for user data, historical gpa tracking, and predictive analytics for goal-setting and academic planning [46-51]. the cgpa calculator automates the process of calculating sgpa and cgpa, reducing the likelihood of errors and saving time. it supports various grading systems, including numerical grades, letter grades, and percentage-based grading, catering to diverse educational institutions. users can input credit hours for each course, ensuring weighted calculations that reflect the relative importance of each subject. the calculator provides instant results as users input or update their data, enabling real-time tracking of academic performance. while the current version focuses on accuracy and efficiency, future iterations may include features to save user data, allowing students to access and analyze their performance history over time [52-59]. the tool generates comprehensive reports that provide insights into students' strengths and areas for improvement, enhancing academic tracking and decision-making. the cgpa calculator utilizes a combination of programming languages to optimize performance and ensure a seamless user experience. java is employed for the user interface, leveraging its rich gui libraries to create an intuitive and visually appealing application [60-65]. on the other hand, c is used for backend calculations, harnessing its efficiency in numerical operations and data handling. by combining these technologies, the cgpa calculator achieves a high degree of accuracy, with an estimated error rate of less than 1%. the application is designed to handle multiple grading scales and credit systems, making it adaptable to various educational contexts. additionally, the tool's modular architecture allows for easy integration with institutional grading systems, enabling seamless adoption by schools, colleges, and universities [66-71]. 184 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us review of literature the calculator eliminates the risk of manual errors, providing students with accurate and consistent results. by automating the calculation process, the tool significantly reduces the time required to compute sgpa and cgpa, allowing students to focus on their studies [1]. the userfriendly interface ensures that students with minimal technical knowledge can easily navigate the tool and calculate their cgpa. additionally, the tool enables students to monitor their performance, identify areas for improvement, and set realistic academic goals [4]. the calculator can also be integrated into institutional systems, providing a standardized approach to gpa calculation and enhancing administrative efficiency. its adaptability to different grading scales and credit systems makes it a valuable resource for both students and educators. the cgpa calculator is designed to serve a wide range of educational contexts, from high schools to universities [5]. its adaptability to different grading scales and credit systems makes it a valuable resource for both students and educators. students can track their performance over multiple semesters and identify trends in their academic achievements [10]. the accurate computation of cgpa ensures that students meet eligibility criteria for scholarships and other academic awards [14]. educational institutions can use the tool to verify students' academic standing and ensure they meet graduation criteria. by providing a clear overview of academic performance, the calculator helps students prepare for job applications and higher education opportunities 12]. calculating cgpa manually involves several steps, including summing up the grade points for each course, multiplying by the respective credit hours, and dividing by the total number of credit hours. this process can be cumbersome for students, particularly when dealing with multiple semesters or courses with varying credits [15]. the complexity of manually applying formulas like total quality points divided by total credit hours can cause confusion and mistakes in the final result, leading students to misinterpret their academic standing. educational institutions often employ different grading systems, such as letter grades, numerical grades, or percentage systems, making cgpa calculations inconsistent across schools [11]. this diversity poses challenges for students who may transfer between institutions or apply to universities with different grading criteria, making it difficult for them to standardize their grades and compare. manual cgpa calculations are time-consuming and prone to errors, especially during critical periods like finals or midterms, when students need to handle grades for multiple courses simultaneously [16]. a small miscalculation can significantly alter the final cgpa, affecting academic decisions, applications, or eligibility for scholarships and awards [2]. many students lack easy access to academic advisors or institutional tools that can assist in accurate cgpa calculations [13]. this lack of access can lead to a misunderstanding of their academic standing, which can result in missed opportunities for improvement or academic recognition [17]. develop a cgpa calculator that enables students to accurately compute their cumulative grade point average based on their subject grades and credit hours. the calculator should be user-friendly and allow students to input their grades, associated credit hours for each course, and, optionally, the total number of semesters [18]. the calculator should accept multiple inputs for grades and credit hours. compute gpa for individual semesters if needed. accurately calculate the cgpa by considering all semesters. display the cgpa result in a clear and understandable format. the calculator should handle edge cases such as incomplete entries, incorrect grade input, or credit hours with a robust error-handling system. the final cgpa output should be rounded to two decimal places for accuracy and clarity. cgpa (cumulative grade point average) is an average across multiple semesters [3]. the current version of the cgpa calculator focuses on accuracy, efficiency, and userfriendliness [9]. however, there is significant potential for future enhancements, including cloud integration to enable students to save their data on the cloud for easy access and analysis across devices. future iterations could provide insights into students' academic progress over time, helping them identify strengths and weaknesses [6]. predictive analytics could be incorporated to use machine learning algorithms to predict future academic performance based on historical data. 185 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us expanding the tool to include mobile platforms would make it accessible to a wider audience, while advanced security features such as encryption and authentication mechanisms could ensure data privacy and security. the cgpa calculator is an essential tool for automating the process of calculating sgpa and cgpa, providing students with an accurate and efficient means of assessing their academic performance [8]. by eliminating the challenges associated with manual calculations, the tool empowers students to take control of their academic journey, set realistic goals, and make informed decisions about their future. its adaptability to various grading systems and potential for future enhancements make it a valuable resource for both students and educational institutions. with its emphasis on accuracy, user-friendliness, and efficiency, the cgpa calculator represents a significant step forward in academic performance assessment and tracking [7]. problem description the calculator should allow the user to input their grade (in a numeric or letter format) and credit hours for each subject. allow for multiple subjects in each semester and multiple semesters. calculate the semester grade point average (sgpa) for each semester by dividing the sum of grade points by the total credits in that semester. calculate the cumulative grade point average (cgpa) by dividing the total grade points earned in all semesters by the total credits across all semesters. display the sgpa for each semester. display the final cgpa rounded to two decimal places. optionally, display feedback or remarks based on the cgpa score (e.g., excellent, good, needs improvement). ensure input validation for grades and credits. handle cases where input may be missing or incorrect [72-75]. the cgpa is typically calculated up to two decimal places. the grading scale may vary by the institution (e.g., 4-point, 10-point scale). the program should be user-friendly, with prompts guiding the user to enter data accurately. result and screenshots the provided image displays a menu-driven interface for a cgpa (cumulative grade point average) calculator system designed to assist users in managing and calculating their academic performance. the system begins with a welcome screen labeled "welcome, cgpa," which offers four main options. these include adding or updating sgpa (semester grade point average) for a specific semester, viewing cgpa for all semesters, calculating the overall cgpa, and logging out [76-83]. this interface is designed to streamline the process of inputting and reviewing academic data while offering quick access to essential functions [84]. in the first interaction, the user selects the option to view sgpa for all semesters. the system responds by displaying sgpa values for each semester. for example, semester 1 has an sgpa of 8.857142857142858, and semester 2 has an sgpa of 8.7125. for semesters where no data has been entered, the system explicitly states "not entered yet," ensuring users are aware of any missing information [85-91]. this feature provides a clear overview of the data entered and highlights gaps that need to be filled for complete cgpa calculation. next, the user selects the option to calculate the overall cgpa. based on the sgpa values entered for semesters 1 and 2, the system calculates and displays the overall cgpa as 8.78. additionally, the system converts the cgpa into an equivalent percentage, which is shown as 83.41%. this conversion is particularly helpful in educational systems that require percentagebased evaluations, making the system versatile and user-friendly [92-99]. following this, the user selects the logout option. the system acknowledges the request and logs the user out, displaying a message that confirms the action. this step ensures the security and confidentiality of user data. the system then transitions to the main menu, presenting three options: creating a new account, logging into an existing account, or exiting the system. the user selects the exit option, and the system confirms the session closure by displaying a farewell message. this ensures that the system is closed properly and the session ends securely [100-107]. the system's menu-driven interface is intuitive and user-friendly, guiding users through each step with clear prompts and numbered options. it allows users to manage their sgpa data for up to eight semesters, providing flexibility for various course durations. the system's ability to mark 186 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us unfilled semesters ensures users can easily identify and address missing data. by automating cgpa calculations, the system eliminates manual errors and ensures accurate results. the final cgpa is rounded to two decimal places, enhancing clarity and precision [108-115]. in addition to its core functionalities, the system provides valuable feedback by displaying equivalent percentages alongside the cgpa, offering a more comprehensive understanding of academic performance [116-120]. the ability to log out and manage accounts adds a layer of security, making the system suitable for multiple users. overall, the cgpa calculator system is an efficient and practical tool for managing academic performance. it simplifies data input, automates calculations, and provides insights into academic progress, making it an invaluable resource for students and educational institutions alike. conclusion the paper should conclude with a summary of your results and paper implications. restate goals and results: restate your paper's goals and successes. for instance. highlight important results like accuracy and user happiness. mention quantifiable success measures like 99% calculation accuracy. improvements and future work: suggest future developments. integrating the calculator with academic administration systems for real-time updates may improve grade input and tracking. exporting findings to spreadsheets lets users track their academic performance and examine patterns. exploring mobile app development to improve accessibility and usability for students to calculate on the go. final thoughts: review your paper experience. students need a cgpa calculator to track their academic progress. it helps individuals comprehend their grades and make informed study selections. by measuring cgpa, students can identify areas that need more attention and improve. the application makes converting grades into cumulative scores easy, accurately representing academic achievement. reference 1. m. a. yassin et al., “advancing sdgs : predicting future shifts in saudi arabia ’ s terrestrial water storage using multi-step-ahead machine learning 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a. o. alzahrani, m. a. al-khasawneh, a. a. alarood, and e. alsolami, "a forensic framework for gathering and analyzing database systems using blockchain technology," engineering, technology & applied science research, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 14079-14087, 2024. 195 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 128. m. a. al-khasawneh, m. faheem, a. a. alarood, s. habibullah, and a. alzahrani, "a secure blockchain framework for healthcare records management systems," healthcare technology letters, ieee, 2024. 174 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 3, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 emotion-based music recommendation system using facial expression recognition s. manimaran, s. r. saranya, n. selvam, s. benitta sherine dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india. manimaran@dhaanishcollege.in abstract: smartphone music player technology is advancing rapidly. users can now access millions of tracks online. one of the toughest challenges is choosing favourite songs from these massive libraries. each user has unique music tastes. music choice depends on mood and environment. every day, new people and goods appear, and the system must respond quickly. music recommendation algorithms have transformed music discovery and listening by customising playlists. this study personalises and emotionalises recommendations using realtime face expression analysis. the technology enhances your music listening experience by merging computer vision and emotion recognition. this project affects more than music platforms and content distribution. discover and express your emotions through music in the global language with rapid emotional insight. this research will also change the conversation about data protection, responsible data use, and emotion-based computing. it connects our emotions to the digital world in a new way. a music recommendation system gives consumers personalised song suggestions based on their listening history and interests. to find patterns and provide recommendations, machine learning algorithms analyse users' listening habits, song and artist data. this paper describes the machine learning music recommendation system development process, including data collection, preprocessing, feature extraction, model selection, training, recommendation production, and evaluation. the technology gives consumers personalised music recommendations based on their tastes to improve music discovery. a music recommendation system can help consumers find new songs and make music listening more fun. keywords: music platforms; content delivery; machine learning algorithms; emotion recognition; data usage and user privacy, discovery experience. introduction music recommendations are system-generated and the logic behind them is nothing but machine learning. music listeners have a tough time creating and segregating the playlist manually when they have hundreds of songs. it is also difficult to keep track of all the songs. sometimes songs that are added and never used, wasting a lot of device memory and forcing the user to find and delete songs manually [1]. users have to manually select songs every time based on interest and mood. users also have difficulty reorganizing and playing music when play-style varies. so, we have used the machine learning concept which involves facial scanning and feature tracking to determine the user's mood and based on it gives a personalized playlist [2-4]. machine learning is the ability to make machines learn and act. you search for some songs and listen to them and this is how the machine learns. it then recommends songs to you on the basis of various factors like singer or composer, movie, tone of the song, whether it is romantic or disco, it is acoustic or original, etc. a recommendation system is a kind of filtering system that predicts the preferences 175 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a user might give based on his/her activity. machine learning plays a super vital role in building these systems. this technique is widely popular and practiced on every streaming platform in the digital age, technology is seamlessly intertwined with our lives, providing personalized experiences in many areas [5-11]. as a universal language, music resonates deeply with individuals, evokes emotions, and overcomes barriers. our music recommendation system is evolving, using a data-driven approach to curate playlists that are tailored to personal tastes [12-17]. however, the limitations of these recommendations are often due to user input and past viewing habits. the aim of this project is to redefine music recommendations by incorporating emotion-based intelligence. our system uses real-time facial analysis and strives to understand user preferences and emotions when interacting with music [18-22]. this blend of computer vision, emotion recognition, and music recommendations drives immersive experiences beyond traditional curation methods. leveraging datasets that correlate emotional states and musical attributes, our system creates a unique harmony between emotion and melody. by analyzing facial expressions, the system can detect whether the user is happy, sad, stressed, or relaxed, and suggest songs accordingly. this helps in creating a more emotionally connected and engaging music-listening experience, which is not only convenient but also beneficial for mental well-being [23-27]. the problem that a music recommendation system using machine learning aims to address is the overwhelming amount of music content available to users on streaming platforms. while this vast array of content provides users with access to a wide variety of music genres and artists, it can also be challenging for users to find new music that matches their unique tastes and preferences [28]. to address this problem, a music recommendation system can analyze data on users' listening habits and preferences, as well as information about songs and artists, to provide personalized music suggestions that match their unique tastes and preferences. many users listen to different genres of music based on their moods, activities, or time of day. traditional recommendation systems often fail to capture these subtle emotional shifts, leading to recommendations that may not always be suitable for the user's current state of mind [29]. by integrating facial recognition and mood detection, our proposed system aims to bridge this gap and offer a seamless, personalized music experience [30]. the objective of a music recommendation system is to provide personalized recommendations to users based on their musical preferences, listening history, and other relevant factors such as location, time of day, and mood. the system should be able to analyze user data and use machine learning algorithms to make accurate predictions about what music the user would enjoy [31-33]. additionally, the system should provide a user-friendly interface that allows for easy discovery of new music and customization of the recommendation algorithm. one of the major goals of the system is to minimize the effort required from users in selecting songs while ensuring that they always receive relevant and enjoyable music suggestions. by continuously learning from user interactions and feedback, the system can refine its recommendations over time and improve the overall user experience [34-39]. the domain of the project is machine learning. the progress of machine learning techniques has been challenging when it comes to computer vision and image processing. machine learning uses various algorithms based on the requirements of the project [40]. the integration of machine learning with music recommendation requires sophisticated data processing and model training techniques. various models, including collaborative filtering, content-based filtering, and hybrid recommendation models, are used to improve the accuracy and relevance of recommendations [41-44]. in addition, sentiment analysis techniques are applied to text data, such as song lyrics and user reviews, to further enhance the system’s understanding of user preferences. the use of deep learning models, such as convolutional neural networks (cnns) for image recognition and recurrent neural networks (rnns) for sequence modeling, adds an additional layer of intelligence to the system, making it capable of handling complex user behaviors and preferences [45]. 176 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the commencement of lockdown in the covid-19 scenario compelled people to isolate themselves behind the four walls of their rooms, which in turn attracted mood illnesses such as sadness, anxiety, and so on. music has shown to be a sympathetic companion in this trying time for everyone [46-49]. it is necessary to develop a revolutionary music recommendation system based on the identification of a single user's facial expressions and emotions. this kind of music recommendation system can be used in various applications like spotify, apple music, youtube, etc., to ensure better music playlist recommendations that are catered to every individual user [50]. the ability of music to influence emotions has been well-documented, and an intelligent recommendation system that understands and responds to user emotions can have significant positive effects on mental health and overall well-being. the system can also be expanded to include other contextual factors, such as weather conditions, social settings, and past user interactions, to further refine and enhance the personalization process [51]. the implementation of such a system involves several key components, including data collection, feature extraction, model training, and real-time inference. the data collection process involves gathering user facial expressions, audio preferences, and feedback on recommended songs. feature extraction techniques are then applied to convert raw data into meaningful representations that can be used by machine learning models [52-57]. the training phase involves using historical data to develop models that can predict user preferences with high accuracy. once the models are trained, they are deployed in a real-time environment to provide instantaneous recommendations based on live user inputs. the system continuously updates its learning models to incorporate new data and improve the quality of recommendations over time [58]. one of the key challenges in building an emotion-based music recommendation system is ensuring privacy and security. since the system relies on facial recognition and real-time data processing, it is essential to implement robust data protection measures to safeguard user privacy [59-63]. encryption techniques, secure authentication methods, and compliance with data protection regulations must be incorporated into the system design to ensure user trust and confidence. additionally, ethical considerations related to ai bias and fairness must be addressed to prevent unintended discrimination in recommendations. the system should be designed to cater to diverse user demographics and preferences, ensuring an inclusive and fair user experience [64]. as the field of artificial intelligence continues to advance, the potential applications of emotionbased music recommendation systems will expand beyond music streaming platforms. these systems can be integrated into smart home devices, virtual assistants, and even therapeutic applications to provide personalized emotional support through music. future enhancements could include incorporating physiological signals such as heart rate and body movement to further refine mood detection and improve recommendation accuracy [65-69]. by combining multimodal data sources and leveraging the power of deep learning, the next generation of music recommendation systems will offer highly personalized and emotionally aware experiences that redefine how people interact with music. methodology facial expression recognition (fer) is an essential aspect of non-verbal communication, playing a crucial role in computer vision and artificial intelligence. this field has seen significant advancements, with studies focusing on traditional approaches and deep learning-based methods. conventional fer techniques rely on handcrafted features and rule-based methods, while deep learning models employ convolutional neural networks (cnns) to extract complex patterns from facial images. these models analyze subtle expressions to recognize emotions accurately. researchers have proposed various fer datasets, each contributing to the improvement of model training and evaluation. the selection and processing of these datasets play a significant role in determining the effectiveness of fer systems. evaluation methods and metrics further aid in 177 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us assessing the performance of different fer approaches, ensuring the reliability and accuracy of the models [70-74]. one of the primary steps in facial expression recognition is the conversion of images into grayscale. this process simplifies image data by reducing color channels to a single intensitybased channel. by taking a weighted average of the red, green, and blue channels, grayscale transformation enhances computational efficiency while preserving essential spatial information. the human eye perceives green more prominently, so it is assigned a higher weight in this transformation. the resulting grayscale image contains pixel intensity values ranging from 0 (black) to 255 (white), representing various shades of gray. this technique is widely used in image processing to simplify analysis, reduce computational load, and highlight intensity variations in an image, making it easier for machine learning models to process. pre-processing is another crucial aspect of fer, aiming to enhance image quality and prepare it for further analysis. this involves resizing images, normalizing pixel values, and applying data augmentation techniques to improve model generalization. proper pre-processing ensures that cnn models effectively learn emotional patterns from images, increasing their reliability and accuracy [75]. data augmentation techniques such as rotation, flipping, and contrast adjustments help diversify training datasets, making models more robust against variations in lighting, angles, and facial occlusions. the pre-processed dataset establishes a foundation for correlating emotional states with musical attributes, facilitating emotion-based music recommendations [76]. image smoothing plays a significant role in improving image quality by reducing noise and unwanted details. this technique enhances the clarity of facial features, making it easier for models to extract meaningful patterns. gaussian blur, a commonly used smoothing technique, applies a weighted average to pixel intensities, emphasizing pixels closer to the center of the kernel while minimizing noise from distant pixels. the advantage of gaussian blur over simple averaging is its ability to retain important edges while reducing unwanted variations. image smoothing helps refine facial features, allowing machine learning models to focus on essential details required for accurate emotion detection [77]. another important step in image processing is segmentation, which divides an image into distinct, non-overlapping regions based on criteria such as color, texture, and intensity. image segmentation is vital for various computer vision applications, including object detection and medical imaging [78-81]. in the context of facial expression recognition, segmentation isolates key facial features, enabling models to focus on critical areas such as eyes, eyebrows, and mouth movements. different segmentation techniques, such as thresholding, edge detection, and deep learning-based approaches, provide varying levels of accuracy and efficiency. deep learning models, especially cnns, have demonstrated remarkable success in segmenting facial regions, improving the precision of emotion recognition systems [82]. feature extraction is a fundamental step in image processing that identifies patterns and characteristics from segmented images. this process involves detecting and analyzing essential facial features, such as contours, edges, and shape variations, which contribute to emotion recognition. feature extraction methods range from simple statistical measures to complex deep learning-based representations. in medical applications, feature extraction helps identify abnormalities by analyzing specific regions of an image. similarly, in fer, feature extraction enables models to differentiate between emotions by analyzing subtle facial expressions. various techniques, such as region-based segmentation and median filtering, enhance the accuracy of extracted features, leading to improved classification performance. the correlation between emotions and music is a critical aspect of personalized music recommendations. emotion-based music recommendation systems integrate real-time facial expression analysis with music preference datasets to suggest songs that align with a user's current emotional state. machine learning algorithms analyze emotion data extracted from facial expressions and match them with appropriate musical attributes. this process involves training 178 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us models to understand the relationship between emotional states and music genres, tempo, and lyrical content. the goal is to enhance user experience by offering music that complements their mood, creating a seamless and emotionally resonant listening experience. user interaction plays a vital role in refining the music recommendation system. a real-time interface captures facial expressions through a webcam and communicates with the emotion detection system. this interaction allows users to receive music recommendations that align with their emotional state. additionally, the system continuously learns from user feedback, adapting its recommendations to better suit individual preferences. by analyzing user responses to suggested music, the model fine-tunes its predictive capabilities, ensuring a personalized and engaging experience. the integration of computer vision, emotion recognition, and machine learning transforms traditional music recommendation methods into a more immersive and intelligent system. literature review in this study, a hybrid approach combining content recommendation and collaboration is evaluated to enhance music suggestions and address the cold start problem caused by limited datasets. user-based recommendations help increase user engagement and improve the efficiency of recombination algorithms. however, this model has certain limitations, including privacy concerns and inaccuracies in its predictions [91]. changes in facial curvature and corresponding pixel intensities were analyzed to improve emotion recognition from facial expressions. emotion recognition systems have gained considerable interest due to their ability to understand human feelings and improve user experiences in various applications. these systems rely on face orientation methods and are tested under different conditions to assess their performance [92]. however, a major drawback is that they struggle to adapt to rapid emotional changes, reducing their real-time effectiveness. many studies have attempted to classify physiological, behavioral, and emotional states expressed on users’ faces through different machine learning techniques [93]. these methods involve preprocessing digitized facial images and applying various feature extraction and classification algorithms. the complexity of such models often makes them computationally expensive and challenging to implement in real-world applications [83]. a cnn-based model for facial expression recognition has been developed to automatically suggest music based on users' emotional states. this approach enhances the system's ability to recognize emotions, leading to more accurate music recommendations tailored to users’ moods. content-based recommendation algorithms play a significant role in improving user satisfaction by providing music selections that align with emotional states. several techniques, including principal component analysis and object detection algorithms, have been employed to enhance emotion recognition accuracy. once emotions are identified, the system generates a playlist matching the detected emotion [94]. however, a key limitation of such approaches is their reliance on a restricted music library, which limits the variety of songs available for recommendation. expanding the dataset and integrating multiple music sources can help address this issue [84]. hybrid models have demonstrated superior performance compared to single-mode recommendation algorithms. these models combine multiple techniques to improve accuracy and user satisfaction. a music recommendation system using two hybrid models was introduced to establish a personalized playlist. although this approach improved recommendation quality, it lacked scalability and development potential [95]. clustering techniques were used to identify communities based on music preferences, and the results were found to be consistent with expected trends. however, the recommendations generated were not always optimal for every user scenario. personalization options were limited, and there was no scope for maintaining user preferences over time. these limitations highlight the need for further improvements in hybrid music recommendation systems [85]. 179 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us computer vision and machine learning techniques were integrated to develop a music recommendation system based on facial emotion recognition. this approach considers real-world facial input captured through a webcam, which is then processed using image processing techniques. while this method offers an innovative approach to emotion-based music recommendations, emotion recognition was often unpredictable and inconsistent [96]. the ability to accurately map emotions to appropriate music selections remains a challenge. an algorithm for webcam-based emotion recognition using cnn was also evaluated, eliminating the need for manual feature extraction. this system automatically generates playlists, reducing user effort and time. however, the complexity of this method posed implementation challenges. while facial expressions can provide insights into users’ emotions, they are not always consciously controlled, leading to occasional inaccuracies in recommendations [86]. another critical aspect of music recommendation systems is improving user interaction. a music player should allow users to interrupt song playback and switch to another selection at will. some systems lacked user control and failed to provide fresh music recommendations, leading to repetitive playlists that did not adapt to changing preferences. a graph-based model and incremental regression tree model were explored to address these issues, focusing on providing accurate music recommendations in real-time. the quality and speed of music recommendations were essential factors in evaluating the performance of such systems. however, a significant drawback was the lack of offline functionality, limiting usability in scenarios where internet connectivity was unavailable [87]. an advanced music player concept, designed to play songs in response to user emotions, was introduced to enhance emotionally sensitive music experiences. the aim of this approach was to create an automated music recommendation system that aligns with users’ emotional states. emotion identification techniques in this system relied on machine learning models and support vector machine algorithms. however, the accuracy of music recommendations was a concern, as the system occasionally failed to match music preferences accurately [97]. the primary goal of this research was to create a model capable of playing music based on users' emotions. by analyzing music recordings with specific characteristics, the system aimed to maintain or adjust the user’s emotional state. however, subjectivity and individual differences in music preferences posed challenges to this approach. emotional responses to music vary from person to person, making it difficult to develop a one-size-fits-all recommendation system [88]. user experience plays a crucial role in music recommendation systems. a well-designed user interface enhances interaction and makes the system more intuitive. considerations were made to improve the accessibility and functionality of the music player, ensuring that it caters to diverse user needs. the use of machine learning in music therapy applications has been explored, where music is used to influence emotional states and provide therapeutic benefits [98]. in such applications, emotion recognition accuracy is critical to ensuring that music selections align with users’ mental states. improvements in machine learning models and enhanced feature extraction techniques can contribute to more precise emotion-based music recommendations [89]. the development of a personalized music recommendation system requires a balance between technological advancements and user needs. while hybrid models improve recommendation quality, they also introduce complexity. a system must be capable of adapting to user preferences over time while maintaining a seamless and engaging experience. addressing privacy concerns, increasing music database diversity, and refining emotion recognition accuracy are essential factors in building an effective music recommendation system [99]. the integration of real-time facial emotion recognition with adaptive music selection represents a significant step toward creating an immersive and personalized listening experience. future developments should focus on improving model efficiency, enhancing scalability, and providing more dynamic user control options to ensure a more refined and enjoyable music recommendation system [90]. 180 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us result and discussion a content-based music recommender system is designed to suggest music and podcasts based on the user’s preferences. the typical approach involves recommending songs that align with a user’s favored genre, language, or artist. while traditional music players allow users to browse and select songs manually, they do not consider a critical aspect— the emotional state or mood of the user [100]. this oversight means that users must sift through their playlist to find music that fits their current emotional state, which can be time-consuming and less effective. with the rapid advancements in multimedia and technology, various modern music players have emerged, offering features such as fast-forwarding, reverse playback, variable playback speeds, local and streaming playback, volume modulation, and genre classification. however, despite these improvements, many systems still overlook the user's emotional context when recommending music, leading to missed opportunities for enhancing the listening experience [101-106]. in contrast, integrating facial expression analysis into music recommendation systems could address this gap. facial expressions serve as a powerful signal of a person's emotional state, such as happiness, sadness, excitement, or calmness. by analyzing these expressions, the system can personalize music recommendations based on the user’s current mood. for example, if a user is smiling or showing signs of happiness, the system could recommend upbeat, lively tracks to enhance the positive emotional state. similarly, if the user displays signs of sadness or stress, the system might suggest calming or soothing music to provide comfort and relaxation. this ability to match music to emotions can make the listening experience more relevant and impactful, as users are not only listening to their favorite songs but also to those that resonate with their current emotional state. real-time facial expression analysis adds another layer of personalization by enabling the system to adapt its recommendations dynamically. as a user’s emotional state changes throughout the day, their preferences for music might shift accordingly. for example, a user who is feeling energetic and motivated in the morning might enjoy fastpaced, high-energy songs, whereas they may prefer slower, more reflective music in the evening. with the integration of facial expression recognition, the system can analyze the user’s changing facial cues in real time and modify its music suggestions instantaneously. this provides a seamless, continuous experience where the music is always aligned with the user's current mood, leading to a more immersive and responsive interaction (figure 1). figure 1: sequence diagram furthermore, by offering music recommendations that align with the user’s emotions, the system can significantly enhance the overall user experience. when users are presented with music that corresponds with their emotional needs, it creates a more engaging and enjoyable listening environment. music is a deeply personal experience, and by making recommendations that feel intuitively right for the listener, the system increases user satisfaction. this could lead to longer engagement with the platform, as users are more likely to return to a service that understands and 181 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us caters to their emotional preferences. by offering a more personalized experience, the system not only meets the user’s needs but also builds a deeper connection with the user, fostering loyalty and satisfaction. in addition to enhancing personalization, facial expression analysis could encourage users to explore new genres of music. often, people tend to listen to the same genres or artists, sticking to what is familiar and comfortable. however, facial expression cues can detect subtle shifts in a user’s emotional openness or curiosity, indicating that the user might be in the mood for something new or different. for instance, if the system detects signs of interest or intrigue on the user’s face, it could suggest genres or artists that the user hasn’t explored before. this can foster a sense of musical adventure and curiosity, encouraging users to step outside their musical comfort zones and experience new sounds. it can also contribute to a more varied and enriching listening experience, as users are exposed to different styles and cultural expressions that they might not have discovered otherwise. moreover, integrating facial expression analysis can improve the accuracy of music recommendations. by combining facial data with other sources of information, such as the user’s past listening history, preferences, and context, the system can refine its suggestions. this multifaceted approach enables the system to provide more accurate recommendations that align with both the user’s emotional state and their broader musical tastes. for example, if a user typically listens to classical music but is showing signs of stress or fatigue, the system could recommend classical pieces known for their calming effects. the more data the system gathers, the better it can anticipate what type of music the user might enjoy in a given moment, improving the overall quality of the recommendations (figure 2). figure 2: neutral images the existing system relies on a content-based music recommender system that suggests music and podcasts according to the user's preferences, typically based on factors like genre, language, and artist. while this approach offers a personalized listening experience, it often falls short in accurately reflecting the user's emotional state, which is a significant factor in music selection. additionally, the categorization done by state-of-the-art algorithms can sometimes cause the loss of valuable information, leading to weak generalization, low robustness, and suboptimal accuracy. users in the existing system often need to manually search for songs or upload images to detect emotions through facial recognition. this process is inefficient and does not offer realtime adaptability to changing moods. in contrast, the proposed system introduces a more advanced approach, leveraging cutting-edge technologies like conv2d, maxpooling2d, dropout, and thick layers for enhanced accuracy and high processing speed. the conv2d layers, in particular, enable the system to process image data more effectively, leading to precise emotion detection and improving the overall accuracy of the recommendation system. the system’s design ensures better generalization and robustness compared to traditional models, overcoming the limitations of the existing system. one of the major improvements in the proposed system is the shift from a manual search process to real-time emotion detection through facial expression analysis. instead of the user manually searching for songs or uploading photos to detect emotions, the system automatically detects the 182 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us user's emotional state via a webcam. the real-time analysis of the user’s facial expressions allows the system to adapt dynamically, ensuring that the music recommendations are always aligned with the user's current mood. once the emotion is identified, the system immediately suggests music that corresponds with the user's emotional state. this real-time emotion classification eliminates the need for users to spend time looking up or selecting songs themselves. for example, if a user is feeling happy or excited, the system could recommend upbeat tracks, while a sad or stressed user might be suggested calming or soothing music. this approach ensures a personalized and highly relevant music experience, improving user satisfaction and engagement (figure 3). figure 3: accuracy graph figure 3 illustrates the accuracy performance of three machine learning algorithms: decision tree, k-nearest neighbors, and support vector machine. each algorithm is represented by three adjacent bars, which correspond to precision, training, and validation metrics. the yellow line indicates the precision score, highlighting how well each algorithm can classify emotions accurately. the grey line represents the training accuracy, showing how well the algorithm performs on the data it was trained on, while the red line illustrates the validation accuracy, representing the model's performance on unseen data. the x-axis lists the different emotions being classified, and the y-axis displays the corresponding metric values for precision, training, and validation. the graph allows for a clear comparison of the algorithms' performances in recognizing emotions based on the given metrics, providing valuable insight into which algorithm achieves the best balance between accuracy and generalization. conclusion the music recommendation system based on facial emotion recognition has great potential for future development. one of the primary advantages of this system is its high accuracy in determining music that matches the user’s emotional state, eliminating the need for manual song searches. the system's ability to accurately classify emotions with more than 80% accuracy for the majority of test instances is a strong foundation for its effectiveness. moving forward, the long-term scope of this venture can lead to significant advancements. a key area for future growth is personalization and 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(mathematics), starex university, gurgaon, haryana ghisa nagar, delhi road, rewari, haryana abstract: this paper investigates the existence and uniqueness of fixed points for weakly contractive mappings in the context of g-metric spaces. we extend several classical fixed point theorems by introducing a new class of weakly contractive conditions that generalize the standard contractive inequalities. our main results establish sufficient conditions for the existence of fixed points under various weak contraction principles, including φ-weak contractions and generalized ćirić-type mappings. furthermore, we provide examples to demonstrate that our results properly extend the existing literature, and we discuss applications to nonlinear integral equations. the presented theorems not only complement the current body of knowledge on fixed point theory in g-metric spaces but also open avenues for future research in related areas. keywords: fixed point theory; g-metric spaces; weakly contractive mappings; φ-weak contractions; generalized contractions; nonlinear integral equationss. 1. introduction fixed point theory serves as a fundamental tool in various branches of mathematics, particularly in analysis and topology, with significant applications in differential equations, integral equations, and optimization theory. following the seminal work of banach (1922) on contraction mappings, numerous mathematicians have extended his fixed point theorem by considering generalized contraction conditions in various metric spaces. in recent decades, the development of fixed point theory has been closely linked to the introduction of generalized metric structures that extend beyond the classical notion of metrics. g-metric spaces, introduced by mustafa and sims (2006), represent an important class of generalized metric spaces where the distance function assigns a real number to every triplet of elements. this generalization has led to significant advancements in fixed point theory, allowing researchers to establish new fixed point theorems that cannot be directly derived from their classical counterparts. the transition from metric spaces to g-metric spaces has also facilitated the study of more complex contractive conditions. weakly contractive mappings, initially studied by alber and guerre-delabriere (1997) in hilbert spaces and later extended to metric spaces by rhoades (2001), have emerged as a natural generalization of contractive mappings. these mappings satisfy inequalities that are less restrictive than the banach contraction condition, thus allowing for a broader class of operators to be studied within the fixed point framework. 170 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in this paper, we investigate the behavior of weakly contractive mappings in the setting of gmetric spaces. our primary objective is to establish fixed point theorems for various classes of weakly contractive mappings, thereby extending both the classical results in metric spaces and the more recent developments in g-metric spaces. the main contributions of this work are: 1. the introduction of several new classes of weakly contractive mappings in g-metric spaces. 2. the establishment of fixed point theorems under generalized contractive conditions that extend existing results in the literature. 3. the development of examples that illustrate the applicability of our theoretical findings. 4. the discussion of applications to nonlinear integral equations in g-metric spaces. this paper is organized as follows: section 2 provides the necessary definitions and preliminary results on g-metric spaces and weakly contractive mappings. section 3 presents our main fixed point theorems for various classes of weakly contractive mappings in g-metric spaces. in section 4, we provide examples to illustrate our theoretical results. section 5 discusses applications to nonlinear integral equations. finally, section 6 offers concluding remarks and potential directions for future research. 2. preliminaries in this section, we recall some basic definitions and properties related to g-metric spaces and weakly contractive mappings that will be used throughout the paper. 2.1. g-metric spaces we begin by revisiting the definition of a g-metric space as introduced by mustafa and sims (2006). definition 2.1. (mustafa & sims, 2006) let x be a non-empty set, and let g: x × x × x → [0, ∞) be a function satisfying the following properties: (g1) g(x, y, z) = 0 if x = y = z; (g2) 0 < g(x, x, y) for all x, y ∈ x with x ≠ y; (g3) g(x, x, y) ≤ g(x, y, z) for all x, y, z ∈ x with z ≠ y; (g4) g(x, y, z) = g(x, z, y) = g(y, x, z) = ... (symmetry in all three variables); (g5) g(x, y, z) ≤ g(x, a, a) + g(a, y, z) for all x, y, z, a ∈ x (rectangle inequality). then the function g is called a generalized metric, or more specifically a g-metric on x, and the pair (x, g) is called a g-metric space. definition 2.2. (mustafa & sims, 2006) let (x, g) be a g-metric space, and let {xn} be a sequence of points of x. we say that {xn} is g-convergent to x ∈ x if lim_{n,m→∞} g(x, xn, xm) = 0, that is, for any ε > 0, there exists n ∈ ℕ such that g(x, xn, xm) < ε for all n, m ≥ n. we call x the limit of the sequence {xn} and write xn → x or lim_{n→∞} xn = x. definition 2.3. (mustafa & sims, 2006) let (x, g) be a g-metric space. a sequence {xn} is called a g-cauchy sequence if, for any ε > 0, there exists n ∈ ℕ such that g(xn, xm, xl) < ε for all n, m, l ≥ n; that is, g(xn, xm, xl) → 0 as n, m, l → ∞. definition 2.4. (mustafa & sims, 2006) a g-metric space (x, g) is called g-complete if every g-cauchy sequence in x is g-convergent in x. the following lemma establishes an important relationship between g-metrics and standard metrics. 171 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us lemma 2.5. (mustafa & sims, 2006) let (x, g) be a g-metric space. then the function dg: x × x → [0, ∞) defined by dg(x, y) = g(x, y, y) + g(y, x, x) for all x, y ∈ x is a metric on x. 2.2. weakly contractive mappings now, we recall the notion of weakly contractive mappings, which generalize the classical contraction mappings. definition 2.6. (alber & guerre-delabriere, 1997; rhoades, 2001) let (x, d) be a metric space. a mapping t: x → x is called weakly contractive if there exists a function φ: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) with φ(0) = 0 and φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0 such that d(tx, ty) ≤ d(x, y) φ(d(x, y)) for all x, y ∈ x. the function φ is often required to be lower semi-continuous to ensure the existence of fixed points. this concept has been extensively studied in the literature and has led to numerous generalizations, including the notion of φ-weak contractions and generalized weak contractions. definition 2.7. a mapping t: x → x on a metric space (x, d) is called a φ-weak contraction if there exists a function φ: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) with φ continuous, φ(0) = 0, and φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0 such that d(tx, ty) ≤ m(x, y) φ(m(x, y)) for all x, y ∈ x, where m(x, y) = max{d(x, y), d(x, tx), d(y, ty), [d(x, ty) + d(y, tx)]/2}. in the next section, we extend these concepts to the framework of g-metric spaces and establish fixed point theorems for weakly contractive mappings in this generalized setting. 3. main results in this section, we present our main fixed point theorems for weakly contractive mappings in gmetric spaces. we begin by introducing the concept of weakly contractive mappings in the context of g-metric spaces. definition 3.1. let (x, g) be a g-metric space. a mapping t: x → x is said to be a g-weakly contractive mapping if there exists a function φ: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) with φ continuous, φ(0) = 0, and φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0 such that g(tx, ty, tz) ≤ g(x, y, z) φ(g(x, y, z)) for all x, y, z ∈ x. our first result establishes the existence of fixed points for g-weakly contractive mappings. theorem 3.2. let (x, g) be a complete g-metric space and let t: x → x be a g-weakly contractive mapping. then t has a unique fixed point x* ∈ x, and for any x0 ∈ x, the sequence {t^n x0} converges to x*. proof. let x0 ∈ x be arbitrary and define the sequence {xn} by xn+1 = txn for n ≥ 0. if there exists n0 such that xn0+1 = xn0, then xn0 is a fixed point of t, and we are done. so, assume that xn+1 ≠ xn for all n ≥ 0. we first show that the sequence {g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)} is decreasing and converges to 0. by the g-weak contractivity of t, we have g(xn+1, xn+2, xn+2) = g(txn, txn+1, txn+1) ≤ g(xn, xn+1, xn+1) φ(g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)) < g(xn, xn+1, xn+1) this shows that {g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)} is a decreasing sequence of non-negative real numbers, so it converges to some r ≥ 0. assume that r > 0. then, from the above inequality, we have 172 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us g(xn+1, xn+2, xn+2) ≤ g(xn, xn+1, xn+1) φ(g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)) taking the limit as n → ∞, and using the continuity of φ, we get r ≤ r φ(r) which implies φ(r) ≤ 0. since r > 0 and φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0, this is a contradiction. therefore, r = 0, i.e., lim_{n→∞} g(xn, xn+1, xn+1) = 0 next, we prove that {xn} is a g-cauchy sequence. suppose, by contradiction, that {xn} is not gcauchy. then there exists ε > 0 for which we can find subsequences {xm(k)} and {xn(k)} of {xn} with n(k) > m(k) > k such that g(xm(k), xn(k), xn(k)) ≥ ε further, assuming n(k) is the smallest such number, we have g(xm(k), xn(k)-1, xn(k)-1) < ε from the rectangle inequality (g5), we have g(xm(k), xn(k), xn(k)) ≤ g(xm(k), xn(k)-1, xn(k)-1) + g(xn(k)-1, xn(k), xn(k)) taking the limit as k → ∞ and using lim_{n→∞} g(xn, xn+1, xn+1) = 0, we get lim_{k→∞} g(xm(k), xn(k), xn(k)) ≤ ε similarly, we can show that lim_{k→∞} g(xm(k), xn(k), xn(k)) = ε now, by the g-weak contractivity of t, we have g(xm(k)+1, xn(k)+1, xn(k)+1) = g(txm(k), txn(k), txn(k)) ≤ g(xm(k), xn(k), xn(k)) φ(g(xm(k), xn(k), xn(k))) taking the limit as k → ∞ and using the continuity of φ, we get ε≤ε-φ(ε) which implies φ(ε) ≤ 0. since ε > 0 and φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0, this is a contradiction. therefore, {xn} is a g-cauchy sequence. since x is g-complete, there exists x* ∈ x such that xn → x* as n → ∞. we now show that x* is a fixed point of t. by the g-weak contractivity of t, we have g(tx*, xn+1, xn+1) = g(tx*, txn, txn) ≤ g(x*, xn, xn) φ(g(x*, xn, xn)) < g(x*, xn, xn) taking the limit as n → ∞, and using the fact that xn → x*, we get g(tx*, x*, x*) = 0, which implies tx* = x*. to prove uniqueness, suppose that y* is another fixed point of t. then g(x*, y*, y*) = g(tx*, ty*, ty*) ≤ g(x*, y*, y*) φ(g(x*, y*, y*)) this implies φ(g(x*, y*, y*)) ≤ 0. since φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0, we must have g(x*, y*, y*) = 0, which gives x* = y*. next, we extend our analysis to φ-weak contractions in g-metric spaces. definition 3.3. let (x, g) be a g-metric space. a mapping t: x → x is said to be a g-φ-weak contraction if there exists a function φ: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) with φ continuous, φ(0) = 0, and φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0 such that 173 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us g(tx, ty, tz) ≤ m_g(x, y, z) φ(m_g(x, y, z)) for all x, y, z ∈ x, where m_g(x, y, z) = max{g(x, y, z), g(x, tx, tx), g(y, ty, ty), g(z, tz, tz), [g(x, ty, tz) + g(y, tx, tz) + g(z, tx, ty)]/3} theorem 3.4. let (x, g) be a complete g-metric space and let t: x → x be a g-φ-weak contraction. then t has a unique fixed point x* ∈ x, and for any x0 ∈ x, the sequence {t^n x0} converges to x*. proof. the proof follows a similar pattern to that of theorem 3.2, with appropriate modifications to account for the different contractive condition. the complete proof is omitted for brevity. we now present a fixed point theorem for a more general class of weakly contractive mappings in g-metric spaces. definition 3.5. let (x, g) be a g-metric space. a mapping t: x → x is said to be a generalized g weakly contractive mapping if there exist functions ψ, φ: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) with ψ, φ continuous, ψ(0) = φ(0) = 0, ψ(t) > 0, and φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0 such that ψ(g(tx, ty, tz)) ≤ ψ(g(x, y, z)) φ(g(x, y, z)) for all x, y, z ∈ x. theorem 3.6. let (x, g) be a complete g-metric space and let t: x → x be a generalized gweakly contractive mapping. then t has a unique fixed point x* ∈ x, and for any x0 ∈ x, the sequence {t^n x0} converges to x*. proof. let x0 ∈ x be arbitrary and define the sequence {xn} by xn+1 = txn for n ≥ 0. as in the proof of theorem 3.2, we can assume that xn+1 ≠ xn for all n ≥ 0. by the generalized g-weak contractivity of t, we have ψ(g(xn+1, xn+2, xn+2)) = ψ(g(txn, txn+1, txn+1)) ≤ ψ(g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)) φ(g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)) < ψ(g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)) this shows that the sequence {ψ(g(xn, xn+1, xn+1))} is decreasing, and hence it converges to some r ≥ 0. if r > 0, then by taking the limit of the above inequality and using the continuity of ψ and φ, we get r ≤ r lim_{n→∞} φ(g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)) this implies lim_{n→∞} φ(g(xn, xn+1, xn+1)) = 0. since φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0, we must have lim_{n→∞} g(xn, xn+1, xn+1) = 0. the rest of the proof follows the pattern of theorem 3.2, showing that {xn} is a g-cauchy sequence, converging to some x* ∈ x, and that x* is the unique fixed point of t. finally, we present a fixed point theorem for ćirić-type contractions in g-metric spaces. definition 3.7. let (x, g) be a g-metric space. a mapping t: x → x is said to be a ćirić-type g-contraction if there exists α ∈ [0, 1) such that g(tx, ty, tz) ≤ α · max{g(x, y, z), g(x, tx, tx), g(y, ty, ty), g(z, tz, tz), g(x, ty, tz), g(y, tx, tz), g(z, tx, ty)} for all x, y, z ∈ x. 174 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us theorem 3.8. let (x, g) be a complete g-metric space and let t: x → x be a ćirić-type gcontraction. then t has a unique fixed point x* ∈ x, and for any x0 ∈ x, the sequence {t^n x0} converges to x*. proof. the proof follows the general approach used in the previous theorems, adapted to the ćirić-type contractive condition. the details are omitted for brevity. 4. examples in this section, we provide examples to illustrate our theoretical results and to demonstrate that our theorems properly extend the existing literature. example 4.1. let x = [0, 1] and define g: x × x × x → [0, ∞) by g(x, y, z) = max{|x y|, |y z|, |z x|} it can be verified that (x, g) is a complete g-metric space. define t: x → x by tx = x/(1 + x) for all x ∈ x and φ: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) by φ(t) = t/2 for all t ≥ 0. we will show that t is a g-weakly contractive mapping. for any x, y, z ∈ x, we have |tx ty| = |x/(1 + x) y/(1 + y)| = |x y|/[(1 + x)(1 + y)] ≤ |x y|/1 = |x y| similarly, |ty tz| ≤ |y z| and |tz tx| ≤ |z x|. therefore, g(tx, ty, tz) = max{|tx ty|, |ty tz|, |tz tx|} ≤ max{|x y|, |y z|, |z x|} = g(x, y, z) in fact, for x, y, z ∈ x with x, y, z not all equal, we have g(tx, ty, tz) < g(x, y, z) which implies g(tx, ty, tz) ≤ g(x, y, z) [g(x, y, z) g(tx, ty, tz)] ≤ g(x, y, z) g(x, y, z)/2 = g(x, y, z) φ(g(x, y, z)) thus, t is a g-weakly contractive mapping. by theorem 3.2, t has a unique fixed point, which is x* = 0. example 4.2. let x = [0, ∞) and define g: x × x × x → [0, ∞) by g(x, y, z) = |x y| + |y z| + |z x| it can be verified that (x, g) is a complete g-metric space. define t: x → x by tx = x/(2 + x) for all x ∈ x and φ: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) by φ(t) = t/3 for all t ≥ 0. we will show that t is a g-φ-weak contraction. for any x, y, z ∈ x, it can be shown that g(tx, ty, tz) ≤ m_g(x, y, z) φ(m_g(x, y, z)) where m_g(x, y, z) is as defined in definition 3.3. by theorem 3.4, t has a unique fixed point, which is x* = 0. 5. applications in this section, we discuss some applications of our fixed point theorems to nonlinear integral equations in g-metric spaces. consider the nonlinear integral equation 175 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us x(t) = f(t) + ∫_a^b k(t, s, x(s)) ds, t ∈ [a, b] where f: [a, b] → ℝ is a continuous function, k: [a, b] × [a, b] × ℝ → ℝ is a continuous function, and we seek a continuous solution x: [a, b] → ℝ. let x = c([a, b], ℝ) be the space of continuous functions from [a, b] to ℝ, equipped with the gmetric g(x, y, z) = sup_{t∈[a,b]} {|x(t) y(t)| + |y(t) z(t)| + |z(t) x(t)|} it can be shown that (x, g) is a complete g-metric space. define the operator t: x → x by (tx)(t) = f(t) + ∫_a^b k(t, s, x(s)) ds under suitable conditions on the kernel k, we can show that t is a g-weakly contractive mapping or a g-φ-weak contraction. applying our fixed point theorems, we can establish the existence and uniqueness of solutions to the integral equation. theorem 5.1. let f: [a, b] → ℝ be continuous, and let k: [a, b] × [a, b] × ℝ → ℝ be continuous. suppose there exists a continuous function φ: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) with φ(0) = 0 and φ(t) > 0 for all t > 0 such that |k(t, s, u) k(t, s, v)| ≤ (1/(b-a)) · |u v| (1/(b-a)) · φ(|u v|) for all t, s ∈ [a, b] and u, v ∈ ℝ. then the integral equation has a unique solution in c([a, b], ℝ). proof. the proof follows by verifying that the operator t defined above is a g-weakly contractive mapping and applying theorem 3.2. 6. conclusion and future directions in this paper, we have established several fixed point theorems for weakly contractive mappings in g-metric spaces. our results extend both the classical fixed point theorems in metric spaces and the more recent developments in g-metric spaces. we have introduced various classes of weakly contractive mappings, including g-weakly contractive mappings, g-φ-weak contractions, generalized g-weakly contractive mappings, and ćirić-type g-contractions, and have provided existence and uniqueness theorems for fixed points under these contractive conditions. through examples, we have illustrated the applicability of our theoretical findings and have demonstrated that our results properly extend the existing literature. additionally, we have discussed applications to nonlinear integral equations, highlighting the practical relevance of our fixed point theorems. several directions for future research emerge from this work: 1. the study of common fixed points for pairs or families of weakly contractive mappings in gmetric spaces. 2. the investigation of fixed points for set-valued weakly contractive mappings in g-metric spaces. 3. the exploration of fixed point theorems for weakly contractive mappings in other generalized metric spaces, such as partial metric spaces, quasi-metric spaces, and b-metric spaces. 4. the application of our results to different types of nonlinear equations, including differential equations and variational inequalities. 5. the development of iterative methods based on our fixed point theorems for the numerical approximation of solutions to nonlinear equations. 176 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these potential research directions could further enhance our understanding of fixed point theory in generalized metric spaces and expand the applicability of these theoretical results to practical problems. references 1. alber, y. i., & guerre-delabriere, s. (1997). principle of weakly contractive maps in hilbert spaces. in i. gohberg & y. lyubich (eds.), new results in operator theory and its applications (pp. 7-22). birkhäuser basel. 2. banach, s. (1922). sur les opérations dans les ensembles abstraits et leur application aux équations intégrales. fundamenta mathematicae, 3(1), 133-181. 3. ćirić, l. b. (1974). a generalization of banach's contraction principle. proceedings of the american mathematical society, 45(2), 267-273. 4. mustafa, z., & sims, b. (2006). a new approach to generalized metric spaces. journal of nonlinear and convex analysis, 7(2), 289-297. 5. mustafa, z., sims, b., & qasim, h. (2010). common fixed points of φ-mappings in g-metric spaces. applied mathematics and computation, 217(1), 195-202. 6. rhoades, b. e. (2001). some theorems on weakly contractive maps. nonlinear analysis: theory, methods & applications, 47(4), 2683-2693. 7. samet, b., vetro, c., & vetro, f. (2012). fixed point theorems for α-ψ-contractive type mappings. nonlinear analysis: theory, methods & applications, 75(4), 2154-2165. 8. shukla, s., & radenović, s. (2014). some common fixed point theorems for f-contraction type mappings in 0-complete partial metric spaces. journal of mathematics, 2014, article id 790714. 9. suzuki, t. (2008). a generalized banach contraction principle that characterizes metric completeness. proceedings of the american mathematical society, 136(5), 1861-1869. 10. wardowski, d. (2012). fixed points of a new type of contractive mappings in complete metric spaces. fixed point theory and applications, 2012(1), 1-6. wireless communication over rayleigh and rician channels 21 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 7, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 wireless communication over rayleigh and rician channels: ber behavior and system impact ankit mishra1, renu2 1p.g. student, department of cse, sat kabir institute of technology and management, ladrawan, haryana, india 2assistant professor, of cse, sat kabir institute of technology and management, ladrawan, haryana, india abstract: a thorough assessment of diversity combining methods, including equal gain combining (egc), selection combining (sc), and maximal ratio combining (mrc), in wireless communication systems exposed to independent rayleigh and rician fading channels is presented in this work. using quadrature phase shift keying (qpsk) modulation, the performance is examined. rayleigh and rician fading environments are generated as part of a comprehensive system model that is designed and simulated to represent realistic multipath propagation conditions. every diversity plan is put into place to lessen the effect that fading has on signal integrity. the performance of each method is then evaluated by computing the bit error rate (ber) at different signal-to-noise ratio (snr) levels. according to simulation results, egc provides a performance that is comparable to mrc with less complexity, whereas mrc consistently achieves the lowest ber thanks to its ideal signal-to-noise ratio gain. even though sc is the most straightforward, its inferior branch selection results in a higher ber. the study underscores the trade-offs between complexity and performance in diversity combining techniques and affirms the superiority of mrc in enhancing qpsk signal robustness under both rayleigh and rician fading conditions. keywords: diversity combining, fading, modulation, bit error rate. introduction multipath fading-induced signal deterioration is a major problem in wireless communication systems that has an immediate impact on data transmission quality and dependability [1]. fading phenomena like rayleigh and rician fading are caused by multipath propagation, which is the result of radio signals being reflected, diffraction, and scattered. particularly in mobile situations, these impairments result in changes in signal amplitude and phase, which raise bit error rates (ber) and degrade performance [2]. diversity approaches have become viable ways to counteract the negative impacts of fading. the system can take use of the various broadcast signal versions that arrive via various paths by using diversity combining at the receiver side, which enhances the overall signal quality. by weighting each received signal branch based on its snr, maximal ratio combining (mrc), one of the popular combining approaches, offers the best performance [3]. while identical gain combining (egc) combines all branches with identical amplitude but altered phases, selection combining (sc) (figure 1), despite being easier, only chooses the strongest branch for detection [4]. 22 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these diversity techniques are used in contemporary wireless standards and technologies, such lte and 5g, to guarantee signal resilience. understanding the practical efficacy of these techniques requires evaluating them under various channel conditions, including rayleigh and rician fading. rician fading works in contexts with a significant line-of-sight (los) component, while rayleigh fading usually represents non-line-of-sight (nlos) scenarios [5]. in real-world wireless systems, mobility, the availability or lack of a line-of-sight (los) path between the transmitter and receiver, and the surrounding environment all affect how severe fading is. when buildings block the direct path and the received signal is made up entirely of dispersed multipath components, rayleigh fading is frequently seen in crowded urban settings. rician fading, on the other hand, happens in situations when there is a strong los component in addition to multipath signals, like in rural or suburban settings [6]. both models are frequently used to assess modulation and coding strategies and are used as standard fading channel assumptions in simulations. because of its spectrum efficiency and noise resistance, quadrature phase shift keying (qpsk) is a favored modulation system in wireless communication and is appropriate for applications requiring low to moderate data rates. qpsk can further benefit from improved error performance when paired with diversity approaches, particularly in situations with multipath fading [7]. knowing how qpsk behaves in combination with diversity reception is crucial as wireless systems develop to accommodate increased mobility and user density. multiple antennas (spatial diversity), frequency diversity, or time diversity can all be used to implement diversity reception. the most extensively used and efficient of these in base stations and mobile devices is spatial diversity with several receive antennas. the combination of signals from several uncorrelated branches increases the probability of accurate signal identification, which is the specific emphasis of our study on receiver diversity. although it is computationally demanding, mrc provides the best theoretical performance. despite being less complicated, sc and egc are not ideal, but they might be better in systems with limited resources [8]. this paper focuses on evaluating the performance of mrc, sc, and egc diversity combining techniques for qpsk-modulated signals under uncorrelated rayleigh and rician fading channels. through matlab-based simulation, the ber performance of each method is analyzed and compared across various snr levels. the goal is to highlight the trade-offs between performance and computational complexity in practical wireless systems. research background: the dynamic and unpredictable character of wireless channels has a significant impact on the dependability of wireless communication systems. multipath fading, which causes phase distortion and variations in signal amplitude, is one of the most serious impairments. across multiple wireless network generations, from 2g to 5g and beyond, diversity combining techniques have been thoroughly researched and used to counteract such degradations. combining several independently faded signal replicas greatly enhances detection performance, according to early diversity reception study. by weighting and summing signal branches according to their channel quality, maximal ratio combining (mrc), which was first proposed as an ideal linear diversity strategy, guarantees the best signal-to-noise ratio (snr) [9]. however, at the expense of performance, equal gain combining (egc), which combines signals with equal amplitude and phase alignment, and selection combining (sc), which selects the signal path with the highest snr, provide simpler solutions with less computing complexity [10]. 23 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1: diversity combining methods: egc, sc and mrc well-known statistical models for simulating actual propagation situations are rayleigh and rician fading. rayleigh fading models settings with high levels of scattering by assuming that there is no line-of-sight (los) component. rician fading, on the other hand, includes a dominating los path, denoted by the k-factor, which measures the power ratio of the dispersed and direct components [11]. stronger los presence is indicated by a greater k-factor, which enhances wireless link performance [12]. because of its durability and bandwidth economy, qpsk modulation has also been investigated for use in fading settings. as a constant-envelope modulation method, qpsk is especially wellsuited for non-linear power-limited devices like satellite transceivers and cell phones [13]. system designers are quite interested in how it behaves in multipath fading contexts under diversity combining techniques. the advantage of mrc in both rayleigh and rician scenarios was validated by simulation studies such as those conducted by e. zvanovec and p. pechac [14], which used matlab to assess the ber performance of qpsk over fading channels. however, more comparison analyses using egc are yet largely unexplored, especially for moderate snr regimes and uncorrelated branch situations. simulation setup to evaluate the performance of diversity combining techniques—maximal ratio combining (mrc), selection combining (sc), and equal gain combining (egc)—under uncorrelated rayleigh and rician fading channels, a simulation-based approach is employed using qpsk modulation. the setup involves generating a wireless communication system model, applying different channel models, implementing the diversity combining techniques, and computing the bit error rate (ber) for performance comparison. 1. the system model: to simulate the wireless communication system and accurately analyze the effects of diversity combining methods (mrc, sc, egc) on qpsk signals in fading environments, the following system model is defined: 1.1 transmitter: data generation: generate a random binary sequence of size 𝑁. modulation: use quadrature phase shift keying (qpsk). group input bits into pairs and map each pair 24 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to a qpsk symbol using gray coding. the qpsk symbols are normalized to have unit average power. 1.2 wireless channel: the wireless channel is modeled as flat fading and uncorrelated across multiple receive branches. rayleigh fading channel: applicable when there is no line-ofsight (nlos). channel coefficients ℎ𝑖 are modeled as independent complex gaussian variables. each diversity branch experiences independent fading. rician fading channel: models scenarios with a dominant los path. additive white gaussian noise (awgn): complex gaussian noise 𝑛 is added to the faded signal at each branch. 1.3 receiver diversity model: receive antennas: l (e.g., 2 or 4) uncorrelated branches. signal at receiver 𝑖 at i-th branch. combining methods (mrc, sc, egc) will be applied to 𝑟𝑖 for demodulation. this system model enables ber simulation over a wide snr range, incorporating realistic channel fading and diversity effects. it supports robust performance comparison for diversity schemes across both rayleigh and rician fading environments. figure 2: proposed method of evaluation 25 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. channel models: fading environments: fading is a crucial characteristic of wireless channels caused by multipath propagation and doppler shifts. to evaluate the robustness of diversity combining techniques, we simulate two statistically distinct and widely accepted fading models: rayleigh and rician. these represent non-line-of-sight (nlos) and line-of-sight (los) wireless environments respectively. 2.1 rayleigh fading channel: occurs when there is no direct line-of-sight (nlos) between transmitter and receiver. multipath scenario: the received signal is the sum of many scattered paths with randomly varying amplitudes and phases. 2.2 rician fading channel: occurs when a strong los component is present along with multiple scattered components. multipath scenario: the received signal is a combination of a deterministic los path and several random scattered paths. strong los component with scattered paths. 2.3 channel properties in simulation: uncorrelated fading: each receive branch experiences independent fading realization. slow flat fading assumption: the fading is constant over a symbol period but may change between symbols. the channel is frequency non-selective (i.e., flat) since the bandwidth of the signal is much smaller than the channel coherence bandwidth. table1: significant differences parameter rayleigh fading rician fading los path absent present k-factor 0 (purely scattered) k>0k > 0 environment urban, indoor, dense areas rural, los, suburban ber performance worse better as k increases this channel modeling allows us to realistically evaluate how diversity combining techniques perform in both harsh (rayleigh) and moderate (rician) propagation conditions. 3. diversity combining techniques implementation: mrc (maximal ratio combining): • each branch is multiplied by the conjugate of its channel coefficient • weighted sum of all branches is used for detection sc (selection combining): • the branch with the highest instantaneous snr is selected • only one branch is used for detection per symbol egc (equal gain combining): • all branches are co-phased (same phase) and summed with equal weights • all combining techniques assume perfect channel state information (csi) at the receiver. 4. qpsk modulation and demodulation quadrature phase shift keying (qpsk) is a widely used digital modulation scheme in wireless communication systems due to its balance between spectral efficiency and robustness to noise and fading. it transmits 2 bits per symbol, making it more bandwidth-efficient than bpsk while maintaining relatively simple implementation. 26 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.1 qpsk modulation: input: binary data stream, output: complex qpsk symbols mapped to the i-q (in-phase and quadrature) plane. 3.2 received signal model: after combining (via mrc, sc, or egc), a single complex symbol 𝑠 is obtained for detection at receiver side. 3.3 qpsk demodulation: input: combined complex symbol 𝑠. output: recovered bit pair. 3.4 ber calculation: compare transmitted and received bit streams. 𝑩𝑬𝑹 = !"#$%& () *+,(&&%,$*-. 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔 (1) 5. output analysis performance metric: ber vs. snr. in digital wireless communication systems, evaluating the reliability of transmission under noise and fading conditions is essential. the bit error rate (ber) as a function of signal-to-noise ratio (snr) is a fundamental performance metric used to assess the effectiveness of modulation schemes, channel models, and diversity combining techniques. the ber quantifies how often a bit is incorrectly received due to noise, fading, or other impairments in the channel. a lower ber indicates better system performance. snr measures the strength of the signal relative to background noise. a higher snr typically leads to lower ber. in an awgn channel, the ber of qpsk decreases rapidly as snr increases. in fading channels (rayleigh/rician): ber is higher due to multipath effects. performance degrades significantly compared to awgn. diversity combining techniques improve ber by mitigating fading effects: mrc achieves steep ber drop with increasing snr. egc performs close to mrc. sc improves over single-antenna but performs worse than mrc and egc. the ber vs. snr metric provides deep insights into how modulation and diversity strategies perform in real-world fading environments. it is especially valuable for comparing the efficiency of mrc, sc, and egc techniques under rayleigh and rician fading when using qpsk modulation. there exist l diversity branches of independent rayleigh/ricean fading signals (l = 1, 2, 3, 4). for every branch, the average symbol energy-to-noise power ratio (es/n0) is 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 db. the figure 3 below shows the ber vs. snr curves for sc, mrc, and egc under rayleigh fading with varying numbers of diversity branches (l = 1, 2, 3, 4). as expected, mrc achieves the best performance, especially as l increases. sc improves with diversity but lags behind mrc. egc performance lies between sc and mrc. figure 3: rayleigh fading 27 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 4: rician fading figure 4 shows ber vs. snr under rician fading (k = 6 db) for sc, mrc, and egc with diversity branches {𝐿 = 1,2,3,4 }. mrc again outperforms other techniques, especially as 𝐿 increases. sc shows performance gains with more branches but is consistently the least effective. egc maintains a performance between sc and mrc. compared to rayleigh fading, rician fading yields better ber due to the presence of a dominant los component, especially at higher snr. conclusion this study evaluated the performance of three diversity combining techniques maximal ratio combining (mrc), selection combining (sc), and equal gain combining (egc) in the context of qpsk modulation over uncorrelated rayleigh and rician fading channels. mrc consistently outperforms sc and egc in both rayleigh and rician fading environments. it provides the lowest ber due to its optimal weighting of received signal components based on channel conditions. egc offers a favorable trade-off, delivering performance close to mrc while requiring less channel state information and computational complexity. sc, while the simplest to implement, exhibits the highest ber among the three, though it still benefits from increased diversity order. in rician fading channels, the presence of a line-of-sight component improves the overall ber for all techniques compared to rayleigh fading, especially as the rician kfactor increases. in conclusion, mrc is the preferred technique for systems where complexity and channel estimation are manageable, while egc serves as a viable alternative for moderatecomplexity receivers. sc remains suitable for resource-constrained scenarios. these findings are critical for the design and optimization of reliable receivers in modern wireless systems such as lte, 5g, and beyond. references 1. rahul, sumit dalal, sumiran, rohini sharma, “optimizing diversity selection techniques in rayleigh / rician fading channels: a ber performance analysis”, nternational journal of advanced research in electrical, electronics and instrumentation engineering (ijareeie), volume 13, issue 6, june 2024, pp. 17361742. 2. j. g. proakis, digital communications, 5th ed., mcgraw-hill, 2008. 3. s. haykin and m. moher, modern wireless communications, pearson, 2005. 28 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. t. s. rappaport, wireless communications: principles and practice, 2nd ed., prentice hall, 2002. 5. m. k. simon and m.-s. alouini, digital communication over fading channels, 2nd ed., wiley, 2005. 6. a. abdi, c. tepedelenlioglu, m. kaveh, and g. giannakis, “on the estimation of the k parameter for the rice fading distribution,” ieee communications letters, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 92–94, mar. 2001. 7. b. sklar, “rayleigh fading channels in mobile digital communication systems part i: characterization,” ieee communications magazine, vol. 35, no. 7, pp. 90–100, jul. 1997. 8. m. s. alouini and a. j. goldsmith, “capacity of rayleigh fading channels under different adaptive transmission and diversity-combining techniques,” ieee transactions on vehicular technology, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 1165–1181, jul. 1999. 9. j. d. parsons, the mobile radio propagation channel, 2nd ed., wiley, 2000. 10. r. prasad and s. hara, “an overview of multicarrier cdma,” ieee communications magazine, vol. 35, no. 12, pp. 126–133, dec. 1997. 11. d. tse and p. viswanath, fundamentals of wireless communication, cambridge university press, 2005. 12. m. k. samimi and t. s. rappaport, “3-d statistical channel model for millimeter-wave outdoor mobile broadband communications,” 2015 ieee icc, pp. 2430–2436. 13. s. benedetto and e. biglieri, principles of digital transmission: with wireless applications, springer, 1999. 1. e. zvanovec and p. pechac, “simulation and measurement of diversity gain in the presence of rayleigh and rician fading,” radioengineering, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 17–22, dec. 2003. 141 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 renewable energy and its impact on the environment and sustainable development ali mohammed elaibi department of mobile communications and computing engineering, college of engineering, university of information technology and communications, baghdad, iraq ali.alrubayi@uoitc.edu.com abstract: the transition to renewable energy sources is central to mitigating climate change and fostering sustainable development. this paper evaluates the impact of renewable energy technologies on environmental conservation, economic growth, and societal well-being. key renewable energy types solar, wind, hydro, and bioenergy are analyzed through the metrics of carbon footprint, energy efficiency, economic viability, and social acceptance. comparative case studies highlight successful implementations and challenges, providing actionable insights into fostering a sustainable energy future. introduction the global energy crisis, exacerbated by fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation, necessitates a shift toward renewable energy. renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and bioenergy offer promising solutions for achieving energy security while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. this paper examines the environmental, economic, and social dimensions of renewable energy and its implications for sustainable development. by analyzing key metrics, we aim to inform policies and strategies that promote renewable energy adoption. the study focuses on addressing the critical challenge of optimizing the use of renewable energy sources to mitigate environmental degradation while advancing sustainable development. traditional energy systems, heavily reliant on fossil fuels, contribute significantly to climate change, air pollution, and resource depletion. despite the known benefits of renewable energy such as its sustainability and low carbon footprint—several barriers hinder its widespread adoption and effective implementation. literature review numerous studies highlight the benefits of renewable energy, including reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and enhanced energy security. solar and wind energy are lauded for their minimal operational emissions, while hydropower and bioenergy present complex trade-offs. for instance, boyle (2012) underscores the efficiency of solar photovoltaic systems in urban areas, to enhance energy efficiency and reduce emissions. however, address challenges related to high initial costs and material recycling, whereas smith & lee (2018) integrate solar photovoltaic systems into urban environments, ensuring sufficient policy support to address challenges related to land availability and system integration, patel & kumar (2019) accelerate advancements in wind energy technologies to enhance efficiency and scalability, focusing on mitigating noise concerns and improving land-use planning. johnson et al. (2020) critique bioenergy for its landuse conflicts and potential carbon footprint. the review also examines life-cycle assessments of 142 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us renewable systems, highlighting gaps in recycling and resource management practices. environmental impact renewable energy technologies have demonstrated significant potential in reducing carbon emissions compared to fossil fuels. studies by the international renewable energy agency (irena, 2021) highlight that transitioning to renewables could mitigate up to 70% of global greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. however, concerns about land use and resource extraction for renewable technologies remain critical issues, energy efficiency energy efficiency varies significantly among renewable technologies. research by smith et al. (2020) shows that solar panels achieve energy conversion efficiencies between 15-22%, while modern wind turbines exceed 45%. hydro energy remains the most efficient, with conversion rates above 80% but limited by geographical and environmental constraints, economic viability the costs of renewable energy technologies have declined significantly, with solar and wind energy achieving grid parity in many regions. studies by mckinsey & co. (2022) emphasize the role of government subsidies and private investments in accelerating cost reductions, social acceptance public perception and societal acceptance are critical to the widespread adoption of renewables. surveys indicate that communities prioritize low-impact technologies, with wind and solar receiving greater acceptance compared to bioenergy, often due to concerns about land competition and emissions. methodology this study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative analyses. data sources include: ➢ life-cycle assessments (lca) of renewable energy technologies. solar energy: ➢ production phase: manufacturing solar panels involves energy-intensive processes, leading to a temporary carbon footprint during production. ➢ operational phase: solar panels produce negligible emissions during their operational life, typically spanning 20-30 years. ➢ end-of-life phase: recycling and managing decommissioned panels remain significant challenges, necessitating advancements in recycling technologies. case study analysis case 1: solar energy in urban india india has embraced solar energy as a cornerstone of its renewable energy policy, particularly in urban areas. rooftop photovoltaic (pv) systems have gained traction due to their suitability for densely populated cities. as of 2023, india has installed over 7 gw of rooftop solar capacity, contributing significantly to urban energy needs (ministry of new and renewable energy, 2023). benefits: ➢ carbon reduction: rooftop systems offset emissions by reducing dependency on coal-based power plants. ➢ economic savings: urban households and businesses benefit from reduced electricity bills. ➢ energy independence: decentralized solar installations enhance energy resilience. challenges: ➢ land scarcity: urban land constraints limit the expansion of large-scale solar projects. ➢ waste management: recycling and disposing of end-of-life solar panels require improved infrastructure. 143 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ policy gaps: financial and regulatory barriers slow adoption despite governmental incentives. wind energy: ➢ production phase: turbine components, particularly blades and towers, require significant material and energy inputs. ➢ operational phase: emissions are minimal; however, noise pollution and ecological impacts (e.g., bird and bat mortality) need addressing. ➢ end-of-life phase: recycling turbine blades remains a complex issue due to the composite materials used. case 2: wind energy in denmark denmark has established itself as a global leader in wind energy, with wind power accounting for nearly 50% of its electricity consumption. the country’s success is attributed to proactive policies, technological innovation, and public acceptance (irena, 2022). benefits: ➢ high efficiency: denmark’s wind turbines operate at high capacity factors, ensuring consistent energy production. ➢ offshore expansion: offshore wind farms minimize land use conflicts while harnessing strong and stable wind resources. ➢ economic leadership: denmark is a major exporter of wind turbine technology, contributing to its economy. challenges: ➢ intermittency: the variability of wind power requires advanced energy storage and grid management solutions. ➢ noise and aesthetics: turbine noise and visual impact continue to face opposition, particularly for onshore installations. ➢ high initial costs: offshore wind projects demand significant upfront investments. hydropower: ➢ construction phase: dam construction significantly alters ecosystems and generates emissions from building materials like cement. ➢ operational phase: offers one of the lowest carbon footprints per kilowatt-hour but can lead to methane emissions in tropical reservoirs. ➢ end-of-life phase: decommissioning large dams requires extensive efforts to restore ecosystems. case 3: hydropower in brazil hydropower is a cornerstone of brazil’s energy mix, accounting for over 60% of the country’s electricity generation. major projects, such as the itaipu dam and belo monte dam, highlight its potential for large-scale energy production. however, these projects have also raised significant environmental and social concerns, including: ➢ ecological impact: large dams disrupt aquatic ecosystems, affecting biodiversity and altering river flow. ➢ social displacement: thousands of indigenous and local communities have been displaced due to dam construction. 144 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ methane emissions: in tropical climates, reservoirs often emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas, due to decomposing organic matter. bioenergy: ➢ production phase: land-use changes and agricultural practices for biofuel crops can lead to deforestation and soil degradation. ➢ operational phase: while bioenergy can be carbon-neutral, improper management may result in net emissions. ➢ end-of-life phase: waste-to-energy bioenergy applications have significant potential to reduce landfill impacts. case 4: bioenergy in germany germany’s biogas plants utilize agricultural waste to produce energy. benefits: carbon neutrality, waste reduction, energy security, economic growth. challenges: land use competition, biodiversity loss, high initial costs, methane leakages. ➢ environmental impact assessments from case studies case1. solar energy in desert ecosystems morocco. ➢ overview: morocco’s noor ouarzazate solar complex is one of the largest concentrated solar power plants globally. ➢ positive impacts: reduced greenhouse gas emissions, local employment opportunities. ➢ challenges: habitat disruption, water usage for panel cleaning. ➢ mitigation measures: efficient water recycling systems and habitat restoration programs. case2. wind energy in coastal areas united kingdom. ➢ overview: the hornsea wind farm in the uk is the largest offshore wind farm globally. ➢ positive impacts: significant reduction in fossil fuel dependency. ➢ challenges: noise pollution, impact on marine ecosystems. ➢ mitigation measures: advanced turbine designs to reduce noise and careful siting to minimize harm to marine life. case3. hydropower in tropical regions brazil. ➢ overview: the belo monte dam has been subject to intense scrutiny for its environmental and social impact. ➢ positive impacts: substantial renewable electricity generation. ➢ challenges: displacement of communities, deforestation, and methane emissions. ➢ mitigation measures: programs for resettlement and biodiversity conservation. case4. bioenergy in agricultural areas germany. ➢ overview: germany’s biogas plants utilize agricultural waste to produce energy. ➢ positive impacts: circular economy benefits, waste management. ➢ challenges: monoculture crops leading to soil degradation and biodiversity loss. ➢ mitigation measures: diversified cropping and sustainable agricultural practices. 145 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us comparison of renewable energy systems comparison of renewable energy types 146 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us cost analysis comparison carbon footprint comparison conclusion renewable energy technologies offer significant opportunities to reduce carbon emissions, enhance energy security, and support sustainable development. solar and wind energy exhibit high scalability and minimal operational emissions, making them front-runners for global 147 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us adoption. hydropower's efficiency and reliability position it as a vital source in regions with abundant water resources, though ecological concerns need addressing. bioenergy can complement the renewable mix when managed sustainably, focusing on waste reduction and land-use balance. future strategies should prioritize: ➢ technological innovation: enhance recycling processes for renewable energy systems. ➢ integrated policies: streamline regulations to address financial and operational barriers. ➢ global collaboration: foster partnerships to share best practices and research advancements. references 1. boyle, g. (2012). renewable energy: power for a sustainable future. oxford university press. 2. intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc). (2021). climate change 2021: the physical science basis. cambridge university press. 3. international energy agency (iea). (2023). renewables 2023: analysis and forecast to 2030. oecd/iea. 4. international renewable energy agency (irena). (2022). wind energy in denmark: a case study on policy success. irena publications. 5. johnson, t., smith, l., & brown, k. (2020). "the environmental impacts of bioenergy production." journal of renewable energy research. 6. ministry of new and renewable energy. (2023). annual report 2023. government of india. 7. patel, s., & kumar, r. (2019). "advances in wind energy technologies." energy and environmental science, 12(4). 8. smith, j. p., & lee, h. (2018). "solar photovoltaics in urban environments: challenges and opportunities." solar energy journal. 9. united nations. (2015). transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. united nations publications. 10. world bank. (2021). hydropower development and environmental sustainability. world bank publications. 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architectur 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 9, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 uses statcom to improve the power quality and power factor correction in low voltage distribution system ahmed samawi alkhafaji department of electrical engineering, college of engineering, university of babylon, al-hillah, iraq correspondence: eng.ahmed.samawi@uobabylon.edu.iq abstract: the continuous development of human needs leads to increased demand for electrical energy, which is increases the complexity of power systems. during abnormal operating conditions, such as a high inductive loads, nonlinear loads, or may be some faults that leads to the deterioration of the power quality of the power system (swells or voltage drops). reactive power compensation is linked to voltage regulation; traditional methods that use constant capacitor banks lack the flexibility and dynamic potential to satisfy power quality standards. in this paper proposed statcom one of the more recent facts devices is used to quickly and accurately manage reactive power, which enhances the efficiency of electrical power transmission and distribution networks. this paper discusses the use of statcom for two types of loads: inductive loads and nonlinear loads. the effectiveness of statcom systems in compensating for reactive power losses and mitigating the effects of harmful harmonics caused by nonlinear loads was demonstrated. matlab simulink was used to achieve the results. keywords: power quality, power factor correction, statcom, facts introduction the incorporation of renewable energy sources such a dg system and the growing need for enhancements have caused power systems to become more complicated and undergo dynamic changes. power networks' stability and dependability are seriously threatened by voltage instability, which is typified by voltage sags, swells, and swings when consider the study on the sources side [1]. on the load side, nonlinear consumer and industrial loads in power systems include inverters, high-power diode rectifiers, computers, arc furnaces, and so on. due to their functioning, these nonlinear loads require non-sinusoidal currents from utilities, resulting in poor power quality on the utility side. in addition, large inductive loads have an impact on network performance by lowering the power factor [2]. (statcoms) have developed as an important technology for reducing voltage fluctuations, enhancing power quality, and correcting for reactive power. the use of voltage source converters (vscs) in statcoms has various benefits, including higher waveform quality, lower thd, and increased power handling capabilities. this study will look at these advantages in a 1 mva/420v low-voltage distribution system [3]. an essential consideration in electric power system management is reactive power compensation. high absorbing reactive power often lowers the power capacity of the distributors and transmission lines and increases power system losses. furthermore, the receiving-end voltage may fluctuate significantly due to reactive power flowing via the lines [4]. older compensators like synchronous condensers or capacitor banks, are unlike now because the low response when we compare with facts system that using power electronics components like (tcr, tsc, and statcom) [5]. there are many researchers who have presented their proposals to employ the statcom in solving electrical network problems, including: http://www/ mailto:velavan@dhaanishcollege.in 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in [6], a selective hvc technique for statcom is suggested. this technique works really well to reduce voltage harmonics. an emtp simulation is used to validate this approach. in [7] proposes a solution for distributed statcom that uses (dvec). experimental findings suggest that this strategy may reduce negative sequence voltage and regulate voltage imbalance in the case of a fault. in [8] illustrates how statcom can be used to provide stability and quality of electrical supply during dynamic relationships between transmission lines, wind turbines, and other electrical devices. the ieee bus system is beneficial for dampening low-frequency oscillations, as shown by a numerical case study. in a large, high-voltage power network, the imbalance between reactive power production and consumption might lead to voltage collapse. in order to address this issue, a low voltage rating statcom is suggested in [9]. there are different aspects of the statcom model that can be summarized with the following points; a. voltage source convertor [10,11,12] b. pulse width modulation [13,14,15] c. software [16,17] d. load flow model [18,19,20] e. modular multilevel convertor [21,22,23] each model is used for several applications the employ to enhance the electrical power system. this paper describes the relationship between power factor and electrical power distribution systems' efficiency, and the potential of using statcom to improve power factor. this allows voltage adjustment and mitigation of the negative effects of harmful harmonics, thus improving power quality. statcom is an electrical device that compensates the power system for dynamic reactive power, it is used to inject or absorb reactive power at certain grid locations in order to control the voltage (regulator). voltage source converters (vscs) and current source converters (cscs) are the two most popular and operational variants of statcom. because the vsc approach is often more successful than the csc methodology, statcom uses vscs. this study employs a dynamic rpcs in the form of a vsc-statcom. statcom is usually connected via step-down transformers if the voltage in the transmission lines is high. however, in low-voltage distribution systems, step-down transformers are not required and are connected directly, as shown in the figure (1) [24,25]. figure 1. (a, b) vsc statcom model, (c) csc statcom model. http://www/ 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us methodology the theory of power may be generically divided into ac and dc power. real power (watt), imaginary power (var), and apparent power (va) are further categories for ac power. understanding the transport and use of electrical energy in various circuits and systems is made easier by these categories. the quantity of energy per unit of time is called power. in essence, it provides the rate at which energy is produced or consumed. a. real power (p): the amount of electrical power that is really transformed into usable work, such as heat, light, or mechanical energy, is referred to as active power, or true power. the power that generates work in an electrical circuit is expressed in watts (w). the formula p = vrms * irms * cosθ, where θ is the phase angle, is used to compute active power in ac circuits by taking into account the phase difference between voltage and current. b. reactive power (q): in ac circuits, reactive power is the portion of electrical power that is required to create and sustain magnetic and electric fields in inductive and capacitive components but does not aid in performing beneficial tasks. instead of being consumed, it alternates between the source and reactive parts like capacitors and inductors. var, is the unit of measurement for reactive power. c. apparent power (s): is the volt-ampere (va) value of the total power flowing in an ac circuit. regardless of whether the power is really consumed by the load or reflected back to the source, it reflects the product of voltage and current. it's an essential idea for comprehending and controlling electrical systems, especially for figuring out how much power electrical equipment can handle. when sizing electrical infrastructure, such as transmission lines, transformers, and generators, apparent power is crucial. it guarantees that these parts can manage the whole power flow, even if a portion of it is not put to good use [26]. figure 2 illustrate the relationship between these the power components. figure 2. power triangle [27]. d. harmonics: are caused by the presence of nonlinear electric loads. these frequencies are a primary source of reduced power quality, which affects a system's power factor. figure 3. current & voltage harmonics. http://www/ 82 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us power quality and voltage stability improvement by using statcom in power systems, (statcom) may greatly enhance voltage stability and power quality. in order to control voltage, adjust power factor, and lessen voltage sags and swings, statcoms provide reactive power into the system. as a result, the power supply becomes more dependable and steady [28]. how power quality improve by statcom? a. regulating voltage: statcom systems are characterized by their very rapid response in absorbing or injecting reactive power, as they are power electronics devices that maintain a constant voltage even when the load is in a changing state. b. power factor correction (pfc): statcom enhance the system's overall power factor by compensating for loads' reactive power demands by the injection of reactive power. c. mitigation of the voltage sag: when there are brief drops in voltage, known as voltage sags, statcoms may swiftly provide reactive power to maintain the voltage and save equipment from tripping or breaking down. d. enhanced capacity for power transfer: statcoms may be used to transmit more active power over existing transmission lines by controlling voltage and making up for reactive power. e. better transient stability: may be achieved by using statcom to increase the power system's resilience to disruptions such as faults or abrupt changes in demand. f. damping oscillations: by using statcom to reduce oscillations in the power system, the system's overall stability may be increased. proposed distribution statcom constriction model figure 4 depicts the overall layout of the statcom, a shunt facts device that controls the voltage at pcc and compensates or absorbs reactive power according on the voltage magnitude. it is made up of a dc voltage source coupled to a three-phase inverter [29]. the power circuits of the statcom and the distribution system are modeled by specific blocks from the power system block set, while the control system is modeled by simulink blocks as shown in figure 5. ac-system inverter vdc figure 4. the statcom's general structure. http://www/ 83 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3-phase measurement va vb vc 3-phase measurement va vb vc 3-phase load 3-phase lcl filter 3-phase statcom vdc va vb vc 3-phase measurement va vb vc 3-phase measurement figure 5. the proposed power statcom system. control method: there are three primary controllers of statcom: the outer controller, reactive power, and dc voltage. figure 8 shows the external statcom control unit, which is the first unit. to compensate the reactive power, the second controller unit is used, which calculates the potential difference at the pcc point and the nominal voltage of the system by using pi controller [30,31]. the amount of active power needed to manage the dc voltage for statcom capacitors is determined by the dc voltage controller. based on clark's transformation (abc to dq), this controller computed id-ref using the traditional pi and the difference between the vdc reference and capacitor voltage [32]. figure 6 illustrate the voltage and current measurement; grid voltage presents the reference voltage, by using clark's transformation to transfer vabc to vd, vq. the second parte related to the load current and inverter current its also transfer from abc to dq. http://www/ 84 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 6. voltage and current control /matlab simulink block diagram. result and discussion in a power distribution system, an inductive load, or nonlinear load, significantly affects the efficiency and stability of the electrical power grid. reactive power regulation using statcom has been proposed as a viable way to preserve voltage stability, improve power quality, and power factor correction. in this paper matlab/simulink is used to implement the distribution system based on statcom technique for two types of load (inductive and nonlinear). table below is contant the important data which are need in the simulation program. table 1. observe the practical values are using in the matlab simulation. parameters values (unit) vdc 800 (volt) cdc-bus 4700 (μf) vgrid(rms) 420 (volt) ph-ph load power 1mva power factor o.65 logging switching freq. 10 khz lcl filter design l1= 120 μh =l2 c = 900 μf inductive load the figure 7 shows the results obtained when connecting the statcom in the case of an inductive load and its value p= 650kw, q = 760kvar, and 0.65 p.f. from the results we see the grid is injecting just the real power (p) when the all reactive power (q) is injecting from the statcom to load. so, in this case the grid power factor is increased and arrived to 0.9957. in the same figure the load power consumption consists from the active power absorbing from the grid and the load reactive power is compensating from the statcom system and improved the power factor as shown in the simulation results shown in figure 7. 𝑃. 𝐹 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ф (1) ф = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑄𝑔 𝑃𝑔 (2) http://www/ 85 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑄𝑔 = −6.09 × 104& 𝑃𝑔 = 6.581 × 105 (3) ф = −5.287𝑜 , cos −5.287𝑜 = 0.9957 = 𝑃. 𝐹 figure 7. the active and reactive power for the grid, statcom and load. the power quality is also improved in order to the high power consumed form the load in this case the load power and current should be constant no fluctuation no sag. figure 8 demonstrate the load results and the inverter current. figure 8. simulation results for the load voltage, current and inverter current. figure 9 illustrate the simulation results for the grid phase voltage and current in this case the grid phase voltage is remained constant and the grid current is become less then the value without used statcom, approximating to 1.2 ×103 (a) peak value compared with the absorbing load current, approximating to 2 ×103 (a) peak value. the difference between these two values is compensate from the statcom system. figure 10 is the dc-bus voltage is still constant 800 v according to the reference value. http://www/ 86 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 9. simulation results for the grid voltage and current. figure 10. the dcbus voltage. figure 11. the thd results for the, (a) grid current, (b) load current. figure 11 observe the thd factor for the grid and load currents are equal to 3.88% for the grid current and 0.00% for the load current, these values is acceptable with ieee std. 519-2014 harmonic limits 5% when the voltage less than 1kv. http://www/ 87 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us nonlinear load in this case the load is nonlinear considered by three phase rectifier with rl load. this types of loads are more effect on the ship of the source current, this leads to the emergence of a number of unwanted harmonics, which increase losses and distort the sinusoidal waveform of the current drawn from the source. in order to mitigate the negative effects caused by non-linear loads, statcom systems are used to improve the performance of the electrical power system for the previously mentioned distribution model. their primary role is to reduce the damage caused by harmful harmonics by reducing the operating ratio of the thd. figure 12 illustrate the simulation results for nonlinear load, the third figure represent the waveform of the 3-phase line current drown from the pcc by the nonlinear load, this waves appearance irregular and distorted due to the shape of the current drawn by the non-linear load. the second ship related to the grid line current on the pcc point it’s be more improved when it is comparing by the third waveform and the first is the grid voltage is regular and stable. figure 12. simulation results for the grid voltage, grid line current after statcom and nonlinear line current. figure 13 shows the dc-bus voltage in this case the voltage is stable on the 800 v matching to the reference value and the second and third waveform related to the dc-output of rectifier circuit load these two results is still constant and accordant to the load design. figure 13. simulation results for the dc-bus, dc output voltages and the dc output current. fig 14 observe the simulation result for the thd percentage, for the 3-phase nonlinear load the thd = 22.82% and this value is high and unacceptable, when used statcom technique the thd is reduce and become 5.6% for the grid line current. http://www/ 88 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 14. thd results for (a) the grid line current, (b) the nonlinear line current. conclusion in this paper, used one of the facts technique called statcom, which aims to improve the performance of electrical power systems, depending on whether they are working on high-voltage lines or low-voltage distribution systems. this research focused on a low-voltage distribution system with a capacity of 420 volts and of (1 mva) appearance power. i worked on two types of loads which are considered the most widespread and have the greatest impact on the electrical energy environment, inductive loads and non-linear loads which use rectifiers. in the one case of high inductive loads, the amount of current flowing from the source (grid) to the load is high, causing significant power losses, in addition, to caused poor in power factor. when combined these effects, leads to a decrease in the electrical network voltage and a loss of the voltage regulation factor. therefore, statcom was used to regulate voltage in power distribution systems by inject the reactive power q-var to compensate the high power consumption, this enhance the power factor, which in turn enhances the performance of the distribution system and increases the efficiency. thus achieving acceptable power quality. in the second case of nonlinear loads, the effect is primarily on the waveform of the load current. this is due to the effect of rectifiers, which convert the current form from ac to unidirectional dc, and whose components include a dc component that negatively effects on the fundamental component. statcom systems have been 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(2020). http://www/ 204 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 simulation of data de-noising system using improved pso software algorithm nada sharis, ali arkan al-ezz iraqi ministry of education, vocational education department, najaf firas m al-salbi al-nahrain university, engineering college, electronic & communications dept., baghdad, iraq abstract: in an rf environment, noise that starts with a few references ruins the display of telecommunications systems. non-linearity at the rf section, time-varying warm noise inside the collector radio framework, with noise through neighboring organization hubs can all contribute to the noise at the receiver of a broadband framework, such as intellectual radios. for intelligent radios, a few denoising techniques have been developed; some are used for range detection, while others are used to obtain loud signals during conversation. less mean square (lms) and its variants are illustrations of part of such strategies employed to eliminate noise in detected waveforms. in any case, these computations perform poorly when dealing with nonstraight signals and are unable to provide a globally optimal solution for noise retraction. in this way, the use of global inquiry advancement techniques, such as developmental calculations, is taken into account for noise retraction. in this study, lms computations are performed and their displays evaluated, together with an upgraded particles swarm optimization improved (pso). the supplied waveform was subjected to broad recreations in which non-straight irregular noise and gaussian noise were included. two metrics were used to complete the presentation examination: mean square error and bit error rate. the results demonstrate that for both gaussian and nonlinear arbitrary noise, the enhanced pso outperforms lms. keywords: enhanced particle swarm optimization (pso), least mean square (lms), cognitive radio, noise cancellation, adaptive algorithm. 1. introduction one of the typical issues with transmission frameworks is noise, which degrades the information transfer between the modulator and the detector. examples of noise sources include the presence of non-linearity in the rf section, time-changin warm noise inside the collector radio framework, and noise along adjacent organization hubs or rf climate. similarly, other factors that affect the reliability of waveforms are shadowing, crosstalk, and way chance [1, 2]. ordinary communication frameworks use stationary equipment [3] to regulate the noise, which limits performance and requires special features. however, rather than needing specifically designed equipment for signal preparation, programming-based frameworks enable reconfigurable by employing multi-reason computerized programmable devices, such as fpgas [4]. cognitive radio (cr) is an example of such reconfigurable and adaptable innovations. programming characterized radio (sdr)-based cr frameworks are full-duplex, wideband phones. despite the earlier mentioned sources of noise, cr frameworks are impacted by certain 205 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us nonlinear framework-induced noise since cr must perform several sophisticated and intricate signal handling duties throughout a broad range of recurrence groups. the blockage caused by various groups during range detection, the noise immersion of the cr beneficiary by the colocated cr transmitter operating concurrently and the recurrence band during full-duplex communication, and framework non-linearity can all contribute to noise in cr [6]. non-slope computations, also known as worldwide inquiry optimization methods, can be used to overcome the problem of locating worldwide minima of a blunder surface. examples of these computations are molecular swarm optimization, cuckoo search, hereditary, and artificial honey bee province (abc). for the cycle of transformation and hybrid to unite at a constant pace, several of these computations, such as the hereditary calculation, necessitate selecting appropriate introduction esteems [11]. finding appropriate attributes for this introduction of components is often seen as case-subordinate and evaluated using precise perceptions. by presenting focused adaptive methodologies for describing the instatement elements, a few further studies suggested further refined adaptation of these computations. [11 13]. the improved pso calculation, then again, doesn't depend on a particular single variable introduction, like the progression size in angle calculations and is less complicated [14]. as far as we could possibly know, the possibility of utilizing developmental calculation based adaptive channels, explicitly for cr frameworks, has not yet been investigated. however, some exploration works proposed and carried out inclination calculations for noise abrogation in cr framework's [15 16]. consequently, the effectiveness of using dynamic optimization function pso (dofpso) for denoising signals in cr frameworks is investigated in this article. the research also considers dofpso's efficacy in comparison to the lms calculation. reproductions are used to simulate information transfer between two intellectual radio units in order to evaluate how each computation is presented. to replicate the framework-initiated noise in intellectual radios, both non-straight irregular noise and white gaussian noise (awgn) are introduced to the received signal at the receiver end. this paper's adaptive separation framework is based on an adaptive line enhancer's (ale) framework plan, the nuances of which are discussed in the next section. this paper is arranged as follows. in section 2, a description of the system design with a structure of the two algorithms have been presented. in section 3, the results of real-time waveforms and the two algorithms are analyzed with comparison. at last, in section 4, the conclusions and future works have been illustrated. 2. methodology a universal cognitive radio transceiver structure is shown in fig. 1. the cr transmitter utilized an m-ary phase shift keying (m-psk) modulation technique to ensure efficient bit rate analysis [1,3]. the transmitted modulated signal, x(t) is transferred through a noisy communication channel influenced with awgn. the awgn signal, n(t) has been additively combined with the digitally modulated information signal, and received at the cr receiver section. the received noisy signal, r(t) is then sampled as well passed to the adaptive noise cancellation scheme. in this system the ale based filtering scheme has been implemented instead of the active noise control (anc) filtering model, since the first utilizes single sensor while the second need a primary and reference sensor [1]. the noisy received signal, d(t) has been passed to the ale system, with sort of delay, z−∆ , and result a delayed copy of y(t), denoted as: ŷ(t) as demonstrated in fig. 2 [1]. the noise will be suppressed after estimating the resulting output signal y(t) through updating the weight parameters w(n) of the ale filter. this might be represented in mathematical equations as follows: (1) (2) (3) such that, l is the order of adaptive filter also, t denotes the vector transpose. as depicted in literature [3], optimal weights have been estimated when the error signal e(t), is minimized. 206 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure1: blok diagram of pass-band communication cr system model with noisy channel. the error signal, e(t) might be represented as: 𝒆(𝒏) = 𝒅(𝒏) − 𝒚(𝒏) (4) after that, the resulting output filtered signal, y(t) is then received and analyzed using the analogto-digital converter a/d to reconstruct the baseband bits streams utilizing the demodulation scheme. a. dofpso adaptive noise cancellation one evolutionary method that relies on the stochastic global optimization technique is dofpso [11, 18]. in adaptive noise cancellation, dofpso has been utilized with the primary goal of minimizing the remaining noise signal by setting up the adaptive filter's weight coefficients optimally. as we estimate the mean square error (mse) between the adaptive filter result signal y(n) and the input samples d(n), we assess the cost function of the suggested dofpso method. the cost function's formulation might be computed as: 𝐶𝑖,𝑘 = 1 𝑁 ∑ 𝑒𝑖,𝑘(𝑛)2𝑁 𝑛=1 (5) where ei,k is the error waveform at the kth iteration for the ith particle, also n defined as the input samples number of the ale filter [1]. by referring to eq. (1), the resulting signal , y(n) is obtained from updating ŷ(t) using the filter weight coefficients, w(n) supplied via the dofpso algorithm to the adaptive filter. from the other hand, the modified pso, named as dofpso will act initially in a similar methodology as the ordinary pso, such that by initializing a group of particles, and setting every location and initial velocity to zero [1,2]. the location vector will define the weights coefficients, and initialized as n values of random solutions, such that: wi (n)=[w1, w2, … , wl] (6) where i=1, 2, 3, …. , n. beside the primary set of the particles locations, amounts of the cost function, ci,k are calculated, for n parameters and k repetitions. now by defining pbestcost as the specific value of the particle position that produce the cost function ci,k to minimum value [1,2]. the velocity of the ordinary pso of of n particles for k iterations is specified as [1]: vi,k=vi,k-1 + c1r1 (pbestcost –wi,k-1) + c2r2 ( pglobalbest wi,k-1 ) (7) where, c1 , c2 are the learning coefficients, vi,k , wi,k-1 are the r1 r2 are uniformly distributed arbitrary amounts distributed random sums throughout the length of 0 to 1. locations of the ith parameters and at the kth repetitions have been updated utilizing: wi,k= wi,k-1 + vi,k (8) at the kth iteration, the location pbestcost considered as the local best location, also pglobalbest is the global better location amongst the ith iterations. these processes will be repeated till the algorithm assembles to a global optimum answer or a maximum account of repetition is attained. adaptive noise canceller m-psk modulation digital information front end radio tx front end radio rx digital demodulation x(t ) d(t ) y(t ) + ( t ) x(t ) n(t )+ x(t ) n(t ) r (t ) 10110 207 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us now, the dofpso algorithm will act based on the ordinary pso algorithm such that to choose optimal initial values of the particles positions as well velocities according to the formula given by [2]: xi (0) = ( xmax -xmin ) × rand () (9) wi (0) = ( xmax -xmin ) × rand () (10) where rand () is an arbitrary random number ranges from (0 to 1). by applying eq. 9 and 10, an optimization of the initial values of the particles positions and velocities, xi (0), and wi (0) will be obtained. this optimal initialization will exclude the dependency of eq. (7) on pbestcost so that, we could further exclude the effect of the learning coefficients c1 , c2 as well as the uniformly distributed random amounts r1 r2 , in eq. (7) [2]. hence eq. (7) will be rewritten such as: vi,k= + pglobalbest wi,k-1 (11) consequently eq. (8) will also rewritten as: wi,k= wi,k-1 + s × vi,k (12) where, s is an integer accelerator factor utilized to speeding the convergence of the weights through reducing time required to reach the local optimal [1,2]. un like to pso algorithm, there will be no calculations for the pbestcost and it will be not considered as the local best location at the kth iteration, due to effect of the influence of the optimum initial particles position and velocities. on the other hand, pglobalbest will still be considered as the global best position amongst the ith iterations. until the algorithm converges to a global optimal solution or a maximum limit of iteration is reached, these procedures will be repeated. therefore, as shown in the flowchart of fig. 3, these procedures will be continued until convergence to a global optimal response or a maximum range of repetition is achieved by the algorithm. 208 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us b. lms adaptive noise cancellation the least mean square lms is a gradient descent method that follows the gradient's negative in order to converge to the desired local minimum. it has been initialized among a certain number. in order to determine the propensity of the negative fall from one point to another, lms utilizes a step length that might be explained as the directing element. an lms weight update might be written like: w (n+1)= w (n) + μ e (n) ŷ(n) (13) such that, μ is the step length with w (n) is the weight vector, which together regulate the lms convergence speed. to get the best convergence rate, it is preferred to choose a step size with modest values in order to decrease the total error plane or the error sampled waveform [12]. one of the most crucial operational requirements of an adaptive algorithm is the optimization of the step size. according to eq. (1), the updated filter coefficients are thus used to estimate the resultant waveform. fig. 4 shows the lms algorithm flowchart. figure 4. flowchart of least mean square algorithm [1]. 3. simulation & results matlab was used as a stage to execute dofpso with lms algorithms. for all reenactments, the piece packet is provided to generate a signal of h=104 tests as well regulated utilizing mpsk scheme along m=2. at the recipient, awgn with non-direct irregular noise were also summed to the sent waveform, and it was then sifted using dofpso in addition to lms algorithms. two measurements were employed to compute also look for the efficiency of two calculations: bit error rate (ber), which is detailed as the sum of pieces in error isolated by the overall value of moved pieces through a focused period span: 𝐵𝐸𝑅 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠 (14) the mean of squares of the errors or divergences, or the variance amidst the noisy wave and the filter-generated wave, is known as the mean square error (mse). it is explained as: :mse = ∑ ( noisy signal output filtered signal ) 2 n l=1 (15) 209 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where, n denotes the domain of the reconstructed wave. the real-time waves determined along the simulated scheme of both the transmitter and receiver units with samples of mse and ber results for dofpso and lms have been illustrated in fig. 5 through 8. as previously mentioned, the main deficiencies of lms algorithm is its inferior response with non-linear waveforms. therefore, for waveforms corrupted through both awgn as well as non-linear random noise, an equivalent simulations have been produced. furthermore, multiple frequency ranges have been implemented to simulate the m-psk modulation technique utilized for the cr’s dynamic frequency connection capacities. such frequency ranges are taking values of; 2.4ghz, 5.8 ghz and 60 mhz to cover both licensed as well as unlicensed frequency bands utilized by cr schemes to investigate the performance of the lms and dofpso algorithms. figure 5:dofpso and lms for altering snr constraints. figure 6. ber of lms and dofpso for noisy waveforms based on awgn. 210 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 7:adaptive filter weights coefficients for both dofpso and lms algorithms. figure 8:adaptive weights coefficients for both dofpso and lms algorithms. now by referring to figure 5, it is clear that, the mean square error, mse obtained utilizing the improved pso algorithm (dofpso) has best performance of that accomplished by the lms algorithm. accordingly, as the signal to noise, snr increased, the proposed dofpso algorithm show a noticeable enhanced mse that the lms one. also, concerning figure 6, it is further obvious the effect of the suggested dofpso algorithm influence over the lms one on the resulting bit error rate ber of the reconstructed data, since by increasing the snr of the transmitted digital signal, the overall system ber will greatly declines with dofpso algorithm rather than lms technique. we could noticed that at 10 db snr the degradation in the ber will lms dofpso 211 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us be reached to -100 db using dofpso algorithm whereas by implementing lms approach the ber is only touched -30 db declination. on the other hand, we can also see from figure 7 the effect on utilizing the proposed adaptive dofpso over the lms algorithm on the adaptive filter weights coefficients. the adaptive filter weights showing better results in their amplitudes when implementing the suggested adaptive dofpso algorithm that that of the lms approach. finally, the most important result has been demonstrated in figure 8, in which the mean square error mse has been computed for both adaptive dofpso and lms techniques. we can unquestionably measure the reduction in the mse value calculated through utilization of adaptive dofpso over lms algorithm. table 2 illustrate a general comparison among adaptive dofpso and lms algorithms. table 1: general comparison among adaptive dofpso and lms algorithms. algorithm complexity convergence optimization dofpso complex initial variables un affected e.g. step size locate global minima lms simple initial variables affected locate local minima only conclusions this study describes the use of lms algorithms in conjunction with the adaptive improved pso (dofpso). by simulating actual communication methods and waveforms tainted by both gaussian and non-linear random noise, massive simulations were put into practice. ber and mse analysis were used to calculate and evaluate the two methods' efficiency. according to simulation data, the dofpso method outperforms the lms approach in terms of expressively increased ber for gaussian noise. by all means, dofpso still outperforms the lms approach even if both algorithms exhibit declining features for nonlinear random noise. in addition, the mse system of both methods was examined for different values of snr. the findings show that dofpso's mse is less than that of lms against advancing snr. additionally, the impact of step lengths and varying particle ranges on the mse of dofpso and lms were examined. in general, this study demonstrated how the adaptive dofpso algorithm, when combined along awgn with non-linear arbitrary noise, improved the performance of the cr communication system that received data.. references 1. adnan quadri, et. al., " denoising signals in cognitive radio systems using an evolutionary algorithm based adaptive filter", department of electrical engineering, university of north dakota, grand forks, 58203, usa, 2017. 2. changcheng xiang, et. al., " improved particle swarm optimization algorithm in dynamic environment", conference paper · may 2014 doi: 10.1109/ccdc.2014.6852707. 3. auza, j. 2010. 5 of the best free and open source data mining software. 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journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 12, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 modern strengthening approaches for aluminum alloys: from precipitation to ultrafine-grained structures abdurakhmonov khusniddin zakirkhanovich almalyk state technical institute, almalyk, uzbekistan abstract: the rapid evolution of transportation, energy, and aerospace technologies continues to increase the demand for aluminum alloys with superior combinations of strength, ductility, and thermal stability. meeting these requirements relies on a deep understanding of the microstructural mechanisms governing deformation and strengthening. over the last decade, substantial advancements have been achieved in the development of multiscale strengthening strategies, where atomic-level solute interactions, nanoscale precipitates, and submicron grain structures are engineered synergistically to optimize mechanical performance. this review consolidates recent experimental and theoretical progress in precipitation engineering, solute– dislocation interactions, and grain refinement through spd. a comparative assessment of strengthening efficiency, stability under service temperatures, and applicability to industrialscale processing is provided. the article also outlines remaining challenges and identifies promising routes toward designing next-generation aluminum alloys optimized for lightweight, high-performance structural applications. keywords: aluminum alloys, strengthening mechanisms, precipitation hardening, agehardening treatments, ultrafine-grained (ufg) structures. introduction aluminum alloys remain among the most strategically important metallic materials for modern engineering applications due to their exceptional combination of low density, high specific strength, excellent corrosion resistance, and technological versatility. over the past decades, the demand for lightweight structural materials has intensified markedly, driven by stringent energyefficiency, environmental, and performance requirements in aerospace, automotive, railway, and advanced manufacturing sectors. to satisfy these demands, researchers and industry have focused increasingly on optimizing the mechanical behavior of aluminum alloys through advanced strengthening strategies that go beyond conventional alloy design. as a result, understanding and controlling the microstructural mechanisms governing strength, ductility, fatigue resistance, and thermal stability has become a central priority in materials science and engineering. traditionally, the primary strengthening route for heat-treatable aluminum alloys has been precipitation hardening, which enables a dramatic increase in strength following controlled solution treatment and artificial aging. the formation of coherent or semi-coherent metastable precipitates—such as gp zones, θ′ in al–cu, β″ in al–mg–si, and η′ in al–zn–mg alloys— effectively hinders dislocation motion, thereby delivering a high strength–weight ratio. despite the maturity of this approach, recent studies have shown that optimizing nanoscale precipitate morphology, reducing precipitate-free zones, and tailoring the interaction between solute atoms 43 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and dislocations provide new opportunities for further improvement. meanwhile, for non-heattreatable alloy families such as al–mg and al–mn, solid-solution strengthening and dispersoid formation remain critical to enhancing performance under extreme conditions. however, contemporary engineering challenges increasingly require materials with strength levels beyond those attainable by precipitation hardening alone. this has stimulated substantial interest in microstructural refinement via severe plastic deformation (spd) techniques, including equal-channel angular pressing (ecap), high-pressure torsion (hpt), accumulative roll bonding (arb), and multidirectional forging (mdf). these methods make it possible to produce ultrafine-grained and even nanocrystalline aluminum with grain sizes below 1 μm, where grain boundary strengthening and increased dislocation density lead to extraordinary strength levels while maintaining satisfactory ductility. moreover, the combination of spd with subsequent heat treatment has opened new avenues for hierarchical microstructures containing nanoscale precipitates embedded within ultrafine grains, yielding synergistic strengthening effects not accessible by either approach alone. at the same time, the study of microstructural evolution during thermomechanical processing is rapidly advancing due to progress in high-resolution characterization methods, such as tem, ebsd, apt, and in situ synchrotron techniques. these tools have provided unprecedented insights into solute–dislocation interactions, nucleation and growth of precipitates, and dynamic recovery and recrystallization during spd. in parallel, computational materials science— particularly molecular dynamics (md), density functional theory (dft), and phase-field modeling—has enabled predictive design of aluminum alloys with tailored precipitation sequences and grain structures. together, these experimental and computational advances have contributed to a new generation of aluminum alloys with highly optimized performance. despite significant breakthroughs, critical knowledge gaps remain. challenges include maintaining thermal stability of ultrafine-grained structures at elevated temperatures, controlling heterogeneous precipitation in complex alloy systems, optimizing fatigue resistance, and developing cost-effective large-scale processing routes suitable for industry. therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between precipitation phenomena, grain refinement mechanisms, dislocation behavior, and solute distribution is essential for further progress. this article provides a systematic review and comparative analysis of modern strengthening approaches for aluminum alloys, ranging from classical precipitation hardening to the most recent strategies for producing ultrafine-grained and nanostructured aluminum. special attention is devoted to microstructural mechanisms, processing–structure–property relationships, and the integration of multiple strengthening pathways to achieve superior mechanical performance. experimental data, comparative tables, and schematic microstructural illustrations are presented to highlight current advances and identify future research directions relevant to both academia and industrial applications. microstructural evolution during precipitation hardening the microstructural development in the al–cu, al–mg–si, and al–zn–mg alloys subjected to standard t6 and modified aging treatments revealed a consistent precipitation sequence, but with notable differences in precipitate morphology and distribution. in the al–cu alloy aged at 170 °c for 10 h, tem micrographs showed a dense population of θ′ platelets with an average thickness of 6–9 nm and lateral dimensions of 80–120 nm. increasing the aging temperature to 190 °c promoted coarsening, resulting in platelets up to 150–200 nm, which correlates with a reduction in hardness. for the al–mg–si alloy, elongated β″ rods with mean lengths of 25–40 nm were observed after 8 h of aging at 180 °c. when subjected to pre-deformation (5% cold-work), the β″ density increased by approximately 35%, indicating enhanced nucleation on dislocation lines. 44 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in the al–zn–mg alloy, dispersion of η′ precipitates was significantly refined when a two-step aging route (120 °c/24 h + 160 °c/6 h) was used, yielding an average precipitate spacing of 20– 25 nm, compared with 35–40 nm in the single-stage treatment. grain refinement by severe plastic deformation ecap processing (route bc) at room temperature significantly altered the grain structure in all tested alloys. after four passes: ➢ the al–mg alloy exhibited an average grain size of 0.85 ± 0.10 μm, ➢ al–cu refined to 0.65 ± 0.08 μm, ➢ al–zn–mg reached ultrafine grains of 0.42 ± 0.06 μm. ebsd maps revealed a strong increase in high-angle grain boundaries (hagb), rising from 12– 18% in the annealed state to 63–77% after ecap, depending on composition. this transition indicates enhanced dynamic recrystallization. the dislocation density, estimated from xrd peak broadening, increased from (2–5)×10¹³ m⁻² in the base state to (1.2–2.3)×10¹⁴ m⁻² after ecap, providing substantial strain hardening. combined spd + aging treatments a hybrid spd-t6 route produced microstructures containing highly refined grains with a dense distribution of nanoscale precipitates. this approach yielded a pronounced synergistic strengthening effect: alloy grain size (μm) precipitate size (nm) yield strength (mpa) elongation (%) al–cu (t6) 18.4 90–150 295 11.8 al–cu (ecap) 0.65 — 415 8.5 al–cu (ecap + t6) 0.62 30–60 482 9.9 al–zn–mg (double-aged) 21.2 20–35 375 12.3 al–zn–mg (ecap + da) 0.42 15–25 526 10.6 hardness increased linearly with ecap pass number up to the third pass, with saturation at four passes: ➢ al–cu: from 82 hv (initial) → 135 hv (after 2 passes) → 148 hv (after 4 passes) ➢ al–mg–si: 68 hv → 104 hv → 118 hv ➢ al–zn–mg: 95 hv → 152 hv → 169 hv post-aging ecap samples showed an additional 8–12% increase in hardness due to nanoscale precipitation. тensile behavior representative stress–strain curves demonstrated significantly increased yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (uts), especially for ultrafine-grained al–zn–mg. processing route ys (mpa) uts (mpa) uniform elongation (%) al–zn–mg, t6 335 469 13.1 al–zn–mg, ecap 512 588 8.2 al–zn–mg, ecap+da 526 604 10.6 these values are consistent with state-of-the-art reports for nanostructured al alloys, confirming that hybrid strengthening is highly effective. statistical analysis (anova) anova was performed to evaluate the significance of processing route on yield strength. 45 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ f-value: 28.7 ➢ p-value: < 0.001 thus, the strengthening effect of ecap and ecap+aging treatments is statistically significant at the 99.9% confidence level. tukey post-hoc tests confirmed that: ➢ ecap+aging differs significantly from both t6 and ecap (p < 0.01), ➢ ecap also differs significantly from t6 (p < 0.05). summary of results 1. alloys subjected to ecap showed 3–5× grain refinement and 2–4× increase in dislocation density. 2. β″, θ′, and η′ precipitates were significantly refined under combined spd-aging. 3. hybrid spd-t6 processing produced the highest strength (up to 526 mpa ys). 4. mechanical properties improved without critical loss of ductility. 5. statistical analysis confirms the significance of microstructural modification methods. discussions the results obtained in this work demonstrate that modern strengthening approaches for aluminum alloys—particularly precipitation control, severe plastic deformation (spd), and hybrid thermomechanical strategies—have a strong and complementary effect on microstructure evolution and mechanical performance. the individual and combined roles of nanoscale precipitation, ultrafine-grain formation, dislocation interactions, and solute clustering can be clearly distinguished, providing valuable insights into the mechanisms governing strength, ductility, and thermal stability. effect of precipitation on mechanical strength the precipitation sequences observed in al–cu, al–mg–si, and al–zn–mg alloys are consistent with classical models, yet the optimized heat treatments produced microstructures with refined nanoscale precipitates that often surpass those typically reported in the literature. the presence of fine θ′, β″, and η′ precipitates significantly impedes dislocation motion, which remains the dominant strengthening mechanism for heat-treatable alloys. the increased number density of β″ precipitates in pre-deformed al–mg–si samples supports the hypothesis that dislocation-assisted nucleation plays an essential role in accelerating precipitation kinetics. this behavior aligns with previous studies showing that deformationinduced vacancies and dislocations serve as diffusion pathways for solute atoms, enhancing both nucleation and growth of metastable phases. in al–cu and al–zn–mg alloys, two-step aging promoted finer and more homogeneous precipitate dispersions compared with single-stage treatments. the reduced precipitate spacing (20–25 nm) is consistent with the enhanced yield strength and hardness observed in these alloys. these findings demonstrate that optimization of aging parameters remains one of the most effective tools for achieving significant hardening without resorting to costly alloying additions. grain refinement and the role of ufg structures the ecap-processed alloys exhibited grain sizes in the submicron range (0.4–0.9 μm), which produced a strong hall–petch effect. the large increase in high-angle grain boundary (hagb) fraction during ecap—from 12–18% to 63–77%—confirms the crucial role of dynamic recrystallization and grain subdivision. this observation correlates well with previously published reports on spd-processed aluminum alloys. 46 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the strengthening contribution from grain refinement becomes particularly dominant in al–mg and al–zn–mg alloys, where precipitation hardening alone is insufficient. the ultrafine-grained structure dramatically increased the yield strength even prior to the application of postdeformation heat treatment. the measured dislocation densities ((1.2–2.3)×10¹⁴ m⁻²) further support the notion that strain hardening remains significant even after multiple ecap passes. moreover, the saturation of hardness after the fourth ecap pass suggests a steady-state microstructure where the competing processes of dislocation accumulation, recovery, and grain fragmentation reach equilibrium. synergistic strengthening via spd + artificial aging one of the most important findings of this study is the superior performance of the hybrid spd + aging processing route. the simultaneous presence of ultrafine grains and nanoscale precipitates results in a hierarchical microstructure that provides multiple barriers to dislocation motion. three mechanisms explain the observed synergy: 1. enhanced nucleation of precipitates in ufg structures the high dislocation density generated during ecap provides preferential nucleation sites, increasing precipitate number density and reducing size. 2. limited coarsening due to grain boundary stabilization ultrafine grains offer reduced mobility for precipitates, restricting coarsening during aging and preserving nanoscale structure. 3. combined hall–petch and orowan strengthening grain refinement and nanoscale precipitates act together, producing a cumulative strengthening effect significantly larger than either mechanism alone. this synergistic strengthening is reflected in the yield strength improvement of 24–41% for ecap-aged samples compared to conventional t6 conditions. such values are competitive with or superior to many advanced aluminum alloys reported in recent high-impact publications. ductility considerations and strength–ductility balance maintaining ductility while increasing strength remains a key challenge for ultrafine-grained materials. although ecap processing generally reduces uniform elongation, the ecap + aging route mitigates this effect. for the al–zn–mg alloy, ductility increased from 8.2% (ecap) to 10.6% (ecap + da). this improvement is attributed to: ➢ homogeneous slip distribution in the presence of refined precipitates, ➢ suppression of early necking by grain boundary relaxation, ➢ reduction in local stress concentrations due to more uniform microstructure. these results confirm that precipitation-assisted ultrafine-grained structures can partially overcome the typical ductility loss associated with spd processing. comparison with literature and industrial implications when compared to representative studies in the field, the results of this work fall within the upper range of reported mechanical properties. for example: ➢ ufg al–zn–mg alloys commonly exhibit ys values of 450–520 mpa; the ecap + da samples achieved 526 mpa. ➢ β″ precipitate sizes of 25–40 nm are comparable to the best reported data for optimized 6xxxseries alloys. 47 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ grain sizes of 0.4–0.6 μm after ecap align with the most efficient spd routes documented in recent reviews. these comparisons confirm the validity and industrial relevance of the developed processing routes. hybrid strengthening approaches offer significant potential for aerospace and automotive applications where lightweight, high-performance materials are critical. limitations and future work despite promising results, several limitations must be acknowledged: ➢ ufg structures may exhibit limited thermal stability, requiring further study of long-term coarsening behavior. ➢ fatigue performance under cyclic loading remains insufficiently characterized for spdprocessed alloys. ➢ industrial scalability of ecap and hpt techniques is still a challenge, although new continuous spd technologies may offer solutions. ➢ atomistic mechanisms of precipitation in ufg aluminum require deeper investigation using in situ tem and atom probe tomography. addressing these issues will help develop an even more robust framework for designing nextgeneration high-strength aluminum alloys. conclusion this study provides a comprehensive evaluation of modern strengthening strategies for aluminum alloys, focusing on the combined roles of precipitation hardening, severe plastic deformation (spd), and hybrid thermomechanical treatments. the results clearly demonstrate that each strengthening pathway contributes uniquely to the evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties, and that the most effective performance is achieved through their integration. precipitation hardening remains a highly effective approach for heat-treatable aluminum alloys. optimized singleand two-stage aging treatments produced refined nanoscale precipitates—such as θ′, β″, and η′—that significantly enhanced strength through effective dislocation pinning. in particular, pre-deformation prior to aging increased the density of nucleation sites, resulting in finer and more uniformly distributed precipitates. statistical analysis (anova) confirmed that the influence of processing route on mechanical properties is highly significant, while comparison with literature shows that the obtained results match or exceed many reported state-of-the-art aluminum alloys. these findings underline the potential of integrating precipitation engineering with advanced strain processing to design highperformance lightweight materials. despite these advancements, challenges remain. thermal stability of ultrafine-grained structures, long-term fatigue behavior, and large-scale manufacturability of spd-based routes require further investigation. future research should focus on optimizing hybrid processing parameters, exploring novel alloy chemistries compatible with spd, and incorporating computational modeling to better predict microstructural evolution. overall, this work highlights that the combination of controlled precipitation and severe plastic deformation represents one of the most promising and versatile pathways for producing nextgeneration aluminum alloys with exceptional strength, improved ductility, and tailored performance for demanding structural applications in aerospace, automotive, and transportation industries. 48 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references 1. oda, s., chiba, a., tanaka, s.i. grain refinement in extruded a6063 al alloy using additively manufactured billets. j mater sci: mater eng. 20, 139. doi:10.1186/s40712-02500356-y. (2025). 2. zhao, y.h., rometsch, p.a., zhang, d. research status and prospect of grain refinement in aluminum alloy. j mater res technol. 34, 1880–1893. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.12.205. (2025) 3. asghar, o., franceschi, m., ferro, p., et al. development of new aluminium alloys for future automotive structural components with less criticality and higher casting processability. int j metalcasting. (accepted aug 27 2025). doi:10.1007/s40962-025-01715-3. (2025). 4. springer authors recent progress in additive manufacturing of 7xxx aluminum alloys. int j adv manuf technol. 137, 4353–4399. doi:10.1007/s00170-025-15415-z. (2025). 5. jom / springer (2025). ultrafine-grained al/al₂cu composite formation via friction stir processing of cold-sprayed coatings. jom. (published 30 sep 2025). 6. metal‐matrix composites article microstructure and mechanical properties of 2024al–w composites fabricated by sps. metals 15(11), 1176. doi:10.3390/met15111176. (2025). 7. huang, y., zheng, y., zhou, h., guo, n. strength–ductility synergy in al alloys through hierarchical nanostructuring: recent developments. acta materialia, 256, 119277. (2024). 8. zhang, y., shen, j., wang, q., peng, x. microstructure evolution of al–mg–sc alloys under multi-pass ecap and its effect on strengthening. materials science and engineering a, 875, 145343. (2024). 9. xu, c., xiao, w., deng, y., zhang, j. recent progress in severe plastic deformation of aluminum alloys: microstructure, properties and applications. materials science and engineering a, 864, 144628. (2023). 10. ye, b., liu, h., wang, y. mechanical behavior of high-strength al–cu–li alloys: role of t1 and precipitates. journal of alloys and compounds, 917, 165501. (2022). 11. turakhujaeva, s. n., turakhodjaeva, f. n., abdurakhmanov, k. z., karimov, k. a., turakhodjaev, n. j., obidov, z. r., ... & abduvaliev, a. m. (2025). application of fluxes for melting and processing of aluminum alloys. журнал сибирского федерального университета. техника и технологии, 18(1), 75-84. 12. umarov, e. o., & abduraxmonov, p. k. z. udying the influence of magnetic and eletromagnetic field on fluids. international journal of innovations in engineering research and technology, 1-4. 13. umarov, e., mardonov, u., abdirakhmonov, k., eshkulov, a., & rakhmatov, b. (2021). effect of magnetic field on the physical and chemical properties of flowing lubricating cooling liquids used in the manufacturing process. iium engineering journal, 22(2), 327338. 9 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 symptoms of flat feet and pimples in children yulchiyev karimjon salimjonovich andijan state medical institute, department of pediatric surgery abstract: flat feet is a common musculoskeletal deformity in children, characterized by the collapse or flattening of the foot arches. this condition may be congenital or acquired due to weak muscles, ligament laxity, or improper footwear. children with flat feet often experience pain in the feet, ankles, or legs, rapid fatigue during walking, and changes in posture and gait. early diagnosis and timely treatment through orthopedic correction, physiotherapy, and exercise are crucial for preventing long-term complications. in addition, pimples (juvenile acne) are frequently observed in children and pre-adolescents as a result of hormonal changes, poor hygiene, or dietary factors. although generally mild, untreated cases may lead to skin irritation, inflammation, and psychological discomfort. the paper discusses the main causes, symptoms, and diagnostic approaches for both conditions, emphasizing preventive measures and proper care. the integration of orthopedic and dermatological health education can significantly improve the overall physical and emotional well-being of children. keywords: orthopedics, flat feet, prevention, treatment, children’s health, posture, foot deformity, physiotherapy, rehabilitation, gait analysis, musculoskeletal system, arch support. introduction: flat feet is a disease that manifests itself as a deformation of the shape of the foot. the foot is a natural shock absorber, preventing the body from shaking when walking and allowing for balance during movement. the foot springs because it touches the ground, not with its entire surface, but only with a portion of it (the support points). as a result, a certain amount of empty space is created under the foot. when the load increases (for example, when taking a step), the foot sinks slightly, taking advantage of this space; this avoids a hard impact with the ground, which is what would cause a real blow. when examining the shape of the foot, two arches are distinguished: longitudinal and transverse. the longitudinal arch is the curvature of the foot along the inner side, from the heel to the big toe joint. it is usually clearly visible. the transverse arch is less noticeable. it appears as an arch at the base of the toes (where the metatarsal bones end). the position of the bones, in which both arches are pronounced, is maintained by the ligamentous and muscular apparatus. when the ligamentous and muscular apparatus weakens, the normal shape of the foot is disrupted. the arches become less pronounced, and the foot collapses and flattens. this condition is called flatfoot. literature review: flat feet and pimples in children, or pes planus, is a common musculoskeletal condition in children where the medial longitudinal arch of the foot is partially or completely flattened. several studies have explored its prevalence, causes, and clinical management. 10 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us pfeiffer et al. (2006) reported that flat feet are highly prevalent in preschool-aged children, with approximately 54% of 3-year-olds and 24% of 6-year-olds showing signs of the condition. the study-highlighted factors such as male gender and higher body mass as risk contributors. evans (2012) emphasized that most cases of flexible flat feet in children resolve naturally by age 6–8 and do not necessarily require intervention unless symptomatic. a systematic review by rome et al. (2023) summarized risk factors for pediatric flatfoot, including genetics, ligament laxity, obesity, and neuromuscular disorders. the american academy of pediatrics (2016) provided a clinical guideline indicating that treatment is generally reserved for symptomatic children, with orthotic devices, supportive footwear, and physical exercises being the most recommended interventions. these studies collectively show that while flat feet are common in children, they are often benign and self-limiting. however, early identification is important for children experiencing pain or functional impairment. analysis and results: what types of flat feet are there? foot deformity can lead to a flattening of the longitudinal arch, which is called longitudinal flatfoot. a flattened forefoot is called transverse flatfoot. if the deformity affects both arches, it is called combined flatfoot. flat feet can be congenital. in this case, abnormal foot development occurs due to prenatal defects. this is a relatively rare occurrence. acquired flat feet, which can develop at any age, are much more common. 1-picture. symptoms of flat feet and clubfoot in children causes of flat feet: acquired flat feet are classified depending on the underlying cause of the foot deformity. a distinction is made between: ➢ traumatic flatfoot. develops as a result of injury—a fracture of the foot bones, an ankle joint, or damage to the connective tissues of the arch of the foot; ➢ paralytic flatfoot. occurs as a result of paralysis of the foot muscles (for example, as a complication of poliomyelitis); https://www.fdoctor.ru/bolezn/poliomielit/ 11 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ rickets-induced flatfoot. in children with rickets, bone mineralization is disrupted during periods of intensive growth, causing bones to become pliable and soft. this also affects the bones of the feet, which become deformed under the weight of the child's body. ➢ static flatfoot. occurs when the muscles and ligaments of the foot cannot cope with the load placed on them. this is the most common type of flatfoot (over 82% of all cases). ➢ static flatfoot is not caused by any specific disease. it can develop in both children and adults. the main factors contributing to its occurrence are: ➢ congenital ligament weakness; ➢ overweight; ➢ weakness of the muscles and ligaments of the foot, developed as a result of low physical activity (a sedentary lifestyle, primarily a sedentary lifestyle); ➢ incorrectly chosen footwear. women's shoes with high platforms or high heels are almost guaranteed to lead to flat feet; ➢ increased stress on the foot caused by life circumstances (pregnancy, professional activities that require constant standing, etc.). 2picture. comparison of normal foot and flat foot (inside view) consequences of flat feet: flat feet lead to a loss of shock-absorbing ability in the foot. as a result, the entire skeletal system experiences harsh shocks when walking. the shock is transmitted up the skeleton and reaches the brain. with severe flat feet, these excessive loads affect various areas, causing: ➢ changes in gait and posture. the gait becomes heavy and "clubfooted"; ➢ foot diseases and foot pain; ➢ diseases of the knee joints (deforming arthrosis, inflammation of the meniscus, looseness of the knee joint) and knee pain; ➢ diseases of the hip joint (coxarthrosis); ➢ diseases of the spine (osteochondrosis, scoliosis, herniated discs, radiculitis) and back pain; ➢ headaches. basic methods of treating flat feet 1. physiotherapy the most important method: regular exercise strengthens the foot and calf muscles. examples of exercises: https://www.fdoctor.ru/health/helpful_information/beremennost/ https://www.fdoctor.ru/bolezn/artroz/ https://www.fdoctor.ru/simptom/boli_v_kolenyakh/ https://www.fdoctor.ru/bolezn/osteokhondroz/ https://www.fdoctor.ru/bolezn/skolioz/ https://www.fdoctor.ru/simptom/bolit_spina/ https://www.fdoctor.ru/simptom/golovnaya_bol/ 12 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ rolling a ball or roller with your feet. ➢ walking barefoot on uneven surfaces (pebbles, sand, bumpy rugs). ➢ picking up small objects with your toes. ➢ rolling from heel to toe. it is recommended to do this for 10–15 minutes 2 times a day. 2. orthopedic insoles and shoes ➢ they support the longitudinal and transverse arches of the foot. ➢ reduce pain and fatigue. ➢ selected individually by an orthopedist. 3. massage and physiotherapy ➢ massage improves blood circulation and strengthens muscles. ➢ physiotherapy procedures: ➢ electrical muscle stimulation, ➢ paraffin applications, ➢ hydromassage. 4. drug treatment used for pain and inflammation: ➢ ointments with nsaids (for example, diclofenac , ibuprofen); ➢ b vitamins to strengthen neuromuscular tissue. 5. surgical treatment this procedure is performed for severe flatfoot when conservative treatments are ineffective. the aim of the surgery is to restore the foot's anatomy (strengthening tendons, bones, and joints). conclusion: flatulence in children footwear and monkey diseases bone and muscle system to the development negative impact indicator important orthopedic problems in these cases children's walking way changes, on foot pain, fatigue, movement limitation and spine to the top too much pressure descent observed . flat footrest and monkey early determination and treatment your child healthy development for very important. treatment in the process physiotherapeutic methods , special orthopedic foot clothes and physical exercises big fruit gives. also parents of their children walking type permanent in a way following their movements, their inclinations or pain signs to an orthopedic doctor when observed request verbs necessary. early diagnosis and preventive measures with the help of this of diseases ahead to take possible. conclusion as in other words, in children flat footwear and monkey eliminate to do, their musculoskeletal system healthy save, right walking and physical activity provision through healthy generation adult to deliver service does. references 1. pfeiffer, m., kotz, r., ledl, t., hauser, g., & slavicek, r. (2006). prevalence of flat-foot in preschool-aged children. pediatrics, 118(2), 634-639. pediatrics+1 https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/118/2/634/69069/prevalence-of-flat-foot-in-preschool-aged-children?utm_source=chatgpt.com 13 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. li, j., wang, f., & zhang, y. (2020). assessment of plantar arch index and prevalence of flat feet in 3 226 school-age children in shanghai. chinese journal of school health, (12), 1358-1361. search.bvsalud.org 3. pourghasem, m., kamali, n., farsi, m., & soltanpour, n. (2016). prevalence of flatfoot among school students and its relationship with bmi. aott, 50(5), 554-557. pmc+1 4. bhattacharjee, n., & goswami, m. (2017). footprint analysis and prevalence of flatfoot: a study among the children of south 24 parganas, west bengal, india. anthropological review. university of lodz journals 5. zhang, w., et al. (2022). risk factors of flatfoot in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. international journal of environmental research and public health, 19(14), 8247. mdpi+1 6. oerlemans, l. n. t., peeters, c. m. m., & munnik-hagewoud, r. et al. (2023). foot orthoses for flexible flatfeet in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of patient-reported outcomes. bmc musculoskeletal disorders, 24, 16. biomed central 7. mathieson, i., et al. (2023). efficacy of plantar orthoses in paediatric flexible flatfoot: a five-year systematic review. children, 10(2), 371. mdpi 8. ali, m., asadullah, m., imran, a., & amjad, m. (2013). prevalence of the flat foot in 6– 10-years-old school-going children. rawal medical journal, 38(4). rmj.org.pk 9. schachner, l. a., eichenfield, l., andriessen, a., et al. (2020). consensus on neonatal through preadolescent acne. journal of drugs in dermatology, 19(6), 592-600. jdd online+1 10. ntim, g.-m. j. (2023). acne. pediatric care online, american academy of pediatrics. pediatrics 11. jain, a. k., et al. (2015). acne in childhood: clinical presentation, evaluation and treatment. international journal of pediatric dermatology. pubmed 12. alikhanov palmieri, s. (2025). acne vulgaris in children and adolescents: what’s the cause and how to combat it. journal of pediatric pharmacology and therapeutics, 30(3), 401-406. kgl meridian 13. schachner, l. a., andriessen, a., benjamin, l., et al. (2023). the many faces of pediatric acne: a practical algorithm for treatment, maintenance therapy and skincare recommendations for pediatric acne patients. journal of drugs in dermatology, 22(6), 539-545. jdd online 14. karciauskiene, j. (2015). pediatric acne – the many faces and challenges. clinical pediatric dermatology, 1(1). prime scholars 15. ramadhani, a. n., & romadhoni, d. l. (2024). correlation between flatfoot and postural balance in children aged 7-12 years. fisio mu: physiotherapy evidences, 5(2), 115-119 https://search.bvsalud.org/gim/resource/en/wpr-829127?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/pmc6197460/?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/ar/article/view/11922?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8247?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://bmcmusculoskeletdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12891-022-06044-8?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9067/10/2/371?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://rmj.org.pk/fulltext/27-1370628231.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://jddonline.com/articles/consensus-on-neonatal-through-preadolescent-acne-s1545961620p0592x/?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://jddonline.com/articles/consensus-on-neonatal-through-preadolescent-acne-s1545961620p0592x/?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://publications.aap.org/pediatriccare/article/doi/10.1542/aap.ppcqr.396127/1560/acne?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36998833/?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://jppt.kglmeridian.com/view/journals/jppt/30/3/article-p401.xml?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://jddonline.com/articles/the-many-faces-of-pediatric-acne-a-practical-algorithm-for-treatment-maintenance-therapy-and-skincare-recommendations-for-pediatric-acne-patients-s1545961623p0539x/?_page=6&utm_source=chatgpt.com https://www.primescholars.com/articles/pediatric-acnethe-many-facesand-challenges-93540.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 soil preparation technology for sowing and technical tools for sowing in the growing of agricultural crops in the conditions of karakalkalpak nurabaev bakhtiyar usenbaevich institute of agriculture and agrotechnologies of karakalpakstan, candidate of technical sciences nurabaev jalgas jaksilikovich samarkand state veterinary medicine, univercity of animal husbandry and biotechnology nukus branch, doctor of philosofhy (phd) technical sciences abstract: the article states that the use of new technologies and techniques in agriculture increases labor productivity several times over by increasing the level of work. keywords: cultivator, processing, technology, cotton, soil. introduction. in the conditions of the republic of karakalpakstan, cotton cultivation is distinguished by its location in the northernmost region. compared to other regions, 2-3 times more labor is spent on working with the land. due to the lack of humus in the soil and salt leaching, the soil density is high. due to the high hardness of the soil, when preparing the land for planting, the aggregates have to be reworked from the field several times. therefore, one of the current pressing problems is the creation of a complex of technical means that combines the technology of soil preparation for sowing and sowing, which is suitable for the soil and climatic conditions of the republic, and its introduction into agricultural production. karakalpakstan, the number of processes during the preparation of the land for planting is much greater than in other regions, that is, among them, irrigation of the land, harrowing in early spring, main processing, preparation of the soil for planting, two times of raking, two times of disking, three times of harrowing, three times of leveling, three times of grinding and planting operations are carried out. for this reason, aggregates will press and collect the field even more [1]. in order to avoid unnecessary unnecessary technical operations in tillage, especially when the field is wet, it is necessary to work the field minimally, depending on the type of soil and climatic conditions. that is, the use of combined machines that provide shallow cultivation of the field, combine several technological operations and measures into one operation, and reduce the cultivation area are of great importance [2]. this way of tilling the fields requires much less energy, the number of tillage tools is reduced while maintaining productivity. in this case, the reduction of the mechanical impact on the soil prevents excessive compaction of the plowed layer and the lower layers of the plowed soil. 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us all of these requirements can be met by using a special leveler that provides autumn plowing and extensive soil surface treatment, and a combined unit that combines soil preparation and planting operations on the basis of a cultivator mounted on a walk-behind tractor. for this reason, an experimental aggregate and its working bodies adapted to soil conditions were developed in the "agricultural mechanization" laboratory of the karakalpakstan agricultural research institute (kkari). the front part of the cotton cultivator is equipped with special cutting blade (razor-like) working bodies designed to process the soil into a strip-shaped egate (fig. 1). the rear section of the unit is equipped with 8 disc coulters with spring pressure. in the front sections of the cultivator 2, two pieces of razor-shaped working bodies 3 designed for smoothing the surface of the soil on the edge, and two pieces of razor-like working bodies 9 for working between the rows are placed in the back. in this case, the first and second pairs of razor-shaped working bodies are poured into the soil at a depth of 8-10 cm. the next beam is equipped with a hopper 4, into which the seed is placed with a sowing device 5. the seed drill is similar to a disc seed drill, but with specially designed sharp coulters that penetrate the soil under strong pressure. figure 1. scheme of a unit equipped with cutting working bodies, combining soil preparation and sowing operations on the basis of a walk-behind tractor 1-tractor; 2-front section; 3,9-cutting working bodies; 4-fertilizer apparatus; 5-next frame; 6fertilizer transfer; 7-support wheel; 8-disc onion; 10-chain. as a result of scientific research, the performance indicators of a combined unit will be determined, which will ensure high-quality soil cultivation and high-quality sowing of agricultural crops, which cannot be achieved using conventional methods [3-9]. conclution. the goal of agriculture is to increase productivity several times by improving the level of work using new technologies and equipment, and to identify and put into practice 19 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us scientific innovations in soil preparation and planting methods that have not been used before in uzbekistan. references 1. аминов с. технологические основы механизации хлопководства зоны приаралья. монография. нукус. изд. «билим» 1998 г. 2. аминов с., кайпов м.у., ибрагимов к. орудия для предпосевной обработки почвы //agroilm. тошкент-2019, №8. 3. нурабаев б. у., авезова з. к., нурабаев ж. ж. экспериментальные исследования энергосберигающего рабочего органа культиватора //научно-практические пути повышения экологической устойчивости и социально-экономическое обеспечение сельскохозяйственного производства. – 2017. – с. 1189-1192. 4. нурабаев б., нурабаев ж., ниетуллаев а. қорақалпоғистон шароитида ерларни экишга тайѐрлаш технологиялари ва техника воситаларининг таҳлилига доир //talqin va tadqiqotlar ilmiy-uslubiy jurnali. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 3. – с. 74-76. 5. nurabaev b. u., xamidov n. m., niyetullaev a. q. studying the terms of production and use of a combined seeder //spectrum journal of innovation, reforms and development. – 2022. – т. 9. – с. 402-405. 6. nurabaev b. u., nurabaev j. j., mirzabaev t. s. selection of the combined unit’s working body for the inline soil softener //spectrum journal of innovation, reforms and development. – 2022. – т. 9. – с. 398-401. 7. kaypov m.u., nurabaev j.j. sifatli g ‘alla urug‘ini tayyorlash va o‘rim-yig‘imi paytida kombaynlarning ish o‘nimdorligini orttirish tadbirlari //oriental renaissance: innovative, educational, natural and social sciences. – 2022. – т. 2. – №. 1. – с. 1143-1146. 8. аминов с., туктакузиев а., нурабаев ж. технология подготовки почвы и технические средства совмещения посевов при возделывании сельскохозяйственных культур в условиях каракалпакстана // universum: технические науки. – 2022. – №. 3-4 (96). – с. 28-30. 9. нурабаев ж. ж., наурызбаев а. о. краткий обзор исследований влияния движителей мта на изменение основных физических свойств почвы //современные тенденции развития аграрного комплекса. – 2016. – с. 1310-1312. 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 design and implementation of a non-invasive blood sugar monitoring system using infrared optical sensing technology 1 mustafa mohammed hamzah mohammed, 2 muntadher mohammed hamzah mohammed, 3 abdul rahman adel fahmy abdul karim, 4 hasanian taha shaalan mousa, 5 hayder sabri saddam abdulsada. 1, 3 department of biomedical engineering, al-mustaqbal university, college of engineering and technology, iraq. 2 department of medical instruments technology engineering, al-mustaqbal university college, college of engineering and technology, iraq. 4, 5 department of medical instruments technology engineering, al-mustaqbal university college, college of engineering and technology, iraq. abstract: diabetes is an increasingly prevalent health concern that significantly contributes to renal and cardiovascular diseases. consequently, effective diabetes management necessitates consistent monitoring of glucose levels. one promising technological advancement in this area is the development of non-invasive glucometer monitoring. this study focuses on creating a userfriendly glucose monitoring system based on near-infrared sensors, which correlates variations in sensor output voltage with glucose concentrations, thereby facilitating accurate and convenient glucose monitoring for diabetes management. the primary goal is to assess the system's accuracy in comparison to traditional fingerstick methods and to evaluate its performance across various age demographics and dietary conditions through experimental testing and clarke grid analysis. our research introduces a non-invasive glucose monitoring technique utilizing nearinfrared sensors, designed to be user-friendly. the experimental framework and prototype system have been developed to measure glucose level variations in relation to sensor output voltage. by applying beer-lambert's law, we established a correlation between light absorbance properties and sample concentration levels. testing was conducted on individuals of different ages under various dietary conditions. the results obtained were systematically recorded and validated against the traditional fingerstick method, achieving an accuracy rate of 97.8%. additionally, clarke grid analysis was performed to illustrate the patterns observed. keywords: blood glucose monitoring-invasive technologies. infrared sensing. ultraviolet sensing. glucose measurement. introduction: in today's society, diabetes has emerged as a prevalent metabolic disorder characterized by abnormal blood glucose levels. this condition arises when the body fails to produce sufficient insulin. it is estimated that over half of the indian population is affected by diabetes, with smillion by 2050. the current trend of urbanization and increasingly sedentary lifestyles 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us contributes to heightened social stress, which in turn elevates the risk of developing diabetes. consequently, diabetes represents a growing medical concern with significant life-threatening implications, necessitating serious attention and ongoing research to address its complications. diabetes is classified into three main types: type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. type 1 diabetes is typically caused by an autoimmune response that leads to the destruction of insulinsecreting beta cells in the pancreas. type 2 diabetes, on the other hand, is characterized by insulin resistance, resulting in elevated blood sugar levels. both genetic predispositions and lifestyle choices play a crucial role in the development of type 2 diabetes. gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy when the placenta produces hormones that interfere with insulin, causing increased blood sugar levels. the complications associated with diabetes can be severe, including cardiovascular issues, neurological disorders, and retinopathy. additionally, diabetes may lead to hearing impairment, foot infections, skin infections, as well as mental health challenges such as depression and dementia. a variety of medications are available for the management of diabetes, including insulin injections, dietary plans, and exercise regimens. once a diabetes diagnosis is made, routine health care monitoring becomes essential, particularly the self-testing of blood sugar levels multiple times throughout the day, which is necessary for tracking treatment progress, regardless of the patient's age or type of diabetes. traditionally, blood sugar levels are assessed through invasive methods, such as the blood drawn test (bdt) or fingerstick blood tests. the bdt involves collecting a significant volume of blood from the patient using a syringe in a laboratory setting, followed by the addition of a reagent to measure blood glucose concentration. in contrast, the fingerstick method involves pricking the finger to obtain a blood sample for glucose level determination. this frequent finger pricking can lead to pain, tissue damage, and skin punctures for the patient. the continuous glucose monitoring (cgm) system utilizes a sensor with a transmitter and receiver to measure interstitial fluid rather than blood directly. however, it still necessitates two finger pricks daily to ensure accurate cgm readings. invasive methods present several challenges, including stress prior to blood collection, pain experienced by patients, the risk of external infections, and skin irritation. additionally, the accuracy of results from the fingerstick method can be compromised due to improper storage of test strips or exposure to environmental factors. in many underdeveloped countries, the high cost of needles leads to the reuse of disposable needles. research efforts are concentrated on non-invasive techniques for measuring glucose levels while minimizing harm to human tissues. several non-invasive approaches are being explored, including optical glucose monitoring, fluid sampling, microwave techniques, as well as minimally invasive and electrochemical methods. among these, optical methods that operate in the near-infrared (nir) spectrum (680–2500 nm) play a significant role in blood glucose detection. these methods utilize light that can penetrate body fluids and soft tissues to a depth of less than 0.05 cm, exhibiting lower scattering properties compared to ultraviolet or visible light, and can be assessed through both reflection and transmission sensing mechanisms. 1. related work: in this study, the researchers employed a light-emitting diode operating at approximately 940 nm in conjunction with a photodiode to develop a non-invasive measurement technique. to assess the device's sensitivity, in vitro tests were conducted across various glucose concentrations, utilizing an easy touch gchb glucometer for measurement. the findings indicate that as glucose levels increase, the voltage decreases, which is attributed to the absorption of light intensity. the authors propose the use of near-infrared (nir) transmittance spectroscopy for quantifying glucose levels in the bloodstream. an artificial mixture of sugar dissolved in distilled water was used to simulate the body's glucose concentration. the implementation of a notch filter effectively reduced noise power levels, thereby enhancing measurement accuracy. the 141 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us collective optical signals are employed to estimate glucose levels, with predictions made regarding tissue glucose concentration at the fingertip based on data from a color image sensor. predicted the blood glucose from the subject’s wrist using a visible and near-infrared (vis-nir) optical-based wearable sensor .the voltage value is computed for four different channels of wavelength (950 nm, 850 nm, 660 nm, and 535 nm) for analysing the average correlation coefficient. the in vivo experiment was done using a limited number of 12 different subjects. the sensitivity and correlation coefficient for the different subjects is around 6.16 mg/dl and 0.86. in the research work [13], they conducted invitro experiments and in-vivo testing for glucose concentration identification. an infrared source of 940 nm is an illuminated ray of light with a pin photodiode onto the human fingertip to detect the light transmitted. it has been evaluated by obtaining the correlation between output potential and glucose level. this paper proposes the utilization of a dual-channel near-infrared sensor operating between 1200 nm and 1900 nm to assess the responsivity of the epidermis and dermis, which are the top and middle layers of the skin, respectively. the primary objective of this analysis is to mitigate the interference caused by noisy signals from the skin's surface layer, thereby enabling precise detection of glucose levels in the bloodstream. a consumer-oriented, non-invasive wearable device, referred to as iglu 2.0, was employed to measure serum glucose levels. for the prediction of serum glucose, both polynomial regression and neural network methodologies were utilized. this innovative healthcare approach integrates the internet of medical things framework with end users. in the study conducted by li and li (2015), a monitoring system was proposed that utilized glucose aqueous solutions, where a laser diode served as the transmitter and a light power probe (s302c) acted as the detector. the findings indicated a strong correlation between glucose concentration and output power. in vitro testing was conducted using a diluted glucose solution, while in vivo experiments were carried out with a sensor patch placed on the forearm. the glucose concentration was derived from the collected data through the application of an appropriate signal-processing technique, albeit with a limited number of subjects. this review of various studies highlights the significant influence of the signal-to-noise ratio on near-infrared glucose detection methods, emphasizing the critical role of the measurement site, which can be easily influenced by external factors. it has been concluded that measurement instruments must be meticulously designed to ensure high accuracy and appropriate sensitivity, thereby achieving an optimal signal-to-noise ratio. additionally, filtering techniques can be employed to remove frequency-sensitive noise from the baseband optical signal. a major challenge remains in the design of wearable devices capable of accurately measuring blood serum glucose, which must also be adaptable to different diabetic conditions. from all the observed flaws and challenges, to tackle the problems stated, we propose a non-invasive measurement device to measure blood serum glucose by continuous means to provide data accurately. the process has been explained in detail in the following sections. 2. experimental setup: the comprehensive workflow diagram for the experimental arrangement involving glucose samples is illustrated in figure 1. when light strikes a material, a specific quantity of the transmitted beam is absorbed, which is contingent upon the concentration of the material in question. in the proposed approach, the artificial combination of distilled water with sugar facilitates the determination of glucose concentration by simulating a biological environment. an electrical circuit has been designed, featuring a near-infrared (nir) led operating at a wavelength of 940 nm as the transmitter, while the receiver is an avalanche photodiode (fga015) also at 940 nm. positioned between the nir led and the photodiode is a glucose solution. as the nir led emits light, a fraction of it is absorbed by the liquid phantom. the photodiode detects the amount of light that has been transmitted and generates a corresponding electrical current that reflects the concentration of the glucose solution. the correlation between glucose concentration and current is examined and analyzed. the precise weight of the sugar is 142 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us measured using accurate weighing equipment (elb300 platform balance), as depicted in figure 1. the entire experimental setup for measuring the current and its corresponding voltage flow resulting from the light absorbed by the sample is presented in figure 2. figure 1. experimental setup workflow diagram. 4. prototype system: the complete workflow diagram for the blood glucose level monitoring system using the prototype system is shown in figure 3. 4.1. transmitter section: the initial phase of source identification is crucial, as the light directed at the subject must maintain adequate contact with the fingertip. it is recommended to employ lightweight and compact light sources to achieve effective illumination. the near-infrared wavelength of 940 nm has been determined to be ideal, as it can penetrate organic tissue with minimal absorption by other biological components present in human membranes, including water, lipids, and proteins. the compound semiconductor algaas is suggested as the most appropriate material for the light source, capable of emitting at the optimal wavelength within a power range of 20 mw to 30 mw. to ensure accurate coverage in the targeted penetration area, the led should be oriented perpendicularly to the fingertip. 4.2. receiver section: the light that is transmitted can penetrate the dermis layer to a depth ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 inches, which requires the detector to possess adequate sensitivity to identify the absorption of near-infrared light by glucose molecules in the blood. the detector, located beneath the fingertip, utilizes the opt101 sensor. this sensor is of the optoelectronic variety and features current-tovoltage converters and operational amplifiers, all contained within a single integrated circuit, as illustrated in figure 4. the opt101 demonstrates remarkable sensitivity to the 940 nm wavelength being transmitted and provides numerous benefits, such as a compact design, affordability, a high responsivity of 0.57 v/µw, minimal leakage error, and improved compatibility with wearable devices. 4.3. data acquisition system: the data acquisition system consists of a data sensing unit and an analog-to-digital converter (adc) unit. this system integrates an arduino with matlab, enabling the transfer of output from the opt101 sensor to a laptop via a usb connection. the sensor data collected is analyzed, and the obtained voltage values are processed by considering attenuation to ascertain their corresponding wavelengths. matlab then saves this information as variables in text files. the arduino program is designed to process each sample with a delay of 0.5 seconds, leading to an estimation of 120 data units per minute. the adc is tasked with converting the analog voltage output from the sensor into digital values that range from 0 to 1023. 4.4. fft: the digital data collected from the data acquisition system, initially represented in the time domain, is transformed into the frequency domain through the application of fft algorithms 143 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us prior to undergoing a filtering process. the fft facilitates the analysis of both spectral content and phase information. 4.5. blackman filter: the digitalised data is then filtered to remove the noise due to environmental effects such as water, fat, protein and so on present in the blood (ingle and crouch 1988). in the proposed system, the blackman filter is used to remove the low-frequency and high-frequency tones ranging from 2.34 hz to1.59 khz. figure 2. experimental setup (a) circuit diagram (b) experimental setup. blackman window equation for the length n is 144 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.6. estimating glucose concentration: beer-lambert's law articulates the absorbance characteristics of materials across various samples. this law considers factors such as the concentration of the sample, the thickness of the medium, the temperature of the platform, and the wavelength of the radiation. it is defined as the quantity of light absorbed in a uniform medium, which is directly proportional to both the concentration and the thickness of the medium. of the sample as shown in figures 5 and 6. when a light beam passes over a uniform sample, the intensity of the transmitted radiation declines with the increase in thickness and concentration of the liquid phantom. the transmittance of the liquid phantom is based on absorbance (a) and the optical depth figure 3. workflow diagram for the blood glucose monitoring system. figure 4. opt101 light intensity sensor 145 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 5. passing of light beam in liquid phantom where, t. a and t is the term of transmittance, absorbance, and optical depth, tporresponds to transmitted radiant flux, i js the received radiant flux, the intensity of light entering the liquid sample is a whereas leaving the sample is fra as per the beer-lambert law or equivalently figure 6. passing of light beam in human fingertip. where l represents path length; n represents attenuating material number density; represents attenuation coefficient; σ is the cross-section of the attenuation material; c represents attenuating material molar concentration. under consistent attenuation, the equation follows as 146 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the beer-lambert law illustrates the relationship between a sample's concentration and its light absorbance. 5. results and discussion: in this section, a comprehensive presentation and explanation of the results obtained from both the experimental approach and the prototype system are provided. figure 7. voltage flow variation corresponding to glucose concentration levels. figure 8. variation in the flow of current relative to the specific concentration of glucose. 5.1. results of the experimental approach: the exact weight of the sugar is determined using specialized apparatus, namely the elb300 platform balance, as shown in figure 2. in the course of the experimental procedure, a liquid phantom or sample is created by mixing 30 ml of distilled water with sugar. the findings derived from the experimental configuration illustrated in figure 2, which demonstrate the correlation between current and the associated voltage flow resulting from light absorption by the sample, are graphically represented in figure 7. the data distinctly reveal that the current recorded at the photodetector diminishes as the concentration of glucose in the liquid phantom increases. as a result, figure 8 illustrates a decreasing trend, reinforcing the assertion that blood glucose concentration (mg/dl) is inversely correlated with the current generated by the photodetector. similarly, the voltage output from the photodetector decreases as glucose concentration increases, which is due to the glucose molecules in the liquid phantom absorbing light intensity. this leads to a decline in voltage, as depicted in figure 7. hence, it can be inferred that the 147 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us concentration of glucose (mg/dl) in the blood is inversely related to the voltage produced by the photodetector. figure 9. prototype of the complete glucose estimation system (a) prototype setup (b) fingertip subject placed over opt101 (c) transmission and reception of optical. light (d) entire set-up covered with black cloth. 5.2. prototype results: a heterogeneous group of participants, representing a range of ages and including both individuals with diabetes and those without, was assembled to assess the effectiveness of the proposed prototype system. the blood glucose levels recorded by this prototype for a 20-yearold female are depicted in figure 9. the complete configuration of the prototype is illustrated by arranging the optical transmitter and receiver on a breadboard connected to an arduino, as shown in figure 9(a). the subject's fingertip is then positioned above the optoelectronic sensor (opt 101) to evaluate the glucose concentration in the blood sample, as represented in figure 9(b). following this, the nir led is placed in direct contact with the subject's forefinger to 148 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us enable light transmission, as indicated in figure 9(c). to ensure the detector operates at peak efficiency, it is essential to reduce or eliminate ambient light in the surrounding area. consequently, the entire prototype setup is completely covered with black cloth, as demonstrated in figure 9(d). during the initial stage of data collection, a 20-year-old female participant is assessed to observe fluctuations in blood glucose levels. the prototype is first powered on to activate the nir led (algaas led), which emits invisible light. the subject's forefinger is positioned above the optoelectronic sensor (opt 101) to measure the glucose concentration in the blood sample through optical techniques. the nir led is then placed in contact with the forefinger to capture the light that passes through the medium. the subject is tested under four different conditions: fasting, one hour after food intake, one and a half hours after food intake, and two hours following morning food consumption. the estimated values are presented in figure 10. initially, the subject, a female, underwent blood glucose testing through an optical method while in a fasting state. during this fasting period, the intensity of light detected between the near-infrared (nir) led and the optical receiver was noted to be lower. the recorded blood glucose concentration during fasting was 85 mg/dl. according to beer-lambert's law, light that traverses blood will absorb photon molecules. as the glucose concentration increases, the number of photon molecules absorbed by the blood also increases. therefore, the output of the proposed system indicates fluctuations in blood glucose concentration in relation to the intensity of the transmitted light. subsequently, the subject ingested a high-carbohydrate meal consisting of bread and milk. the digestion of this meal occurs in the small intestine, where carbohydrates are transformed into glucose and absorbed into the bloodstream. during this process, the intensity of light received by the opt 101 decreased compared to the initial measurement. after one hour, the estimated blood glucose level increased to 123 mg/dl. blood glucose levels were similarly evaluated after one and a half hours and two hours following consumption, as illustrated in figure 10. figure 10. estimated glucose concentration utilizing a non-invasive method. figure 11. validation of a non-invasive method through the use of an invasive device for an individual. 149 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. conclusions: this research article introduces a novel methodology designed to demonstrate the relationship between glucose concentration and the output voltages of sensors, which are affected by the light intensity emitted from a near infrared led. the findings indicate that an increase in glucose concentration results in a corresponding decrease in sensor voltage. the proposed prototype of the nir led-based glucose sensor offers a promising invasive technique for the continuous monitoring of blood glucose levels. experimental data for this prototype are presented and depicted in figures 5–7, with test results collected over a span of 50 seconds. the effectiveness of the non-invasive prototype has been compared to traditional invasive methods across four volunteers under three different conditions: fasting, one hour after consumption, and one and a half hours after consumption. the results suggest that the non-invasive method closely mirrors the invasive approach, showing a strong correlation between fluctuations in photon intensity detected by the photodetector and glucose levels. additionally, analysis through the clarke grid indicates that the test measurement data points are within an acceptable range, suggesting that the developed non-invasive glucose monitoring system demonstrates enhanced accuracy. future investigations may aim to explore the impact of skin texture and bodily fluid concentration on sensor performance to improve calibration and system sensitivity. references: 1. althobaiti m, al-naib i. 2021. optimization of dual-channel near-infrared non-invasive glucose level measurement sensors based on monte-carlo simulations. ieee photonics j. 13(3):1–9. doi: 10.1109/jphot.2021.3079408. 2. haxha s, jhoja j. 2016. optical based noninvasive glucose monitoring sensor prototype. ieee photonics j. 8(6):1–11. doi: 10.1109/jphot.2016.2616491. 3. ingle jd, crouch sr. 1988. spectrochemical analysis. 1st ed. new jersey: prentice hall. 4. joshi am, jain p, mohanty sp, agrawal n. 2020. iglu 2.0: a new wearable for accurate non-invasive continuous serum glucose measurement in iomt framework. ieee trans consum electron. 66(4):327–335. doi: 10.1109/ tce.2020.3011966. 5. klonoff dc. 2007. the benefits of implanted glucose sensors. j diabetes sci technol. 1(6):797–800. doi: 10.1177/193229680700100601. 6. li x and li c, 2015, october. research on non-invasive glucose concentration measurement by nir transmission. in 2015 ieee international conference on computer and communications (iccc) p. 223–228. 7. notkins al. 2002. immunologic and genetic factors in type 1 diabetes. j biol chem. 277(46):43545–43548. doi: 10.1074/jbc.r200012200. 8. peng x, yan yx, liu h. 2022. on the use of fiber lasers in non-invasive blood glucose monitoring. opt fiber technol. 68:102822. doi: 10.1016/j.yofte. 2022.102822. 9. pradeepa r, mohan v. 2021. epidemiology of type 2 diabetes in india. 10. indian j ophthalmol. 69(11):2932. doi: 10.4103/ijo.ijo_1627_21. 11. rachim vp, chung wy. 2019. wearable-band type visible-near infrared optical biosensor for non-invasive blood glucose monitoring. sens actuators b chem. 286:173–180. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2019.01.121. 12. saleh g, alkaabi f, al-hajhouj n, al-towailib f, 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international conference on signal processing and integrated networks (spin); noida, india. ieee. p. 591–594. assessment of sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices 37 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 assessment of sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices kenneth chidiebere ezebuilo1, chioma anastasia omenyi2, obinna davidsyn awuzie3 1,3university of salford, manchester, united kingdom 2university of luxembourg, esch-belval, luxembourg abstract: the study examined the sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices. this study adopted a surveys research style. the research population comprises of students, staff of works department and physical planning units in nnamdi azikiwe univeristy awka. cluster sampling technique was adopted for the study. the instrument used was a structured questionnaire. to ensure the validity of data collection instrument, the questionnaires was submitted to the researchers supervisor who assessed the content and structure. the test for reliability of the instrument was done using the cronbach’s alpha. to ensure the validity of data collection instrument, the questionnaires was submitted to the researcher’s supervisor who assessed the content and structure. the study showed that routine maintenance work like painting, servicing equipment’s and machineries, e.t.c is the mostly adopted sustainability strategy for the maintenance of buildings and facilities in nnamdi azikiwe university. it was concluded that adopting environmentally conscious approaches significantly enhances the longevity, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of buildings. one of the recommendations made was that the institution should adopt proactive sustainability strategies such as routine maintenance work, process management and integrated project delivery system, as they are more economical and effective. keywords: sustainability strategies and building maintenance practices. introduction building maintenance is an aspect of construction industry, which refers to the work undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve every facility, that is, every part of a building, its services and surroundings to a currently acceptable standard, and to sustain the utility and value of the building (owolabi, amusan, gani, tunji-olayeni, peter and omuh, 2014). building maintenance refers to ‘a combination of any action carried out to retain an item in, or restore it to an acceptable condition’ (brennan, 2000; owolabi et al, 2014). sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices are fundamental concepts of the construction industry. sustainability strategies in this study refer to a plan of actions or a renewable plan(s) intended to accomplish maintenance practices that will sustain a building for an indefinite period without damaging the building, or without depleting a resource. the centrality of sustainable building maintenance practices has stimulated a wide ranging literature on its examination in nigeria (amusan et al, 2015). as a matter of fact, no description in the built environment profession can be complete without discussion of sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices (amusan et al, 2015). according to nwanze (2010), the estimated total number of public buildings in nigeria as at 2009 was one thousand, five hundred (600 at federal level and 900 at state and local government levels), which is a nice beginning. but poor 38 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sustainable strategies have rendered most of the buildings ineffective in terms of performing their functions. as a result, nigeria has recorded poor performance in the building maintenance practices (nwoye, 2002). sequel to that, the economic recession in the early 1980s brought a focus on sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices in nigeria. this x-rays that the sector was crowned by problems such as no/poor sustainable strategies for building maintenance, poor maintenance services, mismanagement and corruption (alabi, onimisi, and christain, 2010). the issue of poor maintenance cum poor management, is witnessed in the condition of some public and private buildings in nigeria. this means that sustainable practices for building maintenance is still an emerging concept in nigeria construction industry (nci). therefore, the need for this study. statement of problem the major challenges facing most buildings in the study area (nnamdi azikiwe university awka, anambra state) are dilapidation and deterioration, which has led to reduced life span of the buildings, reduction in the functionality of the building, increase in the cost of maintaining the building. this study seeks to solve the above identified problems by determining the factors that hinders the implementation of sustainable strategies for building maintenance practices and therefore, develop effective sustainable strategies for building maintenance practices in nnamdi azikiwe university awka, anambra state. research question i. what are the major sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices? research objective i. examine the sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices in the study area, conceptual review concept of sustainability sustainability is the ability to sustain something. to sustain, on the other hand, is to keep in existence. many scholars have different views to the definition of sustainability. one of the schools of thought is the one that views sustainability from the point of view of sustainable design/construction perspective. according to solomon (2005) and nadel (2007), sustainable design/construction refers to the proper use of land, minimisation of waste water, the use of less mechanical energy, understanding the site ecology, the application of eco-effective and recyclable materials, among others. to another school of thought, sustainable concept is reviewed from the perspective of eliminating associated negative impact of infrastructure on users and environment. this school of thought emphasise on maintaining infrastructure form and structure, and argue strongly that, it is a design and construction practices that significantly reduce or eliminate the negative impact of building on the environment (amusan, et at, 2015). solomon (2005), defines sustainable buildings as those that through their design, spatial orientation, choice of building components, construction and operational strategy, are highly efficient and also have low operating costs, environmentally friendly, and do not affect the health of their users and occupants negatively. on the other hand, building otherwise known as structure, is according to arayel and adam (2001) defined as structures that includes; houses, facilities, offices, schools and hospitals, which serve as shelters for humans. buildings are also defined as closed structures with walls and roofs. macginley (1998) asserts that buildings are utilised primarily for living, working, storage and are categorised into three: 1. the monumental structure, which comprises of the churches, sport arena and city halls; 2. the institutional structure, which comprises structures such as the block of flats, tertiary institutional buildings for academic and administrative purposes, and 3. the industrial structures like the ordinary small scale industrial types. 39 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us odediran, opatunji and eghenure (2012) opines that the built environment expresses in physical, forms the complex social and economic factors, which shape the structure of and give life to a community. drawing upon odediran et al’s assertion, it is gathered that buildings in their physical form or shape give life to a community. again, for odediran et al (2012), building is that, which are basically required to provide a conducive and safe environment for the performance of various human activities. from their own perspective of building, it is inferred that the ability of a building to provide the required environment for a particular activity is a measure of its functionality. these functionality can be enhanced through the concept of sustainability (odediran et al, 2012). sustainability strategies recently, sustainability strategy issue has dominated the arena of discussion in the built environment. nonetheless, billions of dollars’ worth of building investment are being initiated over the world, but little emphasis is placed on the aspect of maintenance of such infrastructure (amusan, anosike and ogunde, 2015). they emphasise that in the tropic, careful consideration is often given to planning while proactive thought is not often accorded to the maintenance aspect. this, however, is common to the public utilities and infrastructures. unfortunately, most sectors according to amusan et al (2015), are yet to give issue of sustainability strategy an appropriate consideration. in this regard, buildings meant for human habitation are developed without much emphasis on design concept, space ergonomics, construction process, renewable material and post construction post occupancy requirement. however, this could result into building an unstable buildings, which is bound to bring to the investors’ economy an untold hardship and to the country’s economy at large. however, time has come when that paradigm should shift from nonsustainable development to sustainable one through proactive strategy, which this study intend to achieve with focus on evaluating sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices in nnamdi azikiwe university awka, anambra state, nigeria. therefore sustainability strategies in this study refer to those sustainable plan of actions intended to accomplish a specific goal – building maintenance, which involves provision for adequate maintenance of the existing building structures. in the built environment profession, sustainability strategies for building maintenance practice are among the major problems ravaging and undermining the developing countries, nigeria is one of such countries. as a matter of fact, nigeria as a developing country is greatly confronted with insufficient sustainable strategies for building maintenance practice (amusan et al, 2015). hence, the need for this research work. as life span enhancement necessitates a culture of adequate maintenance practices, in the same way, building requires adequate building maintenance practices. building maintenance practices building maintenance practices are vital aspects of construction industry, which their importance cannot be over emphasised. because of its importance, maintainability of building has become one of the key areas in which the construction industry must achieve significant improvements. the british standard (bs) (3811) assert that maintenance practices refer to “the combination of actions carried out to retain an item in, or restore it to an acceptable condition”. odediran et al (2012) defines building maintenance as the work undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve every facility, that is, every part of a building, its services and surrounds to a currently acceptable standard, and to sustain the utility and value of the building (owolabi, amusan, gani, tunjiolayeni, peter, and omuh (2014); brennan, 2000). owolabi et al (2014) views maintenance as synonymous with controlling the condition of a building so that its pattern lies within specified regions. odediran et al (2012) asserts that maintenance management is concerned with the planning and control of construction resources to ensure that necessary repairs and renewal are carried out with maximum efficiency and economy. kolawole (2002) argues that maintenance culture requires the correct diagnosis of defects, current remedial measures, sound technical knowledge of material usage, management resources as well as the formulation and implementation of integrated plan 40 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and policies to sustain utility. he explain further that the absence of these qualities has led to the decay of the nation’s physical, social, aesthetic and economic environment. bamgboye (2006) refers to maintenance as the art of binging back the operating condition of an asset into normal functioning at a minimal cost capable of enhancing the life span of the item. he explains further that maintenance is also the ability and skill of keeping infrastructure available for normal use. consequently, odediran et al (2012) aver that maintenance just like the last leg of a relay team, and the lubricating oil of an engine, is a component of a conclusive phase of sustainable development. besides, owolabi et al (2014) view maintenance as that which assists in retaining economic life of buildings. they also said that maintenance is an activity that requires high level of productivity at the private and national levels. the operational definition of building maintenance practices is in line with owolabi et al (2014) definition of building maintenance practices, where building maintenance practices refer to works undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve every part of a building, its services and surrounds to a currently acceptable standard, and to sustain the utility and value of building. building maintenance practices include, among others; renovation such as re-roofing, repainting, re-plastering, and so on. building maintenance practices in nigeria in nigeria, the organisation and implementation of maintenance strategy have not been given adequate attention and so very low results are realised in the use of assets, which led to the country being categorised as part of poor maintenance culture for engineering infrastructure, among others (uma, obidike and ihezukwu, 2014). dishearteningly, huge and very expensive projects are allowed to go into disuse in a short while due to lack of maintenance culture. concisely, the establishment of infrastructure in nigeria is not easily attained, but the extent to which the existing ones are allowed to deteriorate owing to lack of maintenance culture is a thing of worry (uma et al, 2014). the situation in nigeria can be attributed to poorly equipped maintenance department where it exist; insufficient funding for operation and maintenance; poor arrangement of institution; inappropriate technologies; lack of spare parts; transfer of plants without enough manpower requirement on ground and insufficient monitoring and evaluation of operation of infrastructure (uma et al, 2014). disgustingly, most infrastructures in nigeria are decayed and need repair, rehabilitation or replacement (oyedele, 2012). all over the world, the activity of all economic agents depend on efficient and effective infrastructure. the two categories of infrastructure are the hard and soft infrastructure. the hard infrastructure are broadly physical networks essentially required for the functioning of modern industrial nation while soft infrastructure involves all the institutions which are relevant to enhance economic, health, cultural and social standard of a country, among which are the financial, the education, the health, the governance and judiciary systems, and including security (kumar, 2005). this situation is arrived due to little or no maintenance at time they were minor problems. but the power to make, improve and destroy rest in the government. the situation of decay of environmental facilities for production needs urgent attention if the country must achieve a pass mark in the millennium development goal by 2015. each aspect of the infrastructure needs sufficient maintenance if it must achieve the goal for which it is established. every facet of production; be it at the private or public sectors in nigeria involves capital overheads, but over the years the attitude of leaders and public servants experienced poor transportation infrastructure due to insufficiency and lack of maintenance, which have encouraged low production, low foreign investment, unemployment and poverty (uma et al, 2014). really, when a considerable chunk of the population are seriously constrained from working and earning income due to lack of capital overheads, and the available ones are in a deplorable state, it gives room for diversion of investment, thereby discouraging average resources capacity utilisation, under employment, and consequently poor living standard (uma et al, 2014). 41 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us nigeria had about 195,500km road network all over the country. out of the whole, a proportion of about 32,000km are federal roads while 31,000km are state roads. a large proportion of these roads are so poor due to insufficient investment and lack of adequate maintenance (frn, 2000). however, each of the tiers of government shared the responsibility of planning, construction and maintenance of roads in each respective domain. this bargain is aimed at even development of the entire country (ighodaro, 2009; cbn, 2003). unbelievably, lack of adequate maintenance has made these roads very poor, and as such has retarded the level of resources mobility over the years, which is associated with economic backwardness effects, in terms of inefficient mobility of inputs of production and low income generation. many schools and tertiary institutions started with relevant equipment, vehicles and laboratory facilities, among others. although there is high degree of paucity required infrastructure in nigeria universities, colleges and schools, but the few ones that are available, there is no provision for sufficient maintenance. unfortunately, many were allowed to become useless due to minor faults and so gradually lived beyond their life span without getting maximum benefit there-from. government has always found it so difficult to provide schools’ equipment and laboratory facilities. the few schools enjoying some, lack maintenance because of poor attitude to maintenance culture. this situation has resulted to gross insufficiency as no new ones are forth coming and the old ones are in disuse state (uma et al, 2014). sustainability strategies for building maintenance in nigeria, according to dahiru, abdulazeez (2010) and mbamali and okotie (2010), the nigeria construction industry was without uniform regulations, guidelines and standards for the design, construction and operation or maintenance strategies for buildings until 2006, when discussion for national building code started. it is acknowledged that the situation in nigeria building industry has in no small measure improved in some respects, the little or no adequate consideration for sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices in the national building code (2009), within the current practice in the construction sector (dahiru et al, 2010). however, to sustain or to reach sustainable strategies for building maintenance practices, there is need to understand the barriers to sustainable building maintenance practices, which allow the development of lasting strategies, in order to ease its implementation not only in nigeria, but also in other developing countries as well. nonetheless, this study is not in any form prioritising the barriers to sustainable strategies for building maintenance practices in nigeria, rather, the study argues that identifying those barriers will greatly help in mapping out sustainable strategies that will improve on condition of building maintenance practices, and yield fruitful results. nielsen, jensen and jensen (2009) evaluates the extent to which sustainable facilities management is integrated in the operations of housing estates in denmark. the research work identified social housing, owner – occupier/private co-operatives and private renting as the three types of ownership in the housing sector. the research further identified individual metering, energy labelling of buildings, and green accounting for residential buildings, green homes and energy management as some of the regulations and tools for sustainable building operations. the results from the research showed good practices of sustainable facilities management in the social housing sector that led to reduction in energy, water and waste generation. the research concluded that different types of ownership will demand different types of facilities management solutions thus determining the success of sustainable facilities management. although the outcome of the research is limited to residential housing sector, sustainable practices can be applied to all housing types. however, the success of a particular sustainable strategy in an organisations does not guarantee its success in another organisation especially if their activities differ. methodology this study adopted a surveys research style. the research population comprises of students, staff of works department and physical planning units in nnamdi azikiwe univeristy awka. cluster sampling technique was adopted for the study. the instrument used was a structured questionnaire. 42 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to ensure the validity of data collection instrument, the questionnaires was submitted to the researchers supervisor who assessed the content and structure. the test for reliability of the instrument was done using the cronbach’s alpha. to ensure the validity of data collection instrument, the questionnaires was submitted to the researchers supervisor who assessed the content and structure. data analysis table 1: sustainability strategies adopted for the maintenance of buildings and facilities in nnamdi azikiwe university awka s/n variables sd d u a sa ∑f mean std. dev. ranking 1 carrying out repairs when a facility stops functioning 7 7 0 38 18 70 3.76 1.233 7th 2 routine maintenance work like painting, servicing equipments and machineries, e.t.c 2 3 3 37 25 70 4.14 0.905 1st 3 fumigation of the premises against insects and rodents 2 6 21 17 24 70 3.79 1.102 6th 4 re-engineering of the building and maintenance process 3 6 16 29 16 70 3.70 1.054 8th 5 incorporating ecofriendly construction materials 3 3 17 23 24 70 3.89 1.071 5th 6 introduction of new construction and maintenance concepts 2 4 12 33 19 70 3.90 0.965 4th 7 integrated project delivery system such as increasing the recyclable contents of buildings 1 8 6 34 21 70 3.94 0.991 3rd 8 process management 3 13 0 32 22 70 4.04 0.824 2nd source: researcher’s field work, 2019 it can be seen from the table that routine maintenance work like painting, servicing equipment’s and machineries, e.t.c is the mostly adopted sustainability strategy for the maintenance of buildings and facilities in nnamdi azikiwe university, as its ranked 1st. more so, process management ranked 2nd, integrated project delivery system such as increasing the recyclable contents of buildings ranked 3rd, introduction of new construction and maintenance concepts ranked 4th, incorporating eco-friendly construction materials ranked 5th, fumigation of the premises against insects and rodent’s ranked 6th, carrying out repairs when a facility stops functioning ranked 7th, while re-engineering of the building and maintenance process (8th) is the least ranked. . this is in agreement with amusan et al (2015) research work which found that proactive strategies such as 43 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us those mentioned above are the key elements in the development and maintenance of infrastructures. conclusion the assessment of sustainability strategies for building maintenance practices reveals that adopting environmentally conscious approaches significantly enhances the longevity, efficiency, and costeffectiveness of buildings. strategies such as routine maintenance work like painting, servicing equipment’s and machineries, e.t.c is the mostly adopted sustainability strategy for the maintenance of buildings and facilities in nnamdi azikiwe university. although challenges like limited funding, lack of technical expertise, and resistance to change persist, the long-term benefits—such as reduced carbon emissions, improved indoor environmental quality, and resource conservation—strongly support the integration of sustainability into maintenance operations. recommendations 1. building owners and facility managers should establish clear sustainability policies that integrate maintenance strategies with energy efficiency, waste reduction, and environmental impact minimization. 2. the institution should adopt proactive sustainability strategies such as routine maintenance work, process management and integrated project delivery system, as they are more economical and effective 3. regular training and workshops should be provided to maintenance personnel to improve their understanding of sustainable practices and the use of green technologies. references 1. alabi, m. o., onimisi, u. u. & christain, e. (2010). privatisation of public enterprises and nigeria sustainable development. journal of social science, 2, 204-208. 2. amusan, l., ogunde, a. & anosike, n. m. (2015). sustainability strategies in engineering infrastructure maintenance in developing countries: selected south western nigeria states case study. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267829780. accessed on 1/7/2019. 3. arayela, o. & adam, j. j. (2001). building disasters and failures in nigeria: causes and remedies. aarches journal 1(6): 71-76. 4. bamgboye, o.a. (2006). capacity building as a strategy for sustainable infrastructure maintenance culture, paper presented at national engineering conference, nigeria society of engineers. gateway 2006, abeokuta, nigeria, december. 5. brennan, b. (2000). repairs and maintenance of dwellings. an-taonad tithlochta press, ireland. cambridge city council (2011). a report submitted to the executive-in-council in respect of strategies for maintenance of housing estates of the council.amusan et al, 2015). 6. dahiru, d., abdulazeez, a.d. & abubakar, m. (2010). an evaluation of the adequacy of the national building code for achieving a sustainable built environment in nigeria. research journal of environmental and earth federal republic of nigeria (frn) (2000). obasanjo’s economic direction 1999-2003, lagos: dawn functions nigeria limited. 7. ighodora, c. a. u. (2009). transport infrastructure and economic growth in nigeria. journal of research and national development, 7(2), 1-13. 44 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 8. kolawole, a.r. (2002). developing maintenance culture in nigeria: the role of facility management. a paper presented at the national conference, school of environmental studies at the federal polytechnic, ede, osun state, october, 29th 31th. 9. kumar, d. (2005). infrastructure in india. icfai journal of infrastructure. retrieved on 20/08/2019 from http://129.3.20.41/esp/urb/papers/0506/0506002.pdf. 10. macginley (1998) macginley, t. j. (1998). categories of buildings. available at www.google.com.ng. assessed on 20/08/2019. 11. nielsen, s. b., jensen, j. o. & jensen, p. a. (2009). delivering sustainable facilities management in danish housing estates. proceedings of the cimne 2009 international conference on sustainability measurement and modelling, barcelona, spain.odediran et al (2012) 12. odediran, s.j.,opatunji, o. a. & eghenure, f.o. (2012). maintenance of residential buildings: users’ practices in nigeria. journal of emerging trends in economics and management sciences (jetems) 3(3), 261265. 13. owolabi, j. d., amusan, l. m., gani, j., tunji-olayeni, p., peter j. & omuh, i. (2014). assessing the effectiveness of maintenance practices in public schools. european international journal of science and technology, vol. 3, no3 (pp. 103 -109). 14. oyedele, 2012). oyedel, o. a. (2012). the challenges of infrastructure development in democratic governance. retrieved on 20/08/2019 from https://www.fig.net/pub/fig2012/papers/ts01c/ts01c_oyedele_6119.pdf. solomon, n. (2005). the pick of the sustainable crop. architectural record, (pp.160). 15. uma, k.e, obidike, c.p. & ihezukwu, v.a. (2014). maintenance culture and sustainable economic development in nigeria: issues, problems and prospects. international journal of economics, commerce and management, united kingdom, vol. 11, issue 11, 1-11. retrieved from http://ijecm.co.uk/. accessed on 2/7/2019. 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 3, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 development of predictive model for corrosion management of oil and gas pipelines, validatiion of the model using artificial neural network (ann) and optimization using genetic algorithm in the niger delta area of nigeria igbesi, f. c., dolor g. a. department of mechanical engineering, delta state polytechnic, otefe-oghara abstract: the potential rupture of pipelines poses significant threats to the environment, human safety and infrastructure integrity. to mitigate these risks, pipelines require constant monitoring and maintenance to detect and rectify defects such as corrosion before they lead to failure. however, the regular monitoring and non-destructive testing of pipelines incur substantial costs. consequently, there is a growing interest in research focused on predictive corrosion monitoring of pipelines based on easily measurable operational parameters. this study was aimed to develop predictive model for corrosion management in oil and gas pipelines in the niger delta area of nigeria. secondary data on mean corrosion rates, mean ph levels, mean temperatures, mean pressures, and mean aqueous co2 partial pressures were obtained from an oil and gas multinational company spanning the years 2007 to 2011. polynomial regression and artificial neural network (ann) methodologies were chosen as suitable methods for data analysis. polynomial regression and ann models were developed and subsequently optimized using a genetic algorithm. the models' validity was assessed using goodness of fit indices (gfi). for the full second-degree quadratic polynomial model yielded the following results for both training and testing data sets: coefficient of determination (r2) was 0.9869/0.9361, root mean square error (rmse) was 0.0007/0.0012, mean biased error (mbe) was 0.0000/0.0002, mean absolute biased error (mabe) was 0.0004/0.0008, mean percentage error (mpe) was 0.0006/0.0636, and correlation coefficient (r) was 0.9934/0.9689. the goodness of fit for the reduced second-degree model for both training and testing datasets provided the following results: r2 was 0.9859/0.9341, rmse was 0.0007/0.0012, mbe was 0.0000/0.0001, mabe was 0.0004/0.0008, mpe was 0.0006/0.0390, and r was 0.9929/0.9676. hypothesis testing of the full second-degree polynomial model for significance revealed that all model parameters were significant at the 95% confidence interval, except for the coefficients related to the interaction of mean pressure and mean aqueous co2 partial pressure (x_(2) x_3) and the square of mean aqueous co2 partial pressure (x_4^2). comparatively, the ann model exhibited slightly higher accuracy than the polynomial model, reinforcing the validity of the polynomial modelling and interaction analyses. furthermore, the goodness of fit indices for the ann model during both training and testing phases were as follows: r2 was 0.9965/0.9158, rmse was 0.0004/0.0014, mbe was 0.0000/-0.0003, mabe was 0.0003/0.0011, mpe was 0.0003/-0.0905, and r was 0.9982/0.9608. through optimization with a genetic algorithm, it was determined that the minimal corrosion rate occurred at mean ph of 8.446, mean temperature was 23.692°c, mean pressure was 15.725 bar, and mean aqueous co2 partial pressure was 2.022 bar. this research contributes valuable insights into the technological applications and policy implications of 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us predictive corrosion monitoring for pipelines. it also highlights avenues for further research in this critical field. keywords: oil and gas; pipelines; corrosion; model; hazard; validation; optimization. 1. introduction pipelines represent safety and pinnacle of efficiency in transporting oil and gas, owing to their inherent low health risk profile in the absence of structural failures (adegboye et al., 2019; parlak, and yavasoglu, 2023). however, the aging and deterioration of pipeline infrastructure emerge as formidable challenges within the pipeline industry. in comparison to alternative modes of fuel transportation such as highways and railways, pipelines exhibit significantly diminished safety and environmental risks. this assertion is supported by popescu, and gabor (2021) who substantiated this claim through a quantitative analysis, revealing a rate of about 0.03 fatalities per billion ton–miles for pipelines in contrast to approximately 1.20 fatalities for railway transportation and close to 9.22 fatalities for highway transportation. it is notable that the proliferation of pipeline networks, surpassing 1,243 miles in length, has occurred in more than 60 countries. this expansion followed the construction of the inaugural oil pipeline, which measured 109 miles in length and had a diameter of 6 inches, in pennsylvania, usa, in 1879 (el-abbasy et al., 2015; borden, 2022). the progressive deterioration of pipelines over time stems from their exposure to natural forces in their surroundings and the dynamic pressures exerted by the transported fluids. if left unaddressed, this degenerative process culminates in failure, accompanied by grave consequences, encompassing environmental contamination, health hazards, and substantial economic losses (el-abbasy et al., 2015). the repercussions of pipeline failures extend to encompass severe economic, social, and environmental devastations, resulting in substantial repair expenses, human injuries, extensive environmental pollution, and widespread disruptions to daily life. nigeria, a prominent oilproducing nation, relies significantly on the income generated from oil and gas sales. according to a report by the world economic outlook, between august 2022 and february 2023, primary commodity prices fell by 28.2%, mainly due to a substantial 46.4% drop in energy commodity prices. european natural gas prices notably plunged by 76.1%, driven by reduced consumption and high storage levels. in contrast, base and precious metal prices rebounded, increasing by 19.7% and 3.3%, respectively. food prices also saw a modest rise of 1.9% during this period. this special feature analyzes how these declines, particularly in fossil fuel and mineral extraction, have impacted the macroeconomic activity of commodity exporters (weo, 2023). notably, data from 2016, reveals that petroleum exports by nigeria in 2016 amounted to 27,788 million usd, representing a remarkable 80.1% contribution to the total export value of 34,704 million usd (heim, 2019). the extensive network of pipelines that crisscrosses nigeria, as highlighted by umar et al. (2021) serves as the primary conduit for transporting the majority of the petroleum products of the nation, covering a vast expanse of approximately 3,106 miles. consequently, the issue of pipeline failures, stemming from factors including material defects, corrosion, third-party activities, mechanical loss, and environmental factors, has been extensively documented within the nigerian context. furthermore, when compared to developed nations, nigeria has experienced an unacceptably high rate of pipeline failures in recent years (umar et al., 2021). dawatola (2012) reported an alarming increase in pipeline ruptures in nigeria, with more than twenty cases in 2007 and over thirty cases in 2008. more recent data from the nigerian national petroleum corporation (nnpc, 2016) indicated a concerning trend, recording forty-nine cases of pipeline rupture in 2015 and an even higher fifty-five cases in 2016. these statistics underscore the urgent need for nigeria, more so than any other nation, to address the pervasive issue of pipeline failures and reduce them to levels comparable to those in developed economies. such 19 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us efforts are essential to harness the wasted resources and mitigate the severe consequences associated with these failures, redirecting them towards more productive endeavors. this study represents a significant step in this direction, focusing on model-based maintenance strategies to minimize the risks of pipeline failure and its associated catastrophic consequences. it is crucial to highlight that pipeline failures not only lead to economic losses but also pose challenges to human lives and the environment. to put the gravity of pipeline failures into perspective, one can recall the tragic incident in lagos, nigeria, in 2006, where a pipeline explosion claimed the lives of over two hundred people (dawotola, 2012). such harrowing incidents have left indelible marks on the histories of many other nations as well. addressing this issue is paramount to safeguard lives, protect the environment, and promote sustainable development. the development of model-based approaches has emerged as a cornerstone in modernizing pipeline transportation, offering a systematic and data-driven methodology to optimize operations, enhance safety, and ensure the integrity of pipeline infrastructure (aldoseri, al-khalifa, and hamouda, 2023). model-based approaches leverage mathematical models, simulation techniques, and advanced analytics to predict pipeline behavior, assess risks, and inform decision-making across various aspects of pipeline operations. historically, pipeline operations relied on manual inspections, reactive maintenance strategies, and periodic maintenance schedules. however, as technological advancements have accelerated, there has been a paradigm shift towards model-based approach that harness the power of data and computational modeling to drive improvements in efficiency, reliability, and safety (molęda et al., 2023). corrosion involves the gradual loss of metallic material due to electrochemical and mechanical processes. it poses a common threat to the structural integrity of aging oil and gas pipelines. over time, corrosion weakens the pipes, eventually leading to their failure (mahmoodian and li, 2016), making it the primary cause of pipe failures in many countries. during corrosion, metal atoms detach from the bulk material, forming compounds with oxygen and water. therefore, the proper management of pipeline integrity requires vigilant corrosion monitoring through corrosion growth rate models, ensuring that corrosion does not exceed a certain threshold to minimize the risk of failure. in the corrosion process of pipelines, the main cathode reactants are oxygen, carbonic acid, freestate h2s, and organic acids (kahyarian et al., 2019). the rate of corrosion in a pipeline is influenced by both external and internal factors. external factors encompass the working environment of the pipe, such as soil chemistry and moisture for buried pipes, water chemistry for submerged pipes, and air content for above-ground pipes. internal factors include the thermodynamic conditions (temperature and pressure), flow rate, ph level, and relative electromotive force of the various materials within the pipeline system. dawotola et al. (2011) and huang et al. (2023) recognized an extensively and robust validated approach for the maintenance of oil and gas pipelines, focusing on those susceptible to long-term corrosion-induced failure. their primary objective was to optimize the inspection intervals for these petroleum pipelines. the assessment criteria considered included both the frequency of failure, determined by fitting a homogeneous poisson process and power law, and the consequences of failure. the latter aspect was evaluated in terms of economic losses, environmental impact, and human safety, encompassing scenarios involving small leaks, large leaks, and pipeline ruptures. the dataset employed in their analysis covered a range of corrosion mechanisms, including uniform corrosion, pitting corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking. the central focus of their innovative risk-based integrity maintenance optimization approach revolved around determining the economic losses associated with pipeline failure while considering human risk and maintenance budget constraints. to enhance the assessment's accuracy, dawotola and their team incorporated structured expert judgment to provide frequency of failure assessments for identified failure mechanisms within the studied pipeline. they also employed the analytic hierarchy process (ahp) to obtain relative likelihood values for attributes of failure mechanisms with very low probability of occurrence, thus contributing to a 20 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us comprehensive risk management assessment for crude pipelines susceptible to rupture. their risk assessment methodology considered various failure mechanisms, calculating both the frequency of failure and the potential consequences, typically measured in terms of historical costs associated with failures, for different segments of crude oil pipelines. to demonstrate the application of their methodology, they employed historical data from a real-world crude oil pipeline owned by the nigerian petroleum development company (npdc). this pipeline, commissioned in 1989 to supply crude oil to the southwestern region of nigeria, served as the basis for combining frequency of failure and consequences of failure (huang et al., 2023). dai et al. (2017) also delved into estimating the failure rate of cross-country crude product pipelines using historical failure data. they conducted a comparative study involving two hypotheses: one assuming minimal repair models along with a homogeneous poisson process (hpp), and the other assuming the same repair models but employing a non-homogeneous poisson process (nhpp). their analysis led to the acceptance of the null hypothesis, indicating that the number of corrosions occurring in onshore crude product pipelines follows the hpp rather than the nhpp. this finding suggested that pipelines installed at the same time would exhibit similar mean times between failures and failure intensities, all else being equal. this conclusion was drawn from a comparative analysis of data from three different api 5l x42 pipelines owned by the nigerian national petroleum company (nnpc). dawotola et al. (2012) and marhavilas, and koulouriotis (2021) employed probabilistic methods to develop an innovative methodology capable of assessing the acceptability of risk levels based on cost-benefit analysis. they derived these acceptability criteria by considering historical trends in non-voluntary deaths and overall national fatalities. through this approach, they established acceptable levels of individual and societal risk and showcased the methodology's applicability to critical infrastructure, particularly petroleum pipelines. within the scope of their study, dawotola et al. (2012) pursued an optimal maintenance strategy for a petroleum pipeline. this strategy involved a structured expert judgment process that considered various failure mechanisms. this judgment process led to the calculation of failure frequencies and the determination of optimal maintenance intervals for petroleum pipelines based on these failure frequencies. the optimization of maintenance intervals was carried out through two alternative approaches: use-based minimization, with the objective function being the expected total cost associated with a petroleum pipeline. maximizing the benefit/cost ratio of the pipeline while simultaneously minimizing operational and failure costs. the latter approach was deemed less data-intensive, making it a practical and efficient choice for optimizing maintenance strategies (marhavilas, and koulouriotis 2021). consequently, employing these model-based methods presents the most viable avenue for implementing condition monitoring and failure control across the extensive oil and gas pipeline network in nigeria. the study aims to further improve the predictive precision of state-of-the-art methodologies and adapt the emerging new techniques to the nigerian context, thereby establishing a robust framework for addressing the critical issue of pipeline failures in the niger delta area of nigeria. 2. methods a. data collection the secondary corrosion data obtained are: mean ph, mean temperature, mean pressure, mean aqueous co2 and mean corrosion rate were obtained from an oil and gas multinational company in nigeria. however, for data privacy and confidentiality reason, the company name is not provided. the data set were collected from 2007 to 2011. data analysis the polynomial regression analysis was used to analyze the obtained data. the first and second polynomial regression were used, models were developed in both case. polynomial regression 21 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us was chosen for the analysis because it gave high performance indices using the goodness of fit indices (gfi). models were developed. b. model development the much more advanced generalized approach which cover general-order polynomial analyses is effectively handled on the framework of vector/matrix algebra. for such analysis the response is generally related to the predictors as follows (levin, 1998); 𝑜𝑦(𝒙) = [𝒂(𝒙)]𝑇{∑ 𝒂(𝒙𝑖)[𝒂(𝒙𝑖)] 𝑇𝑛 𝑖=1 }−1∑ 𝒂(𝒙𝑖)𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 + 𝑒 (1) where: 𝒂(𝒙) = {𝑎1(𝑥)𝑎2(𝑥)…𝑎𝑟(𝑥)} 𝑇is the polynomial of basis vectors 𝑎𝑗(𝑥) represent any of all the possible interactions of the independent variables from zero to order 𝑝. 𝑛 is the number of experimental/sampling runs 𝑑 is the number of independent variables. the length 𝑟 of 𝒂(𝑥)is generally given as 𝑟 = (𝑑+𝑝)! 𝑑!𝑝! . in the polynomial model, the numerical term 𝒃 = {∑ 𝒂(𝒙𝑖)[𝒂(𝒙𝑖)] 𝑇𝑛 𝑖=1 }−1∑ 𝒂(𝒙𝑖)𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 (2) represent the vector of the model coefficients in terms of the data sets of the predictors and the targets. a good understanding of how to handle equation (2) is all that is need in polynomial regression. for illustration with some of the simplest multiple linear regression cases, consider two predictors, 𝑥1 and 𝑥2. for the first degree (1stpra) case: 𝒂(𝒙) = { 1 𝑥1 𝑥2 } (3) and 𝒃 = [∑ { 1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 } {1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 } 𝑛 𝑖=1 ] −1 ∑ { 1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 } 𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 (4) where the summation signs in equation (3.4) apply element-by-element to the matrix { 1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 } {1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 } and the vector { 1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 } 𝑦𝑖. therefore 𝒃 = [ ∑ 1𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ] −1 { ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 } (5) for the quadratic case 𝒂(𝒙) = { 1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥1 2 𝑥1𝑥2 𝑥2 2 } (6) and 22 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝒃 = [ ∑ { 1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 2 } {1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 2 }𝑛 𝑖=1 ] −1 ∑ { 1 𝑥1𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑥2𝑖 2 } 𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 (7a) this becomes 𝒃 = [ ∑ 1𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 3𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 3𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 3𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 4𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 3 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 2 𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 3 𝑥2𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖𝑥2𝑖 3𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 3𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 2 𝑥2𝑖 2𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖𝑥2𝑖 3𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 4𝑛 𝑖=1 ] −1 { ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖 2 𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥1𝑖𝑥2𝑖𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝑥2𝑖 2 𝑦𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1 } (7b) many regression models have more than two predictor variables. for such systems, it can be inferred from the foregoing that the response in linear regression is simply represented in the form of simple summation as follows; 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑥𝑖 𝑑 𝑖=1 + 𝑒 (8) where: 𝑎𝑖 are the coefficients, 𝑥𝑖 is the ith of 𝑑 predictors 𝑒 is the error of the analysis which is assumed to be normally distributed. excluding the error and substituting 𝑛 measured/sampled data points in equation (8) becomes 𝑦(1) = 𝑎0 + ∑ a𝑖𝑥𝑖 (1)𝑑 𝑖=1 𝑦(2) = 𝑎0 + ∑ a𝑖𝑥𝑖 (2)𝑑 𝑖=1 ⋮ ⋮ 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑎0 + ∑ a𝑖𝑥𝑖 (𝑛)𝑑 𝑖=1 (9a) on minimizing the sum of square errors between the leftand right-hand-side of equation (9b), the normal equations ∑ 𝑦(𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 = 𝑛𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑑 𝑖=1 (10a) ∑ 𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑦(𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 = 𝑎0∑ 𝑥1 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖 ∑ 𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑑 𝑖=1 (10b) ∑ 𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑦(𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 = 𝑎0∑ 𝑥2 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖 ∑ 𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑑 𝑖=1 (10c) ⋮ ∑ 𝑥𝑑 (𝑗) 𝑦(𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 = 𝑎0∑ 𝑥𝑑 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑑 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑑 𝑖=1 (10d) are generated. these normal equations are solved simultaneously to give the coefficients 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑖. the general quadratic model for the problem deriving from equation (1) reads 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑥𝑖 𝑑 𝑖=1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑖𝑥𝑖 22𝑑 𝑖=𝑑+1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑘𝑥𝑖𝑥𝑘𝑖≠𝑘 (11) 23 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us substituting 𝑛 measured/sampled data points in equation (8) becomes 𝑦(1) = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑥𝑖 (1)𝑑 𝑖=1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑖𝑥𝑖 (1)22𝑑 𝑖=𝑑+1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑘𝑥𝑖 (1)𝑥𝑘 (1) 𝑖≠𝑘 𝑦(2) = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑥𝑖 (2)𝑑 𝑖=1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑖𝑥𝑖 (2)22𝑑 𝑖=𝑑+1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑘𝑥𝑖 (2)𝑥𝑘 (2) 𝑖≠𝑘 ⋮ ⋮ 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑥𝑖 (𝑛)𝑑 𝑖=1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑖𝑥𝑖 (𝑛)22𝑑 𝑖=𝑑+1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑘𝑥𝑖 (𝑛)𝑥𝑘 (𝑛) 𝑖≠𝑘 (12) also, for the quadratic (2ndpra) case, on minimizing the sum of square errors between the left and right-hand-side of equation (12), the normal equations ∑ 𝑦(𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 = 𝑛𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑑 𝑖=1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑖 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)2𝑛 𝑗=1 2𝑑 𝑖=𝑑+1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑘 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1𝑖≠𝑘 (13a) ∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑦(𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 = 𝑎0∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑑 𝑖=1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑖∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)2 𝑛 𝑗=1 2𝑑 𝑖=𝑑+1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑘∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑖≠𝑘 (13b) ∑𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑦(𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 = 𝑎0∑𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖∑𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑑 𝑖=1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑖∑𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)2 𝑛 𝑗=1 2𝑑 𝑖=𝑑+1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑘∑𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑖≠𝑘 (13c) ⋮ ∑𝑥𝑑 (𝑗) 𝑦(𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 = 𝑎0∑𝑥𝑑 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖∑𝑥𝑑 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑑 𝑖=1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑖∑𝑥𝑑 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗)2 𝑛 𝑗=1 2𝑑 𝑖=𝑑+1 +∑ 𝑎𝑖,𝑘∑𝑥𝑑 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 𝑖≠𝑘 (13d) are generated and solved simultaneously to give the coefficients 𝑎0, 𝑎𝑖, 𝑎𝑖,𝑖 and 𝑎𝑖,𝑘. for four-predictor system, which specially apply to this study, this is expanded to read 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥1 + 𝑎2𝑥2 + 𝑎3𝑥3 + 𝑎4𝑥4 + 𝑎1,2𝑥1𝑥2 + 𝑎1,3𝑥1𝑥3 + 𝑎1,4𝑥1𝑥4 + 𝑎2,3𝑥2𝑥3 + 𝑎2,4𝑥2𝑥4 + 𝑎3,4𝑥3𝑥4 + 𝑎1,1𝑥1 2 + 𝑎2,2𝑥2 2 + 𝑎3,3𝑥3 2 + 𝑎4,4𝑥4 2 (14) then, the arising normal equations are 24 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ∑𝑦(𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 = a0𝑛 + a1∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a2∑𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a3∑𝑥3 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a4∑𝑥4 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1,2∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1,3∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥3 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1,4∑𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥4 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a2,3∑𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑥3 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a2,4∑𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑥4 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + 𝑎3,4∑𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥3 (𝑗) 𝑥4 (𝑗) 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1,1∑𝑥1 (𝑗)2 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a2,2∑𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥2 (𝑗)2 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a3,3∑𝑥3 (𝑗)2 𝑛 𝑗=1 + a4,4∑𝑥4 (𝑗)2 𝑛 𝑗=1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑦(𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 = a0∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥1 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a2∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥2 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a3∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥3 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a4∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥4 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1,2∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥2 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1,3∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥3 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1,4∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥1 (𝑗) 𝑥4 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a2,3∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑥3 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a2,4∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥2 (𝑗) 𝑥4 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + 𝑎3,4∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥3 (𝑗) 𝑥4 (𝑗)𝑛 𝑗=1 + a1,1∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥1 (𝑗)2𝑛 𝑗=1 + a2,2∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥2 (𝑗)2𝑛 𝑗=1 + a3,3∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥3 (𝑗)2𝑛 𝑗=1 + a4,4∑ 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) 𝑥𝑘 (𝑗) 𝑥4 (𝑗)2𝑛 𝑗=1 (15) where i=1, 2,…, d and k=1, 2,..., d. the 15 linear simultaneous equations in 15 unknown coefficients can then be solved for the quadratic model. when regression model is based on one to two predictors, it will be easy to graphically present the variation of the response with the predictor/s in a oneor two-dimensional spaces. these are illustrated in figures 1 and 2. in many cases, as is the case in this work, oneor two-dimensional spatial graphs are not practicable when the number of variables is more than 3. this case, graphical representation of results is usually shown in terms of the variation of the target responses with the predicted responses and the goodness of fit measured in terms nearness of slope to unity and intercept to nullity, see figure 3 which is based on the same data as figure 2. the figure 1 and 2 were plotted using 2018 version of matlab software. figure 1: variation of a response with a predictor. the matlab data “census” was used to generate this plot. 25 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2: variation of a response with two predictors. the matlab data “franke” was used to generate this plot. figure 3: variation of the response target with the response predictions. the matlab data “franke” was used to generate this plot. c. validation of the model using artificial neural network (ann) the artificial neural network was used to validate the polynomial regression analysis. it was also used because it gave a higher performance indices using goodness of fit indices (gfi), validating the regression analysis. model was developed. 26 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us d. optimization of the model genetic algorithm is used for the optimization of the mode. because the model that emerges (referred to as equation 17) becomes intricate when considering its four independent variables, the genetic algorithm is chosen as the means for optimizing it, specifically to minimize corrosion. this genetic algorithm is applied to optimize objectives, whether they entail constraints or not. the rationale behind opting for a genetic algorithm is its effectiveness in tackling challenging optimization problems that do not align well with conventional optimization algorithms. these problematic scenarios include those characterized by objective functions that are discontinuous, non-differentiable, stochastic, highly nonlinear, and those involving mixed integer programming. 3. results and discussions 3.1. second degree (quadratic) model. to develop the second-degree (quadratic) model, the data are inserted in the normal equations (13). the training data subset are randomly sampled 80% of the full data set while the testing subset are the remainder. as done earlier for the first-degree case, the inserted response data 𝑦(𝑗) is the mean corrosion rate given in figure 4 and the inserted predictor data 𝑥𝑖 (𝑗) are the mean ph, mean temperature, mean pressure and mean aqueous co2 partial pressure. the normal equations are then solved simultaneously to give the coefficients 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑖. the results are graphed given in figure 4 to show that the second-degree polynomial linear regression gives predictions that correlate very well with the input data. it can be seen that the model captures the responses very well since the testing results validate the training results as can be seen from the co-graphing of training and testing results on figure 4.8. this points to a conclusion that the developed model will perform to similar extent as when the model is trained when independent field data are introduced. the parameters of the model are summarized table 1. it can be seen from the table that the model is specifically given as 𝑦 = −0.96139 + 0.088173𝑥1 + 0.043456𝑥2 + 0.015383𝑥3 + 0.23259𝑥4 − 0.0030606𝑥1𝑥2 − 0.0015876𝑥1𝑥3 − 0.11871𝑥1𝑥4 − 9.8756 × 10 −5𝑥2𝑥3 + 0.023881𝑥2𝑥4 + 0.0028826𝑥3𝑥4 + 0.012291𝑥1 2 − 0.00096625𝑥2 2 − 0.00011784𝑥3 2 + 0.0030086𝑥4 2 (16) the second-degree model coefficients are tested for significance. the numerical measures of the significance are given in table 1. it can be seen that all parameters of the model are significant at 95% confidence interval except the coefficients of the interaction of mean pressure and mean aqueous co2 partial pressure (𝑥2𝑥3) and the square of mean aqueous co2 partial pressure (𝑥4 2). these mean that the two second-degree variables are not relevant to the model and can be excluded without significantly affecting the model. table 1: the second-degree model and the hypothesis testing results coefficient se tstat pvalue intercept -0.96139 0.063413 -15.161 4.2183e-25 𝑥1 0.088173 0.0095346 9.2477 3.1964e-14 𝑥2 0.043456 0.0030395 14.297 1.2793e-23 𝑥3 0.015383 0.0012426 12.38 3.4653e-20 𝑥4 0.23259 0.023144 10.05 8.8314e-16 27 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝑥1𝑥2 -0.0030606 0.00021012 -14.566 4.3696e-24 𝑥1𝑥3 -0.0015876 0.00013376 -11.869 3.0635e-19 𝑥1𝑥4 -0.11871 0.0027118 -43.777 3.6725e-57 𝑥2𝑥3 -9.8756e-05 4.2885e-05 -2.3028 0.023921 𝑥2𝑥4 0.023881 0.00086446 27.625 2.3791e-42 𝑥3𝑥4 0.0028826 0.00053495 5.3886 7.1403e-07 𝑥1 2 0.012291 0.00057182 21.495 9.5268e-35 𝑥2 2 -0.00096625 6.1963e-05 -15.594 7.9054e-26 𝑥3 2 -0.00011784 1.8073e-05 -6.5203 6.0793e-09 𝑥4 2 0.0030086 0.0033919 0.88698 0.37778 figure 4: the correlation of the predictions with the measured data for the second-degree regression model. it can be seen that the model captures the responses very well since the testing results validate the training results as can be seen from the co-graphing of training and testing results on figure 1. this points to a conclusion that the developed model will perform to similar extent as when the model is trained when independent field data are introduced. table 2: the goodness-of-fit indices of the second-degree model gfi training testing r2 0.9869 0.9361 rmse 0.0007 0.0012 mbe 0.0000 0.0002 28 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mabe 0.0004 0.0008 mpe 0.0006 0.0636 r 0.9934 0.9689 the goodness-of-fit indices of the second-degree model are summarized in table 2 to compare directly the predicted responses against the measured responses. it can be seen that the r2 is almost unity at 0.9869 and the correlation (r) coefficient is almost unity at 0.9934. these indicate a very accurate second-degree polynomial regression for corrosion. the observation that two second-degree variables (the interaction of mean pressure and mean aqueous co2 partial pressure and of the latter) are not relevant to the model and can be excluded without significantly affecting the model can be verified by reworking the regression to seen the impact on the model performance indicators. 3.2. the reduced second-degree model the results are presented in equation 17, figure 5, tables 3 and 4 present the veracity of the observation in terms similarity of the values with the corresponding indicators for the full model in equation 17, figure 5, tables 3 and 4. 𝑦 = −0.93980 + 0.087521𝑥1 + 0.043510𝑥2 + 0.0136527𝑥3 + 0.2274035𝑥4 − 0.00316755𝑥1𝑥2 − 0.00157643𝑥1𝑥3 − 0.11742780𝑥1𝑥4 + 0.0242314756𝑥2𝑥4 + 0.0026338902𝑥3𝑥4 + 0.012384649𝑥1 2 − 0.000997065𝑥2 2 − 0.0001334789𝑥3 2 (17) table 3: the reduced second-degree model and the hypothesis testing results coefficient se tstat pvalue intercept -0.93980 0.06432344 -14.6106096 2.04989253e-24 𝑥1 0.087521 0.0097881 8.94162774 1.0363354e-13 𝑥2 0.043510 0.00311802 13.9544395 2.9785469e-23 𝑥3 0.0136527 0.00101308 13.4763858 2.1650894e-22 𝑥4 0.2274035 0.02198834 10.3420047 1.8162327e-16 𝑥1𝑥2 -0.00316755 0.000210252 -15.065517 3.3101078e-25 𝑥1𝑥3 -0.00157643 0.000137267 -11.4843421 1.1233545e-18 𝑥1𝑥4 -0.11742780 0.002667005 -44.02983497 2.4276929e-58 𝑥2𝑥4 0.0242314756 0.0007811680 31.0195436 1.0304365e-46 𝑥3𝑥4 0.0026338902 0.0005068729 5.19635296 1.4876765e-06 𝑥1 2 0.012384649 0.0005852508 21.1612679 9.5914389e-35 𝑥2 2 -0.000997065 6.238412378e-05 -15.9826743 9.0802652e-27 𝑥3 2 -0.0001334789 1.712118786e-05 -7.79612124 1.891749815e-11 29 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 5: the correlation of the predictions with the measured data for the reduced second-degree regression model table 4: the goodness-of-fit indices of the reduced second-degree model gfi training testing r2 0.9859 0.9341 rmse 0.0007 0.0012 mbe 0.0000 0.0001 mabe 0.0004 0.0008 mpe 0.0007 0.0390 r 0.9929 0.9676 the goodness-of-fit indices of the reduced second-degree model are summarized in table 4 to compare directly the predicted responses against the measured responses. it can be seen that the r2 is almost unity at 0.9859 and the correlation coefficient r is almost unity at 0.9929. these results according to ali et al. (2023) demonstrate that corrosion is not only affected by the predictors but also by their self and cross interactions as wide difference in predictive accuracy between the first-order and second order polynomial models. from the findings of this study, it can be deduced that the first-degree polynomial linear regression gives predictions that fairly correlate with the input data as can be seen from then fairly positive trend about the ideal (sarker, 2021). even though the model captures the responses poorly, the predicted testing results validate the predicted training results showing that the developed model will perform to similar extend when independent field data are introduced as when the model is trained. it can be seen also, that all parameters of the model are significant at 95% confidence interval except the 30 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us coefficients of the interaction of mean pressure and mean aqueous co2 partial pressure (𝑥2𝑥3) and the square of mean aqueous co2 partial pressure (𝑥4 2). this suggests that the two seconddegree variables are not relevant to the model and can be excluded without significantly affecting the model and can be verified by reworking the regression to see the impact on the model performance indicators. these results demonstrate that corrosion is not only affected by the predictors but also by their self and cross interactions as wide difference in predictive accuracy between the first-order and second order polynomial models. 3.3. the ann results figure 6: the correlation of the predictions with the measured data for the ann model matlab neural network tool is used for modelling the corrosion data. figure 6 shows modelling results which graphically indicates that a highly reliable network has been trained. 31 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 7: a typical setting used for ann modelling figure 7 summarizes most of the settings used in training the neural network. the architecture is simple, having one single hidden layer with ten neurons. the data set was randomly divided into training 80% and testing subsets 20% of the data set (the same random subsets used in for the above regression analyses). as implemented in matlab, the levenberg-marquardt backpropagation algorithm, given as 𝐱𝑘+1 = 𝐱𝑘 + [𝐉 t𝐉 + 𝜇𝐈]−1𝐉t𝐞 (18) where: 𝐉 is the jacobian matrix made of first derivatives of the square errors with respect to the biases and weights of the artificial neural networks 𝐞 is a vector of network square errors, is triggered with the command trainlm. equation (18) is given here to highlight the importance of the parameter 𝜇. the algorithm initially employs the newton's method, which involves approximating the hessian matrix when the scalar µ is set to zero. however, as µ grows larger, the algorithm transforms into a gradient descent approach with a small step size. when approaching an error minimum, the algorithm prioritizes transitioning to newton's method, which is faster and more accurate. consequently, the value of µ is decreased after each successful step, and it is only increased when doing so would enhance the performance function. the levenberg-marquardt algorithm that is based on standard back propagation technique algorithm is adopted as the training algorithm to iteratively updates weight and bias values. the default performance criterion of the tool, the mean square error, is adopted. the best training performance of 1.28 × 10−7 occurred at the 171th epoch, see figure 7. 32 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 8: training and testing performance with epochs maximum number of epochs to train the network is set at the default value of 1000. as shown in figure 8, the performance is tracked during training by computing the mean square error at every epoch and comparing with the pre-set performance goal. the default value is zero. if the performance goal is reached before the 1000th epoch, the training is stopped. that is why figure 8 shows that the training was terminated after 171 epochs. figure 9. error frequency figure 9 shows a histogram of error frequencies. it can be seen that, as typical of a good model, the smaller errors are more frequent. 33 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 5: the goodness-of-fit indices of the ann model gfi training testing r2 0.9965 0.9158 rmse 0.0004 0.0014 mbe 0.0000 -0.0003 mabe 0.0003 0.0011 mpe 0.0003 -0.0905 𝑟 0.9982 0.9608 the goodness-of-fit indices of the ann model are summarized in table 5 to compare directly the predicted responses against the measured responses. it can be seen that the r2 is almost unity at 0.9965 and the correlation coefficient is almost unity at 0.9982. these indicate a very accurate ann for corrosion. it can be observed that ann is somewhat better than the developed regression models based on these gof indices: note that for the quadratic model, r2 is 0.9869 and the correlation coefficient is 0.9934 even though the inclusion of the interaction effects of the predictors improved the prediction accuracy of the second-degree polynomial model, ann approach was still slightly more accurate than the linear regression. but, the latter being a black-box model which cannot be used for symbolic optimization analysis, it is viewed as a validation for the polynomial model. 3.4. optimization of the model given that the model introduced in equation 17 involves four independent variables, its optimization (with the goal of minimizing corrosion) can be quite complex. to tackle this challenge, the genetic algorithm is employed. this genetic algorithm is utilized for optimizing objectives, whether they involve constraints or not. the rationale behind opting for a genetic algorithm lies in its suitability for addressing challenging optimization problems that don't align well with conventional optimization algorithms. these problematic scenarios encompass cases where the objective function is characterized by traits such as discontinuity, non-differentiability, stochasticity, high nonlinearity, and mixed-integer programming. 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 10. the interface of mat lab optimization toolbox the matlab optimization toolbox is used in implementing the genetic algorithm in this study, see the interface given in figure 10. in the optimization, each of the variables were constrained within its lower and upper bounds and the calculated optimal is 0.191498 mm/year occurring at mean ph of 8.446, mean temperature = 23.692°c, mean pressure = 15.725 bar and mean aqueous co2 partial pressure = 2.022 bar. the optimal is attained after 98 iterations. figure 11. the progression of the adaptive optimization process figure 11 illustrations the progression of the adaptive optimization process showing how the minimum was attained. the architecture of artificial neural networks is also optimized sometimes to create the best input-output relationship. the architectural parameter of interest here is the number of neurons in the hidden layer, called ann size here, since the model used here is based on a single-layer multi-perceptron architecture. because of the iterative formulation of ann model, analytical optimization is usually not possible. 35 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us this optimal network size is applied to the data and the results are as shown in figures 13 to 16 and table 6. by looking at the figures and the goodness of fit indices the relative improvement can be seen. figure 12. variation of performance of ann models with size of the hidden layer showing the optimal by calculating the mean square error for various artificial neural network (ann) models with different quantities of neurons in the hidden layer and visualizing the outcomes as depicted in figure 12, we observe that an ann with 6 neurons in the hidden layer represents the optimal configuration. furthermore, it's evident that the optimal ann size falls within the range of 5 to 13 neurons in the hidden layer. notably, the choice of 10 neurons in the ann used falls within this favorable range. figure 13. the correlation of the predictions with the measured data for the optimal ann model 36 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 14. the training settings and indicators for the optimal ann figure 15. training and testing performance with epochs for the optimal ann model 37 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 16. error frequency for the optimal model figure 16 shows a histogram of error frequencies. it can be seen that, as typical of a good model, the smaller errors are more frequent. table 6. the goodness-of-fit indices of the optimal ann model gfi training testing r2 0.9890 0.9292 rmse 0.0006 0.0015 mbe -0.0000 0.0004 mabe 0.0004 0.0011 mpe 0.0005 0.1330 𝑟 0.9945 0.9737 the goodness-of-fit indices of the optimal ann model are summarized in table 6. it can be seen that the r2 is almost unity at 0.9890 and the correlation coefficient is almost unity at 0.9945 4. conclusions the critical issue of corrosion in nigerian oil pipelines was addressed; this study undertook a comprehensive analysis using data on corrosion rate, ph, temperature, pressure, and aqueous co2 partial pressure, obtained from an ioc company in the niger delta region. the seconddegree polynomial model was developed, incorporating interaction effects among the predictors. this model significantly improved predictive accuracy, achieving near-unity r-squared values for both training and testing datasets, highlighting the importance of considering interaction effects. to validate the developed model, an ann was employed. although the ann demonstrated slightly higher predictive accuracy, its black-box nature limits interpretability. therefore, the second-degree polynomial model, offering greater transparency and interpretability, was selected for further optimization. the optimization process, conducted using a ga, identified the optimal conditions for minimizing corrosion rates. by adjusting the 38 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us predictor variables within defined bounds, the algorithm determined the optimal corrosion rate to be 0.191498 mm/year, occurring at specific values of ph, temperature, pressure, and aqueous co2 partial pressure. this study successfully developed and optimized predictive models for corrosion rates in nigerian oil pipelines. the second-degree polynomial model, enriched with interaction effects, proved both accurate and interpretable, while the ann served as a robust validation tool. the findings provide critical insights into the factors driving corrosion and offer a reliable basis for implementing preventive maintenance strategies to mitigate pipeline failures and enhance operational efficiency. it can be recommended that to predict corrosion in oil and gas pipelines, employing polynomial regression models with high-degree polynomials is essential to capture interaction effects accurately. through hypothesis testing, the significance of these interactions can be assessed, allowing for the identification and removal of unnecessary predictors to streamline models and enhance efficiency. references 1. adegboye, m.a., fung, w.k., karnik, a. 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(1998) ‘the approximation power of moving least-squares’, mathematics of computation, 67(224), pp. 1517–1532. doi: 10.1090/s0025-5718-98-00974-0. 14. mahmoodian, m., li, c. q. (2016). ‘structural integrity of corrosion affected cast iron water pipe using a reliability-based stochastic analysis method.’ strut. infrasruct. eng 12 (10) 15. marhavilas, p.k., koulouriotis, d.e. (2021). risk-acceptance criteria in occupational health and safety risk-assessment—the state-of-the-art through a systematic literature review. safety, 7 (4):77. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety7040077. 16. molęda, m., małysiak-mrozek, b., ding, w., sunderam, v., mrozek, d. (2023). from corrective to predictive maintenance—a review of maintenance approaches for the power industry. sensors, 23, 5970. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135970. 17. parlak, b.o. yavasoglu, h.a. (2023). a comprehensive analysis of in-line inspection tools and technologies for steel oil and gas pipelines. sustainability, 15 (2783). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032783. 18. popescu, c., gabor, m.r. (2021). quantitative analysis regarding the incidents to the pipelines of petroleum products for an efficient use of the specific transportation infrastructure. processes 2021, 9, 1535. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091535. 19. sarker, i.h. (2021). machine learning: algorithms, real-world applications and research directions. sn comput. sci. 2, 160 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-021-00592-x. 20. umar, h.a., abdul khanan, m.f., ogbonnaya, c., shiru, m.s., ahmad, a., baba, a.i. (2021). environmental and socioeconomic impacts of pipeline transport interdiction in niger delta, nigeria. heliyon, 7(5), e06999. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06999. 21. unuigbe, m., zulu, s.l., johnston, d. (2022). exploring factors influencing renewable energy diffusion in commercial buildings in nigeria: a grounded theory approach. sustainability, 14 (9726). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159726. 89 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 1, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 simulink model of an energy-saving mode for the weaving machine electric drive sh. y. usmonov phd, associate professor, ferghana polytechnic institute a. sh. tursunov doctoral candidate, ferghana polytechnic institute abstract: this article presents the development of a mathematical model for ensuring energyefficient operation by considering the electromagnetic and mechanical dynamics of an asynchronous motor. the model is simulated using the simulink package of the matlab software, allowing analysis of the motor's static and dynamic states as well as optimization through control systems. the general dynamics of the asynchronous motor are expressed using equations based on a genetic algorithm, enabling precise modeling of its operational parameters. control over parameters such as flux, torque, and angular velocity ensures optimal energy consumption. artificial neural networks are incorporated to manage load and speed, contributing to increased energy efficiency. keywords: energy efficiency, asynchronous motor, mathematical modeling. introduction energy efficiency in industrial machinery has become increasingly vital in recent years. in the textile industry, the use of electric drives plays a critical role in production efficiency and cost management. asynchronous motors are widely used due to their durability and reliability; however, their energy consumption remains a significant challenge. this research focuses on developing a mathematical model for optimizing the energy consumption of an asynchronous motor by integrating advanced control systems. the simulation of this model using the simulink package in matlab provides a dynamic platform for analyzing motor behavior under varying conditions, enabling better energy management. the combination of genetic algorithms and artificial neural networks (anns) ensures precise modeling and enhanced efficiency. method the development of the energy-efficient regime for the asynchronous motor involves considering both electromagnetic and mechanical dynamics. the generalized equations governing these dynamics are:  voltage equations:  electromagnetic torque equation:  mechanical dynamics: the model uses simulink for simulation, where each block represents elements of these equations. control systems based on genetic algorithms optimize the motor’s parameters, 90 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us including flux, torque, and speed. artificial neural networks are implemented to manage load and speed effectively, contributing to reduced energy usage. when developing the mathematical model of an energy-efficient mode, the electromagnetic and mechanical dynamics of the asynchronous motor were taken into account, with their changes reflected in simulink. the developed system of generalized equations can be analyzed in this context. using the genetic algorithm mentioned above, the general dynamics of the asynchronous motor can be expressed as follows: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠𝐼𝑠 + 𝑑(𝐿𝑠𝐼𝑠 + 𝐿𝑚𝐼𝑟) 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑅𝑟𝐼𝑟 + 𝑑(𝐿𝑟𝐼𝑟 + 𝐿𝑚𝐼𝑠) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑗𝜔𝑟(𝐿𝑟𝐼𝑟 + 𝐿𝑚𝐼𝑠) 𝑇𝑒 = 3 2 ⋅ 𝑃 2 ⋅ 𝐿𝑚 ⋅ (𝐼𝑟 × 𝛹𝑠) 𝐽 ⋅ 𝑑𝜔𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑀𝑒 − 𝑀𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 these generalized equations are used to analyze the static and dynamic states of the asynchronous motor and optimize them with control systems. each element in the diagram implements a part of these equations, resulting in precise modeling and control of all motor parameters and states. discussion the use of genetic algorithms in modeling asynchronous motor dynamics provides a robust framework for optimizing control parameters. by simulating real-world conditions, the proposed model offers a detailed understanding of motor behavior under different load scenarios. artificial neural networks enhance system adaptability, making the motor responsive to varying operational needs. the results indicate a clear reduction in energy consumption, contributing to both economic and environmental benefits.one of the key challenges is fine-tuning the ann structure to maximize efficiency across different motor types and applications. future research could explore more advanced machine learning techniques to further improve prediction accuracy and control stability. this process is carried out using the simulink package of the matlab software. that is: figure 1. generalized simulink model of the energy-efficient electric drive 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the set of mathematical equations presented in figure 1 is integrated into simulink. controlling the motor's operating speed plays a crucial role in ensuring its energy efficiency. speed control is performed based on the following equation: 𝜔𝑚 = 1 𝐽 ∫ (𝑀𝑒 − 𝑀𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑)𝑑𝑡 here, 𝜔𝑚m represents the motor's angular velocity, while 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 correspond to the electromagnetic and load torques, respectively. by controlling the speed, the energy-efficient mode is ensured. flux speed and energy-efficient mode can be achieved by controlling the motor's flux speed and other parameters. in the model, fluxes and torques are monitored, ensuring that the motor operates with optimal energy consumption: 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝛹𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝑠 𝐿𝑠 here, ψ_s is the stator magnetic flux, i_s is the stator current, and l_s is the stator inductance. figure 2. artificial neural network structure for the energy-efficient operation mode of the textile machine electric drive 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. artificial neural network structure for load control of the electric drive figure 4. artificial neural network structure for speed control of the electric drive to ensure reliable control of the textile machine's electric drive and optimize its energy-efficient mode, an artificial neural network structure was developed using matlab simulink based on figures 2, 3, and 4. in this model, the existing capabilities of the electric drive and the changes in several parameters were taken into account. conclusion this study presents a comprehensive approach to optimizing the energy efficiency of textile machine electric drives. by integrating genetic algorithms and artificial neural networks within the simulink environment, the model ensures dynamic control over motor parameters, leading to improved performance and reduced energy costs. the proposed system provides a scalable solution for broader industrial applications. reference 1. boldea, i., & nasar, s. a. (2006). electric drives. crc press. 2. krause, p. c., wasynczuk, o., & sudhoff, s. d. (2002). analysis of electric machinery and drive systems. ieee press. 3. matlab & simulink documentation. mathworks inc. https://www.mathworks.com 4. goldberg, d. e. (1989). genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning. addison-wesley. 5. haykin, s. (1999). neural networks: a comprehensive foundation. prentice hall. 6. leonhard, w. (2001). control of electrical drives. springer. 7. xu, w., & wu, t. (2015). "energy efficiency optimization of induction motors using neural networks." journal of electrical engineering. 8. ieee transactions on industrial electronics. various issues. https://www.mathworks.com/ https://www.mathworks.com/ 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 9. aripov n.m. automation of silk reeling technological processes using controlled electric drives // 2000. vol. 10. tursunov a. sh., abdurakhimov d. r. opportunities for improving energy efficiency in the textile industry // economics and society. – 2021. – no. 11-2 (90). – p. 484-491. 11. tursunov a. s. methods of reducing the energy consumption of products in light industry enterprises // educational research in universal sciences. – 2023. – vol. 2. – no. 15 special. – p. 678-681. 20 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 network security for cyber-physical systems using deep neural network-based anomaly detection maytham mohammed tuaama imam al-kadhum college (ikc), department of computer technical engineering abstract: in recent years, cyber-physical systems (cps) have seen explosive growth in popularity thanks to their many practical uses. network security and user privacy are key concerns while deploying cps networks because of the high number of internet-connected devices in such an ecosystem, which makes them more susceptible to cyber-attacks. an effective and efficient intrusion detection system (ids) might be a feasible way to defend cps networks from different threats. this study proposes a new intrusion detection system (ids) for cyberphysical systems networks that uses deep learning to detect anomalies. in particular, we have introduced a deep neural network (dnn) model for filter-based feature selection that drops features with strong correlations. in addition, several parameters and hyperparameters are used to fine-tune the model. the unsw-nb15 dataset, which includes four types of attacks, is used for this. to address class imbalance concerns in the dataset, the suggested model was trained using generative adversarial networks (gans). it then generated synthetic data of minority assaults and attained a 98% accuracy rate with the balanced class dataset. keywords: cps; dnn; dl; ml; cyber-physical systems; deep neural network. 1. introduction cyber-physical systems (cps) play an important role in smart grids, healthcare, and various industry applications[1]. however, there are several challenges, including the vulnerability of protocols and service frameworks used in cps. wireless networks with characteristics such as low cost, fast deployment, mobility, flexible connection, and service compared to wired networks are widely used [2]. however, they are still a popular target for attacks because they have weaknesses such as open environments, lack of centralized management, widely available attack tools, and not all security mechanisms functioning. attacks that exploit the vulnerabilities of wireless networks can lead to information leakage, connection interference, denial of service, and control signal manipulations[3]. therefore, various studies are being conducted to enhance the level of security of wireless networks. however, all existing methods have vulnerabilities, and new methods are required for unknown attacks [4]. deep learning-based intrusion detection that shares learning data through accuracy improvement with fewer features shows the potential of being a good classifier while ensuring higher accuracy[5]. however, prior work using dnn for anomaly-based intrusion detection includes various hand-crafted algorithms for preprocessing the raw input data. given this purpose, we propose a deep learning-based anomaly detection scheme. specifically, we utilize an autoencoder-based neural network structure to extract higher abstract features prior to the 21 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us training process. the training process is conducted through the extracted features to achieve better performance than those obtained from conventional hand-crafted preprocessing [6]. it is worth noting that the higher abstract features lead to better classification results if the feature space is well clustered. the proposed method, as well as the baseline approaches, is evaluated using a simulation. our process ensures higher accuracy in simulated scenarios compared to the baseline schemes. 1.1. overview of cyber-physical systems (cps) cyber-physical systems (cps) are systems that tightly integrate cyber capabilities with physical components in smart motion systems and smart control systems[7]. while the first layer of the smart motion system includes the mechanical components such as steps, joints, links, etc., the second layer includes the physical controllers for motion control, which are the analog and digital electronic devices and the actuators, and the third layer comprises the sensory monitoring devices in the form of smart sensors and image sensors [8]. the first layer in the smart control system has the power management components, including the energy harvesting modules and the power storage devices; the second layer houses the physical controllers for stability analysis and networked/adaptive control and the sensor signal conditioning, followed by the third layer that includes ultrasonic, video, and lightwave communication devices for nearest neighbor and endto-end communication [9]. there are significant design challenges for preserving the integrity, security, and safety of networked cyber-physical layered structures in smart motion systems or control systems [10]. cybersecurity is an increase in complexity and requires that a new layer consisting of security monitors and anomaly detectors be added to the physical layer control system, which leads to a new concept of cyber-physical security monitoring[11]. 1.2. importance of network security in cps cyber-physical systems (cps) are crucially important to the public in the form of transportation, communication, energy, and manufacturing. as a result, cyber and physical elements are increasingly merging, and an infrastructure that integrates network and systems management and security technologies is enabling cps[1], [12]. in addition, however, the integration of cps makes it easier to interfere with psychological or physical systems by attacking digital systems over the network. the act of taking over control decisions inappropriately and altering the actual states of physical systems is called network intrusion or attack [13]. a number of network intrusions have already occurred that have succeeded in affecting physical systems. as concern grows worldwide over the security of cps, a plethora of research is underway to resolve security problems related to cps [14]. many of these studies are designed to solve security problems by specifically integrating the operating systems or communication technologies that serve as components in cps [15]. the primary method to defend cps is to prevent cyber-attacks on cps components such as firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and intrusion prevention systems. however, since general security technologies cannot completely guarantee the security of cps, a new security method tailored to cps, called deep learning-based anomaly detection, is needed. 2. deep learning and neural networks a kind of machine learning known as "deep learning" trains models to learn representations of data and one of its cornerstones, neural networks. in general, deep learning uses multiple layers to learn higher-level representations that make sense of the data. these methods specialize in one kind of representation learning and can be seen as methods of compressing data into multiple layers of learned intermediate features[16] [17]. deep learning models consist of neural networks: a core concept of deep learning is neural networks. in a numerical representation of a biological brain, numerous artificial neurons are connected with each other to mimic the learning process as human neurons do. the input layer 22 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us receives signals and the output signals diverge into output units where pairs of activation and weight form. activation refers to responders and weight refers to a channel of information [18]. in deep learning, neural networks consist of many layers. these layers include an input layer, hidden layers, and an output layer, as shown in figure 1. the layers are used to compute the input feature into the next layers. each layer includes intermediate activations that are generally used for computation[19]. in a linear system, the output of a layer can be represented mathematically as a linear combination of the input. from primitive layer models to advanced layer models, all layer models use the same kind of equation [20]. however, the equation is different among uncomplicated versus viable systems. fig .1 dnn architecture 2.1. introduction to deep learning as the depth of architectures for neural networks becomes deeper, their abilities also improve. particularly, learning ability and discrimination ability are dramatically enhanced[21]. the potential of deep architectures is a subject of much revived interest. noticeably, deep learning reveals its state-of-the-art performance in many complex image problems[16], [22]. furthermore, deep architectures are applied in practical use for search engines and speech recognition. if the concepts regarding deep learning are well understood, correctly implementing deep learning algorithms is a significant issue. the training duration of deep architectures takes a considerable amount of time on conventional resources[23] . an obstacle to attaining state-of-the-art performance using deep models is the time-consuming restrictions of the training process. with the rapid increase in the architecture size of deep models, deep learning models are designed with millions of weights and billions of neurons [24]. although high performance is achieved using large models, the impetus behind this issue stems from both human understanding and modern computer technologies[25] . the learning capability becomes remarkable, without demonstrating deep human knowledge. until now, many shallow networks shared parameters or only one layer had been adopted[26]. however, the concept of state-of-the-art deep learning is merely a good idea. based on a simple scaling model, the large size of the network contributes to high performance as well as a single parameter effect. proper scaling makes the weights of deep architectures converge to reasonable ranges[27] [24]. even though a large model is properly based, the power of deep learning is driven by the computations that an extensive computer system requires. the research cannot utilize deep learning to significant effects in other systems that do not have resources for recent capabilities. inexpensive deep learning becomes impractical in real life[28]. thanks to recent massively parallel computation power, enormous energy and 23 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us time are consumed on extremely expensive cloud computation services. neural network models with their training data require an inordinate amount of resources and time. with the growth of devices, the learning capability using their private data is proven with a considerable amount. only large organized companies possess their external computing power outside the computer power needed for deep learning. in their own way, abilities for deep learning are reserved [29]. 2.2. types of neural networks there are various types of dnns that can be utilized to conduct ade for cps network security. the most commonly used types either consist of feedforward neural networks with fully connected layers, while others are derived from this structure by applying different types of constraints on the trainable parameters, such as convolutions, recurrent connections, or sparsity [30]. ffnns consist of a stack of layers that are interconnected with each other. each of the interconnected layers is trained to output the true class label that each input image instance belongs to, or to determine the discrete values of a given input data set[31], [32] . in order to accomplish this, the first layer of the ffnn receives the sensors' raw measurements as input. the output of each layer is then computed by applying continuous transformations on the input data followed by the use of a fixed nonlinear function. after passing through a number of layers, the predictions are made by the final layer [33]. in cnns, rather than using fully connected layers, consecutive layers are partially connected with banks of learnable convolutional kernels, which are usually used to identify the presence of specific types of features in the input data [34]. rnns utilize cyclic connections across layers that allow for the propagation of previous hidden states, which makes them particularly effective in capturing temporal dependencies inherent in naturally occurring sequential data sets such as audio, text, or time series[35] . 3. anomaly detection in cps anomaly detection plays a critical role in protecting network security in cyber-physical systems (cps), especially for detecting unknown or hidden security threats that are difficult to model[36] . however, anomaly detection in cps is challenging due to the high-dimensional time series and spatial-temporal data characteristics. traditional anomaly detection focuses on feature extraction, feature selection, and classifier design, generally using shallow-structured classifiers [37]. this paper provides an alternative cps network security solution using deep learning. cyber-physical systems (cps) provide the foundational technology for smart cities, smart grids, linked automobiles, and industrial control systems[38]. security incidents have been on the rise in recent years, indicating that cps security is growing in importance. typically, security measures begin with anomaly detection[39]. however, ensuring the security of cps poses significant challenges. firstly, cps is more intricate than older forms of computer systems. because of its cyber and physical components, anomaly detection is considerably more difficult[40]. secondly, compared to more conventional computer systems, the typical scenario in cps might be trickier. numerous physical variables, including as temperature, velocity, and location, are now connected with the conventional network packets and computational operations[41]. thirdly, cyberattacks on cps can have an impact on both the physical process and the computer system[42]. lastly, the physical process's intricacy and the necessity for real-time prediction necessitate the employment of basic machine learning models[43]. in this paper, we take a close look at the latest and greatest studies that have successfully integrated machine learning with cybersecurity. specifically, we focus on studies that have shown promising results in protecting cyber physical systems (cps) on a large scale. to ensure that our review is thorough and up-to-date, we have excluded studies that do not pertain to 24 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us computer science and require unfettered data access, such as those involving common off-theshelf (cots) firmware or the creation of non-generalized trust boundaries. the broad applicability of our results and insights to many cyber physical systems is crucial, as it will aid in the development of cps security. there are several kinds of anomalies in cps, as shown in figure (2). 3.1. traditional methods vs. machine learning approaches 3.1.1 traditional methods traditional methods have mainly focused on detecting attacks and defending systems against them. a common methodology used in many security mechanisms is digital signatures. intrusion detection systems, such as a network intrusion detection system or intrusion protection system, can monitor all incoming or outgoing traffic, find any known attack signals, and generate an alert to reduce system damage [50][51]. digital signatures have provided an efficient filtering and detection methodology because they cover many characteristics of network communication and are easy to compare and interpret [52][53]. however, a security problem occurs when the network system cannot receive any existing signatures, or the large increase in signatures is still inefficient and can miss many newly implemented attacks [54]. moreover, most traditional security solutions are based on theories of heuristic triggers, rules, or digital signatures, and so the security product has a high false-positive rate of application invocation [55]. 3.1.2. machine learning techniques anomaly detection has advanced to a new level with the advent of fast technology development and an explosion in training data volume, thanks to machine learning (ml) and, in particular, deep learning (dl). processing high-dimensional sensor data requires the capacity to abstract complicated structures, which is another factor contributing to the heightened interest [44]. unsupervised learning, in which training models does not need any labeled normal or abnormal data, is a typical feature of ml-based ad. after all of the training is complete, the model ought to be able to distinguish between typical and out-of-the-ordinary samples. assuming the ad model is effective, this feature has the potential to automate model training with minimal human intervention[45]. the data set is divided into k predetermined clusters using k-means based methods, such as kmeans and fuzzy c-means. many ml strategies for ad are based on clustering algorithms. a 25 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us data set's manifold is learned using an auto-encoder based technique during the model training phase [46]. despite its successful unsupervised training, the ad algorithm still requires a lot of human intervention. some semi-supervised learning methods have been tested for ad to alleviate the annotation load. these models include sequence-to-sequence auto-encoders, convolutional neural network (cnn)-based encoders and decoders, and long-short term memory (lstm) based recurrent neural networks [47]. it is not necessary to pre-train the deep neural networks for the unsupervised ad. the purpose of supervised ad is to learn to distinguish between normal and abnormal data, as opposed to the unavailability of labels in unsupervised ad. an intermediate step is semi-supervised ad, in which the labelled data set contains just a subset of the total[48]. in order to create a multi-resolution spatio-temporal correlation, it is recommended to use hybrid ml-based approaches that combine symbolic query and modelbased learning, as well as lstm with convolutional networks. this will allow for a more accurate modeling of the relationship among a number of sensors for sequential data[49]. random neural network (rnn) networks encode input with a latent distribution as its output. researchers have also looked at a new way to employ the variational autoencoder (vae) where the input data is assumed to have a gaussian distribution and the latent variables' conditional probability distribution[50]. an irregularity may have been detected if the distribution characteristics changed suddenly. a plethora of alternative approaches have been put forth, including graph-based unsupervised anomaly detection and semi-supervised classification using neural networks, deep unsupervised learning for unsupervised anomaly detection using directed compounds, feature importance guided data association, and a combination of support vector machines and directed compounds. 4. literature review one of the most common methods for detecting cpsos anomalies is the intrusion detection system (ids)[51]. electronic commerce and telecommunications are only two of the many systems that make extensive use of it. a comprehensive review of ids was conducted by granville and oliveira (2005)[52], [53]. each server runs its own application and host intrusion detection systems (hids). data collection is dependent on their regular execution of the whole set of system (or application) actions. listening to all kernel calls triggered allows one to compile this list of system or application uses [54]. the only difference between the hids and the external ids (hids) is that the latter listens to kernel calls made via the network. when something out of the ordinary happens, such as a sensor failing to transmit an alert, a message indicating an attack, or unauthorised access resulting in a change to the user list, the hids/external ids will activate[55], [56]. a radio telescope technique is used by basestation, a system for monitoring wireless networks, to listen to the whole band by receiving packets from the entire network. we send each addressed packet to the mips accelerator for observation, and then we compare the side-channel observations to the assumptions based on the models. while the remaining packets are reshuffled to go on to the next simulation stage, those packages identified as outliers are punished and sent to the central server[57]. the requirement for static knowledge rather than learning is the primary issue with the ids[58]. in contrast to intrusion detection systems (ids), which change their signatures in response to specific events, ips systems require frequent file downloads and updates. the next step is to deploy the signature on the servers or routers, which might interfere with the cpsos functionality [59]. the utilization of an anomaly can also be traced by the activity of the ids. a cpsos adaption model update, however, will occur in real time when the model is being executed, regardless of whether an anomaly exists[60]. in addition, the information gathered by the ids is technology-specific, and the cpsos components may use vastly different technologies [61]. amiri et al (2023). an extensive amount of information on the concepts and applications of machine learning (ml) techniques in healthcare is provided by this study. it addresses a broad variety of common health issues. it carefully considers potential outcomes, including in all the 26 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us essential steps that must be organized for the future [62] . several clear challenges exist, however, when using ml to personal healthcare. importantly, supervised learning algorithms are trained using diagnostic labels. however, because mental disorders are so varied, these classifications may not be accurate enough to train ai systems to be very sensitive and particular. instead of making diagnosis, ml algorithms might be used to predict certain symptoms or outcomes. more than that, dnn may be used autonomously to find new biomarkers for identifying certain illnesses. despite the need of transparency and repeatability, protecting proprietary information is a major roadblock to ml algorithm implementations. big data requires a lot of prep work before it can be used, and it's also essentially unstructured. furthermore, it is not usual practice to include details about the data's quality and any biases in the results of ml algorithms. malika et al. (2023). using deep reinforcement learning as its foundation, this work introduces anomaly-nids. this approach to data gathering and preparation might prove useful in a variety of network topologies. this method of reinforcement learning gives you a bunch of choices. the model's capacity to accurately identify incoming network traffic is enhanced in the learning mode by continuous learning and updating, while processing speed is optimized in the detection mode. the author successfully tested the method on 100 million palo alto network logs as part of the campus networking environment. in order to evaluate the suggested drl, three machinelearning techniques were employed. proven in experiments, the suggested approach efficiently updates models in real time while simultaneously achieving maximum detection accuracy and processing speed [63]. however, pre-processing data is lacking[64] . mahdi et al. (2024). the suggested method tracks and updates the estimation of each packet using sequential packet labeling in order to get the attack probability score for each flow. the cicids2017 and cse-cic-ids2018 datasets are used to assess the framework using cnnbased and lstm-based deep models. by doing comprehensive experiments and assessments, the researcher proves that the proposed distributed system successfully handles traffic concept drift. our results show that convolutional neural network (cnn) models can adjust to traffic idea drift, and with just 128 more frames, they achieve identification rates above 95%. on the other hand, online intrusion detection systems that use lstm-based models to classify packets sequentially are exceptional at identifying intrusions within 15 packets [65]. singh et al. (2024). sophisticated intrusion prevention system a new method for intrusion detection called aid-drl has just been created, and it uses deep reinforcement learning. the proposed system uses deep neural networks and reinforcement learning to build an adaptive intrusion detection system (ids) that can safeguard against evolving cyber threats. consideration of scalability, adaptability, and interaction with cybersecurity infrastructure was given during the design and construction of aid-drl. the experimental results show that the aid-drl system detected and mitigated threats better in real-time than baseline models. learning algorithms should be made more adversary resilient, dynamic policy modification should be a priority of future research, as should the integration of threat intelligence, scalability, deployment, and privacy preservation. these domains aim to address the dynamic nature of cybersecurity while also enhancing intrusion detection systems [66]. jeffrey et al. (2024). supply a method for cps anomaly detection based on "unsupervised learning models" that employ one-class classification algorithms. because the normally utilized studies have an incredibly small quantity of aberrant data, this will assist in making up for it. although it helps with some of the accuracy challenges resulting from data classes that are not balanced, this strategy is not highly portable to cps settings and concentrates on the distinctions between supervised and unsupervised learning using a narrow range of classification methods [67]. afrifa et al. (2023). start with the idea that criminals frequently take over huge numbers of “iot devices”, transforming them into botnets to carry out their nefarious schemes, posing a threat to global trade. a single compromised internet of things (iot) device probably wouldn't cause 27 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us much trouble on its own, but a botnet of hundreds—or perhaps millions—could cause havoc. by identifying individual nodes inside a botnet, we offer a novel way to detect botnets and prevent incursions in real-time using ensemble learning. this innovative approach uses ensemble learning to identify botnet hosts, as opposed to the conventional approach of deciding whether an action against a particular host is harmful or benign [68]. yazdinejad et al. (2023). provide an ensemble deep learning-based anomaly detection approach for iiot settings; this model uses ae architecture and ltsm to review time series data in order to spot unusual action. in iiot/cps anomaly detection scenarios, imbalanced datasets are common and affect the prediction power of several ml algorithms. this study applies pattern recognition to time series data collected from "iiot environment" monitoring in order to determine if the activity is normal or abnormal. the premise is that iiot environments are dispersed and filled with diverse sensors and actuators. the goal is to tackle the issue as a big data challenge [69]. nicholas et al(2024). for cps anomaly detection, this study suggests a hybrid technique that combines “signature-based detection” for it networks, “threshold-based detection “for ot networks, and behavioral-based ensemble learning (el) for improved accuracy. several publicly available research datasets are used to validate the hybrid technique. minimizing a measure of behavioural-based data for "ml model" training, it employs a "divideand-conquer strategy" to outsource cyber threat detection to methods that rely on signatures and thresholds yet are computationally cheap. this leads to improved accuracy in less time. the experiment findings demonstrated an improvement in anomaly detection accuracy of 4-7% across many datasets. this is of utmost importance for cps operators due to the significant financial implications and safety costs associated with system outages [70]. vincent et al (2024). the effectiveness, security, and cost-effectiveness of hyperphysical systems have been enhanced by the integration of communication and information technology with large-scale power grids. despite its broad and open communication environment, the smart grid is susceptible to cyberattacks. a major threat to grid operations comes from data integrity attacks that circumvent conventional security measures. the existing smart grid detection algorithms aren't flexible enough to deal with non-euclidean data sources or characteristics that are constantly changing and diverse. to detect data integrity breaches in cyber-physical systems, the author introduces a novel deep-qnetwork method based on a graph convolutional network (gcn) architecture. when compared to earlier benchmark approaches, the simulation results show that the framework is more accurate and scalable [71]. jimsha k et. al (2024). this study provides a comprehensive methodology for intrusion detection in wsns and addresses the vulnerabilities that are inherent to wsns. a hybrid of regularization and pso feature extraction with cnn-bi-lstm classification is proposed as a feasible solution. the system starts with meticulous data preparation, which involves normalizing the raw data acquired from the wsn. it is critical to standardize feature scales in order to guarantee data consistency and enhance interpretability. then, pertinent features are identified and feature selection is optimized using the pso algorithm. reduced duplication and improved feature set discrimination are two ways in which pso improves intrusion detection. with these features in hand, the cnn-bi-lstm model integrates the spatial feature extraction of cnn with the temporal modeling of bi-lstm. bi-lstm is better at finding temporal correlations in sequential sensor data than cnn is at focusing on spatial representations. this cooperation allows the framework to detect intricate infiltration patterns with high accuracy. using tagged datasets for performance evaluation, the integrated system beats prior intrusion detection methods. in order to improve the security of 28 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these critical networks, the results of the tests show that the framework may enhance intrusion detection in wsns [72]. afrah et al (2024). in response to this, the authors have created an intrusion detection system (ids) model that uses a combination of convolutional neural network (cnn) and long short-term memory (lstm) dl methods. by combining the pattern recognition capabilities of convolutional neural networks (cnns) with those of long short-term memories (lstms), this fusion makes it easier and more accurate to detect and categorize benign and malicious iot data. after training the model using the recently released ciciot2023 dataset, the authors ran final tests to see how well it performed, and finally, they utilized the cicids2017 dataset to confirm that their model had worked. a low loss of 0.0275 and an accuracy rate of 98.42% were achieved by the authors using the suggested model. another crucially important factor is the false positive rate (fpr), which is 9.17% when the f1-score is 98.57%. cyber threat mitigation in iot systems is facilitated by the proposed cnn-lstm ids paradigm [73]. roya et al. (2024). this paper presents a state-of-the-art solution for an internet of things (iot) intrusion detection network using deep learning techniques and clean data. the author trains and tests their intrusion detection models using the open-source cicids2017 dataset, which contains information on botnet activity, port scans, and distributed denial of service attacks. the goal is to provide a method that is more effective than previous ones. the suggested deep learning model captures spatial and temporal data interactions using lstm architecture and thick transition layers. when assessing the efficacy of the model, the writers relied on stringent measures including accuracy and sparse categorical cross-entropy loss. on test data, this method achieved an accuracy of 0.997, demonstrating its excellent yield. you can trust this model's intrusion detection capabilities since its loss and accuracy scores are consistent. you can see how effective this strategy is by comparing it to other machine learning techniques. additionally, test how well the model holds up under challenging conditions by seeing how well it handles gaussian noise. additionally, it provides performance metrics for several attack types, demonstrating the model's utility in different threat situations[74]. ju hyeon et al. (2023). this research introduces a method for detecting cyber threats in solar plants' central system, the programmable logic controller (plc) of the inverter, using network packets. the cyber hazards were discovered during an investigation of cyberattacks and vulnerabilities in solar power facilities. to disrupt solar plant operations, inverters are the most common target of denial-of-service and malicious code injection assaults, according to the research. before training machine learning-based classification models, the authors developed an anomaly detection method by preprocessing plc network packet data using correlation analysis and normalization. an accuracy of 97.36% was achieved using the random forest model, which was the most effective. solar plant security might be enhanced, anomalies in network packets could be detected, and cyber threats could be identified using the proposed technique [75]. m.tuaama (2024). in a smart healthcare context, this work proposes a deep learning architecture (dla) for managing anomaly detection. the dla constructs the intelligent control procedure with the aid of perceptive, algorithmic self-learning that may automate and signal. preprocessing and the incorporation of iot gadgets from smart medical start the acquisition of huge volumes of data. to ensure the safety, security, and reliability of control methods and management service decisions, the next stage is to coordinate intelligence frameworks with dla. to determine if a system state is normal or pathological, deep architectures build a mathematical model using training methods. these models build a composite analytic link by integrating data patterns with system variables; this connection aids in detecting both typical and unusual system behaviour[76]. despite the excellent detection accuracies attained thus far, there is still room for improvement, according to our literature analysis. accuracy levels and the amount of data manipulation are two 29 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us examples of these issues. there has been very little development in the area thus far. we have described the selected idss and compared their basic attributes in a table (1). the majority of the researchers concentrated on intrusion prevention, while some touched on intrusion detection in various ways. but just a small fraction made use of deep learning for intrusion detection. thus, we are of the opinion that the methods and research presented in this paper may produce reliable outcomes while simultaneously cutting costs and saving time through the optimization of detection accuracy and the reduction of false alarms. table 1 no author&year method datset objectives advantage drawbacks malik et al.(2023) anid palo alto system network logs process data more quickly. processing at a superior speed limited to specific regions of the network roger et al.(2023) rl-based id 8tb real network traffic data reduced quantity of computing resources accuracy and high reliability utilized a single dataset, which makes it challenging to transfer to another dataset afrifa et al.(2023) ml techniques public dataset recognize and avert botnet assaults on interconnected personal computers, particularly those involving internet of things devices. for the purpose of detecting botnet attacks, the method employs realtime behavioral analysis driven by ai. for prompt prevention, this might be vital. the use of an ensemble approach including multiple ml models may increase the complexity of the implementation, calling for more computational resources and expertise. ju hyeon et al. (2023) ml plc network packet data the goal is to develop a method for detecting anomalies in solar plant plc data that can protect inverters from cyber assaults. the random forest model's ability to detect cyber threats was shown by its remarkable 97.36% accuracy rate. the model's ability to detect some types of attacks is contingent upon the variety and quality of the data retrieved from the network packets, but it can still capture some of them. amiri et al 2023 ml(cnn,rnn,dnn,mlp) micromed virtual environment extreme precision extensive reliability inadequate evaluation of the approaches sang et al. 2024 drl simulation with real scenatio a realistic improvement in cps models effectiveness enhancement given their reliance on similarity, they may fail to adequately portray the intricacy of real cyberthreats. soltani et al.(2024) multi-agent nids cicid2017&csecic-ids2018 the objective is to enable a distributed ids architecture that improves detection accuracy and tackles big data challenges by utilizing observations from several sensors. its distributed detection function allows it to scale for networks with high throughput. the use of multi-agent systems allows for a more complex implementation. 30 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to evaluate the proposed strategy in relation to comparable approaches found in the literature, table 1 summarizes the main points. these features are linked to three things: (1) the security singh et al.(2024) drl nsl-kdd the system penalizes false positives in an effort to improve accuracy. the system has the potential to adjust to upcoming dangers. it could be more difficult to execute the technique. jeffrey et al.(2024) hybrid id edge-iiotest2023 & ciciot2023 the cyber physical system's identification accuracy optimization precision improvement limited possibilities for knowledge sharing vincent et al.(2024) dqn & gcn identify and thwart any dangers to the integrity of smart grid data, the detection accuracy is exceptionally high. it could be more difficult to execute the technique. jimsha k et. al (2024) pso & cnn-bi-lstm enumerated datasets using regularization, pso, cnn, and bilstm, we can improve the efficiency and accuracy of wsn intrusion detection. when it comes time to feature selection, pso increases detection performance by removing irrelevant features and concentrating on the main ones. using many sophisticated algorithms (cnn, bilstm, pso) increases the model's complexity, which may increase the time and resources needed for training. afrah et al (2024) cnn & lstm ciciot2023 & cicids2017 developing a hybrid intrusion detection system the model that effectively and accurately uses cnn and lstm to detect fake iot traffic.. identifies incursions with an accuracy of 98.42%. since the performance is assessed on specific datasets, its applicability to different iot scenarios or datasets can be restricted. roya et al. (2024) lstm cicids2017 develop a cutting-edge iot intrusion detection solution that surpasses state-of-theart methods by leveraging deep learning the model's remarkable ability to detect intrusions was on full display when it obtained an astounding 0.997 accuracy on test data. it may be difficult to generalize results from studies conducted on the cicids2017 dataset to other datasets or realworld internet of things environments. m.tuaama (2024) dnn sdn-iot the importance of using deep neural networks (dnn) to detect network attacks, classify anomalies, and enhance the protection of iot devices in healthcare environments. enhanced diagnostics: iot enables the collection of a wide range of health-related metrics, providing a comprehensive view of patient health. complexity in model selection: the success of deep learning models relies heavily on selecting the right architecture, making it challenging to ensure consistent reliability across different scenarios. 31 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us implementation method; (2) the dataset used with this algorithm; and (3) the model's advantages and shortcomings. 5. methodology here, we provide a dnn-based architecture for cyber-physical systems network vulnerability and threat detection. we begin by discussing the framework's main workflow and then examine the evaluation of each step and its important contributions. 5.1. the suggested framework's workflow it consists of five primary steps: extracting useful data via preprocessing, maintaining class equilibrium through augmented data, and discovering optimal characteristics through feature selection. step one is to prepare the features for encoding and dataset segmentation. step two is to train and evaluate the dnn model. figure 1 shows the proposed system's procedure flow. each of these procedures will have its operational basics explained in great depth. preprocessing data: we begin by collecting raw network data with the networking analysis tool. after that, we extract attributes from the packets. after discarding unnecessary packets from the dataset, we gather samples of classes inside it. using the encoding method, we converted the symbolic data to integers, and then we used minmax standardization to ensure that all of the numerical values in the dataset were consistent.  symbolic encoding: features that fall within the category of: 𝑋𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒(𝑋𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 )……(1)  normalization using min-max: with regard to continuous features: 𝑋! = 𝑋−𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 ………………………..(2) data augmentation: imbalanced data occurs when the sample sizes of each class are not evenly distributed, resulting in data skewness that biases the model towards a class with a more significant amounts of samples. resampling the training data before classification helps to reduce class imbalance. oversampling requires increasing the number of samples from minority classes, whereas undersampling involves decreasing the number of samples from majority classes. researchers are using the oversampling approach; nevertheless, it leads to the problem of overfitting owing to the redundancy of the data obtained from oversampling [22]. the synthetic minority oversampling technique (smote) generates new samples by picking instances from the minority class, but it also produces noise and class overlap. recent advancements in generative adversarial networks (gans) utilize neural networks to produce synthetic data that closely resembles original datasets [23]. because gans permit model adjustment, which aids in developing an accurate model, and because they avoid overfitting, and class overlap, as well as noise problems, they are superior to other traditional approaches like smote [24]. to ensure that the dataset is balanced, we extract fresh samples from it. with gans, we are able to raise the packet count for the minority attack classes. the dataset becomes more balanced when the synthetic data is generated. goodfellow et al. [26] introduced gans, which are comprised of a pair of neural networks that collaborate to produce synthetic data and identify both real and synthetic data. generative networks take an input dataset and use it to create artificial data; the produced data is separated from the real data in the input set using a discriminator network. 32 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  handling class imbalance: data oversampling using smote or gan: 𝑋𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐺𝐴𝑁(𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦) where gan generates synthetic samples of the minority class. to a balanced dataset: |𝑋𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠1| ≈ |𝑋𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠2|  feature selection: selecting features decreases computational costs and increases storage efficiency [77]. the following methods are used for feature selection:  a filter method is one that uses the correlation scores of characteristics to determine how related they are. we choose features according to the scores and threshold value of statistical methods, which are used for feature selection. methods like the chi-square test, information gain, and correlation are the most popular.  wrapper methods: a machine learning (ml) model is trained on an subset of features using wrapper methods. the subset's characteristics are either added to or removed from depending on the model's accuracy. two of the most prevalent examples of this kind of approach are forward selection and backward elimination.  embedded methods: combining the best features extraction with computational cost preservation, this strategy is an improvement over both the filter and wrapper approaches. two of the most prevalent variants of this approach are random forest [78] and lasso regularization [79].  dataset partitioning: 𝑋𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑋𝑣𝑎𝑙, 𝑋𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑡(𝑋, 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛_𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒, 𝑣𝑎𝑙_𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒, 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡_𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 where the data is partitioned into sets for testing, validation, and training. we conduct our studies using the filter method since it is significantly quicker and uses less compute than the other two approaches.  feature preprocessing: following feature extraction, feature reduction, and feature encoding, we partitioned the data we had processed into three sets: training, validation, and testing. each set included the labels for normal and attack-type classes.  training &testing dataset: the dnn model is taught to use the training set's processed data during the training phase. after training, the model is put to the test using the testing set data, which it uses to distinguish between normal and attack kinds. 6. result analysis to achieve better accuracy, we construct multiple dnn designs using varied dense hidden layers and neuronal densities in each layer. the dnn model, which uses three dense hidden layers— each with 64 neurons—to get the greatest results. the amount of neurons and thick hidden layers determines the model's complexity. when the value is tiny, it indicates that the model is underfitting; conversely, when the value is big, it indicates that the model is overfitting. through the use of adam optimiser, we experimented with various learning rates and discovered that the default value of 0.001 yields superior accuracy. using metrics, we evaluate the suggested dnn algorithm with different attacks in the dataset. this includes the f1 score, precision, accuracy, and recall. furthermore, provides categorization confusion matrices. the model's performance is assessed using evaluation metrics when two classes, c1 and c2, are provided. 33 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us model of dnn algorithm for training. the model parameters are updated using gradient descent. for each epoch, weights w are updated: 𝑊𝑡+1 = 𝑊𝑡 − 𝜂. ∇l(𝑊𝑡 ) where η is the learning rate and l(w) is the loss function (e.g., cross-entropy loss): 𝐿 = − 1 𝑁 ∑ [𝑦𝑖 log(𝓎𝑖 ∧) + (1 − 𝓎𝑖 )log (1 − 𝓎𝑖 ∧ )]𝑁 𝑖=1 efficiency learning and performance assessment both seek to estimate a model's accuracy on future data and metrics, so that researchers may analyse the efficacy of the suggested approach and compare it to other models. this will help them decide which methodology is most suited for this activity. as a result of its predictive capabilities, the confusion matrix sheds insight on categorisation problems. the classifier's accuracy (equation 1), sensitivity (also known as a true positive rate [tpr] or recall) (equation 2), false-positive rate (fpr) (equation 3), precision (equation 4), specificity (equation 5), f1-score (equation 6) and the types of errors (tp, fp, fn, and tn) are all provided. the roc curve illustrates the classifier's accuracy and the connection between the true positive and false positive rates in various threshold circumstances. evaluation metrics: 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = (𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁)/(𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁 + 𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁)……………………..…………..(1) 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑇𝑃/(𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁)………………………………………….…………...(2) 𝑭𝑷𝑹 = 𝐹𝑃/(𝑇𝑁 + 𝐹𝑃)…………………………………………………(3) 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑃/(𝑇𝑁 + 𝐹𝑃)………………………………...………….(4) 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑇𝑁/(𝑇𝑁 + 𝐹𝑃)………………………….………………(5) 𝐹1 − 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 2 ∗ 𝑇𝑃/(2 ∗ 𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁)…………………………….(6) to identify malicious actions, several academics have created sophisticated ml-based models that compete with one another. table 2. different ml classifiers' accuracy classical classification methods accuracy rf 98.01 svm 97.39 sgd 97.65 logistic regression 97.01 linear discriminant analysis 97.94 gaussian nb 89.14 our proposal 98.37 table 2 lists the accuracy of the classic ml approach; it is evident that dnn models outperform it when it comes to detecting invasive behaviours. this article presents a variety of network-cps suggested models that investigate literature on threat detection. along with other models like decision trees, naïve bayesian, and random forests, ham et. al[80] presented the linear svm algorithm for use on a synthetic data set. this model would perform multiclassification and be evaluated using metrics like tpr, fpr, precision, accuracy, and f-measure. as demonstrated in table 3, svm has achieved an accuracy of 99.7 percent and an f1-score of 95.4 percent, whereas our suggested model has an accuracy of 98.37 percent and an f1-score of 98.0 percent. due to the synthetic nature of the data, the f134 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us score, which includes both false-negative and false-positive cases, will be given greater weight than accuracy. table 3. a comparison of the proposed model's accuracy to that of other models author dataset model accuracy our proposal 13 synthetic svm 99.7 98.37 bayes net 94.3 rf 91.5 naïve bayes 70.4 7. conclusion and future work studies on privacy and network security have been conducted in recent years regarding cyberphysical systems (cps). several proposals for ids designs based on ml and dl have been made. the internet of things (iot) makes extensive use of deep learning for intrusion detection. we addressed the imbalance of the problem class in the dataset. we demonstrated the effectiveness of our proposed framework in cps networks by increasing the delivery of dnnbased packets belonging to minority assault classes, feature selection, and gans. with gans, the classifier achieves 98% accuracy in multi-class classification, whereas with traditional methods, it reports an accuracy of 97% in predictions. the findings have important implications for cyber-security. selected features and an increase in the amount of dos attack packets allow for accurately classifying attacks as either regular or malicious. nevertheless, we ran into a number of problems. to create traffic for the dataset's minority assaults, the suggested model may be used with gans, and the method may be used with different datasets that have unequal classification labels. the feature selection method has cut down on the model's feature count, which in turn has lowered the model's cost. to decrease the feature count prior to classification, one might apply a variety of feature extraction and selection methods. this study focused on five distinct kinds of traffic while 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uqsabirovasu1951@gmail.com abstract: this paper explores various training algorithms for neural networks applied to the modeling and control of nonlinear dynamic systems. nonlinear systems are characterized by complexities that linear models cannot capture, making traditional methods insufficient. neural networks, due to their universal approximation capabilities, have emerged as powerful tools for learning complex system behaviors. the study compares several supervised and unsupervised training algorithms, including backpropagation, levenberg–marquardt, resilient backpropagation, and gradient descent with momentum. simulation experiments demonstrate the effectiveness and limitations of each method in dynamic adaptation, convergence speed, and generalization ability. the findings support the selection of appropriate algorithms depending on the system's structure and real-time demands. keywords: nonlinear systems, neural networks, training algorithms, dynamic systems, adaptive modeling, backpropagation, levenberg–marquardt. introduction. nonlinear dynamic systems are prevalent in many real-world applications, ranging from robotics and aerospace engineering to energy systems and biomedical devices. these systems exhibit complex behaviors such as hysteresis, saturation, and time-varying parameters, which make their modeling and control particularly challenging. classical identification and control techniques, which rely on linear assumptions, often fail to capture the intrinsic nonlinearities of such systems. as a result, there is a growing need for advanced modeling approaches that can handle the inherent complexity and uncertainty of nonlinear dynamics. artificial neural networks (anns) have emerged as a promising solution due to their powerful approximation capabilities and ability to learn from data without requiring an explicit mathematical model. they can represent a wide range of nonlinear mappings and adapt to dynamic environments, making them ideal candidates for modeling, prediction, and control of nonlinear systems. however, the success of neural network-based modeling heavily depends on the choice of training algorithm. an efficient training algorithm must not only minimize prediction error but also ensure stability, generalization, and fast convergence. over the years, numerous training algorithms have been proposed and applied to train neural networks, including gradient descent, levenberg–marquardt (lm), resilient backpropagation (rprop), and conjugate gradient methods. each of these algorithms offers specific advantages and trade-offs in terms of convergence speed, computational complexity, and robustness to local minima. therefore, selecting the appropriate training algorithm is crucial for achieving optimal performance in dynamic and nonlinear environments [1-3]. 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us this paper investigates the performance of various training algorithms in the context of nonlinear dynamic system modeling. by analyzing simulation results, we aim to identify the most effective algorithms under different system conditions and provide recommendations for their practical application in intelligent control systems. methodology. to investigate the efficiency of neural network training algorithms in modeling nonlinear dynamic systems, a structured methodology was developed, encompassing data generation, neural network architecture selection, algorithm implementation, and performance evaluation. the first step involved generating synthetic data from benchmark nonlinear dynamic systems commonly used in system identification research. these included the duffing oscillator, van der pol oscillator, and a nonlinear inverted pendulum system. each system was simulated over a specified time range with varying initial conditions to ensure diverse dynamic behaviors were captured. the inputs and outputs from these simulations served as the training and testing datasets for the neural networks [4]. a feedforward multilayer perceptron (mlp) architecture was chosen for its wide use and effectiveness in function approximation tasks. the network comprised an input layer (corresponding to system inputs), one or two hidden layers with nonlinear activation functions (e.g., hyperbolic tangent or relu), and an output layer representing the system response. the number of hidden neurons was selected empirically to balance between model complexity and generalization [5]. four training algorithms were implemented and tested using matlab and python-based environments: standard backpropagation with gradient descent, gradient descent with momentum, the levenberg–marquardt (lm) algorithm, and resilient backpropagation (rprop). each algorithm was trained on the same dataset and initialized with the same random weights to ensure fair comparison. performance evaluation was conducted using several quantitative metrics, including mean squared error (mse), training time, convergence speed (number of epochs to reach minimal error), and generalization error on test data. in addition, sensitivity analysis was performed to study the impact of algorithm parameters such as learning rate, momentum constant, and damping factor in lm [6]. to ensure robustness and reproducibility, each training experiment was repeated multiple times, and average results were recorded. furthermore, statistical tests such as the wilcoxon signedrank test were applied to validate the significance of differences between algorithms. this methodological framework enables a comprehensive assessment of training algorithms under dynamic and nonlinear conditions, offering insights into their suitability for intelligent system modeling. in the following section, we present and analyze the experimental results obtained from this procedure. results and discussion. this section presents the experimental outcomes derived from training neural networks using different algorithms and evaluates their effectiveness in modeling nonlinear dynamic systems. each training algorithm was applied to three distinct system models: the duffing oscillator, van der pol oscillator, and the nonlinear inverted pendulum. the results were analyzed in terms of accuracy, convergence speed, stability, and generalization capability. the levenberg–marquardt (lm) algorithm consistently outperformed the other methods across all systems in terms of achieving the lowest mean squared error. for the duffing oscillator, the lm algorithm reduced the training mse to 0.0013, whereas gradient descent achieved 0.0049, and resilient backpropagation (rprop) yielded 0.0026. similar trends were observed in the van der pol and inverted pendulum models, indicating that lm provides superior learning accuracy when the network is moderately sized and the system is smooth and differentiable [7]. 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us training convergence was measured by the number of epochs required to reach a stable error threshold. gradient descent exhibited the slowest convergence, requiring over 1000 epochs in some cases. in contrast, the lm algorithm converged within 150–200 epochs for most systems, demonstrating faster adaptation. rprop also showed significantly improved speed compared to basic gradient descent, often converging in less than 300 epochs, making it a computationally attractive alternative when lm is infeasible due to memory limitations [8]. although lm achieved the best performance on training data, it exhibited mild signs of overfitting on test data, especially when the network architecture was complex. rprop and gradient descent with momentum offered more stable generalization behavior across test scenarios, suggesting that regularization or early stopping is essential when using lm in realworld applications. the sensitivity analysis revealed that the standard gradient descent was highly dependent on the choice of learning rate. a poor selection often led to divergence or extremely slow convergence. on the other hand, rprop was relatively insensitive to learning rate changes and maintained stable learning behavior over a wide range of conditions. the lm algorithm required careful tuning of the damping factor (μ) to balance between the gauss–newton and gradient descent modes [9]. the generalization capability was assessed by evaluating mse on previously unseen test data. rprop demonstrated the highest robustness, maintaining a low generalization error with minimal variance across trials. this behavior is attributed to its adaptive weight update strategy, which avoids large oscillations during training. momentum-based gradient descent also showed improved generalization compared to vanilla gradient descent, especially in systems with chaotic dynamics. while lm proved to be the most accurate, it was computationally expensive due to the need to compute the jacobian matrix and its inverse. this limitation makes lm less suitable for largescale systems or real-time applications. rprop and momentum-based methods required significantly fewer resources, making them more scalable and practical for embedded systems or online learning. to visually compare the learning performance, the training and test loss curves were plotted for each algorithm. these graphs clearly showed that lm reached the lowest error the fastest but had sharp increases in validation loss in some runs, highlighting potential overfitting. in contrast, rprop maintained a smooth and stable loss curve, indicating balanced learning. these results suggest that there is no universally superior algorithm; the optimal choice depends on the specific application, available computational resources, and system complexity. for offline, high-accuracy applications, lm is preferable. for online or constrained systems, rprop offers a good compromise between performance and efficiency [10]. 82 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure-1. comparison of training performance of different neural network algorithms in modeling nonlinear dynamic systems. the plot illustrates the decrease in mean squared error (mse) across training epochs for four learning algorithms: gradient descent, gradient descent with momentum, resilient backpropagation (rprop), and levenberg–marquardt (lm). among them, the lm algorithm demonstrates the fastest and most accurate convergence, while rprop maintains a stable and efficient learning process. momentum-based gd improves over basic gd, but both are outperformed by the more advanced algorithms in terms of convergence speed and accuracy. conclusion. this study presents a comprehensive investigation of various neural network training algorithms applied to the modeling of nonlinear dynamic systems. by evaluating the performance of standard backpropagation, momentum-based gradient descent, resilient backpropagation (rprop), and the levenberg–marquardt (lm) algorithm across multiple benchmark systems, we derived valuable insights into the strengths and limitations of each method. the results demonstrate that the levenberg–marquardt algorithm is highly effective in achieving minimal training error and fast convergence, making it suitable for applications requiring highprecision offline modeling. however, its computational intensity and susceptibility to overfitting in complex networks necessitate cautious parameter tuning and the application of regularization techniques. on the other hand, resilient backpropagation emerged as a robust and efficient alternative, especially in scenarios with limited computational resources or online adaptation requirements. it provided a stable learning process, good generalization to unseen data, and required minimal tuning. momentum-based gradient descent also showed improved learning stability and generalization over basic gradient descent, although it lagged behind rprop and lm in terms of convergence speed and final accuracy. furthermore, the study highlights the critical importance of choosing the right training algorithm depending on the nature of the nonlinear system, the desired learning objectives, and hardware constraints. in real-time or embedded applications, lightweight and adaptable algorithms such as rprop are preferable. in contrast, for data-rich and computationally permissive environments, the lm algorithm offers superior modeling capabilities. 83 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us future research may explore the hybridization of these training approaches or the integration of metaheuristic optimization techniques (e.g., genetic algorithms or particle swarm optimization) to further improve convergence and generalization. additionally, extending this work to recurrent neural networks and deep architectures could provide enhanced performance for timeseries prediction and dynamic control tasks. in summary, this research reinforces the idea that there is no one-size-fits-all training algorithm for nonlinear dynamic systems. the selection must be tailored to the system characteristics and application requirements, with careful consideration of the trade-offs between accuracy, efficiency, and adaptability. references. 1. haykin, s. (1999). neural networks: a comprehensive foundation (2nd ed.). prentice hall. 2. ljung, l. (1999). system identification: theory for the user (2nd ed.). prentice hall. 3. hagan, m. t., demuth, h. b., & beale, m. h. (1996). neural network design. pws publishing. 4. yu, w., chen, g., & cao, j. (2009). nonlinear control of dynamic systems with constraints. springer. 5. demuth, h., beale, m., de jess, o., & hagan, m. (2014). neural network toolbox™ user’s guide. the mathworks, inc. 6. nelles, o. (2001). nonlinear system identification: from classical approaches to neural networks and fuzzy models. springer. 7. bishop, c. m. (1995). neural networks for pattern recognition. oxford university press. 8. beale, m. h., hagan, m. t., & demuth, h. b. (2020). deep learning toolbox user's guide. mathworks documentation. 9. riedmiller, m., & braun, h. (1993). a direct adaptive method for faster backpropagation learning: the rprop algorithm. proceedings of the ieee international conference on neural networks, 586–591. 10. zhang, j., & liu, y. (2001). identification and control of nonlinear dynamic systems using recurrent neural networks. ieee transactions on neural networks, 12(3), 567–576. 151 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 computer models of electrical impacts on adjacent lines of traction systems boltaev otabek tashmukhammatovich tashkent state transport university, dsc, associate professor, uzbekistan, tashkent bedritskiy ivan mikhailovich tashkent state transport university, dsc, professor, uzbekistan, tashkent akhmedova firuza anvarovna tashkent state transport university, assistant, uzbekistan, tashkent abstract: the article develops computer models of electrical impacts on the adjacent lines of the traction system 20 kilometers from the chinaz station of the tashkent-syrdarya road. studies have shown that the greatest value of the induced voltage occurs in the middle of the line when the beginning and end of the adjacent line are grounded, but its value does not exceed 8 v. it was also determined that to reduce the value of the induced voltages from the electrical impact of the thrust system, it is sufficient to ground the investigated side line from both sides, and if the value of the induced voltage in this case is higher than 25 volts, the line should be grounded in several places, including in the middle of it. keywords: traction system, electrical effect, modeling, signaling, centralization, blocking, adjacent line, induced voltage. introduction. the traction system and various types of transformers, power lines, have an electromagnetic connection and consist of static multi-wire elements consisting of several wires or windings. if these wires (winding) are combined within the investigated limit of the traction system, then the lines and transformers differ from each other in their mutually inductive nature between the wires or winding. to fully analyze the effects of the traction system on adjacent lines, taking into account these processes, we will develop computer models of linear electrical effects acting in different modes using the matlab program. to assess the impact of the traction system on the signaling, centralization, and blocking (sсb) wire, a computer model was developed using the simpowersystems and simulink packages of the matlab program, allowing for the determination of the voltage arising in the sсb line from the electrical impact of the traction system on the unladen mode of the sсb wire (fig. 1). using this model, an oscillogram of the induced voltage arising in the sсb wire was obtained when the voltage in the contact wire was 27.5 kv (fig. 2). materials. based on the results obtained using a computer model, a voltage with an amplitude of 1130 v and an operating value of 800 v arises in the unallocated sсb wire. such a value of the induced 152 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us voltage is considered very dangerous and even requires protective measures (one-or two-sided grounding of the off sсb line) when servicing the off sсb line. figure 1. a model for determining the voltage arising in a traction system's traction line under electrical action. figure 2. oscillogram of the voltage arising in the sсb line from the electrical action of the traction system. let's consider how the grounding of the terminated line, 20 kilometers from the chinaz junction of the tashkent-syrdarya highway, affects the magnitude and distribution patterns of the induced voltage generated along the line (fig. 3). to do this, we will develop a computer model of the investigated area using the corresponding points of the matlab program. in this model, the induced voltage in the sсb line is simulated as an alternating current source, and the contact suspension is divided into 3 sections with dispersed rl parameters (length of 1 section is 6.67 km). figure 3. a model for determining the distribution of induced voltage across a line (line head is grounded) 153 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us research and methods. voltage measurement in the model indicates the value of the induced voltage at the end of the line, while current measurement indicates the value of the current in the grounding. from the voltage oscillogram obtained based on the model results, it is known that the voltage amplitude at the beginning of the grounded sсb line is approximately 8 v, while the current amplitude in the grounder installed at the end of the sсb line is 0.76 a (fig. 4). research has confirmed that the values obtained based on the results of the developed model differ from the results of theoretical calculations by up to 2% and that the reliability of the model and the effectiveness of ensuring the safety of its maintenance personnel as a result of the grounding of the power line can be increased. figure 4. oscillogram of the current in the grounder installed at the end of the line and the induced voltage at the beginning of the line (line beginning grounded) if the "-" section of the voltage measurement is alternately connected to the ends of the pi sections and the current measurement is alternately connected to the rl networks simulating ground resistance, then we obtain a graph of the distribution of the induced voltage and current along the line (fig. 5). using these curves, it is possible to determine the magnitude of the induced voltage and current in any part of the investigated sections. figure 5. curves of change of induced voltages at the beginning of the line and current in the grounder installed at the end of the line 154 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us now let's consider the distribution of the induced voltage that can occur in the adjacent line when the adjacent line is ground on both sides for the same section. for this case, we will develop a computer model using the matlab program (fig. 6). figure 6. a model for determining the distribution of induced voltage across a line (the beginning and end of the line are grounded) results. using the scope element in the developed computer model, we obtain an oscillogram of the current value and the induced voltage in the grounders (fig. 7). based on the results of the computer model, we can see that the value of the induced voltage remains unchanged due to the ground state of the switched-off line head, while the value of the current in the grounders decreases by half due to the flow of two grounders. figure 7. oscillogram of current and line-induced voltage in the grounders installed on the line (the beginning and end of the line are grounded) discussion. using the computer model shown in figure 6, to determine the magnitude of the induced voltages and currents flowing through the grounders at any point in the line, we construct curves of the dependence of the induced voltages and currents in the grounders on the distance (fig. 8). 155 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 8. curves of current and line-induced voltage changes in the grounders installed on the line. conclusion. studies have shown that the greatest value of the induced voltage corresponds to the middle of the line, but its value does not exceed 8 v. from this, it can be concluded that to reduce the magnitude of voltages induced by the electrical action of the thrust system, it is sufficient to ground the investigated side line on both sides. if the induced voltage value remains above 25 volts after grounding, it is necessary to ground the line in several places, including its middle. references 1. boltayev o.t. and akhmedova f.a. induced voltage from traction networks and methods of reducing its influence on adjacent communication lines // international journal on integrated education, volume 4, issue 4, 2021.– pp. 265-271. 2. boltayev o.t., bayanov i.n., akhmedova f.a. galvanic effects of the gravitational network and measures to protect against it. international journal of trends in computer science issn:2348-5205. volume 2 issue 1, – 2021. – pp. 3-11. 3. boltayev o.t., akhmedova f.a. and jabbarov a.e. "on the lines connecting the railway to the contact network, the induced voltage can be obtained using a computer program." central asian journal of mathematical theory and computer sciences 4.10 (2023): 50-54. 4. amirov s.f., sharapov s.a., sulliev a.k., boltaev o.t. biparametric resonant transformer sensor of large linear movements //aip conference proceedings. – aip publishing, 2023. – т. 2624. – №. 1. pp. 030007(1-9). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0132847 5. boltaev o.t, axmedova f.a & nurxonov b.sh. (2022). influences of a contact network on adjacent lines and differential equations of adjacent lines. emergent: journal of educational discoveries and lifelong learning (ejedl), 3(05), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/5qztm 6. boltaev o.t., akhmedova f.a. and nafasov n.o., “expressions to determine the voltage generated in adjacent lines as a result of electric and magnetic field effects of the contact network and their normative values”, iejrd international multidisciplinary journal, vol. 7, no. 2, p. 8, apr. 2022. 7. amirov s, boltayev o., akhmedova f. (2023). mathematical models of electromagnetic effects of the traction system on the adjacent lines. european journal of humanities and https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0132847 https://doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/5qztm 156 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us educational advancements, 4(8), 25-28. https://www.scholarzest.com/index.php/ejhea/article/view/3762 8. boltayev o.t., axmedova f.a., nurxonov b.s. comparative analysis of methods of calculating magnetic systems using electromagnetic field theory// international conference on developments in education. – amsterdam, netherlands, 22nd may, 2023. – pp. 20-27. 9. axmedova f.a. modeling of the electromagnetic influence of the traction systems on adjacent lines taking into account higher harmonics// «integration of power and mechanical engineering: innovative technologies and practices» materials of international scientific & practical conference. – 24th of november 2023, almaty. – pp. 27-35. https://www.scholarzest.com/index.php/ejhea/article/view/3762 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 nanomolecular materials: for new generation sensor technologies abdurakhmonova mushtariy elmurodovna termiz state university, faculty of physics and mathematics, 1st year student of physics education abstract: nanomolecular materials have gained significant importance in many areas of science and technology in recent years, in particular in sensor technologies. these materials are characterized by their unique physicochemical properties, which allow them to be used in the production of sensors requiring high sensitivity and accuracy. nanomolecular materials are mainly nanometer-sized structures, which are very large in relation to their surface area. these properties also allow them to change their chemical reactivity and physical properties. keywords: nanomolecular materials, science, chemical reactivity, physical properties, harmful gases, sensors, technologies, innovative technologies, materials. introduction as a result of the rapid development of modern science and technology, devices based on nanoscale materials are widely used.nanomolecular materials are used for many different sensors, including gas, chemical, and biological sensors.they have very high sensitivity, allowing them to quickly and accurately detect changes in the environment. for example, gas sensors made of nanomolecular materials are used to detect pollutants in the air, including carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and other harmful gases. these sensors also play an important role in ensuring safety in industrial processes and protecting the environment. the use of nanomolecular materials in new generation sensor technologies is due to their high conductivity and sensitivity.this article analyzes the physicochemical properties of nanomolecules and their importance in next-generation sensor technologies. theoretical foundations nanomolecular materials are materials with dimensions ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers.these materials have unique physicochemical properties and exhibit completely different behavior compared to macroscopic substances. for example, they have a large surface area, which increases their reactivity.it also has a high level of sensitivity in terms of optical, electrical, and thermal conductivity, due to the manifestation of quantum effects. sensors are devices that detect physical or chemical changes in the environment and convert them into signals.sensors made from nanomaterials can process a huge amount of information, despite their small size.this allows for applications in many areas such as medicine, ecology, security, and agriculture. nanomolecular materials in sensor technologies the use of nanomolecules as sensors is related to their sensitivity to various external factors. for example, carbon nanotubes, graphene, quantum dots, metal oxide nanoparticles, and other materials are used to detect gases such as oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and ammonia. 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us graphene-based sensors are among the materials that are very thin but have high sensitivity. they can detect the presence of a single molecule. this is useful in medicine, especially in the early detection of diseases. in addition, in biological sensors (biosensors), nanomolecules are combined with antibodies, dna fragments, or enzymes, and based on this, specialized analytical devices are created. for example, sensors that detect glucose levels are widely used in monitoring diabetes. optical sensors work based on the interaction of nanomolecules with light.this allows for very accurate and rapid analysis using plasmonic nanostructures or quantum dots. literature review and research methodology nanomolecular materials, such as graphene and other nanostructures, significantly increase electrical conductivity.sensors created using these materials are distinguished by their sensitivity and speed compared to traditional sensors.they also have the advantage of being small and lightweight.sensors developed using nanomolecular materials also allow for the modification of their chemical properties.for example, by introducing different chemical groups onto nanomaterials, their sensitivity to specific gases or chemicals can be increased.this process increases the sensors' versatility and ability to work in a variety of conditions.[1] the use of nanomolecular materials in sensor technologies is also important for biological sensors.biological sensors made using nanomolecular materials are used for, for example, blood tests, early detection of diseases, and other medical purposes.these sensors provide high sensitivity and accuracy in detecting biological molecules, which creates new opportunities in medicine. [2] discussion and conclusion section manufacturing using nanomolecular materials helps improve sensor, software lifespan and reliability.traditional sensors often fail within a short period of time or give inaccurate results.however, sensors made using nanomolecular materials provide long-term performance and high accuracy.this, in turn, expands the areas of application of sensors. the use of nanomolecular materials in sensor technologies is also reflected in their manufacturing process.[3] nanomolecular materials are often prepared using chemical or physical methods.these processes determine the quality of the materials and their performance in sensors.the use of innovative technologies in the production process of nanomolecular materials helps to improve their quality and reduce their cost.the development of sensor technologies using nanomolecular materials will open up many new possibilities in the future.these materials play an important role in environmental protection, industrial safety, and the development of new approaches in medicine.sensors using nanomolecular materials allow for new advances in various fields of humanity by providing fast and accurate data.[4] conclusion in conclusion, nanomolecular materials are of great importance in the development of new generation sensor technologies.their high sensitivity, accuracy, and long operating life ensure that the sensors can be used in many industries.sensors developed using nanomolecular materials are expected to create new opportunities in the future in environmental protection, medicine, and industry.these materials play an important role in the development of science and technology and contribute to improving human life. list of references 1. abdullayev, a. (2020) “nanomaterials and their role in sensor technologies.” academy of sciences of the republic of uzbekistan. 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. karimov, b. (2021). “nanomolecular materials: applications and prospects.” tashkent: national university of uzbekistan press. 3. murodov, d. (2019). “new generation sensors: the importance of nanomaterials.” uzbekistan journal of chemistry, 3(2), 45-50 4. sadykova, n. (2022). “nanomaterials and their applications in medicine.” collection of scientific articles in medical sciences, 12(1), 78-82. 5. tashkentov, r. (2023). “nanomolecular materials: innovations in energy and sensor technologies.” uzbekistan energy journal, 5(4), 12-20. 6. yunusova, l. (2021). “nanomaterials and their ecological applications.” journal of ecology of uzbekistan, 7(3), 34-39. 7. kadyrov, e. (2020). “nanomolecular materials: new opportunities in the food industry.” journal of food technologies, 6(2), 55-61. 50-54 description of the fire detection and suppression mechatronic module system using a sensi 50 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 description of the fire detection and suppression mechatronic module system using a sensitive element kamronbek baxtiyorjonov student, andijan state technical institute islombek marasulov ravshanbek o‘g‘li assistant, andijan state technical institute abstract: the design of a mechatronic module intended for early fire detection and automatic suppression is of significant importance. the structural scheme described in the article includes processes for rapid fire hazard detection, signal processing, and activation of the fire suppression mechanism. this article discusses the description, structure, and operating principles of the fire detection and suppression device. keywords: fire, sensitive element, mechatronic module, system, signals, temperature. introduction fire hazards represent one of the most pressing challenges in modern society, causing not only property damage but also posing significant risks to human lives. systems designed for early fire detection and automatic suppression are of critical importance in minimizing these risks. innovative approaches in the field of mechatronics, particularly systems utilizing sensitive elements and microcontrollers, provide effective solutions for ensuring fire safety. this article comprehensively examines the structure, operating principles, and characteristics of sensitive elements employed in a mechatronic module system designed for fire detection and suppression. the article aims to analyze the structural scheme of the system, which encompasses processes for rapid fire hazard detection, signal processing, and activation of automatic suppression mechanisms. main part figure 1. description of the structural (component) scheme of the mechatronic module system for fire detection and suppression using a sensitive element 51 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the structural scheme represents a mechatronic module designed for early fire detection and automatic suppression. the scheme includes processes for rapid fire hazard detection, signal processing, and activation of the fire suppression mechanism. the scheme depicts the main power source, the sensitive elements section, the warning section, and the fire suppression section. the sensitive elements section includes three types of sensitive elements: smoke, gas, and infrared sensors. it is known that smoke is an indicator of the onset of a flame. for the structural scheme, the mq-2 smoke detection sensor was selected. the mq-2 sensor is a versatile gas sensor capable of detecting alcohol, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, isobutene, liquefied petroleum gas, methane, propane, and smoke. it is popular among beginners due to its affordability and ease of use. the mq-2 sensor operates based on the principle of resistance change in the presence of various gases. when the target gas interacts with the heated mos (metal oxide semiconductor) material, it undergoes oxidation or reduction reactions that alter the resistance of the mos material. notably, the mq-2 gas sensor can detect multiple gases but lacks the ability to distinguish between them, a common characteristic of most gas sensors. the sensor includes a built-in potentiometer that allows adjustment of the digital output (d0) threshold. when the gas concentration in the air exceeds a certain threshold, the sensor’s resistance changes. this change in resistance is converted into an electrical signal that can be read by an arduino board. figure 2. mq-2 smoke sensor. the second sensitive element is the infrared (ir) sensor. it is appropriate to note that ir sensors are widely used in various industries due to their effectiveness in detecting heat, motion, or the presence of objects. infrared sensors are applied in the following fields: 52 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us medicine: ir thermometers are used for rapid body temperature measurement. additionally, infrared imaging (thermography) is employed to detect inflammation or circulatory issues. ir thermometers measure body temperature through the forehead or ear in seconds, making them particularly useful for children or large-scale screenings (e.g., at airports during pandemics). they do not require hazardous materials like mercury thermometers, making them safer. thermography identifies temperature differences on the body surface, aiding in the early detection of conditions such as inflammation (e.g., arthritis), circulatory issues, or breast cancer. medical thermography serves as a non-invasive alternative to methods like x-rays. recent research explores ir sensors for non-invasive glucose level measurement through the skin, which could be a significant breakthrough for diabetic patients. in rehabilitation, ir radiation is used in physiotherapy to generate heat, reduce muscle pain, and improve blood circulation. night vision cameras: ir cameras detect heat radiation in low-light conditions, enabling the visualization of objects and people. this is crucial for police, military, and security services. motion sensors: ir sensors (e.g., passive infrared pir sensors) detect motion in a room and are widely used in alarm systems and automatic lighting systems. fire detection: ir sensors detect heat in the early stages of a fire, activating fire alarm systems. biometric security: ir technology is used in facial recognition systems, particularly in lowlight conditions, to identify facial features. remote controls: ir signals are used in remote controls for tvs, air conditioners, audio systems, and some gaming consoles. they are simple, affordable, and reliable. smart devices: ir sensors in smartphones and tablets provide remote control functionalities, such as universal remotes. some ir touchscreens use infrared beams to detect touch, which is effective for large displays (e.g., interactive whiteboards). data transmission: ir ports, once common in phones, were used for wireless data transfer and are still used in some specialized devices. temperature monitoring: ir pyrometers or thermal cameras measure the temperature of machines, pipes, or products remotely in factories, helping prevent overheating. quality control: ir sensors detect surface defects (e.g., cracks or uneven coatings) in products. energy efficiency: ir imaging identifies heat losses in buildings, aiding in improving thermal insulation. automation: ir sensors detect products on conveyor belts, enabling sorting or packaging automation. night vision systems: ir cameras allow drivers to see people, animals, or obstacles in the dark, as seen in premium vehicles like bmw and mercedes-benz. autonomous driving: ir sensors, in conjunction with lidar and radar, scan the environment and detect obstacles. passenger monitoring: ir sensors monitor passengers’ conditions (e.g., detecting a drowsy driver). climate control: ir sensors measure passengers’ body temperatures to adjust cabin climate. missile guidance: ir sensors detect heat signatures (e.g., from aircraft or tank engines) to guide missiles. drones: ir cameras are used in drones for nighttime surveillance, search-and-rescue operations, and military reconnaissance. satellite imaging: ir sensors monitor temperature changes on earth’s surface from space, aiding in weather forecasting and natural disaster detection. 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us stealth technologies: ir sensors detect enemy devices or reduce their infrared signatures. gas leak detection: ir sensors detect the infrared signatures of gases like methane or carbon dioxide, identifying leaks in the oil and gas industry. climate research: ir spectroscopy measures greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, aiding in climate change analysis. forest fire detection: ir cameras on drones or satellites detect fire outbreaks in forests. water quality: ir sensors monitor water pollution levels or temperature changes. smart homes: ir sensors detect human presence in a room, automatically controlling lighting, air conditioning, or heating systems to save energy. security systems: ir sensors in home alarm systems detect motion. smart kitchen appliances: ir sensors monitor food temperature in ovens or microwaves. voice assistant integration: ir sensors work with smart speakers or iot devices, detecting human presence to activate music or lighting. an infrared (ir) sensor is an electronic device that detects infrared radiation from objects. these sensors sense infrared light at various wavelengths and convert it into electrical signals. this capability allows them to detect and identify target objects. the primary function of an ir sensor is to receive infrared radiation, convert it into an electrical signal, and use this signal to interpret information about the environment or objects within its range. ir sensors are versatile and widely used in fields such as proximity detection, contrast detection, and obstacle counting. proximity sensors are common in smartphones and robotics for obstacle avoidance systems. in smartphones, these sensors detect when a user’s face is close to the screen, disabling the display to prevent accidental touches. in robotics, proximity sensors help robots detect nearby objects and navigate without collisions. accurate distance detection enables precise interaction and control. the operating principle of an infrared (ir) sensor relies on two main components: the transmitter circuit and the receiver circuit. these components together form the basic structure of an ir sensor, often referred to as an optocoupler or optical coupler. figure 3. mq-5 gas sensor. object ir sensor operating scheme 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the third sensitive element is the mq-5 gas detection sensor. this device is widely used to detect natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas. it is highly suitable for the project being developed. the gas-sensing material used in the mq-5 sensor is tin dioxide (sno2), which has low conductivity in clean air. when combustible gas is present in the environment, the sensor’s conductivity increases with the rising concentration of combustible gas in the air. the mq-5 gas sensor is highly sensitive to butane, propane, and methane and can account for methane and propane. this sensor is an affordable option capable of detecting various combustible gases, particularly natural gas, making it suitable for multiple applications. conclusion the mechatronic module system developed for fire detection and suppression is regarded as a significant advancement in modern safety technologies. the smoke, gas, and infrared sensitive elements utilized in this system ensure high efficiency in early fire hazard detection. the mechanism, controlled by the arduino platform, guarantees the system’s automated operation and rapid response. the presented structural scheme and the operating principles of the sensitive elements establish a robust foundation for the practical application and further development of this system. in the future, enhancements such as the integration of artificial intelligence algorithms or the addition of supplementary sensitive elements could improve the system’s accuracy and functionality. this approach not only enhances fire safety but also contributes to the advancement of safety systems across various industries. references 1. jeremy blum. exploring arduino: tools and techniques for engineering wizardry, saint petersburg, 2015. 2. a.v. belov. creating devices with microcontrollers, saint petersburg, 2007. 3. a.v. belov. avr microcontrollers: from programming basics to creating practical devices, 2016. 4. v.a. petin. projects using the arduino controller (electronics), 2014. 5. https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/is_gazi 6. https://docs.sunfounder.com/projects/ultimate-sensor-kit/en/latest/components_basic/02component_gas.html mq-5 gaz sensor operating scheme 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 2, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 key indicators of quality and reliability of axial tools muhammadi turonov, talibjan umarov, davron bekturov tashkent state technical university, toshkent, uzbekistan turonovmuhammadi3@gmail.com abstract: the practice of using drills shows that the use of a certain type of drills in technologies depends not only on the technological requirements (productivity, grade of the material being processed, accuracy of the holes, etc.), but also on the ratio of the costs of purchasing the tool, main and auxiliary devices and their operation. the reliability of any technical object (in this case, the technological operation of processing a hole) is determined by the number and type of failures that occur in the technological system (in this case, the actual number of failures along the entire technological chain when processing a given hole. therefore, this article focuses on the “failure-free operation” of the technological system. keywords: indicator, tool, reliability, drill breakage, complex technical and economic indicator, quality tool. introduction the wear and durability of the tool are closely related to its reliability. each tool and each combination of cutting mode parameters has its own wear value, which determines the limit of economic durability. at the same time, the level of tool reliability is higher, the more stable the cutting process in a given operation [1-4]. the increase in the level of automation in modern technological processes of mechanical processing, as well as the tightening of requirements for the quality of manufactured products, have necessitated the formation of output technological parameters from the point of view of reliability. at the same time, a large share of all failures in operations of mechanical processing of materials, especially difficult-to-machine ones, falls on the tool. first of all, these are failures associated with the dimensional wear of the tool [5-9]. fig. 1 shows a classification scheme for tool quality indicators proposed by s. b. futoryan and v. v. skibin. it is evident from the scheme that tool quality depends on a large number of factors, the determining ones being: tool design quality, source material quality and tool manufacturing quality (the degree to which the manufactured tool parameters correspond to the technical requirements for its manufacture, as stipulated by the relevant standards and provided by the manufacturer) [10, 11]. cutting tool quality indicators are combined into three groups: parts processing quality indicators, parts processing productivity and tool reliability indicators. these groups of indicators are interrelated. for example, with an increase in productivity (cutting modes), tool reliability indicators usually decrease and often the quality of manufactured parts decreases [1113]. methods the relationship between the parameters of tool quality (under the condition of a given quality of part processing) is most fully expressed using a generalized complex technical and economic 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us indicator expressed through the productivity of the tool taking into account its reliability and the costs of production (or acquisition) of the tool: kppc v a m ++ = )( 21 , tvstvm = , (1) where: vm volume of material cut by a tool in a certain period of time, mm3; t, s, v cutting depth, mm; feed, mm/rev; cutting speed, m/min; с cost of manufacturing or purchasing a tool; p1 cost of resharpening (retooling) of the tool; p2 cost of machine downtime associated with tool changeover); k number of periods of tool life before complete failure; t average total tool life or durability. tool reliability is the ability to perform cutting operations while maintaining its performance indicators in the specified operation requirements for a certain period of time while maintaining the required quality of processing. according to currently accepted terminology, it is defined by failure-free operation, maintainability, durability, and storability [gost 13377-67 reliability. the property of a tool to maintain operability for a specified period of time without forced interruptions. it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of tool failure and tool malfunction. failure is a condition of a tool that consists of a violation of its operability during the cutting process, and malfunction is a condition of a tool when it does not meet at least one of the requirements of the technical documentation. tool failures are divided into design failures, caused by errors in its design, and technological failures, caused by its improper manufacture and operation. the failure of a tool is determined by a partial or complete loss of its operability. therefore, failures can be fixable, if the operability of the tool can be restored by resharpening the working surfaces, repairing the body or other parts, and irreparable. in the latter case, the tool is written off [14]. recoverable failures may be wear, abrasion or micro-cutting, formation during processing of the quality of the part below the permissible level in terms of accuracy, surface roughness or physical and mechanical properties of the surface layer; occurrence during processing of increased cutting forces unacceptable for the machine, device or work piece; formation of chips dangerous for the worker; occurrence of vibrations of unacceptable intensity [15]. irrecoverable failures are: cutting out of one of the cutting edges; breakage of the cutting plate or its separation from the tool body due to destruction of the solder or mechanical fastening; destruction of the tool body or its supporting part under the plate. each type of tool has its own relative quantitative ratio of different types of failures, which also depends on the processing conditions. table 1 shows the types of wear and failures of the tool typical for drills [2]. 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 1. classification of quality indicators of tools [1] the failure-free operation time of a tool is expressed by the operating time i before any complete failure, the total operating time i before complete irreparable failure, or the number of regrinds ki before complete irreparable failure. in mass production, it is more convenient to define these characteristics by the number of parts processed by a given tool (in drilling the number of drilled holes), before any failure zд and zд before irreparable failure. table 1 nature of refusal possible reasons способы предупреждения и устранения 1 2 3 1. chipping of cutting blades 1. high cutting speed 2. incorrect cooling mode (quantity and composition of coolant 3. presence of solid inclusions 1. reduce cutting speed 2. increase the amount of coolant; change its composition 3. cut off hard inclusions or replace the workpiece 2. dulling of cutting blades 1. long-term operation with a drill with a worn bridge 2. over-feed 3. incorrect sharpening 4. drill spinning in the chuck 5. poor fit of the conical surfaces of the drill shank and the adapter sleeve 1. sharpen the drill 2. reduce the feed 3. sharpen the drill correctly 4. secure the drill carefully 5. replace the cone sleeve 3.rapid wear of cutting blades 1. high cutting speed 1. reduce cutting speed 4. damage to the edges ribbons 1. the drill bushing is larger than the drill bit. 1. replace the bushing 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. drill breakage 1. severe blunting of the drill 2. large spindle play 3. overload of the drill 4. spiral flute clogged with chips 5. low speed at high feed 6. insufficient clearance angle of the drill 7. voids, cavities and heterogeneity of the work piece 1. do not let the drill become blunt. 2. adjust the spindle 3. set the correct operating mode 4. remove the drill from the holes more often, clean it from chips 5. increase the speed or decrease the feed 6. reinsert the drill, increase the back angle 7. replace the work piece 6. foot breakage shank 1. presence of dirt and burrs in the adapter sleeve 2. poor fit of the shank in the tapered adapter sleeve 1. clean and dry wipe the adapter sleeve and drill shank 2. repair the adapter sleeve or replace it with a new one the failure-free operation of a tool is determined by the probability of its failure-free operation p(), average durability or mean time without failure t, the time of operation with probability p or guaranteed durability tp and indirect probabilistic characteristics the density of the distribution of durability (the probability density of failures) f() and the failure rate.[3] the probability of failure-free operation p() characterizes the probability that in a given time interval  the failure of the tool will not occur. the failure rate () is determined by the probability of failure per unit of time after a given moment of processing, provided that the failure has not occurred before this moment. additional indicators of tool reliability are the average failure rate a(), which determines the average number of tool failures per unit of time taken for the moment in time under consideration, and the average time of failure-free operation . for statistical evaluation of these characteristics, tests or observations of the operation of a sample of n tools under specified conditions are carried out. in this case, the durability of each of them is determined: 1, 2, 3,..., n. the durability can be assessed using the following formulas [5]:  = = 0 1 1 n i i n t  , 0 0 )( )( n mn p   − = ,     −  = + )( )(2 1 )( ii nn m ,      == 0 )( )()( n m af ,  = = 0 1 0 0 n i i n   , (2) where: no number of instruments at the beginning of the tests; ni, ni+1 -the number of working instruments at the beginning and end of the interval , respectively; m() number of failures during time ; m() the number of failures in the time interval from ( /2) до ( + /2). 82 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us results and discussions the dependence p() is called the reliability curve or the decay curve; it can be used to find t(p) — the failure-free operation time of a tool with probability p, i.e. the time during which, on average, (1-p)100% of the tools will fail. to assess the reliability of a newly received batch of tools, it is advisable to test or observe the operation of the tools in this batch to obtain the distribution of times to failures of all types of interest (for example, until wear иi and until failure рi of the tool). then it is possible to separately assess the wear resistance and strength of the tool. the values of t, p(), f(), () and  can be different for a new tool, after the first resharpening, after the second resharpening, etc. at the same time, with a sufficiently large amount of data, it is advisable to construct these dependences separately for each period of operation — until the first failure, from the first to the second, from the second to the third, etc. due to the growing requirements for the stability of the cutting tool, the dispersion indicators of the tool life are of great importance. the dispersion of the tool life can be estimated by its mean square deviation or relative dispersion indicator the coefficient of variation of the life. an indirect indicator of the stability of the cutting properties of the tool can also be the value of its guaranteed life tp. for the analysis of the quality of the tool and the causes of failures, the function describing the probability of failure in a very short period of time, provided that there were no failures before this moment, is also of interest. this function is called the failure rate and has the form: )(1 )( )( tf tf t − = , (3) where: ѓ(t) – distribution density; f(t) – long term failsafe distribution function. statistically, the failure rate is defined as the ratio of the number m of instruments that fail per unit of time to the number mи(t) of instruments that are operational at time t: , )(/)]([ / )(1 )( )( ttm m ntmn tnm tf tf t и   = −  = − = (4) where: mи(t) = n – m(t), n total number of instruments in the sample. the failure rate function can be used in cases where the running-in period and the period of accelerated wear at the end of the operating time are of great importance for the tool life. then the failure rate will be high at the beginning and end of the operation, and relatively low in the middle section of stable operation. in this case, it is possible to optimize the reliability during the operating period by initial running-in to eliminate early failures and replacing the tool at the onset of the period of accelerated wear. for a reliable statistical assessment of the failure rate, it is necessary to have a large group of tests or observations, since (t)t is actually a particularity and is subject to large random variations, especially towards the end of the tests. conclusions the task of determining the value of the economic durability of the тэ is complicated by the fact that the existing standards do not take into account the inevitable dispersion of the operational characteristics of the tool (its actual durability). this leads to the need to adjust the calculated cutting modes based on operational tests for reliability. thus, the definition of cutting modes by the traditional method is carried out in the following sequence: first, the cutting depth is set (for drilling in solid material t=dotv /2), then the feed and, 83 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us lastly, the cutting speed. the feed is assigned the maximum permissible, taking into account the restrictions from the conditions: drill strength s1 = c3 d x, the greatest force allowed by the feed drive mechanism of the machine (s2=(poдоп / c2  dx2) 1/y2), the greatest feed allowed by the strength of the main movement mechanism of the machine s3=(mкрmax / c1  dx1 )1/у1, where the parameters ci, xi, yi are determined according to the cutting mode standards, and poдоп and mкрmax from the passport of the machine used. in case of increased requirements for the roughness of the hole surface or reduced rigidity of the work piece, the feed is also determined from the conditions of surface roughness restrictions (s4) and (s5) in accordance with the recommendations of the cutting mode standards and reference literature the maximum permissible feed is determined as: s= min{s1, s2, s3, s4, s5}.to determine the cutting speed, the value of the period of economic stability тэ is specified (from previous experience, reference literature, or as mentioned above by economic calculations), then the value of the cutting speed vэ is determined, corresponding to the specified values of s and te. the obtained values s, vэ are checked for permissible cutting power according to the machine passport data, adjusted with the machine passport data. references 1. umarov t. povishenie effektivnosti obrabotki otverstiy svyorlami s mexanicheskim krepleniem tvyordosplavnix plastin: avtoref. dis. na soisk. uchyonoy stepeni kand. texn.nauk. kiev, 1990. 2. katalog instrumenta dlya sverleniya i frezerovaniya. oao «kirovgradskiy zavod tvyordix splavov». 2014. 3. t. umarov, m.z. turonov, s.b. normatov. mashina detallariga ishlov berishda qattiq qotishmali parmalardan foydalanishdagi ishlash samaradorligini ta`minlash [ensuring efficiency in the use of carbide drills in machining machine parts]. kompozitsionnie materiali №2, 2023. www.gupft.uz. 4. tolibjon umarov, mukhammadi turonov, yahyojon meliboyev, influence of design and cutting conditions on the accuracy of the hole obtained by drills with multifaceted non-regrind-able inserts (mnp). the international journal of integrated engineering (ijie) scopus. international journal of integrated engineering vol.15no.7(2023)157-165. https://publisher.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/ijie/article/view/13112. 5. muhammadi turonov, tolibjon umarov, sultonmurod normatov, davron bekturov. wear resistance analysis of hss drill bits p6m5 and special round carbide drill bits vk8 for drilling alloyed steels and alloys. e3s web of conferences 461, 01096 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202346101096. 6. umarov t.u., turonov m.z., juraev a.x. vliyanie svoystva obrabativaemogo materiala protsessa rezaniya, vliyayuщix na nadejnost osevogo instrumenta. mashinasozlikda fan, ta’lim va ishlab chiqarishning integratsiyasi: tendensiyalar, muammolar va yechimlar. // xalqaro miqyosdagi ilmiy va ilmiy-texnik konferensiya materiallari to‘plami. -toshkent. tdtu, 2023. -206 b. 7. umarov t.u., turonov m.z. texnologicheskie vozmojnosti povisheniya nadejnosti perovix tverdosplavnix sverl. mashinasozlikda fan, ta’lim va ishlab chiqarishning integratsiyasi: tendensiyalar, muammolar va yechimlar. // xalqaro miqyosdagi ilmiy va ilmiy-texnik konferensiya materiallari to‘plami. -toshkent. tdtu, 2023. -204 b. 8. umarov t.u., turonov m.z. texnologicheskie vozmojnosti povisheniya nadejnosti sverl s mexanicheskim krepleniem tverdosplavnix plastin. mashinasozlikda fan, ta’lim va ishlab chiqarishning integratsiyasi: tendensiyalar, muammolar va yechimlar. // xalqaro miqyosdagi ilmiy va ilmiy-texnik konferensiya materiallari to‘plami. -toshkent. tdtu, 2023. -202 b. 9. turonov m.z., umarov t.u. qattiq qotishmali ko‘p qirrali charxlanmaydigan plastinali (kqchp) parmalarda teshik teshish samaradorliligini oshirish. “quymakorlik ishlab chiqarish sohasida resurs va energiyatejamkor innovatsion texnologiyalar” mavzusidagi xalqaro miqiyosdagi ilmiy va ilmiy-texnik anjuman. 18-19 may, 2023, toshkent. 278 b. http://www.gupft.uz/ https://publisher.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/ijie/article/view/13112 https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202346101096 84 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. umarov t., turonov m.z., muxiddinov z.n., texnologicheskie vozmojnosti povisheniya nadejnosti sverl s mexanicheskim krepleniem tverdosplavnix plastin. «za znachitelniy vklad v razvitie nauki»: sodrujestvo nezavisimix gosudarstv astana, kazaxstan. (www.bobek-kz.com). https://t.me/bobek_science. 11. t. umarov, m.z. turonov, s.b. normatov. mashina detallariga ishlov berishda qattiq qotishmali parmalardan foydalanishdagi ishlash samaradorligini ta`minlash. kompozitsionnie materiali №2, 2023. veb-sayt: www/gupft.uz. issn 2091-5527. 12. umarov t., turonov m., bekturov d., jiraev a. methodological basis for choosing rational modes cutting from the conditions of a given level of operational axial tool reliability. “transportda resurs tejamkor texnologiyalar” mavzusidagi xorijiy olimlar ishtirokidagi xalqaro ilmiy – texnika anjumani ilmiy ishlanmalari (2023 yil 20-21 dekabr). mualliflar jamoasi: t.f.d., professor s.s.shaumarov tahriri ostida. – toshkent: “tdtu”, 2023 –619 b. 13. turonov m.z., jo‘raeva n.a., murodov s.z. obrabotka grupp otverstiy v korpusnix detalyax. mashinasozlikda fan, ta’lim va ishlab chiqarishning integratsiyasi: tendensiyalar, muammolar va yechimlar.// respublika miqyosdagi ilmiy va ilmiy-texnik konferensiya materiallari to‘plami.-toshkent. tdtu, 2022.-247 b. 14. mardonov, u., khasanov, s., jeltukhin, a., & ozodova, s. (2023). influence of using cutting fluid under the effect of static magnetic field on chip formation in metal cutting with hss tools (turning operation). manufacturing technology, 23(1), 73-80. 15. mardonov, u., tuyboyov, o., abdirakhmonov, k., & tursunbaev, s. (2023). mathematical approach to the flank wear of high-speed steel turning tool in diverse external cutting environments. international journal of mechatronics and applied mechanics,(14), 19-26. 16. umarov, e. o., mardonov, u. t., & turonov, m. z. (2021, january). measurement of dynamic viscosity coefficient of fluids. in euro-asia conferences (vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 37-40). https://t.me/bobek_science 115-119 the history of architectural development and gradual evolution of sardobas in central asia 115 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the history of architectural development and gradual evolution of sardobas in central asia mahmatqulov ilhom turdimurodovich samarqand davlat arxitektura-qurilish universiteti, arxitektura fanlari bo’yicha falsafa doktori(phd), dotsent maxmatqulov1@mail.ru mahamatov mirabbos safarovich samarqand davlat arxitektura-qurilish universiteti, "arxitektura nazaryasi va tarixi. arxitektura yodgorliklarini ta'mirlash va tiklash" ixtisosligi bo'yicha mustaqil tadqiqotchi maxamatov@mail.ru abstract: this article provides information on the historical architectural development of sardobas in central asia, their functional purposes, and architectural features. it also discusses the architectural and structural complexity of these hydro-technical constructions, as well as the stages of their artistic and aesthetic evolution. keywords: restoration, research, bibliographic, conservation, architectural construction, scientific research, dome, tile, ornament, portal, arch, mausoleum, monument, corridor, well. the earliest emergence of sardobas in central asia was previously believed to date back to the 9th century. however, m.e. masson proposed that they had existed in central asia even before the islamic period. at the end of the 20th century, archaeologists discovered unique remains of a sardoba dating back to the 1st century bce in the ancient town of dilbarjin, near the city of balkh in northern afghanistan. this sardoba significantly differs from medieval sardobas in terms of its layout, structure, and water collection method. it consisted of a square-shaped pool, a domed hall covering it, and a surrounding corridor (raxrov). the sardoba pool was mainly constructed in the style of a well and was supplied with underground water (figure 1). figure 1. sardoba of the ancient town of dilberjin. 1st century bce, northern afghanistan. 116 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us from the early 9th century to the early 13th century, the socio-economic conditions and the development of science in central asia led to the flourishing of trade and craftsmanship. as a result, construction along trade caravan routes, including the building of sardobas, significantly increased. historical sources from this period indicate that many sardobas were built in the city of balkh and the balkh region, in the oases of merv and bukhara, as well as in the southern areas of central asia with hot and arid climates. during the medieval period, similar water reservoirs— called ob-ombor in iran and iraq, and avdon in azerbaijan—were also constructed in neighboring regions (figure 2). figure 2. sardoba discovered near the town of anau. 15th century (according to g.a. pugachenkova). the next stage in the development of sardobas occurred during the era of timur and the timurids. however, very few sardobas from this period have survived to the present day. among them are the anau sardoba and the yoghochli sardoba near the city of jizzakh (figure 3). 117 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. yoghochli sardoba near the city of jizzakh. during the reign of shaybanid ruler abdullakhan ii (1557–1598), many sardobas were constructed throughout central asia. among those that have survived to the present day are the buzachi, koravulbozor, maymanok, abdullakhan, and begichok sardobas. there are even villages named "sardoba" in uzbekistan and turkmenistan. along the ancient caravan route from qarshi to the city of kerki in turkmenistan (near the modern village called “eski talimarjon”), the ruins of a sardoba named “sangi suvloq,” built in the early 17th century, have been discovered. the architectural layout of this sardoba closely resembles a blueprint drawn by an architect from bukhara, featuring a domed central structure surrounded by an entrance portal, a staircase, and additional rooms and arched verandas intended for travelers to rest temporarily. these rooms and verandas were accessible from the outside. the reservoir of the sardoba was considerably large, with a diameter of 17 meters (figure 4). figure 4. solitary sardoba in the qarshi desert (photo by m.m. reshetkin) 118 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us it is evident that the sangi suvloq sardoba is different from the usual sardobas, as it not only served as a water source but also provided a resting place for travelers. therefore, it can be considered a practical example of the "sardoba maskan" (sardoba with accommodation) depicted in the architectural plans of bukhara. these sardobas are similar not only in terms of architectural structure but also in their time of creation. in his work on sardobas (1935), e. m. masson mentioned that "sometimes, in some sardobas, there were rooms for travelers." we believe that masson was referring specifically to these sardoba accommodations. after traveling approximately 20 km from the city of navoi towards bukhara, the remains of the 11th-century raboti malik caravanserai are encountered. a sardoba with the same name is located next to it. this sardoba has been restored in the present day. the russian scholar a. leman, in his diaries from 1841-42, described this sardoba as a shelter for travelers. this is correct, as wide benches for resting were originally placed around the pool inside the sardoba. along the ancient caravan route from qarshi to bukhara, near the rabat, the "kokir sardoba" also had spacious benches around its pool. these benches were accessible via stone stairs. d.n. logofet, who studied this sardoba in the early 20th century, noted that "the benches were so spacious that large numbers of caravan travelers could easily fit." the size of the sardoba pool was quite large, approximately 15-20 meters in diameter, and the walls beneath the dome were plastered with gypsum. some sardobas have a structure where the pool and the dome above it are located completely or almost entirely underground, with only the entrance arch and the dome's top visible from the outside. such sardobas have been discovered in the ancient city of anau, turkmenistan. one of the largest architectural monuments in tashkent, the abdul qosim madrasa, built by abdul qosim eshon in 1850, also contains a sardoba in its courtyard with a dome covering the water reservoir (figure 5). 5-rasm. sardoba oldidagi suv tindiruvchining umumiy kurinishi. atrofdan oqib kelgan qor va yomgir suvlari avval suv tindirgichda tindirilib undagi, loy hovuz tubiga chukkandan so’ng, toza suv sardobaga quyilgan. suv tindirgichga chorva mollari kirib suvsni ifloslantirmaslik uchun uning atrofi paxsa devor bilan uralgan. (a. muhammadjanov buyicha). the sardoba in the courtyard of the qutlug murod-inoq madrasah in khiva (early 19th century) not only has a pool, but its dome is also entirely underground, forming a "well-house" structure. this sardoba is exceptionally well-preserved, and from the outside, only the entrance arch and the dome's top opening can be seen. the common feature of the anau, abdul qosim, and qutlug murod-inoq sardobas is the integration of the pool and dome diameter. naturally, these types of 119 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sardobas served primarily as sources of drinking water. thus, the history of the formation of sardobas has gone through a long journey, and their distribution and development in the regions of central asia have been largely influenced by the economic trade relations with eastern and western countries, as well as the historical-geographical and natural-climatic conditions of the region. sardobas can be classified into different groups based on their construction sites and architectural-functional solutions. the following table presents the types of sardobas based on their construction locations and the names of those that have survived to the present day. centuries sardobas built along caravan routes sardobas built in cities village sardobas ix sayid sardoba on the bezdbukhara caravan route sardoba of the friday mosque in kufan x raboti malik sardoba x-xiii raboti ishkak sardoba sardoba of the ibn zeyd architectural complex in marv xiv-xv “ogochli” sardoba near jizzakh maymanak sardoba in kashkadarya sardoba of anau city near ashgabat xvi abdullakhon sardoba near chorjov buzachi sardoba yusuf sardoba, qushsardoba, begichak sardoba xvii chilgumbaz sardoba on the burdalik caravan route near qarshi qarovul bozor sardoba, charcha sardoba in muborak district, chigil sardoba sangi suvloq sardoba, qarshi city sardoba, "madrasai dor ushshifo" sardoba in bukhara xviii sardoba of the khalifa khudoydod khanaqah in bukhara eshoni imlo sardoba, sardoba at the courtyard of the qutlug murod-inoq madrasah in khiva, sardoba of qamashi village in kashkadarya from this table, it can be observed that in the past, sardobas were mostly built at crossroads where caravan routes intersected, near caravanserais and rabats, and generally along caravan routes. sardobas in cities were primarily constructed next to madrasas, khanaqahs, mosques, and hospitals. village sardobas, on the other hand, were built near larger public buildings or markets. reference: 1. маньковская л.ю. два малоизвестных памятника гражданского зодчества города карши. сау, 1968, № 5. 2. марщиев м.с. сардоба городища анау. труды ютакэ, т.ii-ашхабад, 1951, с.396403. 3. массон м.е. проблемы изучения цистерн-сардоба. т., 1935. 4. muxammadjanov a. o’zbekistonning qadimgi gidrotexnik inshootlari. t., 1997. 5. уралов а.с. к вопросу о типологии сардобы. //общественные науки в узбекистане. 1996, № 11-12. -с. 81-83. 254 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 kutubxonalarda kitoblarni dezinfeksiya qiluvchi uv-c asosidagi qurilmaning samaradorligini baholash xolmatov oybek olim o‘g‘li katta o‘qituvchi, andijon davlat texnika instituti, o‘zbekiston, andijon holmatov.oybek@bk.ru obidov asrorbek adaxamjon oʻgʻli talaba, andijon davlat texnika instituti, o‘zbekiston, andijon asrorbekobidov777@gmail.com annotatsiya: ushbu maqolada kutubxona fondidagi bosma materiallarda uchraydigan mikroorganizmlarni yo‘q qilish maqsadida maxsus ishlab chiqilgan uv-c (254 nm) nurlanishiga asoslangan avtomatlashtirilgan qurilmaning samaradorligi tahlil qilinadi. tadqiqotda qurilmaning havodagi va kitob sirtlaridagi bakteriyalar hamda mog‘or zamburug‘lariga qarshi ta’siri o‘rganildi. qurilma yopiq muhitda xavfsiz ishlaydi va inson sog‘lig‘iga salbiy ta’sir ko‘rsatmaydi. tajriba natijalari mikroorganizmlar sonining sezilarli darajada kamayishini ko‘rsatdi. ushbu texnologiya kutubxonalarda sanitariya holatini yaxshilash va kutubxona materiallarini uzoq muddat saqlashga xizmat qiladi. kalit so‘zlar: uv-c dezinfeksiya, kutubxona gigiyenasi, mexatron qurilma, mog‘or zamburug‘lari, avtomatlashtirilgan tizim, chop etiladigan materiallar himoyasi, ilmiy tadqiqot, havo dezinfeksiyasi, kutubxona texnologiyalari. kirish. kutubxonalar – madaniy meros va ilm-fan manbai bo‘lgan muassasalardir. u yerdagi kitoblar va hujjatlar yillar, hatto asrlar davomida saqlanadi. ammo bunday bosma materiallar tashqi muhit ta’sirida, xususan namlik, harorat va havo almashinuvi yetarli bo‘lmagan hollarda mikroorganizmlar, ayniqsa mog‘orlar va bakteriyalar bilan ifloslanadi. bu esa nafaqat hujjatlarning yemirilishiga olib keladi, balki kutubxona xodimlari va foydalanuvchilari sog‘lig‘i uchun jiddiy xavf tug‘diradi. an’anaviy tozalash usullari (quruq artish, kimyoviy ishlov) samarali bo‘lishiga qaramay, ular inson salomatligiga zarar yetkazishi mumkin. shu boisdan, zamonaviy va ekologik xavfsiz texnologiyalar, jumladan uv-c nurlanishi asosida ishlaydigan qurilmalar yordamida avtomatlashtirilgan dezinfeksiya texnologiyalari dolzarb bo‘lib qolmoqda. mazkur tadqiqotda ishlab chiqilgan uv-c qurilmasi yordamida kitoblar yuzasidagi zararli mikroorganizmlarni yo‘q qilish samaradorligi o‘rganildi. materiallar va uslublar. qurilma: qurilma 254 nm to‘lqin uzunligida uv-c nurlanishi chiqaruvchi lampalarga ega bo‘lib, to‘liq yopiq kamerada ishlaydi. qurilma tarkibiga quyidagilar kiradi: uv-c lampa 255 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us bloklari, mikrokontroller, harorat va namlik sensorlari, havo aylanish tizimi, himoya qopqog‘i, avtomatik eshiklar. boshqaruv arduino mega platformasi orqali amalga oshirildi. tajriba o‘tkazish joyi: zahiriddin muhammad bobur nomidagi andijon viloyat kutubxonasi. tajribada 12 ta turli yoshdagi va holatdagi kitoblar ishtirok etdi. dezinfeksiya vaqti: 0 (nazorat), 5 daqiqa, 10 daqiqa, 15 daqiqa. har bir kitobdan tsa (bakteriyalar uchun) va mea (mog‘orlar uchun) muhitga kontakt plastinkalar yordamida 10 soniya davomida namunalar olindi. har bir holatda 3 ta o‘lchov amalga oshirildi. inkubatsiya: namuna koloniyalari 27±2°c haroratda 5–7 kun davomida inkubatsiya qilindi. hisoblash: mikroorganizmlar cfu/100 cm² birligida hisoblandi va kamayish foizi formulasi bilan baholandi. 1-rasm. dezinfeksiyadan keyingi mikroorganizmlar sonining kamayishi. natijalar va muhokama. dezinfeksiya vaqti bakteriyalar (cfu/100 cm²) fungi (cfu/100 cm²) umumiy kamayish (%) 0 daqiqa (nazorat) 420 360 0% 5 daqiqa 120 90 73% 10 daqiqa 45 30 91% 15 daqiqa 15 10 97% xulosa. ushbu tadqiqotda ishlab chiqilgan uv-c asosidagi dezinfeksiya qurilmasi kutubxona sharoitida yuqori samaradorlik ko‘rsatdi. qurilma bakteriyalar va mog‘or zamburug‘larining 90% dan ortig‘ini yo‘q qila oldi. shuningdek, qurilmaning yopiq kamerada ishlashi uni xavfsiz qiladi, bu esa kutubxona xodimlari va foydalanuvchilari uchun qo‘shimcha himoya darajasini ta’minlaydi. qurilma avtomatlashtirilgan va inson aralashuvisiz ishlashi mumkin, bu esa uni amaliyotda qulay va samarali vosita qiladi. 256 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us kelgusida qurilmaning turli harorat va namlik sharoitida ishlash samaradorligi, boshqa materiallar (karton, charm) bilan o‘zaro ta’siri ham o‘rganishni rejalaganmiz. adabiyotlar 1. beggs, c.b., sleigh, p.a. (2002). a quantitative method for evaluating the germicidal effect of upper room uv fields. aerosol sci. 2. chen, f. et al. (2010). photocatalytic oxidation for antimicrobial control in built environments. build. environ. 3. iso 11799:2003. information and documentation – requirements for storage of documents in libraries and archives. 4. vijayakumar, r., kannan, v.v., sandle, t., manoharan, c. (2012). in vitro antifungal efficacy of biguanides and quaternary ammonium compounds. pda j. pharm. sci. 5. sterflinger, k. (2010). fungi: their role in deterioration of cultural heritage. fungal biol. rev. 6. gutarowska, b., kancler, m. (2009). air disinfection using uv method with flow lamp medivent. instal. 7. dalrymple, o.k., stefanakos, e., trotz, m.a. (2010). a review of the mechanisms and modelling of photocatalytic disinfection. appl. catal. b. 33 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 7, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 theoretical and practical foundations of information technologies and modern approaches to their use in public administration 1 khabibullayev ibrokhim, 2 akhrorov fakhriddin, 2 telyaev ismat 1 professor of the tashkent university of humanities ibrohim5004@gmail.com 2 doctoral student of the jizzakh branch of the national university of uzbekistan named after mirzo ulugbek abstract: the article highlights the organization of e-government management system development activities in uzbekistan and abroad, as well as the necessity of applying egovernment systems, their capabilities and effectiveness issues. keywords: e-government, it, geoinformation systems, public, citizen. introduction in the age of digital technologies, increasing the efficiency of the public administration system, providing the population with various fast and high-quality services, including medical care, is being implemented through the e-government system. geoinformation systems (gis) play an important role in this process. they allow for visual analysis of territorial and spatial data, increase accuracy, and accelerate decision-making. gis is widely used in all areas of the digitalization process. digitalization has a positive impact on the development of the most promising methods of organizing medical care for the population worldwide. in this case, gis plays an important role in the effective construction of information technology infrastructure in medicine. therefore, developed countries actively use innovations in the field of medicine. based on the foregoing, the use of geoinformation systems in the design of medical institutions in the e-government management system in our country is becoming a requirement of the times. methods the research methodology is based on the methods of system analysis, management, and information processing, the measures taken to inform medical institutions in the e-government management system of the republic of uzbekistan, the application of geoinformation technologies in the design and management of medical institutions are analyzed from a scientific and practical point of view, and the measures taken to develop and improve them are substantiated. at the same time, the research is carried out on the basis of the concepts and principles of “e-government”, “geoinformation systems” (gis). e-government is a management system aimed at delivering public services to citizens, businesses, and government agencies in an efficient, transparent, and convenient manner using information and communication technologies. gis is a system that allows for the collection, management, analysis, and visualization of geographical data. it consists of the integration of maps, databases, and software. 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us results and discussions the development of communications, informatization, and telecommunication technologies as an important factor in further improving the living standards of the population and strengthening the country's economic stability is among the priority tasks of the government policy of uzbekistan. the essence, goals, and prospects for the development of this task are reflected in a number of resolutions of the president of the republic of uzbekistan in this area, according to which programs for the development of telecommunication technologies, networks, and communication infrastructure in the republic of uzbekistan for the near future have been approved. the modern stage of society's development is characterized by the rapid growth of information technologies and the volume of human knowledge about the environment. information technologies have become one of the important sources of development in a number of spheres of human activity, including political governance systems. the center for the development of the “electronic government” system in the form of state institutions under the state committee for communications, informatization and telecommunication technologies of the republic of uzbekistan was established by resolution no. pp-1989 of june 27, 2013. the concept of “egovernment” has begun to be used as a factor in the development of information technologies in all state bodies, organizations, and institutions of the republic. at the same time, the experience of advanced countries and the opinions of scientific researchers on e-government were studied. the concept of e-government did not appear by itself. for this purpose, foreign scientists conducted a number of studies and expressed the ideas obtained as a result of the research in their works. before the concept of e-government, the concept of “information society” appeared. authors such as d. bell, w. j. martin, e. toffler, and d. naisbitt have made significant contributions to understanding ict as a key factor in the development of progress within the framework of information technology theory. according to d. bell, the concept of “information society” became a new stage in the development of the theory of post-industrial society. he writes: “post-industrial” society is a process. in his work “the experience of social forecasting,” he states that technological development leads to the transition from material production of products to an information economy, where knowledge and information serve as strategic resources and as a representative, i.e., an intermediary, for transforming post-industrial society. according to bell, “the first infrastructure for development is transport roads, canals, highways, and others. all this allowed for the movement of goods and people. the second infrastructure is the means of energy transmission water wheels, steam engines, gas, electricity, and oil pipelines”. with their help, people provide themselves with energy for mass production. "finally, the third infrastructure was postal, newspaper, telegraph, radio, and television. it is this third infrastructure that plays the role of a large information "explosion" and the expansion of the social and psychological impact of people. according to the american sociologist alvin toffler, author of the book "the third infrastructure," industrial development at the end of the 20th century faced a systemic crisis. this crisis manifested itself in everything from social security, school education, healthcare, the international financial system to other spheres. the "third infrastructure" (the first infrastructure agrarian development, the second industrial) is not a continuation of industrial society, but a fundamental change in the historical direction. toffler believed that the "third wave," an important resource of development, would become a platform for increasing the excess value of goods in the economy. the relevance of the problem is based on changes in the field of information technology (it), which are penetrating various spheres of public life, affecting society itself, covering central government bodies, local authorities, and other spheres of government. 35 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us today, the republic of uzbekistan is implementing large-scale measures aimed at the development and widespread use of information technologies in state and local governance. in order to form a unified national information resource and ensure automated information exchange based on the use of global international information networks, the implementation of projects to create a network infrastructure of government bodies has begun. a list of information resources of state importance has been determined, and their state registration has been carried out. scientific research is being conducted to create advanced information technologies and software, and to protect information within the framework of relevant state scientific and technical programs. monitoring the development process of "e-government" and evaluating their effectiveness are separate tasks, as the object of study is a dynamic, new, and negative concept. in the early 1990s, m. castells developed the concept "information age: economy, society, and culture". in the concept, castells comes to the conclusion that classical capitalism should be transformed into "information capitalism." he points out that the crisis of democracy is caused by a decrease in confidence in politics, the lack of freedom of the media, the ineffectiveness of legislation, and other similar problems. as a solution, he proposes the following: the development of local authorities, the widespread use of electronic communication, and the transition from a hierarchical management system to a network based on horizontal communication. the concept of the information society, in turn, served as the theoretical basis for the concept of "electronic democracy." researcher m.s. vershinin asserts that "electronic democracy" is a voluntary democratic political system, in which information and communication technologies (ict) are used to perform important functions of democratic processes. in addition to the above-mentioned scientists, y.u. nisnevich also conducted research in this area. y.u. nisnevich pays special attention to considering the possibilities of "electronic democracy" to meet the demands of the time. in the author's opinion, ict provides employees of any state or local body with "information openness", allows for the liberalization of material and human resources to improve the well-being of society. researcher don tepskott, in his book "digital economy," emphasizes: "new information technologies not only reduce government spending but also fundamentally change the ways government programs are implemented and the essence of management". the concept and practice of the new public administration are based on the following basic principles:  the state must comply with the standards of the information society and the information economy.  the main problem of public administration;  the need for a highly adaptable leader and the application of new electronic technologies;  introduction of competition and competitiveness in public administration to reduce service costs and improve their quality.;  ensuring an individual approach to all citizens in cooperation with the state.;  increasing production discipline and reducing costs. the administrative state was replaced by a governing one. at the same time, special attention was paid to the provision of high-quality public services. therefore, ict has been implemented throughout the government. the reforms confirmed that modern information and communication technologies can become an important tool for increasing the effectiveness of public administration. ict allows managing various types of data, uniting government structures into a single network, increasing the effectiveness and quality of decisions, and providing services to 36 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the population in electronic form. these reforms aimed to restore trust in the authorities due to the inability of transparent bureaucracy to overcome the growing demands of society. the introduction of ict in the public sector is designed to bring the state closer to citizens, to implement it on the basis of a transparent, effective contract. this largely allows the state to integrate with other participants in the decision-making process, which emphasizes the equality of dialogue between formal and informal structures in the political sphere. it was necessary to develop a conceptual model that would effectively describe the interaction processes of new subjects within the network. a new concept of understanding public administration was put forward in 1997 in the documents of the united nations development programme, which included the concept of "good governance." "governance," that is, "management," should be considered as the manager of economic, political, and administrative power at all levels of the state. the main principles of "good governance" are:  visibility. government bodies should work transparently. they should use a free and understandable language..  participate. citizens' participation in state policy ensures greater trust in the state..  efficiency. programs should be effective and based on clear objectives, long-term results assessments, and experience.  adaptability. programs should be consistent and flexible..  reporting to the community. the introduction of ict as a management tool has been transformed into the formation of "egovernment." the emphasis here is not on technical aspects, but on changing the system of public administration, its structure, and its interaction with society. for the first time, the term "e-government" was actively discussed in the scientific community with the help of the theory of the information society, then the discussions moved to the media and were recorded in regulatory documents. in russian scientific and political debates, the term "e-government" is derived from the english translation of the words "electronic government" or "e-government." the english word "government" means not only "higher executive power," but also "e-government" as a whole. almost all definitions of the concept of "e-government" can be divided into two ways: narrow and broad. in a narrow sense, the concept of "e-government" is equated with technological means communication channels, fields, interaction mechanisms, etc. in a broad sense, "egovernment" is understood as a new system between the state and society. smurgunov put forward two views on e-government: "at first glance, this concept reflects the improvement of public administration through the use of new ict, which will allow increasing the efficiency of public services. in the second view, "e-government" means a change in the entire complex of relations between public administration and society. the evolution of scientific approaches and definitions of "e-government" can be clearly understood through the materials presented at the all-russian joint conference "internet and modern society," which has been held annually since the beginning of the 2000s. this conference brings together all specialists in russia and includes a separate block called "egovernment in the information society." in addition, among the works carried out in 2004, i.n. kurnosov in his report "implementation of the e-government concept: a new stage" cited the following four definitions of "egovernment": 37 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. e-government is defined as the interaction of government bodies using ict with citizens and organizations, or it is also defined as an electronic form between citizens and the state. egovernment includes visiting organizations, making phone calls, and sending mail. 2. the second group of definitions connects "e-government" with the process of providing public services to citizens in electronic form. they are based on the idea of "state services," aimed at serving the state and citizens as a form of implementing democratic principles. 3. the third definition is based on the group's understanding of e-government as the use of ict in public administration. the use of information technologies (internet, mobile communications) in the structure of public administration makes it possible to change the state of interaction with citizens, business, and other government bodies. 4. finally, the fourth definition is based on the concept of the information society, which is one of the reasons for the emergence of the term "e-government," and from this point of view, it is considered as public administration using ict, which is one of the means of increasing the effectiveness of management, assisting state bodies, performing their functions. this approach is aimed at understanding e-government as a means of improving governance. in 2011, researcher r.f. azizov in his scientific report demanded a broad understanding of the essence of "e-government": the term "e-government" literally means the use of electronic technologies in the activities of executive bodies. however, "e-government" can also be widely promoted by covering all executive bodies (legislative, executive, judicial) and local selfgovernment bodies, i.e., all structures. in general, e-government is the constant optimization of the process of providing public services based on digital technologies, the internet, and modern mass media, the participation of citizens and management in internal and external relations through transformations. e-government digitizes the provision of public services to the population, entrepreneurs, and government bodies, creates additional opportunities for citizens' self-governance, increases their awareness of technological innovations, and facilitates their participation in public administration. e-government consists of the following main modules (systems): g2c(government to citizens) g2b(government to business)  g2g(government to government)  in his 2012 scientific report, e.g. dyakov cited the "e-government pyramid" developed by the un department for economic and social affairs (un desa) and outlined important stages in the development of "e-government." stage 1: the emergence of "e-government" the creation of electronic pages or websites with a minimal set of official information. stage 2: "growing" creation of archives, download of official documents and placement of samples for their replenishment. stage 3: "interactive" provision of public services in an incomplete cycle (submission of applications for submitting an electronic document). stage 4: "transaction" transition to full-cycle operation of public services in the "24 hours a day, 7 days a week" mode. stage 5: "networking state" is the provision of interaction with the front office (front office) and operates on the basis of an integrated back office (back office). conclusions in the west, "e-government" is primarily seen as the introduction of information and 38 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us communication technologies to achieve more effective government management. the main task is to change the structure and form of management using new technologies. "e-government" has enormous potential to become the main mechanism for implementing the practice of "good governance." in this case, the main emphasis will be placed not on the development of technical processes, but on changing public administration through the provision of new electronic services. the introduction of ict in western countries has led to an increase in the capacity of governments and large-scale changes in public life. "e-government" served as an independent political strategy, not a technological solution consisting of another bureaucratic machine. references 1. xabibullaev i., djumanov j.x. ob informatsionno-kommunikatsionnoy texnologii v gidrogeologii [information and communication technology in hydrogeology]. geologiya i mineralnie resursi. -t.: 2014. № 1. s.48-54. 2. xaritonov, k.o. prinsipi obnarujeniya impulьsov akusticheskoy emissii v zadachax geomexanicheskogo monitoringa massiva gornix porod [principles of detecting acoustic emission pulses in the problems of geomechanical monitoring of rock masses]. 3. xushvaktov s.x., anorboev e.a., ma’mirov f.a. analiz metodov geoinformatsionnogo kartografirovaniya v gidrogeologii [analysis of geoinformation mapping methods in hydrogeology]. // geologiya i mineral resursi. – 2021. № 1. – s.42-48. 4. xushvaktov s.x., mardiev o.b., anorboev e.a., ma’mirov f.a. razrabotka monitoringa podzemnix vod na baze sovremennix informatsionno-kommunikatsionnix i gis-texnologiy [development of groundwater monitoring based on modern information and communication and gis technologies]//geologiya i mineral resursi. – 2020. № 1. – s. 73-78. 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architectur 108 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 comparative performance of pi and pid controllers for buckboost dc/dc converter ali abedaljabar al-samawi department of electronic and communications engineering, college of engineering, almuthanna university, al muthanna, iraq *correspondence: aliasamaw@mu.edu.iq abstract: this paper describes design and implementation of a buck-boost dc-dc converter to control voltage regulation and achieve high efficiency using a proportional integral derivative (pid) and proportional integral (pi) method in matlab/simulink. the converter is characterized by its ability to adjust the input voltage, either by increasing or decreasing it, to maintain a constant output voltage that meets the needs of various applications that require voltage stability under variable operating conditions, such as portable electronic systems and renewable energy systems. this paper describes an evaluation comparison of pid and pi for the performance of a buck-boost converter and to achieve high power quality. keywords: buck-boost converter, proportional integral, proportional integral derivative, power quality voltage regulation introduction dc-dc converters find widespread usage in a variety of applications that call for galvanic separation and a range of output and input voltages., boost, buck-boost and buck converters are the three main forms of dc/dc converters [1-4]. using a buck converter to lower the voltage is possible, but the efficiency diminishes as the voltage conversion ratio lowers. conversely, a boost converter may raise the voltage conversion ratio, which leads to a decrease in efficiency. so, when it comes to voltage range and conversion efficiency, standalone buck or boost converters are rigid. [5] one example would be the maximum power point converters seen in systems that generate renewable energy. when using an boost converter, the voltage open-circuit of renewable energy sources, for example solar energy (photovoltaic), thermoelectric fuel-cell generators, is usually where the efficiency of the conversion is at its peak thus the voltage is much greater than the maximum power voltage point. this situation makes it impossible to ensure the renewable energy system's critical efficiency high at the peak power point. when it comes to applications that charge or discharge batteries, a high conversion efficiency across the board is crucial [6-7]. therefore, there is a lot of interest in studying how to convert power efficiently over a wide range of voltages, particularly for power systems that use renewable energy with batteries. this makes it a popular choice as a front-end converter for battery sources, since it achieves a voltage that exceeds the input voltage. the input voltage may be acquired using boost converters. the input voltage is always less than the output potential in this kind of device. to the contrary, the pid controller is an extremely strict mechanism that yields excellent system performance in a number of areas. one possible substitute for processing switching power converters is a pi, which acts as a regulator and offers an improved method for device management. the fundamental benefit of the pi control system is that it can stop the converter's parameters from causing static and dynamic reactions to unanticipated changes, including changes in load. as an alternative to traditional methods of processing switching power converters, pis serve as regulators and provide better approaches to http://www/ mailto:aliasamaw@mu.edu.iq 109 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us device management. in addition to its straightforward design and efficient performance, the principal benefit of the pi control scheme is that it can do away with the impacts of the parameter converter settings that cause static and dynamic reactions to unexpected changes, including fluctuations in load [8]. put forth a boost converter closed-loop system that makes use of a pid controller. this mechanism regulates the voltage despite fluctuations in the load[10] the pi controller is used as feedback for the converter to maintain a consistent voltage. this study focusses on evaluating the performance of pi and pid controllers as feedback loop control mechanisms for managing the voltage of the dc/dc buck-boost converter, a component commonly utilised in various control applications. methodology converter dc-dc dc-dc buck-boost converter figure 1 shows the basic schematic of the buck-boost converter, or called a step-up/ step down converter. this converter is a common example of a non-isolated voltage-converting power design; the parts s , l , d , c , and r stand for the switching component, inductance winding, fast diode, output capacitor, and load resistance, respectively. integrated boost and buck converter topologies, a buck-boost converter is a hybrid device. therefore, the output voltage may be raised or lowered by the buck-boost converter design in response to changes in the input voltage. the voltage output is specified by duty cycle(d) and frequency switching (fs) . similar to a buck converter, the output voltage will be lower than the voltage input voltage if d is less than 0.5. like a boost converter, voltage output will be higher than the input voltage if d is more than 0.5. simultaneous amplitudes of the input and output voltages are achieved when d=0.5. there is no ongoing current through the diode (id) when switch is turned -on because the voltage across the diode is inverted. when operating in conduction mode, an inductor's current (il) grows as it absorbs voltage from a source. whenever the switch is turned -off, the source and inductor are disconnected. in this case, il is equal to s1 and id as shown fig2 . the equation following for any operating mode shows how on and off states are used in analysis steady-state [11] .to get the output voltage, we can simply plug in the changes duty cycle and input voltage duty cycle: 𝐷 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ( 1) inductance l 𝐿 = 𝑅(1 − 𝐷)2 2𝑓𝑠 (2) capacitance c : 𝐶 = d 𝑓𝑠 . 𝑅 . 𝑟 ( 3) where vo: output voltage vin: input voltage r: possibly a ripple factor fs : nominal switching frequency http://www/ 110 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. buck-boost converter [12]. figure 2. configuration converter when the switch a) turned off b) turned on [12]. pi :proportional integral controller the pi regulator aims to achieve the desired operating point for the boost converter, therefore regulating the converter's output to closely align with the operating point amidst unexpected load disturbances and set point variations. pid : proportional integral derivative controller: the proportional gain kp and the error signal have a direct relationship with the control signal. while a proportional controller may reduce a system's rise time, it cannot eliminate it entirely. the control signal, when an integrator is present, is immediately proportional to the integral of both the error and the gain, ki. [13]. theoretically, the steady-state error may be reduced to zero by applying integral action, which is the goal of integral control. by adjusting the course of action in response to changes in the error signal, derivative control is able to foretell how the signal will behave in the future. the derivative of the error, denoted as kd, has a direct proportional relationship to the control signal. improved transient responsiveness, less overshoot, and increased stability are all benefits of derivative control. since the derivative control action is only effective over short periods of time, it cannot be employed alone [13] as shown fig3. figure 3. basic block diagram of controller. the formula for controller pi : 𝑈(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡) http://www/ 111 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the formula for controller pid : 𝑈(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑑 𝑑𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 error e(t) (discrepancy between the intended and actual output values). kp =proportional element reduces rising time. ki =the integral element is used to mitigate overshoot. kd= the derivative element is used to mitigate overshoot. results and discussion the result of this work is based on modelling and control of a buck-boost converter, integrating controller techniques to ensure optimal performance. the converter will be modelled mathematically and simulated using matlab/simulink to analyse its behaviour under different operating conditions as shown fig 4 & fig 9. control of a buck-boost converter for dynamic voltage regulation dc using pi : figure 4. the simulation diagram of converter by pi controller. case 1: pi controller with buck-boost converter (buck mode) the function of a buck converter is to reduce the voltage. as shown table1.the output voltage is controlled using a parameter called duty cycle, which is the percentage of time for switch is on through any cycle switching . for example, if 50%, for duty cycle voltage output will be roughly half of the input voltage as shown fig 5 &fig6. table 1. case 1 circuit parameters. http://www/ 112 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 5. input voltage for converter by pi (buck case). figure 6. output voltage for converter by pi (buck case). case 2: pi controller with buck-boost converter (boost mode) a boost converter is designed to increase the voltage level as table 2. voltage output is regulated by a parameter called the duty cycle, which is the percentage of time for switch is on by every switching cycle.as shown in fig 7&fig8 table 2. case 2 circuit parameters. http://www/ 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 7. input voltage for converter by pi (boost case). figure 8. output voltage for converter by pi (boost case). control of a buck-boost converter for dynamic voltage regulation dc using pid figure 9. the simulation diagram of converter using pi controller. case 3: pid controller with buck-boost converter (buck mode) the function of a buck converter is to reduce the voltage. as shown table3 .the output voltage is controlled using a pid controller as shown figures (10 &11 ). http://www/ 114 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 3. case 3 circuit parameters. figure 10. input voltage for converter by pid (buck case). figure 11. output voltage for converter by pid (buck case). http://www/ 115 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us case 4: pid controller with buck-boost converter (boost mode) in this case, the function of a buck converter is to increase the voltage. as shown table1 and figures (12&13) .the output voltage is regulated by a pid controller . the power quality for controller pid is good by compare between fig 6 for case 1 and fig13 for case 4 as example . table 4. case 4 circuit parameters. figure 12. input voltage for converter by pid (boost case). http://www/ 116 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 13. output voltage for converter by pid (boost case). conclusion this work presents the implementation and analysis of a buck-boost dc/dc converter using controlled pi and pid techniques. the buck-boost converter with a pid controller offers an efficient and versatile solution for voltage management across many applications. the buck-boost converter that may either step up /step down voltage based on application needs, is essential in several power electronic systems. the integration of the converter's voltage adjustment capability with the precision of pid control enables the achievement of high-efficiency performance with remarkable stability as compared to the pi controller. the simulation results indicate that the suggested pid controller effectively adjusts the output voltage of the boost converter, enhancing power quality regardless of load disturbances. references [1] mishra, s. c., nanda, l., & misra, b. (2025, february). review and comparison of dc-dc buck boost and boost converter topologies for fuel cell integration in electric vehicles and microgrids. in 2025 ieee 1st international conference on smart and sustainable developments in electrical engineering (ssdee) (pp. 1-7). ieee. [2] ali. a. al-samawi, and h. trabelsi, .power quality enhancement of pv system based on modified three-phase cascaded multilevel inverter, ‖ in 2022 19th international multiconference on systems, signals & devices (ssd), 2022 [3] a. al-samawi and h. trabelsi, “new nine-level cascade multilevel inverter with a minimum number of switches for pv systems,” energies, vol. 15, no. 16, p. 5857, 2022. [4] stefanos n. manias. power electronics and motor drive systems; 2017; isbn: 978-0-12811798-9 [5] c. yao, x. ruan, and x. wang, “automatic mode-shifting control strategy with input voltage feed-forward for full-bridge-boost dc-dc converter suitable for wide input voltage range,” ieee trans. power electron., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 1668–1682, mar. 2015. [6] f. musavi, m. craciun, d. s. gautam, w. eberle, and w. g. dunford, “an llc resonant dc-dc converter for wide output voltage range battery charging applications,” ieee trans. power electron., vol. 28, no. 12, pp. 5437–5445, dec. 2013 [7] s. alkafaji, a. a. al-samawi, and h. trabelsi, “hybrid energy storage review for renewable energy system technologies and applications,” in 2021 18th international multi-conference on systems, signals & devices (ssd), 2021, pp. 1059–1067. [8] kumar, k. r., and jeevananthan, s. (2010). pi control for positive output elementary super lift luo converter. international journal of electrical and electronics engineering 4.7 : 440http://www/ 117 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 446. [9] sharma, p., kumar, p., sharma, h., and pal, n. (2018). closed-loop controlled boost converter using a pid controller for solar wind power system installation. international journal of engineering & technology, 7(2): 255-260. [10] kadhim, r. a. (2019). design and simulation of closed loop proportional integral (pi) controlled boost converter and 3-phase inverter for photovoltaic (pv) applications. alkhwarizmi engineering journal. 15(1):10-22 [11] erickson, r.w.; maksimovic, d. fundamentals of power electronics; springer science & business media: berlin/heidelberg, germany, 2007; isbn 0306480484. [12] kabalci, e., gokkus, g., & gorgun, a. (2015, june). design and implementation of a pimppt based buck-boost converter. in 2015 7th international conference on electronics, computers and artificial intelligence (ecai) (pp. sg-23). ieee. [13] k.s. rao and r. mishra (2014),comparative study of p,pi and pid controller for speed control of vsi-fed induction motor. international journal of engineering development research vol.2; issue 2 http://www/ 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 9, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the role of healthcare facilities in urban planning fayziyev khurshid dilshadovich tashkent university of architecture and construction kodirova surayyo adilovna supervisor, tashkent university of architecture and construction abstract: this article analyzes the role of healthcare facilities in urban planning, their location, and their impact on infrastructure. the author highlights the importance of population needs, the transportation system, ecological factors, and the principle of territorial equality in the placement of medical institutions. the article explores ways to efficiently organize healthcare services in modern urban planning using gis technologies and smart city approaches. it also covers the impact of ecological sustainability and green spaces on the efficiency of medical facilities. keywords: healthcare facilities, urban planning, healthcare infrastructure, placement principles, urbanization, ecology, planning. introduction healthcare facilities are one of the most critical infrastructural elements of cities, playing a decisive role in ensuring public health and in the process of urban development. healthcare institutions not only treat diseases but also serve to improve the quality of life and life expectancy of people by organizing preventive and prophylactic services. furthermore, the location of healthcare facilities, their proximity to residential areas, and their connection to the transportation system directly impact the convenience and efficiency of urban life. in urban planning, the planning of healthcare facilities must be based on population growth, ecological requirements, transportation infrastructure, and principles of social equality. the main goal of the article is to study the significance of healthcare facilities in urban planning, analyze their placement principles, and review modern approaches. main body the correct placement of healthcare facilities within an urban area is a crucial factor in enabling the population to effectively utilize healthcare services, providing prompt assistance in emergencies, and ensuring social well-being. when placing medical institutions, not only their functional efficiency must be considered, but also the city's overall infrastructure, transportation system, population density, and future development prospects. urban planners must adhere to a number of important principles when locating healthcare facilities. first, medical institutions should be located in areas of greatest need, i.e., in newly built residential complexes, near major transport routes, and in strategically important areas. this, on one hand, facilitates access to medical services for the population, and on the other hand, allows for prompt medical assistance in emergencies. second, it is important to adhere to the principle of territorial equality when placing healthcare facilities. each micro-district or neighborhood should have at least one polyclinic, emergency 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us care point, or medical center. this ensures that medical services are accessible and comprehensive for all segments of the population. furthermore, in large cities, central hospitals can have a network of branches across districts, eliminating the need for patients to travel long distances. third, medical institutions must work in harmony with the infrastructure and transportation system. for example, hospitals should be located near main roads, next to public transport stops (bus, metro, tram). this creates convenience not only for patients but also for hospital staff and visitors. for large hospitals, access to wide roads, as well as the availability of a helipad for emergencies, is important. fourth, when placing healthcare facilities, it is necessary to consider environmental and ecological factors. for instance, hospitals should be located away from highnoise industrial zones or polluted areas, as this can negatively affect patients' recovery. additionally, the presence of green spaces, recreational areas, and rehabilitation centers around medical facilities helps create a healthy environment. in modern cities, innovative technologies, including geographic information systems (gis) and the smart city concept, are widely used in the placement of healthcare facilities. gis technologies help accurately analyze population density, demand for medical services, the efficiency of existing institutions, and optimal locations for new facilities. smart city systems, through telemedicine centers, remote monitoring, and sensor systems, make healthcare services more convenient and efficient. international experience shows that in developed countries, the placement of healthcare facilities considers transportation infrastructure, population density, and long-term urban planning strategies. for example, in singapore and japan, hospitals are often located near major transport hubs, facilitating travel for patients and staff. in germany, universal medical centers exist in every settlement, catering to the basic needs of the local population. for the efficient operation of healthcare facilities, their service scope must be clearly defined. it is necessary to consider how many patients a major hospital can admit per day, its service radius, and the level of need for medical care. according to statistical data, large hospitals can admit thousands of patients daily, which requires proper distribution of their infrastructure and human resources. medical institutions are important not only for treatment but also from the perspective of job creation. large hospitals, polyclinics, and specialized medical centers create thousands of jobs for doctors, nurses, and auxiliary technical staff. this positively impacts the stability of the city's infrastructure and its economic development. 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rehabilitation centers and sanatoriums are important facilities for recovery and rest. they are aimed at restoring the physical and mental health of patients and should be located in ecologically clean areas. in uzbekistan, sanatoriums are mainly built in mountainous areas and regions rich in natural healing resources. in particular, sanatoriums located in chimyon, zaamin, and sariosiyo provide extensive medical services to the population. it is necessary to ensure connection to public transport, roads, and pedestrian pathways, creating conditions for emergency services to arrive quickly. the development of the transport network determines the quality and speed of medical services. healthcare facilities must be located away from industrial areas and places with high levels of environmental pollution. green spaces and landscape design around hospitals accelerate the recovery process of patients. in particular, medical institutions surrounded by parks and gardens also have a positive impact on the psychological state of the population. in uzbekistan, serious work is also being done to develop medical infrastructure. in newly built residential complexes (e.g., the "new tashkent" project), medical facilities are being placed based on modern standards. furthermore, measures such as modernizing existing hospitals, equipping them with new technologies, and opening additional medical centers in convenient locations for the population are being implemented. conclusion the role of healthcare facilities in urban planning is an integral part of the urbanization process, and their optimal placement ensures the population's ability to effectively utilize medical services. hospitals, sanatoriums, and rehabilitation centers, as important components of infrastructure, directly impact not only the development of the healthcare system but also the overall convenience of urban life. therefore, in modern urban planning, the planning of healthcare facilities is directly related to improving public health and quality of life. placing healthcare facilities based on population density and infrastructural conveniences expands opportunities for quality and prompt medical services and strengthens the social stability of cities. the impact of healthcare facilities on urban ecology is one of the important factors. the presence of green spaces around hospitals and polyclinics is not only beneficial aesthetically and psychologically but also serves to ensure air purity, reduce noise, and improve the microclimate. furthermore, the proper disposal of medical waste is crucial for the ecological safety of institutions. harm to the environment must be prevented through special processing systems and waste management strategies. the use of solar panels, rainwater harvesting systems, and solutions aimed at increasing energy efficiency in modern hospitals helps enhance ecological sustainability. based on world experience, a trend towards building ecologically sustainable hospitals is observed. for example, many hospitals in europe operate based on green certification systems, implementing developments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and optimize energy consumption. 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us if healthcare facilities are planned based on ecological standards and principles of sustainable development, the ecological balance of cities is maintained, and a positive impact on public health is ensured. references: 1. charlton, m., fotheringham, s., & brunsdon, c. analysing access to hospital facilities with gis. springer, 2001. 2. biu, p. w. et al. gis in healthcare facility planning and management: a review. world journal of advanced research and reviews, 2024. 3. mdpi. spatial accessibility to hospitals based on web mapping api: an empirical study in kaifeng, china. sustainability, 2019. 4. abbosova m. problems of urbanization and sustainable urban planning in uzbekistan. journal of web of semantics, 2024. 5. world health organization (who). uzbekistan: health system review. health systems in transition series, 2014. 6. ministry of health of the republic of uzbekistan and the world health organization. concept for the development of the healthcare system for 2019-2025. 88 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 9, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 laser in dermatological treatments: a review of how laser is used in treating skin issues such as acne, scars, and pigmentation ali mohammed sideeq abdul karim university of technology, department: laser engineering and optoelectronics, laser branch sara saad jassim university of technology, laser engineering and optoelectronics, laser engineering specialization muhsen abdullah fawzan, ayat mohsen ismial al-furat al-awsat university, college of engineering technology, najaf, laser technology engineering and optoelectronics mohammed mahmood mahdi alkut university college, laser and optoelectronics engineering abstract: laser technology has emerged as a pivotal tool in dermatological treatments, offering a range of therapeutic options for various skin conditions, including acne, scars, and pigmentation disorders. this review explores the mechanisms by which different types of lasers, such as ablative, non-ablative, fractional, and q-switched lasers, are employed to address these common dermatological concerns. the effectiveness of laser treatments in stimulating collagen production, remodeling scar tissue, and reducing melanin concentration is examined, alongside an analysis of the safety profiles and potential side effects associated with each laser type. additionally, the review highlights the importance of personalized treatment plans tailored to individual patient characteristics, such as skin type and the severity of the condition, to maximize therapeutic outcomes. emerging trends in laser technology, including the development of more targeted and less invasive approaches, are also discussed. this comprehensive review aims to provide clinicians and researchers with a deeper understanding of the current state of laser-based dermatological treatments, as well as future directions in the field. 1. introduction 1.1 background on dermatological issues skin issues such as acne, scars, and pigmentation disorders are among the most prevalent dermatological concerns affecting individuals worldwide. acne, characterized by the presence of pimples, blackheads, and cysts, is often linked to hormonal changes and affects up to 85% of adolescents and young adults. scarring, which can result from severe acne, injuries, or surgical procedures, can lead to permanent changes in the skin’s texture and appearance, causing significant psychological distress. pigmentation disorders, including hyperpigmentation, melasma, and vitiligo, are conditions where the skin either produces too much or too little melanin, leading to uneven skin tone. 89 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these dermatological issues extend beyond mere cosmetic concerns, profoundly impacting patients' quality of life. acne and scarring, for example, can lead to emotional and psychological challenges such as low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression. pigmentation disorders can cause social embarrassment and a sense of stigma, particularly in cultures where even skin tone is highly valued. the visibility of these conditions often exacerbates the psychological impact, leading individuals to seek effective treatments to restore both their skin’s appearance and their overall well-being. 1.2 evolution of dermatological treatments historically, dermatological treatments for skin issues such as acne, scars, and pigmentation have relied heavily on traditional methods. topical treatments, including retinoids, benzoyl peroxide, and antibiotics, have been widely used to manage acne by reducing inflammation and bacterial growth. chemical peels, utilizing acids like glycolic or salicylic acid, have been employed to exfoliate the skin, promote cell turnover, and improve the appearance of scars and pigmentation. while these treatments have proven effective for many patients, they often require prolonged use, can cause irritation, and may not fully address deeper or more severe skin conditions. the advent of laser technology has revolutionized dermatological treatments, offering a modern and highly effective solution for a variety of skin concerns. lasers, with their ability to precisely target specific skin layers and tissues, have significantly expanded the therapeutic options available to dermatologists. unlike traditional treatments, lasers can penetrate the skin at various depths, allowing for more precise and controlled treatment of acne scars, pigmentation, and other skin irregularities. the introduction of ablative, non-ablative, fractional, and q-switched lasers has enabled the development of tailored treatment protocols that can address both surface-level and deep-seated skin issues with greater efficacy and fewer side effects. this technological evolution has not only improved clinical outcomes but has also shortened recovery times, making laser treatments a preferred choice for many patients seeking to enhance their skin’s appearance and quality. 1.3 purpose and scope of the review the rapid advancement of laser technology in dermatology has led to a diverse array of treatment options for skin conditions such as acne, scars, and pigmentation disorders. despite the widespread use of lasers in clinical practice, there remains a need for a comprehensive review that synthesizes the latest research and clinical findings regarding their application. understanding the various types of lasers, their mechanisms of action, and their effectiveness in treating specific skin issues is crucial for clinicians seeking to optimize patient outcomes. this review aims to address this need by providing an in-depth analysis of the role of lasers in treating acne, scars, and pigmentation. the paper will explore the different laser technologies available, including ablative, non-ablative, fractional, and q-switched lasers, and will evaluate their efficacy, safety, and potential side effects. additionally, the review will consider the factors that influence the success of laser treatments, such as skin type, severity of the condition, and the importance of personalized treatment plans. by focusing on these common dermatological concerns, the review seeks to offer valuable insights to both clinicians and researchers, contributing to the ongoing development of effective and safe laser-based treatments in dermatology. 2. overview of laser technology in dermatology 2.1 fundamentals of laser technology laser technology, an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation," operates on the basic principle of generating a concentrated beam of light that can be precisely targeted at specific areas of the skin. lasers emit light at particular wavelengths, which are 90 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us selectively absorbed by chromophores in the skin, such as water, melanin, and hemoglobin. this selective absorption allows for targeted treatment of various skin conditions while minimizing damage to surrounding tissues. in dermatology, different types of lasers are employed based on their wavelength, pulse duration, and energy settings, each tailored to treat specific skin issues:  co2 lasers: carbon dioxide (co2) lasers emit light at a wavelength of 10,600 nm, which is highly absorbed by water in the skin. these lasers are primarily used for ablative treatments, where the laser vaporizes the outer layers of the skin to promote collagen production and skin regeneration. co2 lasers are effective in treating deep scars, wrinkles, and certain pigmentation disorders, but they often require longer recovery periods.  nd:yag lasers: neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (nd:yag) lasers operate at a wavelength of 1064 nm. this wavelength penetrates deeper into the skin and is less absorbed by melanin, making nd:yag lasers suitable for treating deeper vascular lesions, pigmented lesions, and for hair removal in patients with darker skin types. they are commonly used in non-ablative treatments, which target deeper skin layers without damaging the surface.  er:yag lasers: erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (er:yag) lasers emit light at a wavelength of 2940 nm, which is also absorbed by water. however, compared to co2 lasers, er:yag lasers are less aggressive, making them ideal for precise ablative treatments with shorter recovery times. they are frequently used for resurfacing fine lines, superficial scars, and mild pigmentation issues.  fractional lasers: fractional lasers, which can be either ablative or non-ablative, work by delivering laser energy in a grid pattern, creating microscopic zones of treated and untreated skin. this fractional approach stimulates the body’s natural healing process while reducing downtime. fractional lasers are versatile and can be used to treat a wide range of conditions, including acne scars, wrinkles, and pigmentation disorders. each type of laser has its unique applications, and the choice of laser depends on the specific dermatological issue being addressed, as well as the patient’s skin type and treatment goals. the fundamental understanding of laser technology is essential for clinicians to effectively harness its potential in improving skin health and aesthetics. 2.2 mechanism of action lasers interact with skin tissues through a process known as selective photothermolysis, which involves the precise targeting of specific chromophores—such as water, melanin, or hemoglobin—within the skin. the laser's energy is absorbed by these chromophores, leading to localized heating that either vaporizes the tissue, coagulates it, or stimulates a biological response, depending on the desired therapeutic outcome. the effectiveness and safety of laser treatments are largely determined by three key parameters: wavelength, pulse duration, and energy settings.  wavelength: the wavelength of a laser is crucial because it dictates which chromophore will absorb the laser energy. for instance, co2 and er:yag lasers, with wavelengths of 10,600 nm and 2,940 nm respectively, are absorbed primarily by water, making them ideal for ablative procedures where precise tissue removal is needed. in contrast, the nd:yag laser, with a wavelength of 1,064 nm, penetrates deeper into the skin and is selectively absorbed by hemoglobin and melanin, making it suitable for treating vascular lesions and pigmentation disorders.  pulse duration: the pulse duration, or the length of time the laser energy is delivered, is another critical factor. shorter pulse durations can deliver high energy in a brief period, effectively targeting the chromophore while minimizing thermal diffusion to surrounding 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us tissues. this is particularly important in treating pigmented lesions or performing hair removal, where the goal is to destroy the target without affecting the surrounding skin. longer pulse durations, on the other hand, allow for deeper penetration and are used in treating larger areas or thicker tissues.  energy settings: the energy settings, often measured in joules per square centimeter (j/cm²), determine the intensity of the laser treatment. higher energy settings result in greater tissue interaction, which can be necessary for more severe conditions like deep scars or significant pigmentation issues. however, higher energy also increases the risk of side effects, such as burns or hyperpigmentation, particularly in darker skin types. therefore, the energy must be carefully calibrated to achieve the desired therapeutic effect while minimizing adverse outcomes. by adjusting these parameters, clinicians can tailor laser treatments to the specific needs of each patient, whether the goal is to remove damaged tissue, reduce pigmentation, or stimulate collagen production. understanding how lasers interact with skin tissues and the role of wavelength, pulse duration, and energy settings is fundamental to achieving optimal results and ensuring patient safety. 3. laser treatment for acne 3.1 types of acne and their pathophysiology acne is a complex skin condition that can be classified into different types based on its presentation and underlying pathophysiology. the two primary categories of acne are inflammatory acne and non-inflammatory acne, each with distinct characteristics and treatment needs.  non-inflammatory acne: this type primarily includes comedonal acne, which manifests as blackheads and whiteheads. blackheads (open comedones) form when pores are clogged with excess sebum and dead skin cells, while whiteheads (closed comedones) develop when the clogged pore remains beneath the surface of the skin. non-inflammatory acne is generally less severe and does not involve the significant redness or swelling seen in inflammatory acne. however, it can still contribute to uneven skin texture and may progress to more severe forms if left untreated.  inflammatory acne: this type includes papules, pustules, nodules, and cysts, which are characterized by redness, swelling, and tenderness. inflammatory acne occurs when the clogged pores become infected with propionibacterium acnes (p. acnes) bacteria, leading to an immune response that results in inflammation. nodules and cysts are particularly severe forms of inflammatory acne, often leading to scarring if not adequately managed. pathophysiology and laser treatment targeting the pathophysiology of acne involves several key factors: excess sebum production, abnormal keratinization, bacterial colonization (particularly by p. acnes), and the resulting inflammation. laser treatments target these underlying causes through different mechanisms:  reduction of sebum production: certain lasers, such as nd:yag and diode lasers, penetrate deep into the skin to target the sebaceous glands. by heating these glands, the laser can reduce sebum production, which is a significant contributor to both inflammatory and noninflammatory acne. this reduction helps prevent the formation of new comedones and reduces the overall severity of acne outbreaks.  destruction of p. acnes bacteria: lasers with specific wavelengths, like blue light lasers (400–420 nm), are absorbed by the porphyrins produced by p. acnes. this absorption generates reactive oxygen species that destroy the bacteria, thereby reducing the bacterial load on the skin and diminishing inflammation. this mechanism is particularly effective in treating inflammatory acne. 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  reduction of inflammation: laser treatments, especially pulsed dye lasers (pdl) and nd:yag lasers, can target the blood vessels involved in the inflammatory process. by coagulating these vessels, the lasers reduce redness and swelling, leading to a decrease in the visible symptoms of inflammatory acne.  stimulation of collagen production: ablative and fractional lasers, such as co2 and er:yag lasers, are effective in resurfacing the skin and stimulating collagen production. this is particularly beneficial in treating acne scars, which often result from severe inflammatory acne. by promoting new collagen formation, these lasers help in the remodeling of scar tissue, leading to smoother skin. through these targeted mechanisms, laser treatments offer a multifaceted approach to managing both the active symptoms of acne and the long-term consequences, such as scarring, providing an effective solution for patients with varying types and severities of acne. 3.2 laser modalities for acne treatment several laser modalities have been developed for the treatment of acne, each with distinct mechanisms of action, effectiveness, and safety profiles. here is an overview of some commonly used lasers for acne treatment:  blue light lasers:  mechanism: blue light lasers, operating at wavelengths between 400 and 420 nm, target the porphyrins produced by propionibacterium acnes (p. acnes) bacteria. the blue light induces the production of reactive oxygen species, which help to destroy the bacteria and reduce inflammation.  effectiveness: blue light therapy is effective in reducing the bacterial load and improving inflammatory acne lesions. clinical studies have shown that blue light lasers can lead to significant improvements in acne severity and a reduction in the number of active lesions.  safety profile: blue light therapy is generally considered safe with minimal side effects. patients may experience temporary erythema or mild discomfort during treatment, but these effects are usually short-lived. the risk of long-term adverse effects is low.  pulsed dye lasers (pdl):  mechanism: pulsed dye lasers, typically operating at wavelengths around 585–595 nm, target hemoglobin in the blood vessels within inflamed acne lesions. the laser light is absorbed by the hemoglobin, leading to the coagulation of the blood vessels, which reduces redness and swelling associated with inflammatory acne.  effectiveness: pdl is particularly effective in treating the redness and inflammation of acne lesions. it can provide relief from the discomfort associated with inflamed acne and improve the overall appearance of the skin. however, it may not directly address the underlying causes of acne or significantly reduce the number of lesions.  safety profile: pdl is well-tolerated, with potential side effects including transient erythema, swelling, and bruising at the treatment site. these effects are generally short-lived and resolve within a few days.  nd:yag lasers:  mechanism: nd:yag lasers, operating at a wavelength of 1,064 nm, penetrate deeper into the skin and target the sebaceous glands and blood vessels. they help to reduce sebum production and inflammation by heating and coagulating the sebaceous glands.  effectiveness: nd:yag lasers are effective in treating both inflammatory acne and acnerelated vascular lesions. they also have a role in treating acne scars due to their deeper penetration and ability to stimulate collagen production. 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  safety profile: nd:yag lasers are generally safe for a variety of skin types. potential side effects include temporary redness, swelling, and in rare cases, hyperpigmentation or hypopigmentation, particularly in darker skin types.  fractional lasers:  mechanism: fractional lasers, such as fractional co2 and fractional er:yag lasers, deliver laser energy in a grid pattern, creating micro-injuries in the skin. this approach promotes collagen remodeling and improves the texture and appearance of acne scars while treating active acne lesions.  effectiveness: fractional lasers are effective in treating acne scars and can also help improve the overall texture and tone of the skin. they are beneficial for patients with post-acne scarring and can provide significant cosmetic improvement.  safety profile: fractional lasers typically involve a longer recovery time compared to other lasers due to the more aggressive nature of the treatment. common side effects include redness, swelling, and peeling, but these usually resolve within a few weeks. comparison of effectiveness and safety  effectiveness: blue light lasers are effective primarily for reducing bacterial load and treating active acne lesions. pulsed dye lasers are excellent for reducing redness and inflammation. nd:yag lasers offer benefits for both active acne and acne-related vascular lesions and have additional advantages in scar treatment. fractional lasers are particularly useful for improving acne scars and overall skin texture.  safety profiles: all these lasers have relatively good safety profiles, but the choice of laser should be tailored to the patient's specific needs and skin type. blue light therapy and pulsed dye lasers generally have fewer risks and shorter recovery times, while nd:yag and fractional lasers might involve a higher risk of side effects and longer recovery periods. selecting the appropriate laser modality depends on the type of acne, the severity of the condition, and the individual patient’s skin characteristics. a combination of laser treatments may sometimes be used to address different aspects of acne effectively. 3.3 clinical studies and outcomes clinical trials and studies have extensively evaluated the efficacy and safety of various laser treatments for acne. these studies provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of different laser modalities, their impact on acne severity, and their long-term outcomes.  blue light lasers:  studies: clinical trials have demonstrated that blue light therapy significantly reduces the number of inflammatory acne lesions. a study by kwon et al. (2007) found that blue light treatment resulted in a reduction of acne lesions by approximately 60% after several sessions. another study by kurokawa et al. (2009) reported similar findings, with significant improvement in inflammatory acne after a series of treatments.  long-term outcomes: the benefits of blue light therapy are generally sustained for several months after treatment. however, some studies suggest that maintenance treatments may be necessary to prevent recurrence. the long-term recurrence rates are relatively low, but patients may experience periodic flare-ups.  pulsed dye lasers (pdl):  studies: research has shown that pdl is effective in reducing the redness and swelling associated with inflammatory acne. a study by mordon et al. (2003) demonstrated a significant reduction in erythema and overall improvement in acne lesions. another study by 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us tan et al. (2005) reported that pdl treatment improved the appearance of inflamed acne and reduced discomfort.  long-term outcomes: the reduction in redness and inflammation from pdl is typically long-lasting, but results can vary. patients may require additional treatments for sustained improvement, and the recurrence rate is generally low for inflammation but can be higher for ongoing acne lesions.  nd:yag lasers:  studies: nd:yag lasers have been shown to be effective in treating both inflammatory acne and acne scars. a study by eremia et al. (2010) found significant improvement in inflammatory acne and a reduction in sebum production. another study by nouri et al. (2013) reported successful outcomes in treating acne-related vascular lesions and reducing overall acne severity.  long-term outcomes: nd:yag lasers provide lasting improvement in acne severity and can help in managing recurrence. the effects on sebum production can be long-term, but ongoing maintenance treatments may be needed for persistent acne. long-term recurrence rates are generally moderate, with periodic treatments required for optimal control.  fractional lasers:  studies: fractional lasers, including fractional co2 and er:yag lasers, have shown efficacy in treating acne scars and improving skin texture. a study by manuskiatti et al. (2006) demonstrated that fractional co2 lasers led to significant improvement in acne scar texture and overall skin appearance. fractional er:yag lasers have also been shown to improve acne scars with fewer side effects compared to ablative lasers.  long-term outcomes: the improvements in acne scars and skin texture from fractional lasers are often long-lasting. however, some patients may require follow-up treatments to maintain results and manage any new scarring. recurrence rates of active acne are generally low, but ongoing maintenance may be necessary for optimal results. summary of findings: overall, clinical studies have demonstrated that laser treatments are effective in managing acne, reducing inflammation, and improving acne scars. while blue light lasers are particularly effective for reducing bacterial load and inflammation, pulsed dye lasers excel in addressing redness. nd:yag lasers provide benefits for both active acne and acne-related vascular lesions, while fractional lasers are effective in treating acne scars and improving skin texture. long-term outcomes are generally positive, but some patients may experience recurrence and require ongoing maintenance treatments to sustain results. 4. laser treatment for scars 4.1 types of scars scars are categorized based on their appearance, texture, and the underlying pathophysiology. understanding these classifications is crucial for selecting the appropriate laser treatment.  hypertrophic scars:  characteristics: hypertrophic scars are raised and red or pink in color. they occur when excess collagen is produced during the healing process, leading to a thickened scar that remains within the boundaries of the original wound.  challenges in treatment: hypertrophic scars can be resistant to treatment due to their ongoing production of collagen. they may also cause discomfort or itching. laser treatments need to focus on reducing collagen production and remodeling the scar tissue, which can be a gradual process. 95 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  atrophic scars:  characteristics: atrophic scars are characterized by depressions or indentations in the skin. these scars are often the result of loss of collagen or tissue during the healing process. common examples include acne scars and surgical scars.  challenges in treatment: atrophic scars present a challenge as they involve the loss of skin volume. treatments must stimulate collagen production and skin remodeling to fill in these depressions and improve skin texture. this often requires repeated treatments to achieve optimal results.  keloids:  characteristics: keloids are raised scars that extend beyond the original wound boundaries. they are caused by an overproduction of collagen and can be larger and more prominent than hypertrophic scars. keloids can be itchy, painful, and may grow progressively.  challenges in treatment: keloids are particularly challenging to treat due to their tendency to recur even after treatment. effective management often requires a combination of approaches, including laser therapy, corticosteroid injections, and surgical intervention. treatment must be tailored to the individual’s response to prevent further keloid formation.  contracture scars:  characteristics: contracture scars occur when the skin tightens over a wound, commonly seen in burn injuries. these scars can restrict movement and cause functional impairments.  challenges in treatment: addressing contracture scars involves not only improving appearance but also restoring skin function and flexibility. laser treatments can help by improving skin texture and elasticity, but may need to be combined with other therapies such as physical therapy. treatment considerations: each type of scar requires a tailored approach based on its characteristics. for example:  hypertrophic scars: treatments may include fractional lasers or pulsed dye lasers to reduce redness and thickness.  atrophic scars: fractional co2 lasers, er:yag lasers, and microneedling are commonly used to stimulate collagen production and improve skin texture.  keloids: laser treatments, in combination with corticosteroid injections or silicone gel sheeting, are often used to manage and reduce keloid formation.  contracture scars: laser therapy can be part of a comprehensive treatment plan that includes surgical interventions and physical therapy to improve skin function. effective scar management requires a multi-faceted approach, considering the scar’s type, location, and patient-specific factors. laser therapy offers a versatile and effective option for improving the appearance and function of various types of scars. 4.2 laser modalities for scar treatment laser modalities used in scar treatment vary based on their specific mechanisms of action and efficacy in addressing different types of scars. the following lasers are commonly utilized in scar treatment:  fractional co2 lasers:  mechanism: fractional co2 lasers operate at a wavelength of 10,600 nm and are highly absorbed by water in the skin. they work by delivering laser energy in a fractional pattern, 96 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us creating micro-columns of treated and untreated skin. this approach induces controlled thermal injury to the scar tissue while leaving surrounding areas intact. the micro-injuries stimulate the body’s natural healing response, leading to the production of new collagen and the remodeling of scar tissue.  scar remodeling: fractional co2 lasers are particularly effective for atrophic scars and deep acne scars. by promoting collagen synthesis and skin resurfacing, they help fill in depressions and improve skin texture. the controlled damage and subsequent healing process result in a smoother and more even skin surface. the treatment may require multiple sessions, with gradual improvements observed over time.  erbium yag (er:yag) lasers:  mechanism: er:yag lasers emit light at a wavelength of 2,940 nm, which is absorbed by water in the skin. they provide a more precise and less aggressive ablation compared to co2 lasers, making them suitable for treating superficial and moderately deep scars. er:yag lasers remove thin layers of the skin’s surface, stimulating collagen production and skin remodeling.  scar remodeling: er:yag lasers are effective for treating atrophic scars, including acne scars and surgical scars. the laser’s ability to ablate tissue with minimal thermal damage helps improve skin texture and reduce scar depth. the recovery time is typically shorter than with co2 lasers, and multiple treatments may be required to achieve optimal results.  fractional non-ablative lasers:  mechanism: fractional non-ablative lasers, such as fractional nd:yag lasers, work by delivering laser energy in a grid-like pattern to the deeper layers of the skin without causing visible damage to the surface. they heat the dermis and stimulate collagen production without disrupting the epidermis.  scar remodeling: these lasers are used for both hypertrophic scars and atrophic scars. by stimulating collagen and elastin production in the dermis, they help improve skin texture and reduce the appearance of scars over time. non-ablative lasers typically require multiple sessions and have a longer course of treatment, but they offer a lower risk of side effects and shorter recovery periods.  pulsed dye lasers (pdl):  mechanism: pulsed dye lasers, operating at wavelengths of 585–595 nm, target hemoglobin in blood vessels. they are effective for treating redness and vascularity in scars, particularly hypertrophic scars and keloids. the laser light is absorbed by the blood vessels, leading to their coagulation and reduction in redness.  scar remodeling: while pdl primarily addresses vascular components, it can complement other laser treatments by reducing redness and improving the overall appearance of scars. it is often used in conjunction with other modalities for comprehensive scar management. mechanism of scar remodeling using laser therapy laser therapy induces scar remodeling through several mechanisms: 1. thermal injury and collagen stimulation: by delivering controlled thermal energy to scar tissue, lasers create micro-injuries that stimulate the body’s natural healing processes. this leads to increased collagen production and remodeling of the scar tissue. the new collagen helps fill in depressions and smooth out the surface of the skin. 2. ablation and resurfacing: ablative lasers, such as co2 and er:yag lasers, remove damaged layers of skin to promote new skin growth. this resurfacing effect helps to improve the texture and appearance of scars by removing the outer layers of the scar tissue and stimulating the production of fresh, healthy skin. 97 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. targeted vascular treatment: for hypertrophic scars and keloids, lasers like pdl target the blood vessels within the scar tissue. by coagulating these vessels, the lasers reduce redness and swelling, making the scar less prominent. 4. non-ablative stimulation: non-ablative lasers heat the deeper layers of the skin without visible damage to the surface. this stimulates collagen production and improves skin elasticity, leading to gradual improvement in scar texture and appearance over time. overall, laser therapy offers a versatile and effective approach to scar treatment, addressing various types of scars and improving both appearance and function. the choice of laser modality depends on the type of scar, the depth and severity of the scarring, and the individual patient’s needs and skin type. 4.3 clinical efficacy and case studies summary of case studies and clinical trials: clinical studies and case reports have provided valuable insights into the efficacy of various laser treatments for scars. these studies highlight the effectiveness of different lasers and their impact on scar improvement and patient satisfaction.  fractional co2 lasers:  case study: a study by manuskiatti et al. (2006) reported significant improvement in acne scars and surgical scars following fractional co2 laser treatment. patients showed a marked reduction in scar depth and overall skin texture. the study noted that most patients experienced improvement after 3 to 4 sessions, with continued enhancement over several months.  clinical trial: a randomized controlled trial by fabbrocini et al. (2013) demonstrated the efficacy of fractional co2 lasers in treating atrophic scars. the trial found that patients experienced up to 50% improvement in scar appearance, with significant collagen remodeling and reduced scar depth observed after multiple treatments.  erbium yag lasers:  case study: research by alster and west (2006) indicated that er:yag lasers effectively improved acne scars and post-surgical scars. the study reported significant improvements in scar texture and appearance, with minimal downtime and lower risk of hyperpigmentation compared to co2 lasers.  clinical trial: a study by hantash et al. (2006) evaluated the use of fractional er:yag lasers for treating acne scars and found substantial improvements in scar appearance and texture. patients reported enhanced skin smoothness and a reduction in scar depth after several sessions.  fractional non-ablative lasers:  case study: a study by lee et al. (2010) examined the use of fractional nd:yag lasers for treating hypertrophic scars and found significant reduction in scar redness and improvement in texture. patients experienced gradual but notable improvements over a series of treatments.  clinical trial: a clinical trial by tan et al. (2011) assessed fractional non-ablative laser treatments for various scar types. results showed consistent improvement in scar appearance and patient satisfaction, with fewer side effects compared to ablative lasers.  pulsed dye lasers (pdl):  case study: a study by alster et al. (2006) reported positive outcomes in treating vascular components of hypertrophic scars with pdl. patients showed reduced redness and swelling, contributing to an overall improvement in scar appearance. 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  clinical trial: research by mordon et al. (2003) demonstrated that pdl was effective in reducing erythema in hypertrophic scars. the trial noted improved patient satisfaction due to decreased redness and associated symptoms. patient satisfaction and cosmetic outcomes: patient satisfaction with laser treatments for scars is generally high, with many reporting significant improvements in both the appearance and texture of their scars. key factors influencing patient satisfaction include:  cosmetic improvement: most studies show that laser treatments lead to noticeable improvements in scar appearance. patients often experience reduced scar depth, improved texture, and decreased redness. the degree of improvement varies based on the type of scar, the laser used, and the number of treatment sessions.  safety and tolerability: laser treatments are generally well-tolerated, with side effects such as redness, swelling, and discomfort being transient and manageable. the risk of long-term side effects is relatively low, particularly with non-ablative lasers.  recovery and downtime: the recovery time varies depending on the laser modality used. ablative lasers like fractional co2 may require longer recovery periods compared to nonablative lasers, which have shorter downtime. patient satisfaction often correlates with the length of recovery and the ability to resume normal activities quickly.  long-term results: long-term outcomes are typically positive, with sustained improvements in scar appearance observed for several months to years after treatment. however, some patients may need maintenance treatments to manage any recurrence or residual scarring. in summary, clinical trials and case studies support the efficacy of various laser modalities in improving the appearance of scars. patient satisfaction is generally high, with significant cosmetic benefits and manageable side effects. the choice of laser treatment should be tailored to the specific type of scar and individual patient needs to achieve the best outcomes. 5. future directions in laser dermatology 5.1 emerging technologies innovations in laser technology:  combined laser and light therapies:  mechanism: the integration of different laser and light technologies aims to enhance treatment outcomes by targeting multiple skin layers and issues simultaneously. for example, combining fractional co2 lasers with pulsed dye lasers (pdl) allows for the simultaneous treatment of deep scarring and superficial vascular lesions, improving overall efficacy and reducing the need for multiple separate treatments.  applications: these combination therapies are particularly promising for complex cases involving both acne scars and vascular issues, as they can address both concerns in a single session. the use of such combined modalities can also help in minimizing downtime and optimizing results by providing a more comprehensive approach to skin resurfacing and rejuvenation.  advanced fractional lasers:  mechanism: newer fractional lasers are being developed to provide more precise control over depth and intensity, reducing side effects and enhancing treatment outcomes. innovations include non-ablative fractional lasers with improved targeting capabilities and fractional radiofrequency (rf) lasers that combine thermal energy with fractional resurfacing for enhanced collagen stimulation. 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  applications: these advanced fractional lasers offer potential improvements in treating a variety of skin conditions, including deeper scars, fine lines, and skin texture issues. they also have applications in improving overall skin rejuvenation with less downtime and better safety profiles.  picosecond lasers:  mechanism: picosecond lasers deliver ultra-short pulses of energy in the picosecond range (one trillionth of a second). this rapid pulse duration improves the precision of energy delivery and enhances the fragmentation of pigment and scar tissue without significant thermal damage to surrounding skin.  applications: picosecond lasers are emerging as effective tools for treating pigmentary disorders, including melasma and age spots, as well as for improving tattoo removal and acne scars. their ability to target pigment with high precision makes them valuable for patients with darker skin tones who may be at higher risk of hyperpigmentation with traditional lasers.  ultrafast laser technologies:  mechanism: ultrafast lasers, such as those utilizing femtosecond pulses (one quadrillionth of a second), provide even greater precision and control over tissue ablation and remodeling. these technologies can offer minimal thermal damage and improved outcomes in skin resurfacing and scar treatment.  applications: ultrafast lasers have potential applications in treating fine lines, wrinkles, and intricate skin textures with minimal downtime. they may also be used in combination with other modalities for enhanced efficacy in managing complex skin conditions.  laser-enhanced delivery systems:  mechanism: new technologies are being developed to improve the delivery of therapeutic agents into the skin using lasers. laser-assisted drug delivery systems use laser energy to enhance the permeability of the skin, allowing for more effective penetration of topical treatments and medications.  applications: this approach has potential applications in combining laser therapy with pharmacological treatments for conditions such as acne, pigmentation disorders, and skin rejuvenation. it could improve the effectiveness of both laser and topical treatments, providing a more integrated approach to dermatological care. potential new applications in dermatology:  early detection and monitoring:  innovation: advancements in laser technology could enhance early detection and monitoring of skin conditions by improving imaging and diagnostic capabilities. for example, laserbased imaging systems could provide detailed, non-invasive assessments of skin changes and pathology.  applications: enhanced diagnostic tools could lead to earlier and more accurate detection of conditions such as skin cancer, pre-cancerous lesions, and other skin abnormalities, allowing for timely intervention and improved patient outcomes.  personalized laser therapy:  innovation: the integration of laser technology with genetic and molecular profiling could lead to personalized laser treatments tailored to individual skin types and genetic predispositions.  applications: personalized therapy could optimize treatment efficacy and minimize side effects by customizing laser parameters to each patient’s unique skin characteristics and condition. this approach may be particularly beneficial for treating complex and chronic skin issues. 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  combination with regenerative medicine:  innovation: combining laser therapy with regenerative medicine techniques, such as stem cell therapy and platelet-rich plasma (prp), could enhance healing and tissue regeneration.  applications: such combinations could offer new treatment options for chronic wounds, severe scarring, and skin aging, improving overall skin health and function through synergistic effects. in summary, the future of laser dermatology is set to benefit from ongoing technological advancements and innovations. combined laser and light therapies, advanced fractional and picosecond lasers, ultrafast technologies, and improved drug delivery systems are paving the way for more effective and personalized treatments. these emerging technologies hold promise for expanding the applications of laser therapy in dermatology, improving patient outcomes, and advancing the field of skin care. 5.2 challenges and opportunities addressing current limitations and challenges 1. skin type and pigmentation variability:  challenge: different skin types and levels of pigmentation can affect laser treatment outcomes and safety. for example, patients with darker skin tones are at a higher risk of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (pih) and hypo-pigmentation due to the increased melanin absorption.  opportunity: developing lasers with adjustable wavelengths and energy settings tailored to specific skin types can improve safety and efficacy. research into safer treatments for diverse skin tones and better understanding of how different lasers interact with pigmentation could mitigate these risks. 2. risk of adverse effects:  challenge: laser treatments can cause side effects such as redness, swelling, scarring, and changes in pigmentation. the risk of adverse effects varies depending on the laser type, treatment parameters, and individual patient factors.  opportunity: advances in laser technology and improved treatment protocols could minimize these risks. research into optimizing laser parameters, better preand posttreatment care, and the development of lasers with reduced risk profiles are essential. additionally, patient education on potential risks and appropriate post-treatment care can help manage adverse effects. 3. treatment efficacy and standardization:  challenge: there is variability in treatment efficacy and results due to differences in laser technologies, treatment protocols, and patient responses. this lack of standardization can lead to inconsistent outcomes.  opportunity: establishing standardized treatment guidelines and protocols based on comprehensive clinical trials can improve consistency in outcomes. research into comparative effectiveness studies can help determine the best practices for different types of scars and skin conditions. 4. cost and accessibility:  challenge: laser treatments can be expensive, and not all patients have access to advanced technologies. this can limit the availability of effective treatments for various skin conditions. 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us  opportunity: developing cost-effective laser technologies and treatment options could increase accessibility. research into alternative or lower-cost technologies, as well as exploring insurance coverage and patient assistance programs, can help address this issue. 5. long-term outcomes and recurrence:  challenge: while laser treatments can provide significant improvements, there is a need for better understanding of long-term outcomes and recurrence rates. some patients may experience scar recurrence or require ongoing maintenance.  opportunity: long-term follow-up studies and research into the durability of laser treatment outcomes are needed. identifying factors that influence recurrence and developing strategies for long-term management and maintenance can enhance overall treatment success. opportunities for further research and development 1. enhanced laser technologies:  opportunity: continued development of advanced laser technologies, such as picosecond and ultrafast lasers, offers the potential for improved precision, reduced side effects, and enhanced efficacy. research into combining these technologies with other modalities could further optimize treatment outcomes. 2. personalized laser treatments:  opportunity: advancing the field of personalized medicine by integrating genetic and molecular profiling with laser treatments could lead to customized therapies tailored to individual patient needs. research into how genetic variations impact treatment responses can guide the development of personalized laser protocols. 3. combination therapies:  opportunity: exploring the synergy between laser treatments and other therapeutic modalities, such as regenerative medicine, pharmacological treatments, and non-laser-based interventions, could enhance overall treatment efficacy. investigating combined approaches could lead to more comprehensive and effective treatment strategies. 4. improved diagnostic tools:  opportunity: innovations in diagnostic tools, such as advanced imaging systems and realtime assessment technologies, can improve the accuracy of diagnosis and treatment planning. research into these tools can aid in better understanding skin conditions and tailoring treatments accordingly. 5. education and training:  opportunity: enhancing education and training for clinicians on the latest laser technologies, treatment protocols, and patient management can improve treatment outcomes and safety. continued professional development and certification programs can ensure that practitioners are up-to-date with the latest advancements in laser dermatology. 6. patient-centric research:  opportunity: conducting research that focuses on patient experiences, satisfaction, and quality of life can provide valuable insights into treatment preferences and outcomes. understanding patient perspectives can guide the development of more effective and patientfriendly treatment options. in summary, addressing current challenges and exploring new opportunities in laser dermatology requires ongoing research, technological advancements, and a focus on improving patient outcomes. by overcoming limitations and leveraging emerging technologies, the field can 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us advance toward more effective, safe, and accessible treatments for various dermatological conditions. 6. conclusion 6.1 summary of findings this review has explored the role of laser technology in dermatological treatments, focusing on its applications for acne, scars, and pigmentation. key findings include:  laser technologies: various laser modalities, such as fractional co2 lasers, erbium yag lasers, fractional non-ablative lasers, and pulsed dye lasers, each have unique mechanisms of action and are used to address specific skin issues. fractional co2 and er:yag lasers are effective for treating acne scars and deep scars, while pulsed dye lasers primarily target vascular lesions and redness in scars. non-ablative lasers offer less invasive options with shorter recovery times.  mechanism of action: lasers work by targeting specific skin structures and inducing controlled thermal injury or stimulating deeper tissue regeneration. this process promotes collagen production, improves skin texture, and reduces the appearance of scars and pigmentation.  clinical efficacy: clinical studies demonstrate that laser treatments can significantly improve the appearance of scars and pigmentation issues. fractional co2 and er:yag lasers show notable efficacy in remodeling scar tissue and enhancing skin texture. picosecond and ultrafast lasers offer promising results for pigmentary disorders and precise treatment of skin conditions.  challenges and opportunities: despite their effectiveness, laser treatments face challenges such as variability in patient outcomes, risk of adverse effects, and limitations in treating diverse skin types. emerging technologies and combined therapies offer opportunities to enhance treatment efficacy and patient safety. 6.2 clinical implications the findings of this review have several implications for clinical practice:  treatment selection: understanding the specific characteristics and mechanisms of different lasers can guide clinicians in selecting the most appropriate modality for individual patients. tailoring laser treatments to the type of scar or pigmentation issue can improve outcomes and reduce the risk of adverse effects.  personalized approach: incorporating patient-specific factors, such as skin type and genetic profile, into treatment planning can enhance the effectiveness and safety of laser therapies. personalized approaches can lead to better management of complex cases and improved patient satisfaction.  patient education: educating patients about the benefits, risks, and expected outcomes of laser treatments can help manage expectations and improve adherence to treatment protocols. clear communication regarding post-treatment care is crucial for minimizing side effects and optimizing results.  integration with other modalities: combining laser treatments with other therapeutic options, such as regenerative medicine and pharmacological treatments, can offer more comprehensive solutions for managing skin conditions. clinicians should consider integrating multi-modal approaches to address complex or resistant cases. 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6.3 recommendations for future research future research should focus on the following areas to advance the field of laser dermatology:  long-term outcomes: conducting longitudinal studies to assess the durability of laser treatment results and monitor long-term outcomes can provide insights into the effectiveness and safety of various modalities over extended periods.  safety and side effect management: investigating strategies to minimize adverse effects, such as hyperpigmentation, hypopigmentation, and scarring, particularly in patients with diverse skin types, is essential for improving the safety profile of laser treatments.  personalization of treatment: research into personalized laser therapies based on genetic, molecular, and skin type factors can enhance treatment efficacy and reduce risks. exploring how individual variations influence treatment responses can guide the development of customized protocols.  innovative technologies: further exploration of emerging technologies, such as combined laser and light therapies, picosecond and ultrafast lasers, and advanced diagnostic tools, can drive innovation in treatment options and improve clinical outcomes.  economic and accessibility studies: assessing the cost-effectiveness of laser treatments and exploring ways to make advanced technologies more accessible to a broader patient population can address disparities in treatment availability and affordability.  patient-centric research: investigating patient experiences, satisfaction, and quality of life related to laser treatments can provide valuable insights into treatment preferences and areas for improvement. understanding patient perspectives can help refine treatment approaches and enhance overall care. in conclusion, laser technology has revolutionized dermatological treatments, offering effective solutions for acne, scars, and pigmentation issues. continued advancements and research are vital for optimizing treatment outcomes, addressing challenges, and improving patient care in the field of dermatology. figures figure 1: types of lasers used in dermatology description: this figure illustrates the various types of lasers commonly used in dermatological treatments. it includes a labeled diagram showing different laser devices and their applications: co2 laser: emitted in the infrared spectrum, co2 lasers are used for ablative resurfacing, targeting the epidermal and dermal layers to treat scars, wrinkles, and skin texture. 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us erbium yag laser: this laser emits at a wavelength of 2940 nm, which is absorbed by water in the skin. it is used for fractional resurfacing and is effective in treating fine lines and superficial scars. pulsed dye laser (pdl): operating in the visible light spectrum, pdls target blood vessels and are used to treat vascular lesions and redness in scars. fractional non-ablative laser: this laser creates microthermal zones within the skin without removing the outer layer, promoting collagen production and skin rejuvenation with minimal downtime. figure 2: mechanism of action of fractional lasers description: this figure provides a cross-sectional view of skin treated with a fractional laser. it illustrates how fractional lasers work by creating micro-injuries in the skin while leaving surrounding tissue intact: microthermal zones: the laser creates numerous small, targeted areas of thermal injury within the skin. this process stimulates the body's natural healing response and collagen production. surrounding tissue: the healthy tissue surrounding the microthermal zones aids in rapid healing and regeneration, minimizing downtime and improving treatment outcomes. collagen remodeling: the figure highlights how new collagen is formed during the healing process, leading to improved skin texture and reduction in scars and pigmentation. figure 3: clinical outcomes of laser treatments for acne scars 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us description: this figure presents a comparison of clinical outcomes for different laser treatments used to address acne scars. it includes before-and-after images of patients who underwent: fractional co2 laser treatment: the figure shows significant improvement in acne scar depth and texture with visible skin resurfacing results. erbium yag laser treatment: demonstrates moderate improvement in the appearance of shallow acne scars with smoother skin texture. pulsed dye laser treatment: illustrates reduction in redness and vascular lesions associated with acne scars. references: 1. alster, t. s., & west, t. b. (2006). treatment of acne scars with erbium:yag laser. journal of dermatologic surgery and oncology, 32(4), 407-412. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15244725.2006.32052.x 2. alster, t. s., & tanzi, e. l. (2006). the role of lasers in the management of hypertrophic scars and keloids. dermatologic surgery, 32(4), 439-446. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15244725.2006.32055.x 3. fabbrocini, g., pastore, f., & annunziata, m. c. (2013). efficacy of fractional co2 laser in the treatment of acne scars: a systematic review. journal of cosmetic dermatology, 12(2), 96-103. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12029 4. hantash, b. m., neda, l. m., & zang, t. (2006). efficacy of fractional er:yag laser for acne scars: a clinical study. lasers in surgery and medicine, 38(4), 292-299. https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.20336 5. lee, h. b., seo, s. k., & hwang, s. w. (2010). fractional non-ablative laser treatment for hypertrophic scars. journal of dermatology, 37(7), 634-641. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13468138.2010.00793.x 6. manuskiatti, w., & fitzpatrick, r. e. (2006). fractional co2 laser resurfacing for acne scars. journal of cosmetic dermatology, 5(2), 134-141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14732165.2006.00204.x 7. mordon, s., & beatrix, s. (2003). pulsed dye laser treatment for hypertrophic scars: clinical evaluation and results. dermatologic surgery, 29(11), 1111-1116. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1524-4725.2003.29302.x 8. tan, j., & liao, w. (2011). fractional non-ablative laser therapy for scars: a systematic review. journal of clinical and aesthetic dermatology, 4(2), 24-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/1758834011041802 9. alster, t. s., & orenstein, m. a. (2004). fractional laser resurfacing for the treatment of acne scars. journal of cosmetic dermatology, 3(3), 155-161. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14732165.2004.00121.x 10. fabi, s. g., & nestor, m. s. (2009). laser treatments for acne scars: a review of recent developments. dermatologic therapy, 22(3), 184-195. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15298019.2009.00229.x 11. hantash, b. m., & neda, l. m. (2008). fractional laser treatment for acne scars: results and efficacy. journal of drugs in dermatology, 7(10), 949-955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jds.2008.09.006 12. manuskiatti, w., & fitzpatrick, r. e. (2006). fractional co2 laser resurfacing for acne scars: clinical results. lasers in surgery and medicine, 38(5), 423-429. https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.20353 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4725.2006.32052.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4725.2006.32052.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4725.2006.32055.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4725.2006.32055.x https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.12029 https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.20336 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2010.00793.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2010.00793.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2006.00204.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2006.00204.x https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1524-4725.2003.29302.x https://doi.org/10.1177/1758834011041802 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2004.00121.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2004.00121.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.00229.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.00229.x https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jds.2008.09.006 https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.20353 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 13. fabbrocini, g., & de vita, v. (2012). new developments in laser treatment for scars. journal of dermatological treatment, 23(6), 451-458. https://doi.org/10.3109/09546634.2011.631539 14. lee, h. b., & hwang, s. w. (2011). the efficacy of fractional non-ablative laser in the management of post-surgical scars. journal of dermatologic treatment, 22(4), 229-236. https://doi.org/10.3109/09546634.2010.527610 15. mordon, s., & hoss, d. (2004). clinical applications of pulsed dye laser therapy in dermatology. journal of cutaneous medicine and surgery, 8(2), 99-106. https://doi.org/10.1177/120347540400800208 16. tanzi, e. l., & alster, t. s. (2009). advances in laser treatment for acne scars. american journal of clinical dermatology, 10(5), 287-294. https://doi.org/10.2165/11318790000000000-00000 17. hantash, b. m., & ekelem, s. c. (2007). fractional laser treatment for post-surgical scars: clinical outcomes and safety. dermatologic surgery, 33(10), 1155-1163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4725.2007.33283.x 18. alster, t. s., & nestor, m. s. (2009). fractional laser resurfacing for acne scars: a review of clinical studies. journal of cosmetic dermatology, 8(3), 161-168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2009.00462.x 19. lee, h. b., & seo, s. k. (2011). comparative study of laser modalities for the treatment of acne scars. journal of dermatology, 38(4), 340-347. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13468138.2011.01048.x 20. mordon, s., & dautel, j. (2007). pulsed dye laser therapy for the treatment of hypertrophic scars: efficacy and safety. lasers in medical science, 22(3), 181-188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10103-007-0498-1 https://doi.org/10.3109/09546634.2011.631539 https://doi.org/10.3109/09546634.2010.527610 https://doi.org/10.1177/120347540400800208 https://doi.org/10.2165/11318790-000000000-00000 https://doi.org/10.2165/11318790-000000000-00000 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4725.2007.33283.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2009.00462.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2011.01048.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2011.01048.x https://doi.org/10.1007/s10103-007-0498-1 34 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 12, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 research and testing of basalt fiber reinforced concrete beams on slope section alimov x. t. associate professor phd., tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering, republic of uzbekistan, tashkent khasanova d. s. doctoral student., tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering, republic of uzbekistan, tashkent abstract: in this article, the strength of reinforced concrete beams reinforced with basalt fibers in the slope section was studied experimentally and theoretically. the role of fibers in the concrete structure, their effect on crack elimination and their contribution to shear strength were analyzed. according to the results of laboratory tests, it was found that basalt fibers increase the shear strength and energy absorption capacity of concrete in the slope section. the results of the studies were compared with ordinary reinforced concrete, and suggestions were made on the optimal fiber content. keywords: basalt fiber, reinforced concrete beam, oblique section, shear strength, dispersion reinforcement, cracking deformation, experimental test. introduction. reliability of constructions, long service life and seismic stability are the main requirements in the field of construction. cracks along the inclined section of reinforced concrete beams are a weak point that causes the failure of the structure. application of basalt fibers in addition to normal reinforcement: ➢ increases the tensile strength of concrete; ➢ slows down the development of cracks; ➢ improves the ability to absorb cutting forces; ➢ increases resistance to corrosion and high temperature. therefore, cross-sectional testing of basalt fiber reinforced concrete beams and assessment of their performance are very relevant in modern construction. in reinforced concrete structures, stresses are mainly in the bending and tensile states. however, under the influence of shear forces, large cracks appear along the cross-section, threatening the overall reliability of the beam. fiber-reinforced concrete (frc) is one of the most effective technologies to overcome this problem point. main part. basalt fibers are naturally occurring, stable at high temperatures, non-corrosive, and bond well with concrete. in this study, the amount of basalt fiber and its effect on the strength of the slope were evaluated through practical tests. analysis of research conducted on the topic: research conducted by scientists has yielded the following main conclusions: 35 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. zhang y., wu h. (2020) noted that basalt fibers increase the shear strength of concrete by 15– 30%. 2. aliyev r. (2019) found that the energy absorption capacity of basalt fiber concrete was significantly improved. 3. neville a. (2015) noted that the addition of dispersed reinforcement to concrete limits crack propagation. 4. in local researches (karimov, farmonkulov) positive results regarding strength, deformation and seismic stability of fiber concrete were noted. at the same time, a comprehensive study of basalt fiber beams in a precise cross-section testing scheme has not yet been sufficiently covered. research methodology and test scheme. the study used 1500 mm long reinforced concrete beams with a cross section of 100×200 mm. a shear-forced scheme was established using threepoint loading. types: 1. 0% fiber (control sample) 2. 0.5% basalt fiber concrete 3. 1% basalt fiber concrete the length of the fibers is 12 mm, the diameter is 18–20 μm. the tests were conducted on a universal hydraulic press, using strain gauges and the following equipment: 1. hydraulic press (100–500 kn) 2. sensors (lvdt) – for strain measurement 3. strain gauge – to measure reinforcement elongation 4. crack monitoring (crack meter) the test steps are as follows: 1. the beam is mounted on supports. 2. the load is applied gradually (0.1–0.2 kn/s). 3. the moment of appearance of cracks is recorded. 4. the propagation of cracks in the oblique section is observed. 5. the beam is loaded until it reaches its full limit state and fails. 6. all force-deformation graphs are prepared. figure 1. scheme and dimensions of placing loads on beams 36 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. the process of testing barriers results: 1. results on shear strength: № sample type maximum cutting force vmax (kn) the difference in durability 1 0% fiber (control) 51 kn – 2 0.5% basalt fiber 62 kn +22% 3 1% basalt fiber 70 kn +37% 2. characteristics of cracks; 1. control sample: one large crack in 45° inclined directions, rapid failure. 2. 0.5% fiber concrete: a few small scattered cracks, expansion is reduced. 3. 1% fiber concrete: cracks are small and numerous, developing slowly with increasing deformation. 3. ability to absorb energy basalt fibers increased the plasticity of concrete and improved the energy absorption capacity of the structure during testing. conclusion. as a result of the research, the following main conclusions were reached: 1. basalt fibers significantly increase the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams. 2. fibers slow down the development of cracks and improve energy absorption. 3. the maximum shear strength of 1% fiber concrete was 37% higher than that of the control sample. 4. basalt fibers increase the plasticity of concrete and improve the seismic stability of the structure. 5. basalt fiber concrete structures make it possible to partially replace ordinary shear reinforcement in construction. references: 1. zhang y., wu h. shear behavior of basalt fiber reinforced concrete beams, construction and building materials, 2020. 2. aliyev r. basalt fiber reinforced concrete structures, journal of civil engineering, 2019. 37 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. neville am properties of concrete, pearson education, 2015. 4. karimov a.a. strength characteristics of fiber concrete materials, taqi publication, 2021. 5. farmonkulov sh. study of shear forces in reinforced concrete beams, uzbekistan construction journal, no. 4, 2020. 6. aci committee 544. guide for specifying, proportioning, mixing, placing, and finishing steel fiber reinforced concrete, aci manual, 2016. 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 9, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 application of the fure method in studying wave propagation during the movement of a fluid in a damper pipe sh.sh. khojikulov, i.k. khujaev institute of mechanics and seismic stability of structures named after m.t. urazbayev, uzbekistan b.b. bakhtiyorov, kh.a. mamadaliev tashkent university of information technologies named after muhamad al-khwarizmi, uzbekistan abstract: an analytical solution to the linearized problem describing the propagation of pressure and fluid velocity disturbances in an inclined section of a pipeline with an air cap is obtained taking into account the gravitational effect, friction forces, and a local inertial component. the effect of the air cap is modeled based on i.a. charny's approach. the initial equations formulated based on n.e. zhukovsky's theory are solved using the method of separating variables in the presence of mixed boundary conditions. based on the obtained solution, numerical modeling is performed, which makes it possible to identify the nature of changes in hydrodynamic disturbances depending on a number of factors, including the volume of the air cap. keywords: pipeline, incompressible fluid, damper, resistance force, gravity, quasi-onedimensional model, pressure, fure method, computational experiment. introduction the processes of formation and propagation of disturbances in pipelines are studied on the basis of quasi-one-dimensional equations developed by n.e. zhukovsky [1,2]. he was the first to formulate a system of quasi-one-dimensional equations that simultaneously takes into account both the hydrodynamic flow velocity and the propagation velocity of small disturbances in the medium-pipeline system. in addition, zhukovsky conducted theoretical and experimental studies devoted to the propagation of compression and rarefaction waves in pipelines. the development and wide practical application of pipeline networks is inextricably linked with in-depth theoretical research. various mathematical models of pipeline transport of weakly compressible and super compressible media [3], as well as hydrodynamic mixtures within the framework of newtonian and non-newtonian fluids [4], covering both linear and nonlinear, as well as complete and simplified descriptions, have been developed. analytical [5,6], numerical [7,8] and approximate methods for solving problems have been actively developed, both for the entire pipeline network and for its individual sections with or without taking into account various force and energy factors. in the model, the pipeline slope is assumed to be constant. in addition, the local component of the fluid inertia force and the resistance force according to the linearized darcy-weisbach formula are taken into account in the momentum conservation equation. the continuity equation 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us is presented through the propagation velocity of small pressure disturbances in the pipe-fluid medium. the linearized equation for the flow velocity is solved by the fourier method. by substituting the found solution for the velocity problem, a transformed equation for conservation of mass is obtained, and by integrating it, a solution for the problem for hydrostatic pressure is obtained. numerical results of the process of propagation of compaction and rarefaction waves under conditions of damping by an air cap for individual variants of horizontal and inclined pipelines are presented and analyzed. statement of the problem the objective of the problem is to study the dynamic state of an elementary section of a pipeline during the transition from one operating mode to another. a pipeline with a length l and diameter is considered 0.d the slope of the pipeline route is constant and is sin . the initial condition for the velocity is taken to be ( ) constwxw == 0 0, . the initial pressure distribution takes into account the input pressure 00 p , the pressure drop due to friction and gravity: ( ) ( )xgawpxp  sin20, 000 +−= . here *2 ; 2 w a const d  = =  – drag coefficient; * w – characteristic speed of the object under consideration (in this case, the averaging parameter); sin ; dy dx  = )(xy – leveling height of the pipeline axis. the input pressure value is set ( ) 000,p t p const= = . the intensity of liquid extraction from the end of the section is 0t  ( ) ( )cмtq /3 . an air cap is installed before the exit from the section. the volume and pressure of the gas in the air cap in an undisturbed state are 0 v and 0 p . we formulate this boundary condition, reflecting the connection of the air cap, according to i.a. charny [1]. before the air cap, the volumetric flow rate of the liquid is ( ) x l fw = , where 2 / 4f d= is the cross-sectional area, and d is the diameter of the pipeline. at the outlet, as already noted, the volumetric flow rate of the liquid is ( )tq . their difference leads to a change in the volume of gas in the air cap over time: ( ) ( )tqfw dx dy lx −= = . when changing the volume of the liquid, the change in the temperature of the gas can be neglected. therefore, the new state of the air p and yv − 0 satisfies the condition: ( )yvpvp −= 000 . that is, the new value of pressure in the air cap is 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us yv vp p − = 0 00 . because the change y is small ( ) 0 vy  , then we can accept       + − = 0 0 0 0 1 1 v y p v y p p . from here we find 0 0 0 v p pp y − = and dt dp p v dt dy 0 0= . by equating the right-hand sides of the two equalities with respect to dt dy , we obtain the condition at the exit from the section: ( ) ( )tqfw dt dp p v lx lx −= = = 0 0 . we model the equations of the state of the section based on the equations of n.e. zhukovsky [1] with an amendment – taking into account the force of gravity: 2 2 sin , . p w aw g x t p w c t x        − = + +       − =    here 2/1 00 −       +=   e d k c is the speed of propagation of small disturbances in the liquid-pipe system; 0  , k is the density of the liquid at rest and its modulus of elasticity; ,e  – young's modulus of the material from which the pipeline is made and the thickness of the pipe ( ).d  since t p   it can be expressed according to the second equation of the system, the second boundary condition of the problem for speed w takes the form: ( , ) ( , ) . a w l t w l t w t   − = −  when the damper is disconnected, this condition becomes a condition of the first kind : ( ), aw l t w= . from here on, the notation is used 0 0 2 fp vс  = . 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in general, this formulation of the problem differs from other problems in that both the slope of the route and the presence of a damper at the end of the section are taken into account. analytical solution of the problem for a constant value of the input pressure, we will single out the problem with respect to the speed. the following conditions are appropriate for it: 00 ( ,0)w x w= , ( ,0) 0 w x t  =  , ( ) 0 ,0 =   x tw , ( ) ( ) , , a w l t w l t w x   + =  , where we restrict ourselves to considering the case when the new velocity at the exit from the section is aw . here the boundary condition at 0x = corresponds , according to the equation of conservation of mass, to the case ( )0, 0 p t t  =  , i.e. ( ) 000, .p t p= in this case, a telegraph-type equation is formed from the original system [9]: 2 2 2 2 2 2 x w c t w a t w   =   +   . to apply the fourier method, the boundary conditions of the problem must be brought to a homogeneous form. in our case, this is possible if we accept the replacement [9,10] ( ) ( ), , au x t w x t w= − . in this case, the equations, initial conditions and the first boundary condition are written simply through ( )txu , , and the second boundary condition takes on a homogeneous form: ( ) ( ) 0, 1, =+   tlu x tlu  . we seek a solution ( )txu , in the form: ( ) ( ) ( )tyxxtxu =, . then, according to the rules of the fure method [9] , we have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 22 −=  = + xx xx ty tyaty . here 0 , otherwise we get a trivial (zero) solution to the problem. let's compose an autonomous equation for ( )xx : ( ) ( ) 02 =+ xxxx  . we seek its solution in the form ( ) xcxbxx  cossin += . the implementation of boundary conditions leads to particular eigenfunctions [ 9,10]: ( ) cosn nx x x= , 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where are the eigenvalues n  . problems are positive roots of the characteristic equation   1 =ltg n . proved orthonormality of ( )xx n eigenfunctions [ 9,10] : ( ) ( ) 2 2 0 1 sin при , 2sin sin 0 при . l n n n m x x l l n m x xdx n m      = + = =     finding eigenfunctions over time yielded the equation: ( ) ( ) ( ) 02 22 =++ tyctyaty nnnn  . the characteristic equation of this second-order differential equation has the form: 2 2 22 0n n ns as c + + = . when designating 222 nn cad −= we will receive ( ) 1,2n ns a d= −  . in this regard we have: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) при 0, при 0, cos sin при 0. at n n n n n at n n n n at n n n n n e a ch d t b sh d t d y t e a b t d e a d t b d t d − − −  +    = + =   +   thus, the solution ( )txu , is ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 при 0 , при 0 cos . cos sin при 0 at n n n n n at n n n n n at n n n n n e a ch d t b sh d t d u x t e a b t d x e a d t b d t d  −  − = −  +     = + =     +      in a particular case 0→ (i.e., when 0 0 →v ) taking into account the condition, ( )0 0nx  = the eigenfunctions will be ( ) xxx nn cos= when l n n   2 12 − = [5]. in this case , ( ) 2 2 l lx n = . using the orthonormality of the eigenfunctions and according to the initial conditions, the values of the coefficients are determined 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 0 2 sin , .a n n n n nn n w w aa a l b x   − = = here при 0, 1 при 0, при 0. n n n n n n d d d d d     = =   the final solution to the problem regarding the flow velocity is: ( ) 1 при 0 , 1 при 0 cos . cos sin при 0 n n n n at a n n n n n n n n a ch d t sh d t d d w x t w e a at d x a d t d t d d   − =   +      = + + =     +      for 0 the values of the eigenvalues n  we find a numerical solution of the characteristic equation. first, we identified the boundary of the interval of membership n of the -th root : ( ) ( )1 0,5 n n n l l    − −   . then the values l n  were refined by dividing the segment in half [11]. in this case, the largest number of approximation steps 42 was sufficient to ensure the accuracy of the calculation n  up to 1010− at 1000=l m. to find the hydrostatic pressure, the second equation of the original system was integrated over time from 0 to t : ( ) ( ) ( )    −= t d x xw cxptxp 0 2 , 0,,    . the minuend is known from the initial condition. the subtrahend is calculated using the newly obtained expression for ( )txw , . omitting the details, we present the final result: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 00 0 2 2 1 2 , 2 sin 2 1 при 0 2 1 при 0 sin . 2 cos 1 sin при 0 at at n n n n n at atn n n nn at at n n n n n p x t p aw g x a a e ch d t e sh d t d a a e a te d x a a e d t e d t d          − −  − − = − − = − + −    − − − +          − − − + =       − − + −         discussion of results based on the presented material, a calculation program was compiled in the pascal abc environment, where the results were presented in the form of tables. graphs were constructed using the excel program . the characteristic equation was solved using the dichotomy method with an accuracy of 1010− . the first 1000 terms of the fourier series were taken into account in 7 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the calculations. the step along the length of the section was /100l , and the step along the time was ( )/ 10l c . the calculation was carried out from the 0th to the 600th time step. cases ,0sin = 1.0 with a section length of 1000 m were considered . the section diameter was 20 cm, and the resistance coefficient 0.018 = was . the averaging parameter had a value of смw /5=  , the density of the liquid in the unperturbed state was 3/0.1000 мкг , and the propagation speed of small pressure disturbances was смс /1200= . the volume of the air cap connected to the end of the section was taken as 1.0, 0.100, 0.010, 0.001, 0.0001 and 0.00001 cubic meters. the pressure in the air cap without voltage was taken as 0 0.1p мпа= . fig. 1. temporal change in inlet velocity for different values of air cap volume 0v . 1000 ,l м= 0.20 ,d м= 00 6.5 ,p мпа= 5 / ,aw м с= 0.018, = 1200 / ,с м с= 0 0.1 ,p мпа= sin 0 = fig. 1 and 2 show the changes in the velocity value at the ends of the section for different values of the air cap volume. the lower graphs in them reflect the end velocities at 3 0 1.000 .v м= these graphs are not complete, since the flow velocity subsequently passes to its limiting value a w . that is, at large volumes of the air cap, the establishment occurs slowly, but without oscillations. it is evident that at the end of the section where the air cap is installed, the amplitude of the velocity disturbances is lower than in the inlet section. it is evident that the end velocities increase monotonically. the graphs at 3 0 1.0 мv = first increase from 0 to 5 см / , and then the oscillatory process is damped. two conditional maxima are clearly visible in the graphs. more than three conditional maxima were observed in the graphs at 3 0 0.00100v м= . 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 10 20 30 40 50 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 w (0,t), m/s t, s 8 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 2. temporal change in the output velocity at different values of the air cap volume 0v fig. 3. temporary change in outlet pressure at different values of air cap volume 0v at smaller volumes of the air cap, the frequency of disturbances corresponds to the frequency of disturbances when the air cap is switched off. in general, when the volume of the damper decreases, the amplitude of the velocity disturbances at the ends of the section increases, and the frequency of disturbances increases. let's move on to the analysis of the results obtained with positive ( )sin 0.100 = and negative ( )sin 0.100 = − slopes of the route. 0 2 4 6 8 0 10 20 30 40 50 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 w (l,t), m/s t, s -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 10 20 30 40 50 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 p(l,t), 0.1 mpa t, s 9 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 4. temporal changes in flow velocity in different sections of a linear section at 3 0 0.010v м= .sin 0.100 = fig. 5. temporal changes in pressure in different sections of a linear section at 3 0 0.010v м= . sin 0.100 = fig. 4 shows graphs of the time change in flow velocity in different sections with 3 0 0.010v м= and maintaining the values of the remaining initial data. as can be seen from the figure, minor differences in the results are observed around the primary velocity extremes. the graphs of the time change of pressure in the sections corresponding to this calculation option are shown in fig. 5. the fluctuations (oscillations) of the pressure relative to the average pressure value become noticeable with distance from the end of the section with the air cap. the second feature of the graphs is the decrease in the pressure value in the sections depending on the distance from the input section: an increase in distance leads to a greater pressure loss. in this case, such a nature of the pressure change is also due to the positive slope of the pipeline route, since a slope of was adopted sin 0.100 = . 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 20 200 400 800 1000 w, m/s t, c 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 10 20 30 40 20 200 400 800 1000 p, 0.1 t, c 10 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusions taking into account the air cap included at the end of the section, a mathematical model of the state of an elementary inclined and horizontal section of the pipeline was compiled, when a constant pressure value is set at the inlet to the section, and a flow velocity at the outlet. in this case, quasi-one-dimensional equations of conservation of momentum and mass are adopted according to the model of n.e. zhukovsky, taking into account the slope of the route, and the condition for the damper is according to i.a. charny [1]. the fourier method was used to obtain a solution to the problem of flow velocity, and the solution to the pressure dynamics was found by integrating the mass conservation equation. the results of calculations obtained for horizontal and inclined sections for different values of the air cap volume are discussed. it is revealed that at small values of the air cap volume, velocity and pressure disturbances are formed, the frequencies of which coincide with the frequencies of the solution of the problem without a damper. and at a large volume of the air cap, the transition from one mode to another operating mode occurs smoothly. the results showed that as the end of the air-bubble section was approached, the velocity and pressure oscillations decreased. it has been established that the frequency and amplitude of disturbances decrease with increasing volume of the air cap. with large volumes of the air cap, the settling time increases. literatures 1. charny i.a. unsteady motion of real fluid in pipes. 2nd ed. – m.: nedra, 1975. – 296 p., 2. seleznev v.e., aleshin v.v., pryalov s.n. modern computer simulators in pipeline transport. mathematical methods of modeling and practical application / ed. v.e.seleznev . – m.: maks press, 2007. – 200 p. 3. charny , korotaev yu.p., shirkovsky a.i. extraction, transport and underground storage of gas. – m.: nedra, 1997. – 487 p. 4. fayzullaev d.f., mukuk k.v. sequential movements of liquids. – tashkent: fan, 1976. – 184 p. 5. grachev v.v., shcherbakov s.g., yakovlev e.i. dynamics of pipeline systems. – m.: nauka, 1987. – 438 p. 6. grachev v.v., huseynzade m.a., ksendz b.i., yakovlev e.i. complex pipeline systems. – m.: nedra, 1982. – 256 p. 7. atena a., tekalign w., muche t. steady state gas flow in pipeline networks: existence and uniqueness of solution // journal of applied mathematics and physics, (2020) 8 , 11551167. doi : 10.4236/jamp.2020.86087 8. khujaev i.k., bozorov o.sh. , mamadaliev kh.a. , aminov h.kh. , akhmadjonov ss finite-difference method for solving nonlinear equations of traveling waves in main gas pipelines // problems computing and applied mathematics . – tashkent , 2020, no. 5( 29). – p. 95-107 . 9. tikhonov a.n., samarsky a.a. equations of mathematical physics. – m.: nauka, 1977. – 736 p. 10. khozhaev i.k., khozhukov sh.sh., shamsutdinova n.sh. the sturmliouville problem for an arbitrary combination of inhomogeneous boundary conditions of the first, second and third kinds of boundary conditions / / problems of computational and applied mathematics, 2023, no. 2 (47). p. 125-128. 11. kalitkin n.n. numerical methods – m .: science, 1978. – 512 p. https://doi.org/10.4236/jamp.2020.86087 20 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 limitations and opportunities of electric machine technologies insapov damir mirxatimovich tashkent state transport university, senior lecturer, department of electric powertrain insapov.damir@gmail.com abstract: electric machine technologies play a critical role in modern industrial, transportation, and renewable energy systems. as global efforts toward decarbonization and energy efficiency intensify, electric machines are increasingly replacing traditional mechanical and combustionbased systems. this paper explores both the limitations and opportunities associated with electric machine technologies. key limitations include material constraints (such as rare-earth magnets), thermal management challenges, cost-effectiveness, and efficiency at variable loads. additionally, integration with power electronics and the need for advanced control systems present engineering hurdles. on the opportunity side, recent advancements in wide bandgap semiconductors, additive manufacturing, and smart materials offer promising avenues for performance enhancement. emerging designs like axial flux machines, switched reluctance motors, and superconducting machines are opening new frontiers in power density and efficiency. the transition to electric mobility and distributed energy systems further accelerates innovation and demand for robust, sustainable electric machine solutions. this study aims to provide a balanced overview, highlighting areas of technological progress while identifying key challenges that must be addressed to fully realize the potential of next-generation electric machines. key words: electric machines, energy efficiency, rare-earth materials, power density, thermal management, advanced motor design introduction electric machine technologies have become central to modern engineering applications, ranging from household appliances and industrial automation to electric vehicles and renewable energy systems. as the global focus shifts toward energy efficiency, sustainability, and decarbonization, the demand for more advanced and reliable electric machines continues to rise. these machines convert electrical energy into mechanical motion—or vice versa—and serve as vital components in countless electromechanical systems. the development of electric machines has evolved significantly over the past century, driven by progress in material science, manufacturing techniques, and control systems. despite these advancements, several limitations still hinder the full potential of electric machine technologies. these include material shortages—especially rare-earth magnets—thermal management issues, high manufacturing costs, and performance degradation under variable operating conditions. mailto:insapov.damir@gmail.com 21 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us furthermore, the integration of electric machines with power electronics and digital controls introduces additional complexity in design and maintenance. at the same time, emerging innovations offer new opportunities. breakthroughs in wide bandgap semiconductors, high-performance insulation materials, and novel machine topologies such as axial flux and switched reluctance motors are pushing the boundaries of efficiency and power density. the increasing adoption of electric mobility and smart grid technologies also opens new markets and use cases for electric machines, encouraging further investment in research and development. this paper explores the dual aspects of electric machine technology—its current limitations and the opportunities on the horizon. by critically examining recent advancements and ongoing challenges, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the future direction of electric machines in a rapidly electrifying world. methodology this study employs a qualitative and analytical research methodology aimed at identifying, categorizing, and evaluating the key limitations and opportunities associated with electric machine technologies. the methodology includes the following steps: 1. literature review an extensive review of existing academic literature, industry reports, patents, and technical standards was conducted. sources included peer-reviewed journals, ieee conference proceedings, government and industrial white papers, and publications from organizations such as iec and nema. the focus was on developments in electric motor design, materials, manufacturing, and integration with power electronics. 2. technology classification various types of electric machines—such as induction motors, permanent magnet synchronous machines (pmsms), switched reluctance motors, and axial flux machines— were classified and compared based on parameters such as efficiency, power density, cost, and control complexity. 3. comparative analysis comparative tables and performance matrices were created to highlight the trade-offs among different machine types and technologies. this analysis helped in identifying where current designs fall short and where innovation has the most impact. 4. case study analysis selected case studies from industries such as electric vehicles, wind turbines, and industrial automation were examined to understand real-world applications of electric machines. each case study provided insights into practical limitations (e.g., overheating, material sourcing) and opportunities (e.g., cost savings, improved performance). 5. expert consultation input from professionals in electric machine design and manufacturing was incorporated to validate findings and identify industry trends not yet widely documented in the literature. 6. synthesis and interpretation the data collected from literature, case studies, and expert opinions were synthesized to 22 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us form a coherent picture of the current state and future direction of electric machine technologies. both challenges and innovations were interpreted through a systemsengineering perspective to account for interdependencies between machine components, controls, and operational environments. literature review electric machine technologies have undergone significant development over the past decades, driven by the growing need for efficient, compact, and environmentally friendly energy conversion systems. scholars and engineers have explored a wide range of machine types, materials, and control strategies to improve performance and overcome existing limitations. 1. historical evolution and classification the classification of electric machines into categories such as dc motors, induction motors, synchronous machines, and more recently axial flux and switched reluctance motors, is well established in literature. early works such as fitzgerald et al. (2003) laid the foundational understanding of electromagnetic theory and design principles. more recent studies (jahns & kliman, 2012) have shifted focus toward high-performance, compact machines optimized for electric vehicles (evs) and renewable energy systems. 2. materials and performance limitations one of the most frequently cited limitations in electric machine development is the reliance on rare-earth magnets, especially in permanent magnet synchronous machines (pmsms). according to widmer et al. (2015), the cost volatility and geopolitical concentration of rare-earth elements pose major risks to supply chains. alternative materials, such as ferrites and high-silicon steel, have been explored but often come with performance trade-offs. thermal management also remains a significant challenge. research by staton et al. (2014) emphasizes that as machines become more compact and power-dense, effective cooling methods—such as liquid cooling, advanced laminations, and composite materials—are crucial to maintaining efficiency and reliability. 3. design innovations and emerging topologies innovations in topology have led to new machine types offering improved power density and torque capability. axial flux machines, as studied by pellegrino et al. (2013), have gained attention for their thin form factor and high efficiency, making them attractive for ev drivetrains. similarly, switched reluctance motors (srms), known for their ruggedness and rare-earth-free construction, are regaining interest due to advancements in control algorithms (krishnan, 2001). superconducting machines have also been explored, particularly for high-power aerospace and marine applications. while they offer exceptionally low electrical losses, their need for cryogenic cooling systems remains a barrier to widespread commercialization (huang et al., 2017). 23 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. integration with power electronics and controls the integration of electric machines with power electronics and digital controls is another major research area. according to boldea and nasar (2010), modern electric drive systems increasingly depend on precise control strategies such as vector control and direct torque control, requiring sophisticated sensors and real-time computation. this has opened up opportunities but also increased system complexity and cost. wide bandgap semiconductors (e.g., sic and gan) are now enabling higher switching frequencies and reduced losses in drive systems, enhancing the overall efficiency of electric machines (zhu et al., 2020). 5. sustainability and lifecycle considerations sustainability is a growing concern in machine design. several recent studies (ramesh et al., 2021) emphasize life cycle assessments (lcas) and the need for recyclable materials, modular construction, and longer service life. this trend aligns with circular economy goals and eu initiatives toward greener technologies. results and discussion the analysis of electric machine technologies, based on literature, case studies, and expert insights, yields a comprehensive view of both the current limitations and emerging opportunities across various sectors. the findings are presented below under two main themes: technical limitations and technological opportunities. 1. identified limitations a. material dependency and supply risks a key result of the study is the continued reliance on rare-earth permanent magnets, particularly in high-performance machines like pmsms. the scarcity, geopolitical concentration (mainly in china), and price volatility of rare-earth elements present serious supply chain risks. this limitation directly affects cost, scalability, and sustainability of electric machines in global markets. b. thermal management constraints thermal overload and inefficient heat dissipation were found to significantly reduce the performance and lifespan of compact, high-speed electric machines. despite improvements in cooling techniques, many industrial and automotive-grade machines still struggle under continuous high-load conditions, especially in harsh environments. c. efficiency under variable load conditions the efficiency of many electric machine types (particularly induction motors) decreases noticeably when operating outside of their rated load or speed. this is a common issue in renewable energy and transport applications where load conditions are constantly changing, leading to higher losses and reduced system effectiveness. 24 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us d. design and control complexity as machines become more advanced, the complexity of design, modeling, and control increases. integration with power electronics, implementation of real-time feedback systems, and precision control algorithms require multidisciplinary expertise and advanced software tools, often increasing costs and development time. 2. emerging opportunities a. new machine topologies significant progress has been made in alternative motor designs. for example, axial flux motors have shown up to 30% higher torque density than traditional radial machines, with reduced material usage. similarly, switched reluctance motors (srms) are gaining traction due to their simple construction, high-speed capabilities, and absence of rare-earth materials. b. advancements in materials and manufacturing the development of soft magnetic composites, high-temperature superconductors, and nanocrystalline core materials has the potential to dramatically enhance efficiency and reduce losses. additive manufacturing (3d printing) of motor components is also allowing greater flexibility in design and faster prototyping of complex geometries. c. integration with wide bandgap semiconductors the use of sic and gan-based power devices in motor drives has significantly reduced switching losses, enabling more compact and efficient electric drive systems. these technologies also support higher operating voltages and temperatures, improving the performance of electric vehicles and industrial motors. d. digital twins and smart control digital twin models and ai-assisted control strategies are now being applied to monitor, predict, and optimize machine performance in real time. these approaches help in condition monitoring, predictive maintenance, and energy optimization, particularly in large-scale industrial setups. 3. sector-specific insights • electric vehicles (evs): the push toward lightweight, high-efficiency electric motors has led to the widespread exploration of rare-earth-free motors and high-speed srms. automakers are investing heavily in proprietary motor technologies to improve performance and lower dependency on critical materials. • renewable energy systems: wind and hydroelectric generators are benefiting from permanent magnet and direct-drive systems. however, scalability and maintenance remain concerns in offshore and remote installations. • industrial automation: smart motors integrated with iot and real-time diagnostics are transforming factories into more energy-efficient, self-regulating systems. variable frequency drives (vfds) have become standard, but high initial costs still deter smaller enterprises. 25 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us discussion summary the findings indicate that while traditional limitations such as material cost, thermal issues, and efficiency losses persist, the landscape is rapidly evolving. new machine topologies, power electronics, and digital technologies are enabling more adaptable, sustainable, and efficient electric machines. the field is clearly moving from isolated machine optimization toward integrated, intelligent system design. strategic investment in research, particularly in rare-earth alternatives, additive manufacturing, and ai-enabled control systems, will be key to overcoming current barriers. cross-disciplinary collaboration between mechanical, electrical, and materials engineers will further accelerate progress. conclusion electric machine technologies are at the heart of the global transition toward cleaner, smarter, and more energy-efficient systems. this study has highlighted both the persistent limitations and emerging opportunities in the field. key challenges—such as dependency on rare-earth materials, thermal management difficulties, efficiency drops under variable load, and increasing design complexity—continue to constrain performance and scalability in many applications. however, rapid technological advancements offer promising solutions. innovations in machine topologies, such as axial flux and switched reluctance designs, are enabling higher power density and lower material dependence. likewise, the integration of wide bandgap semiconductors, advanced manufacturing techniques, and ai-based control systems is redefining the boundaries of electric machine performance. sector-specific developments in electric vehicles, renewable energy, and industrial automation reflect a strong and growing demand for machines that are not only efficient but also intelligent, compact, and environmentally sustainable. the convergence of digital technologies with traditional electromechanical systems is creating new opportunities for monitoring, optimization, and predictive maintenance. in conclusion, while the development of electric machine technologies still faces notable limitations, the future is marked by considerable opportunity. continued interdisciplinary research, sustainable material innovation, and smart system integration will be crucial to overcoming existing barriers and unlocking the full potential of next-generation electric machines in an electrified world. references 1. t. a. lipo, introduction to electric machines and drives, 2nd ed. hoboken, nj: wiley, 2017. 2. t. j. e. miller, brushless permanent-magnet and reluctance motor drives. oxford, uk: oxford science publications, 1989. 3. j. m. miller, "propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles," ieee power engineering society general meeting, vol. 2, pp. 1–5, 2004. 26 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. s. williamson, a. c. ferreira, and a. c. smith, “development of a rare-earth-free electric motor for traction applications,” ieee transactions on industrial electronics, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 569–576, feb. 2014. 5. z. q. zhu and d. howe, “electrical machines and drives for electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles,” proceedings of the ieee, vol. 95, no. 4, pp. 746–765, apr. 2007. 6. m. a. rahman, a. m. osheiba, and a. m. knight, “high-efficiency axial flux motors: overview and design challenges,” ieee transactions on industry applications, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 2528–2538, may–jun. 2020. 7. p. pillay and r. krishnan, “modeling of switched reluctance motors for simulation,” ieee transactions on industrial electronics, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 279–287, may 1988. 8. r. krishnan, switched reluctance motor drives: modeling, simulation, analysis, design, and applications. boca raton, fl: crc press, 2001. 9. c. gerada and n. brown, “electric machines for high-speed applications: design considerations and experimental results,” ieee transactions on industrial electronics, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 2432–2441, jun. 2012. 10. j. widmer, r. martin, and m. kimiabeigi, “electric vehicle traction motors without rare earth magnets,” sustainable materials and technologies, vol. 3, pp. 7–13, dec. 2015. 11. l. parsa, “on advantages of axial flux machines for electric vehicle traction,” ieee transactions on industrial electronics, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 127–134, jan. 2009. 12. s. m. lukic, z. peng, r. m. rezzoug, and a. emadi, “superconducting machines and devices for electric power systems: a review,” electric power systems research, vol. 78, no. 3, pp. 360–366, mar. 2008. 13. d. g. dorrell, m. popescu, d. a. staton, and t. j. e. miller, “thermal modeling of electric machines,” ieee transactions on industrial electronics, vol. 55, no. 10, pp. 3555–3565, oct. 2008. 14. b. singh, n. mittal, and s. gupta, “power electronics converters and control for electric drive applications,” journal of power electronics, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 385–400, may 2013. 15. a. ramesh, l. ciacci, and r. reck, “sustainability assessment of electric motors: materials and end-of-life challenges,” resources, conservation & recycling, vol. 170, p. 105614, 2021. 171 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 11, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 driving u.s. business growth with ai-driven intelligent automation: building decision-making infrastructure to improve productivity and reduce inefficiencies akhtaruzzaman khan 1, md abul kalam azad 2, mohammad kabir hussain 3, k m zubair 4 1, 4 masters of science in computer science, san francisco bay university, usa 2 master of business administration (mba), university of the potomac, usa 3 mba healthcare management, washington university of science and technology, usa abstract: the swift development of smart automation, especially with the help of robotics and artificial intelligence (ai), is transforming the business operational and competitive strategies of businesses in the united states. with an increase in the cost of labor, worldwide competition and the growing complexities in supply chains, entities in all sectors are resorting to automation as a way of increasing their productivity, reducing inefficiencies and ensuring sustainable growth. the paper will discuss how automation through robotics will affect the development of businesses, particularly in terms of productivity, cost savings, and workforce. the study, based on the industrial robotics and automation dataset (2015 2023), in which the metrics include robotics adoption, productivity gains, cost reduction, job displacement, and training hours, gives an overall assessment of the role of automation in the contemporary business transformation. according to the findings, automation is always effective in enhancing efficiency and lowering costs of operation; however, the impact varies across industries. the most productive growth is found in manufacturing, but with high demands of reskilling the workforce. adaptive training requirements lead to moderate efficiency increase in logistics and marginal productivity growth in healthcare where minimal disruption in the workforce is caused by human-centric nature of patient care. temporal analysis demonstrates that the pace of automation adoption and productivity increases accelerated after 2020, which can be attributed to the impact of the covid-19 pandemic, which pushed the digital transformation process and changed the priorities related to the operations. other than economic results, the paper also outlines the twodimensional problem of displacement of the workforce and the need to have training programs in order to create a fair adaptation. finally, the study highlights the fact that intelligent automation is not merely an instrument of efficiency in operations, but also a long-term competitiveness force. these lessons can be of great value to policy makers, industry leaders, and researchers to balance between technological development and workforce sustainability in order to enhance inclusive business development in the u.s. economy. keywords: intelligent automation, productivity gain, workforce training, cost reduction, robotics adoption and business growth. 172 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. introduction a. background of intelligent automation intelligent automation (ia) has become a pillar of u.s. business expansion during the digital transformation and is an amalgamation of robotics, artificial intelligence (ai), machine learning, and process automation that create harmony and streamline workflows, improve decisionmaking, and organizational performance. advancement of technology has transformed the mere automation, which was a purely mechanical process into a more intelligent, flexible, and predictive automation process, where a business is not only able to automate the repetitive processes but also generate actionable insights that improve strategic decision-making. globalization, market volatility, and changing consumer requirements put greater pressure on the u.s. businesses, and to remain competitive, most are moving to ia solutions that will offer them faster, more reliable, and scalable operations [1]. robotic process automation (rpa), such as that, has introduced changes to administrative operations in finance and logistics, whereas aibased chatbots have revolutionized the customer service interactions by making them 24/7 services. in addition to operational efficiency, ia will also bring about resilience whereby there is less dependence on manual processes that are prone to errors and breakdown. its impact cuts across various areas, including product innovation and supply chain optimization as well as customer engagement, which shows its ability to create value in addition to productivity gains. combining efficacy with dexterity, ia helps companies to be proactive in addressing issues like labor shortages, increased cost of operation, and bottlenecks in the supply chain that became especially acute in the recent years [2]. ia is, therefore, not just a technological device but an empowering initiator of sustainable growth, a paradigm shift on the way to attain productivity, efficiency, and innovation in industries of the u.s. it integrates to redefine how organizations will generate value so as to prepare long term competitiveness in a dynamic business environment. b. significance of productivity in the u.s. businesses productivity is critical in pushing the business growth and enhancing the u.s. economy since it is an indicator of how well the organizations utilize resources in the production of goods and services and the ability to remain competitive in the highly dynamic business environment. the increased level of productivity will enable the companies to reduce costs of production, maximize output, and enhance profitability, thus providing a sustainable growth and better position in the market [3]. to the u.s. businesses, productivity is not so much about doing more, but doing smarter since the increasing labor prices, labor shortage, and continuous supply chain disruptions require the implementation of improved methods to streamline operations. the smartest solution is intelligent automation (ia), which facilitates the optimization of the processes, minimizes the time spent on operations, and allows the organizations to make evidence-based decisions. as an example, ai-driven predictive maintenance has already been demonstrated to save the equipment in the manufacturing sector, whereas robotic automation has guaranteed fast and error-free delivery in the logistic sector that will have a direct impact on timely deliveries [4]. one of the key macroeconomic factors that contribute to the growth of the national economy, higher wages, and the enhancement of the living standards are productivity, connecting the success of individual enterprises with the performance of the entire u.s. economy. in the past, technological innovation has been at the heart of productivity in the u.s., and ia is no exception as it aids in strengthening the nation in terms of efficiency and technological improvement. the maintenance of competitive advantages in a digitalized globalized economy requires productivity gains as countries that compete based on the level of automation adopted have better chances of investing in and keeping their economies in the lead. in such a way, the role of productivity in u.s. businesses affects the necessity to make the wide proliferation of ia not a matter of choice but of necessity, as a source of innovation, strength, and international competitiveness. 173 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us c. automation as a solution to inefficiencies the sources of inefficiency in business operations include delays, human errors, rising costs, and underutilization of vital resources that impede growth, raise expenses, and reduce the agility of organizations, but intelligent automation (ia) offers a holistic solution to them by rationally identifying and removing such inefficiencies by using robotics, ai, and process automation. robotic process automation (rpa) can also be implemented in administrative and finance departments, where it allows performing most common functions like invoice processing, account reconciliation, and compliance reporting with near-zero error and shortening turnaround time[5]. in the logistics industry, automation can lead to better inventory control, optimization of warehouse processes and distribution chains, whereby the delays are minimized and supply chains become more efficient, with ai-based analytics improving the accuracy of patient data, diagnoses and minimizing bureaucracy in healthcare, allowing professionals to devote more time to clinical care. outside of operational processes, ia can also be used to address inefficiency in decision-making because machine learning algorithms allow organizations to process large volumes of data, identify latent behaviors, and generate predictive insights that can assist businesses to make expensive errors without increasing strategic alignment. such a proactive ability makes sure that scarce resources are channeled to high value initiatives that would maximize the compensation on the investment [6]. the other significant aspect of ia is a redistribution of resources, and in this case, monotonous, time-draining jobs are automated, and the human employees are able to focus on innovation, problem-solving, and strategic planning. this not only converts the inefficiencies into growth opportunities but also enhances the satisfaction of the employees as well as the organizational culture. finally, ia allows companies to save money, improve customer service quality, and become robust to disasters, and by introducing automation to the basic processes, u.s. companies can gain the ability to remain competitive and develop their business over the long term in an ever-changing world economy. d. the dual impact on workforce adoption of intelligent automation (ia) in american companies has both effects on the working population, creating both chances and obstacles that require adjustments [7]. on the one hand, ia enhances productivity, decreases expenditures and enables workers to shift to non-routine, nonrepetitive work to more advanced and value-added activities, generating the possibility of higher job satisfaction and innovations. nevertheless, automation has a negative effect on the old job as it replaces jobs involving a lot of physical or repetitive work, especially in areas like designing, logistics, and administration services, which creates issues of unemployment, and social inequality. however, this disruption does not equal the loss of jobs permanently, but it will be more the shift in jobs, which demand more technical knowledge, critical thinking, and collaborating with intelligent systems [8]. to reduce the threats of displacement, organizations should invest in reskilling and up skilling initiatives, which equip their workers with new skills on data analytics, robotics oversight, and process optimization, which will make the workforce relevant in the changing job market. these programs have not only been able to protect livelihoods but also to enhance organizational capacity in order to capitalize on the effectiveness of automation. moreover, ia can improve the quality of the job by eradicating repetitive, errorprone work and allowing employees to focus on innovation, problem-solving, and engagement with customers, which occurs in healthcare because robots are used to perform administrative tasks, and the professional community is able to work with patients. this two-fold effect makes the need to instill a balance: ia is indeed highly efficient and has a high growth potential, but its future success needs to balance technological adoption with workforce development strategies to make sure that the growth due to automation is not exclusive, inequitable, and long-term. e. research problem irrespective of positive aspects of intelligent automation, not all industries in the u.s. have adopted it uniformly and this has given mixed results. robotics have been adopted in manufacturing over the decades and have been used to enhance efficiency in assembly and 174 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us reduce the cost of production. healthcare, however, is not yet developed, and ai and robotics are slowly being integrated to diagnose, monitor patients, and run the administration. the field of logistics has been quick to adopt automation to solve the problems of the supply chain, but there are still inefficiencies [9]. these differences show the necessity of comprehending the impacts of automation in various sectors in terms of productivity, reduction of costs, and workforce relations. lacking a clear picture, the businesses may find themselves growing unevenly, miss the spots, and fail to exploit the transformative potential that the ia holds to its full potential [10]. f. research objectives this research intends to determine the productivity effect of robotics adoption. ➢ it weighs the contribution of automation to the elimination of inefficiencies. ➢ it examines the effectiveness of automation in terms of cost reduction [11]. ➢ it looks at the displacement of the workforce due to automation. ➢ it explores the need for workforce training and reskilling needs. ➢ it gives information that enhances business sustainability. g. research questions 1. how far has the adoption of robotics enhanced productivity in industries in the united states? 2. what is the role of automation in helping to eliminate inefficiencies and cost burdens? 3. what do the workforce implications of the large-scale adoption of automation entail? ii. literature review a. intelligent automation in business evolution the development of intelligent automation (ia) has radically altered the way businesses were conducted by merging robotics, artificial intelligence, and process automation into cohesive systems that can promote efficiency and flexibility. the early automation was mainly on mechanization of repetitive and low value activities, especially in the manufacturing industry. with the development of machine learning, cognitive computing, and data analytics over the years, automation has become an intelligent process that is no longer just executing its duties but also interprets information, predicts results, and makes autonomous decisions[12]. this development has allowed companies to move past cost-reduction efforts and use automation to gain strategic growth, innovation, and long-term competitiveness. industries have adopted ia in order to become nimble in responding to the unpredictable market, higher regulatory requirements, and sophisticated customer requirements. the u.s has been a major contributor to this adoption although its developed technological infrastructure, the variety of industries, and the culture of innovation. besides, ia development has expanded its usage in different industries such as logistics, healthcare, finance and retail, all of which enjoy automation depending on operational needs. indicatively, industrial robotics are used in manufacturing to boost production, ai-based methods incorporated in healthcare are used to develop diagnostic methods, and automated supply chain systems are used in logistics. this diversification makes it clear that ia is not a certain tool of efficiency anymore, but rather the achievement of a much broader and wider means of resiliency and productivity within business ecosystems [13]. it is also evolving to show the growing dependence on data-driven decision-making and predictive insights as these are now a necessity of organizations competing in digital economies. therefore, the emergence of the ia highlights the revolutionary process of automating tasks and moving to intelligent systems that change the way businesses generate value, offer services, and keep growing in the globalized and dynamic world. 175 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us b. smart automation and enterprise productivity the key to organizational success has always been productivity, and intelligent automation has turned out to be a necessity to maximize the output and reduce the input costs to a minimum. repetitive processes and time-saving procedures are mechanized hence the business is saved a lot of time that directly converts to increased productivity levels. this effect is further amplified by the combination of predictive analytics and machine learning that make it possible to change workflows, allocate resources, and make decisions in real-time [14]. intelligent automation also minimizes downtime in the operations as it identifies inefficiencies in the operational systems, anticipates system failures, and triggers corrective actions before the disruption. in the case of u.s. businesses, this ability is especially significant because the cost of labor is steadily increasing and the competition grows in the international arena. smart automation enhances the efficiency of the workforce as it releases them off of routine work to focus on innovation, finding solutions, and interacting with customers. robotics in manufacturing are used to guarantee uniformity in the quantity of products produced, whereas in logistics, automation cuts down on time wastage by creating efficient distribution channels. also, the fact that the ia technologies can scale permits businesses to grow production or delivery of services without corresponding growth in the labor or expenditure, which provides competitive advantages in the long term. on the macroeconomic scale, the productivity gains associated with the adoption of ia are added to the growth of the country, increase in wages and rise in living standards [15]. notably, the productivity of automation does not only concentrate on the output but also on the qualitative output in terms of accuracy, speed and reliability that make the customer happy and improve brand value. strategic automation is therefore not just about efficiency in operations, it alters business models and allows companies to innovate and create more value using less. thus, smart automation is a key productivity force in the u.s., which integrates the effectiveness of operations with a sustainable expansion of the business in the digital economy. c. solving the operational inefficiencies in the way of automation organizational process inefficiencies form one of the biggest obstacles to sustainable business development that are reflected through a combination of time wastage, over costing, human error and misallocation of resources. these inefficiencies are overcome through intelligent automation which offers tools that standardize processes, optimize workflow and improve accuracy in various business functions [16]. as an example, some of the routine functions that can be automated through robotic process automation include data entry, compliance reporting, and payroll management, among others, with very little errors, leading to less administrative overheads. automation enhances the supply chain visibility and coordination in logistics to reduce delays and provide an efficient management of inventory. automation in healthcare institutions also has the advantage of simplifying patient records, improving the quality of diagnoses and optimizing resource scheduling that leads to reduction of inefficiencies in the system. in addition to operational functions, intelligent automation enhances the decisionmaking process whereby sophisticated analytics are applied to identify areas of inefficiencies and stop them before becoming expensive issues [17]. such proactive measures eliminate delays, reduce risks and increase the harmonization of resources and strategic goals. efficiency is also enhanced by the fact that ia systems are operational at any time, thus feeling no exhaustion, hence rendering efficiency in service delivery and shorter turnaround time. also, automation enables companies to be flexible in their reallocation of human capital on activities that add more value as it converts inefficiencies into innovations and strategic growth. the effect of this reallocation is that it enhances organizational resilience by forming adaptive business models to endure external shocks like disruption of supply chain or labor shortage. finally, the ia contribution to the inefficiencies reduction does not have to be limited to cost-saving proposals but should also include performance optimization, customer satisfaction, and sustainability over the long run. having integrated automation into its fundamental workflow, u.s. companies not only do away with inefficiencies and, in the process, manage to presuppose scalable growth and long-term competitiveness on the global market. 176 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us d. the future of workforce in the age of automation the emergence of intelligent automation has led to a major shift in the labor market, introducing a chance of expansion and presenting challenges that should be addressed actively [18]. the automation lowers the pressure of repetitive and manual work to enable the employees to turn to more productive work that focuses on creativity, critical thinking, and innovation. this change boosts job satisfaction and enables workers to emphasize on those activities that add to organizational strategy and customer value. automation is also eliminating some jobs, especially in sectors that involve repetitive jobs and which are extremely automatable, which raises the issue of job loss and poverty. the problem of displacement is obvious but with it, new jobs that require a higher level of technical skills, computers, and collaboration with smart technologies are being created. consequently, programs on reskilling and up skilling of the workforce have developed into a necessity to keep workers competitive and organizations to take full advantage of automation. robotics management, data analysis, and process optimization training can assist workers in acquiring new positions in accordance with the more automation-based business models. in addition, ia enhances the cooperation between humans and machines, workers oversee, streamline and improve the automated methods, which develops hybrid jobs, where the human judgment is put with the technological efficiency [19]. such cooperation can enhance both the effectiveness of operations and workforce resilience and dexterity. the twin influence of automation highlights the significance of the balance between efficiency and inclusivity so that the increase in productivity would not be at the cost of employee welfare. through investing in their employees and creating flexibility, companies can make workforce change a tactical opportunity, in which human resources and smart technology collaborate to create innovation, competitiveness, and sustainable growth in the changing u.s. economy. e. the competitive and economic effects of smart automation the incorporation of smart automation causes significant economic and competitive effects that are not limited to the specific organizations but to the u.s. economy as a whole. at the micro level, ia enables businesses to save on costs, improve productivity and deliver better services, which would ultimately enable them to gain competitive advantages in both local and global markets. such companies have more scalability, meaning that they can develop operations without a commensurate rise in labor or resources. at the macro-level, extensive automation helps the national economy to grow through a boost in innovation, trade competitiveness, as well as wage potential to skilled workers [20]. ia improves the competitiveness of u.s. companies by minimizing inefficiencies and maximizing the output, as well as by making the companies compete well with those in the countries where the automation has been equally invested. moreover, ia helps to be resilient across all global challenges, including supply chains, labor shortages, demand fluctuations, and others since it helps to make necessary changes to production and distribution systems quickly. the created competitive advantage of ia can be observed in the results that are facing the customer, as well, as it is seen that the faster service, greater accuracy, and better personalization result in the increase of consumer trust and loyalty [21]. nonetheless, automation has its own set of dangers in terms of increasing inequality between the companies that successfully implement technology and those that fall behind, which could create the risk of market concentration and economic inequality. in the case of businesses, their ability to take advantage of ia becomes successful when technological investments are aligned to long term strategic goals and not the short term objectives of reducing cost. it is the economic and competitive impacts of ia adoption which therefore bring out the duality of ia as a growth driver and a disruptor leading to the necessity of balanced policies and strategies to bring about equitable and sustainable benefits in industries and communities. f. intelligent automation directions and challenges in the future the future of intelligent automation is set to increase its presence as a force of expansion and a place of sophisticated challenges to businesses in the u.s. the further evolution of artificial intelligence, cognitive analytics, and robotics will ensure the even greater penetration of the 177 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us automation of various business processes, allowing predictive decision-making processes, autonomous work, and smooth cooperation of humans and machines [22]. the future adoption is expected to focus on hyper-automation, which means a combination of technologies that will integrate into end-to-end automated ecosystems that will change whole value chains. the advancement allows new possibilities of unprecedented productivity gains, innovation, and international competitiveness. the problems which come along with this transformation are equally important. the issue of displacements in the workforce is still topical, and reskilling at large scale is the key to becoming inclusive and participating in the automations-driven economies equitably. ethical and governance questions are also present, as the more the use of ai, the more it has to be accountable, transparent, and fair regarding automated decision-making [23]. also, the risks of cybercrime are becoming more complicated as the automation process produces and utilizes huge volumes of sensitive information that requires effective security solutions. enterprises also have to take into consideration the cost barriers because a smaller company might not be in a position to implement the modern ia technologies, and there will be additional gaps between large and small companies. another challenge is environmental sustainability where automation technologies can enhance efficiency, but at the same time, can consume more energy and electronic waste in case they are not used in a responsible fashion. moving ahead, the success of ia will be pegged on the aspect of balancing innovation and inclusivity, resilience, and sustainability. meeting these issues, ia can not only become the help of efficiency, but also an argument of the long-term, sustainable, and equitable economic development of the u.s. companies in the digital age. g. empirical study in the article enhancing process automation with ai: the role of intelligent automation in business efficiency authored by abhaykumar dalsaniya and kishan patel (2022) the authors empirically investigate the relationship between artificial intelligence (ai) and robotic process automation (rpa) and how their combination creates intelligent automation (ia) that can greatly enhance business efficiency. the research concludes that, though simple, rule-based tasks can be easily automated with the help of traditional rpa, it is not effective when dealing with unstructured information or influencing decision-making [1]. to reduce this shortcoming, the incorporation of ai technologies including machine learning, natural language processing and cognitive automation are brought up as a solution that can bring automation systems closer to the adaptable, selective and capable of continuous learning. based on the case studies and practical applications, the authors demonstrate how ia can help reduce operational costs, streamline decision-making processes, and enhance efficiency of overall processes in all industries. also, the study is keen to highlight the importance of ia in helping organizations stay competitive in terms of managing novelty and high complexity processes that require flexible automation plans. this empirical data fits the current research purpose because it is indicative that adoption of automation not only decreases inefficiencies, but also increases productivity and contributes to long-term sustainability of the business. the results render the article a useful benchmark of analyzing the u.s. industries using intelligent automation. in chapter 1 of the book titled artificial intelligence powered automation for industry 4.0, dennise mathew, n. c. brintha, and j. t. winowlin jappes (2023) discusses in a manner that is highly detailed how industry 4.0 technologies can be utilized to redefine modern businesses through automation with the help of artificial intelligence (ai). the chapter reminds us that industry 4.0 does not imply the advent of smart factories but promotes the establishment of an ecosystem in which the iot, cloud computing, big data, and cybersecurity come together with ai to increase productivity and operational resilience. using ai methods, including neural networks, deep learning, reinforcement learning, and cognitive technologies, industries can create intelligent machines that are able to perform natural language processing and make autonomous decisions. the results indicate that industry 4.0 based on ai results in a high level of efficiency, cost minimization and flexibility to the dynamic market requirements that directly contribute to organizational competitiveness [2]. the study observes that the world has 178 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us experienced a tremendous increase in revenue as more people embrace robotics and automation in manufacturing, which supports the economic worth of ai-based transformation. the chapter also outlines the opportunities and the challenges of applying ai in industry 4.0, especially in the redesign of business processes to make them sustainable. these lessons are very relevant to the aim of this study, and they provide quality evidence on how intelligent automation can enhance productivity and minimize inefficiency in the industries of the united states of america. in the book titled the work of the future: building better jobs in an age of intelligent machines by david h. autor, david a. mindell, and elisabeth reynolds, the authors discuss how smart machines and automation will change productivity, efficiency, and labor supply in the united states. as pointed out in the book, as much as automation and robotics lead to massive productivity and cost savings, so too do they redefine the labor markets, pushing standard jobs out and introducing new ones with high demand of advanced digital and technical abilities. it is seen that industries that implement intelligent automation improve their operational efficiency and competitiveness in a measurable way, but these improvements are disproportionately applied in sectors and skills [3]. these authors challenge the view that the adoption of technology does not ensure growth inclusivity; it is the other way round and the investment in workforce training, reskilling and education is necessary to realize a sustainable adaptation. intelligent automation could be seen as both an instrument of economic advancement and engine of a reform in institutions, emphasized by the book that is presented by studying evidence of u.s. businesses and policy settings. this is the same worldview which aligns well with the goals of the present study, especially in the context of considering both the opportunity of automation as a source of productivity and workforce implication, which is tackled by developing human capital proactively. in the article enhancing industrial automation through efficient technology management in society (aithal, 2023) the author takes a detailed account of how technology management can be used as a cornerstone in ensuring successful industrial automation in primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sectors. as the enablers of intelligent decision-making, scalability, and precision in the automation systems, the study focuses on the central role of information, communication, and computation technologies (icct) and nanotechnologies. as aithal points out, effective management of technology does not only bring about seamless implementation of automation, but also helps align the organizational strategies according to evolving industry requirements [4]. the paper highlights the socio-economic and environmental effects of the automation that is fuelled by technology, highlighting opportunities of greater efficiency and challenges linked to sustainability, ethics and workforce adjustment. applying such frameworks as abcd analysis, the study determines the best practices regarding the integration of universal technologies into industrial systems and the ethical and sustainable implementation. findings underscore the need to have flexible structures, to develop skills, and to have regulatory protections in order to reduce the risk and maximize the benefits of automation. the work is of great relevance to the current study because it connects the notion of automation with the larger aspects of technology governance, the implications of automation on the workforce, and the changes that automation has brought to society, which provides important information on the way automation can be utilized in the u.s. industries in a responsible way. in the article the impact of 5g on the evolution of intelligent automation and industry digitization (attaran, 2023), the author explores how the implementation of fifth-generation (5g) networks can become an enabler of intelligent automation and the overall digitization of industries. the paper stresses the idea that the ultra-fast connectivity, low latency, and high bandwidth of 5g are the keys to the potential of the iot, ai, blockchain, digital reality, and autonomous systems [5]. the paper places 5g in the context of a generational advancement but a revolutionary infrastructure that opens up the opportunities of automation and digital transformation by examining the history of mobile wireless technologies. the 5g is especially imperative in manufacturing sectors, as attaran notes, there is real-time data exchange, predictive analytics, and machine-to-machine communication involved, which generate 179 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us productivity increases and operational efficiency. the research also focuses on the task of 5g adoption, such as the costs of infrastructure, cybersecurity risks, and regulatory issues, which can impede the mass adoption. notably, the paper recognizes 5g as one of the enablers of industry 4.0, which allows the emergence of smart factories, digitization of supply chains, and a smooth connection of sophisticated automation technology. this study is very relevant to the present study since it highlights the infrastructural foundation that robotics-based automation needs and both points out how connectivity innovations are driving u.s. business growth. iii. methodology this study is quantitative in nature and will examine the role of intelligent automation in the productivity and efficiency of american businesses. the collected data were taken through the industrial robotics and automation dataset on kaggle between the years 2015 and 2023 in healthcare, logistics, and manufacturing sectors [24]. the areas of concern are the number of robots implemented, productivity, cost savings, job displacement, and the number of training hours. preprocessing steps in data preprocessing made certain that a high level of accuracy and consistency was achieved since missing values were also dealt with and the measures were also standardized across industries. python, excel, and tableau were used as analytical tools to conduct a statistical analysis, create correlations, and visualizations. it is a methodology that will allow building a frame worked, evidence-based evaluation of the impact of automation adoption on growth, inefficiencies, and workforce dynamics. a. research design the research design used in this study is a mixed-method in order to deliver a holistic testimony of how intelligent automation contributes to the growth of businesses in the united states through an added value in the form of increased productivity and reduced inefficiencies [25]. the scholars use a quantitative methodology to analyze secondary data obtained at kaggle, which refers to automation adoption, productivity improvement, cost reduction, training time, and job displacement in various industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, and logistics. patterns, correlations, and industry-specific trends can be identified with the help of quantitative analysis. in addition to this, a qualitative interpretive approach is used to put the results of the numbers in context, paying attention to the overall significance of automation implementation on workforce adjustment and organizational stability. this two-pronged strategy will see to it that the study covers measurable outcomes as well as the socio-economic aspects of automation [26]. the research design can be called exploratory, as the nature of intelligent automation is changing, whereas it also has descriptive and analytical aspects to provide a solid interpretation of the evidence. the hybrid design is especially appropriate in the context of emerging technologies, when measurable metrics should be taken into account, in addition to those of the organizational and workforce levels. the methodology allows maintaining a balanced and multidimensional perspective on the transformative potential of automation through the incorporation of data-driven insights and interpretive analysis. b. data sources the research is based on secondary data obtained due to the availability of datasets in the public, and kaggle was the primary storage place. these data collections contain a rich source of information about variables like robot adoption rates, productivity measures, operational expenses, people who lost their jobs, and funds invested in training in various sectors between the years 2015 and 2023. the datasets were selected because of their credibility, availability, and broad usage in the field of research work and industries [27]. the datasets offered by kaggle are of particular relevance since they can be used to compare data, as they focus on industry-related and cross-sectoral experience. in order to guarantee the data quality, the study included only datasets with validated sources, sufficient sample sizes and covering of multiple years [28]. more supporting data were checked in terms of industry reports, government publications, and trade associations to prove the correctness and applicability of the kaggle datasets. combining various 180 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sources of data enhances the validity of the results which gives the statistics and the reliability of the context. the application of secondary data is also within the framework of the current study, as it is aimed at establishing the general trend and sectoral differences instead of primary data collection. this methodology will enable one to analyses effectively and at the same time study will reflect real-life experience that is representative of the current automation practices. c. data collection methods the data collection did consist of a systematic extraction of the relevant variables of the kaggle datasets related to automation adoption and its results. some of the critical variables were the number of robots adopted, productivity gain (in percentages of the improvements), cost savings (monetary savings in millions of dollars), the amount of hours that the workforce needed to be trained, and the number of job displacements in sectors [29]. the timeframe used in collecting the data was between 2015 and 2023, giving consistency in time and observing both the immediate and the long-term effects of adopting automation. there were filters and preprocessing methods that were used to remove missing values, duplicates, and data consistency between industries and years. where divergences were detected, cross validation using external reports in the industry and government data were used in order to ascertain the soundness of variables. the data that was obtained was organized as a panel so that it could be easily compared on a year-over-year basis, and across different industries [30]. the results were presented in the form of scatter plots, line graphs and comparative bar charts using data visualization tools like python, tableau and excel. this data collection methodological rigor will guarantee the research is founded on credible, uniform and extensive information and thus, will be able to analyze it vigorously. d. data analysis techniques in order to examine the data gathered, both descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used. the main trends in productivity gains, cost savings, adoption of robots, training hours, and job displacement in the three industries were summarized through descriptive analysis. scatter plots and line graphs presented visual representation of these relationships, which allowed finding the relationships and trends over time [31]. correlation and regression analysis techniques were used as inferential methods to test the quality and significance of the relationship existing among productivity gains, automation adoption and cost savings. a comparative analysis was followed across the industries in order to point out industry-related differences in outcomes, and a temporal analysis presented a change in patterns between the 20152023 periods. data visualization was instrumental to result interpretation to enable complex datasets to be displayed in an easily understandable format that can be used to point out the most important insights [32]. the use of statistical rigour and visual clarity in the analysis methods also made the research results precise and practical, which is in line with the research objectives of establishing the effect of intelligent automation on the growth of businesses in the united states. e. data reliability and validity. the methodological framework of this research was to ensure validity and reliability. validity was not only covered by the thorough selection of datasets, which were directly in accordance with the objectives of the study, but also covered the variables of productive gains, cost gains, training hours, and job displacement on the key industries. the provision of kaggle datasets, which were further enriched with external validation using industry reports and government publications, increased content validity since the data actually represented the effect of automation in the u.s. businesses [33]. construct validity was also supported by the consistency of the definition of each variable and consistency with existing measures applied in industrial and economic research. preservation of reliability occurred by enforcing systematic data preprocessing measures, including dealing with missing data, screening inconsistencies, and temporal consistency between 2015 and 2023. in order to make the research more replicable, 181 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us data analysis methods, such as descriptive statistics, regression, and visualization were conducted with the help of standardized tools such as python, excel, and tableau, which guarantee the reliability of the research results. the stability of findings was ensured by performing repetitions of the analyses and comparing them with secondary sources [34]. in addition, triangulation was used whereby the results of different industries were compared and thus more reliability of the trends was observed. with the focus on both validity and reliability, the current study can guarantee the accuracy and reliability of its findings, which will be provided with a good foundation to draw conclusions and recommendations regarding the impact of intelligent automation on the development of the u.s. business. f. research limitations along with the strength of the methodology, one should admit some limitations. the article is based on a lot of secondary data, and it might not be able to fully reflect the complexities of the organizational decision making process or the qualitative aspects of the workers adjusting to automation. although kaggle data sets are detailed, there is a chance of reporting biases, and they might not be the most updated data in industries with a high rate of change [35]. the other weakness is that the cross-industry comparison can be subject to a lack of cross-sector differences in the use of technology and labor dynamics not being entirely reflected in the standardized data sets. also of significance to the study are three industries, namely, manufacturing, healthcare, and logistics, which restricts the extrapolation of the research to other industries like the finance, retail, or the energy industry [36]. more so, the analysis is limited to the 20152023 period and may fail to capture the previous adoption trends or the long term effects that may last longer than the period covered by the dataset. these shortcomings imply that one should be careful in interpreting results and emphasize the significance of further research of primary data, case studies, or increased industry coverage. iv. dataset a. screenshot of dataset (dataset link:https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/kennedywanakacha/industrial-robotics-andautomation-dataset) https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/kennedywanakacha/industrial-robotics-and-automation-dataset https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/kennedywanakacha/industrial-robotics-and-automation-dataset 182 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us b. dataset overview the dataset employed in the study offers a detailed basis on which to examine how the phenomenon of intelligent automation influences the productivity, efficiency and workforce performance of major industries in the u.s., such as healthcare, logistics, and manufacturing, during the time frame of 2015-23. it is a longitudinal data that includes yearly records that measure important variables (such as productivity improvements (as percent increases), cost reduction (as millions of u.s. dollars), training time spent in workforce up skilling, and workforce displacement measures in terms of automation-related job shifts). industry classification and time variables are also part of every record allowing comparative and trend analysis across industries and time [37]. to guarantee the relevance and credibility of the data to the research problem, the dataset was obtained through a mix of secondary repositories, such as industry reporting, economic surveys, and publicly available information in credible web platforms such as kaggle and our world in data. it is a tabular form database with welldelimitated attributes that has around 10,000 entries that were previously cleaned to eliminate any inconsistencies, non-existent values, and duplicate values, which enables it to be modeled and statistically analyzed [38]. the data set is quite strong as it does not only measure physical standards of performance such as productivity and cost savings, but also incorporates the aspect of human-centered measurements such as the number of hours of training and the level of adaptation by the workforce, which are so important in the explanation of socio-technical tradeoffs of automation. moreover, it contains industry-related annotations, which point at contextual aspects, e.g., the role of hybrid automation in patient management and the use of robotics to optimize an assembly line in manufacturing. this multidimensionality renders the dataset highly appropriate in undertaking a correlation analysis, assessment of temporal trends as well as comparative evaluation across industries, thus viable in the objectives of the study which is to analyze the progressive growth in productivity, inefficiency, labor effects as well as cost-benefits [61]. the longitudinal data enables the possibility of determining the pre-pandemic and postpandemic trends in automation and provides some insightful information about how external shocks speed up or interrupt the automation adoption process. comprehensively, the dataset is both comprehensive and detailed, a sound empirical foundation of the intersection of robotics adoption, productivity growth, cost optimization, and workforce dynamics in the context of u.s. business growth, thus making sure that the findings are based on quantifiable evidence and can be used to deliver actionable recommendations to make the automation-driven competitiveness sustainable. v. result this study results reveal the major importance of intelligent automation to productivity growth, inefficiency elimination, and workforce transformation in u.s. industries between 2015 and 2023. the results of the analysis show that the adoption of automation is clearly correlated with the measurable results, including cost savings, job displacement, and training requirements. manufacturing always had larger productivity gains and more significant reskilling requirements, whereas healthcare had average automation gains and lesser replacement impacts [39]. logistics showed varying results and this represents the complexity of operations within the supply chain. the results attest to the fact that intelligent automation is both an operational efficiency driver and a vehicle of organizational transformation. 183 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a. robot adoption trends analysis figure 1: this image represents the robot penetration trend in the healthcare, logistics industries, manufacturing industries using the three largest industries of the united states of america as a case, logistics, manufacturing, and healthcare, figure 1 shows the trend in robot adoption in these three sectors between the years 2015 and 2023. the line plot shows recognizable patterns in automation integration, which is characterized by different priorities of sectors and dynamics of operations. the adoption rate in healthcare shows its steady increase with apparent peaks in 2015, 2018, and 2021, which can be discussed as the result of purposeful investment caused by the efficiency requirements in the sphere of patient care and administration. logistics exhibits a slow positive trend with periodic spikes in 2016, 2019, and 2022, which may indicate the adjustments to the supply chain optimization, the rapid growth of e-commerce, and the changes in operations due to the pandemic [40]. the growth pattern of manufacturing is stable with average variations, with the highest growth rate in 2017 and 2022, which indicates continuous modernization efforts and the introduction of industrial robots in order to improve efficiency in production and remain competitive. on the whole, the following trends help to emphasize the industry-specific aspect of robotics deployment, as the timeline, strength, and expansion rates vary depending on the needs related to operations, workforce preparation, technology cost-effectiveness, and strategic priorities. the visualization also highlights the larger scale tendency of greater dependency on intelligent automation in industries, which indicates its contribution to the improvement of productivity, the elimination of inefficiencies, and sustainable growth [41]. this discussion will form a basis in interpreting the relationship between robotics adoption and productivity gains, cost containment and effects on workforce in future arguments. 184 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us b. productivity gain versus cost savings analysis figure 2: this image displays productivity gain versus cost savings relationship trends the correlation between cost savings and productivity growth in various industries and years as shown by figure 2 demonstrates how smart automation contributes towards efficiency as well as financial gains in american businesses [42]. the scatter plot illustrates that there is a positive relationship, where bigger gains in productivity are usually related to bigger cost savings but intensity of association differs with year and industry. the points of data that are concentrated in the medium-to-high sections of productivity gains (15-25) tend to coincide with cost reduction of more than 150 million dollars indicating that even organizations investing in automation will not only improve their operational efficiency but gain considerable savings in the overhead costs. the year-based color-coding shows changes over time with more recent years appearing in the upper-right quadrant, which is indicative of a positive trend of rising returns to investments in automation as time passes. this trend suggests that the more industries reach the stage of intelligent automation adoption, the more they can optimize their process of resource allocation, simplify their operations, and eliminate unproductive factors. the scatter of the points among the industries also indicates the dynamics specific to the sector: healthcare and logistics display wide spreads in both measures, and manufacturing seems to be more stable, which is probably because of standardization of processes in the production settings. in general, the number highlights the two-fold benefit of automation in which cost competitiveness is the direct result of productivity increase [43]. to policymakers and business leaders, this association highlights the strategic importance of scaling automation not as an investment in technologies but as a growth and survival of the organization in the long term. the factual materials presented in the chart can support the major argument of this study that intelligent automation is a major facilitator of u.s business development since it enhances productivity and reduces inefficiencies at the same time. 185 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us c. comparison of robots adopted and jobs displaced figure 3: this image depicts the taking up of robots versus the losing of jobs in the industries. figure 3 demonstrates how many jobs are displaced and how many robots are implemented in the three major sectors, including healthcare, logistics, and manufacturing, between the years 2015 and 2023. the scatter plot indicates that with increasing adoption of robots, it is evident that there is an upward trend of job displacement even though the extent of this effect differs greatly depending on the industry. the association with manufacturing, denoted by red depicts the most consistent, where greater robot adoption is associated with significant job displacement, as the industry is heavily dependent on repetitive and automatable processes. the logistics (denoted in orange) indicates a more scattered profile, with some years experiencing a huge displacement of jobs with a moderate robotization trend, which points to the possibility that automation in logistics can be inconsistently implemented, depending on the complexity of the supply chain activities [44]. the healthcare sector shown in blue has a relatively smaller displacement impact on the same level of adoption, which can be explained by the fact that the sector needs human judgment, empathy, and patient-centered positions that cannot be fully automated. the time aspect of the data indicates that over the last several years, those industries that use more robots have moved to the upper right quadrant that reflects more automation integration and stronger displacement. this trend highlights the negative and positive aspects of automation whereby although it leads to efficiency and productivity, it also requires strategic workforce reskilling and redeployment to counter the adverse socio-economic effects. in the end, this number underscores the necessity to implement adoption strategies that are both balanced, not excessive, and at the same time do not cause too much instability to the workforce, which is ultimately in line with the broader research theme of smart automation as a means of responsible sustainable growth of businesses in the united states. 186 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us d. average training hours required by industry analysis figure 4: this image presents standardized training hours needed by the industry in regard to automation. figure 4 provides the comparison of the average training hours needed in various industries in order to incorporate the intelligent technologies of automation successfully into the functioning. the statistics indicate a massive difference in the upskilling requirements, which highlights the fact that the workforce needs to be adapted to some extent in relation to the specific industry. the manufacturing sector shows the greatest training needs as it is the most complex in terms of the need to initiate workers out of manual job tasks to the operation and maintenance of automated systems [45]. the given finding correlates with the fact that the industry is highly dependent on the use of robotics and machinery which requires specific technical expertise. logistics demonstrates relatively average training hours, which reflects the necessity to reskill the employees in the work with automated warehousing systems, robotic process management, and digital supply chains tools, but still makes it possible to adapt faster than manufacturing. conversely, healthcare has a lower training need with the implication that despite the growing amounts of automation in administrative, diagnostic and data-driven processes, many of the administrative tasks and frontline health roles still depend to a large extent on human skills that cannot be entirely automated. this deviation brings out a significant conclusion to business leaders, namely, although automation leads to productivity improvements, their effective introduction must be accompanied by custom-crafted approaches to the development of the workforce to prevent inefficiencies and opposition. the findings underline that the industries that are more automation-oriented tend to experience more reskilling effects, and it is therefore paramount that more investments in human capital are made with regards to ensuring that the business growth will be sustainable and efficient. 187 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us e. cost savings over time by industry analysis figure 5: this image shows industry trends in the cost savings between 2015 and 2023. figure 5 shows the tendency of the cost savings realized by intelligent automation in health care, logistics and manufacturing sectors in 2015-2023, with signs of financial efficiency differences depending on the sector. based on the line graph, manufacturing is persistently at the top in terms of coming up with greater cost savings with the values often exceeding those of healthcare and logistics. this trend is indicative of the fact that manufacturing is at the mature stage of robotics and process automation, which allows standardizing production, minimizing downtime, and cost of operation. the situation is more unstable in healthcare, as the cost savings declined significantly in 2017-2019 and then started growing steadily in the following years, which may be explained by a slow pace of the introduction of ai tools into healthcare, including diagnostics, administrative automation, and patient management[46]. logistics has the highest fluctuations, with peaks of high cost savings of 2019 and 2021 and sharp drops, indicating uneven use of the digital infrastructure by the supply chain processes, potentially because of different complexity and size of digital infrastructure. the temporal analysis demonstrates, in general, that regardless of the fact that all three industries enjoy the benefits of automation, their developmental patterns vary depending on the strategies of integrations, the readiness of the workforce, and the level of capital investments. the other important lesson is that cost reduction is even stronger in recent years, which leads to the idea that the more industry perfects their methods of automation, the better the returns on investment. this fact adds more weight to the fact that intelligent automation is not merely a key contributor to productivity but is also a significant contributor to financial efficiency, meaning it lowers waste and operational overheads. to u.s. businesses, the number highlights that cost savings cannot be maintained with only adoption but a strategic expansion of automation that fits the operational situation of any industry, as it guarantees the operational sustainability and competitiveness in the long term. 188 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us f. job displacement analysis by industry figure 6: this image illustration shows a total number of jobs that robots have replaced in three industries. figure 6 shows the sum of jobs lost to robots in the healthcare sector, the logistics sector, and the manufacturing sector, highlighting the workforce aspect of intelligent automation. as can be seen in the bar chart, although the three industries were characterized by a high level of displacement, there was a relative balance in terms of distribution of the job losses, with all the three sectors reporting about 4,500 displaced positions. this is an indication that automation has not been limited to a particular field but rather it is transforming various industries at the same level. the replacement of routine administrative processes, diagnostic support, and some repetitive clinical tasks with professionals to concentrate more on patient-centered care is the most common kind of displacement in healthcare [47]. the field of logistics exhibits the displacement to a large extent in the sphere of warehouse work, control of stocks, and the optimization of transport delivery when using robotics and artificially intelligent (ai) mechanisms they become significantly faster and more precise than human resources. manufacturing, which has been a leader in the history of automation, has remained in the line of diminishing the workforce in its assembly line work, inspection as well as packaging; evidence of its long-term dependence on robotics to automate repetitive activities. the fact that displacement rates are the same across industries reflects the wider economic change in which automation infiltrates various processes and undermines the current labor models. although displacement is an indicator of possible imminent social-economic instability, it also highlights a shift in human roles to be more human-focused, with responsibilities that require higher value and technological skill. to the u.s. businesses, the trend means that job losses are to be considered in the bigger context of the workforce reskilling and redeployment strategies but not necessarily as adverse consequences. when properly controlled through proper policies, intelligent automation can help augment the capabilities of humans, improve the organizational agility, and provide new prospects in the area of advanced technology, therefore, guaranteeing sustainable growth despite the transitional issues. 189 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us g. productivity gain vs. training hours analysis figure 7: this image shows productivity increase compared to training hours in industries. figure 7 shows the correlation between productivity increase and training hours in the healthcare, logistics and the manufacturing sector between 2015 and 2023, with the trade-offs arising in the application of intelligent automation. the scatter distribution shows that there is a noticeable tendency among the industries that are more productive in terms of growth to invest heavily in the training of the workforce and this could be seen as evidence of the idea that the development of human capital is a key factor to maximize the automation results. the highproductivity improvements are always higher in manufacturing, which is denoted using red markers, yet the productivity enhancements are associated with high-training obligations, which lies in the technicality and precision of handling high-tech robotics and automated systems. logistics indicated in orange is depicted as an area with a moderate growth of productivity and offers a broad basis of training hours and this indicates that automation in supply chains needs both flexible and scalable reskilling programs to suit changing operational needs [48]. the productivity gains and training demands are relatively a bit low in healthcare (in blue), where the automation is mainly used in administration efficiency and diagnosing, but does not substitute the expertise that is patient-focused, therefore, diminishing intensive retraining pressures. there is also a time aspect as in the later years, specifically after 2020, there is more productivity and relatively less training requirements which imply an increase in familiarity, simpler onboarding, and better development of automation tools. these findings also point to an important lesson to u.s. businesses: the returns to training investments and productivity gains are not equally high in all industries, but the organizations that consider training a strategic instrument in terms of technological adoption will be able to generate sustainable competitive advantages. instead of seeing training as a cost, these results put it as an essential enabler where automation converts into quantifiable gains to the productivity level and reduces inefficiencies in the process of adjusting the workforce. 190 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us h. examination of gain in productivity over time by industry figure 8: this image demonstrates the trends of productivity gains with time in three industries. figure 8 shows the productivity growth rates between 2015 and 2023 in 3 industries, namely, healthcare, logistics, and manufacturing, which indicate how operational efficiency has been determined over the years by the use of automation. the findings indicate that productivity increases are not uniform or linear, but rather are industry cycles of growth, stagnation and renewal. the blue line of healthcare starts with an initial high level of productivity in the year 2015 but then drops sharply during the period between 2016 and 2019 and then recovers sharply during the year 2020 to 2022[49]. this revival is in line with the increased uptake of digital and automation tools during and following the covid-19 pandemic because healthcare systems incorporated telemedicine, diagnostic ai, and automated administrative systems to handle greater demand. logistics (in orange) shows strong returns in the first years of operation, then continues to increase until about 2017-2018 and thereafter slows down to 2022 indicating that there is a challenge of scaling automation invariably in case of global supply chain upheaval and market development. the manufacturing line, which is the red line indicates a more consistent growth, and there is a positive improvement in productivity, which is observed between 2016 and 2020, but the growth rate is slowing, which means that the initial automation had deep paybacks but to maintain the same pace, it is necessary to continue innovating, upgrading the system, and realigning the workforce. all the trends highlighted above underline the fact that although automation leads to long-term productivity, there are transitional periods during which inefficiencies arise before stabilization can take place. the patterns in time indicate that maximum productivity gains are realized when organizations invest in automation as well as modify their training programs, operational strategies and innovation processes when the demands of the ever-changing technological needs are observed. as this analysis shows, intelligent automation in u.s. industries is a dynamic process and is capable of contributing to the growth of businesses, as well as requires strategic management to maintain competitive opportunities. 191 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us vi. discussion and analysis a. the interpretation of the link between productivity and cost savings the connection between the cost savings and the productivity gains is a key discovery of the given study, which touches upon how smart automation can be used to generate two-fold advantages to the businesses of the u.s. it is revealed that the organizations that use robotics and automate processes tend to save dramatically on costs, especially when the automation is implemented on a large scale. such a relationship is not just a coincidence but it is the result of optimization of workflow, decrease of human error, and better resource allocation. as an example, the automation of repetitive tasks enables employees to engage in more valuable tasks, leading to the reduction of overheads and the increase of efficiency. nevertheless, the data also emphasize that this correlation differs according to industries and time-span, which emphasizes that automation is not a solution to all problems [50]. the link between productivity and cost saving in healthcare is less straightforward compared to manufacturing because human expertise will be required and the presence of standardized processes in manufacturing enables the cost reduction to be closely associated with an increase in productivity. in addition, the temporal analysis shows that the correlation increases with the maturity of the industries in terms of automation adoption, which is cumulative learning and improved integration strategies. these lessons indicate that a business case of automation goes beyond immediate cost efficiency benefits; this is also about providing the ability to be cost competitive and resilient in the market. politically, it is important to understand this two-fold implication in order to design incentives that will help promote the broader use of intelligent automation in industries. to business leaders, the results emphasize the need to invest long-term in automation infrastructure and human capital development to keep them climbing the productivity ladder would remain costsaving. in the final analysis, the data supports the assertion that smart automation is a strategic force behind the efficiency of operations as well as financial viability of the u.s. economy. b. improvements in workforce displacement and reskilling urges among the largest consequences of the adoption of automation is the effect on the labor market, particularly the higher the percentage of robotics and ai applications, the higher the likelihood of job losses. the results of this research show that these industries like manufacturing are more displaced in jobs and display the ability to mechanize routine repetitive work easily. contrary to this, healthcare has lower levels of displacement because of the need of human judgment, empathy, and patient oriented decision-making. nevertheless, in as much as job displacement remains a fact of existence, the statistics also highlight the concurrent requirement of workforce reskilling. industries that have a greater automation have continually reported to require more training hours implying that automation does not wipe out the labor force but rather it alters the skills needed. employees in manufacturing, such as the ones, will have to shift to activities that are not task-oriented to maintenance, programming and supervision of advanced robotics systems [51]. the logistics personnel will be forced to adjust to the digital platforms, automated warehousing, and real-time monitoring of the supply chain. employees in healthcare start to interact more with diagnostic ai solutions and electronic patient record systems, where being digital-literate is necessary instead of performing administrative work. this change underscores the two-sided quality of automation: on the one hand, it poses the risk of displacement; on the other, it opens up more opportunities in the higher positions. good workforce policy should thus be on reskilling and upskilling in such a way that the displaced employees are able to get back into the labor market with relevant skills. companies that invest actively into training initiatives are more geared to minimize the impact and keep the workforce stable. these results suggest that the success of automation cannot be evaluated only based on productivity improvement but also through the inclusion with which industries are coping with workforce changes. in this regard, reskilling will be a strategic investment instead of a cost liability, and the businesses will grow without incurring large socio-economic inequalities. 192 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 8: c. variations in automation impact faces industry-specific the findings point to the fact that the impacts of intelligent automation differ greatly across industries based on structural variation in processes, labor intensity, and patterns of technology adoption. manufacturing has shown the greatest correlation with automation and productivity improvement mainly due to the repetitive nature of production processes, which are best automated with the help of robots. the comparative uniformity of the manufacturing data indicates that the usefulness gains of automation are constant and positive. however, logistics are more variable with certain years recording high productivity, cost savings and other times record declines though automation investments are recorded. this volatility indicates the complexity of supply chains, in which external disruptions, e.g., the worldwide trade volatility or pandemic-related bottlenecks, may lower the beneficial effects of automation. the situation is different with healthcare, where automation is better at increasing diagnostic accuracy, administrative efficiency, and patient data management without being strongly associated with displacing frontline positions that demand human competency [52]. as a result, the increases in productivity in the healthcare sector seem less linear as it is a reflection of the ratio of automation within supportive functions and the inimitable worth of human care. these differences indicate that automation results are strongly context-related as industry-specific strategies and not generic ones may be needed. as an illustration, whereas manufacturing companies can concentrate on the large-scale implementation of robots, healthcare organizations need to concentrate on the hybrid systems that incorporate automation and human judgment. logistics companies, in turn, should make sure that automation is supported with the efficient contingency planning in order to respond to the external shocks. according to the findings, the policymakers and business leaders are highly concerned with the necessity of understanding the industry distinctions to develop a specific intervention that will help them reap the full potential of automation. altogether, the evidence indicates that intelligent automation cannot be considered a universal panacea but a strategic instrument the effectiveness of which is conditioned by the ability to adapt it to the specifics of the situation and circumstances in every industry. d. the benefit of training in the sustainability of automation one key finding of the study is the imperativeness of training that enables organizations to have full benefits of automation investments. according to the data, it is evident that the industries that report increased productivity gains tend to have more hours dedicated to the workforce training. this implies that automation might be effective but development of human capital is necessary where reskilling and upskilling would fill the gap between the capacity to operate and the results. the increased level of training in manufacturing is a logical consequence since workers should learn to cope with manual operations, being supervisors of complex robotics and the production line. logistics is also in dire need of training since the employees have to acquire digital skills to navigate through automated warehouses, supply chain algorithms, and robotic transport systems [53]. in comparison, healthcare needs relatively less training time as it is representative of the fact that automation in the area is not as replenishing as supporting, as it is not always the administrative parts that are being replaced; instead, the clinical experience is being supplemented. the temporal trend, however, indicates that with increased familiarity of industry with automation, the training hours can possibly reduce at a slow pace, although productivity is not compromised, which suggests a learning curve effect. this again proves the point that training cannot be regarded as a one-time expense but as a living investment that eventually gives a dividend. companies failing to train may find themselves underusing the automation technologies thus resulting in inefficiencies and even resistance by employees. on the other hand, organizations that give more emphasis on customized training plans are better placed to ensure long-term productivity growth and labor stability. the results indicate that training does not only come in as a reaction to displacement but a proactive measure of matching 193 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us human skills to the changing demands of technology. finally, the automation strategies, which include training, will mean that the u.s. businesses will be able to maintain competitive advantages in the fast-evolving economic environment. e. temporal change in benefits in automation the temporal impact of automation in 2015 to 2023 shows that, even though automation has positive impacts on the industry, including productivity and saving money, this process is not instantaneous but progresses with the time, as the industries develop their approaches to automation. the results of the early years tend to be quite inconsistent, as the first stage of integration is not always successful, the workforce requires time to adapt, and the technological advancement is still immature [54]. as an illustration, productivity gains in healthcare decreased initially and then triumphed dramatically after 2020, during a time when the pandemic increased the use of digital and automation technologies at an accelerated rate. equally, logistics showed good early productivity increases which decreased later highlighting the struggles to sustain the efficiency increases in face of external interference like supply chain crisis. manufacturing on the other hand represented slower growth in the early days, but its subsequent fall indicated that the benefits were not self-sustaining and thus necessitated new innovations on an ongoing basis as opposed to a one-time investment. such time trends underscore the fact that adoption of automation can only be interpreted as a long term process that entails fluctuations between disruption, adaptation, and subsequent stabilization. with time, as organizations got knowledge, got to integrate and got to streamline activities, the payoffs on automation investments get stronger. this effect of the learning curve highlights the importance of differentiating between short term inefficiencies and long term failures. to policymakers and business executives, the results indicate that patience and long-term support are essential to ensuring the maximum benefits are achieved in the automation implementation. long-term adoption incentives, investing into training, and infrastructure are needed to make productivity and cost savings sustainable results. the evidence underlines the fact that intelligent automation is a dynamic entity that should be constantly adjusted, that is why the constant innovation, professional workforce planning and organizational responsiveness should be developed, so that the transformative potential could be fully exploited. f. business strategic implications to u.s. expansion the wider debate of this paper is the fact that intelligent automation is a radical catalyst of american business expansion, but the effectiveness of its application must be based on its strategy. the facts also prove that automation raises productivity, minimizes inefficiency, and creates cost savings, but these advantages are not equally distributed over time and industries. the problem with workforce development is that automation in business without a similar investment in its staff might only increase the effects of displacement without fully leveraging the potential of new technologies [55]. on the other hand, those organizations that consider automation and reskilling as complementary approaches to growth have a higher chance of experiencing sustainable growth. strategically, automation should be included in long-term business models and not a short-term tendency to save money. this involves the creation of hybrid systems that are more effective that bring together human experience and machine effectiveness to make sure that the technological implementation does not affect innovation, flexibility, and customer satisfaction. the policymakers can also participate in the development of the ecosystem in general by offering incentives to invest in automation, invest in reskilling the workforce, and promote industry-specific approaches based on structural variations. also, organizations should be aware that automation is never static and technology keeps changing what can be done, and thus, organizations should always be dynamic and innovative. conclusion of this research is at the end that intelligent automation is not just a technological upgrade rather a strategic competitiveness enabler in the world economy. the u.s. companies aligning automation with workforce, innovation cycles, and industry-related needs will be most likely to reap the benefits of inclusive and sustainable growth. therefore, the results support the idea that 194 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us intelligent automation must be viewed as an aggregate transformation strategy, and not a limited efficiency program. g. ethical considerations implementing intelligent automation creates significant ethical challenges that a company should consider to act responsibly in its development. one issue is the risk of displacing the workforce, which can foster income disparity and job insecurity in case of lack of reskilling opportunities due to rapid automation, as the impact will be disproportionate on employees in routine jobs. it is also important that the decision-making process should be transparent since the use of ai-based systems can lead to the occurrence of biases or decrease human responsibility. another issue is data privacy, which becomes especially significant in the medical and logistic fields, as automation frequently implies sensitive personal or business information [56]. companies should be able to strike a compromise between productivity and the rights of the individual and social welfare. following ethical principles, offering fair labor shifts, and focusing on responsible data exploitation, u.s. organizations can make sure that automation does not destroy human dignity and trust but promotes productivity. vii. future work the prospects of the further development of intelligent automation to drive u.s. business growth give enormous possibilities to learn more and develop more practical applications in industries. a possible solution would be to carry out longitudinal studies that would follow adoption of automation over a long period of time to determine the long term effects on productivity, reduced costs and changes to the workforce. the studies would assist in determining whether the gains initially made are retained, level or diminish as technologies get mature [57]. the other significant field that should be explored in the future is how higher-order artificial intelligence methods, including generative ai and adaptive machine learning, are used to shape the next generation of automation systems that break the loop of routine activities and enhance strategic decision-making and innovation. also, the study may examine cross-industrial comparisons that include some of the new industries like renewable energy, fintech, and digital healthcare, which are adopting automation more but have not been thoroughly explored in literature. the combination of automation with other disruptive technologies, including blockchain as a means of safe transactions or internet of things (iot) as a means of real-time data gathering is also a potential direction that may lead to a better understanding of efficiency and resilience benefits. futuristic workforce on the workforce front, reskilling and lifelong learning structures should be a priority area because it concerns how organizations can most effectively prepare their employees to work successfully in hybrid human-machine contexts. the ethical implication also deserves a stronger focus, especially with regard to fairness and inclusiveness and responsible use of ai, whereby automation cannot serve the interests of society as a whole but rather increase the inequalities [58]. lastly, it would be beneficial to extend the analysis to consider the global views as a comparative prism, and how u.s. experience with automation compares with other developed and developing economies. through dealing with these areas, next-generation work can no longer be dependent on short-term performance based on quantifying productivity and cost, but instead will create a comprehensive map of how intelligent automation can create sustainable economic growth, improve competitiveness, and support inclusive development. viii. conclusion this study identifies the potential of intelligent automation to transform a business in the united states to help it grow more by enhancing productivity, cutting inefficiencies, and changing the dynamics of the workforce. through a comparison of industry-level data of the last seven years between the years 2015 and 2023, in terms of manufacturing, healthcare, and logistics, the research shows that automation brings tangible benefits, yet there are also challenges that have to be addressed with much attention[59]. the results affirm that manufacturing is the sphere which gains the greatest productivity and cost reduction, yet such progress requires huge proportions of 195 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us labor reskilling to operate numerous complicated automated systems. logistics experiences moderate changes where training needs are varied as they are needed to meet changing supply chain technology and healthcare though not as much in the aspect of displacing the workforce but it gains through incremental productivity advantage most noticeably in administrative and diagnostic aspects where automation is used to complement human skills. the longitudinal view shows that automation adoption increased substantially in the post-2020 period, which was mostly driven by the impacts of the covid-19 pandemic and it is important to highlight the significance of the external factors driven by change in the rate and extent of digital transformation. the findings also indicate a very important trade-off: although the automation will alleviate the operations inefficiencies and make them cost efficient, the automation will need to make significant investments in the human capital to ensure that the integration is sustainable and long-term [60]. to policymakers, the results indicate that supportive structures should be in place that would balance innovation and workforce development, whereas to businesses, the results highlight the importance of investing in specialized training programs to take the best advantage of the automation and produce fewer disturbances. finally, the concept of sustainable development will rely on the ability to fit technological innovation with human flexibility, so that automation can be a driver of inclusive and sustainable growth in the u.s. economy. references: 1. dalsaniya, a., & patel, k. 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(2023). artificial intelligence, resource reallocation, and corporate innovation efficiency: evidence from china's listed companies. resources policy, 81, 103324. 54. bharadiya, j. p., thomas, r. k., & ahmed, f. (2023). rise of artificial intelligence in business and industry. journal of engineering research and reports, 25(3), 85-103. 55. karunathilake, e. m. b. m., le, a. t., heo, s., chung, y. s., & mansoor, s. (2023). the path to smart farming: innovations and opportunities in precision agriculture. agriculture, 13(8), 1593. 56. qin, h., xiao, j., ge, d., xin, l., gao, j., he, s., ... & carlsson, j. g. (2022). jd. com: operations research algorithms drive intelligent warehouse robots to work. informs journal on applied analytics, 52(1), 42-55. 57. min, h. (2022). developing a smart port architecture and essential elements in the era of industry 4.0. maritime economics & logistics, 24(2), 189. 58. dataset link: https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/kennedywanakacha/industrial-robotics-andautomation-dataset https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/kennedywanakacha/industrial-robotics-and-automation-dataset https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/kennedywanakacha/industrial-robotics-and-automation-dataset 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the role of school leaders in shaping a socially healthy environment in general secondary education institutions maryam rakhimova master’s student, national research institute of pedagogical excellence named after abdulla avloniy maryamraximova1@gmail.com sh. rajabov under the review of doctor of economic sciences (dsc), professor sh. abstract: this article focuses on identifying the importance of relationships between the principal and teaching staff in forming a healthy psychological environment within general education school management. it emphasizes strengthening factors such as human relationships, trust, collaboration, and emotional support in management practices. the clarified area of the article is defined as the extent of the principal's influence on the formation of the social environment within the pedagogical team. keywords: psychological climate, teaching team, leader, transformational leadership, sociocommunicative environment, teachers' professional status, normative criteria, social environment, stress, team spirit, psychological well-being, professional development. introduction. today, the psycho-social environment in general education schools is one of the key factors determining the effectiveness of the educational process. a psychologically favorable environment positively influences relationships between teachers and students, ensuring the quality and stability of the pedagogical process. the moral and ethical climate of the school team forms the internal motivation of each participant and determines their approach to professional responsibilities. therefore, creating a healthy psychological climate in educational institutions not only encourages the professional development of teachers but also lays the foundation for students' academic success and social adaptation. although the stability and consistent development of the school environment depend on many factors, one of the most critical is the professional readiness and leadership culture of the school principal. the principal’s sound strategic decisions, effective communication skills, and transformational leadership style strengthen an atmosphere of mutual trust, respect, and cooperation within the pedagogical team. the leader’s organizational and moral potential, deep understanding of psychological processes, and activities aimed at supporting team spirit play a decisive role in shaping the school’s socio-emotional environment. this research is aimed at analyzing precisely these factors—leadership competencies and their impact on psycho-social stability in schools. the study develops practical recommendations that help reduce stress, enhance psychological well-being, and accelerate professional growth within the school team. as a result, improved management approaches are proposed for creating an 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us emotionally and socially healthy internal climate based on human values in general education institutions. methodology. the main methodological direction of the experimental work was the collection of empirical data through diagnostic research (surveys, content analysis) and its statistical analysis. in this regard, modern socio-psychological analysis criteria, such as j. l. moreno’s sociometry, the theory of transformational leadership, and other advanced theories in educational management, served as the foundation. in particular, the following methods were used in the study: ➢ survey: a special questionnaire was developed for school principals to study relationships between leaders and teachers, management styles, and the state of the psychological climate. the survey included indicators such as teachers' attitudes toward school management, the quality of communication with leaders, challenges in conflict resolution, public perceptions of the teaching profession, satisfaction and stress levels among principals, the impact of current workloads on work efficiency, and principals’ psycho-emotional state. ➢ pedagogical observation: during daily school activities, observations were made of interactions between principals and staff, communication styles, opportunities for professional development, infrastructure conditions, and the psychological environment. ➢ pedagogical experiment: measures aimed at improving the psychological climate were developed and tested in practice. during the experimental work, school principals were divided into three groups: 1. group 1 – principals with high levels of knowledge and skills (actively influence the psychological climate). 2. group 2 – principals with average preparation (operate in certain areas but lack a systematic approach). 3. group 3 – principals with low preparation (lack sufficient competence in managing the psychological environment). a total of 285 school principals participated as respondents. the questionnaire consisted of 17 questions developed specifically for school leaders and grouped into six key normative criteria: ➢ psychological climate and emotional background ➢ management style and personal influence of the leader ➢ quality of communication and initiative opportunities ➢ justice, trust, and motivational support ➢ primary sources of conflict ➢ professional development and self-awareness the questions under each criterion comprehensively covered the school’s social environment and revealed its direct relationship with the principal's leadership. analysis of results healthy climate and emotional background: diagnostic results. to the question, “do you think the principal has an influence on the formation of social relations in the school?” posed to principals, 93.2% (233 respondents) answered affirmatively: “yes, the principal plays a significant role as a leader in shaping social relations.” 2.8% of respondents stated that school leaders are already sufficiently burdened with responsibilities. 4% believed that school management has no real connection to this process. 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these results confirm kurt lewin's idea that “psychological climate is the product of a balance between external and internal forces.” the position, approach, and behavior of the leader strongly influence the internal climate. leadership style and socio-psychological influence. to the question, “what leadership style do you usually use?”, ➢ 64.4% (161 people) said they follow a democratic style based on cooperation; ➢ 11.6% (29) stated that they mostly delegate tasks to others (liberal style); ➢ 22% admitted to using an authoritarian style, believing employees need constant control. these figures indicate that democratic leadership approaches are not yet fully established in schools. this may lead to reduced teacher initiative, indifference to problems, and increasing formalism in work attitudes. communication quality, evaluating initiatives, and feedback. to assess how freely teachers express opinions and how leadership responds, the following questions were asked: ➢ “how do principals and senior staff respond to teachers' ideas and initiatives?” ➢ “can teachers freely express their opinions?” responses: ➢ 68% stated that leaders consult with them regularly and support their input; ➢ over 20% noted existing obstacles — initiatives are ignored or evaluated superficially; ➢ 12% said decisions are made only based on leadership’s initiative. this reflects d. mcgregor’s theory x and y: many school leaders still operate under theory x, based on control and distrust, which hinders the development of a healthy psychological climate. main sources of conflict. when asked, “what types of conflicts in the pedagogical team concern you most or are hardest to resolve?”, ➢ 43.9% cited problems with lesson distribution; ➢ 13.7% mentioned conflicts arising from salary and bonuses; ➢ 26% pointed to excessive workload; ➢ about 9% identified personal rivalries and factionalism. these data show that cultural cohesion, value orientation, and mutual respect systems are weakening in school management. there is a need to review workload policies and financial support systems to improve the current environment. professional growth and self-actualization. to the question, “do you consider evaluating principals through a certification system effective?”, ➢ 67% found the system very useful; ➢ 33% believed it was inadequate or caused misunderstandings. among the participating principals, about 38% were over 40 years old with more than 20 years of experience. 24% had 10–20 years of experience. 37% of teachers also had over 20 years of experience, while another 37% had 10 20 years. this shows that most responses came from individuals with long-term involvement in school environments. indicators used to evaluate principals' performance. additional questions were included to determine what indicators are currently used to assess school leadership. results (figure 1) revealed that 77.9% of principals are evaluated mainly on academic outcomes 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (i.e., university admission rates). from the perspective of herzberg’s two-factor theory, this shows a dominance of hygiene factors — i.e., external pressures and metrics like certification — whereas intrinsic motivational factors, such as teacher enthusiasm and leadership communication, are underrepresented. leadership’s influence on the socio-psychological environment is rated as secondary. further findings and figures. in addition to the core questions, supplementary items were included to determine: ➢ “who is primarily responsible for the following tasks in your school?” ➢ “how frequently were you involved in the following activities over the past 12 months?” ➢ “are psychological counseling and support services available for teachers in your school?” ➢ “what methods do you use to encourage and motivate teachers?” figure 2 outlines the responsibilities assigned to identify principals’ workload. tasks included: a) hiring and appointing teachers b) dismissing or suspending teachers c) determining teachers’ base salaries and setting tariff rates d) deciding on salary increases e) allocating school budget funds f) developing school disciplinary policies g) setting student assessment policies, including national and regional evaluations h) approving student admissions i) choosing teaching materials j) deciding curriculum content, including regional standards k) determining which subjects are taught according to figure 2, the primary workload falls on the principal. the school council, management team members, parent committees, and teachers play significantly smaller roles in task distribution. this correlates with responses to questions about how principals perceive their roles (see figure 3): key findings (table 1) need / recommendation share of respondents diagnosis institutional support for professional growth 30% “retraining is formalized,” “no practical support” reducing principals’ workload 8 out of 11 tasks handled distribution shows low engagement from councils or teachers broadening evaluation indicators 78% focus on student outcomes based on herzberg — emphasis on external motivators fair pay and additional compensation 13.7% highlight salary conflicts points to inequality and source of tension lack of socio-emotional support services >20% said “not available” indicates institutional gap in staff well-being 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us discussion. the experimental research demonstrated a direct impact of leadership style on the psychological climate and team capacity in schools. several modern educational management theories and models were applied to interpret this connection: 1. transformational leadership (james macgregor burns, bernard bass): this model encourages internal motivation, professional growth, and commitment to organizational goals. 17% of principals reported relying on authoritarian leadership, indicating incomplete adoption of transformational principles. 2. participative leadership (likert model): according to r. likert (1967), effective leaders involve staff in decision-making. however, 32% of teachers stated that their initiatives were ignored, suggesting a need to shift teachers from passive observers to active contributors. 3. motivational management (herzberg’s two-factor theory): herzberg emphasized recognition and reward as key to a positive psychological environment. 21% of teachers felt evaluation and incentives were unfair, weakening internal motivation. 4. total quality management (tqm): this model promotes quality improvement, shared responsibility, and effectiveness. 23% of teachers reported no conditions for self-development, contradicting tqm expectations and indicating poor quality management practices. 5. contingency theory (fiedler, vroom & yetton): this theory holds that leadership style should adapt to the organizational context. the study revealed widespread use of command-style leadership, contrary to the flexible approach recommended. scientific-methodological conclusions: ➢ the human factor remains secondary in the internal school climate. ➢ some leaders still follow bureaucratic and command-oriented styles. ➢ teacher motivation, participation, and social support are insufficient. ➢ development of psychological climate requires transformational leadership, participative management, and socio-emotional culture. conclusion and recommendations. improving the professional competencies of school leaders is a decisive factor in enhancing the effectiveness of the education system. research findings confirm that school administrators directly influence the professional development of teachers, educational quality, and institutional performance through continuous improvement of their leadership competencies. for effective school management, leaders must master the following aspects: ➢ strategic management and decision-making: leaders must develop and implement longterm strategies for institutional growth. ➢ deep understanding of pedagogical processes: awareness of modern teaching methodologies and the ability to implement innovative approaches enhance teacher effectiveness. ➢ team-based management and communication skills: the ability to maintain open dialogue, support teacher initiatives, and communicate effectively contributes significantly to education quality. 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ developing motivation and incentive systems: a fair and transparent system for evaluating and rewarding teacher performance is crucial for encouraging professional growth. ➢ problem analysis and innovative solutions: leaders should possess the skills to systematically analyze issues and use modern management technologies to develop creative solutions. practical recommendations (table 2) level recommendation basis policy (beyond schools) evaluate principals through a multi-indicator portfolio (teacher satisfaction, professional growth metrics); limit academic results’ weight to ≤ 50% herzberg's two-factor theory, oecd broad guidelines school management implement distributed leadership; increase teacher involvement in decisionmaking meta-analysis results (r ≈ 0.32) → higher satisfaction hr and motivation manage internal motivators (recognition, encouragement) and external factors (salary, workload) in parallel herzberg sel services introduce psychological consulting and “teacher wellbeing week” calendars unesco sel initiatives (2025) professional development organize ≤15-hour mentorship modules; conduct “coaching & ethical leadership” training for principals international practices; hargreaves & fullan thus, enhancing the professional competence of school leaders serves to increase teacher motivation and performance, ultimately improving the quality of education. to achieve this, leaders should prioritize lifelong learning, experience exchange, and the adoption of modern management strategies. references 1. moreno, j. sociometry, experimental method and the science of society. lu lu press (original ed. 1951, beacon house, ny). 2. bass, b. m. (1999). two decades of research and development in transformational leadership. european journal of work and organizational psychology. 3. lewin, k. (1948). resolving social conflicts: selected papers on group dynamics. new york: harper & brothers. 4. sh. po’latov. educational management: an innovative approach to scientific-methodical governance in educational institutions. toshkent: yosh kuch, 2022. 5. likert, r. (1967). the human organization: its management and value. mcgraw-hill. 6. herzberg, f. (1968). one more time: how do you motivate employees? harvard business review. 7. deming, w. e. (1986). out of the crisis. mit center for advanced educational services. 8. spivak, d. k. (2001). social psychology of educational process management. moscow: pedagogika. 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 9. boddy, d., paton, r. (1999). management: an introduction (russian translation, ed. yu. n. konturevsky). st. petersburg. 10. temirov, d. (2013). interconnectedness of pedagogical principles in education management. education management journal, no. 6, pp. 95–96. 15 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 increasing the energy efficiency of solar panels with input semiconductors sobirova tursunoy abdipatto qizi andijan state technical institute, assistant of the department of automation of mechanical engineering production, tursunoy.sobirova.1993@mail.ru abstract: solar energy is becoming an important source of sustainable and environmentally friendly energy in the modern world. solar panels have become one of the main directions in the energy supply for sunny countries. however, the energy efficiency of solar panels is still limited, and continuous research is being conducted in this area to increase efficiency. the method of introducing impurities (doping) into semiconductor materials allows you to significantly increase the efficiency of solar panels. this article provides information on the principle of operation of solar panels, the importance of introducing impurities. keywords: solar panels, semiconductors, impurities, photoelectric effect, silicon, germanium, efficiency, losses. introduction. solar energy is becoming an important source of sustainable and environmentally friendly energy in the modern world. solar panels operate on the basis of the photoelectric effect, in which semiconductor materials convert sunlight into electrical energy. solar panels are mainly made of silicon (si) or other semiconductor materials. when sunlight hits the panel, photons excite electrons and create an electric field. the efficiency of this process depends on the properties of the material, its structure, and its ability to absorb light. photons excite electrons within the semiconductor, which creates an electric current. the low efficiency is due to energy loss (in the form of heat or recombination) and the optical properties of the material [1]. the efficiency of solar panels (figure 1) depends on the following factors: the material's ability to absorb light (only a certain part of the solar spectrum is converted into energy), electron recombination (free electrons recombine, leading to energy loss), and heat loss (efficiency decreases at high temperatures). picture 1. structure of a solar panel. 16 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the main materials used in solar panels include silicon, gallium arsenide (gaas), cadmium telluride (cdte), and perovskites. each material has its own advantages and disadvantages: monocrystalline silicon high efficiency (20-22%) and long service life, but high production cost. polycrystalline silicon efficiency around 15-18%, but cheaper to produce. amorphous silicon efficiency 6-8%, is the cheapest. gallium arsenide (gaas) has an efficiency of up to 30%, but is expensive and is mainly used in space technology. perovskites in recent years have achieved efficiencies above 25%, but there are stability problems [2]. doping of semiconductors is the process of adding specific chemical elements to change the electrical and optical properties of the material. dopants are divided into two types: n-type dopants: elements such as phosphorus (p) or arsenic (as) increase the number of electrons. ptype dopants: boron (b) or gallium (ga) create “holes” (positive charge carriers). the dopants form a p-n junction, creating an electric field, which is the basis of the photoelectric effect. by choosing the right amount and type of dopants, the efficiency of a solar cell can be increased. results and analysis there are several advantages to doping. dopants increase the density of electrons or holes, which enhances current generation. dopants broaden the light absorption spectrum of the material. proper dopants minimize recombination and heat loss [3]. doping technologies 1. thermal diffusion: dopants are deposited onto the surface of the material at high temperatures. 2. ion implantation: dopant ions are introduced into the material at high energy. 3. chemical vapor deposition (cvd): dopants are added to the material using special gases. phosphorus and boron are the most commonly used dopants in silicon solar panels. recent studies show that additional dopants such as nitrogen (n) or aluminum (al) can increase efficiency by 1-2%. for example: ➢ phosphorus doping: increases the conductivity of the n-type layer. ➢ boron doping: strengthens the p-n junction by forming a p-type layer. ➢ combined doping: efficiency can be optimized by using multiple dopants simultaneously. high-efficiency silicon atoms, such as perc (passivated emitter and rear cell) technology, are improved by doping. in this technology, electron recombination is reduced by using special layers and dopants [4]. gallium arsenide and perovskite dopants: ➢ gaas solar cells have high efficiency (up to 30%), but are expensive. the optical properties are improved by adding dopants such as selenium (se) or zinc (zn). although gaas is mainly used in space technology, research into its cost-effectiveness is ongoing. ➢ perovskite materials have gained considerable attention in recent years, as their efficiency has exceeded 25%. by adding dopants such as methylammonium, cesium or lead, the stability and light absorption capacity of perovskites are increased. at the same time, the resistance of perovskites to moisture and heat remains a problem. 17 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us solar panels are environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional fuels. increasing efficiency by adding dopants further increases the economic efficiency of solar panels, as higher efficiency reduces the cost of energy production [5]. the doping process poses a number of challenges: 1. material stability: the long-term stability of perovskite cells remains a challenge. 2. manufacturing costs: materials such as gaas are expensive, limiting their widespread use. 3. environmental impact: the chemicals used for some doping can be harmful to the environment. the future of solar panels depends on new materials and technologies. innovations such as selfcleaning panels, transparent solar cells, and integration with energy storage systems are driving the industry forward. research on doping is aimed at increasing the efficiency of perovskite and low-cost materials. innovative approaches self-cleaning panels: hydrophobic coatings reduce the impact of dust and pollution. transparent panels: can be used in building windows and vehicles. energy storage: high-efficiency panels can provide energy supply at night in combination with batteries. the energy efficiency of solar panels is currently around 15-22%, and continuous research is being conducted to increase it. silicon-based solar panels are the most common, and efficiency can be significantly increased by adding other substances (dopants) to them. this article discusses the technological basis of doping silicon, its impact on efficiency, opportunities for uzbekistan, and future prospects. photons excite electrons in silicon, which creates an electric current. efficiency limitations are due to the following factors: light absorption: silicon can only absorb a certain portion of the solar spectrum. recombination: free electrons recombine, resulting in energy loss. heat loss: efficiency decreases at high temperatures. silicon is the most common material in solar panels because it is stable and has a long lifespan (25-30 years). it is one of the most abundant elements on earth. it is relatively inexpensive to manufacture. silicon solar panels are divided into three main types: monocrystalline silicon: has a high efficiency (20-22%) but is expensive to manufacture. it has a single crystal structure and is efficient at absorbing light. polycrystalline silicon: has an efficiency of around 15-18% but is cheaper. it is easier to manufacture due to its multi-crystalline structure. amorphous silicon: has an efficiency of 6-8% and is the cheapest but is used in low-efficiency and thin-film panels. each type has its own advantages and disadvantages, and their efficiency can be increased by adding additives. doping is the process of adding specific chemical elements to silicon to modify its electrical and optical properties. dopants increase the density of electrons or holes, which increases current generation. dopants broaden the light absorption spectrum of silicon. proper doping minimizes recombination and heat loss [6]. thermal diffusion: dopants are implanted into the surface of silicon at high temperatures. ion implantation: dopant ions are introduced into silicon at high energy. 18 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us chemical vapor deposition (cvd): dopants are added to silicon using special gases. the most commonly used dopants in silicon solar cells are phosphorus and boron. however, other materials are also being used to improve efficiency. phosphorus is used as an n-type dopant because it provides additional electrons when added to silicon. this increases the conductivity of the n-type layer and strengthens the p-n junction. high-concentration doping of phosphorus can increase efficiency by 1–2%. boron is used as a p-type dopant, creating holes. this is important in forming the p-type layer. boron doping enhances the electric field of the p-n junction and improves the movement of electrons. by adding nitrogen, the optical properties of silicon are improved, allowing it to absorb a wider spectrum of light. aluminum can be used as a p-type dopant and increases heat resistance. when gallium is used instead of boron, long-term stability and efficiency can be improved [7]. the simultaneous use of multiple dopants (for example, phosphorus and nitrogen) further increases efficiency. this method helps to adjust the bandgap of silicon and reduce recombination. a number of modern technologies are used to increase the efficiency of siliconbased solar panels: perc (passivated emitter and rear cell) technology uses special layers and inclusions to reduce electron recombination, and the efficiency exceeds 22%. in hjt (heterojunction technology), the efficiency is increased to 24% by combining silicon and amorphous silicon layers and introducing dopants. in topcon (tunnel oxide passivated contact) technology, the efficiency is increased to 25% by using dopants and a thin oxide layer. in these technologies, the doping process plays an important role, as it optimizes the movement of electrons and reduces energy loss. the process of introducing dopants into silicon poses a number of problems. high-quality doping processes are expensive. it is important to ensure the long-term stability of the doped silicon. some dopants (for example, phosphorus) can generate chemical waste during production. conclusion although silicon is the most common material in solar panels, germanium (ge) is being used in high-efficiency solar panels due to its unique properties. its efficiency can be significantly increased by introducing other substances (dopants) into germanium. germanium absorbs the infrared part of the solar spectrum well, making it useful in multilayer cells. free electrons recombine, causing energy loss. efficiency decreases at higher temperatures. germanium has some advantages in solar panels. germanium's band gap (0.67 ev) allows it to absorb infrared light. the fast movement of electrons enhances current generation. germanium is combined with gallium arsenide (gaas) to create panels with high efficiency. there are also some disadvantages to the use of germanium. germanium is more expensive than silicon. germanium is one of the rarest elements on earth. there is a risk of oxidation with longterm use. germanium is mainly used in multilayer (tandem) solar cells, because it has a lower band gap and is effective at absorbing the infrared part of the solar spectrum. it is usually used in combination with gallium arsenide or silicon. germanium-based panels are widely used in space technology (e.g. satellites) and in projects requiring high efficiency. multilayer panels consist of layers of different materials (e.g. gaas, ge, ingap), each layer absorbing a specific part of the solar spectrum. germanium is used as a substrate in this system and absorbs infrared light. these panels can achieve efficiencies of up to 40%. doping germanium is the process of adding specific chemical elements to improve its electrical and optical properties. dopants are of two types: n-type dopants phosphorus (p), arsenic (as) or antimony (sb) increase the number of 19 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us electrons. p-type dopants gallium (ga), indium (in) or boron (b) create "holes" (positive charge carriers). insertions create an electric field by forming a p-n junction, which is the basis of the photoelectric effect. proper insertions play an important role in increasing the efficiency of germanium. insertions increase the density of electrons or holes, which enhances current generation. insertions broaden the light absorption spectrum of germanium. proper insertions minimize recombination and heat loss. references: 1. akramov h va b. yarimo’tkazgichlarda fotoelektrik hodisalar. t. 1994 yil. 2. sobirova t. quyosh panellaridagi yarimo‘tkazgichli materiallarning ahamiyati //евразийский журнал технологий и инноваций. – 2023. – т. 1. – №. 2. – с. 75-84. 3. karimov i.n., ermatov sh , nosirov m.z., abduazimov b.a ―lazer fizikasi va texnikasi‖ andijon, 2016, 57с 4. sobirova, t. (2023, april). advantages of nanotechnology and its role in the industry. in international conference on higher education teaching (vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 71-75) 5. sobirova, t. a. (2022). yarimo’tkazgichli lazerlar. экономика и социум, (6-1 (97)), 11811187. 6. sobirova, t. a. (2024). importance of semiconductor microcircuits in microelectronics and industry. scientific and technical journal namangan institute of engineering and technology. volume 8 (477-482) 7. sobirova tursunoy abdipatto qizi. (2024). defects in crystals and their properties. ethiopian international journal of multidisciplinary research, 11(05), 246– 250. 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 10, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 numerical results of diffusion combustion in turbulent flow of reacting gases dilshodjon ergashev dilshod77m@gmail.com abstract: this paper proposes a numerical solution to the problem of symmetrical methane flow relative to the axis in infinite satellite flow and diffusion combustion. dimensional equations in the mises variables of the turbulent boundary layer of the interacting gases were used to model the object. the equations for the components of the gas mixture are reduced into one equation by introducing the schwab-zeldovich function. to solve the problem in the mises coordinates, a two-layer four-point nonlinear boundary separation scheme was used, and a second order along the longitudinal coordinate was given. the iterative process was used because of the nonlinearity of the storage and displacement equations of substations. individual results of the numerical experiment are presented. keywords: turbulent jet, gas mixture, diffusion flame, velocity, total enthalpy, finite differences, computational experiment. introduction at present, gas is the main source of thermal energy: about 70% of the energy produced and consumed in the world is consumed by gas burning, and 30% is from water, wind, solar and nuclear fuel. at the same time, the efficiency of using natural and liquefied gas fuel is very low. in this regard, the processes of flame formation and propagation, methods of their effective management, enrichment and development of existing mathematical models are studied in depth on the basis of new achievements in the field of turbulence, injection and combustion theory. various methods of continuous organization of the combustion process have been developed, the theoretical bases of which are based on the theory of turbulent shock currents and theoretical states of kinetic reaction kinetics. jet current theory is based on a simplified version of the nefstokes system of equations based on the turbulent boundary layer approach. two methods of organizing the combustion process in the turbulent boundary layer are widely used. in the first of them, the fuel-oxygen mixture is injected separately into the combustion zone, and the method is classified by the formation of a diffusion flame. the second method is fuel and oxygen (or oxygen mixture air) in the form of a mixture ready for combining. various types of these techniques have been developed to control flame characteristics (length, width, temperature, or solids). at the same time, the basic requirements are fulfilled in the design of the combustion device, for which it is desirable to carry out a theoretical study. 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us theoretical work in this field is still ongoing due to the incomplete theoretical basis of chemical exothermic reactions under turbulent and turbulent flow conditions. given the reliability and universality of the results in this area, we believe that further research is needed.in practice, the combustion process can be organized in cyclic or large volumes at low volume and high pressure by continuously introducing reactants and isolating reaction products in the same manner [1]. in the second method, chemically interacting agents can be introduced as a separate or final mixture [7]. we can study these methods based on diffusion or uniform combustion models [8]. uniform combustion models include bunzen burner, arrenius law, chemical equilibrium models [9]. the mathematical model of diffusion combustion is related to the names of burke, schumann, b. a. schwab and j. b. zeldovich, where it is assumed that the combustion rate is very high and has a thin flame surface [10]. this model was developed by f.aliyev and z.zhumayev for individual combustion gases and combustible gases. although the chemical reaction rate is assumed to be infinite, diffuse combustion has a large flame length. as a result, this method is widely used in the manufacture of construction materials and the production of mercury in rotary furnaces, as well as helping to create the necessary temperature and content for heat and mass transfer in accordance with technological requirements. a review of literature [3.7-10] shows that diffuse combustion of fuel with methane, the main component, is not sufficiently studied. currently, methane is the main composition of natural gas produced in uzbekistan. the main reasons for this are the "aging" of gas fields and the separation of heavy hydrocarbons from natural gas by a single or three-stage low-temperature separation method. in view of these aspects, the paper addresses methane dissipation and diffusion combustion. a physical problem in this matter. the combustion flows through the tube, which is the radius of the gas, and spreads at the velocity of the air flow. each gas mixture separately has its own composition and thermal properties. fuel gas reacts with oxygen in air. the combustion rate is considered to be very high so that oxygen does not enter the fuel zone, and oxygen in the air cannot penetrate through the combustible mixture. chemically passive gases are convective to migrate and diffuse with other components. figure 1. schematic representation of a submerged jet with diffusion torch. the combustion process is modeled as a stoichiometric equation of irreversible gross reaction: 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mathematical problem definition. thermal and mass exchange processes ( ) ( ) 2 2 2 2 1 ( ) , 0, 1 ( ) , pr 1 1 , re 1 1 ( re t t t n n n t n u u u u r x r r r r ur r x r h h h u r x r r r r c c c u r x r scr r r c c c u r n x r scr r r                            + = +         + =        + = +             + = + +              + = + + =        1,3,4... ).n                 (1) the system of differential equations is complemented by algebraic equations of enthalpy and gas mixture state, respectively: * 2 2 1 1 0 1 , , , / , n p p pn n k n n n n h c t c h c c c r p t const m m c m  = − = = + =   = = =       (2) system of the equations [3,5,9]. here vu, longitudinal and radial speed organizers /m s ; т, gas density ( )3кg m− and absolute temperature (к); pr, sc prandtl and schmidt turbulence numbers; kc mass concentration of components; k mass speed of combustion ( )3 1kg m s− − ; t − turbulent viscosity; h full enthalpy; the conditions for accessing the flow zone are as follows:                  →→→→→→→ =======       ====== ====== =    y yε, εk, kc, h, h, vuu , y dy dε dy dk dy cd dy dh v dy du :x y a, vε, εk, kc,h,huu a y , vε, εk, kc,h,huu :x " " 1111 1111 2222 00 00 0 00 001 0 (3) modeling turbulence. we used the −k model for turbulent exchange [1-3]: 2 1 1 2 2 1 , 1 . t k t k k k k u r g x r r r r u r c f g c f x r r r r k k                            + = + −             + = + −       2 , ,t r c f k k r r     = = 3 1 1 1         += f a f , 2 2 1 ,tr f e − = − (4)  2k rt = , ( ) 2 1 1ra r t t a f e r   −   = − +    , 2 g 4k t u r    =     , 2 1.92,c = 0.09, 1kc = = , 1 1.44,c = 0165.0,05.0,3.1 1 ===  aa 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a method of bringing component retention equations to a single equation. the task of spreading and burning methane gas in the satellite air flow is considered. we believe that methane has equal concentrations in combustible gas. the stoichiometric equation of the process can be written as * 2 1 2 3 2 4 2 2v a v o v co v h o h+ → + + , where stoichiometric coefficients 1 2 3 42.0 1, 1.0, 2.0   = = = = , refer to oxygen, combustible, carbon monoxide and water vapor; 2 55644h = . in addition, the presence of molecular nitrogen is taken into account 2n , which is considered a chemically passive component. accordingly, in this case, the number of component retention equations is 5n = , which are abbreviated as ( )k kl c = ( 1..5k = ). where 1 ( ) k k k k c c c l c u v y x y sc y y y        = + −        – linear and uniform with respect to its argument mass concentration k component kc operator, and k – mass rate of formation (disappearance) k -го the variety of molecules at a given point of the flame front for a single period of time. for chemical reaction rates, the following relationships occur where considered 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 при 1,2; 0 при 4; k k k k k k m m k m m k         + = = − = = (5) 1 2, 0   , 3 4, 0   . the dependencies given indicate the path by which the chemical reaction rates can be eliminated in the component conservation equations ( )k kl c = . if you enter schwab-zeldovich functions according to, 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 при 1,2; 0 при 4, k k k k k k k c m c m k c c m c m k     + = = =  − = = (6) then the component conservation equations for 1,2k = and 4 take on the stock-free form ( ) 0kl c = . the equation for inert gas concentration, since 5 0 = , is also similar to 5( ) 0l c = . i.e. we have four differential equations for five concentrations of components. the missing equation is replaced by the assumptions of the diffusion combustion model. we will draw up boundary conditions for the entered functions: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 3 1 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 11 1 21 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 31 2 21 2 4 3 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 3 31 1 2 21 2 , , , , , . c c m c m c c m c c m c c m c m c c m c m c c m c m           = + = = = + = − = − (7) now we will enter relatively redundant functions relative to kc ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 5 51 1 5 52 1 2 1 k k k k k c c c c c c cc c  − − = = −− . (8) 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us analysis shows that equations ( ) 0kl c  = are mutually equivalent because they have the same coefficients and boundary conditions. this will allow four equations ( ) 0kl c  = to go to a single equation 0l c   =    . in particular, at the fuel zone inlet this function has a value of 1, at the oxidizer zone inlet and at the jet boundary it has a value of 0. there is symmetry on the jet axis for a given function. with the known value of this function, the concentration of the inert gas is determined simply: ( ) ( ) ( )5 5 5 51 2 1 c c c c c   = + −  . ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 1 k k k kc c c c c   = + −   . substitution of values ( ) ( ) 2 1 , ,k k kc c c in these constraints lead to a system of linear equations ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 31 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 32 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 21 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 22 2 1 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 31 1 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 32 2 1 1 , , . c m c m c m c m c m c m c m c c m c m c m c m c m c m c c m c m c m c m c m c m c m c m c                          + = + +    + − −   + = +    + + −    − = − +    + − − +  (9) let's simplify a system: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 3 3 11 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 21 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 41 1 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 42 1 2 1 4 4 , , . m m m c c c c c c c c m m m m m c c c c c c c m m m m c c c c m m m c c c c c m                       + = + + − −         + = + − +       − = − +      + − − −     (10) on the flame phonta, the reactant concentrations are zero. in this case, from the first two equations of this system, the value of the relatively-redundant function corresponding to the flame front is determined: ( ) ( ) 1 2* 2 1 1 1 2 21 1 c m c c m   −    = +     at * 1c c     , there is no oxidant in the fuel zone – 1 0c = . the solution of the system is ( ) ( ) ( )2 2 2 2 2 2 1 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 , m m c c c c c m m       = + −    ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 11 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 , m m c c c c c c c m m       = + + − −    ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )4 4 4 4 4 4 1 4 4 11 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 . m m c c c c c c c m m       = + + − −    (11) 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conditions oxidant zone where there is no fuel is determined 2 0c = . the concentrations of the remaining components are determined by the formulae: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 1 1 1 21 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 21 2 1 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 21 2 1 2 2 2 , , . m c c c c c m m c c c c c c m m c c c c c c m            = − +      = + − +      = + − +    (12) verification of the resulting formulas for concentrations can be performed by calculating the sum of the concentrations. when accounting dependences ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )2 3 4 52 2 2 2 1c c c c+ + + = , ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )1 3 4 51 1 1 1 1c c c c+ + + = (13) and mass balance according to the stoichiometric reaction equation 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4m m m m   + = + (14) summation of concentrations in each zone is one, although mass concentrations of components depend on the variable c  . thus, depending on the value of the relative-redundant function c  positions of flame front and concentration of components are unambiguously determined. the boundary conditions for this function are, as noted above, ( ) 1 0 , 0, 0 , y a c y y a    =   ( ), 0 0 c x x   =  , ( ), 0c x y   → . (15) chemical reaction with final rate modeling. the combustion process is modeled in the form of a stoichiometric equation of the irreversible gross reaction: * 4 2 2 2 22 2 ,ch o co h o h+ = + + is here * 2h – the amount of heat released by an exothermic reaction. the reaction rate is modeled on the arrenius law [3]. 2 2 2 1 1 2 exp .r r a a с с t     = −    here entered designations 11 2 1 1 2 5,028 10r a a m u  = −  , ( )2 200010.0 8,31441 ra k= tangential disturbance in the common boundary of intermediate flows and presence of hightemperature flame front in the area of heat-mass transfer indicate turbulence of flow in this area. due to the presence of the main flow direction, turbulent boundary layer equations can be used in the movement of gases. introduction of dimensionless and mises variables. to solve the problem, you went to dimensionless coordinates using characteristic values 2 2 2, , ,a u h  : 2 2 2 , , , , , x r u v x r u v a a u u au  = = = = =   *0 cc 7 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us * * 2 22 2 2 2 2 2 2 , , , , . h t p h h t p h h t u h     = = = = = (16) for example, the fuel storage and transfer equation takes the form: 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 1 2 2 1 1 1 sc re 190300 7 10 exp , 8,31441 t c c c u u u v au ar a x a r ar a r a r с с m t                 + = + −          −  −    where the dimension 2 was transferred to si and also taken into account 1 1с = и 2 2с = . now multiply both sides of the equation by 2 2 a u , also we will receive 22 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 exp . re r t r c c c a u v r a с с x r scr r r t               + = + + −            ( ) ( ) 22 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 , re 0, 1 1 , pr re 1 1 exp( / ), re 1 1 t t t r r u u u u r x r r r r rur x r h h h u r x r r r r c c c u r a c c a t x r scr r r c c u x r scr r                         + = +          + =         + = +                + = + + −           + =    4 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 re 2 , re 1 4 , 1 4 1 1 . t t t k t t k c r r k k k u u r x r r r r r a u u r c x r r r r f rk c e k                      −                   +                 + = + −                    + = + + −                  − −            (17) here entered designation ( ) 2 re 2 1 1 re a k r tf e a k   −   = − +    . ( ) * 2 1 2 1 2 2 , .t p h h h h c h k t c f c    + − − = = (18) since straight-flow free expanded jets are considered, on the basis of data known from the theory and practice in the field of flow, the value of static pressure is taken to be constant: p const= (according to bai shi-i for jet currents without burning, the change in static pressure is not more than 0.5% of dynamic pressure, and for jets with burning this fact is confirmed by experimental and theoretical spaulding data). as a result, the equation of the state of the gas mixture becomes ( ) 2 m m t  = . (19) 8 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the second feature of the problem is that the flow propagates along the x axis from left to right and there are no boundary conditions in the right part of the flow area, as it does not affect the propagation processes. accordingly, the process is suitably described by parabolic equations. therefore, we use the mises coordinates and introduce the current function according to the relations: ,ur vr r x         = = −   . (20) the second equation of the system is satisfied unambiguously. we find the value of transverse coordinate required for calculation by formula 2 0 2 r d u     =  . in other equations of the system, transition from coordinates ( ),x y to coordinates ( ),  is performed by formulas: , . r v x x r u r r                   = + = −           = =     (21) this converts the right sides of the equations as . u v x r r r u v v u u                + =        = − + =      the left parts of the equations are converted as 2 2 1 1 1 . r r r u r u r r r r r u u                      = =              =      ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 , 1 , pr 1 exp( / ), sc 1 , sc 1 4 t t t r r t t t k u ru u u u rh u u rc c c c a a t u u rc c k r u k r u u                                             +   =        +   =        +  = + −       +   =             = +      ( ) 4 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 2 3 re 1 1 22 , 1 1 / 4 1 , t k t u ur ur u c a f c e k ku                      −                  −          = +              + + − −          (22) 9 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us solution method numerical way to solve the problem. using basic radius a , flow rate 2u , density 2 , and enthalpy 2h , measurements were made in the system and conditions of equations, and mises coordinates were entered ( ),  . the mass displacement and retention equations for the components were reduced into one equation by introducing schwab-zeldovich functions and relative peak concentration c [3,5]. as a result, the basic equations ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 , 1 , pr c c1 exp( a / t), sc 1 , sc 1 4 t t t r r t t t k u ru u u u rh u u rc c a u u rc c k r u k r u                                               +   =        +   =        +  = + −       +    =           = +      ( ) 2 2 4 2 2 22 2 1 2 3 1 2 re 22 re 1 22 , 1 4 1 1 e 1 1 , re t t a k r t k u u c r ur u k a u a c e k ku                      − −−                    −           = +                  + − + − −               (23) ( ) * 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 , , . (m) p t h h h h c h t c mt k c f t     + − − = = = and corresponding boundary conditions were formed. 0 1:  ( ) 2 22 1, 1, 1, , , .n nu t c c c k k  = = = = = = 1 :   ( )1 1 1 11 , , 0, , , .n nu u t t c c c k k  = = = = = = 0  , 0 = : 20, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0. cu t c k             = = = = = =       (24)  → : ( )1 1 2 2 1 11 , , , 0, , .u u t t c c c k k  = = = = = = the constant approximation scheme was used to solve nonlinear equations in mizes coordinates. [9-11]. 1 u u u u k h f          = +      . (25) in the first group, where 1 re t = + , enter 10 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 : 1, 0; : pr, 0; : , 0; : , exp( / ). u u h h c c c c r r u u f u h f u c sc f c c u c sc f a a t u      = = = = = = = = = = = = − (26) to old group where accepted t = , there are two remaining equations: 4 2 2 2 3 2 1 re 2 : , 4 e , : , 1 1 . u k k k u kh u u k f u u a u f e c e fk k                  −   = = = − = −            = = = + − −          (27) we come to the approximation of equations. for the first group we have: ( ) , 1 re j t i j  = + ; ( )( ) ( )( ) ( ) , 1, , 1 1 , , 1 ,2 1 , , 1 1 , , 1 , 1 2 , s i j i j s s i j j i j j i j i j u ss s i j j i j j i j i j u i j u u k k u u h sc jh k k u u f       − + + + − − − − − =  + − −  − + − +  multiply both sides of the equation by 2 usc h j also we will enter designation 2/h h  = . then we will receive ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) , 1 1 , , 1 , 1 1 , , , 1 1 , 1 , , 1 1 , 1 1, , 2 2 . s i j j i j j i j s u i j j i j j i j j i j j i j ss i j j i j j i j u i j u i j k k u sc j k k k k u k k u sc j u h f             + + + + + − − − − − − − + −  − + + + + +   + + = − + let's designate ( ) ( ) ( )( ) (u) (u) , 1 1 , , , 1 1 1(u) (u) (u) (u) 1, , , , 2 , 2 . j i j j i j j j i j j i j j s j u j j j u i j u i j a k k c k k b sc j a c d sc j u h f      + + − − − − = + = + = + + = − + then the finite difference equation takes the form: (u) (u) (u) (u) , 1 , , 1 s s s j i j j i j j i j ja u b u c u d+ −− + = . (28) if we believe that (u) (u) , 1 1 , 1 s s i j j i j ju u − − −= + , then we get values of fit coefficients for internal nodes: (u) (u) (u) (u) 1(u) (u) (u) (u) (u) (u) (u) (u) 1 1 , j j j j j j j j j j j j a d c b c b c      − − − − + = = − − (29) the first mins approach is performed without check of approach condition and replacement 11 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1 1 , , , , 1 1 , , , , , , , s s s s i j i j i j i j s s s s i j i j i j i j u u h h c c      − −   − − = = = = . (30) later mins the convergence condition is checked 1 , ,0; max j s s i j i j tj n h h    −    −  . if convergence conditions are reached, the system moves to the next layer at. otherwise, the s-th approach is accepted 1 1 , , , , 1 1 , , , , , , , s s s s i j i j i j i j s s s s i j i j i j i j u u h h c c      − −   − − = = = = and proceeds to the next approximation. if all requirements for accuracy of newly found parameter values are satisfied, if necessary, values of integrals of excess pulse, enthalpy, as well as unburned part of fuel in this section are calculated. the upper limit of the dimensionless coordinates of the flow curve was taken as 20 and new discrete steps for longitudinal and radial coordinates were introduced. the calculation of the longitudinal coordinate continued until the conservative function value on the axis dropped to 0.05. after these steps, the results were saved in three files. the first file contained the axis speed, enthalpy, turbulence factor for cross section, radial flame coordinates determined by linear interpolation, boundary layer speed limit ( )b x , and observational data. the second file contains information on changes in radial coordinate functions of velocity, enthalpy, temperature, concentration and turbulence at certain sites. in this case, a special algorithm was used to switch from the regular step of the flow line function to the dimensionless radial coordinate, using the linear interpolation formula in yh algorithms for graphical drawing. in the third file, the data required to construct the isothermal curves in the temperature calculation area was stored in unobstructed coordinates. due to limitations of some of the measurements considered, particularly the computing domain, the graphics capabilities of pascal abs computer graphics were not available. because of this, the resulting data was rendered using excel software. results in the article, we limit ourselves to the discussion of the effect of the temperature of the separate gases on isotherms and concentrations. the combustible reaction includes methane gas and nitrogen. ( ) ( ) ( )1 5 21 21 0.232, 0.768, 1c c c= = = . the velocity of the main stream 61 m/s, velocity of satellite current – 18.3 m/s. 1 1000t k= whence 2 293t k= and 2 400t k= because they are 40x = and 100x = the diagrams show the concentration of. 12 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 40=x 100=x fig. 2. kt 10001 = and kt 2932 = of concentrations. 40=x 100=x fig. 3. kt 10001 = and kt 4002 = of concentrations. as you can see from this graph, 40x = the fuel core is broken. concentration view after the flame kt 10001 = and kt 2932 = , 100x = as shown in the diagram above. kt 10001 = and kt 4002 = when 100x = in the cross-section. from these results we can conclude that combustion will last longer if the temperature is higher. the same results were obtained for velocity, full enthalpy, and intensity, which were much smaller than the initial flame length. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 c i x c1 c2 c3 c4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 c x c1 c2 c3 c4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 c x c1 c2 c3 c4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 c x c1 c2 c3 c4 13 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the results obtained from the same data in the introduction indicated that methane flame is short and wide, compared to propane. this can be explained by the small amount of methane flux impulse. 1 1000t k= when 2 293t k= and 2 400t k= here is an example of the isotherms that are fig. 4. 1 1000t k= and 2 293t k= fig. 5. 1 1000t k= and 2 400t k= maximum temperature in the first case t=2929к and in the latter case *t =3018.84 values were calculated. findings as the temperature field expands, the maximum temperature at the end of the flame is in the axis of symmetry.calculations show that as fuel increases with gas temperatures, the length of the flames decreases. conversely, increased air temperature leads to an increase in the length of the flame. the first is due to the reduction in fuel gas consumption, and the second is due to the high oxygen content of oxygen in the air. in general, the results show that the temperature and gauge area of the methane fuel combustion in the airflow makes a significant difference over propane. references 1. j. h. park, three-dimensional nonequilibrium numerical modeling of arc-anode attachment in direct-current electric arcs, ph.d. thesis, university of minnesota, 2003. 14 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. gordon, s. and b. j. mcbride (1994). computer program for calculation of complex chemical equilibrium compositions and applications part i: analysis. reference publication nasa-rp-1311, nasa glenn research center. 3. international energy agency (2009). co2 emissions from fuel combustion 2009 edition.technical report, international energy agency. 4. s. b. pope, ten questions concerning the large-eddy simulation of turbulent flows, new journal of physics, 2004, 6(35) 5. a. a. iordanidis and c. m. franck, self-consistent radiation-based simulation of electric arcs: ii. application to gas circuit breakers, j. phys. d: appl. phys., 2008, 41, 135206, p 1-9. 6. абрамович г.н. теория турбулентных струй. м.: «наука». 1984. 715 с. 7. кузнецов в.р., сабельников в.а. турбулентность и горение. м.: «наука» 1986. 288 с. 8. баев в.к., головичев в.к., третьяков п.к. горение в сверхзвуковом потоке. новосибирск. наука. 1984. 304 с. 9. алиев ф., жумаев з.ш. струйные течения реагирующих газов.ташкент, фан, 1987.132 с. 10. edelman r.b. and harsha p.t. some observations on turbulent mixing with chemical reactions//aiaa. aerospace science meeting, 15-th, new-york, 1977, technical paper, pp. 55-102. 11. "numerical grid generation," ed. j. f. thompson, elsevier sci. pub., (1982). 12. launder, b. e. and d. b. spalding, "the numerical calculation fo turbulent flows, computational methods applied to mechanics and engineering, vol. 3,269-289, (1974). 13. gordon, s. and b. j. mcbride, "computer program for calculation of complex chemical equilibrium compositions, rocket performance, incident and reflected shocks, and chapman-jonquet detonations," nasa sp-273, (1976), new version (1989). 14. lallemant, n., r. dugue, and r. weber (2003). measurements techniques for studying oxynatural gas ames. journal of the institute of energy 76. 15. yin, c., l. c. r. johansen, l. rosendahl, and s. kr (2010). models for gas radiation properties applicable to cfd modeling of oxy-fuel combustion. paper submitted to the 33r 91 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 organization of transport flow through external routes passing through the city center (using the example of samarkand) xudayberdiyev ab’erqul samarkand state university of architecture and construction, associate professor of technical sciences fayzullayev g`olib zarifovich samarkand state university of architecture and construction, phd candidate abstract in this article, the necessity and mechanisms for organizing the movement of vehicles to the city of samarkand without entering the city center (from 1075+590 km of the m-39 "almaty bishkek tashkent shakhrisabz termez" highway) along external bypass roads (from 0 km of the r-48 highway) were developed. in particular, foreign experience in this area was analyzed, and proposals suitable for the city of samarkand were selected. traffic jams occurring in the city, their causes have been identified, and modern solutions have been developed to prevent them. the necessity of introducing an automated digital control system on the main access roads located within the city limits, directing traffic through bypass roads, and developing a digital monitoring system is scientifically substantiated. keywords: bypass roads, excessive traffic congestion, traffic congestion, urban infrastructure, traffic intensity, intelligent transport systems. introduction the population growth of the 21st century, the increase in the number of vehicles, the expansion of tourism and trade all this has significantly increased the traffic load in large cities. the city of samarkand, which is especially important in tourism and economic terms in uzbekistan, is at the center of this problem. today, international highways passing through samarkand, in particular, the section between 1070-1095 km of the m-39 almaty bishkent tashkent termez highway, in the direction of samarkand, create a large load at the entrance to the city center. as a result, such negative consequences as traffic jams, environmental pollution, and rapid deterioration of road infrastructure are observed. as a solution to these problems, the need to organize a system of bypass roads without entering the city has become a pressing issue. studying the above world experience, the number of vehicles in samarkand, one of the largest cities in our country, is also increasing. this is causing traffic jams, especially in the city center. therefore, scientific research is being conducted on directing the main flow of cars entering the city through external bypass roads, without entering the city center. with the rapid development of cities today, the increase in the number of vehicles in large cities causes traffic jams on the main roads entering the city center. this process has its own peculiarities, especially in the city of samarkand, which is a historical and tourist center. therefore, the effective organization of traffic at city entrances is one of the important issues. 92 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us access roads to the central part of cities are important for traffic, urban infrastructure, and public safety. therefore, the implementation of modern technologies to optimize traffic flow, the development and improvement of road infrastructure, and the traffic flow through the main roads leading to this city are increasing year by year. 1 on the 0-km section of the m-37 highway passing through the city of samarkand, traffic flows to navoi bukhara khorezm and the republic of karakalpakstan. today, large international conferences are being held in the city of samarkand on a global scale, which, in turn, leads to traffic congestion in the city. therefore, in this article, one of the urgent problems is the management of the traffic flow of vehicles moving to navoi bukhara khorezm and the republic of karakalpakstan through external bypass roads (from 0 km of the r-48 highway) on the section of the international highway passing through the city of samarkand (from 1075+590 km of the m-39 "almaty bishkek tashkent shakhrisabz termez" highway). figure 1 design proposal. the proposed design solution describes a certain section of the small ring road of the city of samarkand. directions a and b are shown in two different versions on the map. in option 1, from route a to route b (green line) a continuous traffic flow along the small ring road of the city with a length of 32.0 km, in which more than 30,000 vehicles move in one direction per day. of these, about 10,000 are vehicles entering the city of samarkand, and the remaining 20,000 are vehicles traveling to navoi bukhara khorezm and the republic of karakalpakstan. variant 2 the distance from direction a to direction b (white line settlement), which is short (28.5 km) and connects to the small ring road of the city of samarkand. this direction is 1. 2 1 "yo‘l harakatini boshqarishda intellektual transport tizimlarining roli". toshkent transport universiteti ilmiy jurnali, 2023 y x. h. bobomurodov. 2 "samarqand shahridagi yo‘l harakati tizimini optimallashtirishning zamonaviy yondashuvlari". 93 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us if we distribute the traffic flow in option 1, and direct the traffic flow to navoi bukhara khorezm and the republic of karakalpakstan in the direction of option 2, we will optimize the traffic flow and prevent traffic jams fig. 2. 3 in this figure, option 1, the distance from route a to route b is much longer, and the traffic flow passes through the city. scientific research shows that there are 11 traffic lights in this direction, which leads to unnecessary stops, time losses, a sharp increase in fuel consumption, and an increase in the amount of co2 emitted into the environment by 15-20%. figure 2 shows the appearance of the project proposal. option 2 the distance from direction a to direction b reduces the distance by a more straight path. if we compare the main indicators of both directions in the table below (the average speed is taken as 60 km/h), table 1. table 1 indicator option 1 option 2 distance (km) 32,0 28,5 time spent norm (minutes) 39,0 28,0 fuel consumption (liters) 3,3 2,4 co2 emissions (kg) 7,6 5,6 as can be seen from the table above, the distance of the 1st variant is ~25% shorter than the 2nd variant, which allows saving 11 minutes of time during one trip. also, about 0.9 liters of fuel will be saved per car, which means no more than 2 kg of co2 will be released into the atmosphere. the graph below clearly illustrates these differences: 3 "yo‘l harakatini boshqarishda intellektual transport tizimlarining roli".toshkent transport universiteti ilmiy jurnali, 2023 y x. h. bobomurodov. 94 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us from this it can be seen that due to the shortening of the distance in direction b, the travel time is reduced by almost 11 minutes, and fuel consumption is reduced by ~0.9 liters. this shows savings of about 25% of expenses per trip. 4 graph 1 comparison of travel time (upper graph) and fuel consumption (lower graph) by routes in options 1 and 2. for example, if 100,000 vehicles save 10 minutes of time and 0.9 liters of fuel each per day, then on a societal scale, 16.6 thousand hours of time and 90,000 liters of fuel per day will be saved (about 180 tons of co2 emissions will be reduced). this gives a very large economic effect. 5 this increases the economic efficiency of transport flow and is evaluated as follows. ➢ traffic congestion will be reduced by up to 40%. ➢ the norm of time spent is reduced by up to 25%. ➢ fuel consumption decreases by 10%. ➢ emission of exhaust gases into the environment is reduced by 22%. list of references 1. o‘zbekiston respublikasida transport va yo‘l harakati xavfsizligini ta’minlash bo‘yicha konferensiya materiallari 2022 y. s. x. raxmonov, b. o. sobirov. 2. "samarqand shahridagi yo‘l harakati tizimini optimallashtirishning zamonaviy yondashuvlari". 3. "samarqand shahrida yo‘l harakatini boshqarishning innovatsion texnologiyalari". samarqand davlat universiteti ilmiy asarlari, 2022 y. 4. "yo‘l harakatini boshqarishda intellektual transport tizimlarining roli". toshkent transport universiteti ilmiy jurnali, 2023 y x. h. bobomurodov. 5. sobriev r. a., usmonov f. m. (2020). shahar transport tizimlarini boshqarish asoslari. – toshkent: ttu nashriyoti. 4 sobriev r. a., usmonov f. m. (2020). shahar transport tizimlarini boshqarish asoslari. – toshkent: ttu nashriyoti. 5 http://top.rbc.ru/society/29/10/2010/490092.shtml. 0 10 20 30 40 masofa (km) sarflangan vaqti meyori (daqiqa) yoqilg‘i sarfi (litr) co2 chiqindisi (kg) 1 2 3 4 1-variant 32 39 3.3 7.6 2-variant 28.5 28 2.4 5.6 b ir lig i comparative graph 95 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. ahmedov sh. b. (2021). transport infratuzilmasini rejalashtirishda gis texnologiyalarining o‘rni. – toshkent: oliy ta’lim nashriyoti. 7. https://yandex.uz/maps/10335/tashkent/?ll=69.279737%2c41.311151&z=12 8. http://top.rbc.ru/society/29/10/2010/490092.shtml. 151 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 10, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 theoretical foundations of forming green spaces and eco-cities in urban areas muqaddas zabikhullayevna karimova leading specialist, department of public services, main department of construction of tashkent city s. qodirova, s. masharipova scientific supervisors abstract: this article examines the theoretical foundations of forming green spaces and ecocities within modern urban environments. the research highlights the importance of integrating ecological balance, technological innovation, and sustainable planning to ensure harmony between humans and nature. it discusses the essential principles of eco-city development, including sustainable land use, renewable energy systems, waste recycling, and public participation. furthermore, the study analyzes the ecological, aesthetic, and social roles of green spaces in improving urban life quality. special attention is given to the concept of green infrastructure and its role in mitigating climate change, enhancing biodiversity, and promoting public health. the article concludes that forming green spaces and eco-cities is a key step toward achieving long-term urban sustainability and environmental resilience. keywords: eco-city, green space, sustainable development, urban ecology, environmental planning, green infrastructure, climate resilience, smart city. introduction in the twenty-first century, humanity faces a complex set of challenges related to rapid urbanization, climate change, environmental degradation, and population growth. according to the united nations, by 2050 nearly 70% of the global population will live in urban areas. this process, while driving economic development and technological progress, also intensifies ecological pressure on natural resources, air quality, and biodiversity. as a result, the need for sustainable urban planning that harmonizes human activities with natural ecosystems has become one of the most urgent priorities of modern civilization. the concept of eco-cities and the formation of green urban spaces have emerged as essential strategies in achieving sustainable development goals. eco-cities are designed to minimize environmental impact, optimize resource consumption, and provide a high quality of life through green infrastructure, renewable energy systems, and community engagement. green spaces — including parks, botanical gardens, tree-lined streets, and ecological corridors — serve as vital components of urban ecosystems, contributing to environmental balance, social well-being, and climate regulation. in this context, the theoretical study of eco-city formation and green urban design plays a fundamental role in defining the principles, models, and mechanisms that guide urban sustainability. the development of such theories is not limited to environmental protection; it 152 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us extends to the integration of economic efficiency, technological innovation, and social inclusiveness. cities like singapore, copenhagen, and vancouver demonstrate how ecological and technological strategies can coexist to create resilient and livable urban environments. moreover, the creation of green spaces in cities contributes to achieving multiple sustainable development goals (sdgs), such as goal 11 — sustainable cities and communities, goal 13 — climate action, and goal 15 — life on land. these initiatives emphasize the necessity of rethinking urban ecosystems as living, self-regulating systems that sustain human health, biodiversity, and environmental harmony. therefore, this study aims to explore the theoretical foundations of forming green spaces and eco-cities in urban areas. it analyzes the historical development of eco-city concepts, identifies the core principles of green urban planning, and investigates how green infrastructure contributes to climate resilience and ecological stability. by linking environmental science with urban planning theories, the research provides a comprehensive understanding of how cities can transform into sustainable, adaptive, and nature-oriented habitats for future generations. main part the term eco-city refers to an urban settlement that functions in harmony with natural ecosystems, maintaining balance between economic growth, social well-being, and environmental protection. the eco-city model is based on the principle of sustainable coexistence, where urban design, infrastructure, and human behavior are organized to minimize environmental impact. the theoretical framework for eco-city development was first introduced by richard register in his work “ecocity berkeley” (1987), emphasizing cities as “organisms” that must coexist with nature rather than exploit it. later, the concept evolved with the inclusion of energy efficiency, waste management, and social participation as core components. key principles of eco-city formation include: ➢ sustainable land use — ensuring balanced urban expansion while preserving natural habitats and agricultural lands; ➢ efficient resource management — reducing consumption of non-renewable resources and maximizing energy efficiency; ➢ waste minimization and recycling — implementing circular economy models to convert waste into valuable resources; ➢ public participation — involving citizens in environmental decision-making to foster ecological responsibility; ➢ integration of renewable energy systems — solar, wind, and bioenergy technologies supporting carbon neutrality. from a theoretical perspective, eco-city principles draw upon systems theory, where the city is viewed as a dynamic, interconnected system whose sustainability depends on the equilibrium among its social, economic, and ecological subsystems. green spaces are the ecological backbone of cities. they perform vital environmental, social, and psychological functions that make urban life sustainable. from an ecological standpoint, green spaces contribute to biodiversity preservation, air purification, and microclimate regulation. urban vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide, produces oxygen, filters harmful particles, and mitigates the “urban heat island” effect caused by excessive concrete and asphalt surfaces. furthermore, green spaces play a significant social and psychological role. they provide recreational areas that promote community interaction, physical activity, and mental relaxation. numerous studies have shown that residents living near parks or green zones experience lower stress levels, improved cognitive function, and higher life satisfaction. 153 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in addition, urban green infrastructure serves hydrological functions, such as absorbing stormwater, preventing soil erosion, and reducing flood risks. this integrated ecological service makes green spaces essential for climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction in cities. therefore, green areas are not mere decorations but active components of urban metabolism, essential for maintaining environmental stability and human well-being. over the past century, several theoretical models have shaped the evolution of sustainable urban planning. each model offers a distinct vision of how cities can coexist with nature while supporting social and economic growth. ➢ the garden city model (e. howard, 1898): this pioneering model proposed the creation of compact, self-sufficient towns surrounded by green belts. it emphasized decentralization, mixed land use, and the integration of agriculture within urban boundaries. ➢ the compact city model: emerging in the late 20th century, this model advocates for highdensity, mixed-use development to limit land consumption and preserve surrounding natural landscapes. ➢ the smart city–eco-city hybrid model: a contemporary approach that integrates digital technology with ecological design. smart sensors, data analytics, and renewable energy systems enhance resource efficiency and reduce environmental footprints. from a theoretical viewpoint, these models converge on the principle of urban resilience — the capacity of a city to adapt, recover, and thrive amidst environmental, social, and economic challenges. recent research in urban ecology also highlights the biophilic city approach (t. beatley, 2011), which focuses on restoring human connection with nature through architecture, public spaces, and education. this model asserts that people’s exposure to natural environments enhances not only ecological awareness but also creativity and emotional well-being. green infrastructure represents a strategic network of natural and semi-natural elements within and around urban areas. unlike traditional “grey” infrastructure, which is based on artificial materials and energy-intensive systems, green infrastructure works with nature’s processes to provide ecosystem services. components of green infrastructure include: ➢ urban forests and tree corridors; ➢ green roofs and vertical gardens; ➢ riverbanks and wetland restoration zones; ➢ ecological corridors linking fragmented habitats; ➢ urban agriculture and community gardens. theoretical studies emphasize that green infrastructure enhances ecological connectivity, allowing species to migrate and ecosystems to regenerate. it also supports climate regulation by reducing surface temperatures, improving air humidity, and absorbing greenhouse gases. from a socio-economic standpoint, green infrastructure increases property values, reduces healthcare costs, and strengthens community engagement through collective environmental initiatives. cities like singapore, copenhagen, and melbourne are global examples of successfully implementing green infrastructure strategies. singapore’s “city in a garden” initiative integrates greenery into every aspect of urban design, while copenhagen’s urban greening plan supports its goal of becoming carbon-neutral by 2030. 154 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us for eco-cities to thrive, theoretical understanding must be translated into practical governance. this requires coherent urban environmental policies and cross-sectoral collaboration among government institutions, private investors, and civil society. effective policy implementation includes: ➢ developing legal frameworks that mandate green building standards and renewable energy integration; ➢ encouraging public-private partnerships for sustainable infrastructure projects; ➢ integrating environmental education into urban development programs; ➢ using spatial planning tools and gis technologies to monitor ecological performance. at the theoretical level, this approach aligns with sustainability transition theory, which emphasizes the gradual transformation of socio-technical systems toward low-carbon and resource-efficient patterns. ultimately, the success of eco-city development depends on the extent to which theory informs practice — that is, how effectively urban planners, architects, and policymakers internalize ecological principles in their decisions. conclusion in conclusion, the theoretical foundations of forming green spaces and eco-cities highlight the necessity of integrating environmental, social, and technological dimensions within urban development. as urbanization continues to accelerate globally, traditional city models that rely heavily on resource consumption and industrial expansion have become unsustainable. the ecocity concept emerges as a scientific and philosophical response to these challenges, offering a framework for cities to coexist harmoniously with nature while ensuring human well-being and economic stability. the research shows that green spaces are not merely aesthetic additions to urban landscapes; they are essential ecological systems that maintain environmental balance, regulate microclimates, and support biodiversity. they also play a critical role in improving citizens’ physical and mental health, enhancing social cohesion, and fostering ecological responsibility. thus, the planning and expansion of green infrastructure should be considered an investment in the long-term sustainability and resilience of urban areas. moreover, the formation of eco-cities demands a shift in both theoretical understanding and practical implementation. it requires cities to adopt integrated planning that combines renewable energy, sustainable mobility, waste recycling, and community engagement. governments and policymakers must develop strong institutional frameworks that support green innovations and promote public participation in environmental management. only by aligning ecological theory with effective policy and community action can we transform urban spaces into self-regulating, adaptive, and life-supporting ecosystems. ultimately, the eco-city vision is not a distant utopia but a tangible strategy for the future — one that redefines human progress in terms of harmony with nature. it represents a commitment to creating urban environments that sustain both the planet and the people who inhabit it. the theoretical principles explored in this study lay the foundation for building such a future — one in which every city becomes a living organism that breathes, grows, and evolves in balance with the natural world. references 1. beatley, t. (2011). biophilic cities: integrating nature into urban design and planning. washington, dc: island press. 2. howard, e. (1898). garden cities of to-morrow. london: faber and faber. 155 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. newman, p., & kenworthy, j. (2015). the end of automobile dependence: how cities are moving beyond car-based planning. washington, dc: island press. 4. register, r. (1987). ecocity berkeley: building cities for a healthy future. berkeley, ca: north atlantic books. 5. united nations. (2020). world urbanization prospects: the 2020 revision. new york: united nations department of economic and social affairs. 6. wolch, j. r., byrne, j., & newell, j. p. (2014). urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: the challenge of making cities ‘just green enough’. landscape and urban planning, 125(1), 234–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.017 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 10, 2024 issn (e): 2993-2637 evaluation of existing materials used in wind turbine blade construction: assessing their structural characteristics, sustainability and performance uchechukwu richard olisedeme, oluchukwu richmond olisedeme department of mechanical engineering, glasgow caledonian university, united kingdom abstract: the study investigated the existing materials used in wind turbine blade construction: assessing their structural characteristics, sustainability and performance. the study employed finite element analysis (fea) to assess various materials' performance, considering factors such as deformation, stress, and safety. materials examined include aluminum 2024-t4, carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (crfp), glass fiber-reinforced polymer (grfp), bamboo, aramid fiber, pine, and glulam. the analysis covered a range of angular velocities to simulate realworld conditions. results indicated that material choice significantly impacts blade performance. the study acknowledges limitations such as simplified environmental conditions, limited consideration of moisture effects, and the absence of fatigue and thermal studies. recommendations include future research in computational fluid dynamics (cfd) analysis, geographical-specific designs, and advanced materials research. finally, this work underscores the importance of sustainable material choices in wind turbine blade design. the findings offer valuable insights for engineers, researchers, and policymakers seeking to advance wind energy technology with environmental responsibility at its core. in conclusion wind energy is a pivotal player in the global transition towards sustainable power generation. wind turbines, specifically their blades, constitute the driving force behind this transformation. the selection of materials for these blades is a crucial endeavor, entailing a delicate balance between sustainability, performance, and cost-effectiveness. in this pursuit, sustainability is a lodestar guiding the way. one of the recommendations made was that tailoring material choices to specific wind energy projects is essential. keywords: existing materials, wind turbine blade construction, structural characteristics, sustainability and performance. introduction the study of wind turbines and the aerodynamics governing their operation forms the bedrock of our pursuit for sustainable and efficient energy production. the promise of wind energy, with its potential to significantly offset our reliance on fossil fuels, makes the exploration of this domain a subject of critical interest. among the various components of wind turbines, the design, structure, and material of the blades significantly influence the overall efficiency and energy output of the turbines. as such, this literature review will delve into the critical aspects of wind turbine blades to establish a well-rounded understanding of this crucial domain. materials utilized in wind turbine blade design have evolved over time, from traditional materials like wood and steel to advanced composite materials. this evolution reflects a continued effort to improve the strength-to-weight ratio of the blades, optimize their 107 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us aerodynamics, and enhance their resistance to environmental factors (sutherland et al., 2013). therefore, understanding the characteristics of these materials, their pros and cons, and their impact on the blade performance under different environmental conditions will be a significant aspect of this literature review. these composite materials, particularly carbon fiber and fiberglass, offer advantages like high strength-to-weight ratios, improved fatigue resistance, and adaptability to different designs and sizes. furthermore, the material choice for these blades significantly influences their resilience and efficiency in energy conversion (veers et al., 2004). hence, a careful analysis and selection of blade material can greatly enhance the turbine's performance and longevity, contributing to the broader goal of sustainable energy production. however, the decision to select an ideal material for turbine blades is complex and multifaceted. multiple factors such as weight, strength, durability, cost, and environmental impact need to be weighed (paquette et al., 2007). this material complexity of wind turbine blades necessitates advanced modeling techniques capable of accurately predicting their behavior under varying loading conditions. finite element analysis (fea) has emerged as a crucial tool in this respect. fea is a numerical method that enables the analysis of complex structures under different loading conditions by breaking them down into smaller, simpler elements. this method allows for accurate predictions of stress distribution, deformation, and potential failure modes, thereby facilitating the design and material optimization of wind turbine blades (mishnaevsky et al., 2017). fea enables engineers to model the structural response of wind turbine blades to the multitude of forces they are subjected to, identifying potential weak points and enabling proactive, predictive maintenance (masters et al., 2015).by applying fea, engineers can simulate the behavior of different materials under expected load conditions, leading to an optimized choice for enhanced performance and durability. however, despite its significant potential, the application of fea in wind turbine blade analysis and design is still underexplored. while some studies have used fea to analyze specific aspects of wind turbine blade design, other various studies have focused on individual aspects such as load analysis, fatigue life, or material selection, a holistic, finite element analysis (fea)-based study that integrates all these aspects is notably lacking (song et al., 2022; chen et al., 2019). this study, therefore, seeks to address this gap in the literature by conducting a comprehensive fea-based structural analysis of wind turbine blades to identify an optimal material that maximizes performance, durability, and efficiency. the implementation of fea allows for a detailed examination of the behavior of materials under different load conditions, providing valuable insights into the mechanical properties and performance of the materials used for turbine blades (mishnaevskyjr et al., 2007). by considering multiple performance parameters and environmental factors, this study strives to generate data-driven insights that may enhance the efficiency of wind turbines, advancing the global sustainability agenda. moreover, this research's relevance extends beyond technological and economic factors. as the world strives for a sustainable future, the environmental footprint of materials used in energy infrastructure becomes significant. the choice of materials for wind turbine blades can impact the overall lifecycle environmental impact of wind turbines, and therefore, contributes to the broader picture of environmental sustainability (martinez-luengo et al., 2016). by incorporating this dimension, the research presented here aligns itself with a holistic understanding of sustainability. as our world continues to grapple with the impacts of climate change and energy scarcity, the importance of optimizing wind energy production has never been more pressing. consequently, the body of research dedicated to fea-based analysis of wind turbine blades and their potential contributions to sustainable energy production must be thoroughly understood and critically evaluated. it is this compelling demand that undergirds the need for the present literature review and the subsequent study. 108 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us statement of problem wind turbine blades, crucial for efficient energy production, are exposed to various structural loads and environmental conditions. this exposure can lead to fatigue damage, influencing the performance and lifespan of these blades. the choice of blade material plays a pivotal role in managing these challenges. however, despite significant research in this area, a comprehensive fea-based study integrating load analysis, fatigue life, and material selection is noticeably absent. research objective to achieve this aim, the study will pursue the following objectives: 1. structural load assessment: analyze the different types of structural loads (gravitational, aerodynamic, operating) that wind turbine blades encounter under various operational and environmental conditions. research question 1. the research question guiding this study is: "what is the ideal material for wind turbine blades that optimizes performance, durability, and efficiency under various structural loads and environmental conditions, while adhering to the bs en 61400 uk standard?" conceptual review concept of wind turbine the utilization of wind as an energy resource can be traced back thousands of years, reflecting humanity's historical relationship with this naturally occurring power source. ancient civilizations, including the persians in the 7th century ad, employed simple windmills for tasks such as grain grinding and water pumping (ahmed, 2010). windmills in medieval europe, with designs adapted to the local conditions and needs, further highlight the adaptability and utility of wind energy (langdon, 2004). figure 1: modern wind turbine source: https://www.audubon.org/magazine/spring-2022/offeast-coast-massive-network-wind-turbines. the transition from traditional windmills to modern wind turbines occurred in the late 19th to early 20th century. pioneers like poul la cour in denmark transformed windmills to generate electricity, setting a foundation for modern wind turbine design (petersen et al., 2012). as the 20th century progressed, the need for alternative energy sources, coupled with advancements in aerodynamic theories and computational tools, catalyzed rapid innovations in wind turbine designs. https://www.audubon.org/magazine/spring-2022/off-east-coast-massive-network-wind-turbines https://www.audubon.org/magazine/spring-2022/off-east-coast-massive-network-wind-turbines 109 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the science of aerodynamics is fundamental to the efficacy of wind turbines. simply put, aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and how it interacts with solid bodies – in this case, turbine blades (batchelor, 1967). as wind flows over the blades, the aerodynamic forces of lift, responsible for turning the blades, and drag, which opposes this motion, are generated. understanding and optimizing these forces is vital to maximizing the efficiency of wind turbines. the lift-to-drag ratio, for instance, is an important parameter that defines the effectiveness of blade design in capturing wind energy (anderson, 2010). over the decades, wind turbine designs have undergone significant refinements, driven by advancements in aerodynamics and materials science. today's turbines are highly efficient machines, benefiting from decades of research and aerodynamic optimization. however, there remains an ever-present need to push the boundaries of design and materials, to meet the growing energy demands sustainably. types of wind turbine blades the design of wind turbine blades is crucial, determining efficiency, power generation, and turbine lifespan. broadly, turbine blades can be categorized based on their material composition, structural design, and aerodynamic profiles. material-based classification: i. composite blades: these are the most common type used in modern turbines, often made from a combination of fiberglass and reinforced polymers. they offer a superior strength-toweight ratio and durability (sutherland et al., 2013). ii. wood and wood laminates: historically, many blades were crafted from wood due to its abundance and flexibility. today, some designs use laminated wood for its sustainability and cost-effectiveness (breton & moe, 2009). iii. fiberglass blades: these are the most common type of blades used in modern wind turbines. fiberglass offers an excellent balance between weight and strength, allowing for efficient energy capture (sutherland et al., 2013). iv. carbon-fiber blades: lighter and stronger than fiberglass, carbon-fiber blades enable the construction of longer blades that can capture more wind energy (griffith &ashwill, 2011). structural design: i. solid blades: these are non-hollow and are typically used in smaller turbines. ii. shell blades: made from two shell parts glued together, these hollow blades are lighter and are used in larger turbines (burton et al., 2011). aerodynamic profiles: i. straight blade: found mostly in vawts, they run straight along their length. ii. tapered and twisted blade: these blades, common in hawts, are aerodynamically optimized to extract more energy from wind, considering the change in wind speed along the blade length (schubel&crossley, 2012). continuous research in blade design aims to maximize efficiency, reduce noise, and enhance durability, making it a critical area in wind energy technology. materials used in blade design wind turbine blades are paramount components, directly influencing the efficiency and longevity of the turbine. the choice of material for these blades is a critical decision, influenced by various factors such as longevity, cost, durability, efficiency, and more. this literature review delves into various materials that have been employed in blade design, their attributes, and potential gaps in existing knowledge. 110 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us glass fibre reinforced polymer (gfrp) in wind turbine blades glass fibre reinforced polymer (gfrp), often referred to simply as fiberglass, has become a predominant choice for wind turbine blade fabrication. its ubiquity in the industry can be attributed to several intrinsic properties. gfrp is a composite material made by embedding glass fibres in a polymer matrix. this integration offers an impressive strength-to-weight ratio, a property vital for the dynamic loading conditions faced by wind turbines (liu et al., 2012). one of the hallmark features of gfrp is its remarkable fatigue resistance, making it apt for long-term exposure to repetitive wind loads. moreover, it possesses good durability against environmental factors, ensuring reduced maintenance needs for blades in diverse climatic zones (mishnaevskyjr et al., 2017). cost-effectiveness is another compelling argument for gfrp’s popularity. while providing good mechanical strength, gfrp remains less expensive than materials like carbon fibre reinforced polymer (cfrp), making it a suitable choice for a wide spectrum of turbine sizes (zhou et al., 2016). however, as with every material, gfrp isn’t without its limitations. the weight can become a constraining factor when designing larger blades, prompting manufacturers to seek hybrid solutions or alternative materials. carbon fibre reinforced polymer (cfrp) in wind turbine blades carbon fibre reinforced polymer (cfrp) represents the next frontier in wind turbine blade materials. boasting a strength-to-weight ratio superior to that of gfrp, cfrp is increasingly utilized, especially in large-scale turbine blades where material weight becomes critically influential the carbon fibres confer incredible tensile strength, enabling the design of longer blades with improved aerodynamic efficiency. furthermore, the material's enhanced stiffness helps in reducing blade deflections, thus minimizing tower strikes in high wind conditions (petersen et al., 2015). however, these benefits come at a price; cfrp is significantly costlier than gfrp. its application is typically justified only where the performance gains outweigh the increased material costs. while promising, widespread adoption of cfrp demands cost-effective manufacturing techniques and lifecycle considerations (schubel&crossley, 2012). metals and alloys (steel and aluminium) in wind turbine blades steel and aluminium are metals that have been historically essential in wind energy technology. steel, with its excellent strength and fatigue properties, has been extensively used in the wind turbine towers and foundations (tavner, 2012). however, its application in the blades is less common, mainly because of its weight. the significant mass of steel is a critical drawback in blade design as it increases the load on the turbine structure and reduces the overall efficiency (mishnaevskyjr et al., 2017). aluminium, on the other hand, has a better strength-to-weight ratio than steel, making it more favourable for certain components of the blade, such as the spar cap or the internal structure (manwell et al., 2010). yet, its application is still limited due to its relatively high cost and susceptibility to fatigue, a significant concern for wind turbine blades constantly under cyclic loads. bio-based materials (flax and jute) in wind turbine blades bio-based materials like flax and jute represent a recent, eco-friendly innovation in wind turbine blade design. flax and jute fibres are increasingly being considered as alternatives to glass and carbon fibres due to their comparable mechanical properties, lower density, and lower environmental impact (shah, 2013). for instance, flax fibres exhibit a tensile strength close to that of glass fibres, and yet, they are 30% lighter (le duigou et al., 2014). another key advantage of flax and jute fibres is their positive environmental profile. they are biodegradable, renewable, and require less energy to produce compared to glass and carbon 111 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fibres (charlet et al., 2017). however, their hydrophilic nature presents challenges, like moisture absorption, that can lead to a decrease in mechanical properties over time. additionally, the lower stiffness compared to carbon fibres limits their application in larger blades. thus, while promising, flax and jute fibres are currently more suitable for small to medium-sized blades. hybrid combination of glass and carbon fibre in wind turbine blades the hybrid combination of glass and carbon fibres offers a compelling solution for wind turbine blade design. glass fibres provide cost-effectiveness and resistance to corrosion, while carbon fibres contribute to higher strength, stiffness, and fatigue resistance (koutroulis et al., 2019). this combination, therefore, presents an ideal compromise between cost, weight, and mechanical performance, key factors in blade design (hayman et al., 2018). pros of using a hybrid combination include its higher fatigue resistance compared to using glass fibres alone, thereby increasing blade longevity (zhang et al., 2017). it also allows for a reduction in blade weight compared to using entirely glass fibres, thereby increasing the efficiency of energy conversion. cons, however, include higher costs compared to using glass fibres alone due to the inclusion of carbon fibres. additionally, the combination of two different materials may lead to challenges in recycling (molent et al., 2020). the extensive literature review reveals a consistent trend towards adopting hybrid materials in recent blade designs, underlining the advantages of combining the properties of glass and carbon fibres to meet the demanding requirements of modern wind turbines. wood epoxy and bamboo in wind turbine blades wood epoxy and bamboo are emerging as innovative materials for wind turbine blade design. these bio-based materials are drawing attention due to their renewability, low cost, and relatively low environmental impact (khan &savi, 2020). wood epoxy composites, composed of wood fibres embedded in an epoxy matrix, are not only renewable but exhibit good mechanical properties, including high strength and stiffness, which are crucial for wind turbine blade performance (li et al., 2019; john &anandjiwala, 2008). similarly, bamboo, a natural composite with a high strength-to-weight ratio, offers good structural properties and resistance to fatigue loads (lopez et al., 2017). the use of wood epoxy and bamboo presents several advantages. they are low cost and have a lower environmental impact compared to conventional materials like glass and carbon fibres (breton & moe, 2009). furthermore, they are readily available and can be sourced sustainably. however, there are also limitations. these materials have a higher density compared to conventional composites, which could lead to heavier blades. additionally, the variability in natural materials may lead to inconsistencies in material properties (kusiak&zastrozny, 2019; john &anandjiwala, 2008). despite these limitations, the extensive literature review and in-depth understanding of the current state of research suggest that wood epoxy and bamboo could offer a viable and sustainable alternative for wind turbine blade design, warranting further investigation in this dissertation work. methodology the research approach adopted for this study is a combination of a comprehensive literature review and a rigorous computational analysis using finite element analysis (fea).finite element analysis (fea) is a computer-aided engineering (cae) tool employed to simulate the physical behavior of structures and materials.this tool allows for detailed analysis under a multitude of conditions, including various types of loading and environmental stresses.the first step in the fea-based structural analysis is to develop a model of the wind turbine blade.structural loads on wind turbine blades primarily consist of gravitational, aerodynamic, and centrifugal forces.environmental conditions play a pivotal role in the performance and 112 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us durability of wind turbine blades.the analysis procedure will be an iterative process that employs finite element analysis (fea) methods for structural evaluation.the chosen approach, involving finite element analysis (fea), is justified due to its proven effectiveness in predicting the structural response of complex structures such as wind turbine blades under varying loading conditionswhile the finite element analysis (fea) approach is a powerful tool for modeling and analyzing the structural behavior of wind turbine blades, it comes with some limitations.to minimize these limitation, the model will be validated against experimental data, and a sensitivity analysis will be performed to assess the impact of the different parameters on the results. analysis and data turbine blade design parameters blade length one common approach to determine the blade length is to use the power formula for wind turbines, which relates the power output (p) to the wind speed (v), the density of air (ρ), and the swept area (a) of the rotor. the formula is as follows: 𝑃 = 0.5 × 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉3 × 𝐶𝑝eqn (27) where:  p is the power output of the wind turbine.  ρ is the air density.  a is the swept area of the rotor.  v is the wind speed. the swept area (a) is determined by the rotor diameter (d), which is twice the radius of the rotor (r): 𝐴 = 𝜋 × 𝑅2eqn (28) or 𝐴 = 𝜋×𝐷2 4 eqn (29) 𝐷 = 2𝑅eqn (30) to find the blade length (l), you can use the following formula: 𝐿 = 𝐷 2 = 2𝑅 2 = 𝑅eqn (31) therefore, incorporating eqn (28) into eqn (27) 𝑃 = 0.5 × 𝜌 × 𝜋 × 𝑅2 × 𝑉3 × 𝐶𝑝eqn (32) making r subject of formula from eqn (32) 𝑅 = 𝐿 = √ 𝑃 0.5×𝜌×𝜋×𝑉3×𝐶𝑝 eqn (33) so, by specifying the desired power output of 4mw, the average wind speed 11.5m/s which was adopted from bsi (2019), and the air density 1.225kg/m3, the required blade length was calculated using eqn (33) above. angle of attack 𝛼 = 9.5°eqn (35) the angle of attack for eqn (35) was adopted from the airfoil data base for the nrel airfoil that was chosen for this project work. 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the formula for calculating the lift (l) and drag (d) forces on a wind turbine blade, which are dependent on the angle of attack, can be expressed as follows: 𝐿 = 0.5 × 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝐶𝑙 × 𝑉2eqn (36) 𝐷 = 0.5 × 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑉2eqn (37) where:  𝐶𝑙is the coefficient of lift.  𝐶𝑑 is the coefficient of drag.  ρ is the air density.  a is the reference area (typically the blade's cross-sectional area).  v is the wind speed. the angle of attack (α) directly influences the coefficients of lift and drag (𝐶𝑙 and 𝐶𝑑). to optimize the blade's aerodynamic efficiency, engineers adjust the pitch angle to control the angle of attack under varying wind conditions (manwell et al., 2009). airfoil shape the selection of the airfoil shape for wind turbine blades stands as a pivotal design decision with far-reaching implications for aerodynamic performance and overall operational efficiency of the turbine. within the context of this study, the meticulous process of airfoil selection unfolded, as thoroughly expounded upon in chapter 2. the selection methodology encompassed a comprehensive appraisal of multiple airfoil candidates, underpinned by an exhaustive analysis of key parameters encompassing lift-to-drag ratios, structural integrity, manufacturability, and noise characteristics. among the diverse array of airfoils scrutinized, the nrel airfoil emerged as the preeminent choice, fortified by several compelling rationales. foremost, it exhibited a highly favorable liftto-drag ratio, emblematic of its prowess in harnessing wind energy with optimal efficiency. moreover, its structural robustness conferred the requisite fortitude to withstand the formidable mechanical stresses and dynamic loads encountered during operational service. additionally, its inherent manufacturability translated into practicality and feasibility in terms of mass production. figure 2: the nrel's s815 airfoil. 114 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3: the nrel's s825 airfoil. figure 4: the nrel's s826 airfoil. significantly, the selection of the nrel airfoil also took into judicious consideration noise characteristics. recognizing the potential concern of wind turbine noise, particularly in the context of wind farm installations, the nrel airfoil's design exhibited characteristics conducive to mitigating noise generation. it is imperative to underscore that the meticulous selection process extended beyond the airfoil choice alone. parameters integral to the overall blade design, including blade length, chord length, twist angle, and thickness distribution, were meticulously scrutinized. these parameters were meticulously tailored to strike an equilibrium between aerodynamic efficiency and structural resilience. moreover, the design protocol adhered rigorously to the stringent guidelines stipulated in the bs en 61400 uk standard (bsi, 2011), ensuring the blade's conformance with essential safety, reliability, and performance standards. this all-encompassing approach to airfoil selection and concurrent design parameters assumes paramount significance in the development of a wind turbine blade that attains peak efficiency in the conversion of wind energy into electrical power. this design, exemplified by the national renewable energy laboratory (nrel) 4mw blade, has been meticulously conceived as a reference point for offshore system development, particularly in regions of the united kingdom, including scotland. it is vital to delineate that while the nrel 4mw blade serves as a foundational reference, the geometric definition of the blade is primarily tailored to facilitate basic aerodynamic analysis. it does not encapsulate the level of detail requisite for the construction of a comprehensive threedimensional real-world model. for the purposes of this analysis, one of the three blades constituting a horizontal axis wind turbine (hawt) was modeled in solid geometry. the structural attributes of the blade are provided, albeit in the absence of complete composite or material layup specifics. furthermore, the design incorporates a more intricate geometric definition, amenable to the generation of high-fidelity surface geometries. 115 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1: properties of each airfoil cross-section along the blade length (50m). blade span (m) airfoil te type chord length (m) pitch (degree) angle of attack (degree) flow angle (degree) 0 round round 2.8 0 0 0 8 round round 2.4 0 0 0 12.5 nrel s815 flat 5.074 1.1 9.5 10.6 13 nrel s815 flat 5.074 1.1 9.5 10.6 21.5 nrel s825 flat 3.068 3 9.5 12.5 32 nrel s825 flat 2.061 1.05 9.5 8.45 39 nrel s825 flat 1.691 -2.54 9.5 6.96 48 nrel s826 flat 1.374 -3.83 9.5 5.67 48.5 nrel s826 shaped 1.319 -4.06 9.5 5.44 50 nrel s826 shaped 0.29925 -4.06 9.5 5.44 the salient properties of each airfoil cross-section defining the nrel 4mw blade are meticulously cataloged in table 1, encompassing details essential for establishing a foundational aerodynamic profile. this comprehensive data encompasses airfoil types, twist angles, and pitch axis locations, collectively contributing to the blade's aerodynamic performance characterization. conclusion in conclusion wind energy is a pivotal player in the global transition towards sustainable power generation. wind turbines, specifically their blades, constitute the driving force behind this transformation. the selection of materials for these blades is a crucial endeavor, entailing a delicate balance between sustainability, performance, and cost-effectiveness. in this pursuit, sustainability is a lodestar guiding the way. it encompasses a multifaceted approach aimed at minimizing the environmental footprint while optimizing resource use. the ultimate goal is to create wind turbine blades that are not just effective energy harvesters but also eco-friendly, responsible, and economically viable. recommendations 1. material tailoring: tailoring material choices to specific wind energy projects is essential. for large-scale, offshore installations, carbon fiber reinforced polymer (cfrp) remains a robust choice, emphasizing performance and longevity. conversely, for small onshore turbines in regions with cost and sustainability as primary concerns, pine and bamboo exhibit substantial promise.lifecycle sustainability: adopt a holistic approach to sustainability, encompassing material selection, production, usage, recycling, and disposal. embrace recycling, repurposing, and eco-friendly disposal practices to minimize waste and environmental impact. references 1. ahmed, s. (2010). the history of harnessing wind energy: from ancient windmills to modern wind turbines. environmental sciences journal, 12(2), 50-65. 2. anderson, j. d. (2010). fundamentals of aerodynamics (5th ed.). mcgraw-hill. 3. batchelor, g. k. (1967). an introduction to fluid dynamics. cambridge university press. 4. breton, s. p., & moe, g. (2009). status, plans and technologies for offshore wind turbines in europe and north america. renewable energy, 34(3), 646-654. 5. charlet, k., baley, c., morvan, c., jernot, j. p., gomina, m., bréard, j., ...& marais, s. (2017). characteristics of hermès flax fibres as a function of their location in the stem and properties of the derived unidirectional composites. composites part a: applied science and manufacturing, 98, 224-232. 116 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. griffith, d. t., &ashwill, t. d. 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(2015). stiffness predictions for the full cross-sections of wind turbine blades. wind energy, 19(1), 65-81. 23. schubel, p. j., &crossley, r. j. (2012). wind turbine blade design. energies, 5(9), 34253449. 117 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 24. shah, d. u. (2013). developing plant fibre composites for structural applications by optimising composite parameters: a critical review. journal of materials science, 48(18), 6083-6107. 25. smith, c. a. (2013). the science of renewable energy. elsevier science. 26. sutherland, h. j., mandell, j. f., & veers, p. (2013). the role of materials in the wind energy industry. mrs energy & sustainability, 1, e3. 27. tavner, p. (2012). wind turbine engineering. routledge. 28. veers, p., ashwill, t., sutherland, h., laird, d., lobitz, d., griffin, d., &mandell, j. 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(2016). design and analysis of wind turbine blade sections. procedia engineering, 174, 923-930. 88 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 landscape design – an important factor in creating aesthetic space karimova dilnoza erkinovna samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering, teacher of the department of landscape design abstract: this article examines the basic principles of creating beauty from the plant world. it also examines, from the point of view of an art historian, the methods of creating works of art from ornamental plants, and the role of future specialists landscape designers in creating gardens and parks. keywords: ornamental plants, landscape design, art, gardens, parks. introduction humans were created to seek knowledge. the purpose of seeking knowledge is to study existence. in every era, people have sought to understand the world around them, to study existing knowledge and to discover new ones. this desire has encouraged people to constantly develop, make new inventions and change the world. in this article, an attempt has been made to reflect the world through works of art, namely, works of art made from plants. the main part it is not necessary to confirm that the creation of parks is an art, because through it we multiply the beauty of nature. but many believe that nature itself is beautiful, that art is brought to parks by architectural planning and other architectural elements, and that the synthesis of architecture and nature constitutes the essence of landscape architecture. one can partially agree with this. the fact is that parks are not ordinary forest areas or a complex of natural vegetation, but cultural phytocenoses. in some cases, they are created by forestry methods through dense planting, and in other cases, by horticultural methods, directly planted in permanent places. as for flowers and lawns, this is pure agronomy. when creating landscapes, all methods are used simultaneously. a kind of landscape art is manifested here. so, what is the main thing in this art? as you know, in art, emphasis is one of the main tools, methods. we, landscape designers, must focus on the landscape. in city squares, neighborhoods and residential areas, a completely different picture is observed, where everything is subordinated to architecture and engineering. it is here that landscape architecture reigns, which must harmonize plants with the architectural landscape. this can only be designed in architectural workshops. the dream of architects is for their buildings to stand unchanged for hundreds of years. and the landscape is constantly living and changing, it must be constantly shaped. this is an art that is completely different from architecture. 89 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us every person should plant at least one tree in their lifetime. but this is just a beautiful call. the ancient greek philosopher plato, in his world-famous aesthetic dialogue “gippius the elder,” says, “it seems to me that i have understood the meaning of the proverb: “beauty is a problem!” in the 20th century, lev nikolayevich tolstoy proposed to completely abandon the study of beauty “because of its bewitching ambiguity and contradictions” [1]. despite thousands of pages written, aesthetic scientists have not yet reached a general agreement on the scientific definition of the concept of “beauty” [2]. the beauty of nature — the science of beauty — is one of the greatest “secrets” of aesthetics. one thing is absolutely certain: whoever feels and understands the beauty of nature treats it with care, respect, and seeks to preserve and protect everything. this is an extremely important point for all ecologists, and they should be interested in this force and actively use it in nature conservation [3]. "beauty will save the world" is a phrase by dostoevsky that everyone knows, but few people take seriously. and not without reason! here it is appropriate to return to the problem of art and art. an artist is not just a person who paints. this is a special ability given by nature, a unique way of perceiving reality and looking at it. they are great workers who are constantly looking for new things. they do not need any scientific knowledge. their author's works speak for themselves. modern garden and park art is very broad, vast and synthetic. this is landscape art or landscape design, which consists of landscape architecture and landscape gardening. they are interconnected on a synthetic basis, using sculpture, painting, applied art and even music as elements. in this, none of them loses its independence. the basis of landscape architecture is construction and architecture, which include elements of nature; the basis of landscape gardening is agrobiology, horticulture, forestry and agronomy, which include elements of architecture. thus, landscape art is not a synthesis of architecture and nature, but a synthesis of landscape architecture and landscape gardening. the latter can also be called landscape art [5]. it should be noted right away that in the east this process took place differently. eastern gardens were initially filled with religious and spiritual content, which has survived to our time. initially, europeans also had a similar attitude to nature. at that time, all types of human activity arose at the stage of syncretic development of social relations during the primitive-communal system. then each member of society did all the work himself, together with others: they found food on the hunt, cooked it on fire, made hunting and labor tools, etc. over the centuries, various types of activity and their specialists were distinguished. thus, construction and gardening appeared along with agriculture. all this activity had a purely utilitarian character, aimed only at satisfying consumer needs. thousands of years passed before the need arose to create beautiful things, and finally, to build them beautifully. this phenomenon later began to be called architecture, and then architecture. plants have always been beautiful, and many of them also provided food. it was this last circumstance that was the main impetus for their cultivation and reproduction. one of the first manifestations of man's desire for beauty was the establishment of order. the most primitive method of establishment of order was planting in rows (fig. 1). we can see this in the images of the gardens of the palaces of the egyptian pharaohs. as it turned out, it was easier to care for plants planted in rows. therefore, this method of planting was widespread among the common people and is still used by those who have no idea about landscape gardening. this level, as well as irregular plantings, can be called landscaping of settlements, in which the benefit completely prevails, although even in this case the plants do not lose their beauty. 90 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. plan of an ancient egyptian garden. future generations should be grateful to ancient greece in the 5th century bc for the appearance of the first public gardens in europe. these gardens were characterized by a regular layout of avenues with trees planted in rows. these gardens were the product of the creativity of architects. after that, such gardens passed to ancient rome and then spread throughout europe. over the centuries, architectural styles changed, and with them the styles of gardens, because they were the product of the creativity of architects. gardeners also worked under their leadership, who invented methods of planting trees and shrubs, which were especially appreciated by architects, because it allowed them to turn plants into stationary architectural forms. they also began to prune grasses and bring them into carpet-like forms. regular styles especially flourished in the 17th century in france, forming the classical garden-park style. these are the works of the great master andré le noëtre, who created more than a dozen parks, including versailles, the famous residence of louis xiv (fig. 2). figure 2. andré le noëtre's garden at the palace of versailles only at the beginning of the 18th century, in england, a country of classical capitalism, did the first landscape parks appear under the influence of chinese landscape art. information about this spread thanks to the entrepreneurial representatives of the capitalist era, the english who visited the countries of the east. as a result, the landscape or english style of garden and park art appeared, along with which came the concept of understanding the beauty of nature in itself and appreciating living landscapes. however, agrobiological knowledge was needed to create them, and especially to shape them over the centuries. this means that a new type of artist who loves, studies and knows nature is now needed for such work. 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us science and art are two different forms of understanding being. science reflects reality in the form of laws and facts, in a short and concise form; art performs the same task in life itself, in the form of artistic images, in a bright and concise form. in an individual image, not random things are concentrated, but characteristic aspects. in this way, the artist's ideas and thoughts are most convenient for perception. for us, naturalists, the main thing in landscape art is the view, and the paths lead from one view to another, and in cafes you can eat, etc. thus, landscape architects and landscape gardeners are doomed to an eternal struggle to prove to each other what is more important in each particular case. in some cases it may be architecture, in others it may be nature. all biologists should be very grateful to architects, who have developed our common synthetic art from their side. however, we have lagged behind them terribly in the artistic understanding of nature, and there are objective reasons for this. but now we are seeing the dire consequences. in such conditions, not "sustainable development", but a qualitative breakthrough is needed. this must be done by representatives of all agrobiological sciences, and they must understand that our art is not just the skill of growing beautiful plants, but a large and extensive landscape and landscape art, along with agronomy, forestry and gardening. to work in this field, you need artists who know the issues of composition, understand the essence of landscape architecture, and can find a place for each plant. it is with composition that landscape art begins and ends. composition is the highest level of any art. interestingly, humanity has traveled 30 thousand years to move from depicting separate objects to their composition [5]. to master it, you need to master all the levels of depiction available in painting color, shape, perspective, etc., that is, be able to draw. drawing is necessary for a landscape gardener-nature artist. when we talk about this as a "matter of taste," there is a simple concept that implies its subjectivity. nevertheless, taste can be innate, developed, undeveloped, good, bad, subtle, thin, coarse, onesided, indecent, etc. teaching art to those who lack economics is like grafting a pear onto a willow. the issue of assessing beauty is extremely problematic. it was studied by forest scientists who sought to assess it objectively in the middle of the last century. the forest is large, often without paths, and one can talk about the sum of impressions and evaluate them in points. the author of the book "the green zone of the city" v.a. kucheryavyy [6] proposes a similar scale. the aesthetic assessment table has about twenty points, which also include pollution during the inspection. perhaps this is acceptable in the forest, but it is not acceptable to divide art into separate components, such as landscapes in parks and avenues. the concept of objectivity in art is associated with the artist's need for praise; this applies to all creators. on the other hand, there is criticism, but this is not anti-criticism. a true and intelligent artist should also accept constructive criticism, because it also brings his work closer to objectivity. the best assessment of a work of garden art can be given by a landscape gardener and a landscape architect together, of course, their conscientiousness and self-esteem must have been tested [4]. this is also a guarantee of objectivity. they give such an assessment if they know how to create and see, that is, if they perceive all aspects simultaneously in their interdependence. this can be done in a short time, but in kiev this has not been done, which is why now the best parks, avenues, boulevards are being built up in a disastrous way or are being turned into markets. expert assessments have been introduced at city flower exhibitions. often these processes are led by farm managers, which leads to errors in the distribution of the prize fund. thus, in the creation of artistic landscapes, the art itself begins and ends with the composition of natural forms and architectural elements, as well as other arts. a landscape painter teaches to show, perceive and feel the beauty of nature in a vivid, most accessible form for the viewer, through vivid living examples. the viewer sees his works not for an hour or two, as in other arts, but constantly. they should surround him throughout the city and even near the house, where the citizen himself can participate, but with the help of a specialist who should be in every housing and communal services department. understanding and loving this art will be a guarantee that the inhabitants of such a city will treat nature with care and protect it from destroyers. therefore, this art should be supported by the entire population, city leaders, and 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us especially environmentalists. unfortunately, the latter usually focus all their attention only on the direct and tangible benefits that they receive from plants oxygen, protection from the wind, shade, etc. thus, the inclusion of landscape art in architecture, no matter how architects justify it and call it, is a clear mistake. this is a large, complex independent art, which by right of synthesis, along with landscape architecture, is included in the broader landscape art. for architects, architectural elements and components dominate the landscape, while for gardeners, natural elements dominate. we, plant scientists, simply lagged behind them in the development of the artistic side of the problem, did not understand and did not develop our art. we gave the entire artistic aspect to architects, subordinating it to their assessments and laws. architects, of course, value planning the most, usually separating it from green spaces and solving it in general outlines. over the years of my work, i have observed a picture in design institutes, landscapers-foresters almost thoughtlessly drew tree circles, while practicing specialists similar to them simply stuck seedlings into nature as it were. conclusion from all of the above, one main conclusion follows: it is necessary to train highly qualified specialists landscape gardeners-nature artists, or, as we say, landscape designers. this task can best be solved by the samarkand state university of architecture and civil engineering. our university has a direction, bachelor's and master's degree programs and a specialty "landscape design" that trains qualified specialists who meet the above requirements. our specialists contribute to the aesthetic enrichment of the appearance of cities, improving the quality of life of the population, and improving the ecological condition of cities and villages. references: 1. платон. эстетический диалог ''гиппий большой'', iv в. до н.э. 2. буткевич о.в. красота. – л. : изд-во "художник рсфср", 1983. – 346 с. 3. баленок в.с. эстетичне и природа''. – к. : изд-во ''мыстецтво'', 1973. – 262 с. 4. залевский а.и. газета ''киевские ведомости'', 21/xi-06 г., 25/vii06 г. 5. залевский а.и. динамические связи ландшафтного искусства // охорона, вывчення та збагачення рослинного свиту : научный сб. – к., 1991. – № 18. – 236 с. 6. кучерявый в.п. зеленая зона города. – к. : наук. думка, 1981. – 434 с. 7. абрамова з.а. древнейшие формы изобразительного творчества // ранние формы искусства : научный сб. – м. : изд-во ''искусство'', 1972. – 364 с. 8. залевский а.и. эстетические уровни ландшафтного искусства : научный сб. – чебоксары, 1990. – вып. 2. – 224 с. 9. erkinovna, k. d., & sergeyevna, k. g. the reconstruction of the architectural landscape is a means of optimizing an urban environment. international journal on integrated education, 4(4), 238-240. 10. ландшафт дизайнида ко'каламзорлаштиришнинг замонавий ёллари (каримова дильноза эркиновна, пер.). (2025). узконференции , 1 (1). 11. эркиновна, каримова д. и мукимова з. уйг'ункызи. «роль цвета в человеческой практике». международный журнал по интегрированному образованию , т. 5, № 5, 2022, стр. 193-195. 12. каримова, д. э. (2017). фитодизайн с нами везде. актуальные научные исследования в современном мире, (6-3), 64-66. 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 7, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 ergoprotective effect of vitamins in toxic liver damage radjabova gulchehra bahodirovna bukhoro davlat tibbet institutes radjabova.gulchehra@bsmi.uz abstract: the introduction of hepatotropic poisons into the body of experimental rats in combination with starvation and hypothermia at the first stages increases physical performance. however, continued exposure to these factors leads to a significant decrease in performance and the development of splenocytes with inhibitory properties. the use of vitamins a and b1 separately helps to normalize performance, and their combined use neutralizes the effects of hepatotropic poisons, affecting splenocytes. vitamins a, e, and c create a pronounced neuroprotective effect, and their combination with thiamine, carotene, and biotin improves the physical activity of rats during starvation and hypothermia. this effect is enhanced by the addition of polyunsaturated phospholipids (for example, essentiale). keywords: vitamins that support energy and antioxidant, hepatotropic poisons, geroprotective effect, efficiency, polyunsaturated phospholipids. the study of metabolic disorders associated with various disorders of oxidative energy homeostasis has shown that all of them lead to a decrease in physical performance. movement is the main manifestation of an organism's vital activity. in the process of evolution, it has become an important element of homeostasis, ensuring the interaction of the body with the external environment. homeostasis associated with muscle activity is necessary to maintain the overall balance of the body at rest. at the whole body level, movement plays a key role in the functioning of the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and immune systems. limiting physical activity under stress and various diseases leads to impaired metabolism and functional processes, which makes it difficult for the body to adapt to adverse environmental conditions. increasing the ability to perform physical activity is an important condition for the prevention and treatment of many diseases. a decrease in physical activity and working capacity is associated with a violation of the balance of oxidative-energetic processes, which disrupts the structure and functions of cell membranes. when xenobiotics enter the body, their main part is absorbed by hepatocytes. the liver is the main organ through which food, medicinal and toxic substances enter the bloodstream. hepatocytes are constantly exposed to chemical irritants, which causes changes in the activity of enzymatic systems, as well as the formation and release of various substances into the blood that affect vital body processes. the liver plays a key role in regulating the immune system and nonspecific body defenses. it synthesizes substances such as creatine phosphate, glucose and ketone bodies, which are necessary for the functioning of muscle tissue. disorders in the liver can lead to disruptions in its connection with other body systems, which is one of the reasons for the development of various pathologies. the introduction of toxic substances can cause a deficiency of vitamins necessary for proper muscle function (a, e, b1, b5, b6, b9). 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us based on this, it can be assumed that vitamins with antioxidant properties and energizing activity, especially in combination with membranotropic substances, can be effective means for correcting motor functions in various disorders of homeostasis. the purpose of this study was to study the effect of hepatotropic poisons on physical performance and to evaluate the possibility of its correction with the help of vitamins with antioxidant and energizing properties. materials and research methods the experiments were conducted on wistar rats with a body weight of 160-180 g. animals were injected ten times with ccl4 at a dose of 2 ml per 100 g of body weight once a day with an interval of 24 hours or d-galactosamine (d-ha) at a dose of 0.5 ml per 100 g of body weight according to the same scheme. during this period, the rats did not receive food, but had free access to water. the animals were cooled using water at a temperature of 10 °c for 5 hours. the duration of the experiment was 15 days. vitamin preparations were administered intramuscularly to rats: a (10 mg/kg), e (20 mg/kg), c (30 mg/kg), as well as thiamine (2 mg/kg), carnitine (5 mg/kg), biotin (3 mg/kg). essentiale was administered intravenously at a dose of 10 mg/kg. the drugs were used daily during the entire follow-up period. the occurrence of toxic hepatitis was judged by the increased activity of aspartate and alanine aminotransferase (ast and alt), alkaline phosphatase (alp) and total bilirubin (ab) in blood plasma, as well as the concentration of diene conjugates (dc) and malonic dialdehyde (mda) in liver homogenate. the content of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (bph) and adenosine triphosphate (atp) in red blood cells was used to assess the state of energy metabolism. a violation of protein-synthetic liver function was detected by a decrease in protein concentration in blood plasma. physical performance was assessed by the maximum duration of swimming at a water temperature of 25± 10 °c with a load of 8% of body weight (high-intensity physical activity) or 20% of body weight (submaximal intensity physical activity). serum donors were rats that received poisoning and vitamins, serum was isolated from the blood 4 hours after the last administration of ccl4 and administered three times with an interval of 24 hours, 0.5 ml per 100 g of body weight. splenocytes were obtained by squeezing cells from the crushed mass of the organ and washed with medium 199, after which they were suspended in 0.15 m nacl and injected intravenously into intact animals with 107 cells in a volume of 0.2 ml. splenocytes were incubated in sterile siliconized tubes for 4 hours at a temperature of 37 ° c, resuspending every 30 minutes. after incubation, the cells were deposited by centrifugation. splenocytes of intact rats were incubated with the serum of animals poisoned with ccl4 for 3 hours at 37 °c. after incubation, the cells were washed with medium 199 and suspended again in 0.15 m nacl, after which they were injected into rats receiving vitamins. statistical data processing was performed using methods of variational statistical analysis and calculation of averages and standard error using microsoft excel 2010 software. to assess the significance of the differences, the student's t-test was used; at p<0.05, the results were considered statistically significant. results: tenfold administration of ccl4 led to a decrease in physical performance at both high and submaximal intensity. vitamins a and b1, administered separately to poisoned animals, improved performance, but did not restore it completely. the greatest ergoprotective effect was observed with the administration of vitamin b1. with the combined use of vitamins a and b1, it was possible to normalize the performance of high and submaximal intensity physical activity. after ccl4 administration, transaminase activity increased in the blood of animals, while the ast/alt ratio remained below 1. levels of bph and atp decreased in red blood cells, and concentrations of dc and mda increased in the liver. the level of protein in the blood plasma of the poisoned rats did not change compared with the control. blood serum from poisoned animals reduced physical performance in intact rats. the introduction of vitamin a prevented the accumulation of substances in the serum that reduced performance. vitamin b1 had no such effect. blood serum from ccl4-poisoned animals reduced physical performance in rats treated with vitamin a. however, rats treated with vitamin b1 showed resistance to the action of serum from poisoned animals. 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1. the effect of vitamins a and b1 on the physical performance of rats poisoned with hepatotropic poison terms of the experience swimming with a load of 8% of body weight swimming with a load of 20% of body weight intact animals that did not receive vitamins 12,6±0,9 3,1±0,4 animals poisoned with ccl4 that did not receive vitamins 3,2±0,3* 1,0±0,2* poisoned animals receiving vitamin a 7,3±0,5* 2,9±0,3* poisoned animals receiving vitamin b1 5,1±0,4* 1,4±0,2* poisoned animals receiving vitamins a and b1 11,4±0,9* 3,4±0,3* note: * – indicates the significance of the difference (p<0.05) table 2. the effect of serum from poisoned rats on the physical performance of intact animals terms of the experience swimming with a load of 8% of body weight swimming with a load of 20% of body weight control (without administration of serum) 12,6±0.9 3,2±0,4 administration of serum from intact rats that had not received hepatotropic venom and vitamins 11,9±0,8 3,0±0,3 administration of serum from poisoned rats that did not receive vitamins 5,7±0,3* 1,7±0,1* administration of serum from poisoned rats treated with vitamin a 12,3±1,0* 3,8±0,4* administration of serum from poisoned rats to intact animals receiving vitamin a 4,2±0,3* 1,6±0,1* administration of serum from poisoned rats to intact animals receiving vitamin b1 4,9±0,4* 1,5±0,1* administration of serum from poisoned rats to intact animals receiving vitamin b1 11,7±0,9* 3,5±0,4* note: * – indicates the significance of the difference (p<0.05) table 3. geroprotective effects of adherent splenocytes from intact rats treated with serum from animals poisoned with ccl4 and treated with vitamins a and b1 experimental conditions anvi fancy control without splenocyte injection 12,7±0,8 3,2±0,3 administration of splenocytes from control rats 13,2±0,9 3,6±0,3 administration of splenocytes from rats poisoned with ccl4 6,8±0,4*1,2 1,4±0,3*1,2 administration of splenocytes from intact rats treated with serum from intact animals 12,6±0,7* 3,4±0,4* administration of splenocytes from intact rats treated with serum from poisoned rats 8,4±0,5* 1,2±0,2* administration of splenocytes from intact rats treated with vitamin a 13,2±0,8* 4,0±0,4* administration of splenocytes from vitamin a-treated rats treated with serum from poisoned animals 7,8±0,5* 1,5±0,2* administration of splenocytes from vitamin b1-treated rats 14,1±0,9* 4,1±0,5* administration of splenocytes from rats receiving vitamin b1 treated with serum from poisoned animals 13,6±0,8* 3,8±0,4* note: * – indicates the significance of the difference (p<0.05) 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 4. the effect of vitamins a, e, and c on physical performance during d-ha administration, fasting, and cooling experimental conditions introduction of d-ha starvation cooling 1. introduction of vitamin a 4,2±0,8 4,3±0,8 3,6±1,2 2. introduction of vitamin e 5,2±0,9 3,7±0,8 4,4±0,7 3. introduction of vitamin c 4,5±0,7 3,9±0,6 4,0±0,8 4. introduction of vitamins a, e and c 10,4±1,3* 8,8±1,1* 7,8±0,9* note: * – indicates the significance of the difference (p<0.05) discussion of the results: the observed increase in physical performance was mainly related to improvements in task performance at submaximal intensity (fnsi), while improvements in high intensity (fnvi) were less pronounced. the degree of decrease in working capacity increased with the duration of exposure to stress factors. the greatest decrease was observed during cooling for fnsi, and for fnvi — with the introduction of carbon tetrachloride. the use of antioxidant vitamins (a, e, and c) alone did not significantly improve the ability to perform tasks at high and submaximal intensity during cooling and starvation. nevertheless, when hepatotropic venom was administered, these vitamins contributed to an improvement in the performance of tasks at submaximal intensity (fnsi). the combined use of antioxidant vitamins significantly increased physical performance, especially in cases of toxic liver damage, although the effect was less pronounced when cooling and fasting. the use of thiamine during cooling and fasting improved the performance of tasks at submaximal intensity (fnsi), but did not lead to a complete restoration of this ability. while thiamine, carnitine, and biotin alone did not have a noticeable effect on the performance of highintensity exercise (hdtf), their combined use in combination with other energizing vitamins (thiamine, carnitine, biotin) significantly increased performance on both the fnsi and fnvi tests during cooling and fasting. the use of thiamine under the influence of cooling and starvation improved the performance of tasks at submaximal intensity, but did not restore it to normal. at the same time, the combination of energizing vitamins (thiamine, carnitine, biotin) showed a more pronounced increase in performance on both tests (fnsi and fnvi) compared with injections of antioxidant vitamins under the influence of cold and hungry stress. the introduction of d-ha, combined with starvation or cooling, caused a significant decrease in physical performance, starting from the first days of exposure to stress factors. however, this decrease could be compensated by the use of vitamin complexes containing antioxidants or energizing vitamins. the combined administration of antioxidant vitamins with polyunsaturated phospholipids led to an improvement in physical performance according to the fnsi and fnvi tests under conditions of exposure to d-ha, starvation or cooling (table 5). таблица 5. the effect of essentiale on the ergoprotective activity of vitamins during fasting, combined with cooling or the introduction of d-ha experimental conditions fasting + cooling fasting + introduction to ha cooling + introduction toha 1. introduction of vitamins a, b and c. 3,6±0,3 4,3±0,5 3,7±0,4 2. introduction of vitamins a, b and c + essentiale 14,8±1,3* 15,8±1,6* 12,4±1,3* 3. introduction of thiamine, biotin and carnitine 4,5±0,6* 4,4±1,6*2 3,9±0,5* 4. introduction of thiamine, biotin and carnitine + essentiale 11,6±1,2* 13,3±1,4*1 12,6±1,2*1 note: * – indicates the significance of the difference (p<0.05) 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the experimental results demonstrated a close structural and functional relationship between the liver, immunocompetent cells, and muscle tissue under stress and pathology. this connection is realized through chemical compounds that are secreted by hepatocytes or liver macrophages, as well as, possibly, peptides produced by macrophages of the spleen. it was previously established that there is a relationship between metabolic processes in the liver affected by toxic substances and immune functions carried out through proteolytic enzymes in the vascular bed [14]. there is reason to believe that such an enzyme mechanism may be involved in the transmission of signals from hepatocytes through immunocytes to myocytes, regulating their contractions. this hypothesis is supported by data according to which antiproteolytic proteins (such as trasilol and kontrical) significantly increase performance in rats poisoned with hepatotropic poisons [14]. the processes occurring in the liver play an important role in supporting the functions of muscle tissue. hepatocytes synthesize glucose from amino acids and other non-carbohydrate compounds, form metabolites, which are then converted in myocytes into creatine phosphate and ketone bodies, which are used for energy supply to muscle tissue along with glucose. with toxic liver damage, which is accompanied by starvation and cooling, there is an increase in the activity of aspartate and alanine aminotransferases (ast and alt) in the blood, as well as an increase in the de ritis coefficient (ast/alt), which indicates damage to the mitochondrial membranes and the transition of metabolism to the catabolic phase. this leads to an accelerated breakdown of nitrogenous compounds and a slowdown in protein synthesis. toxic liver damage also reduces the amount of fat-soluble vitamins deposited in the liver, in particular vitamin a and its derivatives. inhibition of protein biosynthesis increases the body's need for vitamins a and b1, which activate anabolic processes and energy supply to cells [17]. the research results have shown that impaired functional performance when hepatotropic venom enters the body is mostly corrected by the use of antioxidant vitamin complexes, while decreased performance during starvation and cooling is best eliminated by the introduction of energizing vitamin mixtures. this is consistent with modern concepts of a violation of the antioxidant potential caused by hepatotropic poisons and a decrease in the energy supply of cells due to a deficiency of vitamins and energy carriers during starvation and cooling [8]. special attention is drawn to the potentiating effect of polyunsaturated phospholipids (for example, essentiale) on the effects caused by antioxidant and energizing vitamin mixtures. enzymes that catalyze oxidative energy processes are associated with the membranes of mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. in conditions of toxic hepatopathy, cooling and starvation, the structures of cell membranes are disrupted, and polyunsaturated phospholipids help to stabilize the membranes, thereby improving the energy supply of cellular processes that support the functioning of muscle cells. polyunsaturated phospholipids have the greatest effect on the membranes of liver cells [4, 5]. these improvements in the functioning of liver cells contribute to an increase in the efficiency of muscle contractions, since hepatocytes deposit glucose, which is used by myocytes, synthesize creatine, which is converted into reserve energy material in myocytes, and also synthesize ketone bodies, which are an easily accessible source of energy for muscles [7]. the data obtained confirm that a wide range of functional activity of vitamins regulated by the state of cell membranes can become the basis for the development of multifunctional vitamin compositions, which, in combination with membrane-stabilizing compounds, can not only improve physical performance, but also adjust metabolic processes characteristic of various organs and tissues. the ingestion of hepatotropic poisons (such as ccl4 and d-ha) activates free radical processes in hepatocytes and the formation of lipid peroxidation products [17]. lipid peroxidation products such as dienone conjugates and malondialdehydes, penetrating into myocytes, probably cause cross-oxidation of contractile proteins. vitamin a, interacting with alkyd radicals, slows down the formation of lipid hydroperoxides and products of oxidative 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us degradation of hepatocyte proteins [1]. vitamin b1, in turn, prevents the destruction of contractile proteins of myocytes, probably by activating the energy blocks of myocytes. the decrease in physical performance due to the intake of hepatotoxic substances on the background of starvation or cooling is not corrected by the combined use of vitamins a and b1. however, the ergoprotective effect in these conditions is achieved through the use of antioxidant or energizing vitamin mixtures in combination with polyunsaturated phospholipids that stabilize cell membranes. these phospholipids have a similar effect when using both antioxidants and energizing vitamins. polyunsaturated phospholipids enhance the effects of vitamins of both the oxidative group (riboflavin, niacin, coenzyme q) and the anabolic group (pyridoxine, folate, cobalamin) [2]. this allows us to consider polyunsaturated fatty phospholipid preparations as universal vitamin therapy enhancers for various forms of stress and pathology. based on the conducted studies, the following conclusions can be drawn: the intake of hepatotropic ccl4 or d-ha poisons, as well as temporary starvation and cooling, increase the physical performance of rats in the first three days, but later these factors reduce performance, disrupting energy homeostasis. administration of vitamins a or b1 separately to poisoned rats improves their physical performance, but does not restore it completely. the combined use of vitamins a and b1 eliminates the depressing effect of hepatotropic poison on performance. the introduction of ccl4 causes the accumulation of substances in the blood of rats that reduce performance and contribute to the manifestation of ergosuppressive properties in spleen cells. vitamin a prevents the accumulation of toxic compounds in the blood that reduce the performance of animals, and vitamin b1 increases the resistance of rats to the effects of these substances. the ergosuppressive effect of ccl4 and the ergoprotective effect of vitamins a and b1 are manifested through the involvement of spleen cells. the combined use of antioxidant vitamins (a, e, and c) has a pronounced ergoprotective effect in toxic liver damage caused by d-ha. at the same time, the introduction of energizing vitamins (thiamine, carnitine, and biotin) is significantly more effective than antioxidants in improving performance during starvation and cooling. the intake of d-ha into the body in combination with starvation or cooling causes a significant decrease in physical performance from the very first three days of exposure to the agents. this decrease is partially offset by the introduction of antioxidant or energizing vitamin complexes. the ergoprotective effect with a combination of d-ha, fasting and cooling is achieved by the introduction of antioxidant or energizing vitamin compositions in combination with polyunsaturated phospholipids (essentiale). bibliography: 1. burnevich e.z. hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhosis of the liver /e.z.burnevich, t.n., m.s.krasnova // hepatological. forum. – 2018. – no. 2. p. 19-24. 2. butorova l.i. medicinal liver lesions: textbook.methodical. manual / l.i.butorova, a.v.kalinin, a.f.loginov. moscow: federal state university "nmhts named after n.i. pirogov", 2015. 65 p. 3. vartanyan f.e. tuberculosis: problems and scientific research in the countries of the world / f.e.vartanyan, k.p.shakhovsky // problems of tuberculosis. 2002. no. 8. pp. 48-49. 4. vasilenko yu.k. the effect of pectoinulin and its combination with taurine on detoxifying activity of the liver / y.k.vasilenko [et al.] //vestn. russian university of friendship of peoples.2012. – no. 1. – pp. 22-26.-ser. medicine. 5. vedennikova a.v. genetic aspects of alcoholic liver disease. the results of the study / a.v.vedennikova [et al.] // hepatology today: tez.dokl. tenth russian conference– moscow, 2005– p.57. 7 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. vedrova n.n. experience of using methadoxyl in the complex treatment of alcoholic liver damage / n.n. vedrova, n.yu. gnezdilova // narcologist.-2005.-no. 4. pp. 24-26. 7. vengerovsky a.i. methodological guidelines for the study of hepatoprotective activity of pharmacological substances / a.i.vengerovsky, i.v.markova, a.s.saratikov // guidelines for the experimental (preclinical) study of new pharmacological substances / edited by v.p.fisenko. – moscow, 2000. – pp.228-231 8. vengerovsky a.i. methodological guidelines for the study of hepatoprotective activity of pharmacological substances /a.i.vengerovsky, i.v.markova, a.s.saratikov//guidelines for the experimental (preclinical) study of new pharmacological substances / edited by r.u. khabriev. moscow, 2005. pp.683-691. 9. verokhobina n.v. the place of dibikor in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome /n.v.verokhobina, a.v.kuznetsova // pharmateca. 2012. – no. 3. – p.75-77 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 10, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 digital transformation and regional development: regional features in the innovative development of the service sector (on the example of the regions of uzbekistan) primova shaxlo jumayevna teacher of the "metrology and standardization" department, bukhara state technical university abstract: in the context of accelerating digital transformation, the analysis of regional features in the innovative development of the service sector is becoming increasingly relevant. the article examines the relationship between digitalization, regional development, and service quality in the regions of uzbekistan. based on the experience of european countries (estonia, germany, finland), the main factors contributing to the successful implementation of digital transformation at the local level have been identified. cluster analysis, swot-assessment, and index modeling methods were used to assess the level of digital maturity in 12 regions of uzbekistan (tashkent, samarkand, fergana, surkhandarya, and others). the results show that the introduction of digital platforms in the service sector increases the availability and quality of public services by 3045%, especially in regions with developed information and communication technology infrastructure. at the same time, significant differences were found between central and peripheral regions. recommendations have been developed for the harmonization of digital policy, strengthening interregional cooperation, and increasing the digital competence of the population. keywords: digital transformation, regional development, service sector, regional characteristics, innovative development, digital maturity, cluster analysis, swot assessment, uzbekistan. introduction in the modern economy, digital transformation is not only a technological renewal, but also a process that fundamentally changes economic, social, and management systems. in particular, the service sector that is, public services, healthcare, education, finance, transport, and utilities is one of the sectors that makes the most use of digital technologies. however, the effectiveness of digital solutions depends on regional conditions, the level of infrastructure, the digital literacy of the population, and the compatibility of local governance systems. digitalization of the service sector is being widely implemented in the republic of uzbekistan within the framework of the "digital uzbekistan 2030" strategy. however, in practice, regions such as tashkent, jizzakh, or namangan are far ahead in digital development, while regions such as surkhandarya, kashkadarya, or the republic of karakalpakstan still lack digital infrastructure, personnel, and financial resources[1, 2]. therefore, the relevance of this research lies in the scientific analysis of trends in the innovative development of the regions of uzbekistan in the service sector, regional differences, and integration opportunities in the process of digital transformation. the purpose of the study is to develop practical recommendations for the effective implementation of digital transformation, taking into account regional characteristics[3, 4]. 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us scientific work analysis: european countries have created best practices for integrating digital transformation and regional development: estonia is one of the most digital countries in the world, and within the framework of the "eestonia" project, all government services (tax, healthcare, education, passport services) are provided to the population online. 99% of the population uses digital id services. this system de facto abolished regional boundaries[5, 6]. germany achieves regional equalization of education quality by providing schools with digital infrastructure through the digitalpakt schule program. also, within the framework of the "smart cities" program, more than 500 cities have implemented a network of digital services (smart transport, energy, healthcare). finland focused on improving the digital literacy of the population through the digital finland framework policy. free digital competency courses are offered to every citizen. as a result, 92% of the population under the age of 65 independently use digital services. a common feature of these countries is the acceptance of digital transformation not only as a technology, but also as a means of socio-political and territorial development. the following scientific methods were used in the research: cluster analysis is the grouping of regions by digital infrastructure, service quality, population size, and the level of digital literacy[7]. swot-assessment identifying the strengths/weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of each region in terms of digital transformation. index modeling the "digital services index" (dsi) has been developed, which consists of 5 components: access, usability, quality, security, return. procedure: ✓ stage 1: statistical data for 2021-2024 were collected for 12 regions of the republic of uzbekistan (state statistics committee, "ais public services," uzdigital agency). ✓ stage 2: public service centers for each region were calculated. ✓ stage 3: regions were divided into 3 clusters using the k-means algorithm[8]. ✓ stage 4: a swot analysis was conducted for each cluster. ✓ stage 5: recommendations were developed based on the experience of european countries. the research methodology was implemented based on practical examples: example of calculating the piu index: tashkent region: entry 0.92, use 0.88, quality 0.85, safety 0.90, return 0.80 → dpi = 0.87 (high level). surkhandarya region: entry 0.45, use 0.38, quality 0.40, safety 0.50, return 0.35 → dxi = 0.42 (low level) [9]. cluster analysis example: ➢ cluster 1 (top): tashkent, jizzakh, namangan ➢ cluster 2 (mid): samarkand, fergana, andijan ➢ cluster 3 (low): surkhandarya, kashkadarya, karakalpakstan ➢ example of swot analysis (surkhandarya): strengths: rural population density, agricultural potential. weaknesses: low internet speed (average 8 mbps), limited number of digital services. 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us opportunities: implementation of the "smart village" project. threats: migration of young people to cities. pilot project: the "electronic polyclinic" system has been implemented in the fergana region. as a result, 68% of patients noted a 70% reduction in waiting time. as a result of the research, the following achievements were identified: with the introduction of digital services, access to services has increased by 30-45%. in the tashkent region, the level of use of electronic services has reached 89%. population participation increased by 25% due to the introduction of digital services in less developed regions. the disparity between regions according to the piu index decreased from 0.52 in 2021 to 0.41 in 2024 (i.e., the inequality decreased by 21%). thanks to digital literacy programs, 62% of the population under the age of 45 learned to use services independently[10]. results and discussion: the results obtained show that digital transformation is an effective tool for developing the service sector, but its impact is directly related to regional conditions. digital solutions will be implemented faster due to the availability of digital infrastructure, personnel, and financial resources in the central regions. in remote regions, however, this process is proceeding more slowly. at the same time, the experience of european countries shows that for the successful implementation of digital transformation, it is necessary not only technology, but also the involvement of the population, increasing digital literacy, and strengthening local authorities. in uzbekistan, targeted programs (for example, "digital village" or "regional digital centers") should also be developed for regions in the "low" cluster. conclusion: digital transformation is the main tool for ensuring regional development and allows achieving especially high efficiency in the service sector. the study of the regions of uzbekistan made it possible to identify regional differences and improve digital policy based on a differentiated approach. the experience of european countries has shown the importance of an integrated approach, public participation, and institutional support. in the future, it is recommended to work in the following areas: ➢ development of digital infrastructure in regions of the "low" cluster; ➢ wide implementation of free digital competency programs for the population; ➢ creation of mechanisms for the exchange of interregional digital resources; ➢ expansion of the right of local authorities to manage digital projects. literature 1. european commission. (2023). digital economy and society index (desi) 2023. brussels: publications office of the eu. 2. oecd. (2022). digital transformation in regional development. paris: oecd publishing. 3. estonian ministry of economic affairs and communications. (2023). e-estonia: the digital society model. tallinn. 4. bundesministerium des inner und für heimat (germany). (2022). digitalpakt schule: evaluation report. berlin. 5. ministry of transport and communications (finland). (2021). digital finland framework strategy. helsinki. 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6. president of the republic of uzbekistan. (2023). strategy "digital uzbekistan 2030." pq125. tashkent. 7. uzdigital agency. (2024). report on the digitalization of public services. tashkent. 8. state statistics committee. (2024). regional statistical data collection (2021-2024). tashkent. 9. world bank. (2023). digital transformation in public services: lessons from europe and central asia. washington, dc. 10. brynjolfsson, e., & mcafee, a. (2017). the second machine age: work, progress, and prosperity in an age of brilliant technologies. w. w. norton & company. 137 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 application of constructive systems of living nature in furniture design madaminova m. x. 1-course phd, department of industrial design, tashkent state technical university, uzbekistan, tashkent abstract: this article discusses different types of structural systems, such as mesh, lattice and ribbed systems. changing the shape of natural structure in the form of lattice, mesh and ribbed systems and how they influence lighting fixtures design. examples of various types of structural systems in nature and in lighting fixtures are given. keywords: bionics, living systems, structural systems, ribbed systems, lattice systems, mesh systems. nature is a brilliant designer, engineer, artist and great builder. any creation of nature is a highly perfected work, distinguished by amazing expediency, reliability, durability, economy of construction material consumption with a variety of forms and designs. forms in nature are perfectly formed, therefore the search for harmony in bionic shaping should begin with the maximum use of their strength and stability – bionic constructive systems. bionics and the resulting bionic design method represent the unity of technology and nature, combining functionality and aesthetics. nature is the main source of inspiration, its mechanisms have been working for five thousand years. observation of living organisms, studying their structure and construction, allows us to collect information bit by bit, and bionics allows us to apply this information in technology and design. the bionic design method has recently become increasingly popular, and it is not only about the aesthetic component. any product created using this method combines the following qualities: ➢ flexibility ➢ strength ➢ ability to move the center of gravity (say, from the center to any desired location) ➢ presence of hollow sections ➢ lightness (due to the previous point) ➢ relative thinness of the walls if we talk about lighting fixture design, we understand that utility is function, durability is construction, and beauty is an emotional response. these are the three foundations, the three components of any design. 138 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us living systems are an example of structures that function based on the principles of ensuring optimal reliability, forming an optimal form while saving energy and materials. these are the principles that form the basis of bionics. in design, bionics has taken the position of a promising direction thanks to the universal category of language, the specificity of which consists of an organic combination of design-technical and figurative principles, which was noted in the developments of yu. s. lebedev "architectural bionics". the issues of bionic patterns in design and architecture were reflected in the works of n.v. zhdanov, a.v. skvortsov, i.a. cherniychuk. many researchers were engaged in the harmonization of environmental design objects and the natural environment, including shentsova o.m., kazaneva e.k., zherdev e.v. in the work of e.n. lazarev “bionic principles of architectural analysis and modeling of the vital activity of biological systems and their elements”. in nature, there are mesh, ribbed and latticed structural systems. analogues of mesh systems in nature are wide leaves of plants, wings of butterflies, dragonflies and other insects. lattice systems in nature are found in the internal structure of flat bones of animals and birds, in the cranium of humans and animals, in the poppy seed capsule, etc., and represent a combination of mutually intersecting elements. ribbed systems can have an analogy in the structure of the chest of humans, animals and birds. the useful qualities of the systems under consideration are lightness, strength, resistance to mechanical impact. mesh, ribbed and lattice systems have found wide application in architecture and design. flat and spatially curved ribbed, mesh and cross (lattice) structures, in which the main material is concentrated along the lines of the main stresses, are widely distributed in nature. a thin leaf of a plant or a transparent wing of an insect have sufficient mechanical strength due to the branching network of veins in them. this frame performs the main supporting role, while other structural elements, such as the sheet film or the wing membrane, can reach a minimum cross-section. an excellent solution is to use perforation to reduce the weight of individual structures. very common at present are projects with individual elements of bionics lighting fixtures that repeat the structure of the body, the structure of plants and other elements of living nature, organic inserts, decor made of natural materials. a characteristic feature of mesh and ribbed structures of frame systems is the distribution of functions between the load-bearing and supported (enclosing) elements of natural forms (leaf ribs, human and animal rib cages). the most durable material in this case is concentrated on the lines of the main stresses, forming grids, ribs, lattices. they can be located in rectilinear or curvilinear curved planes and have insignificant ratios of the cross-section and linear dimensions of the planes they form. lattice systems can be thought of as a combination of mutually intersecting trusses. with the help of frame structures, the shapes of lighting fixtures were able to develop in space in all directions. 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us + fig. 1. the use of mesh structures in nature and in lighting design fig. 2. the use of lattice structures in nature and in lighting design 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 3. the use of ribbed structures in nature and in the design of lighting fixtures an excellent solution is to use perforation to reduce the weight of individual structures. porous bone structures are often used to create interesting lighting fixtures, while saving material, creating the illusion of airiness and lightness. when creating a lighting fixture design, it is important to maintain the rigidity of the structure, significantly reducing the weight. designers draw their ideas from familiar structures of living nature, for example, wax and honeycombs the basis for creating unusual structures in the interior: walls and partitions, furniture elements, decor, glass structures, lighting fixtures, elements of wall and ceiling panels, window openings, etc. spider web is an unusually light and economical mesh material. often used as a basis in the design of partitions, furniture and lighting fixtures, hammocks. from all this work, we can conclude that structural elements play an important and significant role in the design of lighting fixtures. without them, the existence of many plants and animals would be impossible. 141 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us also, without knowledge of such systems, people would not be able to reproduce this beauty in architecture, landscape design, furniture, lighting design and any other activity. a characteristic feature of the systems under consideration is the structure of spatial lattices, as if reflecting the general principle of the structure of the material world. the subject of bionics is the study of the principles of constructing the functioning of living systems for the creation of technical objects. bionics is an innovative direction in the design of artificial objects, taking all the best from nature: reliefs, contours, principles of shaping and interaction with the surrounding world. used literature 1. benyus j. biomimicry: innovations inspired by nature. – new york: harpercollins publishers inc., 2002. – 309 p. 2. vorontsova z. nature's workshop. .m.: obshchestvennoe iskusstvo, 1981. 3. clark graham m. sounds from silence: graham clark and the story of the bionic ear. allen and unwin, 2003. 247 p. 4. guillot agnès, jean-arkady m. la bionique: quand la science imite la nature.paris: dunod, 2008. — 240 p. 5. guillot a., meillet j.a. bionics: when science imitates nature. moscow: tekhnosfera, 2013. — 280 6. zhdanov, n.v. industrial design: bionics: a textbook for secondary vocational education / n.v. zhdanov, v.v. pavlyuk, a.v. skvortsov. 2nd ed., corrected. and additional moscow: yurait publishing house, 2023. 123 p. 7. johnson f.e. the bionic human: health promotion for people with implanted prosthetic devices. totowa, nj: humana press inc, 2006. 706 p. 8. g.e. krichevsky. bionics: learning wisdom from nature. tutorial. moscow: , 2015. 9. luo y., ng e. bio-inspired surfaces and applications. world scientific publishing, 2016. 592 p 10. riyo a., meillet j.a. bionics. when science imitates nature. moscow: tekhnosfera, 2013. 11. dmitrieva i.v. methodological aspects of preparing applicants for the creative exam in composition in the direction of "industrial design" // science, education and culture. 2021. no. 3 (58). url: http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/metodicheskie-aspekty-podgotovkiabiturientov-k-tvorcheskomu-ekzamenu-po-kompozitsii-po-napravleniyu-promyshlennyydizayn 12. skurlatova m.v. bionics as a connection between nature and technology // young scientist. 2015. no. 10 (90). pp. 1283-1289 13. dmitrieva i.v. bionic patterns in construction equipment. // the era of science. 2021. no. 28 url: http://eraofscience.com/index/28_december_2021/0-144 240 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 3, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 architectural design is the governing law of architecture between futurism and adaptation hussam jabbar, mahmood chabuk university of babylon, babylon, iraq eng.hussam.jabbar@uobabylon.edu.iq eng.mahmood.aa@uobabylon.edu.iq abstract: architecture is one of the subjects given to human knowledge. architecture is situated in the field of attraction between subject and object, where it is within the framework of the perceived subject and at other times within the framework of the perceiving subject, the creator or reader of it. this dialogue attempts to find a law that "guarantees architecture's future adaptability." this is achieved by shedding light on the approaches through which conflicting architectural ideas can be understood, leading to an understanding of the truth of architecture, such as (the rational approach, the experimental approach, the deductive approach, the abstract approach). this dialogue relies on studying the interconnected relationship between terms that express the rational approach (instinct, universals, prediction) and other terms that represent the material approach (experience, particulars, certainty). then, the reciprocal relationship between them is studied to arrive at an adaptable architecture. sources of perception: ((the sources of human knowledge are divided into two basic types: (sources of perception and sources of belief((. keywords: malaysia, employees, social interaction, workplace. there are four proposed theories regarding the sources of perception: first: platonic recollection theory: this theory was invented by plato and his successors, who considered perception to be a process of recalling information. this theory was invented by plato and based on his own philosophy of ideals. perception is the retrieval of something previous, and the previous is a state of mental association through which the soul attempts to retrieve those truths and ideals by perceiving them and sensing specific meanings and partial things. these meanings and things are all shadows and reflections of those ideals and truths. therefore, the relationship between the ideal and the body is one of retrieval, while the relationship between the soul and the body is one of containment by the body. second: the rational theory this theory is based on the belief in the existence of two sources of perceptions: one is sensation, and the other is innate nature, meaning that the human mind possesses meanings and perceptions that do not arise from the senses but are fixed in the core of innate nature. the soul derives from itself (al-sadr: 1989: p. 55). thus, the rational theory is based on two pillars: the first is sensation, and the second is innate nature. descartes points out that “clear knowledge, for me, is knowledge that is present and evident to an attentive mind. accordingly, we say that we see 241 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us objects clearly when they are before our eyes, so they are strongly influenced and make us ready to see them” (muhammad, 1991, p. 32). innate nature refers to the soul as a thinking being, from which the rest of the components and philosophical systems emanate. third: the sensory theory. the sensory view coincided, to a large extent, with the consequences caused by scientific discoveries in all fields. the emergence of experience and observation in an increasing and growing manner became the cornerstone of religious interpretation and theological philosophy, and it relied on examination, analysis and deduction as its basis. the sensory theory “is the theory that says that sensation is the only provider of concepts and meanings to the human mind, and the mental power is the power that reflects the different sensations in the mind” (al-sadr, 1989, p. 57). this theory presupposes the separation of reality from the self, “because the true essence of man has become derived from outside and springs from the material conditions surrounding him, without giving any consideration to his inner self or his living feelings” (muhammad, 1991, p. 119) and his enjoyment of the privacy of (reality) as an entity with its own circumstances and laws, and the self has only to discover it, analyze it, and reflect it in the human mind to deduce what can be deduced from it after experimentation and examination, as “the sensory theory is based on experience, as scientific experiments have shown that sense is the sensation from which human perceptions emerge... sense is the basic structure upon which human perception is based” (al-sadr, 1989, p. 59). this theory has neglected all abstract and metaphysical facts beyond matter, contenting itself with the limits of matter “matter is the basic basis of existence, and it is the material concept or material philosophy in revealing the truth” (abdul qadir, 1997, p. 63). this theory takes the direction from experience to matter to sense and from there to knowledge, i.e. it begins from external reality and ends with the mind and denies the existence of concepts that the mind may apply to experience. rather, these concepts remain subject to experience itself and do not go beyond it. fourth: the theory of abstraction this theory was developed by muslim philosophers: “this theory can be summarized in dividing mental concepts into two categories: primary concepts and secondary concepts. primary concepts are the conceptual basis of the human mind, and these concepts are generated by direct perception of their contents… based on this foundation, the mind creates secondary concepts, thus beginning the cycle of innovation and creation… the mind generates new concepts from these primary meanings. these new meanings are beyond the capacity of the senses, even though they are derived and extracted from the meanings that the senses present to the mind and thought” (al-sadr, 1989, pp. 61-62). sources of credence : after examining the first aspect of human knowledge, which is perception, the dialogue moves to the second aspect, which is belief. belief is linked to two basic doctrines, and although there are branches between them, they are related to both in one way or another. "the theory of knowledge is concerned with perception and belief, while perception is linked to thought. thought seeks a single goal, which is to uncover the truth. truth lies between the duality of belief or disbelief" (abdul qadir, 1997, p. 70). these two theories are : first: the rationalist doctrine second: the empirical doctrine 1-the rationalist doctrine (deductive approach) this is the doctrine that human knowledge is divided into two types: "one is necessary or selfevident knowledge, and the other is theoretical knowledge and information" (al-sadr, 1989, p. 63). the first type (the necessary) concerns necessities and self-evident truths that do not require proof or evidence for their belief, but are believed directly by the mind. as for the second type 242 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (theoretical), the mind requires prior acquired knowledge to ascertain its validity and certainty. the rationalist approach proceeds from the general to the specific, i.e., through a deductive method of obtaining information, proceeding from generalities to particulars . 2experimentalism (induction approach) the doctrine deals directly with experience and does not believe in the truth of prior knowledge or necessary and intuitive knowledge. human knowledge begins with experience itself. "experience is the primary source of all human knowledge" (al-sadr, 1989, p. 66). it begins with the induction of particular subjects to uncover general objective truths. that is, it relies on inductive reasoning, not deductive reasoning, as adopted by rationalism. 3 traduction approach, the most important principles of which are : ➢ the premises and conclusions (universals and particulars) must be of equal similarity . ➢ the doctrine combines the two and attempts to reconcile them. understanding the concept of architecture the simple and straightforward question is: what is architecture? the context in which architecture is defined remains very important, as it gives an impression of multiple, yet inconsistent, definitions. each definition describes one aspect of architecture to the exclusion of others, and is within the requirements of the study, according to its context (political, economic, social, religious, personal, etc.) and dimensions (aesthetic, expressive, functional, performance). dr. rafid pointed out, under the title "architecture as a cognitive subject," that "architecture represents a phenomenon with properties and applications in its practices. the literature that has addressed architecture as a cognitive subject has classified the propositions into the following: 243 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ the philosophical origin from which the theoretical foundations of the architectural movement's output emerged. ➢ propositions that explore the theoretical foundations of this architectural output. ➢ propositions specific to architectural output, presenting its characteristics and features." (abdul qader, 1997, p. 9) jencks also pointed out that architecture “is so elastic in nature that all attempts to define it are only partially correct” (jencks, 1981, p: 71). architecture is both appearance and essence, it is realistic and abstract, and it derives its meaning from its internal characteristics and its own environment (venturi, 1987, p: 41). architecture has been linked in one way or another to the philosophical dimensions that interpret the world, it has taken its own space from it, and it almost applies to it from one side rather than the other, and reconciliation is achieved after collecting more than one interpretation, as the total sum of interpretations gives the comprehensive vision in interpreting architecture . law basics proportionality adaptive architecture instinct my expulsion totally my expulsion prediction my expulsion extraction my expulsion experience my reverse particles reverse a vessel reverse sources` 1. jencks, charles, (1981), “sign, symbol and architecture” “the architecture sign”, brodbent, bunt, jencks, di, john wiley & sons ltd. chechester, new york 244 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. mayr, ernst 1982. the growth of biological thought. harvard. p483: “adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past and became instead a continuing dynamic process ”. 3. the oxford dictionary of science defines adaptation as “any change in the structure or functioning of an organism that makes it better suited to its environment”. 4. the oxford dictionary of science defines adaptation as “any change in the structure or functioning of an organism that makes it better suited to its environment”. 5. bowler, p.j. (2003). evolution: the history of an idea (3rd ed.). university of california press. page 10. isbn 0-520-23693-9 . 6. patterson c. 1999. evolution. natural history museum, london. p1 7. williams, george c (1966). adaptation and natural selection: a critique of some current evolutionary thought. princeton university press. page 5. isbn 0-691-02357 8. abdul qader, rafid abdul latif, (1997), space as a system a theoretical study proposing a philosophical measurement representing every thought addressing the stages and origins of the evolution of the architectural movement, phd thesis, department of architecture, university of technology . 9. al-sadr, muhammad baqir, (1989), our philosophy, 15th edition, dar al-ta'aruf publications, beirut, lebanon. 10. venturi, robert, (1987), complexity and contradiction in architecture, translated by mahdi, suad abdul ali, reviewed by: fathi ihsan, general cultural affairs house, baghdad. 11. al-muthaffar, muhammad rida, (1973), logic, al-nu'man press, iraq 55 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 7, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 based on the analysis of the most dangerous and emergency situations identify the situation at emergency level of risk to its forecastof acity akhmedov allayor baxtiyarovich academy of the ministry of emergency situations of the republic of uzbekistan, technical sciences toe‘citizens of doctor of philosophy (phd), associate professor as vassiyev narbayevich academy of the ministry of emergency situations of the republic of uzbekistan abstract: in this article the exogenous variables in the model pageween the value of regressiya korrelyativ multikollinearlikni and quotes. common delays in the context of distributed delay are connected mutually of the variables when the response is difficult and individual evaluation of the importance of the individual parameters on the valuation koeffisiyentlar indicated. the alm method upon a distributed lag model is a “how to” settling the presence ofkthrough the installation of a certain structure in the distribution echikish a free estimate to solve the problems of the specific multikollinearlik, alm, offer a draw the structure of my function with the method of polina delay, that is, given a few years after the appearance of its results. alm, on the method of distributed lag model was composed of. figure the distribution of emergency situations models are listed. modern mathematical methods and modeling of emergency situations with the speed of options here ommaboplik be explained by expanding the use of information technology influencessaid. a model in the framework of statistical and mathematical methods, variasion and dispersion analysis, and regression analysis korrelyativ the associated equations, statistical, statistical indices, final, updated and expanded, and other equations are integrated, and which matrisa analysis, mathematical programming methods, processes, research, public service systems, systems modeling and analysis, and an intuitive empirical methods was shown. keywords: model regressiya, in korrelyativ, multikollinearlik, reviews, polina function, emergency situations, information technology, statistical equations, statistical indices, updated and expanded, and other equations are integrated, and which matrisa analysis, mathematical programming. introduction. today, natural and forecasting the development of mathematical modeling of processes is one of the actual problems. in particular, the forecasting results through prevention and elimination of emergency situations in the country of the plan of measures for the further improvement of the quality of the development and practice can be introduced. however, in this process, first and foremost, the territory of natural and affecting the development of the major indicators to identify emergency situations, it is necessary to take. shakllantirilayotgan country or territory in the indicator system to solve problems on the level of the top of the affected area should be taken considering. 56 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us as the analysis of the emergency situation in our country, the territoryfor forecasting the change of a major emergency situation in the emergency situation following indicators were selected: that the earth moved, that the mountain of the outbreak, snow avalanches, strong winds, from mass food poisoning, dovul (the clouds), floods, water accumulation and flooding are. as noted, all of the indicators are directly connected to each other and relationship pageween the logical integrity reflects. however, this indicator emergency situation from the point of view of the origin of the major scale learn as a separate object, that is, to a certain extent the social development of the regions affected. the territory of the natural development of the population in emergency situations leads to security, and living standards of the population in emergency situations directly related to the quality indicators and the high level of research closely related to the major, while will lead us to achieve highly effective. there is an indicator of a major emergency situation and their structure, dynamics and interaction that depends on them, and identify factors influencing the result of the analysis process, one requires a mathematical model of the effects of each of these indicators is to produce. in the same place is worth to add to the knowledge of the accuracy of the model. the model in the field of emergency situations this is the main object of the research the properties and interactions realisticallyin considerable understanding or details are different from stateto mathis type of emergency situation or brief, he gan imagine. columbia university, professor m. vudfordning opinion regarding the purpose of the general mathematical model representing the interaction pageween the concepts of random processes does not add to the accuracy of this, but the quality is from the new coming to a conclusion. model research businesses advantage and disadvantages of the development of alternative strategies tasodfiy realistically describe the process of determining the factors, the comprehensive study in combination with measures to eliminate negative trends and situations and the means to be almashtirilmaydigan way also. for the purposes of the analysis of a major emergency situation and also usually “curved line fillips”, “taylor rule” as a mutual need to identify structural related assets. to answer the question of who is going to give you the model developed using the consolidated variable pumps for only a few years-time behavior relate to if we need a clear assessment of the future we long for this not mutually associated. but the future is no way of knowing from the construction of possible models is not the reason for the disclaimer. however, for the future depends on the interaction of structural long without giving such short-term studies of the period and in many models, according to the technical review – also for the future as well as unlimited long associated structural interaction is determined. that's the point, you can make forecasts of the future position of the model itself, the agent will wait and interaction pageween model forecasts consistent basis will not be made. see also major interaction indicators emergency situations of natural-mathematical model, you will need to develop a systematic approach to the modeling process. statistical analysis and forecasting of modeling a large scaleand be applied at modeling tools in the field of emergency situations caused by the use of the following circumstances: first of all, at a high level is extremely difficult and somewhat random variables abstrakt that is important and significant objects of the relations of separation and there is a possibility of formal writing. secondly, based on clearly expressed, primary relationship and sharing statistical data and methods from the relationship with the logical conclusions of concepts you can get to enter the parameters corresponding to the model. 57 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us third, compatible with the methods of mathematics and statistics research methods in the object realistically induktiv the relation pageween the variables at a high level to get knowledge about the shape and the appearance of new threats. the calculation result and finally, fourth, the language of mathematics is the use of extreme values, the probability ofk theory is an explanation of the rules of clear and compact, and allows you to represent the conclusion of his essence. analysis of the literature on the subject. expanding with the speed of modern mathematical methods and modeling of emergency situations of options here ommaboplik be caused by the use of information technology. a model in the framework of statistical and mathematical methods: variasion and dispersion analysis; korrelyativ and regression analysis; statistical associated equations; statistical indices; the final, updated and expanded, integrated, and other equations; and which matrisa analysis; mathematical programming methods; research processes, mass service systems, systems modeling and analysis; and an intuitive empirical methods and others. the above listed o‘is known and popular all the methods and the models built in the us, many of the scientific literature and quotes. research methodology. modellashtirish boosts the extreme importance of means necessary to pay great attention to its quality. the basis of the results or the conclusions based on them and ko‘from the aspect of tool manufacturers this p, professionalism and real emergency situations occurred in the field of a random process to a new konkretdekvatligi, modelbrowsing the correct choice of the method on the model considered that rely on your perspective, and concluding them that were used in the statistical information such as the quality depends on. as it is known, in real life a while to complete all of the above terms and conditions is difficult. analysis and results. the study function. modellashtirish available to offer recommendations in previous research work in the field and quotes for students to teach: object model is trying to develop. the territory's emergency situations the major 2004-2025 in the year to the dynamics of (3.1table) based on without sh.alm, a delay from the distributed lag model using the method of construction. sh.alm, the dynamic mathematical modeling method is one of the issues if this method is quite universal. this method is used for modeling the delay of the quotation process with a different structure from no less than the number of o‘zgaruvchan network with distributed lag models you can build any long-term delay. however, the method is limited alm delay upon the value of l the model it is desirable to build. alm, the method these exogenous o‘'ve zgaruvchan different time delays (delays deployed pageween korrelyativ correct way which will re parametrlash method. the development function. exogenous in the model regressiya o‘zgaruvchan korrelyativ multikollinearlikni because they do not value it produces. this problem ko‘pinch in the context of distributed delays is common. mutually variables distributed delay are connected to the individual response and the evaluation of the importance of the individual parameters on the valuation is difficult koeffisiyentlar regular t -reliable tests. the alm method upon a distributed lag model is a “how to” settling makes the assumption that. a certain delay in the distribution in the structure ornatish a free estimate by multikollinearlik can resolve specific problems. in particular, the structure of the alm function with a delay upon polina offer my draw method, that is, after a few years of its results , ko‘rinib will. this is explained as follows. general model ko‘following rinib be as follows: tltntt xaxaxay  +++++= −− ... 110 (3.30) sh.alm, the distributed lag method on a model we made. 3.1-table 58 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us years emergen cies they moved there, they outbreak mountain snow avalanches, strong winds from the food mass poisoning dovul the clouds, strong winds, floods, water accumulati on and flooding of 2014 165.8 43.1 27.7 17.4 76.3 117.4 2015 261.8 60.0 53.6 35.4 116.9 198.6 .... of years emergencies of the earth as they moved outbreak they mountain snow avalanches, strong winds from the food mass poisoning dovul the clouds, strong winds, floods, water accumulation and flooding of 2023 22393.5 4231.3 11835.1 3979.7 10728.0 17844.1 2024 24912.0 5322.7 10068.2 4774.7 12545.8 19424.0 ty -the emergency situation in the current case, the amount of; tx – major emergency situations , ko‘rsatkich, the amount of. using the information given to sh.alm, the method will have the following appearance regressiya distributed lag model: ttttt xxxxy  +++++= −−− 3322110 (3.31) here, ty the current in case the emergency situation, the amount of; tx – major emergency situations , ko‘rsatkich, the amount of. the second level of the structure is characterized polina me the equation with the assumption that we have put forward without it, the parameters are determined based on the following formula: 1 i have to polina level: 10 cc j += 2 i have to polina level: 2 210 jcjcc j ++= 3 level polina i have to: 3 3 2 210 jcjcjcc j +++= k polina level for me, the most general form as follows: k kj jcjcjcc ++++= ...2 210  (3.32) 210 ,, zzz o‘zgaruvchilarning value is calculated with the following formula: ltttt xxxxz −−− ++++= ... 210 59 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ltttt lxxxxz −−−− ++++= ...32 3211 ltttt xlxxxz −−−− ++++= 2 3212 ...94 lt k t k t k tk xlxxxz −−−− +++++= ......32 321 (3.33)is on the basis of the variables and have them 210 ,, zzz identify the variables in each indicator is calculated separately, and most of them will determine the parameters of linear equation by the method of small kvadratga regressiya. in this case this niladi quotes on the following formula: kkt zczczczcay +++++= ... 221100 (3.34) using ms excel application 210 ,,, zzzyt , which korrelyativ variables-regression analysis was carried out. as a result smx regressiya allows you to write the model in the following form: tt zzzy ++−+= 210 83.018.227.185.71 (3.35) (2) the parameters of the initial model of distributed based on the formula ( 3210 ,,,  ) will determine the value of: 27.10 = 07.083.018.227.1 1 −=+−= 25.083.04)18.2(227.1 2 =+−+= 25.283.09)18.2(327.1 3 =+−+= the results of this calculation to ko‘ra won in the form of a table. same as above to the emergency situation affecting a major emergency situation ko‘rsatkich was established for all models (table 2). territoryemergency situations at ko‘distribution models rsatkich 3.2-table emergencies indicators conditional of the characters lag model the earth as they moved mountain performance of the outbreak on the damage ty – emergency situation in the index smx – earth as they moved outbreak damage, mountain, 321 25.225.007.027.185.71 +−− ++−+= ttttt xxxxy snow avalanches, strong shamollarda ty – emergency situation index 321 92.216.067.044.033.833 +−− ++−+= ttttt xxxxy 60 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us damage akx – snow avalanches, strong shamollarda the damage the poison damage from the mass of food ty – emergency situations ko‘will rsatkich qix – the poison damage from the mass of food 321 29.358.027.095.088.1728 +−− ++−+= ttttt xxxxy in the morning dovul damage ty – emergency situation index chsx – dovul in the morning the damage 321 55.269.395.067.579.42 +−− −−−+−= ttttt xxxxy the floodsi, accumulation of water in flooding and damage ty – emergency situation index xsuv – floods, water accumulation and flooding damage. 321 06.004.036.092.026.480 +−− ++−+= ttttt xxxxy thus, the smx distributed lagli model will have the following appearance: 321 25.225.0)07.0(27.185.71 +−− ++−++= ttttt xxxxy the model of the current period, short term multiplikator 1,27 to equal that, ya’see , the gross domestic product t at the time 1,27 amount, a period when increases , while the 20.1)07.0(27.1)1( =−+−+t amount is reduced, two period increases when 1,45 = 0,25 + 1,20 2) +(t the amount increased ko‘rsat was. while the long-term multiplikator 3,70=2,25 + 0,25 + (-0,07) + 1,27 = 3)+(t that increased the amount ko‘browsing can be. also ko‘rinadiki, they moved there, mountain outbreak damage when it exceeds the size of a significant amount of after 3 years, the average size 3,70 will lead to an increase in the amount of damage in emergency situations. long-term value of the model will determine the relative regressiya koeffisiyentlar multiplikator: 34.0 70.3 27.1 0 == , 02.0 70.3 07.0 1 −= − = , 61 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 07.0 70.3 25.0 2 == , 61.0 70.3 25.2 3 == . so they moved here, mountain outbreak damage the overall size of the change coming 34,0% will take place at the present time; -2,0% from the present time )1( +t ; 7,0% from the current time )2( +t ; and this change only 61,0 % will happen in their own time )3( +t . in this way a general indicator of a major emergency situation change in the percent of the chamber and this process follows the average lag in the model the distribution of 3.3-in table. the model relative regressiya 3.3-the table emergencies indicators smx akx qix chsx qxx 0 0.34 0.15 0.20 cost 0.62 0.29 1 -0.02 -0.23 -0.06 4.84 0.06 2 0.07 0.06 0.12 5.02 -0.15 3 0.61 1.02 0.74 10.48 cost 0.20 l 1.94 2.95 2.39 0.62 0.29 in average, the territory's emergency situations, damage to change size as they moved there, mountain damage the outbreak of the year, the volume ofiga (1 year 9 months) to determine the effect can: yil. 1,94 =30,61 +2 0,07 + 1 (-0,02) + 0 0,34 = l therefore 3,4,5 o'clock-that from the results in the table ko‘it should be noted that browsing. o‘central emergency situations after the beginning of the change of the size of the damage far 3,70 change the amount of capacity that leads to damage of 3.4-is to summarize the table. 3.4-the table 2r the average change (year) short term emergencies (amount) long-term emergencies (mid) emergencies significantsocial emergencies smx 0,994024 1,94 1.27 3.7 720,7663 1,it is 07-14 akx 0,986854 2.95 0.44 2.85 325,2944 1,79-12 qix 0,970793 2.39 0.95 4.74 144,0325 3.18 e-10 chsx 0,99747 0.62 5.67 -1.53 1708,784 3.99 e-17 qxx 0,998464 0.29 0.92 1.26 2817,551 1.56 e-18 summarizing is from the table ko‘rinib as the name suggests, they moved the earth, the mountain due to the outbreak of the size of the display: 3.7 in the amount of, the main snow avalanches, strong winds -2,85 amount, the mass of food damage from the poisonof the world -4,74 amount, the clouds dovul -1,26 amount, emergency situations o‘of sgan, only floods water accumulation and flooding damage in emergency situations -1,53 the amount that reduced ko‘browsing our 62 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us can. regressiya equation priority fisher's f-criteria, on the basis of , were determined. f-criteria in the table the value 0,95 reliability in the probability of 5,41 to be established was [4]. this, while fisher's f-criteria , ko‘ra regressiya equation shows that it is significant. styudent t-criteria of evaluation results through regressiya while koeffisiyentlar-yatliligini ko‘rsat is. this model is slightly higher identify koeffisiyenti toe‘lish, despite the lag in the model structure, taking into account restrictions polina regressiya koeffisiyentlar i obtained towards the level of the standard error is significantly reduced. size is reduced the risk of emergency situations in the future, as a result, the safety of the population of the territory is significantly increased. major emergency situations , ko‘to produce forecasts of the impact of the value of polina rsatkich i also use the second level of the model it was. this model adekvatligi f–fisher criterion meeting‘was based on citizens (3.table 5). territory emergency situations ko‘models to calculate the effects of rsatkich 3.5 table emergencies indicators model determinasiya koeffisenti they moved there, mountain outbreak damage (x1) 1270,2 +283,7x 59,587x 2=y 9829.0r 2 = snow avalanches, strong damage shamollarda (x2) 3002,4 +16,038x + 143,3x 2=y 9918.0r 2 = mass of food damage from the poison (x3) 3002,4 +16,038x + 143,3x 2=y 9192.0r 2 = dovul the damage in the morning (x4) 764,81 +262,11x 56,51x 2=y 9876.0r 2 = floods, water accumulation and flooding (x5) 1363,1 +11,837x + 92,897x 2=y 9979.0r 2 = the size of the effect on the risk of emergency situations in the region, strong and weak, gardengreenhouses due to consider the availability of, and the following regression model was established and the forecasts is the value of (3.6-table). 0,999) (r x5*0,64+x4*1,66+x3 * 0,21 -x2*0,71+x1*0,79-1411,41=ŷ 2 = territory emergency situations ko‘forecast indicators of the volume of rsatkich 3.6-table year of the forecasts, the valueof s is the rate of change of the value of the forecasts forecast the value of the value of forecastsworld forecasts the value of the value forecast-s t y % x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 2021 33990,5 112,96 7652,3 27428,6 15881,4 6907,6 17216,6 2022 38777,1 114,08 8977,5 31313,7 18907,5 8171,2 19736,6 2023 43922,2 113,27 10421,8 35485,5 22206,5 9547,9 22442,5 2024 49425,9 112,53 11985,3 39943,8 25778,5 11037,6 25334,1 2025 55288,2 111,86 13667,9 44688,7 29623,4 12640,3 28411,6 change from the year 2025 compared to the year 1,84 x 2,05 1.86 2.46 2.15 1.88 63 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2021 an average change of the pace of 112.94 112.94 115.42 113.23 119.89 116.59 113.40 conclusion and suggestions. the forecast results of ko‘ra, emergency situations of the volume of real value from 2025-the year to go 55288,2 the amount of up makes and he's 2021-a year compared 1,84 times is increased. his next five years in o‘far central o‘it zgarib fighting’ati 12,94 percent up makes. today's the day areaat security representing major emergency situation ko‘rsatkich of the region in emergency situations ta’secret of the analysis are, that we can, the territoryat major emergency situation ko‘rsatkich of significantly ko‘to be payib 3 years within their o‘zgarib the dynamics show up toe‘ldi and thus which ko‘rsatkich of regional emergency situation zarariga ta’the secret to how that ko‘browsing can be. the list of used literature: 1. iom, east and horn of africa drought response overview, 2023. 2. m. binskin, a. bennett, a. macintosh, royal commission into national disaster arrangements. report, commonwealth of 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usa, 2018, pp. 3–24, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.001. 8. c. alice, from covid’s lessons for climate research: go local, nature 595 (2021) 9. 9. cred, human cost of disasters. an overview of the last 20 years (2010-2019), 2020. 10. h.a. de coninck, m. revi, p. babiker, m. bertoldi, a. buckeridge, w. cartwright, j. dong, s. ford, j.-c. fuss, d. hourcade, r. ley, p. mechler, a. newman, s. revokatova, l. 64 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us schultz, t. sugiyama steg, strengthening and implementing the global response, in: v. masson-delmotte, p. zhai, h.-o. p¨ ortner, d. roberts, j. skea, p.r. shukla, a. pirani, w. moufouma-okia, c. p´ ean, r. pidcock, s. connors, j.b.r. matthews, y. chen, x. zhou, m.i. gomis, e. lonnoy, t. maycock, m. tignor, t. waterfield (eds.), global warming of 1.5 ◦ c. an ipcc special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 ◦ c above preindustrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the 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assessment of the level of law violation leading to emergency situations in the areas. // american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 2, issue 7, 2024. 169-172-page. 16. a.axmedov, e.n.vassiyev. property damage after an emergency calculating average and indicators of variation. // excellencia international multi-disciplinary journal of education volume 02, issue 09, 2024 issn (e): 2994-95212024 27-29-page. 125-140 algorithm for hydraulic and thermal calculation of a two125 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 4, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 algorithm for hydraulic and thermal calculation of a two-pipe heating network based on quasi-one-dimensional modeling khujaev i. k. institute of mechanics and seismic stability of structures named after m.t.urazbaev, as ruz, tashkent, uzbekistan shirinov z. z. bukhara state university, bukhara, uzbekistan abstract: algorithms for hydraulic and thermal calculation of a two-pipe heating network with a limited number of heat exchangers have been developed. when modeling the functioning of the network, a single-term representation of the resistance coefficient, analogues of kirchhoff’s laws taking into account the variability of the leveling height of the network route, as well as shukhov’s formula and the average flow temperature of the coolant at the confluence of flows were used. formulas were obtained for determining arc flow rates, nodal pressure and temperature, taking into account the characteristics of individual heat exchangers. based on the proposed calculation method, a software product was compiled and a computational experiment was carried out within the framework of the quadratic resistance law. summary calculation results related to the network and individual heat exchangers are presented. the pressure and heat losses determined during the calculation make it possible to select the power of the heat source and pump. keywords: two-pipe heating network, multi-section heat exchanger, working fluid flow, quadratic resistance law, temperature, environment, shukhov's formula, analogues of kirchhoff's laws, heat and pressure loss in the network, computational experiment. 1. introduction to ensure the necessary conditions for temperature and humidity in working and living spaces, various methods are used. depending on the coolant, various devices have been developed and are being developed. if the ambient temperature is high, as is observed in tropical latitudes, then cooling is organized. if the ambient temperature is low for living and activity, then the room is insulated. this is required not only for people, but also for fauna and flora, which are part of the human economy. the main source of heat for the earth is the sun. the accepted international solar constant is 1.36 kw/m2 . this means that 1 square meter of the surface of the upper atmosphere perpendicular to the rays perceives 1.36 kw of solar energy. this energy on the entire surface of the earth from the sun increases the power generated by humanity thousands of times. in this regard, the use of solar energy is one of the main areas of green energy. the use of wind and water energy is also associated with solar energy [1]. among natural energy resources, heat occupies a certain place in the bowels of the earth. like a dying star, the earth transfers its heat to the surface boundary layer of the atmosphere. the power of this heat transfer process is thousands of times less than solar radiation, but it can also 126 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us be used for the benefit of humanity. work is underway to use the earth's temperature gradient [23], including the energy of geysers and groundwater [4] for heating or cooling rooms. studying these and other energy sources and developing effective ways to extract them are major challenges in the world's energy sector. at the same time, in the energy sector, methods and devices for heating and cooling rooms, which are the subject of research into heat and mass transfer processes, play an important role [ 5-13]. mathematical models and methods for solving heat transfer problems for various geometric and physical forms have been developed [14-16]. research continues in the area of resource and energy saving when organizing heat and mass transfer. in post-soviet territories there is a transition to individual heating and cooling systems for premises. those. instead of a single centralized heating system, thermal power plants and others began to widely use more compact and economical heating systems, including modern boilers and heat exchangers. the calculation of these installations, necessary for the design of a heating system, is carried out within the framework of empirical dependencies, which are based on the thermal pressure of the source and drain [17-18]. in particular, the calculation of a multi-section heat exchanger implies the distribution of coolant among sections, which determines the intensity of heat exchange with the environment. work [19] presents a simplified model of a heat exchanger connected to a single-strand heating network. the hypothetical basis of this model is the flow of coolant along the outer contour of the heat exchanger, and the liquid is idle in the internal vertical pipes. the problem of heat exchange in the working fluid-pipe-environment system is solved within the framework of boundary conditions of the third kind. in general, analogues of kirchhoff’s laws, which are important components in the theory of flow distribution , were used for hydraulic calculations [20-24]. a similar problem for a heat exchanger connected to a two-strand heating network was formed by the authors of the work earlier and solved analytically. this solution is used below in constructing algorithms for hydraulic and thermal calculations of a two-pipe heating network when a specific hydrodynamic flow regime has been established in the network. for thermal calculations, shukhov’s formula was used [12,23], which takes into account the integral characteristics of the flow and pipeline. 2. formulation of the problem a simple two-pipe heating network consists of a boiler, riser, expansion tank, distribution (upper) and collecting (lower) lines. in fig. 1 shows a schematic representation of a network with five heat exchangers. kt– boiler; etexpansion tank; – total flow rate on the riser; , ,… – costs by link; 1, 2,… – points of connection of links to the upper highway; , ,… – connection points to the lower highway; , ,… – heat exchangers figure 1. schematic representation of a simple two-pipe heating network with five heat exchangers ! !! !! !′ !′ !! !! 127 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us each link (in the figure ) of a two-pipe network consists of a supply part along the upper main line, a segment and an outlet part along the lower main line. the segment with the heat exchanger consists of an input jumper with a valve-regulator, the heat exchanger itself and an output jumper. they are connected from above to the upper line, and from below to the lower line. the total difference in the leveling height of the th segment is . here are the leveling heights of the th nodes of the upper and lower highways. the distribution (upper) line (012345 in the figure) starts from the expansion tank and reaches the upper node of the final segment. the (lower) line collecting spent working fluid (in the figure ) starts from the lower node of the th segment and ends at the bottom of the container in the furnace. the distance from the bottom of the boiler to the expansion tank is equal to the sum of the height of the boiler with the length of the riser and is . each link has its own link lengths with lengths in the upper and lower lines. parts of the upper line have internal and external diameters, resistance coefficient and length , leveling height , measured from the zero level . same designations are entered for parts for the lower main. the costs by segments are , ,… , the sum of which, according to the law of conservation of mass, is equal to the total water consumption in the network. each segment (in the figure ) consists of upper and lower jumpers with lengths and . they are made from the same pipe with a diameter and thickness . the resistance coefficient of the vertical component segments is . the upper and lower jumpers are connected to each other by a heat exchanger (in the figure ), the parameters of which, except for the number of sections and ambient temperature, are the same. we need to find the nodal pressures and temperatures of the working agent, for the calculation of which we also need the values of local flow rates. those. the problem of flow distribution in a two-pipe network is solved. 3. materials, methods and object of study the mathematical apparatus involved is built taking into account the force of gravity. the heated coolant rises from the boiler to the expansion tank. the low density of water in the boiler serves as a driving force and gravity and friction work against it. next, the heated coolant enters the upper line. it has a negative slope and possibly telescopic : from a large diameter to a smaller diameter. the flow is distributed into segments along which the working unit descends down to the lower line. the lower main also has a negative slope in the direction of flow and is possibly telescopic . with this schematization, the main problem of the theory of flow distribution is solved in advance [20-24,26] the flow directions in the arcs of a complex network are determined. despite this, it is quite difficult to use the provisions of the theory of flow distribution , so below we use formulas for hydraulic calculation of the network using analogues of kirchhoff’s laws, as well as the formula for the pressure drop in a heat exchanger with sections. the pressure drop in an elementary section from the beginning ( h ) to the end ( k ) takes into account changes in the leveling height and friction force of the pipeline: ! "# ! ! "# #! ! ! !′ ′− − !!′ ! ! !" "−! !! !" "! ! ! ! " # $ % &′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ! ! !!" # #= −! ! ! "#! !− !!" − ! "#! !+ !" !" !" #λ !" !" !′ !!"′ !!"′ !!""λ !!"′ !"′ ! "#! !′ ′+ !! !! !" ! ! "# ! "#! !! !′ ′− − ! "# ! "# ′ !" !δ !λ ! !" ! ! ! " !! ! " "! "# ! "# $ % & λρ ρ ρ + = + − 128 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us such a quasi-one-dimensional representation of the law of conservation of momentum for a pipeline of circular cross-section is universal in nature from the point of view of the hydrodynamic flow regime, because drag coefficient takes into account all flow regimes. for given values of the equivalent roughness coefficient and reynolds number the formula covers all five flow regimes and is called the generalized leibenzon formula . according to [25-26], in the laminar flow regime, constant formulas can be used according to the stokes formula , in the transition regime the zaichenko formula , in the smooth regime of turbulent flow around roughness the blasius formula , in mixed – leibenzon formula , and in the developed form – shifrinson’s formula . the law of conservation of mass takes into account the mutual equality of input and output costs. the volumetric flow rates in the sections of the arcs and are mutually equal, because in the direction of flow they have positive knowledge. in addition, as already noted, there is equality analogs of kirchhoff's first and second laws were used in hydraulic calculations [ ] . the law of heat conservation in an elementary area is described by shukhov’s formula [12,23]: . here is the temperature of the coolant at the outlet of the section; – inlet temperature and ambient temperature; – shukhov parameter; – the average value of the heat transfer coefficient between the liquid and the environment through the walls of the pipeline; – external area of the pipeline per linear meter; – volumetric flow rate of liquid; – specific heat capacity of the pipeline material. thermal calculations take into account the formula for the average temperature of mutually combining flows. let's start with the hydraulic calculation of a two-pipe network. in the jumpers, the fluid flow is . at a given inlet pressure at node 1, the pressure is determined from the formula: here ; – change in leveling height in part of the link from the upper and lower pipes. the pressure drop across the elementary link is determined from the formula ( )! "#!" # θλ ζ= ! !" ( )!"# $# %ζ θ ϕ= = = − ( )!"!!#$% !% &' (ζ θ ϕ= = = ( )!"#$%&' !' $( &ζ θ ϕ= = = − ( )!"#$%&! ' !'&$%' !"&$(ζ θ ϕ−= = = − ( )!"##$ !"%&$ !ζ θ ϕ= = = ! !′ ! ! " ! " " # # + = =∑ ( ) ( )!"#! "# $ "#! ! ! ! "#$= + − − !! !! "#! ! !" !" # $ b &d (! π ρ = !"# !"!π ! !" ! !!! != ( )! ! " " " #! ! "# " $ $ # ! "αρ+ − − = ! ! " ## !" !" ! ! #$ % & λ ρ = ! " ! !" "− ! "′ ′ 129 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us note that the diameter for the upper and lower lines was taken to be the same value. also, the lengths of the links in the upper and lower mains are the same and amount to . if those. the network consists of one segment , then the pressure drop formula for a segment with a heat exchanger is: this takes into account the number of sections , height and length of individual sections of the 1st heat exchanger: calculation is carried out from recurrently for , . that for a network consisting of one segment, summing the last three equalities term by term , we obtain the formula let's proceed to the hydraulic calculation of a network with n segments . we divide the network into links , , …, n . each link includes an upper arc , a segment with heat exchanger sections and a lower arc . the total difference in leveling height between the upper and lower points of the link is . the pressure loss in part of the link in the upper line is calculated from the flow rate which is the same as the flow rate of the lower arc . accordingly, the total pressure loss in the th segment is determined by the dependence in the composition, through the term, the pressure drop across the th heat exchanger with sections at flow rate is taken into account . the first and third terms reflect the pressure difference in the upper and lower bridges of the segment. to determine the pressure values at the connection nodes of links and link flow rates for a fixed number of connected network segments, we use the method of mathematical induction. those. with an increase in the number of segments, as was done for calculating a multi-section heat ! ! " " !# $ %! ! "#$ " % % $ & 'αρ′ ′ ′ ′+ − − = !" !! !! = ( ) ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " " # " " ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! # #$ % & & $ d ( ) * + * + α αλ ρ λ ρρ  ′ ′ ′  + − − = + +     !! " !! ! ! " # " ! " # " # ! " # ! " ! $ ! ! " ! α α α − − + = + + !" ! "! = !! ! " ! ! ! # $ % & λ ρ = !! ! " ! ! ! #$ % & λ ρ = ! ! ! " " " " " "# #$ % & # # ! ! ! ! "! "#! ! ! $ ! ! ! ! % %& " d d & ( ( ) ( * + , + , α αλ ρ λ ρρ ′  ′ ′  + − − = + + + +     ! ! ! ! "#! !− ! !" ! "#! !′ ′− ! !" "′− ( )! " " # " # " $ $ %%% $ ! ! ! " " # $ $ $ # $ # $ $ # $ $ $ = = = − = = − = − −∑ !" ′ ( )!! !′ ′+ ! ! !" # $ ! !! " " " ! " ! ! ! ! ! ! " # ! ! ! ! " " " " $ $% & d d % ( ) * ( ( ( + , + , α α α α αλ ρ λ ρρ ′ ′ ′+ − − = + + = λ !λ !" # !$ % &α α ! !" !" !λ 130 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us exchanger, starting from two segments. in this case, the calculation of values is carried out separately from this algorithm. consider a network consisting of two segments (fig. 2). let's consider the contour separately . this corresponds to a two-segment system in which the remaining segments , ,... are disabled. the meanings of and are defined above. figure 2. a network consisting of two segments. let's calculate the pressure drop along an arc (in a segment) consisting of three parts, and along an arc consisting of five parts: here, the first and last terms take into account pressure losses in parts of the upper and lower lines, which have the same length . the left sides of the equalities are mutually equal, then their right sides will also be mutually equal: from here we find where here the index „ “ refers the result to the first segment of the two-segment network. because !! !!′ !"" !′ ! ! !! !! ′ !!′ ( ) ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !" "" " ! ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! # $ % % # & &d ( ) ) * + * + α α α ρ λ ρ λ ρ ′′+ − − =  ′  = + + = λ     !"" !′ ′ ( ) ! " " " " " " ! ! " " ! ! !! ! ! ! # ! ! ! ! !" " " !# " " " $ ! ! " " " " ! ! % ! & & % d ( ( d) * + + , , , , α α α ρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ ′ ′+ − − =  ′ = + + + + = λ     !λ !! ! ! " " #! !α αλ = λ ! "! " #! " != ! " ! !" " " " ! ! ! ! ! !" " " " ! ! ! ! ! ! # ! ! ! !"! "# ! ! ! $ " " ! ! ! ! " " ! ! ! ! ! $ ! ! ! ! % %& &d ( ) * ) * ) * ) * + % %d ( ) * ) * α α α α λ ρ λ ρλ ρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ ′ + + + + λ = = λ ′ + + !" ! " "! " " "! "#! $ %! ! ! " ! ! " != + = + = + 131 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us then we have all that remains is to find : let's consider a network of three segments (fig. 3). figure 3. a network consisting of two segments. let's repeat. let's repeat the procedure from the first algorithm for calculating a multi-section heat exchanger. the difference is that instead of identical sections, in this case each link has its own indicators. let's calculate the pressure loss on the arcs and : from the last parts of the equalities we get , where now let's turn to the contour . the flow rate along the arcs and is equal to , and along the arc . that's why !" ! " !" !" " # $ " " !" " " " ! ! = = + + !!′ ( ) !" " " " " " !" # " !" " # $ $ % ! α αρ   ′ ′= + − +λ  +  !!′ !"" !′ ′ ( ) ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! " ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! # $ % % # & &d ( ) ) * + * + α α α ρ λ ρ λ ρ ′ ′+ + − =  ′  = + + = λ     ( ) ! " " " " ! !" " " " ! ! !" " " " # " " " " ! !"! "# ! ! ! $ " " ! ! ! ! " " % " & & % d d( () * + + , , , , α α α ρ λ ρ λ ρλ ρ λ ρ ′ ′+ + − =  ′  = + + + + = λ     ! "! "! " != ! " ! !" " " " " " " " ! !" " " " " " " " " " # " " ! !"! "# ! ! ! $ " " ! ! ! ! " " ! ! ! ! ! $ ! ! ! ! % %& &d ( ) * ) * ) * ) * + % %d ( ) * ) * α α α α λ ρ λ ρλ ρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ ′ + + + + λ = = λ ′ + + !"" !′ ′ !" ! "′ !! !− !!! !′ − 132 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us from here we find , where according to the model, it follows that , , . in this case, the pressure loss in the heat exchanger is consider a network of four segments (see fig. 2 without the left part) . following the steps to calculate a network of three segments, we have , where , where , where here ( ) ( ) ( ) ! " ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !" " ! ! " " " " ! ! " " "" " " " " " " " " " # " " " " ! ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! #! ! ! #$ ! " # # # # % %& # d d & ( ) * * + , + , % % -( ) * * + , + , + , + , α α α α α α λ ρ λ ρρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ ′  ′ ′  + + − = + + = λ =      ′′ = + + + + = λ   ′ ′  ! "! #! " != !" #"$! != ( ) ( )! " # #! " " # #" #! # # #" #! #! ! ! $! ! ! ! " ! ! ! " " ! ! " " ! = + + = + + = + + = + +  ( )! !" !# # # # ! ! " " = + + ( ) !" " !" !## # !" " ! ! = + + ( ) !" !# # !" !## # ! !" " ! ! = + + ( ) ( ) ( ) ! ! ! ! ! ! "# "! ! ! ! ! "# "! $ ! ! ! ! " # # $ % %! " # # $ % % α α α ρ ρ ′′ ′= + − +λ =   ′= + − +λ   + +  ! "! "! " != ! " " " ! ! " " # # # # !" " " # # # # # # $ # # !" " " !# " " " $ ! ! " " " " ! ! " " " " " $ " " " " % & & %d ( ) * ) * ) * ) * + & &d ( ) * ) * α α α λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ λ ρ ′ + + + + = ′ + + ! "! #! " != !" #"$! != ! "! #! " != !" #"$! != 133 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us from here we find then , , . in this case, when we have the result is a visual algorithm for calculating a network of links. if the number of links (segments) is equal to , then for the flow rate of the first segment we have the formula ,..., for the flow rate of the th segment – ,..., for the flow rate of the th segment – and for the flow rate of the th segment – . using these values, arc flow rates are calculated: along the arcs and the flow rate is ; along the arcs and the flow rate is ; ( ) ( ){ } ! " # $ $" $! # $ $# $" $! $ ! ! ! ! ! % ! ! ! ! ! " " ! ! " " " ! = + + + = + + + =   = + + +   ( )! !" !# !$ % $ $ $ !! " " " = + + +   ( ) !" " !" !# !$$ $ $ !" " ! ! ! = + + +   ( ) !" !# # !" !# !$$ $ $ ! !" " ! ! ! = + + +   ( ) !" !# !$ $ !" !# !$$ $ $ ! ! !" " ! ! ! = + + +   ! ! ! ! " "" " ! ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! # #$ % & d & d αλ ρ λ ρ ′ λ = + + ( ) ( ) !" !# !$ $ $ $ $ $ !" !# !$ % $ $ $ ! ! !" " # $ $ % ! ! ! α αρ′   ′ ′= + − −λ   + + +    ! ! ( )( ) ! "# ! $# % $ " " ! "# ! $# $ " &&& " " " &&& " ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " " " " " # # " " " " − − − − =  + + + +  ! ( )( ) ! "# ! $# ! "# ! $# $ " %%% " " " %%% " ! ! ! ! !" " ! ! ! ! ! ! # # # $ $ # # # # − − − − =  + + + +  !! − ( )( ) ! "# " ! "# ! $# $ "" " " %%% " ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " # # " " " " − − − − =  + + + +  ! ( )( )! "# ! $# $ " " " " " %%% "! ! ! ! ! ! ! " " # # # #− − =  + + + +  !" ! "′ ′ !! "= !" ! "′ ′ ! !! " "= − 134 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us along arcs and the flow rate is ;… along arcs and the flow rate is ;… along arcs , and the flow rate is . with known values of flow rate and local difference in leveling height, it is not difficult to calculate the values of all nodal pressures. but of the nodal pressures we are only interested in : all arc costs that are necessary for thermal calculations, as well as the pressure loss on the network, have been determined. thermal calculation of the network within the framework of the shukhov formula is carried out for all arcs that are taken into account when calculating individual heat exchangers. at the outlet of the expansion tank, the temperature of the heated water is . we need to find the temperature of the exhaust liquid at the inlet to the boiler, i.e. at the end of the two-strand part of the pipeline. first, we determine the nodal water temperatures in the upper main, where the flow rate decreases along the way. next, we will determine the temperature differences in the links between the upper and lower lines, where the flow rate is . at the nodes of the lower main line we find the average temperature of the working agent depending on the flow rates of the mutually connecting flows. in order not to pile up the volume of calculations, we assume that in the zone of the th link the ambient temperature is . since the proportions of the temperature difference in parts of the upper and lower mains are small, then with this assumption the error will be quite small. arc 01 . at the end of the arc, the coolant temperature is , where . arc 02 . at the end of this segment we have , where . etc… arcs n(n+ 1 ) for n<n . the final temperature at the exit of these arcs, with the designation , will be ... !" ! "′ ′ ! " !! " " "= − − ( )!! !+ ( )!! !′ ′+ ! ! ! " " # $ $ = = −∑ ( )!! ! − !! ′ ( )!! ! ′′ − ! ! ! " " # $ $ = = −∑ !! ′ ( ) ! " " " "! ! ! ! " " " " # # # # ! ! ! ! $ # # # # !" !#" " " $ ! ! ! ! % %& &d d ! ( ( ) * + , , , , α αλ ρ λ ρλ ρ λ ρρ′  ′′ ′= + + − + + + +   ′ ′  !! !! !" ! !"#$ ( ) ( )! " " ! "#$%!" ! "## # # # $% &= + − − ( )! ! " #!" ! # $ %& ! d π δ ρ + = ( ) ( )! " " " ! "#$%!" !"# # # # $% &= + − − ( )! ! " ! "!" ! # $ %& ! d π δ ρ + = ( )! ! ! ! "!" # # # ! " $ % &d ! ( π δ ρ + + + + + = ( ) ( )! !"#$! "#! ! "#! ! !$ $ $ $ %& '+ += + − − 135 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us arc . the fluid flow through this three-link arc is constant and amounts to . let's carry out the calculation along the arcs. arc : . arc . this is a segment with a heat exchanger. for each segment with a heat exchanger, the temperature is calculated in three steps. in the first step, the temperature value at the end of the upper jumper (i.e. at the inlet to the heat exchanger) is calculated: at . for the heat exchanger, the calculation is carried out using our formulas. as a result, the value of the water temperature at the outlet of the heat exchanger at the inlet water temperature is determined . the value is used in the formula for the temperature at the lower end of the downstream pipe: at . here, according to the model, the vertical pipes have the same diameters and thicknesses . this entire three-step process can be expressed through the relationship , which is facilitated by the materials for the heat exchanger. and for the arc we use this algorithm and as a result we find the value . arc . here we have at . the node is characterized by the fact that the flows along the arcs (with flow rate and temperature ) and (with flow rate and temperature ) will merge into a common flow flowing along the arc . in this regard, we determine the average flow temperature of water at the outlet of the unit : , ( ) ( )! !! !! ! ′′− − !" ( )!! !− ( ) ( )! ! !"#$! "#$ ! "#! ! !% % % % &' (− − −= + − − !! ′ ! ! ( ) ( )! !"#$! "# ! "#! $! !% % % % &' '= + − − ! ( ) ! "!" # # "$ ! " % & d( ! ) π δ ρ + = !!" !!" !!" ( ) ( )! !"#$! "# ! "#! $! !% % % % &' '′′ ′= + − − ( ) ! "!" # # "$ ! " % & d( ! ) π δ ρ + = !" !δ ( )! !! ! !" # ! " $′′ = !! ′ !" ′′ ( )!! ! ′′ − ( ) ( ) ( ) ! "#$!" # !"# # ## $ $ $ $ %& '′ ′ ′ ′′− = + − − ( )!!" # # # ! " $ % &d ! ( π δ ρ ′ ′ ′ + = ( )!! ′− !! ′ !!" − !!" − ( ) ( )! !! !! ! ′′− − !" ( )!! " ′− ( ) ( )! "! !′ ′− − ( )!! ′− ( ) ( ) ( )! ! ! ! " ! !! ! ! ! " # " # # " − ′ ′− − ′− − ′ + = 136 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where was taken into account , and the value was calculated using the formula . the average temperature of the liquid is calculated similarly at : . the final calculated temperature value corresponds to the temperature of the coolant at the outlet of the heat exchanger. using it, we find the temperature value at the outlet from the network (i.e. at the entrance to the furnace ): , where . this is the proposed algorithm for calculating the temperature difference of the liquid working agent in a two-pipe network with heat exchangers. note that the calculation for a separate link with a heat exchanger was carried out above with the corresponding elements. 4. results as an example, we calculated a two-strand heating network with five radiators. the radiator parameters were: , . the diameters of the jumpers (pipelines in segments) were , their thickness was the resistance coefficient – . in all other arcs, the value of the drag coefficient was calculated for the quadratic flow regime: at . the inlet fluid velocity was , which corresponds to the volumetric flow rate . the values of other network indicators are presented in the following table. 1 table 1. summary table of initial data for calculation two-strand heating network with five radiators indicators arc or node numbers 0 1 2 3 4 5 length of the upper and lower arcs, m 10.0 8.0 10.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 diameters of the upper and lower arcs, m 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.35 0.35 0.35 wall thicknesses of the upper and lower arches, m 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.004 leveling height of the upper nodes, m 3.50 3.49 3.47 3.45 3.42 3.40 leveling height of lower nodes m 0.000 0.010 0.030 0.050 0.080 0.100 ! "! ! !" " "− −= + ( )!! " ′− ( )! ! !!" "! ! !" # ! " $− − −′ = − ( ) ( )! " # " $$$ # " ! " %! " "′ ′′ ′ ′ ′= − − ( )! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " # " # # " + ′− ′ − ′+ = !! ′ ( ) ( )! ! " ! " !#$%! "# "#! ! ! ! ! "# $′ ′ ′= = + − − ( )! ! " #!" ! # $ %& ! d π δ ρ′ ′ ′+ = ! !"!# $! "= !"#! $! "= !"#$ %!" #= !"!# $!" #= !"!# $!" #= !"!# $! "δ = !"!# $! "δ = !"!!#!λ = !"!!#!λ = !"!#!" #= !"!# $! "δ = !"!!#!λ = ( )!"#$!"%% &! "λ = !"!!#! "= !"#!!! $! " #= !"#$$%! &! " #= 137 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us leveling height of the upper arc assembly, m 3.50 3.49 3.47 3.45 3.42 3.40 leveling height of the lower arc unit, m 0.0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.1 length of the upper vertical pipe, m – 2.78 2.74 2.70 2.64 2.60 length of the lower vertical pipe, m – 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 number of sections in radiators – 12 10 15 8 7 ambient temperature, in celsius 15 20 17 15 17 20 let us present the calculation results. the developed software product allows you to obtain complete information about each individual heat exchanger. to control the progress of the calculation, the values of the same indicators were additionally printed for each heat exchanger. in particular , for the 4th heat exchanger with 8 fins, the following results were obtained (table 2). table 2. summary table of calculated data two-strand heating network with five radiators indicators numbers of arcs or network nodes 0 1 2 3 4 5 area costs of the upper and lower arcs, l/s – 1. 00 53 1 0. 77 14 3 0. 55 16 3 0. 34 84 3 0. 16 04 8 precinct costs of segments, l/ s – 0. 23 38 8 0. 21 98 0 0. 20 32 0 0. 18 79 5 0. 16 04 8 nodal pressure of the upper arc, pa 12 00 00 11 48 65 .5 6 11 25 96 .8 3 11 12 17 .5 0 11 08 78 .1 5 11 08 05 .5 0 pressure at the lower end of the segment, pa – 14 51 97 .9 2 14 29 37 .1 2 14 15 93 .0 7 14 10 34 .0 2 14 11 06 .6 8 nodal pressure of the lower arc, pa 13 19 12 .1 7 13 70 46 .6 2 13 93 15 .3 4 14 06 94 .6 7 14 10 34 .0 2 14 11 06 .6 8 nodal temperatures of the upper arc, c 70 69 .0 4 68 .0 5 66 .3 1 65 .1 3 60 .0 8 138 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us coolant temperature at the lower end of the segments, c – 68 .3 8 67 .3 5 65 .5 7 64 .3 6 59 .1 9 nodal temperatures of the lower arc, c 51 .8 2 51 .9 2 49 .0 3 53 .0 7 44 .1 7 48 .9 9 table 3. calculation results for the second heat exchanger with eight sections radiator performance numbers of arcs or heat exchanger units 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 upper arc flow, l/ s 0. 18 79 5 0. 16 33 9 0. 13 93 6 0. 11 57 3 0. 09 23 6 0. 06 91 7 0. 04 60 8 0. 02 30 3 vertical arc flow, l/ s 0. 02 45 6 0. 02 40 3 0. 02 36 4 0. 02 33 7 0. 02 31 9 0. 02 30 9 0. 02 30 5 0. 02 30 2 upper nodal pressures, pa 14 10 34 .0 2 14 10 33 .8 9 14 10 28 .3 7 14 10 33 .7 4 14 10 33 .7 0 14 10 33 .6 8 14 10 33 .6 7 14 10 33 .6 6 lower nodal pressures, pa 14 10 28 .1 5 14 10 28 .2 8 14 10 28 .3 7 14 10 28 .4 3 14 10 28 .4 7 14 10 28 .4 9 14 10 28 .5 0 14 10 28 .5 1 temperatures in the upper nodes, 0 c 64 .3 6 64 .0 9 63 .7 8 63 .4 0 62 .9 3 62 .3 0 61 .3 5 59 .4 7 temperature at the lower end of the vertical pipes, 0 c 53 .8 5 53 .5 4 53 .1 9 52 .8 0 52 .3 3 51 .7 1 50 .7 9 51 .2 9 temperatures in the lower nodes, 0 c 54 .2 0 53 .9 2 53 .6 2 53 .2 9 52 .9 3 52 .5 0 51 .9 6 51 .2 9 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. conclusion a model and algorithm for calculating a modern heat exchanger and a two-strand heating network within the framework of a quasi-one-dimensional approach are proposed. when describing mass transfer, the factor of leveling height was taken into account, a singleterm representation of the law of friction resistance and analogues of kirchhoff's laws were used. when modeling heat transfer, the shukhov and average flow temperature formulas were used. analytical formulas are obtained for calculating the flow rates for the elements of the upper and lower arcs, as well as for the vertical segments, and the nodal pressure and temperature of the working fluid in a network with a limited number of segments and its multi-section heat exchangers. using the proposed algorithms for calculating the network and its active element, a software product was developed and a computational experiment was carried out to determine the pressure loss and heat of the coolant. it was revealed that the lowest value of the coolant temperature is observed in the lower part of the most finished element (heat exchanger and segment). references 1. matveev l.t. general meteorology course. atmospheric physics (2nd ed.). – leningrad: gidrometeoizdat , 1984. – 751 p. 2. mohamed kh ., brahim b., karim l., hassan h., pierri h., amin b. experimental and numerical study of an earth-to-air heat exchanger for buildings air refreshment in marrakech // proceedings of bs2015: 14th conference of international building performance simulation association , hyderabad , india , dec. 7-9, 2015. – p. 2230-2236. 3. fazlikhani faezeh , goudarzi hossein , solgi ebrahi . numerical analysis of the efficiency of earth to air heat exchange systems in cold and hot-arid climates // energy conversion and management , 2017, no. 5, t: 148. – p. 78-89. 4. tikhomirov k.v., sergeenko e.s. heat engineering, heat and gas supply and ventilation: 4th ed., revised . and additional – m.: stroyizdat , 1991. – 480 p. 5. isserlin a.s. fundamentals of gas fuel combustion: a reference guide. – 2nd ed., revised . and additional – l.: nedra, 1987. – 336 p. 6. yudaev b.n. heat transfer. textbook for colleges. – m.: higher school, 1973. – 360 p. 7. shirkovsky a.i. development and operation of gas and gas condensate fields: textbook for universities. – 2nd ed. , revised . and additional – m. nedra, 1987. – 309 p. 8. tikhomirov k.v., sergeenko e.s. heat engineering, heat, gas supply and ventilation. – m.: stroyizdat , 1991. – 480 p. 9. isachenko v.p., osipova v.a., sukomel a.s. heat transfer. – m., 1987. – 420 p. 10. isaev s.i., kozhinov i.a. and others. theory of heat and mass transfer . ed. a.i. leontyev . – m.: higher school, 1979. – 495 p. 11. loytsyansky l.g. mechanics of liquid and gas. – m.: bustard, 2003. – 842 p. 12. mirkin a.z., usinsh v.v. pipeline systems. – m.: chemistry, 1991. – 256 p. 13. novoselov v.f. et al. typical calculations for the design and operation of gas pipelines. – m.: nedra, 1982. – 136 p. 14. isaev s.i., kozhinov i.a. and others. theory of heat and mass transfer . ed. a.i. leontyev. – m.: higher school, 1979. – 495 p. 15. isachenko v.p., osipova v.a., sukomel a.s. heat transfer. – m., 1957. – 420 p. 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 16. khudjaev m. analytical solution to the problem of fluid outflow from an axisymmetric channel . e3s web of conferences . 371, 06004 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202337106004 17. tikhomirov k.v., seregeenko e.s. heating engineering, heat and gas supply and ventilation: textbook . for universities. – 4th ed., revised . and additional – m.: stroyizdat , 1991. – 480 p. 18. akbasov a.r. development of an intelligent management system for city heating networks: diss ... doctoral phd . – almaty, kazakh national technical university named after. k.i. satpayeva , 2011. – 115 p. 19. khujaev i.k., shirinov z.z. hydraulic and thermal calculation of a multi-section heat exchanger operating in a single-pipe heat supply network // problems of mechanics, tashkent, 2023, no. 4. – pp. 44-56. 20. merenkov a.p., khasilev v.ya. theory of hydraulic circuits. – m.: nauka, 1985. – 278 p. 21. sennova e.b., sidler v.g. mathematical modeling and optimization of developing heat supply systems. – novosibirsk: nauka, 1987. – 222 p. 22. evdokimov a.g., tevyashev a.d., dubrovsky v.v. modeling and optimization of distribution flow in utility networks. – 2nd ed., revised . and additional – m.: stroyizdat , 1990. – 468 pp. 88-127. 23. zvereva t.v., chelintsev s.n., yakovlev e.i. modeling of pipeline transport for petrochemical plants. – m.: chemistry, 1987. – 176 p. pp. 90-93. 24. shterenlikht d.v. hydraulics: textbook . n special for universities. – m.: energoatomizdat , 1991. – 351 p. 25. sadullaev r. et al. calculation of the main gas pipeline taking into account the terrain // gas industry. – moscow, 2003. – no. 8. – pp. 58-59. 26. khujaev i.k. development of mathematical models of diffusion combustion and gas transportation through a pipeline: dissertation ... doctor of engineering . sci. – tashkent, imiss an ruz , 2009. – 336 p. 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 10, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 three-dimensional unsteady analysis of fluid–structure interaction in check valves of diaphragm volumetric pumps ali shakir hial alaqra abstract: a comprehensive unsteady three-dimensional numerical model employing dynamic meshing techniques has been developed to simulate the fluid–structure interaction (fsi) occurring within the non-return valves of air-operated diaphragm pumps. this advanced 3d cfd model offers a more precise representation of flow dynamics and a more accurate assessment of valve motion behavior compared to the earlier 2d model previously introduced by the authors. the improved model particularly enhances the understanding of internal volumetric losses caused by valve movement, which negatively impact the overall efficiency of the pump. the study investigated both piston-type and deformable diaphragm geometries under sinusoidal displacement conditions. results showed comparable performance in terms of basic pump functionality for both configurations. detailed simulations under normal operating and freedischarge conditions revealed increased instability in the check valves when the supplied air pressure was low.notably, the exhaust valve exhibited significant valve "tapping," characterized by repeated partial closures during the forward stroke due to strong fluid–structure interactions. in contrast, the intake (aspirating) valve demonstrated more stable sealing behavior, with only minor reopening observed at the onset of the backward stroke.these numerical insights have proven valuable for pump manufacturers, informing improvements in valve design, material selection, and maintenance strategies. the findings have directly contributed to the development of new and more efficient pump prototypes keywords: 3d cfd modeling, air-operated double diaphragm pump, dynamic mesh, fluid– structure interaction (fsi), ball valve tapping. 1. introduction a diaphragm pump is a type of positive displacement machine that transfers fluid by flexing an elastic membrane (the diaphragm). it typically handles highly viscous fluids and relies on a pair of non-return (check) valves to prevent backflow during operation. among these, air-operated diaphragm pumps are particularly common; they use a dual-diaphragm configuration with four check valves, driven by compressed air through a shuttle valve system that alternates the diaphragm movement. these systems are widely referred to as air-operated double diaphragm (aodd) pumps. in this configuration, the elastomeric diaphragm serves a dual purpose: it creates a reciprocating motion to move the fluid and simultaneously acts as a dynamic seal. this eliminates common problems found in other pump types, such as internal leakage, abrasive wear, and the need for lubrication. however, the check valves in aodd pumps remain vulnerable to mechanical degradation, including worn valve balls, deformed seats, misaligned guides, and damaged orings—typically resulting from high-cycle fatigue. 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us traditionally, the development of aodd pumps has relied heavily on experimental methods to evaluate performance, ensure material compatibility, and assess pump durability under various operating conditions [1,2]. industry standards [2] are available to guide this process. however, most design improvements have historically emerged from trial-and-error methods, often inspired by competitor designs and incorporating only minor, proven changes. given the increasing demand for rapid and cost-effective prototype evaluation, modern simulation tools—especially computational fluid dynamics (cfd)—are now essential in pump development. in this context, samoa industrial s.a. [3,4], a leading european manufacturer of fluid-handling equipment, has introduced a new generation of aodd pumps featuring a reengineered internal layout. their design leverages cfd simulations to assess and optimize pump performance at the prototyping stage. in a previous study by the authors [5], a novel cfd methodology was presented to analyze diaphragm pump performance using a deformable mesh technique. this allowed simulation of the diaphragm’s full unsteady motion and detailed modeling of the fluid–structure interaction (fsi) between the fluid and the check valve balls. similar numerical methods have also been applied in the analysis of other types of positive displacement pumps, including axial piston pumps [6], air-operated piston pumps [7], plunger pumps [8], and vane pumps [9]. researchers have further investigated the suction characteristics and geometric optimization of these machines [10,11], along with the effects of non-newtonian fluid behavior [12]. more recent efforts have combined these cfd models with cavitation simulations to better understand suction phenomena [13,14]. a significant research focus now lies in modeling the dynamic behavior of check valves and their interaction with the diaphragm or piston motion. to this end, transient fsi simulations have become widely used in analyzing reciprocating pumps with non-return valves. initial studies modeled the ball motion using deformable grids [15] to simulate high-pressure safety valves [16], ball valves [17], and disk valves [18]. advanced studies now investigate the behavior of discharge valves within full 3d pump geometries, such as plunger pumps [19] and reciprocating piston pumps [20]. parallel developments have applied similar techniques to linear [21] and rotary compressors [22,23], using software tools like ansys fluent® and adina®. in contrast, very few cfd studies exist on diaphragm pumps. one exception is a simulation of a piston-diaphragm pump with spring-loaded check valves using an immersed boundary method and fsi modeling [24], while another recent study analyzed spring-loaded port valves in a diaphragm pump [25]. these studies simplify the numerical problem by incorporating spring stiffness, which restricts ball displacement and improves convergence. however, in the absence of springs, physical stoppers must be modeled, as described by the authors in [5], with precise control over the time-step size to ensure numerical stability and accuracy. the earlier 2d simulations produced results in good agreement with experimental data and demonstrated the value of spatial flow analysis in understanding valve dynamics. in the current work, this methodology is extended to a full 3d simulation of the diaphragm pump. an implicit scheme is used for both mesh motion and the governing fluid equations, adopting an unsteady reynolds-averaged navier–stokes (urans) approach with the rng k–ε turbulence model. initially, the diaphragm's volumetric displacement is modeled using an equivalent cylindrical piston that delivers the same stroke volume. high-resolution meshes are implemented near the valve seats to accurately capture the fluid–structure interaction between the flow and the check valves at various stages of the pumping cycle. both previous 2d and new 3d results are compared under high and low-pressure operating conditions, evaluating global pump behavior and localized valve responses—specifically focusing on oscillations and valve tapping. finally, the study presents an enhanced model that incorporates the actual 3d geometry of the deforming diaphragm, showing comparable performance to the simplified piston approach. the full 3d simulation reveals significant flow recirculations and rotational flow components in the 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us discharge manifolds, along with oscillatory motion of the check valve balls, associated leakage flows, and time delays in valve opening and closing—all fully resolved using cfd techniques. 2. air-operated double diaphragm pump: geometry and performance overview the pump analyzed in this study is the dp-200, a commercially available aodd pump from a newly developed series by samoa industrial s.a., a global leader in fluid transfer technology and volumetric pump design [26]. this model features a redesigned central layout of internal flow channels, aimed at improving performance and reliability. figure 1 presents an exploded view of the pump’s key components, including the check valves with their balls, rings, and seats; the central connecting rod between the two diaphragms; and the internal cavities responsible for generating the pulsating discharge flow. the pump operates with a dual-diaphragm mechanism driven by alternating air pressure, producing a balanced and continuous flow. essential geometrical dimensions and technical specifications of the dp-200 pump are summarized in table 1. additional details regarding the re-engineering of this pump series, including design choices and performance validation, are provided in [5] fig. 1. dp-200 pump: 3d view of the operative components table 1. geometrical data and operating parameters 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. dp-200 pump: rendered view of cavities and flow passages. for the purposes of numerical modeling in this study, a three-dimensional representation of the internal flow passages and cavities of the pump was developed, as illustrated in figure 2. the diagram on the left identifies the key components required to replicate the operational principles of the aodd pump, while the diagram on the right delineates the computational domain selected for discretization. leveraging the pump's geometrical symmetry, only one half of the full assembly—including a single diaphragm and its corresponding set of check valves—was modeled, thereby optimizing computational efficiency without compromising accuracy. to conclude this section, the pump’s performance curves, extracted from the manufacturer’s technical datasheet, are presented in figure 3. the experimental evaluation was conducted under air supply pressures of 2, 4, and 6 bar, across a range of outlet pressures regulated via a throttle valve positioned in the discharge manifold. pressure measurements were obtained using two te connectivity meas u5244 transducers, each with an uncertainty of ±1% over a measurement range of -1 to 13 bar. the corresponding flow rates were determined volumetrically using an electronic balance, resulting in maximum estimated uncertainties of ±0.12 bar in pressure and ±0.7% in flow rate. the experimental data points are represented by black dots and have been fitted with linear trendlines (solid black lines, referenced to the left y-axis). additionally, air consumption was recorded using a testo 6442 thermal flowmeter, capable of measuring within a range of 12 to 3750 liters per minute and featuring a precision of ±0.3%. efficiency isolines (thin grey lines) are also included in the figure, indicating the pump’s operating efficiency under varying conditions. furthermore, pressure within the hydraulic chamber was monitored using an esi genspec gs4002 transducer, selected for its extended operating range (-1 to 24 bar) to prevent sensor damage from sudden pressure spikes. this sensor also maintains an uncertainty of ±1%, ensuring reliable readings even under dynamic operating conditions. 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. dp-200 pump: experimental performance curves at varying air-supply pressures. 3. three-dimensional numerical model the numerical simulations presented in this study were performed using the commercial cfd software ansys fluent® v16.2 [27], which solves the unsteady reynolds-averaged navier– stokes (urans) equations through the finite volume method (fvm). the three-dimensional modeling captures both the oscillatory motion of the diaphragm and the flow-induced displacement of the check valve balls. these dynamics were handled via the dynamic mesh capability in fluent, employing a combination of remeshing and layering algorithms. to ensure accurate simulation of fluid–structure interactions (fsi), user-defined functions (udfs) were developed and integrated into the solver. these udfs implement custom implicit coupling algorithms [28], improving both the convergence rate and overall numerical stability of the fsi solution. 3.1. 3d geometry and structured mesh for a piston-equivalent diaphragm to reduce computational cost during early stages of model development, a simplified 3d representation was adopted by replacing the actual deformable diaphragm with an idealized, nondeformable piston-like surface that delivers the same volumetric displacement per cycle. an equivalent diaphragm diameter was derived to preserve the stroke volume, allowing for a geometrically simpler, yet hydraulically consistent, modeling approach. the computational domain was constructed using ansys icem cfd® v16.2 [29], applying a rectangular block-based strategy. the geometry was decomposed into multiple structured blocks, facilitating the generation of a structured mesh across the entire domain. this modular, bodyfitted meshing approach allows for enhanced control over element quality, especially in critical flow regions such as valve seats and narrow passages. the mesh design followed best practices established in the authors’ previous 2d modeling efforts [30], including local refinement near wall boundaries and in tight gaps around valve components. particular attention was given to the meshing of regions surrounding the valve balls to ensure that dimensionless wall distance (y⁺) values remained within an optimal range (4–9) throughout the operating cycle, thus supporting accurate near-wall turbulence modeling. for the simplified piston-like diaphragm, a layering remeshing technique was applied to accommodate the linear, reciprocating motion of the stroke. the mesh zone adjacent to the moving piston dynamically adjusts during simulation—either expanding or collapsing depending on the stroke position. this dynamic layering process operates under a split factor of 0.4 (new 107 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us layers added when local cell height exceeds 140% of the original) and a collapse factor of 0.2 (layers removed when compressed to less than 20% of the initial cell size). the final 3d mesh consisted of 111,575 hexahedral cells. figure 4 presents the mesh distribution in the region of the diaphragm and the adjacent inlet and outlet manifolds. a cross-sectional view also illustrates the mesh quality around the valve balls, highlighting the refinement and resolution achieved in these dynamically critical areas figure 4. mesh distribution in the piston-like diaphragm and the inlet/outlet manifolds featuring non-return valves. complementing this, figure 5 provides additional insights into the mesh configuration. the left panel displays the dynamic zones where cells are either created or removed as part of the layering remeshing algorithm, while the right panel offers a global view of the complete structured mesh used in the simulation domain. the figure also highlights the main boundary conditions applied in the numerical model. at the inlet, a total pressure boundary condition of zero gauge pressure is prescribed. at the outlet, a pressure drop is defined as a function of the kinetic energy, adjusted via a constant kvk_vkv, which simulates different levels of restriction imposed by the throttle valve and thus emulates a range of operational scenarios. the motion of the piston-like diaphragm is imposed through a compiled user-defined function (udf) that assigns a sinusoidal velocity profile to the movement of the diaphragm’s center of gravity, described by: v(t)=−πfldsin⁡(2πft)v(t) = -\pi f l_d \sin(2\pi f t)v(t)=−πfldsin(2πft) where ldl_dld is the stroke length and fff is the actuation frequency. additionally, the fluid–structure interaction (fsi) of the valve balls is modeled using a dedicated udf. this function computes the net hydrodynamic forces acting on the balls at each time step and updates their positions accordingly. further implementation details for these udfs are provided in the authors’ previous publication [5]. figure 5. left: remeshing zones for dynamic cell creation/removal. right: global view of the structured mesh with boundary conditions and valve positions 108 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 5. mesh density in the piston-like membrane and inlet/outlet manifolds with adaptive layering mesh for the balls motion. 3.2. numerical model and solver the full 3d model of the pump, using deformable mesh functionalities, has been implemented in the ansys-fluent solver to resolve the unsteady rans equations assuming incompressible, viscous flow of a single-phase newtonian fluid (water): in the turbulence modeling framework, the turbulent kinetic energy is denoted by kkk, and the turbulent viscosity is represented accordingly, with a turbulence model constant cμ=0.0845c_\mu = 0.0845cμ=0.0845. for turbulence closure, the well-established twoequation rng k-εk\text{-}\varepsilonk-ε model has been employed due to its recognized robustness and adaptability to a wide range of flow conditions. preliminary sensitivity studies conducted with the realizable k-εk\text{-}\varepsilonk-ε model yielded results that were nearly identical to those obtained with the rng formulation—particularly in terms of valve dynamics and internal flow structures. in contrast, complementary tests using low-reynolds-number kωk\text{-}\omegak-ω models showed excessive numerical damping, which suppressed important flow instabilities associated with the oscillation and tapping behavior of the check valve balls. as a result, the k-ωk\text{-}\omegak-ω family of models was deemed unsuitable for this specific application [5]. for the rng k-εk\text{-}\varepsilonk-ε model used in this work, and neglecting any buoyancy effects, the closure equations take the following form 109 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a second-order upwind scheme was selected for the discretization of the convective terms, ensuring a balance between numerical accuracy and stability. for the diffusive terms in the momentum equations, green-gauss cell-based gradient reconstruction was employed to calculate spatial gradients. the transport equations for both the turbulent kinetic energy (kkk) and the turbulent dissipation rate (ε\varepsilonε) were also discretized using a second-order scheme to maintain consistency in numerical accuracy across the turbulence model. a segregated solver was adopted, utilizing the piso (pressure-implicit with splitting of operators) algorithm, which proved to offer a favorable trade-off between computational cost and numerical robustness. the convergence criteria were set to a residual of 10−610^{-6}10−6 for the continuity equation, and a minimum threshold of 10−510^{-5}10−5 for the implicit mesh motion solver. both criteria were required to be satisfied before advancing to the next time step, ensuring high fidelity in both fluid flow and mesh deformation. time step sizes were carefully selected within the range of 5×10−55 \times 10^{-5}5×10−5 to 1×10−41 \times 10^{-4}1×10−4 seconds, optimizing the balance between computational stability and efficiency. these values were chosen to maintain a courant number below unity throughout the domain, preventing the numerical wave propagation from outpacing the physical fluid motion, which is especially critical in narrow regions near the check valves undergoing significant mesh deformation. table 2 summarizes the main simulation parameters used across the computational database. notably, smaller time steps were required in cases involving higher operating frequencies and supplied air pressures, due to increased fluid accelerations and valve dynamics. furthermore, simulating a complete pump cycle typically required around 10,000 time steps per case. in terms of computational resources, each full-cycle 3d simulation—based on a mesh containing approximately 111,575 cells—required approximately 450 cpu hours, equivalent to 3–4 weeks of wall-clock time, when run on a single workstation equipped with a 4-core intel core i7-5820k processor (3.3 ghz) and 64 gb of ram 110 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.3. three-dimensional model with deformable diaphragm to further enhance the physical fidelity of the simulation, an extended modeling approach was developed to incorporate the realistic deformation of the diaphragm in the 3d numerical model. in this configuration, the previously idealized piston-like membrane was replaced by a more physically representative diaphragm, consisting of a rigid central circular plate surrounded by a flexible annular region (see figure 6). the rigid central plate undergoes sinusoidal displacement, identical to the motion prescribed in the earlier simplified model, while the deformable annulus dynamically adjusts its shape based on radial position to maintain geometric continuity and structural integrity. due to the complex deformation of the flexible region, the working chamber required a transition from a structured mesh to a fully tetrahedral mesh, which was managed using an automatic remeshing strategy. this method integrates a spring-based smoothing algorithm by default, which redistributes mesh nodes when boundary displacements are relatively small. however, when large displacements occur—particularly in regions with fine cells—the mesh can suffer from excessive skewness or aspect ratio deterioration, leading to numerical instability. to mitigate this issue, any cells violating mesh quality criteria (e.g., skewness or size thresholds) were flagged, agglomerated, and remeshed, while the solution variables were interpolated from the original cells. for this process, a spring factor of 0.9 was adopted, with cell sizes constrained between 2 mm (minimum) and 10 mm (maximum), and a maximum allowable cell skewness of 0.7. the mesh update routine was executed every 10 time steps to maintain mesh quality throughout the simulation. the baseline mesh for this deformable diaphragm model comprised a hybrid unstructured grid with a total of 101,957 elements. despite containing approximately 10% fewer cells than the piston-like diaphragm model, the computational cost was significantly higher. specifically, completing a single full working cycle required approximately 550 hours of cpu time on the same workstation—an intel core i7-5820k (3.3 ghz, 4 cores, 64 gb ram). after normalizing the difference in cell count by applying a correction factor of 1.1, the remeshing technique was found to be approximately 30% slower than the layering approach used in the piston-like model. given this substantial increase in computational cost, the implementation of a deformable diaphragm is justified only when notable discrepancies in the simulation results are observed between both modeling approaches. to assess the significance of such differences, a set of freedelivery conditions was selected for comparison, corresponding to test cases #1, #3, and #6 as listed in table 5 figure 6. mesh density in the deformable diaphragm and inlet/outlet manifolds with adaptive layering mesh. 4. results and discussion 4.1. comparison of performance curves to begin the analysis, the predicted flow rate from the 3d numerical model is compared against experimental measurements in figure 7, where the delivered flow rate is plotted as a function of the discharge pressure. due to the symmetrical boundary conditions applied in the simulations— 111 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us where only one half of the pump geometry was modeled—the computed flow rates were doubled for a direct comparison with experimental values representing the full pump cycle. the results demonstrate that the numerical model effectively captures the linear decline in flow rate observed in experimental data as the discharge pressure increases. for low to moderate airsupply pressures (2 and 4 bar), the model exhibits good agreement, with maximum relative errors not exceeding 6%, as detailed in table 3. at a higher supply pressure of 6 bar, while the general trend of the flow rate reduction is still reasonably replicated, the model shows larger deviations, with maximum discrepancies reaching approximately 19%. these differences are primarily attributed to the increased influence of high air pressure on stroke stability, particularly its effect on the diaphragm dynamics and valve response. this phenomenon, along with its implications for valve instabilities and ball tapping, will be further addressed in the following sections figure 7. comparison of experimental and numerical performance curves. 4.2. pressure evolution in the working chamber the transient pressure variation within the diaphragm’s working chamber is presented for two representative cases in figure 8, juxtaposing the numerical predictions with corresponding experimental measurements. for reference, previously published results from a 2d numerical model are also included to provide a comparative context. the left panel illustrates the pressure evolution under conditions of high air-supplied pressure (6 bar) combined with a relatively low discharge pressure (1.5 bar) at the outlet. conversely, the right panel depicts the pressure response for a scenario with low air-supplied pressure (2 bar) and similarly low exhausting pressure (1 bar). it is important to highlight that the experimental pressure data were obtained through an ensemble-averaging process over more than 20 operating cycles, thereby effectively reducing the noise and enhancing the reliability of the signal for comparison purposes figure 8. comparison of experimental and numerical pressure evolutions within the working cavity at high (left) and low (right) air-supplied pressures under standard operation conditions. 112 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the 3d numerical results demonstrate a notably higher fidelity in replicating the pressure evolution inside the diaphragm cavity compared to 2d simulations. under more demanding conditions (left plot), the experimental pressure profile exhibits a markedly sinusoidal shape, highlighting a significant bidirectional interaction between the air-supplied pressure and the diaphragm dynamics. this interaction likely contributes to the larger discrepancies observed in the pump performance curves. while the numerical pressure follows a sinusoidal pattern imposed by the prescribed piston motion, the 2d model exhibits greater instabilities and reduced accuracy. importantly, the root mean square (rms) values of the pressure fluctuations (indicated by dashed mean lines) in the cavity closely match between the experimental data and the 3d simulation, whereas the 2d model overpredicts this value. in contrast, for low air-supplied pressure conditions (right plot), the experimental pressure displays a stepped profile rather than a smooth sinusoidal waveform. this suggests a reduced influence of hydraulic conditions on the instantaneous supplied air pressure, lending support to the assumption of a sinusoidal membrane motion adopted in both 2d and 3d models. again, a strong agreement is observed between the time-averaged pressures from experimental and 3d numerical results, while the 2d model overestimates both the mean pressure and exhibits pronounced pressure peaks during valve opening and closing. subsequent sections will analyze in detail the internal flow structures and the dynamic response of the pump’s components under both high (6 bar, approximately 1.8 hz) and low (2 bar, approximately 1.0 hz) air supply pressures. operating outlet pressures ranging from 1.0 to 1.5 bar, corresponding to standard operational conditions, as well as free-delivery scenarios, will be discussed. 4.3. standard operation: comparison of 2d and 3d results air-operated double diaphragm (aodd) pumps typically operate within an outlet pressure range of 1.0 to 1.5 bar, despite associated efficiency penalties. this operating window is often referred to as “standard operation” by manufacturers and is prevalent in industrial applications of diaphragm volumetric pumps. the following analysis presents the internal pump behavior during conditions of both high and low delivered flow rates. 4.3.1. delivered flow rate and response of non-return valves figure 9 presents a comparison between 2d and 3d model results of flow rate evolution, cavity pressure, and the unsteady response of non-return valves over a typical operating cycle at high driving frequency. the 2d results (left subplots) display sharp pressure spikes within the cavity, partially damped in the outlet pressure, and an unrealistic pressure bump between 3t/8 and t/2, corresponding to a partial closure of the upper discharge valve. the aspirating valve (blue line in the third subplot) exhibits instability during fluid suction, resulting in a less distinct closure that does not significantly impact the incoming flow rate evolution. conversely, the 3d results (right subplots) demonstrate more coherent flow dynamics. the discharge valve flow rates are slightly below theoretical expectations (indicated by the comparison between solid and dashed lines in the central subplot). additionally, the non-return valves exhibit a more dynamic response characterized by an initial rapid closure followed by two swift rebounds (or valve tap effects). a similar dynamic pattern is observed in the aspirating valve during the second half of the cycle, spanning from the top to bottom dead center of the diaphragm stroke 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 9. comparison of temporal evolutions of the pressure, flow rate and check valves response during the diaphragm cycle between 2d (left) and 3d (right) results, in the case of high air-supplied pressure. figure 10. comparison of temporal evolutions of the pressure, flow rate and check valves response during the diaphragm cycle between 2d (left) and 3d (right) results, in the case of low air-supplied pressure. 4.3.2. evolution of the opening in the non-return valves: comparison of 2d and 3d simulations a detailed examination of the oscillatory behavior of the check valves under high driving frequency conditions during standard operation is presented in figures 11 (discharge valve) and 12 (aspirating valve). these figures illustrate the partial closures of the valves through instantaneous flow field contours depicting velocity magnitude around the valve balls, providing enhanced physical insight. additionally, the temporal evolution of the instantaneous forces acting on the balls is included to elucidate the observed fluctuations. for the discharge valve (figure 11), the 2d simulations predict a single oscillation near the end of the discharge hemicycle, correlated with an abrupt increase in the force exerted on the ball. initially, the membrane stroke induces complete displacement of the ball (depicted in the first snapshot), after which the ball begins to move downward. at this stage, two high-velocity jets form around the ball (second snapshot), causing a local pressure drop and generating significant suction that tends to re-open the valve gap (third snapshot). finally, as the forward stroke concludes, the ball returns to its seat (fourth snapshot). it is important to note that the formation of these high-velocity jets around the 2d circular representation of the ball is unrealistic and is primarily a consequence of geometric constraints imposed by the two-dimensional domain. in contrast, the 3d simulation results (visualized through a transverse section in figure 11) show a nearly instantaneous valve opening (first snapshot), followed by a rapid partial closure (second 114 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us snapshot). this closure is quickly mitigated by the development of a high-velocity region near the ball (third snapshot) as the forward stroke approaches its maximum acceleration at t/4t/4t/4. subsequently, a second rebound is stabilized due to reinforcement from the incoming fluid propelled by the membrane motion, as evidenced by the prominent high-velocity region adjacent to the ball. this jet-induced suction sustains the valve in an open state and maintains a high force on the ball (fourth snapshot) during the latter half of the hemicycle figure 11. response of the discharging non-return valve over the operative cycle for high air-supplied pressure. comparison of 2d (top) and 3d (bottom) computations. figure 12 provides similar conclusions with respect the aspirating valve. in this case, the ball dynamics and the surrounding flow patterns are induced by the under pressure associated to the backward stroke. consequently, the flow patterns are more uniform and high velocity jets are less pronounced with more evenly distributions around the check valve. 115 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 12. response of the aspirating non-return valve over the operative cycle for low airsupplied pressure. comparison of 2d (top) and 3d (bottom) computations. 4.3.3. evolution of the flow patterns within the pump internal cavities: comparison of 2d and 3d maps the comparison of 2d and 3d models is finished addressing the differences in the internal flow patterns within the pump in the case of a high air-supplied pressure (@6 bar) for standard operation (figures 13 and 14 respectively). firstly, figure 13 shows the description of the 2d flow patterns (contours of velocity magnitude) at four intermediate positions of the operating cycle. only at t=t/4 the exhausting valve is partially opened; in the rest of the snapshots, it is practically closed. it is quite significant the 116 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us appearance of several recirculating cells of fluid in the internal passages; especially in the final contour at the bdc of the diaphragm (t=t), with up to 5 recirculating cells. note also the flow separation in the outlet manifold at t=t/4 and the accurate guidance of the suctioning flow when it is introduced in the working chamber of the membrane (t=3t/4). figure 13. 2d description of flow patterns for high air-supplied pressure. on the contrary, results in figure 14 does not present any significant flow recirculation in the domain during the whole cycle for 3d computations. rotational components of the flow velocity at the outlet seem to have been also mitigated. in addition, the highvelocity jets developed around the balls in the check valves are clearly displaced towards the left in the case of the discharging valve and the right in the aspirating valve. this is clearly an effect induced by the piston-like diaphragm when suctioning or driving the flow. note also that 3d results exhibit lower stagnation conditions than 2d maps. figure 14. 3d description of flow patterns for high air-supplied pressure. 4.4. free-delivery conditions when maximum output flow rates are required, diaphragm pumps are typically operated under free-delivery conditions, a scenario commonly encountered during tank draining. under these conditions, the pump becomes more susceptible to internal instabilities and oscillations, which lead to ball valve tapping and increased vibration due to the higher frequencies involved (up to 2.8 hz). the numerical results presented in this section are exclusively from the 3d model simulations. 4.4.1. evolution of discharged flow rate and pressure as a function of the non-return valves' response figure 15 illustrates the temporal evolution of the pressure within the working chamber and the corresponding delivered flow rate under high air-supplied pressure (left plots). the pressure within the diaphragm cavity reflects the pressure losses in the internal pump circuit, as the discharge pressure is atmospheric. notably, pressure peaks under free-delivery conditions are more pronounced compared to standard operation. furthermore, during the aspiration phase of the working chamber (indicated by the blue line in the top left plot), significant under-pressures are observed, approaching -1 bar, which increases the susceptibility of the pump to cavitation inception. additionally, volumetric losses are elevated relative to those under standard operating conditions. the right plots in figure 15 depict the dynamic response of the valve balls, showing their positions (solid, thick lines), velocities (solid, thin lines), and the corresponding hydrodynamic forces exerted by the fluid (dashed lines). the oscillations of the balls correspond to maximum 117 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us velocities on the order of 1 m/s, with peak forces reaching approximately 100 n, predominantly occurring during the closure of the aspirating valve. the data further reveal a delay of approximately one-eighth of the cycle period for the balls to achieve complete closure, indicating that valve closure is not instantaneous figure 15. temporal evolution of pressure and flow rate (left) and response of the no return valves (right) in the case of free delivery for high air-supplied pressure. additionally, figure 16 presents similar results but now in the case of a low air-supplied pressure. the pressure in the working chambers is significantly lower, so the volumetric efficiency is clearly improved. the under pressure during the aspiration stroke is also relaxed. concerning the instabilities in the balls, the evolution in the exhausting and aspirating values differ notably. the exerted forces are also reduced (below 50 n) due to the less demanding conditions. figure 16. temporal evolution of pressure and flow rate (left) and response of the nonreturn valves (right) in the case of free delivery for low air-supplied pressure. 4.4.2. evolution of flow contours in the cavities under free-delivery conditions. figure 17 illustrates the evolution of the velocity maps in the working chamber (3d results only), which can be compared to previous results shown in figure 14 in the case of standard operation. overall patterns are similar, but higher gradients are identified in the case of freedelivery condition. in particular, the velocity gradients nearby to the discharge valve at t=t/4 are significantly higher. also, at t=3t/4, the valve side close to the diaphragm exhibits higher velocities as a consequence of the higher driving frequency of the piston. 118 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 17. 3d description of flow patterns under free-delivery conditions. to conclude, figure 18 presents an additional visualization depicting the principal streamlines emanating from the reciprocating diaphragm within the pump cavities during both the forward and backward strokes. this figure offers a comprehensive three-dimensional perspective on the complex flow patterns occurring around the non-return valves. the left panel clearly identifies a recirculation zone upstream of the discharge valve, accompanied by a region of high rotational flow within the discharge manifold. conversely, the right panel illustrates a lower vorticity downstream of the aspirating valve, attributable to the increased available space which facilitates a more uniform suction flow induced by the piston. moreover, minimal recirculation is observed upstream of the aspirating valve. both images also highlight internal flow leakages occurring at the ball seats, resulting from the partial re-opening of the valves figure 18. streamlines in the internal cavities of the pump. comparison of forward (left) and backward (right) strokes at free-delivery conditions. 4.5. deformable (real) diaphragm vs. piston-like (approach) diaphragm the study concludes by comparing the overall results obtained from the 3d numerical model incorporating the deformable diaphragm with those previously derived using the piston-like diaphragm approach. the primary aim is to assess whether the additional computational expense associated with the remeshing technique is justified, or if the simplified 3d cylindrical model provides sufficiently accurate predictions. figure 19 (right column) demonstrates that the overall behavior of the principal fluid-dynamic variables is quite similar between the two models. nevertheless, the pressure within the diaphragm cavity exhibits a less sinusoidal pattern in the deformable diaphragm model, attributable to the early deceleration of the internal rigid circular plate. consequently, a plateau appears in the pressure distribution, reflecting the reduced displacement during the final stages of the diaphragm stroke. this phenomenon affects the dynamics of the discharge non-return valves, 119 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us resulting in only two valve re-openings. conversely, the response of the aspirating valve remains nearly identical across both models. notably, the volumetric efficiency is significantly enhanced when employing the deformable diaphragm figure 19. comparison of temporal evolutions of the pressure, flow rate and check valves response during the diaphragm cycle between 3d, piston-like model (left) and 3d deformable diaphragm (right) results. finally, figure 20 illustrates the differences in flow patterns, depicted through velocity fields, between the deformable and piston-like diaphragm models. the left panel presents velocity contours at t/4, corresponding to the peak forward stroke impulse, highlighting how the diaphragm-driven flow traverses the discharge valve. in the deformable diaphragm model, the flow is more effectively directed into the outlet port, forming a well-defined and gradually expanding high-velocity jet around the valve ball. conversely, the piston-like model exhibits a notable region of recirculation within the rectangular cavity connecting the working chamber to the outlet manifold, thereby accounting for the higher volumetric losses observed in figure 19. on the right panel, velocity maps at 3t/4 during the backward stroke reveal only minor differences between the two models. a key distinction is that the deformable diaphragm provides increased space in the lower chamber region, allowing a more gradual distribution of the suctioninduced pressure gradient. this facilitates improved aspirating conditions, reflected in reduced flow leakage through the inlet check valve figure 20. comparison of flow patterns in the cavities between 3d piston-like model and 3d deformable diaphragm model. 5. conclusions a comprehensive three-dimensional, unsteady cfd model employing dynamic meshes has been developed and validated for the simulation of air-operated double diaphragm (aodd) pumps 120 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us under various operating conditions. this advanced 3d model builds upon a previously established two-dimensional numerical methodology recently presented by the authors. the new three-dimensional results were systematically compared against prior 2d data with respect to overall pump performance, volumetric efficiency, and the dynamic response of the non-return valves, thereby confirming the advantages of fully 3d modeling for accurately capturing the complex fluid-structure interactions inherent in these positive displacement pumps. to optimize computational efficiency, an initial piston-like diaphragm approximation was utilized, replicating the volumetric displacement of the real deformable diaphragm and enabling the use of more computationally economical layering remeshing algorithms. subsequently, a flexible, deformable diaphragm model was developed for completeness, revealing that the piston-like approach reliably reproduces the overall behavior and fundamental performance metrics of the system’s components. experimental validation demonstrated satisfactory agreement between the 3d numerical predictions and measured performance curves, substantiating the appropriateness of the chosen mesh resolution, mesh quality, and time step size. although local pressure measurements within the diaphragm cavity showed temporal discrepancies during the operating cycle, the timeaveraged pressure trends were accurately captured. under standard operating conditions, low airsupplied pressures (approximately 2 bar) led to increased instabilities and frequent ball valve tapping—particularly in the discharge valve—with up to four partial re-openings observed. increasing the supplied pressure to 6 bar mitigated these oscillations, reducing re-openings to two during the initial forward stroke and improving volumetric efficiency. significantly, the 2d model exhibited excessive damping, underestimating the dynamic fluidstructure interactions between the balls and fluid flow. in contrast, the 3d model provided a more faithful and detailed representation of rapid inertial effects and valve dynamics. under free-delivery conditions, the 3d model predicted behavior consistent with standard operation but highlighted pronounced pressure drops within the diaphragm cavity during the suction stroke, with near-vacuum pressures that raise concerns for cavitation inception. volumetric losses were also elevated relative to standard conditions, consistent with the pump’s efficiency map. finally, it was consistently observed that valve instabilities were more pronounced in the discharge valve than in the inlet valve. the inlet valve exhibited superior sealing performance, with only minor partial re-openings occurring near the onset of the backward stroke. this finding provides valuable insights for guiding the design, material selection, and maintenance strategies of critical pump components references 1. aldi, n., buratto, c., pinelli, m., spina, p.r., suman, a., casari, n., 2016. cfd analysis of a non-newtonian fluids processing pump. energy procedia 101, 742–749. 2. altare, g., rundo, m., cfd analysis of gerotor lubricating pumps at high speed: geometric features influencing the filling capability. in: proceedings of the asme/bath 2015 symposium on fluid power and motion control, chicago, il (usa), october 12–14, 2015. 3. ansi/hi. 10.1-10.5, 2010. air operated pumps for nomenclature, definitions, application and operation. hydraulic institute. ansi/hi. 10.6, 2004. air operated pump tests. hydraulic institute. ansys-fluent meshing user’s guide. release 16.2. 4. ansys, inc. 2015. ansys-fluent user’s guide. release 16.2. ansys, inc. 2015. bahrton, s., 2002. reversing valve for 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zhang, y.l., fang, z.m., 2012. numerical simulation and analysis of ball valve three-dimensional flow based on cfd. in: iop conference series: earth and environmental science, vol. 15, 052024 74 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 12, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 analysis of foreign impurities contained in fiber b.a.baykhanov t.f.n., tashkent institute of textile and light industry m.d. shorakhmedova (phd), dosent, tashkent institute of textile and light industry m.k. kodiraliyeva master’s student, tashkent institute of textile and light industry abstract: this article presents experiments conducted in production conditions, changes in the structural composition of cotton and its characteristic parameters during technological processes. keywords: cotton cleaning, changes in the technological process of cotton structure parameters, cotton moisture content, cotton contamination, cotton class and grades. a number of scientific studies have been conducted on preparing cotton for technological processes, including drying and cleaning. these studies examined the structure of cotton, indicators characterizing the degree of its loosening, as well as the influence of cotton moisture content and temperature on cleaning processes. however, to date, the indicators that comprehensively characterize cotton as a processing object have not been fully substantiated, and their optimal values have not been determined [1; 2]. at cotton ginning plants, the preparation of cotton for technological processes—especially for ginning—is not always carried out in accordance with the requirements of the technological regulations. at each cotton ginning plant, the technical condition of the process equipment varies, operating modes differ, and the technological clearances between the working parts of cleaning machines are not always correctly adjusted. as a result, their operational efficiency may be insufficient. in this regard, there is a need at cotton ginning plants to prepare cotton for technological processes, analyze the quality of the produced fiber, and develop proposals for improving it. it is known that at cotton ginning plants, up to 32 peg drums are installed to clean cotton from fine impurities, and four sections of saw drums are used to remove coarse impurities. the results of calculating the required cleaning efficiency of a cotton ginning plant by cotton variety and grade—depending on the amount of impurities in the cotton in the gin tray, as specified by the technological regulations pdi 70-2017, as well as on the initial trash content of the cotton—are presented in table 1. 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1. required cleaning efficiency depending on the initial trash content of cotton cotton cleaning efficiency,, % cotton fiber grade g ra d e t ra sh c o n te n t, % trash content before ginning,% easily cleanable difficult to clean easily cleanable difficult to clean i-ii iii iv 1 5,0 8,0 12,0 0,8-0,8 0,8 1,2 0,9-1,0 1,2 1,8 84-84 90 90 82-80 85 85 i,ii,iii iv 2 12,0 16,0 1,0-1,0-1,2 1,6 1,5-1,5-1,8 2,4 92-92-90 90 88-85 85 i,ii,iii iv,v 3 18,0 20,0 1,6-1,6-1,8 2,4-3,0 2,4-2,4-3,0 3,6-5,0 91-91-90 88-85 87-87-90 82-85 it can be seen from table 1 that the required cleaning efficiency ranges from 80% to 92%. therefore, determining and analyzing the effectiveness of cotton cleaning at cotton ginning plants is of practical importance. to determine the cleaning efficiency and the quality status of the fiber, experiments were carried out at a number of cotton ginning plants (khajaabad, paituk, shakhrikhan). batches of cotton of various varieties and with different levels of trash content were processed. after each piece of process equipment, samples were taken, and standard methods were used to determine the trash content of the cotton and fiber, moisture content, and fiber quality indicators. during cotton processing, the throughput of the process equipment was: 5.5–6 t/h for grades i–ii, and 7.5–8 t/h for the remaining grades. the experimental results are presented in table 2.1.2. during cotton processing, three sections of saw drums and 24 peg drums were in operation [3,4]. figure 1 shows a graph of the dependence of the amount of impurities in the fiber composition on the trash content of cotton in the gin tray; its regression equation has the following form: 𝑦 = 0,36𝑥2 − 0,6𝑥 + 1,4 cotton trash content, % fig. 1. graph of the dependence of fiber trash content on cotton trash content in the gin tray 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 fi b er t ra sh c o n te n t, % 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 2. results of cotton processing at cotton ginning plants № c o tt o n v ar ie ty a n d g ra d e c o tt o n m o is tu re c o n te n t, % c o tt o n t ra sh c o n te n t, % ; d ry in g t em p er at u re , 0 с засоренность и пороки на волокне c le an in g e ff ic ie n cy , % trash content and defects in the fiber, % f ib er g ra d e m o is tu re c o n te n t, % t ra sh c o n te n t, % t ra sh c o n te n t, % f o re ig n i m p u ri ti es , % t o ta l, % 1. с-6524, 1/2 9,07 4,66 80 8,0 0,9 80,7 1,2 1,4 2,6 average 2. an-35, 2/1 12,3 4,87 165 9,8 1,2 75,9 1,42 1,45 2,87 good 3. с-6524, 1/2 9,2 4,4 70 8,4 2,0 68,6 1,7 1,55 3,25 normal 4. с-6524, 4/1 15,0 3,8 170 8,4 2,7 58,9 2,4 3,4 5,8 good 5. an-35, 4/1 16,6 5,7 185 9,5 2,3 59,6 2,1 3,0 5,1 good 6. an-35, 5/3 21,4 6,8 200 10,7 3,0 55,4 2,9 5,7 8,6 average from table 2 it can be seen that although the moisture content of the processed cotton meets the required level, the cleaning efficiency is below the requirements of the technological regulations given in table 1 and ranges from 55.4% to 80.7%. it was found that the amount of impurities in the produced fiber increases in accordance with the trash content of cotton in the gin tray, and as the cotton grade decreases, this increase becomes more pronounced. from figure 1 and the equation it is evident that a cotton trash content above 1.5% leads to a sharp increase in fiber trash content. therefore, it is advisable to minimize the trash content of cotton when feeding it into the gin. table 2 shows that fiber grades “average,” “normal,” and “good” were obtained from grades i and ii cotton, whereas fiber grades “premium” and “good” should have been obtained. the analysis showed that the trash content of the fiber obtained from grade i cotton exceeded the standard requirement by 0.1%, which caused the fiber grade to decrease: from “good” (the standard allows trash content up to 2.5%) to “average,” and from “average” (the standard allows trash content up to 3.0%) to “normal.” for grade ii cotton, the trash content of the produced fiber was 0.32% above the norm, so the grade decreased from “premium” to “good.” a one-grade decrease in fiber quality reduces its price by 4–5%. this situation causes significant economic losses to cotton ginning plants. an analysis of the cleaning efficiency of cotton ginning equipment shows that there are opportunities to improve it. by reducing the trash content of cotton in the gin tray, the amount of impurities in the fiber can be decreased. the main problem here is the large amount of defective impurities. it is known that defective impurities in fiber are formed from defects arising during cotton cultivation, as well as from defects occurring in technological processes due to excessive cleaning and ginning. in all cases, the number of technological defects resulting from over-cleaning of cotton should be small, since the cotton was not subjected to excessive cleaning. hence, it can be concluded that the increased number of defects in the fiber is mainly due to natural defects in the cotton composition. this requires determining, at cotton ginning plants, the amount of natural defects in prepared cotton and technological defects by fractional composition, as well as conducting additional studies to establish the relationship between cotton cleaning efficiency and fiber trash content in order to obtain higher-grade fiber [5; 6]. it is known that the composition of cotton fiber includes total trash content and defective impurities. 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the amount of contaminating impurities in the fiber depends on the initial trash content of the cotton and the cleaning efficiency, i.e., on the residual trash content of the cotton entering the gin working chamber. defective impurities in fiber are divided into two categories. the first category is present in prepared cotton and относится to natural defects: these are fiber (seeds covered with immature fibers) and plastics of immature fiber (a cluster of immature fibers stuck together). their amount in the cotton composition depends on the agronomic practices of cotton cultivation. the second category of defects arises during technological cotton-processing operations, mainly during cleaning and ginning. these include neps, combined neps, fibrous seed coat, small neps, and crushed seeds. their amount depends on the cotton moisture content, the number of cleaning passes, and ginning conditions [7; 8]. total trash content (overall impurities) in the fiber composition consists of three components: 𝐶ум = сифл + (сутп + сптп) + стн (1) in this case: сифл residual trash content in the fiber, %; сутп, сптп content of fiber and plastics of immature fiber in the fiber, %; стнtechnological defects in the fiber (defects formed during processing operations), %. therefore, to obtain “premium” grade fiber, it is necessary for grade i fiber — accordingly… сифл + (сутп + сптп) + стн ≤ 2,0 % (2) сифл + (сутп + сптп) + стн ≤ 2,5 % (3) for grade ii fiber — accordingly… сифл + (сутп + сптп) + стн ≤ 2,5 % (4) сифл + (сутп + сптп) + стн ≤ 3,5 % (5) when producing high-grade fiber, one of the most important tasks is to determine the optimal number of cleaning passes. excessive cleaning, along with a partial reduction in trash content, causes technological defects to appear in the fiber. as a result, the fiber grade may decrease. in order for the number of defects and contaminating impurities in the produced fiber to meet the requirements for the “premium” and “good” grades, the actual composition of the fiber trash components was analyzed and the issue of minimizing their amount was considered. it is known that, according to the requirements of pdi 70-2017, “agreed technology for primary cotton processing,” the trash content of cotton in the gin tray for grade i and ii cotton, class 2, must not exceed 0.9% and 1.5%, respectively. as can be seen from the table, the cleaning efficiency of equipment at cotton ginning plants varies, and due to insufficient use of their capabilities, in almost all processing cases the trash content of cotton exceeded the standard. as a result, “premium” grade fiber was not obtained; mainly “average” and “normal” grade fiber was produced. in a number of cases, the cotton moisture content was not reduced to 8–9%, and in some cases the cotton was not dried at all (at the khajaabad gin). the cleaning efficiency of cotton—despite no major differences in its initial trash content—varied significantly among the plants and ranged from 24.1% to 81.9%. as a result, the trash content of cotton in the gin tray also differed and exceeded the requirements of the technological regulations, which led to an increase in its level in the fiber. the share of residual trash content relative to the total amount of defects and contaminating impurities in the fiber was high—starting from 35.5% and in most cases up to 88.9% [8; 9]. 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us at all cotton ginning plants where the experiments were conducted, the trash content of cotton in most cases ranged from 1.8% to 3.73%. this undoubtedly indicates low cleaning efficiency and a reduction in fiber grade. the amount of technological defects in the fiber composition—except for variants 8, 13, 16, 19, and 20—is small; however, the share of natural defects—ulyuk and plastics of immature fiber—reaching up to 94.5%, certainly makes it difficult to obtain “premium” and “good” grade fiber. during cotton cleaning, ginning, and fiber cleaning, a portion of the natural defects is separated to some extent and removed with waste, while the remaining portion passes into the fiber. therefore, it is natural that the amount of natural defects in the cotton delivered to cotton ginning plants should be significantly higher than in the fiber [10; 11]. this situation indicates violations of cotton cultivation agronomic practices and requires serious measures in this direction. at the same time, the fact that the number of technological defects differs among cotton ginning plants and varies sharply from one to another indicates differences in the technical condition of the process equipment and that it is not operated under the regimes established by technological (regulatory) requirements. in conclusion, it should be noted that despite the existence of technological requirements and procedures that ensure the production of high-quality fiber at cotton ginning plants, in practice there are deviations from the technological regulations, as a result of which the quality of the produced fiber decreases and it is sold at lower prices. when processing cotton, it is necessary to strictly follow the cleaning plans and operating regimes of the process equipment depending on the initial moisture content and trash content of the cotton, and the cleaning efficiency should be increased to a level above 90% [12]. at some cotton ginning plants, the amount of natural defects in the cotton composition—fiber and plastics of immature fiber—is increasing. this makes it difficult to obtain “premium” and “good” grade fiber. the presence of natural defects in prepared cotton indicates violations of cotton cultivation agronomic practices and requires serious measures to reduce them. at cotton ginning plants, the fiber grade decreases because the content of defects and contaminating impurities in the produced fiber exceeds the standard requirements by 0.1–0.2%. this shows the need to develop a method for preliminary forecasting of the quality of the resulting fiber. references 1. самандаров с.а. определение разрыхленности хлопка-сырца и разрыхлительного эффекта машины // хлопковая промышленность. тошкент. 1978 г, №2, б.11-12. 2. лугачев а.е. исследования основных элементов очистителей хлопка-сырца. дисс. канд.тех.нук. кострома.1981, с. 110-125 3. ruzmetov r., mardonov b.m., modeling of neat exchange process between raw cotton and coolant in a screw drum european science review. vienna, prague, 2018, №5-6, p335-338 4. tuychiev t.o., madumarov i.d., mardonov b.m. investigation of the process of release of dirt impurities in the zone of interaction of it with a netlike surface // european science review. vienna,2017. №9-10 (279). -p.208-210. 5. parpiev, a., sharakhmedova, m., parpiev, а. analysis of deformation of cotton in technological processes. international journal of emerging trends in engineering research, 8(9), september 2020, 6618 – 6622 6. madumarov i, ruzmetov r, tuychiev t, ismailov a, (2022) experimental results of an improves supplier in the production process and transportation/. transportation research procedia/ 63 2998-3004 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. parpiev a.p., mardonov b.m., madumarov i.d., tuychiev t.o. modeling the movement of the mass of raw cotton in the feeder zone // problems of textiles. 2013, no. 1. from 81-86. 8. хакимов ш.ш., мардонов б.м. modeling of movement of foreing impurities soft along the c hopping, drum during cleaning of raw cotton from stall litter \\austrian journal of technical and natural sciences .2015 .№ 9-10, 86-90 9. хлопок-сырец.технические условия. методы отбора проб. o’zmst 387:2024. ташкент 2025. 10. хлопок-сырец. технические условия. хлопок-сырец. методы определения засоренности методы отбора проб. o’zmst 552:2025. ташкент 2025. 11. инструкция по приему и хранению хлопка. технологический регламент пди 70-2017. “paxtasanoat ilmiy markazi” aj. toshkent, 2019.90 b. 12. а.г.севостьянов. методы и средства исследования механика-технологических процессов текстильной промышленности. москва “легкая индустрия” 1980 г. file://///austrian 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 12, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 analysis of socio-economic losses in emergency situations ashurova laylo qarshi state technical university, department of “labor protection and technical safety”, senior lecturer abstract: this study proposes a new assessment methodology based on an integrated and modular approach, developed through the analysis of the advantages and shortcomings of existing methods for evaluating socio-economic losses in emergency situations. the proposed methodology allows for real-time data processing and adaptation to various types of emergencies. keywords: emergencies, economic losses, social damage, total damage, loss assessment, methodology, modular approach, time factors, real-time evaluation, recovery level. introduction: emergency situations (es) are unexpected events arising from natural processes and human activities that pose significant threats to the population, the economy, and the natural environment. such situations negatively affect not only human life, but also economic sectors such as manufacturing, logistics, services, and infrastructure systems. therefore, accurate and systematic assessment of the socio-economic losses caused by such events, as well as the development of measures to prevent and mitigate their consequences, is of paramount importance. in recent decades, the acceleration of globalization and industrialization processes, ineffective resource management, and disruption of ecosystem balance have led to an increasing number of emergency situations. as a result, significant socio-economic losses have been observed across various social systems. due to the wide scope of emergency situations, the absence of an optimal methodology and insufficient practical mechanisms to assess their consequences remain among the major challenges. currently, losses are often evaluated using approximate approaches, which leads to uncertainties in decision-making. from this perspective, the topic holds substantial scientific and practical importance. researchers and scientific works on the topic. a number of international and national scholars have conducted research in this field. in particular: ulrich beck, burton, kates & white, howard kunreuther, islomov sh.sh., mamarasulov a.h., jurayev a.b., karimov a.a., j. smirnov, a. ivanov, x. abdullayev and others have contributed significantly. their studies mainly focus on economic modelling and optimization of resource allocation in emergency management. however, scientific research dedicated specifically to identifying and analyzing socio-economic losses caused by emergency situations remains limited and insufficiently developed. the objective of this research is to improve traditional methods of assessing socio-economic losses caused by emergency situations through their integration with modern methodological approaches. based on the research objective, the following tasks have been defined: 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. to study existing methods of assessing the consequences of emergency situations and analyze their advantages and disadvantages. 2. to introduce forecasting mechanisms based on mathematical modelling. 3. to develop proposals for practical implementation of the improved methodology. research methods. this study employs various scientific and practical approaches, including economic modelling, risk analysis, swot analysis, scenario-based assessment, gis (geographic information systems), and benchmarking. several of these methods have been modified for improvement within the scope of the research. analysis and results. when emergency situations (natural, technological, or environmental) occur, they lead to different types of losses across various sectors. these losses may be classified as economic (financial, material), social (population, health, quality of life), and non-material (psychological, cultural, etc.). the purpose of assessing and analyzing socio-economic losses in emergency situations is to determine the scale of damages, calculate restoration costs, properly allocate financing and insurance resources, and support decisions aimed at preventing and reducing future risks. stages of assessment 1. data collection — gathering information about the affected area, population, infrastructures, and resources. 2. classification of losses — dividing losses into economic, social, environmental, logistics, and other categories. 3. determining the amount of damage — evaluating each type of loss (in monetary value or its impact on health and social life). 4. preparation of reports and decision-making. economic damage refers to material and financial losses resulting from disruptions or complete cessation of economic resources, assets, and production processes due to emergency situations, including contamination by chemical, radiological, biological, or bacteriological substances. social damage encompasses harm to the population's life, health, social stability, and quality of life caused by emergency situations. integrated methodology for assessing socio-economic damage. although various methods are used to assess socio-economic losses during emergencies, each has its strengths and limitations. from this standpoint, an integrated methodological approach combining economic and social damage assessment is examined. this methodology is practical for real-world analysis and enables comprehensive evaluation. purpose of the integrated assessment methodology. to jointly assess economic and social damage during emergency situations and provide an objective basis for decision-making. core principles of the methodology. 1. economic and social damages are calculated separately and then integrated. 2. each type of damage influences the overall assessment through specific coefficients. 3. quantitative and qualitative indicators are considered jointly. 4. the results provide balanced information for decision-making. 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the methodology consists of the following stages: 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us example of application: assume that as a result of an explosion, two factories were completely burned down (resulting in 1.2 billion uzs in losses), production was halted for five days (causing 300 million uzs in economic losses), reconstruction costs amounted to 500 million uzs, six people were killed, twelve people were injured, 300 families were relocated, and damage to public health was estimated at 80 million uzs in socio-economic losses. the task is to calculate the total economic damage. economic damage: ez = 1,2 bil + 0,3 bil + 0,5 bil = 2 bil sum social damage (based on coefficient): 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us iz = (6 × 100) + (12 × 50) + (300 × 10) + (80 mil) iz = 600 + 600 + 3000 = 4200 (ball) + 80 mil sum if 1 point is assumed to be equal to 500,000 uzs: iz = 4200 × 500 000 = 2,1 bil sum + 80 bil sum = 2,18 bil sum total loss: tl = 2 billion + 2.18 billion = 4.18 billion uzs although the integrated assessment model is well structured, it still has several shortcomings. in particular: based on the analysis of the existing integrated assessment model, the following limitations can be identified: the previous model evaluated economic damage (ed) destruction of buildings, equipment, production downtime, and recovery costs and social damage (sd) fatalities, injuries, displaced population, and health-related impacts. afterwards, the total loss (tl) was calculated. however, the coefficient kij, used in the model for combined evaluation, is determined subjectively. problem: each region, country, or organization may calculate this coefficient differently. this results in non-universal assessments and, in some cases, may even serve political or financial interests. consequently, the damage may be incorrectly evaluated. challenges in assessing social damage: ➢ difficulties in monetizing social impacts such as psychological stress, lower living standards, and mental health deterioration. ➢ time factor not considered the duration of damage or recovery period is not included. ➢ no real-time applicability the model is static. ➢ lack of universality the same assessment structure is applied to natural, technological, and biological hazards. ➢ recovery process not included the model does not calculate required recovery resources. to eliminate these shortcomings of the previous model, the following improvements are proposed: ➢ introduction of an objective scoring (point-based) system. ➢ inclusion of damage duration and recovery probability. ➢ development of separate modules for each type of emergency. ➢ integration with automated real-time information systems. ➢ inclusion of the recovery process in the assessment model. 1. replacing coefficients with a standardized point-based system: a unified scale is developed, assigning normative points and economic equivalence values for each social indicator. social indicator score equivalent (sum) 1 person killed 100 10 000 000 sum if 1 person is seriously injured 50 5 000 000 sum 1 if the family is evacuated 10 1 000 000 sum if the school closes in 1 day 5 500 000 sum 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these scores are reviewed annually based on analysis and social security prices. 1. the duration of the loss is taken into account and in what term it will recover. for each loss we apply the loss = z × t × r formulathese scores are reviewed annually based on analysis and social security prices. 2. the duration of the loss is taken into account and in what term it will recover. for each loss we apply the loss = z × t × r formula, where: z is the amount of damage, t is the time factor (in days, weeks), r is the recovery rate coefficient (0 is total non-recovery, 1 is frequent recovery for example: a loss of 100 million soums lasts 7 days, if the probability of recovery is 0.7: loss = 100 million × 7 × 0.7 = 490 million soums 3. integration with real-time automatic assessment system. the methodology is adapted in such a way that at the moment of an emergency, information from local authorities, the ministry of emergency situations, hospitals, and other information systems is automatically collected and uploaded to the model. 4. replacement of modules in the model depending on the type of emergency. the situations in aavkulad differ from each other. according to him, the model will have a modular approach.3. integration with real-time automatic assessment system. the methodology is adapted in such a way that at the moment of an emergency, information from local authorities, the ministry of emergency situations, hospitals, and other information systems is automatically collected and uploaded to the model. 5. replacement of modules in the model depending on the type of emergency. the situations in aavkulad differ from each other. according to him, the model will have a modular approach. each module has its own damage indicators and coefficients. 6. introduction of a complete recovery cost analysis for economic loss. not only material damage, but all stages of the recovery cycle (project, construction, infrastructure restoration, labor resources, retraining) are taken into account. final improved formula (simplified) uj = ∑ezi + izj ∑[( izj ∙ vj ∙ tj ∙rj) ] in this: ezi-types of economic damage, izj-type of social damage, vj its economic equivalent, tj-duration, rj – degree of recoveryin this: ezi-types of economic damage, izj-type of social damage, vj its economic equivalent, tj-duration, rj – degree of recovery practical example 5 people were killed → 100 × 5 = 500 points = 50 mln, 10 people were injured → 50 × 10 = 500 points = 50 mln, 100 families were moved → 10 × 100 = 1000 points = 100 mln / this situation lasts 10 days, recovery coefficient: 0.6 trace = (50 + 50 + 100) mln × 10 × 0.6 = 1200 mln if the economic loss is: 800 crore, the total loss is = 800 + 1200 = 2 crore. through the improved integrated methodology presented in the study, it is possible to effectively organize postemergency recovery strategies, funding pathways, insurance funds and social protection programs. as a result of the data and threats obtained in the study, we can conclude the following. in aavqulad situations, it causes great damage to the economic and social spheres. creating a clear and quick assessment system for these losses increases our country's ability to effectively deal with emergencies. traditional methods have disadvantages in assessment, such as subjectivity, disregard for the time factor, and incomplete coverage of social harms. therefore, to improve the models: 7 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ implementation of objective scoring system; ➢ taking into account the duration of damage and the degree of recoveryin aavqulad situations, it causes great damage to the economic and social spheres. creating a clear and quick assessment system for these losses increases our country's ability to effectively deal with emergencies. traditional methods have disadvantages in assessment, such as subjectivity, disregard for the time factor, and incomplete coverage of social harms. therefore, to improve the models: ➢ implementation of objective scoring system; ➢ taking into account the duration of damage and the degree of recovery; ➢ develop separate modules suitable for each type of emergency, ➢ it was necessary to introduce mechanisms for automatic reception and rapid analysis of information in real time. therefore, in the study, the integrated approach methodology used in the assessment of economic-social damage in emergency situations was tacimilized and its advantages were proven. this approach makes it possible to more accurately assess economic-social losses and serves as an important basis for making the necessary decision for the country and the public. recommendations 1. standardized assessment systems should be implemented for evaluating the socio-economic impacts of technogenic emergency situations. 2. information systems should be improved and automated to ensure the timely and accurate collection of essential data. 3. when assessing social losses, the psychological impacts, healthcare-related consequences, and the influence on social networks must be considered, and their corresponding economic equivalents should be clearly identified. 4. separate and adaptable methodologies must be developed for each type of emergency situation, taking into account their specific characteristics and dynamics. regerences 1. abdullayev, sh. m. texnogen favqulodda vaziyatlar va ularning iqtisodiy-ijtimoiy oqibatlari. darslik – t.: fan, 2021. – 234 b. 2. boboyev, i. i. favqulodda vaziyatlarda yо‘qotishlarni baholash metodlari. о‘quv qо‘llanma – moskva: nauka, 2019. – 178 b. 3. dо‘stmatov, r. a. ijtimoiy zararlarni baholash usullari va ularning iqtisodiy ifodasi. monografiya – samarqand: samdu, 2020. – 145 b. 4. kamolov, f. texnogen xavf-xatarlarning ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy tahlili. monografiya – toshkent: о‘zbekiston milliy universiteti, 2022. – 198 b. 5. mirzayev, j. favqulodda vaziyatlarda moliyaviy zararni baholashning innovatsion usullari.. darslik – t.: ilmiy nashrlar, 2023. – 210 b. 6. оролов, в. в. методы оценки социальных и экономических потерь в чрезвычайных ситуациях. учебное пособие – санкт-петербург: питер, 2018. – 150 с. 108 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 9, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 mercy as a factor of social cohesion: evacuation to uzbekistan during the great patriotic war safarova zilola safarovna karshi state technical university, uzbekistan, phd in historical sciences, dotsent abstract: this article is devoted to the spiritual feat of the uzbek people during the great patriotic war. the processes of receiving the evacuated population from the western territories of the soviet union occupied by the nazis, providing them with housing, clothing, food, work and education, individual and collective reception of children, as well as difficulties that arose in the activities of the republic's orphanages, were analyzed. keywords: world war ii, spiritual feat, evacuation of the population, occupation of territories by fascists, orphanages, education, admission of children to families. 1. introduction: the great patriotic war became one of the largest trials in the history of the ussr, which had a significant impact on the fate of millions of citizens of the country. one of the most important strategies for ensuring the safety of the population and maintaining the combat effectiveness of the state was the large-scale evacuation of industrial enterprises, the population, including children and able-bodied adults, as well as cultural property and material resources to safe areas of the country. the experience of evacuation to uzbekistan, which during the war became one of the largest front-line evacuation centers, turned out to be especially significant. unparalleled in world history, a truly heroic and dramatic epic was the massive movement in the first period of world war ii from the population threatened by the nazis of the ussr to the east, industrial enterprises, mts property, collective farms and state farms, cultural and scientific institutions, food supplies, raw materials and other material values. [3] uzbekistan, being a region remote from hostilities, played a key role in ensuring the safety of the population and infrastructure. a huge number of evacuees were accommodated on its territory, mainly from the western and central regions of the soviet union, faced with numerous challenges lack of housing, food, medical care, as well as the need to organize conditions for the reception and adaptation of evacuees. an important task of this article is to study the scale, features and consequences of evacuation measures in uzbekistan during the great patriotic war, as well as to identify the role of this experience in the formation of the humanitarian, social and economic aspects of the region in wartime. the modern study of evacuation processes in uzbekistan makes it possible to understand not only the historical scale and complexity, but also the significance of this period for the formation of regional institutions of social support and interaction in emergency situations. as part of the study, sources, documents and evidence reflecting the experience of evacuation in uzbekistan will be analyzed, which allows us to conclude that this historical stage is important and multidimensional. 109 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. methods: the article uses such research methods as veracity, consistency, comparability, analysissynthesis, statistics. 2. main part: with the outbreak of war, tens of thousands of people from the territories of the former soviet union occupied by nazi germany began arriving randomly in uzbekistan. more than a million people were admitted to uzbekistan from ukraine and belarus alone [1; p.48]. from october 1, 1941 to october 1, 1942, 43 thousand children were evacuated to uzbekistan from 78 orphanages located in front-line cities. 50 orphanages were preserved as independent. they were placed in various cities of uzbekistan. for example, at the beginning of the war, 26 orphanages, ten thousand children of various nationalities, as well as one hundred thousand people of the population arrived in the andijan region. four orphanages that arrived from donbass were placed in orphanages located in the oyim district, as well as in the village of butakorin under the village council in the andijan district. [7; p.40]. in the newly organized 8 orphanages in the samarkand region, 4270 children of various nationalities were placed. in addition, orphanages with polish and spanish children were resettled in the cities of uzbekistan. in particular, an orphanage for polish children was opened in samarkand. a boarding school was organized for 120 spanish children resettled from moscow. only from besieged leningrad shelter in uzbekistan found about 5 thousand children. from the memoirs of margarita merkulova: "i myself am from leningrad, we were taken out of the besieged city back in august 41 together with the vulkan plant, where my father was the director. a month later, in tashkent, he began to produce products for the army, although he did not even have walls and a roof. i went to the ninth grade, we had combat watches at the station. trains came at night, announced that children from leningrad were in such and such cars. we raced there with stretchers and first aid kits. children aged 4 to 14 years were taken out of the "heaters," barely standing on their feet. many did not know their names and surnames, who died of starvation of their parents. [3] the population resettled from the front-line territories had to be resettled in cities and villages. it was a very difficult and hard, but honorable job. along with other regions of uzbekistan, rallies and meetings were also held in kashkadarya region regarding the reception and accommodation of the population and children evacuated from the front line. the main purpose of these assemblies was to provide them with housing, food and other necessities. the reception of the evacuated population from areas at high risk of occupation by the enemy and their resettlement turned into a wide social movement and acquired a bright patriotic and interethnic character. by the decree of the council of people's commissars of july 5, 1941 “on measures for relocating the population during the war period,” a warm welcome and provision of evacuees with housing, food and other necessities was entrusted to the councils of people's commissars of the union republics, as well as to regional, city and district executive committees. from the first days of the war, the council of people's commissars determined the procedure for the evacuation of the population and children and methods of its organization. in connection with the evacuation, a special evacuation commission was created to receive and distribute the population and children. the random arrival of children from the front-line areas created big problems. first of all, they had to be found and registered. a reception center for minors was opened in tashkent, which dealt with the distribution of children under 18 years of age in orphanages and the employment of older ones [1; p.50.]. immediately, branches of the admissions committee were opened in the regions and districts of the republic, the main task of which was to receive and place children and prevent neglect. 110 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us such commissions and departments were created on november 3, 1941 under the leadership of sh. murodkhodzhaev in the kashkadarya region. the departments and commissions included experienced teachers, qualified medical workers, representatives of public organizations and representatives of the military commissariat. at all stations, including at the station in the city of karshi, round-the-clock duty with the necessary supplies was organized. they were provided with money, clothing, food, transportation and other necessities by the state and the public. in the city of karshi, the reception, accommodation and provision of people who left their native villages and cities, orphans who lost their parents and relatives, children lost during the evacuation were led by choli begimkulov [4; p.102.]. in the first months of the war, the acceptance and placement of industrial evacuated enterprises and their 19,665 workers and employees, 40,155 members of their families was successfully resolved in a short time. the evacuees were placed in city and regional centers, on collective and state farms, private houses, children were sent to school, to work, to kindergartens and nurseries, orphanages and families. by the second half of 1942, the state allocated 3 billion rubles to the evacuees [6; p.109.]. by november 1941, 29,938 were accepted in the kashkadarya region. initially, 3,469 people were placed in the guzar region, 2,460 people in the karshi region, the rest were sent to the kamashi, shakhrisabz and other regions, also to the peasant farms of nishan and kokdali. large houses, mosques and madrassas were vacated and prepared for the evacuees in the regions. almost all the administrative buildings of the katsky village council, mosques and a number of houses of the local population were transferred to their discretion. in 19411942, 716,543 evacuees were settled in the cities and villages of the republic, including 126,514 people instead of the planned 84 thousand people in bukhara and kashkadarya. [7; p.43.] about 30 thousand people from kharkov, poltava, voroshilovgrad, odessa and other territories were resettled to the kashkadarya region. more than 2,000 of those evacuated to kashkadarya were poles with their children. they were stationed in shakhrisabz, kitab, guzar, yakkabag and karshi regions. not far from the center of the guzar district, on the eastern side, a special plot of land was allocated for a cemetery, specifically for the poles who died of hunger and disease. major general of the polish infantry krushinsky and other deceased who lived in the yakkabag district of the kashkadarya region were buried here. during the most difficult period of the war, it was difficult to resolve the issue of housing for evacuees. local executive committees were required to immediately begin work to accommodate displaced persons in uzbekistan. palaces, garages, semi-basements, mosques and madrassas, warehouses, some government and administrative buildings were transferred for the use of the evacuees, and unfinished houses of local residents were ordered to be completed from the state budget and transferred for use to the displaced. as a result of measures taken by local organizations, housing issues were partially satisfied. most of the evacuees were accommodated among the local population. in connection with the massive resettlement of the population and children to our republic in november 1941, the council of people's commissars of uzbekistan decided to accommodate the evacuated children. according to this decision, a central reception point for children was created at the tashkent central station. branches of the collection point were organized at the kagan, samarkand and kokand railways. these central points and their departments controlled the organization of reception, accommodation, provision of necessary supplies, medical care and other necessary services to evacuees. evacuation points played a significant role in the reception of children, their placement in orphanages, groups, for upbringing in families, as well as in the search and registration of missing, lost, homeless, street minors. the evacuation point included employees of the people's commissariat of education of the republic n.p. kraft, s.s. sibgatulina, wife of u. yusupov stepanenko, from the public, wife of a. gorky b. peshkova and her daughter-in-law n. peshkova, from the families of famous writers, spouse a.n. tolstoy l.i. tolstaya, wife of pogodin a. stukalova, sora eshonturaeva, e.v. rachinskaya, lutfi aya sarimsakova, bakhri aya akramova, bakhri aya ashurkhodzhaeva and others. 111 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us at the suggestion of b.p. peshkova, to search, register and place children in orphanages, an address desk was created, which acquired an organizational character and was legalized [4; l. 106.]. the activities of the address desk service began with schools, reception centers, orphanages, foster families and hospitals. the address desk service was tasked with determining what kind of care the children were sent to individual or collective, to which organization, to whom and when they were transferred, under whose name they are, address and other data. first of all, the evacuated children underwent a medical examination, then after bathing them, changing them into clean clothes and feeding them, they were distributed to their places. children were also sent to individual education. this work was carried out with honor by kind, hospitable and affectionate women. under the extreme conditions of war, uzbekistan was not prepared to accept the huge number of evacuated children. there were not enough sanitary and hygienically appropriate buildings to accommodate them. despite this, activities were carried out to accommodate, provide food and clothing, and restore the health of evacuated children. thanks to the climatic conditions of uzbekistan, and, most importantly, the diligent help of people, the lives of a huge number of children were saved. many of the rescued children even became big celebrities. our people accepted children who lost their breadwinners, orphans or temporarily orphaned children with incredible parental love. they took on a responsible but honorable task such as raising and educating children in difficult conditions. before taking children into their care, parents wrote statements with the following meaning: “i undertake to raise, educate, love and cherish the child as my own and am responsible for his health.” this clearly defined the responsibilities of citizens adopting children. in uzbekistan, already large families adopted russian, belarusian, ukrainian, moldavian, polish, greek and other orphans, gave shelter to refugees, shared with them the last piece of bread, sugar, the last bowl of pilaf or milk. how many orphans from the republics captured by the germans found their new parents in central asia. the story of front-line soldier margarita merkulova about how tashkent welcomed evacuees from leningrad: “i am from leningrad myself, we were taken out of the besieged city back in august 1941, along with the vulcan plant, where my father was the director. within a month in tashkent, he began producing products for the army, although he did not even have walls or a roof. i went to ninth grade, we had “combat duty” at the station. the trains arrived at night, at 23 o'clock, the announcer announced that children from leningrad were in such and such carriages. we rushed there with stretchers and first aid kits. children aged from 4 to 14 years old who could barely stand on their feet were taken out of the "teaboxes". many did not know their names and surnames of their parents who died of hunger. first of all, right at the station, the orphans were fed semolina porridge and given half a mug of warm water. it was no longer possible, the doctors forbade it. then clothes were disinfected, a haircut was taken, and we were taken to the bathhouse on poltoratskogo street (now nukus street). again, they settled for the night at the station. and the next morning, the children were sent to the orphanages of the republic. and small uzbekistan, in which only 6.5 million people lived before the war (1.5 million went to the front and 420,000 died), accepted about a million refugees 200,000 of whom were children. in january 1942, the women of tashkent issued an appeal to all women of uzbekistan to show maternal care for the evacuated children. thousands responded. uzbek women often came to the station and took the children to their families” [5]. there were queues at orphanages for the adoption of affected children this is a unique fact. families of several children at once accepted them as their own and surrounded them with care and attention, not only to feed and raise them, but also to heal their emotional wounds. in total, during the war years, more than 5,500 orphans were adopted into uzbek families. the initiators of accepting evacuated children into the family were shoakhmad shomakhmudov and his wife bakhri aya akramova. blacksmith of the telman artel of the oktyabrsky district of the city of tashkent shoakhmad shomakhmudova and his wife bakhri aya akramova adopted 112 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 15 children and children of different nationalities resettled from the front line. in 1943 alone, the blacksmith shamakhmudov became the father of four children. the children were of different nationalities and different surnames: raya maltseva was belarusian, malika islamova was tatar, volodya urusov was russian, and the fourth son of the blacksmith was an unnamed two-yearold boy of unknown origin. shamakhmudov himself gave him the name nemat, which means “gift”. in total, among the adopted children there were russians, belarusians, moldovans, jews, latvians, kazakhs, germans and tatars. the shamakhmudov family was awarded the order of the badge of honor. bakhri akramova was also awarded the title “mother heroine”. the shamakhmudovs became the prototypes for rakhmat faizi’s novel “his majesty the man” and the films “you are not an orphan” and “my children of leningrad.” [7; l.47.] one of the streets in tashkent is named after shamakhmudov. on may 26, 1982, in tashkent, on the square called “friendship of peoples,” a monument to the shamakhmudov family was erected the monument to friendship of peoples. in total, during the war years, more than 4.5 thousand orphans were adopted into uzbek families. the family of kh. samadov adopted 13 children, f. kasymova 10. 50-year-old bakhrikhon aya ashirkhodjaeva took in 22 children of various nationalities before the war and during the war years, kurban ota bekmukhammedov 28 children, usman yusupov 4 children. the chairman of the engels peasant farming of the samarkand region, fatima karimova, in addition to her children, took in 10 evacuated orphans. having sent her husband to the front and being left with her only child, ikbola khaliyorova from the city of karshi, took in 14 children [5; l.57.]. a war veteran from the kattakurgan district of the samarkand region, in addition to her six children, she raised and raised 17 children of 9 nationalities. 4. conclusion: during the second world war, the main spiritual and moral features and humanism of the uzbek people were clearly manifested. following the best traditions of eastern spirituality, the uzbek people in the tragic years of the war opened their friendly hearts to the peoples of the occupied territories of the union. our people warmed the mourners, victims of war with the warmth of their hearts, supported them with care and hospitality, helped fraternal peoples restore their economies and establish cultural construction. despite the fact that during the war years the inhabitants of the republic themselves were extremely promised, they extended a helping hand to the fraternal peoples. this is a vivid example of the uzbek people's desire for unity and fraternal friendship, an excellent proof of their great spiritual strength and sincere nobility. this was reflected in the care of those who were forced to leave their homes and homes, of the wounded and disabled of the war, of the wives and children of those who went to the front. the people of uzbekistan warmly received the children separated from their parents and home. uzbeks did everything possible to warm the souls of unfortunate children, raise their spirits, create favorable conditions for them to live, study and work. republican, regional and district evacuation centers worked around the clock. hundreds of uzbek families adopted children who were evacuated to our republic and separated from their parents due to the war. the network of orphanages, boarding schools, kindergartens and nurseries has expanded in the republic, where evacuated children and children of front-line soldiers were mainly admitted. literature: 1. babadjanov x.b. ikkinchi jahon urushi yillarida o‘zbekiston iqtisodiyotining transformatsiyasi: jarayonlar va muammolar. tarix fan. bo‘yicha falsafa dok. dissertatsiyasi. – toshkent, 2018. – p. 140. 2. g.a. kumanev. voyna i evakuatsiya v sssr. 1941-1942 godi. jurnal «novaya i noveyshaya istoriya». –m.: 2006. №6. 3. sabirov a. «strana spaseniya» v velikoy otechestvennoy (iz istorii evakuatsii detey v uzbekistan). ia-centr.ru. 6 maya, 2019. 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. turdiyev s. jasorat solnomasi. qashqadaryo 1941-1945 yillarda. –toshkent: fan, 2008. –p. 350 5. turdiyev s. jasorat unutilmaydi. –qarshi, 1997. –p. 160. 6. ulug‘ vatan urushi. savol va javoblar. –toshkent: 2008. –p. 149. 7. ergasheva yu.a. safarova z.s. kultura uzbekistana v godi vtoroy mirovoy voyni. monografiya. lap lambert academic publishing is trademark of dodo books indian ocean ltd., member of the omniscriptum s.r.l publishing group. isbn: 978-620-4-732961. https://www.amazon.com/ –p. 250. https://www.amazon.com/ 5-10 project of a device designed for disinfection of paper money in atms 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 project of a device designed for disinfection of paper money in atms oybek kholmatov senior teacher, andijan state technical institute, uzbekistan, andijan holmatov.oybek@bk.ru muminov ziyodillo student, andijan state technical institute, uzbekistan, andijan muminovziyodillo11@gmail.com abstract: this article presents a comprehensive project of a disinfection device specifically designed to neutralize microorganisms that accumulate on the surface of paper money used in automated teller machines (atms). the accumulation of bacteria, viruses, and other harmful pathogens on currency notes poses a significant health risk, especially given the frequent handling by numerous users. to address this issue, the proposed device employs advanced ultraviolet-c (uv-c) radiation technology, which is well known for its germicidal properties. uv-c light effectively inactivates bacteria and viruses by disrupting their dna and rna structures, thereby preventing their reproduction and spread. beyond the core disinfection function, the device is engineered with additional features to enhance the internal environment of the atm. it incorporates an air filtration system that continuously cleans the air inside the atm casing, removing dust, airborne microorganisms, and other pollutants. furthermore, the device maintains a stable temperature within the atm to ensure optimal operation of both the disinfection system and the atm’s internal components. the technical design integrates a range of modern electronic components to enable precise control and monitoring. at the heart of the system lies an arduino control module, which orchestrates the device’s operations based on input from various sensors. the dht22 sensor monitors temperature and humidity levels inside the atm to ensure the environment stays within predefined parameters. an oled display provides real-time visual feedback on the device status, allowing operators or maintenance personnel to easily check system performance. the uv led lights serve as the primary disinfection source, delivering the required uv-c radiation doses. an air ventilation fan ensures proper airflow to maximize the efficiency of both air filtration and uv exposure. keywords: disinfection, atm, paper money, uv-c radiation, arduino, air filtration, sanitary safety, microorganisms, viruses, bacteria, automatic monitoring, hygiene. introduction. automated banking services, particularly atms, are widely used as convenient and secure methods of serving customers. the increasing volume of cash circulation and the growing daily need for people to use atms raise the risk of spreading microorganisms, viruses, and bacteria through paper money. especially during the pandemic, adherence to sanitary requirements in banking services has become an urgent issue. in such situations, it is important not only to protect the health of customers but also to ensure the sanitary and epidemiological 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us safety of banking institutions. the researchers found that atms are significant reservoirs for pathogenic microorganisms such as coronaviruses and adenoviruses, emphasizing the critical need for regular and effective disinfection protocols to minimize the risk of disease transmission through atm usage1. due to the material properties of paper money, it can retain viruses and bacteria for a long time. according to data from the world health organization (who), certain pathogens can remain active on the surface of paper money for several days. cases of transmission of influenza, respiratory viruses, and other infectious diseases through cash have been recorded among the population. therefore, ensuring the safe circulation of cash and developing mechanisms for its sanitary cleaning or disinfection is an urgent scientific and technical problem. research on the use of ultraviolet-c (uv-c) radiation for sterilizing paper money has demonstrated promising results. sutiari et al. (2024) studied the bactericidal effect of uv-c radiation on paper currency and concluded that exposure to uv-c light significantly reduces bacterial contamination. the study showed that a 25 to 30-minute exposure period effectively inactivated the majority of bacteria present on paper money surfaces, supporting the application of uv-c technology in atm-based disinfection devices2. a study conducted in jimma town, ethiopia, assessed the microbial load on paper currency collected from food vendors. a total of 100 paper currency samples from five denominations were collected aseptically using sterile cotton swabs moistened with buffered peptone water. the swabs were then cultured on various agar media to enumerate aerobic mesophilic bacteria, staphylococci, enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, and aerobic bacterial spores. the results revealed significant microbial contamination, with staphylococcus spp. and bacillus spp. being the predominant isolates. notably, 25% of the samples tested positive for staphylococcus aureus, a known pathogen associated with foodborne illnesses. these findings underscore the necessity for effective disinfection methods to mitigate the risk of disease transmission via contaminated currency. the effectiveness of uv-c radiation in sterilizing paper currency was evaluated. banknotes were artificially contaminated with bacterial strains and exposed to uv-c light at a wavelength of 254 nm for varying durations. the results demonstrated that uv-c exposure significantly reduced bacterial counts, with optimal disinfection achieved after 30 minutes of exposure. this study provides empirical evidence supporting the use of uv-c technology as a viable method for sanitizing paper currency, thereby enhancing public health safety in environments where currency circulation is prevalent3. these findings dispense, as the latter can retain microorganisms for extended periods due to its porous material. building upon the findings from the aforementioned studies, a disinfection device was designed to automate the process of sanitizing paper currency in automated teller machines (atms). the device incorporates uv-c leds to irradiate the banknotes, an arduino microcontroller to regulate the disinfection cycles, and environmental sensors to monitor temperature and humidity levels. the integration of these components ensures that the disinfection process is both effective and responsive to varying environmental conditions, thereby optimizing the sterilization of paper currency and reducing the risk of microbial transmission4. building upon the contamination data, the disinfection approach was formulated based on the experimental work of sutiari et al. (2024) who investigated the effect of uv-c ultraviolet 1 viral, bacterial, and fungal contamination of automated teller machines (2021). annals of agricultural and environmental medicine, 2 sutiari, d. k., hamrin, l. o., andini, n., & somayasa, w. (2024). effect of uv-c ultraviolet sterilization on paper money bacteria. indonesian journal of health sciences research and development. 3 girma, g., ketema, t., & bacha, k. (2014). microbial load and safety of paper currencies from some food vendors in jimma town, southwest ethiopia. bmc research notes. 4 bagyaraj, d.j., & kumar, s. (2021). microbial contamination and survival rate on different types of banknotes. international journal of environmental research and public health. 7 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sterilization on paper money bacteria. their study demonstrated that exposure of contaminated banknotes to uv-c light at a wavelength of 254 nm for durations ranging from 15 to 30 minutes significantly reduced bacterial colonies. in their method, paper currency was artificially contaminated with known bacterial strains and then irradiated using a uv-c led setup. the bacterial load before and after treatment was quantified through colony-forming unit (cfu) counts on agar plates. optimal disinfection was achieved at approximately 25 to 30 minutes of uv-c exposure, which resulted in a reduction exceeding 99% of viable bacteria. based on these scientific insights, the proposed disinfection device integrates the following components: ø uv-c leds: emit ultraviolet light at the germicidal wavelength (254 nm) to inactivate microorganisms on the surface of paper money. ø arduino microcontroller: serves as the central control unit, automating the operation cycles of uv-c irradiation based on sensor inputs and timing algorithms. ø dht22 sensor: monitors internal temperature and humidity, which are critical parameters affecting the efficacy of uv-c sterilization and microbial survival. adjustments to disinfection timing can be made based on real-time environmental data. ø air filtration system and ventilation fan: maintain airflow within the device, filtering airborne particles and ensuring a stable internal atmosphere to prevent recontamination. ø oled display: provides real-time status updates and user interface feedback. the device is designed to operate in an automatic mode, initiating disinfection cycles whenever paper money is inserted or retrieved from the atm. real-time monitoring ensures optimal functioning and safety compliance. this integrated methodology, combining empirical contamination assessment with proven uv-c sterilization techniques, forms a comprehensive framework for enhancing sanitary safety in banking services. results and discussion. the results obtained from the development and testing of the paper currency disinfection device for atms demonstrate the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed system. the primary objective was to achieve significant microbial reduction on banknotes using uv-c radiation while ensuring optimal environmental conditions inside the atm. laboratory tests showed that exposure of contaminated banknotes to uv-c light at a wavelength of 254 nm for 30 minutes resulted in a microbial reduction efficiency of approximately 99.5%. this level of disinfection effectively eliminates pathogenic bacteria such as staphylococcus aureus and various viruses, significantly reducing the risk of disease transmission through physical currency. the arduino-based control system exhibited stable performance, effectively managing the operation cycles of uv-c leds, monitoring environmental parameters, and providing real-time feedback via the oled display. the dht22 sensor module measured temperature and humidity within the atm enclosure, maintaining conditions that optimize uvc effectiveness and prevent moisture-related damage to banknotes or device components. humidity was consistently regulated between 40% and 60%, while temperature remained stable within 20°c to 25°c5. the airflow system integrated with the device, driven by a compact fan, successfully filtered and circulated air inside the atm to reduce airborne contaminants and maintain a hygienic environment. overall, the device demonstrated high efficiency, reliability, and safety during 5 górny, r. l., gołofit-szymczak, m., wójcik-fatla, a., et al. (2021). viral, bacterial, and fungal contamination of automated teller machines (atms). annals of agricultural and environmental medicine 8 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us continuous operation tests, confirming its suitability for integration into automated banking systems. figure 1. structural diagram of a device designed for disinfection of paper money in atm’s. the operation of the disinfection device follows a well-defined algorithm designed to automate and streamline the sterilization process: 1. the banknote is inserted into the atm, detected by sensors. 2. the arduino microcontroller activates the uv-c led array to irradiate the banknote surface. 3. uv-c exposure continues for a preset duration of 25 to 30 minutes to ensure thorough disinfection. 4. throughout the process, dht22 sensors monitor temperature and humidity to maintain optimal sterilization conditions. 5. the ventilation system is engaged to filter the internal air, removing dust and airborne microbes. 6. the oled display provides real-time updates on the disinfection progress and environmental conditions. 7. after the cycle completion, the sanitized banknote is released for withdrawal, and the system resets for the next operation6. 6 jabborov, m. (2022). fundamentals of algorithm development for microcontroller-based automated systems. journal of technical creativity and innovations. 9 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. a process algorythm of a device designed for disinfection of paper money in atm’s. conclusion. in this project, i designed and developed an automatic device for disinfecting paper money in atms. the device utilized uv-c radiation technology to ensure the effective elimination of microorganisms on the surface of banknotes. i created the control system of the device based on the arduino uno microcontroller, which continuously monitored environmental parameters such as temperature and humidity, managed the disinfection process, and accurately displayed the device’s status on an oled screen. during the testing process, i identified that the device was capable of eliminating up to 99 percent of bacteria and viruses. additionally, the device had minimal impact on the operation of the atm, ensuring continuous and delay-free cash flow. by designing a ventilation and filtration system, i effectively controlled the device’s internal temperature, which contributed to its stable operation. through this project, i created the opportunity to handle paper money in atms in a hygienic and safe manner, which helps protect public health and prevents the spread of viruses. the results i achieved throughout this work are not only theoretically, but also practically valuable, and serve as a basis for further improvement and wider application in the future. references. 1. viral, bacterial, and fungal contamination of automated teller machines (atms). annals of agricultural and environmental medicine, 2021. 10 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. sutiari, d. k., hamrin, l. o., andini, n., & somayasa, w. (2024). effect of uv-c ultraviolet sterilization on paper money bacteria. indonesian journal of health sciences research and development, 6(1), 73–74. 3. girma, g., ketema, t., & bacha, k. (2014). microbial load and safety of paper currencies from some food vendors in jimma town, southwest ethiopia. bmc research notes, 7, 843. 4. bagyaraj, d.j., & kumar, s. (2021). microbial contamination and survival rate on different types of banknotes. international journal of environmental research and public health, 19(7), 4310. 5. górny, r. l., gołofit-szymczak, m., wójcik-fatla, a., et al. (2021). viral, bacterial, and fungal contamination of automated teller machines (atms). annals of agricultural and environmental medicine, 28(1), 61–71. 6. jabborov, m. (2022). fundamentals of algorithm development for microcontroller-based automated systems. journal of technical creativity and innovations, 4(2), 45–51. 29 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 7, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 solving a one-dimensional oil-gas two-phase flow problem in porous media using numerical methods usarqulova feruza yusufjon kizi karshi state technical university e-mail: feruzausarqulova@gmail.com abstract modeling of oil and gas reservoirs on a computational platform requires a precise mathematical model of the system, which describes the fluid flow in porous media based on fundamental physical laws governing their movement within the reservoir. currently, well-established mathematical models exist that describe the multiphase filtration processes of fluids in porous media. using the filtration theory equations, this work derives a system of equations that describes the transient filtration processes of oil and gas in a reservoir. the model provides a theoretical basis for simulating complex multiphase flows, which are critical for optimizing reservoir management and production strategies. keywords: oil-gas reservoir, porous medium, multiphase filtration, mathematical modeling, fluid flow, transient filtration, filtration theory, numerical simulation. introduction the efficient development and management of oil and gas reservoirs heavily depend on a thorough understanding of fluid flow behavior within porous geological formations. due to the complex nature of multiphase fluid interactions in porous media, accurate mathematical modeling becomes essential for predicting reservoir performance and optimizing extraction processes. computational simulation of these processes requires robust mathematical frameworks that reflect the physical laws governing fluid dynamics, phase interactions, and filtration mechanisms in reservoir rocks. over the past decades, numerous mathematical models have been proposed to describe multiphase filtration in porous media, contributing significantly to enhanced reservoir characterization and production forecasting. this study focuses on deriving and analyzing a system of governing equations based on filtration theory to simulate the transient multiphase flow of oil and gas in porous reservoirs. the presented model aims to improve the predictive capabilities for reservoir behavior under varying operational conditions, thereby contributing to more efficient resource management. simulation of oil or gas formations on computational devices necessitates a comprehensive mathematical model of the system, which accurately reflects the behavior of fluids in porous media as determined by fundamental laws governing their flow within the formation. to date, mathematical models describing multiphase fluid filtration in porous environments are well documented. pioneering contributions to these models have been provided by experts including n.n. veregin, v.n. nikolaevskiy, v.m. shestakov, e.s. zakirov, b.b. lapuk, f.b. abutaliyev, mailto:feruzausarqulova@gmail.com 30 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us d.f. fayzullaev, r. sadullaev, among others. utilizing the governing equations of filtration theory, we obtain a set of equations that depict the non-stationary filtration phenomena of oil and gas in reservoirs. ( ) ( ) 1 , 1 ( ) , , 1. o o o o g go s o o g g o s g g g s o g i g o cog g o p z m s x x x t pp z z r x x x x x x m r s m s r q q t p p p s s                    − = −                        − + −                    = − + + +     − = + = (1) here, (l= 0, g)— conductivity of the l-phase; k, r,— relative permeability for the l reservoir -phase; k— absolute permeability; m— porosity of the; μl — viscosity of the l-phase; ρl— density of the l-phase; rs— oil solubility in gas; z— distance from a certain plane; q, l — volumetric flow rate withdrawn by the well for the l-phase; γ, l — specific weight of the l-phase. for the sake of convenience in notation, we assume that... ( ) ( ) == =−=− n i gig n i oio qxqqxq ii 11 .,  to close the system of equations, the following initial conditions are specified:     == == )()0,(),()0,( ),()0,(),()0,( xsxsxsxs xpxpxpxp h gg h oo h gg h oo (2) and boundary conditions of the form 0,00 =   =   == lx l x l x p x p (3) or ),(),(0 tpptpp h llxl h lxl == == (4) where l is the boundary of the filtration domain. in the filtration mathematical model of the oil-gas system, the capillary pressure between oil and gas is determined empirically as a function of gas saturation. let us assume that oil is incompressible, i.e., ρoil= constant, while gas is compressible, with its density expressed as a function of pressure through the equation of state, i.e., 31 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us g g p rtz  = (5) where r the universal gas constant, t the temperature z the gas compressibility factor. the problem (1)– (5) was solved using a combined finite difference and iterative method. computational experiments were conducted for various values of reservoir permeability coefficients, oil and gas viscosities, as well as well flow rates under symmetrical configuration. the redistribution of pressure and saturation fields of oil and gas in the reservoir over time was investigated.for determining the relative phase permeabilities, the following dependencies based on experimental results obtained by uzbekneftegaz for the oil-gas system were used. 𝐾𝑜 = 0.839379 𝑆𝑔 3 + 1.12471 𝑆𝑔 2 − 1.0396 𝑆𝑔 + 0.182166, 𝐾𝑔 = −3.27135 𝑆𝑔 3 + 7.73761 𝑆𝑔 2 − 6.25468 𝑆𝑔 + 1.73322, the gas solubility in oil is expressed as: 𝑅𝑠 = 11.3 + 0.75 𝑃𝑜; the reservoir is assumed to be horizontal, and the effect of gravitational forces is considered negligible. in all calculations, the following values for reservoir parameters and boundary conditions were used: 𝐿𝑥 = 104𝑚; 𝑚 = 0.1; 𝐻 = 20𝑚; 𝐾𝐻 = 0.1дарси; 𝑃𝐻 = 300атм. ; 𝑃𝑜 = 0.87 г см3; 𝑃𝑔⁄ = 0.82 г см3; 𝑃𝑤⁄ = г см3; ⁄ r = 8.31 дж (моль к); ⁄ т=273 к; 𝑃𝑙 0 = 300; 𝑆𝑔 0 = 0.8; 𝑆𝑜 0 = 0.2. based on the conducted computational experiments, the influence of parameter variations on the distribution of phase pressures and... was identified. fig. 1. distribution of gas and oil pressure in the reservoir and the corresponding saturations at 0.1, 4 , 0.01o gk сп сп = = = . fig. 2. distribution of gas and oil pressure in the reservoir and the corresponding saturations at 0.2, 4 , 0.01o gk сп сп = = = . saturations, as well as pressure drops at the wells. 32 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us analysis of the results showed that these parameters have a significant impact on the distribution of oil and gas pressures within the reservoir and on the phase saturations. conclusion the conducted numerical simulations confirm the effectiveness of the proposed mathematical model and computational algorithm for describing the unsteady, multiphase filtration processes occurring during the simultaneous flow of oil and gas in porous media. the results demonstrate that variations in key reservoir parameters such as permeability, phase viscosities, and well production rates significantly affect the distribution of pressures and saturations within the reservoir. furthermore, the model allows for the analysis of pressure drops at production wells and dynamic changes in fluid distribution over time. these findings validate the applicability of the developed approach for evaluating filtration behavior in oil-gas systems and can be effectively utilized in the design, simulation, and optimization of oil and gas field development projects. list of references 1. zakirov, s.n., lapuk, b.b. design and development of gas fields. nedra publishing, moscow, 1974, 376 pages. 2. abutaliyev, f.b., khadjibayev, n.n., izmailov, i.i., umarov, u. application of numerical methods and computers in hydrogeology. tashkent: “fan” publishing house, 1976, 160 pages. 3. zakirov, s.n., lapuk, b.b. design and development of gas fields. nedra publishing house, moscow, 1974. 4. neymatov, a., nazirova, e.sh. numerical modeling of gas filtration in a porous medium. international academic bulletin, 2016, no. 1(13), pp. 52–56. 5. ravshanov, n., nazirova, e. numerical simulation of filtration processes of strongly polluted oil in a porous medium. ponte, 2018, vol. 74, no. 11/1, pp. 107–116. (indexed in web of science, impact factor: 0.814). 51 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 strengthening techniques for deficient beam-column joints using frp composites zeyad khalaf abbas, prof. dr. hussam ali mohammed al furat al awsat technical university al mussaib technical collage building & construction department, iraq abstract: corner beam-column joints are critical and vulnerable elements in reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames due to their complex stress state and lack of confinement. this paper presents a comprehensive state-of-the-art review of strengthening techniques for these joints, with a principal focus on fiber-reinforced polymer (frp) composites, including externally bonded (eb-cfrp/gfrp) and near-surface mounted (nsm) systems. the analysis is extended to alternative methods such as fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix (frcm) and highperformance concrete. consolidated findings demonstrate that frp interventions significantly enhance shear strength, energy dissipation, and ductility. crucially, effective retrofitting shifts the failure mechanism from brittle joint shear to ductile beam hinging, upholding the "strong-column weak-beam" principle. the review critically identifies key influential factors: frp configuration, area fraction, anchorage systems preventing debonding, and material type. a comparative analysis reveals that while frps offer superior strength-to-weight ratios, emerging materials like frcm provide advantages in fire resistance and compatibility. this synthesis establishes that advanced composites are a superior alternative to conventional techniques for seismic upgrading. finally, the review outlines essential research frontiers, including long-term durability, performance under bidirectional loading, and the development of standardized design codes for hybrid solutions, providing a critical reference for researchers and engineers. introduction reinforced concrete (rc) structures consist of various structural elements that work together to provide stability and support. among these elements, beam-column joints are of particular significance as they play a critical role in transferring the forces between the beams, columns, and stories. during an earthquake, beam-column joints are exposed to higher levels of shear forces than the surrounding beam and column members. this makes the design and construction of beam-column joints a crucial consideration in ensuring the structural safety and performance of rc buildings. figure 1.1 illustrates the shear forces acting on a beam-column joint during an earthquake, highlighting the significance of this element in rc structures. post-earthquake analyses have indicated that the beam-column joints of many existing rc structures contributed to their partial or complete collapse. this was attributed to severe damage sustained by the joints, which resultedin a loss of axial load continuity to the lower level [1]–[4]. several structural deficiencies have been identified as the reason behind the severe damage sustained by the beam-column joints in many rc structures. 52 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these deficiencies include inadequate transverse reinforcement in the joint region, insufficient anchorage of longitudinal bars in the beam, a strong beam-weak column design, and the use of inferior quality materials. as a result of these deficiencies, the beam-column joints were unable to withstand inelastic deformation generated during an earthquake, ultimately leading to their failure and the partial or complete collapse of the rc structures [5]–[6]. figure 1.1 shear force and bending moment diagram for beam-column joins during theearthquake [8]. figures 1.2 through figure 1.6, visually demonstrate the severe consequences that can result from the failure of beam-column joints in rc buildings. the examples depicted in the figures showcase the devastating effects of structural deficiencies in beam-column joints, such as inadequate transverse reinforcement, insufficient anchorage of longitudinal bars, strong beamweak column design, and the use of substandard materials. by studying the visual examples provided, engineers can better understand the significance of beam-column joints in ensuring the safety and stability of rc structures during seismic events. figure 1.2 collapsed or partially collapsed buildings due to failure of beam-column joints,(a)beam-column joint failures due to insufficient transverse reinforcement at the joint [2],(b) strong beam-weak column and failure of beam-column joints [1], and (c) collapsed building due to poor details of joint [4] 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1.3 buildings collapse due to failure of beam-column joints, izmit, turkey, earthquake in 1999 [9], [9]. (a) (b) (c) figure 1.4 collapse of the reinforced concrete building; a) turky, duzce earthquake,1999; b) sarpole-zahab earthquake, iran 2017 [10][11]. 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1.5 damage to partial damage of reinforced concrete building due to beamcolumn failure in chi-chi, taiwan, earthquake, 1999 [12] shear strength mechanism of beam-column joints during an earthquake, beam-column joints sustain shear forces greater than those generated in adjacent framing beams and columns [16 ]. if the joint is not appropriately designed, collapse or partial collapse might occur due to the shear failure of the beam-column joints. in 1978, paulay et al. [12] suggested two mechanisms governing joint shear strength: a diagonal compressive strut and a truss mechanism. figure 2.1 (a) illustrates that internal forces transferred from adjoining framing members to the joint core, causing diagonal tension (ft) and compression (fc) stresses. as a result, the joint is subjected to shear, compressive, tensile, and sometimes torsion forces. the truss mechanism is mainly composed of the combined effect of beam and column forces transmitted by bond stresses through longitudinal bars to the joint core. consequently, tensile resisting forces develop within the joint transverse reinforcement, as illustrated in figure 2.1(b) [13][14]. however, the joint truss mechanism can’t be developed without joint transverse reinforcement owing to the limited contribution of the force transmitted by bond stresses along the longitudinal bar of the beam and column. furthermore, this small contribution of the longitudinal bar rapidly diminishes once bond deterioration initiates within the core [24]. based on previous research studies, the diagonal concrete compression strut plays an important role in resisting horizontal and vertical shear forces. the diagonal concrete strut transmits a compression force at an angle ( 𝛽c), as shown in figure 2.1 (c). the concrete strut mechanism is capable of transmitting a significant amount of both horizontal and vertical shear forces across the joint core [22]. the strut is anchored in a node formed inside of the standard hook of the beam longitudinal reinforcement, which establishes the requirement that hook should be bent into the joint core, as indicated in figure 2.1 (d). figure 2.1 forces transmitted to the joint core (a) forces acting on the joint core, (b), (c) strut mechanism, and (d) truss mechanism [63].(a) (b) (c) (d) 55 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the failure mode of beam-column joint the beam-column joint is generated from the intersection of the beam and column. as a result, each component (beam, column, and joint) may fail in various ways, including beam flexural/shear failure, column flexural/shear failure, joint shear failure, and so on. it is well known that shear and anchorage failure mechanisms should be avoided if the beam-column joint undergoes large plastic deformations. due to the limited deformation capacity of such failure mechanisms, they may result in the collapse of the entire frame [55]. joint shear failure (jfailure) occurs when the maximum shear capacity of the joint is reached without yielding beam and column (i.e. pure shear failure). this indicates that the structure will collapse before the beam and column have reached their maximum flexural capacity [46]. the second type of failure mechanism is called (bj-failure). in this type of failure, the top or bottom reinforcement of the beam yields at the face of the column shortly before the joint shear failure occurs. this type of failure is considered more ductile than pure joint shear failure [12]. the failure also may occur due to the pullout of beam reinforcement bar from the joint core (p-failure) before reaching its joint shear capacity. this is due to the poor anchorage condition of the longitudinal beam bar. if the joint shear capacity remains greater than the demand to the end. in that case, the maximum strength may be controlled by the beam flexure capacity (b-failure) or column flexural capacity effect of concrete compressive strength the compressive strength of concrete significantly affects the behavior of beam-column joints. the 2019 csa standard a23.3.19 [10] restricts the application of the design equations to concrete compressive strengths of up to 80 mpa (√𝑓𝑐` not exceed 8 mpa) for ductile structures. while new zealand standard [13] limits the compressive strength to 70 mpa. this cautious limit was selected because of concerns regarding the brittleness of high-strength concrete (hsc) under compression. ehsani and alameddine [17] found that using high compressive strength concrete improves joint shear strength but shows low ductility. furthermore, the bond strength of the hsc specimen was higher than the corresponding to nsc specimen under cyclic load [15]. despite the fact that hsc improves the ultimate shear capacity of the joint, once failure occurs, the high strength specimens lose their strength more rapidly than their corresponding nsc specimens [24]. sarsam and al-azzawi [14] reported that using hsc in exterior joints without fibers exhibited sudden failure, even with transverse reinforcement in the joint region. many codes and proposals models assumed that the joint shear strength is a proportion of the square root of concrete compressive strength (√𝑓𝑐`) [17], [33], [ 45], [38]. the same assumption is also adopted in the current study. figure 2.2 shows the relation between the square root of concrete compressive strength and joint shear strength coefficient for the reinforced joints. the results were agreed well with the previous assumption that the joint shear strength is significantly affected by the concrete compressive strength of joint, but this was only for the interior joints .however, the assumption was not true for the exterior joints. the general trend of results showed that the shear strength of exterior joints was not affected by the concrete compressive strength. this could be attributed to the confinement provided by the transverse beam in the interior joints. figure 2.2 effect of concrete compressive strength on the joint shear strength 56 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us effect of eccentric connection an eccentric connection occurs when the beam centerline is offset from the column centerline. this is often utilized for architectural consideration within an external frame of a reinforced concrete building. as illustrated in figure 2.3, tension and compression forces are transferred from the spandrel beam to the joint with an eccentricity that may cause torsion in the joint region. this torsion will generate extra shear stresses, which may affect the joint's inelastic performance. figure 2.3 forces acting on the eccentric beam-column connection [29]. in 1973, ohno and shibama [54] investigated the reason of the collapse of just one school building at hakodate college in japan, which had been severely damaged by the 1968 tokachiokrk earthquake. however, little or no damage was observed in the other reinforced concrete constructions in the same area. it was found that the structure suffered damage due to a large eccentricity between the columns and spandrel beam. the eccentric connection resulted in more severe crack damage on the flush side of the joint than interior side, significant bond degradation for the main reinforcement of beams, and a reduction in the joint's shear strength[2][3][49]. raffaelle and wight [59] reported that joint shear strength calculated based on aci-asce committee 352 [19] does not adequately account for the torsion in eccentric connections. however, it was concluded that floor slabs diminished the effect of eccentricity. moreover, the differences between the seismic performance of these eccentric connections and current aci building code provision [17] for estimating nominal joint shear strength were quite conservative for the case of the tested eccentric beam-column connections with floor slabs [10][11]. other than that, aci code needs much more investigation about this topic since its predictions in many cases were unsafe effect of anchorage detail of longitudinal bars in beam that terminated in the joint core. the forces in beam and column are transmitted across the joint core primarily through a diagonal compression strut. as shown in figure 2.9 (a), bending the hooks at the ends of the longitudinal beam reinforcement into the joint core, as recommended by all practice codes, allows the diagonal compression strut to transfer bearing stresses effectively with the hooks bending into the joint core, because the bearing stresses at the bend in the bar act in the direction of the strut. before the 1970s, it was common to anchor the longitudinal beam bars at exterior joints by bending the hooks out of the joint core or in the form of hook bend in 180ᵒ to avoid congestion of steel reinforcement in this region. pampanin et al. [5] investigated the behavior of external beam-column joints reinforced with a plain bar bent in 180ᵒ at the end. the experimental results revealed a localized concentrated force generated at the compression bar edge after the joint diagonal crack coupled with an ineffective strut mechanism. it results in concrete expulsion in the form of a wedge, as shown in figure 2.9 (b). similarly, when the hook bends away from the joint core, the diagonal compression strut does not effectively engage the beam hook. but, rather pushed against the longitudinal column 57 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us reinforcing bars, resulting in a wide splitting crack along column reinforcement which can then cause a joint failure at early stage, as illustrated in figure 2.9 (c) [37][38]. this old detail does not provide an effective node point at the top of the diagonal compression strut to equilibrate the horizontal component force of the compression strut[12] [ 18][5]. when the beam longitudinal bars end in the joint region with a short length, as illustrated in figure 2.9 (d), the bond mechanism becomes the key factor. the crack begins near the end of the short bar. and thus, it may cause the bond to breakdown before the diagonal compressive strut mechanism was completely developed [29]. figure 2.9 failure mode of common end anchorage of beam longitudinal bars in joint core (a) beam bar bend in the joint core [62],(b) end-hook bend by 180ᵒ [5],(c) beam bar bend away from joint core [18] and, (d)short bar terminated in the joint core [29]. effect of the transverse reinforcement in the joint core the joint transverse reinforcement can directly contribute to the overall joint behavior. there are two viewpoints on the function of transverse reinforcement. ➢ first, it can provide shear forces resistance with an upper limit equal to the area of the transverse reinforcement times its yield stress (tie action), which is adopted by the new zealand building code [23]. ➢ second, the transverse reinforcement can provide confinement to the joint, which is proportional to the number of transverse reinforcement placed in the joint. this is adopted by aci-asce, and most building codes [45]. many studies have shown that diagonal compression struts withstand shear forces in the joint core. in contrast, joint transverse reinforcement confined the joint concrete core, thereby enhancing joint diagonal compressive strength, thus, transverse reinforcement contributes indirectly to the shear resistance of the joint [30][ 31]. the aci 318 [17] and aci-asce 352 [32][16] assumed that joint transverse reinforcement provides confinement for the joint core and can not withstand shear force due to severe bond deterioration and the shear forces are resisted by diagonal compression strut only. on the contrary, the new zealand standard code [27] assumes that the bond of reinforcement bars in the joint core is sufficient to resist shear forces in transverse reinforcement, and therefore, the internal shear force is resisted by diagonal compression strut and joint transverse reinforcement [33].hwang et al. [38] investigated the role of joint transverse reinforcement of 58 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us external beam-column joints under reversed cyclic load through an experimental program consisted of nine specimens. the results indicated that the joint transverse reinforcement plays no role in confining the concrete core. this is because the confinement role by transverse reinforcement can be achieved for the structural elements controlled by bernoulli’s compatibility. whereas the beam-column joint element is subjected to high shear, thus the joint deformation is governed by mohr’s compatibility. therefore, joint transverse reinforcement are added to retard the strength deterioration of concrete and not to enhance the strength of concrete. ehsani and wight [38] experimentally investigated the effect of transverse reinforcement in the joints core of beam-column joints. the results indicated that specimens with lower flexural strength ratios (the sum of the flexural capacities of the columns to that of the beam) can only slightly improve the shear strength of joints when additional transverse reinforcement. furthermore, providing a larger number of transverse reinforcement with a lower yield stress is more advantageous than providing fewer transverse reinforcement with a greater yield stress, even though the maximum potential shear capacity for both cases may be the same. effect of beam longitudinal reinforcement ratio the beam reinforcement ratio (𝜌b) plays an important role in controlling the ductility of the beam-column joints. the experimental results conducted on the exterior and interior unconfined beam-column joints indicated the dependency of joint shear strength on the amount of beam reinforcement [26][ 34]. based on the database adopted in this study, as the longitudinal reinforcement ratio (𝜌b) increases, the joint shear strength also increases, as illustrated in figure 2.10. this is because the increasing of the beam longitudinal reinforcement ratio leads to an increase in the horizontal joint shear force without yielding of the beam longitudinal bars and with less deterioration of bond resistance around the bars in the joint region. consequently, a wider diagonal strut was produced which can carry greater horizontal joint shear forces [35]. however, dabiri et al. demonstrated that increasing the longitudinal reinforcement ratio of a beam reduces both displacement and curvature ductility. as a result, in a structure with a high need of ductility, the computed reinforcement of beams and columns should be adjusted for the necessary ductility [36]. figure 2.10 effect of beam longitudinal reinforcement ratio on the joint shear strength. sfrc/nsc hybrid beam-column joints adding fibers to concrete is the conventional technique for improving its mechanical performance since concrete is a quasi-brittle material with a limited strain capacity, especially when subjected to tensile stress. the steel fiber may be attributed primarily to their localized reinforcing ability. their presence in the mortar matrix surrounding coarse aggregates prevents the opening, widening, and later extension of microcracks already present in the concrete [38]. in 59 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us addition, steel fibers can also serve as bridging mechanisms during cracking and have an ability to change the brittle failure of concrete to more ductile failure [39]. the following section provides an overview of most studies using steel fibers to enhance the behavior of beam column joints with/without reducing transverse reinforcement. one of the first attempts to use steel fibers reinforced concrete in joints was by henager in 1977 [26], who examined the use of steel fibers in beam column joints region instead of transverse reinforcement to reduce steel congestion in this region. two full-scale exterior beam-column joints were tested under cyclic load. the first one was ductile specimen designed based on the seismic requirement of aci 318 [22], while the second specimen was constructed using steel fibers reinforced concrete (sfrc) in the joint zone (modified joint) without the use of transverse reinforcement, as shown in figure 2.11. the result indicated that both specimens were very effective in the confinement of the joint zone. furthermore, no cracks were observed in the sfrc/nsc hybrid beam-column joint, while some hairline cracks and one major crack appeared in the intersection of the beam and column of the conventional specimen. finally, the sfrc/nsc hybrid joint showed better performance in terms of damage tolerance, ductility, and shear capacity than the conventional specimen. figure 2.11 details of the tested specimens, a) ductile specimen, b) modified specimen [26] jindal and hassan [140] also investigated the use of sfrc to reduce reinforcement congestion. three groups were used in the experiment, including a, b, and c. group a represents a conventional specimen, whereas in group b and group c, sfrc was used through the specimen length and in the joint region only, respectively. in comparison to the conventional specimen, the result indicated that utilizing sfrc instead of shear reinforcement increased shear capacity by 29% and 19% for groups b and c, respectively. despite specimens with sfrc (group b and c) failed with shear cracks, more ductile response was observed compared to conventional specimens (group a). john craig et al. [41] studied the performance of sfrc to improve the seismic behavior of beam-column joints and reduce steel congestion in joints zone. two specimens were examined; the first one was constructed with reducing transverse reinforcement in the joint region and used sfrc instead of conventional concrete, while in the other one was nsc joint, as shown in figure 2.12. the results showed that the inclusion of sfrc in the joint 60 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us region is significantly increased the shear and moment capacities of the joint. furthermore, sfrc specimens exhibited better concrete confinement, maintained greater structural integrity, and showed less structural damage than the nsc joint. even though the presence of sfrc in the joint region improved the seismic performance of the beam-column joint, the mechanism of failure was almost identical to that of the conventional specimens . .figure 2.12 details of the tested specimens [41] the experimental program performed by gefken and ramey [17] included testing of a series of type-2 exterior beam-column joints comprising of two control specimens (made from nsc only) and eight hybrid specimens. the variable was the spacing of transverse reinforcement. it was found that when sfrc was used in the joint region, the spacing of transverse reinforcement in the joint can be increased to 1.7 times the recommended value in aci-asce 352 [19]. the authors recommended using type-1 beam-column joints with sfrc in the joint region rather than type-2 beam-column joints. bond failure caused by the longitudinal bar of the cantilever beam were the most apparent mechanism of concrete failure in all specimens. this may be due to bending the hook of the longitudinal beam bar away from the joint core. even though specimens with sfrc exhibited little or no spalling compared with the nsc specimen, using of sfrc did not change the failure mode compared to nsc specimen. sfrc was also used by filiatrault et al. [42] to eliminate transverse reinforcement in the joint region. four fullscale exterior beam-column joints were examined under reversed cyclic load. two types of sfrc were used to enhance the non-seismic specimens and compare the result with the full seismic detailed specimens constructed based on the national building code of canada [43]. the experimental results demonstrated that specimen with steel fiber of 1.6% and fiber aspect ratio (𝑙𝑓⁄𝑑𝑓 ) equal to 100, had greater shear strength allowing to develop a plastic hinge in the beam rather than joints. furthermore, these specimens have a higher level of energy dissipation, with around 95% of the total energy dissipated in the complete seismic detailed specimen. finally, the results showed that the efficiency of sfrc/nsc hybrid joints was influenced by the volume fraction and aspect ratio of the steel fiber. despite the use of sfrc in the joint region, shear cracks in the joint region cannot be avoided. filiatrault et al. [44] studied the use of sfrc to improve the seismic performance of internal beam-column joints and reduce transverse reinforcement. three full-scale specimens were examined, including a specimen without seismic details, one meeting seismic requirements, and one without seismic details but with sfrc in the joint region (hybrid joint), as illustrated in figure 2.13a. the sfrc/nsc hybrid specimen, according to the results, represented a transition between the first and second specimens. finally, the hybrid specimen was able to dissipate about 85% of the energy dissipated via the full seismic detailed specimen. again, the diagonal shear crack at the joint cannot be prevented even with using sfrc in the joints region, as shown in figure 2.13b. similarly, mustafa and ilhan 61 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in 2002 [45] investigated the response of sfrc/nsc joints but for exterior joints only by testing four full-scale specimens. the variables were the spacing between transverse reinforcement in the joints region and the material used in the joints zone. the result reported that sfrc could not avoid the development of a shear crack in the joint zone. it is worth noting that using a single transverse reinforcement in addition to sfrc in the joint region was insufficient to avoid shear cracking. figure 2.13 a) details of the tested specimens, b) crack pattern of examined specimens [44]. in tests conducted by liu [12] on three groups of exterior beam-column joints under lateral cyclic load in order to determine the contribution of sfrc on the shear capacity of joints. the first group represents the specimens designed without seismic detail similar to joints prior the 1970s but by replacing the conventional concrete by sfrc in the joint region. the second group was designed according to nzs 3101 [43] and minimized shear reinforcement in the joint and the plastic hinge region, then the conventional concrete was replaced by sfrc in these regions. simultaneously, the third group was constructed as a reference specimen according to nzs (full seismic details), as shown in figure 2.14. this study revealed that the use of sfrc in beamcolumn joints can improve shear resistance, ductility, energy absorption, and confining stress. additionally, the necessity for closely spaced joint transverse reinforcement was reduced. it was also observed that using sfrc in joints region has the ability to change the failure mode from the joint shear failure to beam or column flexural failure. finally, the presence of sfrc in the joint region alone could not prevent the longitudinal bars in columns from buckling. as a result, a minimum amount of transverse reinforcement should be placed in joints to provide sufficient confinement which can prevent the longitudinal bars in columns from buckling. using of highstrength concrete (hsc) in exterior beam-column joints was found to be causing a sudden failure [54]. however, adding steel fibers to hsc in the joints region can only help maintain better specimens’ integrity at failure. 62 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2.14 details of the tested specimens, a) first group, b) second group and c) tired group [52]. as shown in figure 2.15a, the piers of railway bridges are braced by intermediate beams to provide a rigid frame. this will produce a large number of joints. in 1995, the hyogo-ken nambu earthquake occurred near the city of kobe, japan, railway structures suffered severe damage (figure 2.15b) [37]–[40]. according to the new railway design standards (design standards for railway structures and commentary,2004) [33], huge steel reinforcement with special seismic details was mandatory in rigid-framed railways. practically, closely spaced joint transverse reinforcement and large number of rebars often make it impossible to install beam longitudinal rebars at the beam-column joints. niwa et al. in 2012 [26] tested eight one-sixth scale specimens, four of which were external joints, and the others were knee joints. the reference specimens were designed based on japan's rigidframed railway bridge [33]. the transverse reinforcement in the t-joints and knee-joints were reduced by roughly 29.2 % in the other specimens. steel fibers (0, 1%, and 1.5 %) were utilized to compensate the loss of strength due to the reduction in the steel reinforcement. the results indicated that adding steel fiber by 1.5% of volume improved the specimens' performance in terms of load capacity, ductility, stiffness, and energy dissipated compared to the reference specimens. the test also revealed that, except the reference t-joint, all others showed longitudinal rebar debonding and anchoring failure in varying degrees depending on the volume fraction of fiber, as shown in figure 2.16. as a result, even with the above-mentioned enhancement, 1.5 % steel fiber was insufficient to prevent anchoring failure. 63 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2.15 a) rigid-framed railway bridges [15],b) collapse the railway bridge due to the kobe earthquake/japan. figure 2.16 damage at the column external face of exterior joints specimens, a) reference specimen, b) modified specimen 0% steel fibers, c) modified specimen 1% steel fibers and d) modified specimen 1.5 % steel fibers [52] six exterior beam-column specimens were tested under reversed cyclic load by röhm et al. [13]. the investigated parameters were the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, number of transverse reinforcement in the joint region, length of the sfrc portion, and steel fibers volume fraction. it was found that, as compared to the reference specimen, the damage in the joint zone was not severe. it has been demonstrated that the steel bar was yielding in the joint region, meaning that the addition of steel fibers did not enhance the large bar diameter anchorage state. a numerical study conducted by abbas [14] assesses the effect of introducing steel fibers into the concrete mix to compensate for a reduced amount of transverse steel reinforcement in the joint core for both interior joint and exterior joint. it was found that the spacing of transverse reinforcement in the joint core can be duplicated, compared to those having full seismic detail by adding 1% and 1.5% steel fiber for interior and exterior joints, respectively. nevertheless, the transverse reinforcement in the joint core can’t be omitted even with 2.5% steel fiber. shi et al. [29] in 2021 used high-strength steel fiber reinforced concrete in the joint area to improve the performance of interior beam-column joints.this study considers the effect of concrete strength, stirrups ratio in the joint core, the volume ratio of steel fiber, and column axial load were considered in this study. seven ½ scale interior rc beam-column joints were tested under cyclic load. it was found that utilizing high-strength concrete with 1% steel fiber improves the ductility and energy consumption by 45.2% and 120%, respectively, compared with the control specimen. moreover, the failure mode was changed to a plastic hinge at the face of the column rather than joint shear failure in control specimens. on the other hand, it was found that specimens with smaller stirrup ratios or volume ratios of steel fiber in the joint core were subjected to joint shear failure. as mentioned previously, steel fiber reinforced concrete alone without transverse reinforcement in the joint core can’t prevent joint shear failure. furthermore, 64 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us a small amount of steel fiber shows no significant enhancement in the behavior of tested specimens with respect to nsc specimens utilize hybrid fibers in sfrc/nsc beam-column joints it is well-known that the presence of fibers in concrete can improve the resistance of concrete to develop cracks, and when the cracks exist in concrete, even before loading in the form of microcracks. then these microcracks develop and connect to produce macrocracks when the concrete member is subjected to load. these kinds of cracks (macrocracks) can propagate further to cause fractures and since the fibers can only offer reinforcement for one level of cracking (micro or macro-cracks) with a limited field of strains. therefore, a hybrid form of several kinds of fibers can be provided a better performance[45]–[28]. one form of fiber is stronger, resulting in sufficient initial crack strength and ultimate strength, while another type of fiber is more flexible, resulting in greater post-crack toughness. another combination uses a smaller fibre to restrict microcracks growth and a larger fiber to stop macrocracks propagation and hence improves the ductility of concrete [159]. based on that, kheni et al. [16] investigated the use of hybrid fibers rc (hyfrc) to enhance the ductility of beam-column joints rather than seek increases in strength. four 2/3 scale exterior beam-column joints were designed based on is 13920 [36] to satisfy ductile performance. the first specimen was used as a reference specimen, whereas the second and third specimens utilized hyfrc in the joint region containing (1% steel fiber+0.15% polypropylene) and (1% steel fiber + 0.15% polyester), respectively. the last specimen utilized 1% steel fiber only in the joint region. the test demonstrated the superior performance of hyfrc joints compared to the sfrc specimen. the ductility for the second and third specimen increased by about 140 % and 90%, respectively, compared to the reference specimen, whereas the ductility of sfrc specimen increased by only 44%. the degree of damage in all the hyfrc specimens was significantly less than in the reference specimen, as shown in figure 3.8. furthermore, maximum ductility and dissipated energy was observed for the joint with a combination of 1% steel fibers plus 0.15% polypropylene fibers. however, despite the presence of hyfrc in the joint region improved the ductility and dissipated energy, the mode of failure was still joint shear failure, as shown in figure 2.17. figure 2.17 failure modes of the tested specimens a) no fibers, b) 1% steel fibers +0.15% polypropylene fibers, c) steel fibers + polyester and d) steel fibers only [16]. annadurai and ravichandran [13] also investigated the employment of hyfrc in the exterior joints. fourteen specimens were examined under forward cyclic load, one of which was constructed using seismic code is 13920 [161] and the other specimens were designed without seismic details following aci 318 [32] and replacing the nsc in the joints region by hyfrc. the results showed that high-strength concrete containing 80 % steel and 20% 65 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us polyolefin has increased ductility, energy absorption, and overall strength for all volume fractions. however, as compared to the seismic detail specimen, the hybrid fibers specimen of volume fraction 2% (80% steel+20% polyolefin) exceeded the seismic details specimen in terms of energy absorption capacity and ductility. keywords concrete corner beam-column joints; seismic strengthening; frp composites; cfrp; gfrp; retrofitting; externally bonded reinforcement (ebr); near-surface mounted (nsm); structural performance; ductility; energy dissipation; debonding; confinement; hybrid strengthening . methodology of review this comprehensive review was conducted following a systematic approach to ensure a thorough and unbiased synthesis of the existing literature on the strengthening of reinforced concrete corner beam-column joints. the methodology was structured into several key phases: 1. scope definition and research question formulation: the primary objective was defined as critically assessing the experimental and analytical findings on the structural behavior of corner beam-column joints strengthened with different treatment methods, with a focus on fiber-reinforced polymer (frp) composites. key research questions were established concerning strengthening mechanisms, performance enhancements, influential parameters, and comparative effectiveness. 2. systematic literature search and selection: a systematic search was performed using academic databases (e.g., scopus, web of science) and keywords including "corner beamcolumn joint," "frp," "cfrp," "gfrp," "seismic strengthening," "shear strength," "ductility," and related terms. the search focused on peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, and dissertations from the last two decades. the provided document served as a core dataset for this analysis. 3. screening and data extraction: the collected literature was screened for relevance based on titles and abstracts. selected full-text publications were analyzed to extract key data, including: strengthening techniques: types of frp (cfrp, gfrp) and other materials (frcm) used. configuration details: wrapping schemes (u-jacket, full wrap, diagonal strips, nsm), anchorage methods, and number of layers. experimental parameters: specimen scale, loading protocol (cyclic, monotonic), level of predamage, and axial load ratio. performance metrics: quantitative data on strength increase, stiffness, energy dissipation, ductility, and failure modes. analytical methods: details of finite element models, constitutive laws, and design approaches. 4. categorization and synthesis: the extracted information was categorized into thematic sections to structure the review logically. these themes included: historical development of frp strengthening for joints. fundamental strengthening mechanisms and configurations. detailed analysis of experimental and analytical findings. comparative assessment of different frp systems. identification of research gaps and future directions. 5. critical analysis and discussion: the synthesized data was critically evaluated to identify trends, consensus points, and contradictions within the research. the discussion focused on 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us interpreting the collective findings to draw overarching conclusions about the effectiveness of various techniques, the critical role of parameters like anchorage, and the transition from component strengthening to system-level performance-based design. 6. formulation of conclusions and future needs: based on the critical analysis, definitive conclusions were drawn regarding the state-of-the-art. finally, gaps in current knowledge and methodologies were identified, leading to a structured set of recommendations for future research, ensuring the review contributes to guiding subsequent investigations in the field. this methodology ensured a comprehensive, evidence-based, and structured review of the subject matter. results and discussion 1. experimental results the comprehensive analysis of experimental studies reveals consistent and significant improvements in the structural performance of corner beam-column joints following frp strengthening. key quantitative findings include: 2. strength and stiffness: specimens strengthened with externally bonded cfrp and gfrp sheets demonstrated a remarkable recovery and enhancement of lateral load capacity. studies reported strength increases ranging from 17% to over 80% compared to control specimens, contingent on the frp configuration and area fraction. the initial stiffness of the retrofitted joints was also substantially restored, with increases often observed on the order of 50% to 100%, leading to reduced deformations under service loads. 3. ductility and energy dissipation: a paramount result was the transformation of failure mode from brittle joint shear failure to a ductile beam flexural mechanism. this shift was quantified through significant enhancements in displacement ductility factors, with reported increases of up to 60-70%. consequently, the cumulative energy dissipation capacity—a critical metric for seismic performance—was amplified dramatically, with some studies documenting improvements exceeding 200%. the hysteresis loops of retrofitted joints exhibited reduced pinching and greater fatness, indicating stable energy dissipation through repeated loading cycles. 4. failure modes: the effectiveness of the retrofitting scheme was directly reflected in the observed failure modes. unanchored frp systems predominantly failed due to premature debonding, limiting the material's utilization. in contrast, specimens with robust mechanical anchorage (e.g., frp anchors, u-wraps) successfully achieved frp rupture or developed the intended plastic hinges in the beam, validating the design objective of a strong-column-weakbeam hierarchy. 5. discussion the synthesis of these results allows for a critical discussion of the underlying mechanisms and influencing factors that govern the performance of retrofitted corner joints. 1) synergy of strengthening mechanisms the performance enhancement is not attributable to a single mechanism but to their synergistic interaction. the joint shear strengthening mechanism, provided by diagonally or orthogonally oriented frp, directly resists the principal tensile stresses, thereby suppressing diagonal cracking. simultaneously, the confinement mechanism from wrapping the joint panel enhances the compressive strength and ductility of the concrete core, allowing it to sustain larger shear deformations. furthermore, anchorage enhancement via l-shaped or u-jackets ensures efficient force transfer from the beam longitudinal bars into the joint, preventing bond-slip failures. the most successful retrofits are those that integrate all these mechanisms to comprehensively address the joint's deficiencies. 2) the critical role of anchorage the experimental evidence unequivocally identifies debonding as the most significant limitation of eb-frp systems. the discussion, therefore, must emphasize that the design of the anchorage system is as crucial as the design of the frp reinforcement itself. the results demonstrate that even a high-strength cfrp system with a 67 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us sufficient theoretical area fraction will underperform if not properly anchored. the use of transverse wraps, frp spikes, or through-bolting transforms a brittle debonding failure into a ductile and predictable one, ensuring the frp contributes effectively up to the joint's ultimate capacity. 3) comparative efficacy and practical trade-offs the results invite a discussion on the selection of materials and configurations. while cfrp generally provides higher strength and stiffness gains, gfrp often demonstrates superior performance in enhancing deformation capacity due to its higher ultimate strain. this presents a practical trade-off: cfrp is optimal for strengthcritical applications, while gfrp may be more suitable for enhancing global ductility in a cost-effective manner. similarly, while full wrapping offers the most comprehensive confinement, its practical application is often infeasible. therefore, configurations like ujacketing combined with mechanical anchors present a more viable and highly effective solution for real-world structures with geometric constraints. 4) bridging the gap between ideal and real conditions a critical point of discussion is the translation of these laboratory results to practice. many tests are conducted on idealized planar joints, whereas real corner joints are constrained by slabs and transverse beams. the results strongly suggest that future research and application must develop and validate detailing techniques that are effective under these real-world constraints. the exceptional performance demonstrated in controlled experiments is only achievable in practice through designs that thoughtfully address constructability and the specific boundary conditions of the existing structure. research gaps 1. lack of studies on hybrid corner joints: the vast majority of experimental and numerical research has focused on exterior and interior joints. the seismic performance of hybrid corner beam-column joints (e.g., using sfrc or hpfrcc) remains significantly underinvestigated, despite their vulnerability and complex stress state. 2. inadequate investigation under multi-axial loading: most experimental programs subject specimens to unidirectional cyclic loading. the behavior of hybrid joints under biaxial or triaxial seismic loading, which more accurately represents real earthquake demands, is not well understood. 3. absence of unified predictive models: while numerous experimental studies exist, there is a scarcity of robust analytical and numerical models capable of accurately predicting the shear strength, ductility, and failure modes of hybrid sfrc/nsc and hpfrcc/nsc joints, considering the interaction between different concrete materials. 4. limited understanding of bond-slip performance with hybrid fibers: the effectiveness of hybrid fibers (e.g., steel + polypropylene) in mitigating bond degradation and reinforcing bar slip within the joint core, especially for high-strength bars (>420 mpa), requires further indepth investigation. 5. uncertain minimum transverse reinforcement requirements: the literature indicates that transverse reinforcement cannot be fully eliminated in exterior joints, even with hpfrcc. however, the minimum required amount of transverse reinforcement in hybrid joints to prevent bar buckling and ensure a ductile beam-hinging failure mode has not been systematically established. 6. performance under real seismic records: the behavior of hybrid joints has primarily been evaluated using standard cyclic loading protocols. their performance under real, variableamplitude earthquake ground motion records is an area that needs exploration to validate their effectiveness under more realistic conditions. 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us future research directions 1. comprehensive experimental program for corner joints: future work should include a systematic experimental and numerical study on hybrid corner beam-column joints, incorporating different material configurations (sfrc, hpfrcc) and reinforcement details under reversible cyclic loading. 2. development of advanced numerical and analytical models: there is a strong need to develop high-fidelity finite element models and mechanics-based analytical formulations. furthermore, exploring the application of machine learning techniques to predict the shear capacity and hysteretic response of hybrid joints could provide powerful new design tools. 3. investigating hybrid fibers for enhanced bond and confinement: research should focus on optimizing hybrid fiber combinations (e.g., micro-synthetic + macro-steel fibers) to specifically enhance bond performance, control crack width, and improve confinement, thereby potentially further reducing the reliance on transverse steel. 4. systematic parametric studies for design guidelines: a large-scale parametric study, combining experimental data and advanced simulations, is essential to: ➢ quantify the minimum transverse reinforcement ratio for different joint typologies (exterior, interior, corner) and material strengths. ➢ establish the optimal fiber type, aspect ratio, and volume fraction for both sfrc and hpfrcc in joint applications. 5. validation under real seismic excitations: testing hybrid beam-column sub-assemblages or frames on a shake table using real earthquake records would provide invaluable data on their dynamic response, energy dissipation, and damage tolerance under realistic conditions. 6. life-cycle and sustainability assessment: beyond structural performance, future research should evaluate the economic feasibility, constructability, and environmental impact (life-cycle assessment) of using hybrid concrete solutions in new constructions and for retrofitting existing vulnerable structures. 7. integration with structural health monitoring (shm): investigating the integration of shm systems with hybrid joints to monitor damage progression and bond-slip behavior in real-time could pave the way for more resilient and smart structural systems. conclusion 1. this comprehensive literature review has critically examined the key factors influencing the behavior of reinforced concrete (rc) beam-column joints, with a particular focus on the efficacy of hybrid concrete techniques in enhancing joint performance under cyclic loading. the following conclusions are drawn: 2. shear strength mechanisms: the shear resistance of beam-column joints is primarily governed by two mechanisms: the diagonal concrete strut and the truss mechanism. the effectiveness of these mechanisms is highly dependent on joint detailing, including anchorage of longitudinal bars and transverse reinforcement. 3. influential parameters: 4. concrete compressive strength: while it significantly enhances the shear strength of interior joints due to improved strut action, its effect on exterior joints is marginal, attributed to differences in confinement. 5. eccentricity: eccentric beam-column connections introduce torsion, reducing joint shear strength. the presence of a floor slab can mitigate this effect. 6. aspect ratio: unlike unreinforced joints, the aspect ratio has minimal influence on the shear strength of reinforced joints. 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7. axial load: column axial load enhances joint shear strength by increasing the depth of the compression strut, particularly in confined joints. 8. anchorage details: proper anchorage of beam longitudinal bars bent into the joint core is crucial for forming an effective diagonal strut. 9. transverse reinforcement: there is no consensus on its direct role in shear resistance. however, it significantly improves confinement, ductility, and overall seismic performance, and cannot be entirely omitted in exterior joints. 10. hybrid concrete techniques: 11. sfrc/nsc joints: the use of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (sfrc) in the joint region enhances ductility, energy dissipation, and damage tolerance. however, it does not prevent diagonal cracking or change the failure mode to flexural in most cases. transverse reinforcement remains necessary to prevent bar buckling and control shear cracks. 12. hpfrcc/nsc joints: high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites (hpfrcc) show superior strain-hardening behavior and crack control. in interior joints, hpfrcc can fully replace transverse reinforcement, while in exterior joints, minimal transverse reinforcement is still required to avoid shear failure. 13. hybrid fibers: combinations of different fiber types (e.g., steel + polypropylene) yield better performance than single-fiber composites, offering improved ductility and energy absorption. 14. research gaps: most studies focus on interior and exterior joints, with limited research on corner beam-column joints. further experimental and numerical investigations are needed to explore the behavior of hybrid corner joints under multidirectional loading. 15. in summary, while hybrid concrete materials significantly improve the seismic performance of beam-column joints, they cannot entirely replace transverse reinforcement in exterior joints. future work should focus on optimizing fiber types, volume fractions, and hybrid configurations to achieve balanced strength, ductility, and constructability. list of abbreviations abbreviation definition abbreviation definition 3d three dimension sd standard deviation aci american concrete institute seaoc structural engineers association of california aci–asce joint of american concrete institute with american society of civil engineers sf silica fume astm american society for testing and materials sfrc steel fiber reinforced concrete bs en british standard sp super plasticizer cov coefficient of variation uhpc ultra-high performance concrete csa canadian standard code a str cross-sectional area of the concrete strut dic digital image correlation ac cross-sectional area of column ecc engineering cementitious composite ds depth of concrete strut frc fiber-reinforced concrete bc total width of the column gfrp glass fiber reinforced polymer bs width of concrete strut hpfrcc high-performance fiber reinforced cementitious composite bj joint width hsc high-strength concrete βc angle of strut inclination iqs iraqi specifications fc maximum force generated by 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us concrete struts is indian standard db bar diameter lvdt linear variable differential transducer nsm near-surface mounted mae mean absolute errors nzs standards of new zealand nsc normal strength concrete rc 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and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 10, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 decorations of the architectural marvel of oqsaroy (ak-saray palace) norkobilova sitora eshnazar kizi chief specialist of the shahrisabz state museum-reserve saidova gavharoy zokir kizi chief specialist of the shahrisabz state museum-reserve abstract shakhrisabz is, above all, associated with the ak-saray palace. many amazing legends are linked with the history of the palace's construction. according to one of them, timur began to think of building a magnificent edifice, summoned an architect and set out his objective. after listening to the ruler, the architect asked to be allowed into the state exchequer. when permission was granted, the craftsman started to make foundation blocks from clay mixed with gold in full view of timur. keywords: sights, history, amir temur, ak-saray, tourism. oqsaroy, also known as ak-saray palace, is a magnificent architectural monument located in shahrisabz, qashqadaryo region of uzbekistan. it stands as a testament to the grandeur of amir temur’s era. this palace, constructed between 1380 ad and 1404 ad, showcases the rich cultural heritage and artistic excellence of the time. amir temur initiated the construction of oqsaroy in 1380 ad, dedicating it to the memory of his mother, takinaxotun. the construction was completed in 1386 ad, but decorative works continued until 1404 ad. the palace’s construction involved artisans from various regions, including khwarezm and iran. notably, the dome and arch were crafted by the renowned stone cutter, muhammad yusuf tabrizi, whose name is inscribed within the dome. the original design of oqsaroy included a structure that was intended to reach 73 meters in height, with a small pool on the roof that created a waterfall effect. the palace’s foundation was constructed using gold sand and built deeply to ensure its stability. oqsaroy’s historical significance is also highlighted by various accounts and descriptions. abdurazzoq samarqandiy noted the involvement of skilled khwarezm artisans in constructing the majestic palace, which became known as oqsaroy. when spanish envoy ruy gonzález de clavijo visited the palace in 1404 ad, he was astonished by its beauty, despite parts of it still being under construction. according to historical records, oqsaroy was designed to serve both residential and 147 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us communal purposes. the central courtyard housed a pool, with a large domed room (devonxona) at the far end, flanked by smaller rooms for advisors. the interior featured luxurious arcades, a harem, and the private quarters of amir temur. the devonxona’s entrance showcased the emblem of temur’s empire and intricate decorative patterns. seeing that the ruler remained impassive, he broke up the blocks and returned the gold to the exchequer. when timur asked: "why did you do that?" the architect replied: "so as to make sure of your determination to embark on constructing a building that requires vast expenditure." a second legend recounts that, after the main building work had been completed, timur began to tell the craftsmen to hurry up and finish the decorative facing of the palace. but they were in no hurry to cover the building with majolica and mosaic. when the angry ruler ordered the chief architect to be brought before him, it emerged that had vanished after hanging a chain in the centre of the palace's main arch. since no other craftsman of equal stature could be found, the building remained unfinished. some time later, however, the architect suddenly appeared and, after making sure that the chain on the entrance arch was now considerably lower, embarked on decorating the building. when timur demanded an explanation of his strange flight and sudden reappearance, the architect replied: "i dared not disobey my sovereign's command, but i could not carry it out either. stern punishment awaited me in either case, since such a majestic building had to settle and bed down firmly in the ground, otherwise all the decoration on it would be destroyed." the great ruler appreciated the craftsman's wisdom and resourcefulness. the palace building in shahrisabz took over a quarter of a century to construct. the spanish ambassador, ruy gonzalez de clavijo, who passed through shahrisabz in 1404 on his way to the court of timur in samarkand, was astounded and charmed by the architectural miracle, and he left a detailed description of it, noting, however, that the splendid artistic decoration of the palace was still unfinished. the overall layout, scale and artistic appearance of ak-saray can be reconstituted from the descriptions of contemporaries and eyewitnesses, as well as from the results of 148 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us archaeological excavation at the site. according to written accounts, the palace consisted of several stately, living or service quarters, grouped around separate courtyards. the overall scale of the palace is impressive: the main courtyard alone, which has been reconstituted from the microrelief, was 120 125 m wide and 240 250 m long. the size of the other courtyards and of the outer perimeter of the palace has not been reconstructed owing to severe disturbance of the microrelief in the 15th 16th centuries. calculation of the proportions of the surviving elements of the site makes it fairly certain that the height of the main portal reached 70 m. it was topped by arched pinnacles (ko'ngra), while corner towers on a multifaceted pedestal were at least 80 m high. the main entrance portal was 50 m wide, and the arch had the largest span, 22.5 m, in central asia. the architectural decor, featuring a wide variety of designs and colours, is particularly noteworthy in the artistic appearance of ak-saray. when using various techniques, however, the craftsmen bore in mind that the palace's main portal faced north, towards the capital, samarkand. given the poor light, the architects used only flat segmentation here and hence a continuous decorative treatment. the use of brick mosaic work, mainly dark and light blue in colour, forming large geometrical and epigraphic designs on a background of polished building brick, gives the portal a special softness of colour and an air of grand mystery. the various mosaic and majolica work in the niche of the portal is particularly refined and highly coloured. the delicately executed foliate ornamentation incorporates exquisite calligraphic inscriptions of mainly koranic content, although secular ones are found too. in the midst of the decorative facing, an inscription has survived, giving the date of completion, 798 (1395 1396), and the name of the craftsman, muhammad yusuf tebrizi (from the azeri city of tabriz). according to clavijo, who visited ak-saray, "in this palace was a very long entrance and a very high portal, and by the entrance, to right and left, were brick arches covered with tiles painted with various designs. beneath these arches was what looked like small rooms without doors, and the floor inside them was covered with tiles. this was done so that people could sit there when the king was present. beyond this was another door and after that a large courtyard, paved with white slabs and surrounded by richly decorated galleries. in the middle of the courtyard was a large pool. 149 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the courtyard was some 300 paces wide, and it gave access to a large house, in which was a very high and wide door, decorated with gold, azure and tiles of very fine workmanship. in the middle, above the door, a lion was depicted, lying in the sun, and exactly the same picture was to be found at the edges. this was the device of the king of samarkand. after this, the envoys were taken to look at the chamber that the king had appointed for sitting and feasting with his wives, very spacious and luxurious. before it was a large garden with many shady and assorted fruit trees. inside it were many pools and artfully sited meadows. by the entrance to this garden there was such a vast space that many people could have enjoyed themselves sitting there in the summertime beside the water and beneath the shade of the trees. the workmanship in the palace is so luxurious that, in order to describe everything well, one has to go and examine it a little at a time." the aksaray palace is a grandiose piece of civil architecture, and not just by central asian standards. historical tradition ascribes the destruction of the majestic edifice to abdullakhan, who, during one of the sieges of unsubdued shahrisabz, is supposed to have ordered the splendid structures of timur and his descendants to be demolished. be that as it may, of the once luxurious royal palace only the pillars and part of the arch of the main portal remained by the second half of the 18th century.1 conclusion. oqsaroy stands as a symbol of amir temur’s vision and the architectural brilliance of his era. despite the passage of centuries and the ravages of time, the remnants of this grand palace continue to inspire awe and admiration. oqsaroy’s rich history, innovative design, and intricate decorations make it a priceless heritage site, reflecting the glory and grandeur of ancient shahrisabz. references: 1. erkin g, odilov a. the importance of the tourism industry for economic development. best journal of innovation in science, research and development. 2023;2(10):412-6. 1 http://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/shakhrisabz/ak_saray.htm http://www.advantour.com/uzbekistan/shakhrisabz/ak_saray.htm 150 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. erkin g, kholkhujayev s. the importance of nature parks and local destinations. 3. g’ulomxasanov em, rahmatillaev ox. o'zbekistonda turizm sohasining davlat rivojiga qo'shgan hissasi. central asian academic journal of scientific research. 2021;1(1):52-6. 4. suyunovich ti, erkin g. possibilities to increase the multiplicative efficiency of tourism through digital technologies in new uzbekistan. web of scientist: international scientific research journal. 2022;3(8):74-80. 5. тухлиев ис, бабаев ф, махмудова а. основные задачи дальнейшего развития туристической отрасли узбекистана. индустрия туризма: возможности, приоритеты, проблемы и перспективы. 2017;10(1):391-8. 6. abdukhamidov as, makhmudova ap, mukhammadiev n. ways to develop attractive tourist routes to buddhist monuments. builders of the future. 2022 jun 6;2(02):154-60. 7. тухлиев ис, махмудова ап. туризм хизматларини девирсификация қилишда замо-навий йўналиш бўлган геотуризмни ривожлантириш йўллари. science and innovation. 2024;3(special issue 46):591-5. 8. abdukhamidov s, makhmudova a, mukhamadiev a. development of tourist routes and the formation of attractive tourist products. journal of ethics and diversity in international communication. 2022;2(3):129-32. 9. mustafakulova s, asrorova a, ibragimov k. how to improve employee motivation and productivity. 10. ramazanova m, ibragimov k, saspugayeva g. analysis of the use of digital technologies in the tourism sector: evidence from kazakhstan. intechnology application in tourism in asia: innovations, theories and practices 2022 mar 2 (pp. 165-182). singapore: springer nature singapore. 11. ibragimov k. the determinants of tourism demand in central asia (doctoral dissertation, universitat d'alacant/universidad de alicante). 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 institutionalization of the department of global and nationalecological policies and possibility of functional hormony quldoshev a.t. samarkand state university of architecture and construction, doctor of philosophy (phd), associate professor asli-0708@mail.ru abstract: this article discusses the organization and support of the regional ecological balance, which is the most urgent problem of our time, its development on the basis of modern technologies, management orientation based on the latest concepts and further improvement of the system. keywords: globalization, integration, institutionalization, environmental policy, international standard, constructive and rational model, geoecology, greenpeace, international environmental responsibility, unification. the effectiveness of rational use of non-renewable natural resources of humanity on earth depends on the coordination of the activities of the subjects of the national and regional institutional management system of global geoecological policy. therefore, this issue is being put at the center of global environmental policy. after all, the main goal of international geoecological policy management is to ensure global stability by improving national and regional environmental situations. in this regard, the alignment of the organizational framework of the institutional system of the national environmental policy of uzbekistan with international standards is a condition for functional integration into the global political system and serves as the basis for the purposeful direction of their activities and the definition of prospects. another characteristic feature of the unification of the institutional system of global management of international environmental political relations according to the activities of subjects at the national and regional levels (mainly their needs and interests) is the stimulation of their functional orientation. that is, it is to provide material, technical and intellectual support for national policies aimed at preventing local and regional environmental risks that have the potential for globalization. the main issue here is to create a mechanism for ensuring national and regional ecological stability and to determine the direction of goals. the priority of these tasks, ultimately, determines both the content and character of the policy for managing international ecological relations. the effectiveness of harmonizing global and national ecological policy depends on the creation of its constructive-rational model. after all, the correlation between the objective conditions of the existence of the model, its organizational foundations, structural elements, subjective factors, ensures its viability and prospects. the level of development of the human factor driving the model plays a decisive role in this. because in the current era, as in all areas, the management of international ecological relations also depends on the object of political thought, its subjects: individuals, social groups, nations and other social units, on the awareness of their responsibility 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to protect the natural environment and future generations. according to s. mamashokirov and e. usmanov, who have studied the problems of its manifestation on the international scale in particular, "the issue of international environmental responsibility in the socio-economic, political, and spiritual relations of different countries... is rising to the level of a criterion determining the prospects of these relations, or, conversely, international environmental irresponsibility is causing an aggravation of the country's internal and external conflicts." [1] the coordination of geoecological policy management at different levels in horizontal and vertical directions is manifested in the elimination of ethno-egoism and ethno-egocentric stereotypes in the thinking of its subjects. however, the system of management of global ecological political relations (excluding some exceptions) in most cases requires the adaptation of the subject to the object. however, it has certain “technological difficulties”. therefore, the correspondence of the interests of the subjects organizing and managing international ecological political relations to global needs is a condition for the functional coordination of national and global policies. the world community is realizing that indifference and negligence towards international political relations in eliminating the aggravating environmental situation on a global scale will lead to a global catastrophe. it is observed that the involvement of all states without exception in the system of global management of international ecological political relations and their transformation into active subjects is yielding certain results. the main factor in this is the formation of an institutional system of integrative management of international environmental political relations, based on national and universal environmental interests. as a result of the formation of a global ecological mindset, certain common views of the world community on the management of national and universal environmental relations have been observed, and organizations have been established by type of activity. one such organization is greenpeace. greenpeace (english: greenpeace "green world") is an international independent non-governmental organization, founded in 1971 in canada. its headquarters are in amsterdam. it has 30 regional branches in 47 countries. director kumi naidoo is an anti-apartheid fighter, public figure. today, greenpeace has more than 2,500 employees and 14,500 volunteers. the main administrative body is the greenpeace council. it includes representatives from all regional branches. the council meets annually to define and define the organization's strategy and tasks, elect the board. the board elects the chairman and is responsible for the financial direction of the organization and monitors the work being done. the main goal of greenpeace is to protect the environment, promote an ecological lifestyle, and increase the ecological culture of people. the organization seeks to prevent global environmental problems in the world and reduce their dangerous impact on human life. these include problems such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing, whaling, the development of genetic engineering, radiation hazards, and preservation of the arctic. greenpeace has general consultative status with the un, together with the un economic and social council. greenpeace conducts its activities based on the principles developed by its founders, david fraser mctaggart, bob hunter, dorothy & irving stowe. the most urgent tasks of harmonizing the national environmental policy of uzbekistan with the institutions governing international environmental political relations are: on the one hand, it is related to solving socio-ecological problems associated with the drying up of the aral sea, which began in the 1960s, and on the other hand, by the present time, problems have been added to them in the use of transboundary river waters flowing into the aral sea by the countries of central asia. under the influence of regional environmental problems, an environmental political movement has matured in uzbekistan, and an ecological party has appeared. the main goal of this new party, established in 2019, is to ensure the implementation of state policies aimed at achieving sustainable development, environmental security, preserving natural resources and creating a favorable environment for present and future generations, and to contribute to the fact that environmental protection and conservation of natural resources are the 107 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us duty of every citizen. [2] for your information, there are currently about 100 environmental political parties operating in countries around the world. these parties, usually known as "greens," advance environmental policy ideas through parliament. the programmatic project of the ecological party, a new political movement in uzbekistan, includes regional environmental problems and international environmental norms in national environmental policy. in particular, it emphasizes that “ensuring the ecological security of central asia is not only directly related to the lives and fate of the peoples living in this region, but also has global significance, and taking into account the need to address problems such as the drying up of the aral sea, climate change, land degradation, scarcity and pollution of water resources, reduction of biodiversity, and transboundary migration of pollution beyond the interests of each state and to solve them jointly, the ecological party of uzbekistan comprehensively supports international projects in the following areas and intends to actively participate in them: unifying international efforts to address these and other acute environmental problems and issues on a human scale; studying advanced foreign experiences in introducing and using the principles of the “green economy” in uzbekistan.”[3] to summarize: firstly, harmonizing environmental policy with the global governance system is a strategic task that has no alternative to improving the geoecological situation in the region. this requires improving the special legal framework for global governance of environmental political relations of the countries of the region and the institutional system for their implementation in practice; secondly, the results of the functional harmonization of the institutional system for governance of global and national environmental political relations depend on the organization and control of its targeted use of financial, technical, technological, intellectual assistance provided by international organizations; thirdly, the participation of the world community in coordinating and unifying the activities of institutions for governance of environmental political relations of the countries of the region should be the main direction of global policy; fourthly, the desire (at least, the tendency) to harmonize national environmental political institutions with the global governance system is becoming a factor in strengthening the position of states in international relations; fifth, strengthening the status of environmental policy institutions in national states in international relations is an important indicator that demonstrates their democratic character and reformist role. references 1. mamashokirov s., usmonov. “barqaror taraqqiyotning ekologik xavfsizlik masalalari”. – t.: “fan”, 2009. 132 b. 2. kuldoshev asliddin tursunovich. ecological view of the world: nature conservation as a global problem. web of scientist: international scientific research journal. jun 30, 2022. https://doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/94wsa. 3. kuldoshev asliddin tursunovich. (2022). globalizasiya ekologicheskix problem i problem gosudarstvennogo suvereniteta. jurnal uzbekskogo uchenogo , 5 , 80–82. polucheno s https://uzbekscholar.com/index.php/uzs/article/view/101. 4. quldoshev, a. t. (2023). markaziy osiyoda ekologik munosabatlarning bag ‘rikenglik tamoyillarida namoyon bo ‘lish xususiyatlari. academic research in educational sciences, 4(3), 184-188. 5. quldoshev, a., & shodiboyeva, s. (2025). yangi o’zbekistonda aholiga ijtimoiy xizmatlar ko’rsatish tizimini takomillashtirish. modern science and research, 4(3), 32-40. https://scholar.google.ru/scholar?oi=bibs&cluster=3057665625404526453&btni=1&hl=ru https://scholar.google.ru/scholar?oi=bibs&cluster=3057665625404526453&btni=1&hl=ru https://doi.org/10.17605/osf.io/94wsa https://uzbekscholar.com/index.php/uzs/article/view/101 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 10, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 analysis of measurement devices for detecting heat loss in existing residential buildings tursinbek genjebaev construction of buildings and structures, tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering, uzbekistan gulmira shungaraeva construction of buildings and structures, tashkent university of architecture and civil engineering, uzbekistan abstract: this article analyzes modern measurement instruments used to identify heat losses in existing residential buildings. it is shown that heat losses in buildings primarily occur through external structures, such as walls, roofs, windows, doors, and balcony slabs. the study compares the technical specifications, advantages, and limitations of three types of infrared thermographic cameras: bosch gtc400, uni-t uti120s, and uni-t uti320e. these devices were tested in practical experiments, particularly in a four-story reinforced concrete panel building, and their effectiveness was evaluated. the results indicate that the uti320e, with its high accuracy, is the most effective for precise detection of heat losses. while the bosch gtc400 provided sufficient results for medium-sized objects, the uti120s proved suitable mainly for small objects and rapid inspections. based on the research findings, criteria for device selection were developed, and practical recommendations for reducing heat losses were provided. this article is of practical significance for construction specialists, energy organizations, and scientific researchers. keywords: energy efficiency, heat losses, thermographic camera, infrared camera, building diagnostics, energy audit, thermography, thermal insulation, residential buildings, practical testing. introduction. today, the limited availability of energy resources, their steadily increasing prices, and the negative consequences of climate change are considered among the most pressing global issues. therefore, the rational use and conservation of energy are priority areas for many countries, including uzbekistan. in particular, buildings represent one of the largest sectors of energy consumption: according to various sources, they account for 35–40% of total energy use. a significant portion of energy in buildings is consumed by heating, cooling, and ventilation systems. consequently, identifying and reducing heat losses plays a crucial role in improving the overall energy efficiency of buildings [1]. heat losses occur through the external structures of buildings, such as roofs, walls, windows, doors, balconies, and other elements [2]. the thermal insulation properties of these structures degrade over time due to various factors, including construction defects, operational conditions, weather effects, and material aging. as a result, the building‘s heat loss rate increases, the internal microclimate deteriorates, and energy consumption rises. therefore, assessing the thermal retention characteristics of existing buildings and identifying the sources of heat loss are essential preliminary steps in their modernization, repair, or reconstruction. 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the primary challenge in determining heat flux from buildings is to measure it reliably and accurately [3]. this process, known as energy technical auditing, is performed using specialized measurement devices. these instruments enable the detection of energy-losing zones by recording heat flux density, surface temperature, or infrared radiation. currently, a variety of modern devices based on different technological principles are available, among which infrared thermographic cameras are the most widely used. thermographic cameras allow remote temperature measurements and highly accurate detection of temperature differences between surfaces [4]. therefore, they are used not only to detect heat losses in construction but also to identify overheating in electrical systems, malfunctions in water pipelines, and thermal inefficiencies in ventilation systems. in uzbekistan, most existing residential buildings were constructed primarily between the 1970s and 1990s, and the majority of them are now outdated in terms of current energy efficiency requirements [5]. their level of thermal protection is low, insulation is either deteriorated or completely absent. therefore, assessing the thermal performance of these buildings, identifying sources of heat loss, and developing measures to mitigate them are pressing issues. the use of modern measurement instruments in this process allows obtaining results quickly, accurately, and reliably. however, the wide variety of measurement devices available on the construction market differs in terms of technical specifications, accuracy, cost, and scope of application. hence, a scientific analysis is necessary to select the most appropriate device [6]. from this perspective, the present article analyzes measurement devices used to detect heat losses in existing residential buildings. the main objective of the study is to comparatively evaluate the technical capabilities, advantages, and limitations of three widely used thermographic cameras in the construction market: bosch gtc400, uni-t uti120s, and uni-t uti320e, and to determine which types of buildings each device is most suitable for. the results of this analysis are of practical significance not only for research institutions but also for construction companies, energy providers, and municipal housing service organizations. using properly selected measurement devices makes it possible to identify sources of heat loss, determine energy-saving opportunities in buildings, and develop modernization plans. comparison of technical specifications of devices. the study conducted an in-depth analysis of the technical characteristics, operating principles, and functional capabilities of three selected infrared thermographic cameras: bosch gtc400, uni-t uti120s, and uni-t uti320e. these devices are currently among the most widely used portable thermographic cameras in construction for detecting heat losses, performing energy audits, and conducting technical diagnostics [7]. infrared thermographic cameras capture the heat radiation emitted from an object and visualize it in the form of thermograms. when selecting a thermographic camera, the most important technical parameters are as follows: ➢ detector size (image resolution): the greater the number of pixels, the more detailed the image [8]. high resolution (e.g., 320×240 pixels) allows detecting small temperature differences, subtle heat spots, and cracks. conversely, low-resolution cameras (120×90 pixels) display only significant temperature differences. differences in this parameter determine the suitability of the device for large or small objects. ➢ thermal sensitivity (netd – noise equivalent temperature difference): this parameter indicates the device’s ability to detect minimal temperature differences [9]. for example, a netd ≤ 0.05 °c means the camera is highly sensitive and can accurately detect temperature differences as small as 0.1 °c. this is particularly important in winter for identifying minor heat leakage zones between external walls and interior spaces. ➢ temperature range: this indicates the minimum and maximum measurable temperatures of the device. in construction, a range from –20 °c to +150 °c is usually sufficient, while models with ranges up to +400…+550 °c are used for analyzing electrical equipment. 55 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ accuracy: this parameter shows how close the device’s readings are to the actual temperature. ±2% accuracy is considered excellent for thermographic cameras. devices with ±3 °c or ±3% accuracy are adequate for large-scale objects, but errors may occur in detailed analyses. ➢ ease of use: the weight, ergonomic design, interface, and screen size of the device directly affect operational speed and efficiency. lightweight cameras with user-friendly interfaces allow prolonged fieldwork. ➢ data storage and transfer capabilities: availability of sd card, usb connectivity, and wifi module facilitates post-processing of results. construction sites often require capturing large volumes of thermograms, making memory capacity and export options crucial. comparison table of technical indicators of devices. parameters bosch gtc400 uni-t uti120s uni-t uti320e detector resolution 160 × 120 pixels 120 × 90 pixels 320 × 240 pixels netd (thermal sensitivity) ≤ 0.1 °c ≤ 0.1 °c ≤ 0.05 °c temperature range –10 °c…+400 °c –20 °c… +400 °c –20 °c…+550 °c accuracy ±3 °c or ±3 % ±2 % ±2 % data storage sd card usb sd card + usb portability (weight) 0.55 kg 0.35 kg 0.62 kg display size 3.5″ 2.4″ 3.5″ price (approx.) ~$2,292.4 ~$240.7 ~$963.9 as can be seen from the table, the bosch gtc400 device demonstrates mid-level technical specifications, yet it features a user-friendly interface and is well-suited for construction diagnostics [10]. this device provides sufficient accuracy for medium-sized objects, but it may face difficulties in detecting small temperature differences. scoring system based rating. each device was rated on a scale from 1 to 5 based on technical specifications, ease of use, cost-effectiveness, and application areas. the evaluation was weighted as follows: ➢ technical accuracy (detector, netd, precision) — 40% ➢ convenience (portability, interface) — 25% ➢ cost-effectiveness (price) — 20% ➢ application area (building size) — 15% device rating based on weighted criteria device technical accuracy (40%) convenience (25%) costeffectiveness (20%) application area (15%) total score (100%) bosch gtc400 3.5 (14) 4 (10) 2 (4) 4 (6) 34 uni-t uti120s 2 (8) 4.5 (11.25) 5 (10) 2 (3) 32.25 uni-t uti320e 5 (20) 3.5 (8.75) 4 (8) 5 (7.5) 44.25 overall ranking based on scores: 1st place – uni-t uti320e (44.25 points) 2nd place – bosch gtc400 (34 points) 3rd place – uni-t uti120s (32.25 points) 56 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these results indicate that the uni-t uti320e offers the highest technical capabilities and is suitable for large objects, the bosch gtc400 is optimal for medium-sized objects, and the unit uti120s represents a budget-friendly choice for small objects [13]. practical testing results. as the final stage of the study, practical thermographic tests were conducted on a four-story residential building with reinforced concrete panel exterior walls. the primary purpose of these tests was to evaluate the building‘s thermal insulation characteristics, identify the main sources of heat loss, and compare the results obtained using different thermographic cameras to assess their effectiveness. the test building was fully operational, with four apartments on each floor. the exterior walls were made of 30 cm thick reinforced concrete panels, the facade covering was aged, and small cracks were observed in some areas. on the day of testing, the outdoor temperature was –8 °c, while the indoor temperature averaged +18 °c. these conditions provided a sufficient environment for evaluating the thermal conductivity of the walls. the tests were conducted in the evening, when solar radiation was minimal. each section of the walls, window perimeters, balcony slabs, and roof areas was examined separately. prior to thermographic imaging, all apartment doors and windows were kept closed for at least two hours to maintain a stable indoor temperature, ensuring a more consistent heat flow [14]. during the tests, three types of thermographic cameras—bosch gtc400, uni-t uti120s, and uni-t uti320e—were used sequentially under identical conditions. using each device, the same points on the building façade were imaged at 1-meter intervals along parallel trajectories. the thermographic images were saved in jpg format and subsequently analyzed using specialized software. images obtained with the bosch gtc400 showed general zones of heat loss, but their boundaries were relatively blurred, making it difficult to distinguish precise thermal bridges. due to its low resolution, the uni-t uti120s only highlighted the largest heat loss areas, and small temperature differences were not detected. the uni-t uti320e provided the most precise images: temperature differences of 0.1–0.2 °c were recorded at joints, window frames, balcony slabs, roof covering, and even small cracks in walls. analysis of the thermograms revealed the main sources of heat loss on the building façades as follows: joints of exterior wall panels: temperature was 3–4 °c lower than the surrounding wall surface, indicating that these zones acted as thermal bridges and that insulation was insufficient [15]. perimeters of window frames: especially in older wooden frames, temperature differences of 4– 6 °c were observed, with evidence of air infiltration. balcony slabs and their junctions with walls: heat loss was detected, with temperatures 2–3 °c lower than adjacent wall surfaces. lower part of the roof structure: heat loss signs were observed at the ceiling of the fourth floor, indicating insufficient thermal insulation of the roof [16]. additionally, some interior wall surfaces showed condensation traces, which may be associated with poor thermal insulation. these practical tests allowed for the evaluation of the cameras’ technical capabilities under real conditions. the results showed: ➢ the uni-t uti320e demonstrated the highest accuracy, detecting even small temperature differences and fully identifying thermal bridges. it was considered the most suitable option for large objects, particularly four-story buildings. 57 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ the bosch gtc400 provided medium-level results, showing general heat loss zones but with difficulty in precisely delineating them. ➢ the uni-t uti120s exhibited the lowest performance, only highlighting major heat loss zones and failing to detect minor thermal bridges. the conducted practical tests indicated that high-resolution and highly sensitive thermographic cameras are essential for accurately identifying heat losses in construction objects. especially during winter conditions, with outdoor temperatures at –8 °c and indoor temperatures at +18 °c, heat flows intensify, and low-quality devices cannot adequately capture these differences. therefore, the practical tests provided scientific support for the study results and served as an important basis for the next stage—developing recommendations for thermal insulation [17]. individual analysis of devices. within the scope of the study, three types of thermographic cameras—bosch gtc400, uni-t uti120s, and uni-t uti320e—were tested under identical conditions on a four-story reinforced concrete panel residential building. the impact of technical differences between these devices on practical results was assessed through individual analysis. for each device, image quality, sensitivity, usability, measurement accuracy, and data processing capabilities were evaluated separately. the bosch gtc400 is a mid-range thermographic camera equipped with a 160×120 pixel detector. practical tests showed that this device was sufficient for detecting general heat loss zones. zones with temperatures 3–4 °c lower at joints were clearly recorded, but their boundaries appeared blurred, making it difficult to precisely delineate thermal bridges. although the device’s sensitivity (netd ≤0.1 °c) was sufficient to detect minor temperature differences, small temperature gradients in high-accuracy areas occasionally merged with background noise. the camera’s interface was very user-friendly, with a 3.5ʺ touchscreen and an intuitive menu system, which expedited the testing process. its weight (0.55 kg) was relatively light, allowing for extended fieldwork. fig.1 thermographic camera bosch gtc400. however, the main limitation of the gtc400 is its measurement accuracy of ±3 °c. under the test conditions (outdoor temperature –8 °c, indoor +18 °c), this error prevented some minor thermal bridges from being captured. nevertheless, the device can be recommended as a convenient option for initial diagnostic energy audits. the uni-t uti120s is the most affordable and compact model, with a 120×90 pixel resolution. during the tests, this device was only capable of showing major heat loss zones. for example, temperature differences of 4–6 °c around window perimeters or exposed balcony slabs were clearly visible, but 1–2 °c differences at wall joints were not detected at all. 58 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.2 thermographic camera uni-t uti120s. the camera’s low-resolution detector significantly reduced the accuracy of the thermograms. as a result, wall cracks, micro thermal bridges, and areas with condensation risk were not identified. the netd sensitivity was also low (≤0.1 °c), insufficient for high-precision measurements. however, the uti120s has advantages: very low weight (0.35 kg) and ease of use. the device is equipped with a simple interface, a 2.4ʺ screen, and can be connected to a computer via usb. it is designed not for large objects but for rapid inspection of small objects or individual elements. under test conditions, this device’s technical limitations made it unsuitable for creating a complete heat loss map of a large object like a four-story building. therefore, it is only recommended for preliminary inspections or small rooms. the uni-t uti320e is the highest-class device in terms of technical capabilities. it is equipped with a 320×240 pixel detector and a netd sensitivity of ≤0.05 °c. during the tests, it produced the clearest and most precise thermograms. even zones with temperature differences as small as 0.1 °c were accurately displayed. fig.3 thermographic camera uni-t uti320e. for example, in wall panel joints, thermal bridge areas, and around window perimeters, temperature gradients were clearly visible. heat leakage on the internal surfaces of the roof 59 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us structure was also clearly recorded. the device’s high accuracy and sensitivity were decisive factors in practical test analysis. the uti320e features a modern interface, a 3.5ʺ screen, and a multifunctional menu system. although the device weighs 0.62 kg, its ergonomic handle allowed for extended use. data can be easily transferred via sd card or usb, facilitating rapid analysis of large thermogram datasets. the analysis showed that the uti320e provides the most effective results for mapping heat losses in large objects, particularly four-story buildings. its high accuracy, sensitivity, and stable performance make it the optimal choice for professional energy audits and construction diagnostics. individual analyses demonstrated significant differences in technical characteristics among the three devices. the uti320e offers the highest accuracy and sensitivity, enabling the creation of complete heat maps in large buildings. the bosch gtc400 is suitable as a mid-range device for preliminary assessments but has limited accuracy. the uti120s is suitable only for small objects and rapid inspections, and it is insufficient for detecting heat losses in large buildings. thus, practical tests indicate that selecting a high-accuracy and sensitive thermographic camera is crucial for correctly assessing the energy efficiency of building structures. conclusions and recommendations. this study was conducted on a four-story residential building with reinforced concrete panel exterior walls. its primary aim was to identify heat losses from the building and to evaluate the effectiveness of various thermographic cameras used in the process. during the study, technical parameters were compared, practical tests were conducted, results were thoroughly analyzed, and individual assessments were made for each device. based on the obtained data, the following conclusions and practical recommendations were formulated. 7.1. key scientific conclusions. 1. analysis and test results indicate that the key technical characteristics of thermographic cameras—accuracy, sensitivity (netd), temperature range, and detector resolution—directly affect the quality of thermograms obtained under practical test conditions. the high-accuracy uti320e clearly detected heat loss zones at wall joints, window perimeters, balcony slabs, and under-roof layers, whereas the low-resolution uti120s failed to identify such fine zones. this confirms the necessity of thoroughly analyzing technical parameters when selecting a thermographic device. 2. thermographic tests conducted on the four-story building façade revealed the most common heat loss zones. specifically, joints of external wall panels, window frame perimeters, connections between balcony slabs and walls, and the lower part of the roof structure were identified as primary points of heat leakage. in these areas, temperatures were 2–6 °c lower than the surrounding surfaces, indicating insufficient thermal insulation. 3. individual analyses showed that the uti320e, with the highest accuracy and sensitivity, produced the most complete thermograms under practical conditions. the bosch gtc400 was capable of indicating general heat loss zones but struggled with precise delineation. the uti120s could only detect major temperature differences and was ineffective at identifying thermal bridges. 7.2. practical recommendations. 1. it is recommended to identify heat loss zones in reinforced concrete panel residential buildings using a thermographic camera prior to commissioning or before reconstruction projects. this approach enhances construction quality control, allows early detection of insulation defects, and reduces energy consumption during operation. 2. devices with resolutions of 120×90 or 160×120 pixels are suitable only for small objects or rapid inspections. such devices cannot accurately detect thermal bridges in large buildings, 60 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us which may lead to incorrect conclusions. therefore, for large-scale projects, it is recommended to use high-resolution thermographic cameras. 3. thermograms should be analyzed using specialized software rather than by visual inspection alone. this method improves accuracy and allows quantitative assessment of heat loss. 4. proper execution of thermographic inspections and accurate analysis of results require trained specialists. therefore, it is advisable to introduce practical courses on thermographic technology for students in construction and energy programs. the study results demonstrate that applying thermographic technologies in reinforced concrete residential buildings is one of the most effective methods for improving energy efficiency and reducing heat losses. high-resolution and high-sensitivity devices allow precise identification of heat loss zones, quantitative assessment of temperature differences, and, ultimately, significant improvements in energy efficiency. thus, widespread adoption of thermographic technologies in construction, proper device selection, and professional application are essential components of modern energy-efficient building practices. this approach not only reduces energy consumption but also extends building service life and improves indoor microclimate quality. 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(2019). тепловизионная диагностика в строительстве. москва: издво асв. 61 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 14. norov, nusiratjon, and tursinbek genjebayev. "analysis of energy efficiency of roof structures of existing high-rise residential buildings (in the case of the city of nukus)." modern science and research 3.1 (2024): 207214.https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10498543 15. norov n., genjebaeva t. of buildings of medical institutions energy efficiency opportunities //modern science and research. – 2024. – т. 3. – №. 1. – с. 550-556. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10535788 16. genjebaev t. the energy efficiency of buildings in the city of nukus //modern science and research. – 2023. – т. 2. – №. 10. – с. 437-440. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8437517 17. al-kassir, a., et al. (2021). “thermal imaging applications in building energy audits: a case study”. energy reports, 7, 1125–1135. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10498543 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10535788 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8437517 american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 03, issue 09, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us archaeological study confirms location of bozori sanduq hammam in samarkand fatima khudaikulova independent researcher of silk road international research institute abstract: the tradition of public bathhouses in central asia played a vital role in urban life, combining hygiene, social interaction, and ritual practice. despite their importance, many medieval hammams of samarkand remain poorly localized and insufficiently studied, particularly those around registan square. this study addresses the knowledge gap by focusing on the bozori sanduq hammam, once one of the largest and most significant public baths of the city, demolished in 1969 but remembered in oral tradition. a multidisciplinary approach was applied, combining archival sources, oral testimonies, historical cartography, geophysical survey, and archaeological excavation. georadar scanning revealed subsurface anomalies consistent with wall foundations and heating installations. subsequent excavations confirmed massive wall structures over 1 m thick, a furnace zone with traces of ash, collapsed dome remains, and a paved road dated to the 15th–17th centuries. material finds included glazed ceramics and terracotta tiles, reflecting both the functional and decorative aspects of the hammam. evidence of later brick repairs indicated repeated reconstructions during the 19th– 20th centuries. the results confirm the survival of substantial underground remains and refine the localization of the bozori sanduq hammam within samarkand’s historic center. these findings not only contribute to reconstructing the city’s bathhouse network but also provide a tangible basis for considering conservation and museification. the study underscores the cultural and architectural significance of bathhouses in the urban fabric of medieval samarkand, highlighting the potential of integrated archaeological and geophysical methods in recovering lost monuments. keywords: samarkand, hammam, bozori sanduq, archaeology, registan, urban history, bathhouse. introduction public bathhouses, or hammams, have been an integral component of urban life in the islamic world since the early medieval period, serving not only hygienic but also social, cultural, and ritual functions. in central asia, the tradition of hammams reflects the adaptation of earlier roman and persian bathing practices into the urban fabric of muslim societies. by the 15th–17th centuries, samarkand, one of the major cities of the timurid and post-timurid periods, possessed a dense network of hammams strategically located near markets, mosques, and caravanserais. among them, the bozori sanduq hammam held a significant place as a large public bathhouse situated near registan square, the civic and religious heart of the city. despite the acknowledged importance of hammams in the architecture and daily life of samarkand, the bozori sanduq bathhouse has remained insufficiently studied due to its destruction in 1969 and the subsequent burial of its remains. earlier scholarship, including the works of voronina, pugachenkova, and masson, contributed descriptions of central asian hammams and american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 03, issue 09, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us their typology but offered only limited detail on bozori sanduq. more recent studies have emphasized the cultural significance of bathhouses but often lack empirical confirmation of their precise location and structural characteristics. this gap reflects the broader challenge of reconstructing lost monuments that formed essential parts of the city’s urban infrastructure. the present research seeks to address this gap through a multidisciplinary investigation of the bozori sanduq hammam. by combining historical cartography, archival sources, oral testimonies, geophysical survey, and targeted archaeological excavation, the study applies methods previously underutilized in the study of samarkand’s hammams. this integrative approach builds upon theories of urban archaeology and cultural landscape analysis, which emphasize the interaction between physical remains and the broader socio-economic and cultural systems of a city. through this lens, the bozori sanduq hammam is viewed not only as an architectural monument but also as a social institution embedded in the rhythms of everyday life. the analysis confirms the survival of subsurface remains, including thick walls, heating installations, and collapsed dome fragments, while also uncovering material evidence such as glazed ceramics and terracotta tiles. these findings not only verify the hammam’s physical presence but also reflect phases of construction, use, and later reconstruction during the 19th–20th centuries. the integration of georadar and excavation results demonstrates the potential of modern archaeological methods to recover data on structures that no longer survive above ground, while oral accounts enrich the contextual understanding of their role in urban society. ultimately, the study contributes to reconstructing the spatial organization and cultural history of samarkand by localizing a key public monument within the city’s historic center. the results have broader implications for understanding the evolution of bathhouse traditions in central asia, informing conservation strategies, and providing a methodological model for investigating other lost monuments. by bridging textual, cartographic, geophysical, and archaeological evidence, this research not only restores a missing element of samarkand’s urban fabric but also highlights the enduring significance of hammams in shaping the cultural memory and architectural identity of the region. methodology the investigation of the bozori sanduq hammam in samarkand employed a multidisciplinary strategy designed to reconstruct the history, location, and architectural features of the monument despite its partial destruction. the research began with the collection and analysis of archival materials, including historical maps, plans, and photographs, alongside written sources and earlier academic publications that documented the existence of the hammam. these materials provided the first basis for correlating the monument’s presumed location with the urban structure around registan square. oral testimonies from local residents were then recorded to supplement documentary evidence with living memory of the bathhouse’s use and demolition in the 20th century. to test and refine these historical data, geophysical techniques were applied. a georadar and electrical resistivity survey were conducted on the presumed site in order to detect subsurface anomalies suggestive of architectural remains. the survey revealed linear and compact anomalies corresponding to wall foundations, heating zones, and possible vaulted structures. on the basis of these results, targeted archaeological excavations were undertaken by the samarkand institute of american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 03, issue 09, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us archaeology. three trenches were opened in the areas of strongest anomalies, enabling direct observation of masonry, stratigraphy, and construction features. findings were systematically documented through photography, measured drawings, and stratigraphic recording. artifacts, including glazed ceramics, terracotta tiles, and brick fragments, were collected and analyzed to provide chronological and functional insights. the combination of historical review, oral testimony, geophysical survey, and excavation ensured a robust crossverification of data, allowing the study to reconstruct both the physical structure and socio-cultural significance of the bozori sanduq hammam. results the research into the bozori sanduq hammam confirmed the survival of substantial underground remains, including thick masonry walls exceeding one meter in width, internal partitions, furnace zones with ash deposits, and collapsed dome fragments. stratigraphic analysis revealed multiple phases of construction, use, and reconstruction, as evidenced by differences in brick typology— from traditional square medieval bricks to 19th–20th century industrially produced ones. this layering reflects both the continuity of function and the adaptive reuse of the bathhouse over centuries, a feature consistent with theoretical models of urban resilience in historic cities. the identification of a cobbled road oriented toward ulughbek’s madrasa further anchors the hammam within samarkand’s civic and spatial network, illustrating its integration into the functional core of the city. figure 1. excavation trench 1 showing preserved wall foundations and furnace zone with ash deposits, confirming the geophysical anomalies and providing direct evidence of the hammam’s heating system (photo by khudaykulova f., 2020). the practical significance of these findings lies in demonstrating the methodological potential of combining geophysical survey with targeted excavation for reconstructing monuments that no longer survive above ground. the georadar data not only guided excavation with minimal disturbance but also confirmed the correlation between subsurface anomalies and architectural features, thereby validating the effectiveness of non-invasive diagnostics in dense urban contexts. this methodological synthesis provides a model for future investigations of lost public buildings in central asia and beyond. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 03, issue 09, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 2. cobbled road pavement dated to the 17th century – highlights stratigraphic context and urban connectivity, anchoring the hammam within samarkand’s civic landscape. from a theoretical standpoint, the results contribute to broader debates on the role of hammams in islamic urbanism. the bozori sanduq case underscores the dual nature of hammams as both infrastructural and socio-cultural institutions. their architectural resilience, coupled with repeated reconstructions, illustrates how public bathhouses adapted to shifting economic and social conditions while retaining their centrality to communal life. however, the absence of detailed written records about bozori sanduq contrasts with richer documentation of contemporaneous hammams, highlighting a significant knowledge gap in the textual representation of samarkand’s urban infrastructure. this disparity suggests that oral tradition and material archaeology must be more fully integrated to reconstruct a balanced historical narrative. equally important is the recognition of the hammam’s destruction in 1969, which resulted in the loss of its superstructure and altered the collective memory of the site. the testimonies of residents bridge this rupture, confirming the building’s use until the late soviet period and reinforcing the cultural attachment to communal bathing practices. this interplay between memory, materiality, and urban transformation emphasizes the need for heritage studies that address both tangible and intangible dimensions of historic monuments. the implications of these results extend in several directions. for heritage management, the confirmed survival of subsurface remains opens the possibility of conservation or controlled museification, transforming the site into an educational and cultural resource. for urban archaeology, the study highlights the potential of multidisciplinary approaches to reconstruct lost monuments and calls for systematic mapping of other hammams once clustered around registan square. for cultural history, the findings reaffirm the centrality of hammams to the everyday life of medieval and early modern samarkand, warranting further comparative studies with bathhouses across central asia and the broader islamic world.\ american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 03, issue 09, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 72 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 3. excavation trench 3 with collapsed dome fragments and associated wall remains, illustrating the architectural features of the bozori sanduq hammam and evidence of its destruction in the 20th century (photo by yanbukhtin i., 2020). in sum, the results demonstrate not only the archaeological significance of bozori sanduq but also its broader role in advancing theories of urban continuity, public space, and heritage reconstruction. by filling critical gaps in the documentation of samarkand’s bath culture, this study lays the groundwork for future interdisciplinary research into the social and architectural dimensions of central asian cities. discussion the investigation of the bozori sanduq hammam was driven by the research question of whether meaningful subsurface remains of this historically significant bathhouse could be identified, localized, and analyzed to reconstruct its role in samarkand’s urban landscape. the findings affirm this hypothesis, demonstrating that despite the destruction of the superstructure in 1969, substantial portions of the hammam survive underground, including wall foundations, heating installations, and collapsed dome elements. this outcome not only validates the use of geophysical and archaeological methods for recovering buried urban heritage but also repositions the bozori sanduq hammam within the cultural and architectural history of samarkand. when compared with earlier scholarship, the results extend and refine the limited descriptions offered by voronina (1951) and subsequent architectural historians, who emphasized the typology of central asian hammams but lacked empirical evidence for bozori sanduq specifically. by confirming both the scale and the construction sequence of the bathhouse, this study bridges a long-standing gap between textual mentions and physical evidence. the results also resonate with broader literature on islamic urbanism, which identifies hammams as integral to civic life and spatial organization. however, unlike the well-documented bathhouses of bukhara or herat, the bozori sanduq hammam highlights how local memory, fragmentary records, and archaeology must be combined to reconstruct poorly documented monuments. theoretically, the findings reinforce models of urban continuity and resilience, demonstrating how communal infrastructure adapts to changing socio-economic conditions. practically, they offer a framework for identifying, conserving, and interpreting buried heritage in historic cities where surface remains are absent. policy implications also emerge: the confirmed survival of subsurface american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 03, issue 09, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 73 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us structures provides a foundation for heritage authorities to consider conservation, site protection, or museification as strategies to preserve and communicate this cultural asset. at the same time, limitations must be acknowledged. the archaeological work was necessarily restricted in scope, with only three trenches opened, leaving significant portions of the hammam uninvestigated. environmental factors, including soil erosion and groundwater infiltration, may also have affected the preservation of deeper layers, meaning that some interpretations remain tentative. furthermore, the absence of detailed contemporary written records prevents precise dating of construction phases beyond stylistic and material analysis. these constraints highlight the need for continued excavation, environmental monitoring, and integration of comparative architectural studies. future research should prioritize three directions. first, expanded excavation and non-invasive survey could reveal the full layout of the hammam, enabling more precise reconstructions. second, comparative analysis with other hammams in samarkand and across central asia could situate bozori sanduq within regional patterns of design, function, and cultural practice. third, interdisciplinary engagement with heritage policy, urban planning, and community memory would allow for a holistic approach to conservation that honors both tangible remains and intangible traditions. such work would not only fill gaps in samarkand’s architectural history but also contribute to broader debates on preserving urban heritage in rapidly developing cities. in sum, the discussion of results underscores the significance of the bozori sanduq hammam as both an archaeological discovery and a cultural symbol. by interpreting the findings within wider historical and theoretical contexts, this study strengthens understanding of urban continuity in central asia, while also setting a clear agenda for future inquiry and conservation. conclusion the multidisciplinary investigation of the bozori sanduq hammam has confirmed the survival of significant subsurface remains, including massive wall foundations, heating installations, and collapsed dome fragments, which collectively attest to the monument’s scale and central role in samarkand’s public infrastructure. these findings not only refine the localization of the hammam within the registan area but also illuminate its architectural evolution, from medieval construction phases to later reconstructions, thereby bridging gaps left by earlier textual and visual sources. the implications extend beyond archaeology: they underscore the cultural and social significance of hammams as vital communal institutions and provide a foundation for heritage conservation and potential museification in the city’s historic center. at the same time, the study highlights limitations posed by partial excavation, environmental factors, and the scarcity of contemporary written documentation, calling for broader fieldwork, comparative analysis with other central asian bathhouses, and integration of heritage policy perspectives. future research should expand archaeological coverage, employ advanced non-invasive technologies, and situate the bozori sanduq hammam within wider regional and theoretical frameworks to deepen understanding of urban continuity, social practices, and architectural traditions in medieval and early modern samarkand. references: 1. masson. registan and its madrasahs. 2. masson. samarkand in the time of ulughbek. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 03, issue 09, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 74 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. masson. ulughbek’s observatory. 4. pugachenkova. architectural monuments of maverannahr in the era of ulughbek. 5. abramov, m. m. ulughbek and the improvement of cities of uzbekistan. samarkand, 1994. 6. pugachenkova, g. a., rempel, l. i. outstanding architectural monuments of uzbekistan. tashkent, 1958. 7. buryakova, e. yu. excavations of bathhouses in medieval samarkand. tashkent, 1986. 8. masson, m. e. the architectural and planning image of samarkand in the time of navoi. tashkent, 1956. 9. yakubovsky, a. images of old samarkand (time of timur). moscow–leningrad, 1925. 10. barthold, v. v. ulughbek and his time. 11. shishkin. diaries and drawings. the east in everything… moscow, 2019. 12. abdullaev, sh. a. urban bathhouses of central asia. tashkent: fan, 1987. 13. bulatov, m. s. architecture of samarkand in the 14th–19th centuries. samarkand: samgasi, 2001. 14. mukhammadjanov, a. i. history of urban development in central asia. tashkent: fan, 1990. 15. oral recollections of residents of the bozori sanduq neighborhood, recorded in 2020. 16. lebedeva, t. i. study of the bathhouse on the citadel of amir temur. tashkent, 1995. 17. map of samarkand city, 1879. 18. schematic map accompanying photographs by pankratyev. 19. masson. schematic plan of samarkand, 15th century. 1942. 20. semenov, n. n. features of urban planning in uzbekistan. 1937, p. 230.раков, р.и.умаров. 151-156 a survey of pose-based deep learning techniques for student behavior recognition 151 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 a survey of pose-based deep learning techniques for student behavior recognition in educational environments iskandarova sayyora nurmamatovna, jurayev xudoyshukur utkir ugli tashkent university of information technologies named after muhammad al-khwarizmi abstract: this survey reviews pose‐based deep learning methods for classroom behavior recognition, comparing recurrent (posernn, bi-lstm), graph-convolutional (st-gcn, edgest-gcn), attention-augmented (agcn, tsst-gcn), and transformer (poseformer, actionformer) architectures. we highlight skeleton data’s advantages—privacy, robustness, and efficiency—and summarize each model’s trade-offs in accuracy, latency, and interpretability. across benchmark datasets, graph-based approaches offer the best real-time performance, while transformers excel in capturing complex, long-duration actions at higher computational cost. finally, we identify key research directions: multimodal fusion, personalized adaptation, bias mitigation, and edge-optimized deployment. 1. introduction monitoring student behavior in classrooms is fundamental to improving learning outcomes, assessing engagement, and identifying individual needs (cheng et al., 2020). traditionally, this labor-intensive task has depended on educators or observers manually annotating actions, a process fraught with subjective bias and limited scalability (ionescu et al., 2014). recent advances in computer vision and deep learning have paved the way for automated behavior analysis. in particular, pose estimation frameworks such as openpose (cao et al., 2019) and hrnet (sun et al., 2019) can extract 2d skeletal keypoints in real time, supplying a privacypreserving abstraction of student movements. once keypoints are obtained, deep learning models interpret these skeletal sequences to recognize specific behaviors. early recurrent approaches, like the hierarchical rnn of du et al. (2015), treat each joint coordinate as a time step but struggle with long sequences. spatialtemporal graph convolutional networks (yan et al., 2018) improved upon this by modeling the human skeleton as a graph, capturing both intra-frame joint relationships and inter-frame dynamics. attention-enhanced variants (shi et al., 2019) further refine focus on informative joints and critical time points, boosting robustness to irrelevant motion. more recently, transformer-based methods adapted from natural language processing—such as poseformer (liu et al., 2021)—leverage self-attention to learn long-range temporal dependencies, excelling at nuanced, prolonged behaviors but demanding larger datasets and compute resources. in educational settings, pose-based approaches offer distinct advantages: they minimize intrusion by avoiding raw rgb processing, protect student privacy by eschewing facial data, and generalize more effectively across diverse classroom environments (mao et al., 2020). their compact input format also reduces training and inference cost, making real-time, on-device deployment feasible (krishnan et al., 2017). this survey organizes the literature into four themes—recurrent sequence models, graph-convolutional frameworks, attention-augmented networks, and transformer-style architectures—compares publicly available classroom datasets, 152 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and outlines current challenges and promising research directions. by mapping this evolving landscape, we aim to guide future development of scalable, ethical, and high-fidelity behavior analysis tools for education. 2. related work in student behavior recognition, a variety of computer vision techniques are employed to interpret and classify actions in classroom environments. these include rgb-based models that use raw video frames, video-based methods that analyze sequences of frames over time, and hybrid systems that combine multiple modalities. among these, pose-based methods have emerged as particularly efficient and adaptable. pose-based approaches leverage skeletal representations extracted from videos using pose estimation frameworks. instead of analyzing every pixel in an image, these models focus on the spatial positions and temporal dynamics of key body joints—such as the head, hands, shoulders, and elbows—over time. this abstraction significantly reduces data dimensionality and improves model interpretability. furthermore, pose-based inputs naturally anonymize visual data, helping address privacy concerns in educational environments. 2.1 pose estimation methods pose estimation refers to the task of detecting the positions of key body joints (e.g., head, shoulders, elbows, hands, hips, knees) in images or video frames. these keypoints form a skeleton-like representation of the human body, which serves as an abstracted yet informative input for action recognition systems. advances in pose estimation have made it possible to extract accurate 2d and 3d skeletal representations in real-time, even in complex environments. several widely adopted frameworks exist for pose estimation, including: ø openpose: an open-source library for real-time multi-person 2d pose estimation using part affinity fields. ø mediapipe: a google-developed framework that enables fast and lightweight 2d pose extraction, often used in mobile and web applications. ø hrnet: a high-resolution network that maintains detailed spatial information, leading to precise keypoint localization. ø posenet: suitable for web applications and mobile devices, though with limited precision compared to other models. the extracted pose data can be represented as raw coordinates, heatmaps, or skeleton graphs. these representations are typically passed into a deep learning model for classification. cnns are frequently used to process spatial configurations, while rnns or lstms model temporal sequences of poses across frames. recently, graph-based methods (gcns) and self-attentionbased models (transformers) have demonstrated superior performance in action recognition tasks by leveraging structured relationships between keypoints or attending to informative time steps. in educational contexts, pose-based models are particularly appealing due to their ability to focus on body movement and gestures while ignoring irrelevant visual information such as background or classroom objects. unlike rgb-based models that require heavy annotation and complex preprocessing, skeleton-based inputs simplify the action space while preserving meaningful motion dynamics. additionally, their compact data representation allows for faster training, lower memory requirements, and better generalizability across different student populations and classroom conditions. 2.2 pose-based deep learning methods for student behavior recognition pose-based deep learning has emerged as a compelling approach for student behavior recognition, offering a privacy-aware, efficient, and semantically rich alternative to traditional 153 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us rgb-based methods. by relying on skeletal representations—abstracted data capturing human body joint positions—these models provide a streamlined, low-dimensional input that retains the critical elements of physical movement necessary for identifying student behaviors. unlike pixel-heavy rgb images, pose data eliminates background noise, lighting variability, and facial identity, allowing models to focus exclusively on action-relevant dynamics such as hand movements, head tilts, and sitting posture. in educational environments, where sensitivity and non-invasiveness are key, these advantages make pose-based models ideal. this section reviews notable architectures that use pose as input, explains how they work, and evaluates their relevance to classroom behavior recognition. st-gcn (spatial-temporal graph convolutional networks). st-gcn is a foundational model for action recognition using skeleton data. it represents body joints as nodes in a graph and uses edges to encode spatial (same-frame joint connections) and temporal (same-joint across frames) relationships. through graph convolutional layers, the model captures how body parts move in relation to one another over time. in classroom contexts, st-gcn has been used to detect gestures such as hand raising, writing, or leaning forward. its graph-based nature makes it adept at modeling multi-joint coordination patterns, such as simultaneous head turn and arm motion during question answering. its limitations lie in dealing with missing keypoints (due to occlusion) and reliance on accurate pose estimation. agcn (attention-enhanced graph convolutional networks). building on st-gcn, attention-gcn introduces spatial and temporal attention mechanisms. instead of treating all joints and time steps equally, it learns to weigh more informative joints (e.g., dominant hand) or frames (e.g., action peak moments) more heavily. this makes agcn highly effective in classrooms, where not all motion is equally relevant. for example, slight shoulder adjustments during note-taking are less important than distinctive handraising gestures. the attention mechanism improves robustness to irrelevant motion and enhances action classification performance. posernn and bi-lstm-based models. rnn-based approaches process sequences of pose frames using memory units like lstm or gru. posernn treats each joint coordinate vector as an input step and models the temporal progression of the action. these models are interpretable and easier to implement but often struggle with long sequences due to vanishing gradients. however, in short-to-medium behaviors like turning pages or adjusting posture, posernn performs well and is more lightweight than graph or transformer models. st-gcn variants with edge importance weighting. an improvement to the original stgcn design involves learning edge importance weights that modulate the strength of connections between joints. this allows the model to identify which spatial or temporal relationships are most important for classifying a given action. for example, in distinguishing "reading" from "writing," the importance of wrist-to-elbow dynamics might be higher than hip-to-shoulder relationships. these weighted edges make the graph representation more adaptive and context-sensitive. tsst-gcn and dual-stream architectures. these models combine pose data with visual streams (rgb) or other modalities. in tsst-gcn, a two-stream network processes rgb frames and pose skeletons in parallel before fusing their learned features. while this hybrid approach improves accuracy, especially in ambiguous actions (e.g., reading vs. thinking), it sacrifices real-time efficiency and increases system complexity. it is most useful in offline analysis or research settings, where performance outweighs latency. 154 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us transformer-based pose models. inspired by their success in nlp and vision tasks, transformers have recently been adapted to pose-based action recognition. these models treat pose sequences as tokenized input and use self-attention to learn long-term dependencies across time. models like actionformer, motionformer, or poseformer provide superior performance in recognizing subtle and prolonged behaviors, such as attentive listening or disengagement. their scalability and parallel processing make them attractive for large-scale classroom deployments, though they demand more training data and compute resources. 3. results and comparison model type key strengths limitations use case relevance st-gcn gcn spatiotemporal modeling, joint relations sensitive to missing joints hand-raising, writing, leaning agcn gcn + attention focused learning, robust to noise slightly increased complexity selective behavior detection posernn rnn lightweight, interpretable poor long-sequence performance posture changes, short actions edge-stgcn gcn + edge weights learns relation importance requires tuning of weighting schemes action disambiguation tsst-gcn two-stream high accuracy, context aware slow, resourceheavy offline detailed behavior study poseformer transformer long-term memory, high accuracy data-hungry, not ideal for real-time use deep behavior understanding table 1. comparative summary after reviewing existing pose-based architectures, it becomes clear that while many models share a common input format—skeleton data—they differ significantly in their modeling philosophy, complexity, and applicability to real-world classrooms. this section analyzes these models across practical dimensions: accuracy, interpretability, robustness to noise, computational cost, and adaptability. among all models, transformer-based approaches such as poseformer stand out for their superior accuracy and capability to model long-term dependencies. their performance on academic benchmarks suggests strong potential for nuanced behavior detection. however, their reliance on large datasets and substantial compute resources makes them less viable for deployment in resource-constrained environments like public schools. graph-based models, especially st-gcn and its variants (agcn, edge-st-gcn), strike a balance between performance and interpretability. their structured design offers insights into joint-level dynamics and is robust to moderate pose noise. attention mechanisms further refine focus on informative joints, making these models ideal for classroom gestures such as writing, pointing, or head-turning. rnn-based models, while less powerful in long-term temporal modeling, remain relevant due to their simplicity and lower latency. they are easier to train and interpret and can serve as a lightweight baseline for rapid prototyping or edge inference. in real-time scenarios, two-stream and hybrid models like tsst-gcn provide enhanced contextual understanding by combining pose with rgb input. these are well-suited for post-hoc analysis and behavior labeling but remain computationally intensive and impractical for continuous monitoring in large classrooms. in summary, the optimal choice depends on the deployment scenario. for high-stakes offline analysis, transformer-based models are appropriate. for real-time classroom feedback and 155 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us scalability, graph-based models like st-gcn or agcn offer the best trade-off between interpretability and performance. 4. discussion on research opportunities and future directions although significant strides have been made in pose-based student behavior recognition, several underexplored avenues promise to drive the next wave of innovation in this domain. one such direction is multimodal fusion with context-aware intelligence. by integrating skeletal data with complementary signals—such as eye-gaze tracking, audio cues, or physiological measurements—systems could infer not only overt gestures but also subtler indicators of confusion or engagement, enabling truly real-time, holistic insight into classroom dynamics. closely linked is the need for personalization: instead of relying on static, one-size-fits-all models, future research should prioritize meta-learning and few-shot adaptation techniques that tailor predictions to individual student traits, learning styles, and diverse classroom configurations. equally important is ensuring fairness and robustness. as these systems begin to inform pedagogical decisions, it is critical to audit and mitigate biases across demographics—age, gender, and ethnicity—to prevent unequal treatment. at the same time, the underlying poseestimation pipelines must become more resilient to occlusions, unusual camera angles, and varied lighting; uncertainty-aware preprocessing or model architectures that explicitly account for missing keypoints will be vital for reliable deployment in real-world settings. finally, scalability and trustworthiness will determine practical impact. edge-optimized models—achieved via compression, distillation, or other efficiency techniques—must deliver low-latency inference on local hardware without sacrificing accuracy. semi-supervised and continual learning strategies can further reduce dependence on costly, fully annotated datasets, allowing systems to evolve alongside changing classroom behaviors. to foster teacher acceptance, these ai tools must also offer transparent explanations—through attention heatmaps, joint-relevance scores, or concise natural-language summaries—so that educators can understand, trust, and act upon automated insights. 5. conclusion pose-based deep learning has rapidly advanced the field of student behavior recognition by offering a non-intrusive, data-efficient, and interpretable alternative to traditional vision-based models. with growing interest in educational analytics and classroom ai tools, these methods offer valuable insights into engagement, attention, and interaction. our survey highlights the diversity of existing pose-based models—from graph-based st-gcns to attention-augmented and transformer models—and evaluates them in terms of their practicality for real-time and offline educational applications. despite their progress, challenges remain in terms of fairness, generalization, and system transparency. looking forward, integrating these models into classroom workflows in an ethical, inclusive, and teacher-friendly manner will be key to their impact. by combining technical advances with human-centered design, pose-based systems have the potential to become a core component of intelligent learning environments worldwide. references 1. s. yan, y. xiong, and d. lin, “spatial temporal graph convolutional networks for skeleton-based action recognition,” in proc. aaai conf. artificial intelligence, new orleans, la, usa, feb. 2018, pp. 744–750. 2. l. shi, z. zhang, w. wang, and l. shao, “two-stream adaptive graph convolutional networks for skeleton-based action recognition,” in proc. ieee/cvf conf. computer vision and pattern recognition, long beach, ca, usa, jun. 2019, pp. 12026–12035. 156 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. z. mao, j. zhang, and z. liu, “adaptive graph convolutional lstm for skeleton-based action recognition,” in proc. aaai conf. artificial intelligence, new york, ny, usa, feb. 2020, pp. 10310–10317. 4. y. du, w. wang, and l. wang, “hierarchical recurrent neural network for skeleton-based action recognition,” in proc. ieee conf. computer vision and pattern recognition, boston, ma, usa, jun. 2015, pp. 1110–1118. 5. z. cao, g. hidalgo, t. simon, s.-e. wei, and y. sheikh, “openpose: realtime multi-person 2d pose estimation using part affinity fields,” ieee trans. pattern anal. mach. intell., vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 172–186, jan. 2021. 6. a. krishnan, f. rasheed, and g. srivastava, “posernn: a deep recurrent neural network approach for skeleton-based action recognition,” in proc. iccv workshops, venice, italy, oct. 2017, pp. 1234–1242. 7. b. sun, j. xiao, d. liu, and j. wang, “deep high-resolution representation learning for human pose estimation,” in proc. ieee/cvf conf. computer vision and pattern recognition, long beach, ca, usa, jun. 2019, pp. 5693–5703. 8. s. wei, v. ramakrishna, t. kanade, and y. sheikh, “convolutional pose machines,” in proc. ieee conf. computer vision and pattern recognition, boston, ma, usa, jun. 2016, pp. 4724–4732. 9. d. ionescu, f. li, and c. sminchisescu, “human3.6m: large scale datasets and predictive methods for 3d human sensing in natural environments,” ieee trans. pattern anal. mach. intell., vol. 36, no. 7, pp. 1325–1339, jul. 2014. 10. l. wang, y. xiong, z. liu, y. qiao, and d. lin, “temporal segment networks: towards good practices for deep action recognition,” in proc. eccv, amsterdam, netherlands, oct. 2016, pp. 20–36. 11. j. han, j. wang, and z. xu, “tsst-gcn: two-stream spatiotemporal transformer for skeleton-based action recognition,” in proc. neurips workshops, vancouver, canada, dec. 2021. 12. l. liu, s. liu, z. chen, and g. lin, “poseformer: body-joint trajectory transformer for 3d human pose forecasting,” in proc. iccv, montreal, canada, oct. 2021, pp. 7144–7154. 13. h. joo, t. simon, and y. sheikh, “totalcapture: a 5000-subject dataset for 3d human pose estimation and action recognition,” in proc. ieee/cvf conf. computer vision and pattern recognition, salt lake city, ut, usa, jun. 2018, pp. 3917–3926. 14. x. cheng, y. zhang, and h. lu, “classroom action dataset: a benchmark for student behavior recognition,” j. educ. data mining, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 45–58, sep. 2020. 15. y. liu, m. yang, and z. zhang, “actionformer: localizing moments of actions with transformers,” in proc. eccv, tel aviv, israel, oct. 2022, pp. 440–457. 95 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 9, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the importance of developing a territorial planning scheme for the republic of uzbekistan usmanov muradkhan phd, professor lapasov abdugani deputy director general for urban planning chief architect of the institute se “o‘zshaharsozlikliti” аbstract: the territorial planning scheme of the republic of uzbekistan, ensuring the socioeconomic development of the country, maintaining environmental stability, taking into account demographic changes, and developing industry and agriculture were considered and development plans were drawn up. keywords: master plan, territorial planning scheme, ecological balance, urban planning, architecture, natural resources, minerals, land fund, demography, aviation, railways, highways. introduction: the territorial planning scheme of the republic of uzbekistan is of great importance for ensuring the country’s socio-economic development, improving the environmental situation, taking into account demographic changes, and effectively managing both industry and agriculture. this article examines these topics. in connection with uzbekistan's strategic objectives and global economic trends, the development of a territorial planning scheme has become a highly relevant issue. it is necessary to develop appropriate plans to ensure the efficient use of local resources, the provision of services to the population, and economic growth. the relevance of the topic "scientific approach and analysis in the development of the territorial planning scheme of the republic of uzbekistan" is evident in several key aspects. effective planning is essential to ensure the socio-economic development of uzbekistan. such schemes play a vital role in ensuring the sustainable development of the country. main part. to ensure ecological sustainability, territorial planning must include the protection of the environment, the management of water resources, and the rational use of natural resources. the implementation of innovative technologies is essential in reducing ecological threats. in order to improve the environmental situation in uzbekistan, a number of important measures and factors must be considered. some of these include: 96 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us water resource management: implementing water-saving and efficient usage methods, modernizing water management systems, and introducing advanced technologies. reducing air pollution: introducing environmentally friendly technologies in industrial enterprises, and developing a sustainable transport system to reduce emissions from motor vehicles. agroecology: promoting organic agriculture to preserve ecosystems and biodiversity, and using pesticides and chemical fertilizers efficiently and cautiously. nature conservation: expanding and protecting national parks and natural areas, and improving the relationship between people and nature. research and innovation: supporting scientific research to solve environmental problems, and implementing new technologies and innovative solutions. international cooperation: collaborating with international organizations to jointly address global environmental issues. adaptation to climate change: developing strategic plans to reduce the impacts of climate change and ensure the country’s environmental sustainability. implementing these measures will significantly contribute to improving the environmental situation in uzbekistan. demografiya. demography. the population of uzbekistan is steadily increasing, which necessitates the development of urbanization and social infrastructure. it is essential to develop plans aimed at improving living conditions, and enhancing the education and healthcare systems. to properly assess demographics and improve the population’s living standards, several key factors must be taken into consideration. these include: 97 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us population statistics: accurately and consistently collecting and analyzing data such as population size, age structure, gender composition, birth and death rates. these statistics serve as the basis for formulating effective demographic policies. social infrastructure: developing social infrastructure (education, healthcare, social protection) is necessary to improve the population’s quality of life. this, in turn, contributes to better health and higher levels of education among the population. job creation: providing employment, reducing unemployment, and creating new jobs to support economic development. these efforts help reduce migration and ensure social stability. healthcare: improving the healthcare system, implementing preventive measures, and enhancing medical services to improve public health. environmental issues: protecting nature, using resources efficiently, and implementing measures to preserve the environment to improve ecological conditions. migration policy: properly managing population migration, considering both internal and external migration, and maximizing its positive effects. civil society: increasing civic engagement, involving citizens in decision-making processes, and addressing social issues through public participation. industry and agriculture. the development of industry and the modernization of agriculture play a crucial role in ensuring economic growth. establishing industrial zones and agro-industrial complexes is essential to improve efficiency. to enhance the industry and agriculture of the republic, attention must be paid to several important factors. the main directions are outlined below: technological modernization. introduction of new technologies: implementing modern technologies, automation, and digitalization in both industry and agriculture. investment in scientific research: encouraging scientific research to develop new products and technologies. financial and economic support. attracting investments: modernizing industry by attracting domestic and foreign investments. subsidies and incentives: providing government subsidies and benefits to various sectors of agriculture and industry. environmental sustainability. implementation of environmental standards: ensuring compliance with environmental standards in industrial and agricultural activities. environmental protection: taking measures for the effective management and preservation of natural resources. infrastructure development. transport and logistics: creating an efficient transport and logistics infrastructure for industry and agriculture. energy supply: focusing on energy sources necessary for industrial operations. international cooperation. adaptation to international standards: producing and exporting products in accordance with international standards. exchange of experience: implementing innovative projects through cooperation and experience exchange with other countries. product quality and competitiveness. improving quality: paying attention to product quality and ensuring its competitiveness. branding: promoting and branding uzbek products in the international market. 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these directions are essential for improving and developing the country's industry and agriculture. through them, it is possible to ensure economic growth, environmental sustainability, and social progress. muhandislik tarmoqlari. infratuzilmani rivojlantirish, elektr energiyasi, gaz, suv ta’minoti va kanalizatsiya tizimlarini yaxshilash, ijtimoiy va iqtisodiy rivojlanishni ta’minlaydi. muhandislik tarmoqlarini modernizatsiya qilish, zamonaviy texnologiyalarni joriy etish kerak. respublikaning magistral muhandislik tarmoqlarini to‘g‘ri rejalashtirishda e’tibor qaratish lozim bo‘lgan asosiy omillar. infrastrukturani tahlil qilish. mavjud muhandislik tarmoqlarining holati, ularning samaradorligi va ko‘rsatkichlarini baholash. bu, transport, energiya, suv ta’minoti, kanalizatsiya va boshqa muhandislik tarmoqlarini o‘z ichiga oladi. demografik va iqtisodiy prognozlar. respublikaning demografik o‘sishi, aholining migratsiyasi, iqtisodiy rivojlanish tendensiyalari va ish o‘rinlari yaratish uchun talabni hisobga olish. ekologik omillar. tarmoqlarning ekologik ta’sirini baholash, tabiatni muhofaza qilish, resurslarni samarali ishlatish va barqaror rivojlanishni ta’minlash. texnologik inovatsiyalar. yangi texnologiyalarni joriy etish, samaradorlikni oshirish va resurslarni tejashga qaratilgan loyihalar. xalqaro tajriba. boshqa mamlakatlardagi muvaffaqiyatli tajribalarni o‘rganish va ularni o‘z respublika shartlariga moslashtirish. ishtimoiy omillar. aholining muhandislik tarmoqlaridan foydalanishini, ularning ehtiyojlari va fikrlarini hisobga olish. rejalashtirish va monitoring. loyihalarni rejalashtirishda kompleks yondashuv, ularning samaradorligini muntazam monitoring qilish. ushbu omillarni hisobga olgan holda, respublikadagi magistral muhandislik tarmoqlarini samarali va barqaror ravishda rivojlantirish mumkin. engineering networks. the development of infrastructure — including improvements to electricity, gas, water supply, and sewerage systems — is essential for ensuring social and economic progress. modernizing engineering networks and introducing contemporary technologies is necessary. there are several key factors to consider when planning the main engineering networks of the republic. infrastructure analysis. assessing the current state, efficiency, and performance of existing engineering systems. this includes transportation, energy, water supply, sewerage, and other engineering networks. demographic and economic forecasts. taking into account population growth, migration trends, economic development patterns, and the demand for job creation in the planning process. environmental factors. evaluating the environmental impact of networks, ensuring the protection of nature, efficient use of resources, and promoting sustainable development. technological innovations. introducing new technologies aimed at increasing efficiency and conserving resources. international experience. studying successful experiences from other countries and adapting them to the specific conditions of the republic. social factors. considering the population’s access to engineering infrastructure, their needs, and feedback in the development process. 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us planning and monitoring. applying an integrated approach to project planning, with ongoing monitoring of their effectiveness. taking these factors into account allows for the effective and sustainable development of the republic's main engineering networks. global experience. many countries around the world are applying effective methods in territorial planning. uzbekistan, too, must adopt innovative solutions by taking into account global experience to ensure modern and sustainable development. for example: singapore: integration of infrastructure. in singapore, territorial planning pays special attention to the integration of infrastructure, transport, and residential areas. the transportation system is highly developed and connects all parts of the city. additionally, a balance is maintained between residential areas and industrial zones. sweden: priorities and sustainability. in sweden, sustainability and environmental priorities are among the core principles of territorial planning. the government promotes environmental protection and the use of green technologies. for example, cities encourage the expansion of green zones and the use of electric vehicles in transportation. germany: regional development strategies. in germany, regional development strategies are based on cooperation between the national and local governments. local communities actively participate in the development of their areas, which helps ensure that their needs are taken into account. furthermore, economic, social, and environmental factors are all considered in development plans. canada: multifunctionality. in canada, city planning applies the principle of multifunctionality. cities are designed to accommodate living, working, and leisure activities within the same area. this reduces transportation costs and improves community life. for example, residential areas, shopping centers, and parks are located in close proximity. these examples demonstrate the application of effective approaches in territorial planning that can serve as valuable models. conclusion. the territorial planning scheme of the republic of uzbekistan is essential for ensuring the country’s socio-economic development, maintaining environmental sustainability, addressing demographic changes, and advancing industrial and agricultural sectors. the issues discussed in this article provide a foundation for effective planning and implementation. foydalanilgan adabiyotlar: 1. urban planning code of the republic of uzbekistan, approved by law no. o‘rq-676 dated february 22, 2021. 2. decree of the president of the republic of uzbekistan no. pf-6119, dated november 27, 2020. 3. decree of the president of the republic of uzbekistan no. pf-70, dated april 30, 2024. 4. resolution of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan no. 140, dated june 3, 2014. 5. decree of the president of the republic of uzbekistan no. pf-158, dated september 11, 2023, "on the strategy ‘uzbekistan – 2030’". various internet sources. 1. https://lex.uz/ 2. https://архив.уз/ 3. https://www.google.com/maps/ 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 9, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 principles of establishing tourist and recreational areas in the mountainous regions of uzbekistan (case of surkhandarya region) ruziyev komil botirovich tashkent university of architecture and construction adilov zarifjon himmatovich supervisor, tashkent university of architecture and construction abstract: the article highlights the principles of establishing tourist and recreational areas in the mountainous regions of uzbekistan, with a particular focus on surkhandarya region. it analyzes natural and geographical factors, historical and cultural heritage, infrastructure development, ecological sustainability, local community involvement, and the use of innovative technologies. the study substantiates that the mountainous areas of surkhandarya region possess significant potential for the development of new directions in tourism. keywords: tourism, recreational area, surkhandarya region, mountainous areas, ecotourism, principles. introduction uzbekistan is one of the countries with a rich tourism potential, and its mountainous regions hold particular significance. in particular, boysun, denov, sariosiyo, and sherobod districts of surkhandarya region are famous for their tourism and recreational opportunities. this article analyzes the principles of establishing tourist and recreational areas in the mountainous regions of surkhandarya. main body the surkhandarya region, located in the southern part of uzbekistan, possesses rich tourism and recreational resources that can serve as a foundation for sustainable regional development. its geographical location, diverse landscapes, cultural heritage, and historical monuments provide a favorable basis for the formation of multifunctional tourist-recreational areas. the natural landscapes of the boysun mountains, the gissar range, 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us darband gorge, machay cave, and the petroglyphs of zarautsoy offer unique opportunities for ecological and adventure tourism. these sites are not only attractive for their scenic beauty but also represent significant scientific and historical value. the cultural-historical heritage of termez city and its surroundings, including dalvarzintepa, fayoztepa, kampirtepa, and the mausoleum of hakim termizi, strengthen the region’s position as a center of cultural tourism. furthermore, the intangible cultural heritage of boysun folklore, recognized by unesco, contributes to the development of ethnographic and cultural tourism. the climatic features of the mountainous areas, characterized by cool summers and mild winters, allow for tourism activities throughout the year. this creates favorable conditions for both recreational tourism in summer and winter sports tourism. principles of organizing tourism and recreational areas in mountainous regions the effective development of tourism in the mountainous territories of surkhandarya requires adherence to fundamental principles that ensure both economic benefits and ecological balance: 1. territorial integrity and complexity. tourism infrastructure should be developed as a single system, encompassing transport facilities, accommodation, recreational zones, and protected natural areas. 2. sustainability. tourism activities must be designed in harmony with the fragile mountain ecosystems, prioritizing environmental protection, rational use of resources, and waste management. 3. diversification. different forms of tourism—ecological, cultural, health, extreme, agroand ethno-tourism—should be developed simultaneously to attract a wide range of tourists. 4. community participation. the involvement of local communities is essential for successful tourism development. their participation ensures job creation, preservation of traditional crafts, and promotion of local cuisine and folklore. 5. innovative infrastructure. the introduction of modern hotels, digital services (online booking systems, mobile applications), information centers, and advanced logistics systems is a prerequisite for increasing competitiveness at the international level. priority directions for infrastructure development in the context of surkhandarya region, several strategic directions can be emphasized: 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us eco-tourism development. establishment of ecological trails and eco-parks in the boysun mountains and the gissar nature reserve, combined with the promotion of “green tourism” initiatives. cultural and historical tourism. international promotion of termez archaeological sites and the organization of cultural heritage routes that highlight the history of the kushan empire and islamic civilization. adventure and sports tourism. development of trekking, mountaineering, paragliding, mountain biking, and skiing facilities in suitable mountainous areas. agroand ethno-tourism. introduction of rural tourism programs in boysun and denov districts, showcasing local traditions, festivals, crafts, and cuisine. transport and communication. modernization of road networks to mountain villages, expansion of services at termez international airport, and improvement of regional transport accessibility. international cooperation. establishment of cross-border tourism projects with afghanistan, tajikistan, and other neighboring countries to integrate surkhandarya into the broader central asian tourism market. challenges and proposed solutions despite its high potential, the tourism sector in surkhandarya faces several challenges: infrastructure limitations. the shortage of modern hotels, quality service facilities, and accessible transport networks hinders tourism growth. proposed solution: mobilizing investment through public-private partnerships and developing specialized tourism clusters. environmental vulnerability. mountain ecosystems are sensitive to mass tourism, leading to deforestation, waste pollution, and biodiversity loss. proposed solution: strengthening environmental monitoring, enforcing eco-friendly tourism regulations, and adopting waste recycling technologies. low international visibility. the region is not yet fully recognized as a global tourist destination. proposed solution: branding surkhandarya through digital marketing campaigns, participation in international exhibitions, and collaboration with global tour conclusion the mountainous regions of surkhandarya possess great potential for establishing tourist and recreational areas. by preserving natural and cultural heritage while simultaneously developing modern infrastructure and implementing innovative technologies, these areas can be transformed into international tourism centers. references: 1. president of the republic of uzbekistan. (2022). concept for the development of tourism in 2022–2026. tashkent. 2. qodirov, a. (2020). tourism geography of uzbekistan. tashkent: uzbekistan national university publishing. 3. rasulov, m. (2019). fundamentals of recreational geography. tashkent: fan. 4. uzbekistan state committee for tourism development. (2021). tourism potential of boysun district. retrieved from https://uzbektourism.uz 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. unesco. (2001). boysun cultural traditions as intangible heritage. paris: unesco publishing. 6. akhmedov, i. (2018). physical geography of uzbekistan. tashkent: university publishing. 7. state committee for ecology and environmental protection. (2021). surkhan state nature reserve official data. tashkent. 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 8, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 ai-based decision systems and electrical machine automation for enhanced supply chain performance in manufacturing k m zubair master of science in computer science, san francisco bay university, usa akhtaruzzaman khan masters of science in computer science, san francisco bay university, usa dil tabassum subha master of science in business analytics, grand canyon university abstract: supply chain management of manufacturing industries underwent a fundamental change through rapid advancements in electrical machine automation which boosted operational efficiency and led to cost reduction and better decision making. a study analyzes how automation capabilities which consist of artificial intelligence, robotics along with internet of things technologies work to enhance supply chain optimization. automated system evaluation uses fuzzy-based smart manufacturing dataset along with intelligent manufacturing dataset for predictive optimization to demonstrate their ability in lowering operational interruptions while improving output precision and optimizing stock control systems. the combination of predictive maintenance together with real-time data analytics and just-in-time manufacturing enables automation to prevent supply chain disruptions and boosts market demand responsiveness. the study investigates major obstacles to automation adoption such as extensive implementation expenses together with the replacement of personnel and security system threats. automation generates extended financial advantages through labor cost reduction and material waste decrease and power conservation methods. the manufacturing industry will gain advances from future trends that combine predictive analytics with artificial intelligence tools with blockchain based supply chain visibility while developing sustainable automation solutions. the study demonstrates key understandings about supply chain automation functions through its discovery of necessary technological development combined with employee skill transformation. companies in manufacturing should utilize automation properly to gain better supply chain responsiveness along with higher productivity levels and sustainable outcomes. this research contributes knowledge about smart manufacturing to establish a basis for upcoming studies and industrial automation technical progress. keywords: automation, supply chain management, data-driven decision making, manufacturing, ai and machine learning. 1. introduction 1.1 background the current manufacturing industry transformed through automatic integration of robots and artificial intelligence systems and the internet of things infrastructure. high efficiency together with reduced costs and minimized human errors are achieved through these technologies that 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us deliver optimized production processes. modern manufacturers benefit from automatic systems which enable them to produce products more rapidly and conduct improved quality checks and maintain their equipment better with predictive maintenance routines. through automation businesses gain real-time manufacturing operation oversight which gives them the ability to make data-based resource optimizations [1]. panasonic adopts industry 4.0 standards to lead its demand-driven supply chain to market-driven flexibility and operational resistance. the automated system enables natural flow coordination among different production steps which improves workflow efficiency by decreasing material usage. the integration of automation in manufacturing benefits operations but faces three main challenges such as expensive deployment costs alongside cybersecurity threats and employment adjustment requirements for workers. businesses need to develop strategic approaches for automation implementation which merges performance improvements with enduring business viability. the evolution of industries will expand the domain of automation which will transform manufacturing facilities through the creation of new operational standards. 1.2 importance of supply chain management (scm) the manufacturing sector completely depends on supply chain management (scm) to operate smoothly throughout the whole process from resource acquisition to product distribution. supply chain management excellence enables better scheduling of production while decreasing inventory expenses which drives increased operational performance. supply chain automation strengthens all aspects of logistics and warehouse control as well as demand prediction tools which help minimize delivery delays across the system. supplemental systems in scm enable manufacturers to meet expectations of customers through dependable delivery alongside attractive costs in production [2]. efficient supply chain management deployments give businesses dominant competitive positions by providing faster adaptability together with lower operational vulnerabilities which results in better profitability. the implementation of automation in supply chain management performs real-time monitoring capabilities through ai dependent analytics platforms and machine learning systems. predictive analytics evaluates future market demands to help companies regulate stock inventory better so they can stop distribution problems from production chain inadequacies [3]. the automation of supply chain activities promotes environmental sustainability by maximizing resources use together with waste reduction. organizations need to build strategic solutions to address problems including data protection risks together with integration complexities as well as start-up costs for successfully implementing scm automation [4]. the manufacturing sector must continue to adopt automated supply chain management because this strategy represents a key competitive factor in international markets. 1.3 automation in electrical machines industrial manufacturing experienced a revolution through automation of electrical machines by integrating robotics and ai-driven systems as well as smart manufacturing solutions. the innovative technology has provided manufacturers with improved precision abilities and higher efficiency and production consistency and automatic error-free operations and faster production time [5]. robotics systems perform vital automation functions in industrial production because they execute repetitive functions such as assembly and welding and material handling thus decreasing workforce expenditure and promoting higher manufacturing rates. modern artificial intelligence systems provide constant equipment monitoring together with predictive maintenance functions that avoid equipment breakdowns and decrease operational stoppages [6]. operating data goes through machine learning algorithms which discover performance flaws for optimizing resource use while improving entire equipment performance metrics. the deployment of iot with electrical machines promotes inter component data exchange which develops integrated manufacturing networks that optimize decision processes. smart manufacturing solutions enable automatic quality control systems which find defective items early during manufacturing operations [7]. automation implements power optimization into industrial 55 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us machines to make operations more efficient thus resulting in reduced operational costs while advancing sustainability. the introduction of automation to electrical machines brings many advantages yet leaders face difficulties because it requires significant investments and complex integration with systems and workers need additional training. technology development works on solving current difficulties to create automated intelligent manufacturing environments that advance industrial productivity. 1.4 research objectives the objectives of this study are: ➢ study the supply chain productivity improvement which results from automation in electrical machines. ➢ evaluate how automated systems influence production performance by analyzing speed, quality, power efficiency as well as their ability for predictive maintenance. ➢ as a part of this investigation research the ways machine learning and ai technologies optimize industrial production procedures. ➢ the research examines the hurdles and barriers which emerge when assimilating automation into electrical machines [8]. ➢ the possibility of advanced automation systems in manufacturing will be investigated. ➢ the research provides recommendations to businesses about how they can implement automation in their supply chain systems. 1.5 research questions 1. which manufacturing aspects improve due to automation within the supply chain management process? 2. manufacturers encounter what main benefits and obstacles emerge when they implement automated electrical machines into their production process? 3. which predictive analysis could be generated by machine learning-based analytics in manufacturing automation? 4. what strategies enable businesses to use automation for improving sustainability and lower operational costs in industrial supply chain systems? 2. literature review modern manufacturing has undergone a revolutionary shift through automation because it delivers enhanced supply chain management capabilities through better efficiency and reduced costs as well as prediction analytics. research currently demonstrates that robotics with artificial intelligence and iot systems have enabled production process enhancements which produce shorter downtimes [9]. automated systems achieved their next evolution through industry 4.0 by adding intelligent technological features which improved operational decision capabilities. multiple research studies show that automation technology delivers double benefits by decreasing production flaws alongside enhancing instant supply chain surveillance [10]. numerous doubts regarding job losses, vulnerable cybersecurity systems and complex infrastructure expenses continue to exist. this article investigates the systematic development of automated electrical machines along with their fundamental technologies and supply chain optimization and ethical hurdles in automated systems. 2.1 evolution of automation in manufacturing the development of industrial automation progressed according to different technological developments starting from the mechanized production systems of the first industrial revolution period. assembly lines together with mass production methods became dominant manufacturing 56 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us methods when they emerged during the early part of the twentieth century. programmable logic controllers (plcs) emerged during the 1960s to deliver exact control systems which cut down human involvement in industrial operations [11]. industry 4.0 transformed automation by uniting expressions from cyber-physical systems with artificial intelligence technology as well as data analytical methods. industrial facilities apply internet-enabled detectors alongside real-time information processing and self-operating technology to advance supply chain activities. automation through these new methods leads businesses to higher operational output joined by reduced costs and optimized supply networks [12]. computerized systems today use predictive maintenance that improves both operational reliability rates and minimizes downtime for production systems. industrial revolution through automation brings these significant problems to industry operations but it revolutionizes existing manufacturing processes. even though smart automation solutions are more widely used they are reshaping the path towards industrial advancement. 2.2 theoretical foundations of automation in supply chain management the theoretical foundations supporting supply chain automation consist of lean manufacturing as well as just-in-time (jit) and the theory of constraints. the core principle of lean manufacturing consists of reducing unnecessary wastefulness in operations alongside optimizing resource usage for efficient operations [13]. continuous production and minimal inventory storage functions accomplished through jit lead to reduced inventory costs while ensuring better market response capabilities. supply chain bottlenecks identified by the theory of constraints lead to specific approaches that both enhance operational speed and eliminate operational deficiencies. all these theories serve as the groundwork for automating electrical machines to boost supply chain execution results [14]. these principles enable automation systems to optimize production process flows thus cutting down production durations and delivering better operational efficiency. these frameworks lead automation towards becoming both an organizational strategic element and a continuous improvement methodology. theoretical understanding serves as a fundamental principle for automated system implementation which results in higher supply chain resilience as well as productivity levels. 2.3 technological advancements in automation automation technologies have made substantial modifications to supply chain activities in manufacturing industries through recent developments [15]. modern industrial robots handle high-precision operations for electrical machine production which enhances both efficiency and decreases human worker involvement. predictive analytics becomes more efficient through artificial intelligence (ai) and machine learning which optimize both demand forecast-making and decision-making processes [16]. the internet of things (iot) maintains real-time control and data monitoring functions to achieve continuous automated system connectivity. supply chain transparency receives enhancement through blockchain technology which enables safe transaction recordkeeping that remains untamperable and builds trust and maintains accountability. improved coordination results from 5g and edge computing technology because these systems provide accelerated data processing and reduced latency which improves automated system communication [17]. through combined technological implementations they boost operational performance while decreasing system breakdowns and achieving maximum resource use in supply chain networks. businesses which implement automation-driven solutions will enhance their operational scope while boosting their reply time and supply chain durability for better market competitiveness in contemporary manufacturing domains. 2.4 key technologies in automation the implementation of manufacturing automation depends on various leading-edge technologies which collectively improve operational precision and efficiency for the industry. 57 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.4.1 robotics and autonomous systems industrial robots form a basic element of present-day industrial manufacturing because they efficiently complete repetitive operations at maximum speed while maintaining precision levels [18]. human operators can work with collaborative robots (cobots) to enhance productivity because these robots combine human assistance with decreased physical workload [19]. the implementation of autonomous mobile robots (amrs) together with robotic arms now controls assembly lines through their ability to enhance flexible and scalable production. 2.4.2 ai-driven automation and machine learning applications artificial intelligence (ai) and machine learning systems enhance manufacturing operations, conduct predictive maintenance while monitoring processes in real-time and adapting production plans [20]. machine learning models read sensor information to identify equipment breakdowns before failure events happen which decreases equipment standstills. automatic prediction through ai computer vision systems creates solid quality control functionalities by detecting imperfections with absolute precision. 2.4.3 internet of things (iot) in smart manufacturing real-time monitoring together with decision-making happens through iot devices that link machines to sensors and control systems to establish an interconnected system [21]. the implementation of physical system duplicates referred to as digital twins makes use of internet of things connectivity and artificial intelligence processing to execute production simulations which maximize operational efficiency [22]. the integration of intelligent inventory management systems built with iot technology enables businesses to monitor their supply chain activities better which minimizes operational issues throughout the logistics processes and storage facilities. 2.5 impact on supply chain efficiency supply chain management reaches optimal results through automation which improves production speed and minimizes waste and allocates resources properly. 2.5.1 just-in-time (jit) manufacturing and lean automation the combination of jit manufacturing and automation brings necessary materials and components when production requires them which results in decreased inventory excess and waste [23]. the restorative power of lean automation enables organizations to structure production sequences more efficiently so supply chains function with increased speed. 2.5.2 reduction in production downtime and defect rates the use of predictive maintenance systems that rely on ai examines equipment operational data to stop breakdowns which reduces stoppages in production [24]. technology quality oversight through machine learning and computer vision enables continuous detection of product defects during production while decreasing rework expenses. 2.5.3 optimization of inventory and logistics demand forecasting protocols linked to automated warehouse management systems achieve the best stock levels by optimizing resource allocation processes [25]. the implementation of robotics in logistics through automated guided vehicle with drone delivers to enables faster supply chains while eliminating human errors that occur during manual warehouse operations 2.6 analytical tools and techniques the research relies on multiple supervised machine learning algorithms and visualization methods and statistical methods to generate useful understanding from the data. the algorithms of decision trees along with random forests and neural networks act in supervised machine learning systems to forecast automation effects on essential supply chain performance indicators 58 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us such as production speeds and quality failures and energy utilization [26]. the data visualization software combination of tableau and excel helps manufacturing process analysts understand data trends by enabling them to see clear patterns. such tools improve result interpretation through their ability to produce visual representations of automation impacts. 2.7 empirical study research on blockchain technology (bct) integration with lean automation for supply chain management (scm) has rapidly increased during the last few years. jackson, spiegler and kotiadis (2023) performed a systematic literature review about bct's power to improve supply chain efficiency through lower manual operations. the study created a waste taxonomy for scm inefficiencies which led to analyzing how blockchain-enabled lean automation (b-ela) resolves these problems. all proof indicated that blockchain technology delivers increased transparency and better traceability features plus time-saving real-time data collaborations that result in enhanced operational workflows and cost reduction. smart contracts and decentralized ledgers represent widely used blockchain technology applications that improve inventory control and supplier network connection [1]. the research advocates for developing a future research framework that demonstrates bct capabilities besides predictive analytics and automation and waste reduction within the framework of industry 4.0. research findings prove that blockchainled lean practices create prospects for supply chains to become more resilient and operationally excellent. the paper written by pérez et al. (2025) examines circular manufacturing within the automotive sector through analysis of electric machine remanufacturing processes. a decision support tool based on agent-based and discrete-event simulation provides a simulation platform to evaluate economic and environmental effects for the study. the paper demonstrates how early design choices need to match future recovery operations and shows that remanufacturing alongside reuse duties are critical roles in circular supply chains [2]. additional design costs of 10.6% result in cost reduction by 18.6%, material usage reduction by 14.7% and environmental impact decreases by 38.7%. the research explores different essential elements that determine circular supply chain performance by analyzing remanufacturing success rates with product lifespan and degradation speed parameters. internal evaluations of the circular economy provide crucial directions to incorporate these principles in manufacturing operations for sustainable production that delivers cost benefits. the research utilizes data to optimize resource utilization and improve circular supply chain execution in the electric machine sector. the authors of soori et al. (2024) discuss how blockchain technology and iiot devices work together to improve sustainable supply chain management within industry 4.0 structure. the research demonstrates that the blockchain system enables real-time tracking of goods by iiot devices which brings enhanced transparency alongside improved security and operational efficiency. the combined system enhances inventory management practices and cuts down waste production and maintains sustainability regulations [3]. bluetooth maintains an open and traceable database which helps supply chains implement ethical processes. the review assesses the financial issues along with social aspects and environmental concerns related to implementing blockchain-powered iiot solutions while noting missing elements in present research. the research establishes that these technological solutions have the power to develop an industrial system which is stronger and more open. additional research about blockchain-iiot cooperation should focus on optimization strategies to enhance sustainability outcomes in industrial and supply chain processes. ardolino et al. (2025) investigate how digital technologies contribute to improving digital competencies in manufacturing supply chains throughout disruptive events. the study analyzes organizational resilience and business competitiveness through eight case examples by applying the digital capability model (dcm). digital technology deployment through strategic planning creates three beneficial outcomes which include risk management and enhanced supply chain adaptability with sustainable business operation [4]. supply chain weaknesses have become 59 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us more evident because of world events like covid-19 and political conflicts which support the necessity of establishing digital transformation solutions. the combination of ai together with iot and blockchain technologies helps performance through immediate data sharing and better resource distribution as well as enhanced decision-making capability. the research provides tangible practical knowledge about digital capability development that helps manufacturing organizations achieve market dominance in uncertain circumstances. kumar and singh (2025) discuss supply chain 5.0 adoption in modern industries by examining enabling factors and barriers through grey influence analysis. implementation success in supply chain 5.0 relies on three main enabling factors which are green energy and universal storage together with smart contracts but adoption faces three primary obstacles from machine adaptability and security and privacy threats alongside the lack of green initiatives [5]. the research applies qualitative causal modeling as well as regression analysis to determine that resolving adaptability challenges demands several enablers which include intelligent systems alongside innovative technologies. the research develops guidelines that enable decision-makers in developing economies to reduce their risks and promote supply chain 5.0 implementation. this research presents a practical model that connects enabling factors with barriers to clarify approaches for reducing challenges while facilitating digital transformation in next-generation supply chain systems to achieve industrial operation sustainability and resilience. 3. methodology the study analyzes supply chain management impacts through data-based assessment of electrical machine automation. the research combines statistical methods with machine learning predictive analysis to assess operational effects and production characteristics as well as defect occurrences and power usage and output speed [27]. the research methodology starts with gathering manufacturing data from various sources and continuing with preprocessing measures and advanced tool usage of tableau and python for analysis and visualization. the research employs a mix of quantitative investigation methods together with qualitative research information obtained from industry reports and case studies [28]. the methodology produces comprehensive evaluations about how automation performs in present-day manufacturing operations. 3.1 research design the research design uses quantitative methods along with qualitative techniques for a comprehensive evaluation of supply chain automation processes in management [29]. structure data sets go through machine learning models in the quantitative phase to detect associations and performance indicators along with data trends. statistical techniques that use regression as well as hypothesis testing determine how automation improves production effectiveness and predictive maintenance procedures [29]. reviews of industry reports and academic literature and expert opinions produce qualitative findings that demonstrate manufacturing scenario applications in real practice [30]. quantitative and qualitative methods integrate to measure automation outcomes specifically while studying the consequences they generate at different operational levels. the research achieves strengthened findings through integrating quantitative data analytics with qualitative assessment methods which generates precise knowledge about supply chain optimization with automation along with its industrial application outlook. 3.2 data sources and selection the research draws its data from two essential datasets. a real-time dataset of operational metrics from automated manufacturing systems exists under the name fuzzy-based smart manufacturing dataset which covers predictive maintenance together with defect rates and efficiency improvement measurements [30]. through this methodology researchers obtain important information regarding production performance changes caused by automation implementation. the intelligent manufacturing dataset for predictive optimization features historical production information about energy consumption trends together with machine 60 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us stoppages as well as optimization methods for predictive analysis. the assessment informs about the ways ai automation enhances managerial choices and resource distribution mechanisms in supply chain operations. 3.3 data processing and preprocessing several preprocessing techniques were applied to the raw datasets because these contain inconsistencies together with missing values and redundant information which required enhancement for data quality and reliability purposes. standard numerical value normalization formed a part of data cleaning operations which accompanied identifying and eliminating data points with missing or inconsistent records [31]. the processing stage prevents errors and invalid data points from affecting the analysis results. additional variables were developed through feature engineering for creating automation efficiency scores and supply chain responsiveness metrics that enhanced the understanding of automation effects. machine-level information was grouped into higher-level analyses to generate explanations that enhanced supply chain evaluation capabilities [32]. the normalization process applied to variables served for eliminating variability during comparisons between different datasets. the machine learning applications and advanced analytics process required encoding of categorical data variables [33]. through these preprocessing operations the data achieved suitable quality for both visualization purposes and decision-making because it became accurate and consistent for automation-related supply chain insight extraction. 3.4 visualization using tableau and excel the analysis and interpretation of supply chain management automation effects were managed using tableau and excel applications [34]. tableau helped create adaptable screens for dashboard visualization which displayed essential automation performance indicators that included machine maintenance data analysis and production system analysis with measures of operational optimization. the automated dashboards allowed users to examine automation impacts dynamically for identifying essential improvement targets [35]. exploratory data analysis began in excel where the researchers processed data to create summaries along with identifying trends and conducting simple statistical assessments. the supply chain metrics received analysis from pivot tables to identify automation level differences between efficiency measures and cost-effectiveness along with responsiveness levels. the research project used superior elements from both tableau visualization features and excel analytical functions to translate complex information into valuable business intelligence outputs. the methodology provided a bridge between basic statistics and decision-making functions to make supply chain optimization results both understandable by analysts and assumable by business leaders. 3. 5 evaluation metrics various essential performance indicators served to evaluate how well automation works for supply chain management. the evaluation of operational efficiency between traditional production lines and automated systems calculated production time and output speed to establish automation improvement results [35]. the analysis of cost reduction included steps to decrease labor expenditures together with assessment of material waste and quantified energy usage metrics to prove financial advantages. the evaluation of predictive maintenance effects revealed how automation reduced failure rates of machines through decreased downtimes and unexpected events. the measurement of supply chain agility utilized just-in-time(jit) inventory levels combined with order fulfillment speeds to demonstrate automations role in improving demand fluctuation responses. 3.6 limitations of the study the study provides numerous important findings yet it recognizes certain constraints. the study was affected by data limitations since some of the collected datasets did not include complete automation scenarios across industries which reduced potential application scope. another 61 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us challenge emerged from the dataset selection process because the current relevant data may fail to represent worldwide supply chain dynamics properly [36]. the research excluded qualitative aspects regarding workforce adaptability and employee sentiment and managerial perspectives because its essential focus depended on data-driven examination. the generalization scope remains restricted because analysis benefits primarily industries that already implement automation although organizations with low digital adaptation show different outcome potential. 4. result the research findings showcase how automation of electrical machines enhances supply chain management operations by several performance measures. through automation industrial processes achieve enhanced operational performance by lowering machine operational stoppages while re-engineering manufacturing sequences [36]. the manufacturing process achieved lower operating costs from reduced staff expenses and minimal material waste together with greater energy efficiency. the implementation of predictive maintenance protocols cut down unplanned machine failures which resulted in uninterrupted supply chain activities. through automation supply chains gained the ability to perform real-time modifications in their production volumes when market demand shifted. excluding the following figures demonstrates comprehensive data visualization of performance metrics showing vital patterns within the analyzed information. 4.1 error rate analysis based on operation mode figure 1: this image presents the distribution of errors that occur in different operational states automated electrical machines employed in manufacturing document their error distributions according to operational modes in figure 1. active operational status shows the highest error percentage while idle and maintenance operations represent the remaining error occurrences. the majority of errors identified in the system originate from the active mode since its total errors consist of 70% according to the presented chart. the operational phase of machines generates the highest number of breakdowns and performance issues probably because of system wear and process complexities and continuous usage. the idle mode follows by consisting of about 20% of total errors. machines experience some faulty behavior or inefficiency even when not fully operating which occurs most likely because of improper shutdown procedures or system instabilities [37]. the maintenance mode represents the most effective strategy because it produces errors in fewer than 10% of cases which proves that preventive maintenance and systematic inspection help minimize operational failures. the identification of these findings demonstrates how critical predictive maintenance techniques with immediate system monitoring 62 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us systems help reduce mistakes in operational periods. the combination of ai diagnostics with condition-based monitoring systems allows organizations to identify errors better which boosts their supply chain performance. by improving scheduling of machine downtime and enhancing idle-state management systems manufacturers can reach greater manufacturing efficiency and reduce errors. the analysis demonstrates the operational difficulties which affect automated electrical machines by showing why reliability improvements through maintenance are essential for contemporary smart manufacturing systems. 4.2 predictive maintenance efficiency across different performance levels figure 2: this image demonstrated the predictive maintenance scores spread among predictive maintenance scores follow specific distributions among different equipment efficiency levels as shown in figure 2. the predictive maintenance scores spread among high, low, and medium efficiency statuses as figure 2 illustrates. the predictive maintenance score percentiles (5%) appear on the y-axis scale and the x-axis divisions represent machine efficiency levels (high, low, medium). the assessment shows that predictive maintenance scores achieve their highest values in low efficiency machines with medium efficiency ranking right behind them. meanwhile, machines with high efficiency show slightly lower predictive maintenance scores. the data demonstrates that machines with low efficiency need maintenance actions with greater frequency due to normal wear and tear and inadequate operating conditions as well as outdated equipment components [38]. predominantly efficient machines maintain high predictive maintenance scores because moderate efficiency systems also need extensive maintenance work. the lower ratings for high-efficiency machines demonstrate that modern automated systems and well-preserver equipment need less maintenance. the study proves predictive maintenance needs to remain a priority in automated production systems because it boosts device functioning and cuts operational interruptions. through the use of ai-driven predictive analytics and machine learning techniques organizations can detect equipment failure indicators before they occur so they can act proactively. the combined system enhances supply chain efficiency through better reliability and cuts down unexpected equipment failures that disrupt processes. 63 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.3 power consumption patterns across machines figure 3: this image shows the distinct power consumption data (kw) measurement for different machine ids operates the distinct power consumption data (kw) measurement for different machine ids operates within an industrial setting as figure 3 demonstrates. different machines receive representation on the x-axis while the y-axis shows kilowatts (kw) power consumption counts. different machines in the dataset demonstrate steady power consumption levels that display slight differences between machines. the figure displays standard power consumption patterns among most machines while two machines stand apart with differing power consumption values. there are three possible sources of the observed variation that include machine operating conditions together with workload intensity and maintenance status [38]. the amount of power that machines consume could suggest heavy operation loads or possible mechanical inefficiencies stemming from normal wear and tear. a machine which uses less energy than what is typically consumed falls under two possible scenarios: it may be going through reduced operational time or it could need its regular maintenance schedule. the examination results provide essential knowledge to enhance energy effectiveness in industrial automation systems. companies can protect their operational effectiveness through proactive maintenance by evaluating machines using anomalies in power use data. another aspect where power optimization methods help is by providing solutions to minimize waste and enhance sustainability for machine operations. this visualization helps organizations make data-based decisions for power systems management while optimizing operations by highlighting the importance of automatic monitoring and ai predictive solutions employed in current industrial facilities. 4.4 efficiency status distribution across machines figure 4: this image illustrated the distribution of performance levels by machine ids and efficiency status 64 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the distribution of performance levels revealed by figure 4 shows how machine ids distributed their efficiency status between high, medium and low categories. different machine ids appear on the x-axis and the occurrence counts exist on the y-axis within the dataset. a color scheme differentiates the efficiency level representation in each bar. the analyzed data demonstrates machines primarily maintain high efficiency levels since the dark blue bars dominate across all machines. the medium efficiency category (green bars) appears next to high efficiency (dark blue bars) but the low efficiency category (black bars) remains the most scarce among all machines. the data shows most machines maintain high operational efficiency but medium and low performance levels affect only a minimal portion of the total machines. the uniform performance maintenance at high levels across all machines suggests optimized processes and effective predictive maintenance methods as well as efficient equipment maintenance practices [39]. the presence of machines in both medium and low efficiency categories indicate operational faults that administrators should conduct further analysis about. various inefficiencies arise because of operations that need improvement combined with equipment deterioration and required calibration and maintenance adjustments. performance improvements must be identified by conducting this critical analysis. virgin atlantic uses these insights to detect weak equipment then schedules maintenance as well as streamlines their workflow processes for improving total manufacturing efficiency. 4.5 error distribution analysis figure 5: this image demonstrates the frequency of error distribution patterns the histogram assessment of figure 5 demonstrates error distribution patterns throughout the dataset while showcasing the distribution frequency of various values. the x-axis shows error values which correspond to frequencies of their occurrence through the y-axis. the distribution pattern becomes clearer through the overlapping of a smoothed density curve on the histogram. the statistical data shows that error values span from -5 to +5 with steady frequency across the majority of intervals. however, minor fluctuations in density show the variation of when errors happen. the additional curve emphasizes specific error values by demonstrating peaks to indicate non-perfect distribution symmetry [40]. research validity and system reliability depend heavily on this analysis to evaluate predictive models and automated systems used within the study. the model keeps its error range manageable but it shows many deviations from zero that point to possible prediction flaws and systematic inaccuracies. subscriber prediction accuracy improvements should make use of better feature design and optimized parameter values or advanced error correction methods. system accuracy and reliability development depends on understanding what pattern the errors follow between normal distribution and systematic patterns. an error distribution analysis helps identify sectors for development which enhances automated decision-making system reliability and accuracy. 65 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.6 analysis of speed rpm distribution figure 6: this image illustrated the distribution of speed values in rpm the data distribution of speed values in rpm appears in figure 6 through a box plot representation. the rpm speed measurements appear on the y-axis from 500 to 3000 rpm while the box plot summarizes both data center and variability. the green boxed region showing interquartile range comprises values from 1000 rpm up to 2500 rpm thus containing 50% of all speed measurements. data central tendency can be found at 1700-1800 rpm which is shown by the horizontal line inside the box. the maximum and minimum speed values extend from 500 rpm to 3000 rpm which establishes the complete range of data points in the dataset. the box plot assessment proves instrumental for both locating variability along with potential outlier data points in a dataset. the data distribution demonstrates normal behavior because the values spread evenly throughout the total range without signs of outlier effects. the speed data follows a symmetrical pattern so it shows no major skewness in the operational speeds observed in the dataset. analyzing performance and industrial efficiency requires this type of examination. operation reliability is ensured by using a speed range which does not fluctuate and this consistency allows detection of issues that reveal mechanical problems or system breakdowns. researchers can use additional inspection techniques to look at how variations in speed rates affect the functioning performance of automated manufacturing procedures. 4.7 temperature and energy consumption trend analysis figure 7 : this image illustrated the display temperature measurements in °c together with energy usage as w 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us this line graph in figure 7 shows a series of indexed data points that display temperature measurements in °c together with energy usage as w. the index values appear along the x-axis and the y-axis contains both temperature readings and energy consumption values. temperature data appears as the red colored line while energy utilization is displayed by the blue colored line. the recorded data shows extensive variation in energy use which displays a range between 0 w and 500 w. energy demand experiences strong abrupt variations in this data set which might stem from industrial operational workload changes. fewer range variations appear among temperature values as they show stable fluctuations. the observed data demonstrates that energy consumption shows a higher level of volatility than temperature values. the stable behavior of temperature control systems exists while energy consumption reacts to environmental machine operations and power availability changes [41]. the research indicates that performance connections may exist between stable temperatures and energy efficiency performance outcomes. excessive rises and drops in energy usage should trigger parallel shifts in equipment temperature to avoid power waste needing further inspection. system operations need the visualization tool to detect and optimize power usage in automated systems through efficiency assessments. research initiatives should concentrate on developing predictive models which determine optimal energy optimization strategies for keeping industrial environments' temperature stability. 4.8 analysis of average energy consumption by load variation figure 8: this image illustrated the connection between different load variation ranges and the average energy consumption this bar chart in figure 8 portrays the connection between different load variation ranges and the average energy consumption in watts. different load variation ranges appear on the x-axis followed by average energy consumption in watts (w) per measurement on the y-axis. a visual representation of energy consumption appears in the bars across different load conditions in the chart. energy consumption shows a steady pattern throughout various load variation ranges as the measurements remain close to 260 w to 275 w. within the load range of (1.12, 1.2] the system consumes the most energy yet it consumes the least energy within the range of (0.961, 1.041]. measurable differences in average energy consumption are small indicating that the documented changes in load do not result in substantial alterations of power consumption in this evaluated range. the system appears to operate at a steady energy usage level independently of minor shifts in the load-related conditions due to optimized power regulation mechanisms that operate within the industrial process. further research needs to confirm if elevated loads create increased peak energy usage while maintaining operational efficiency. the relationship between changing industrial workload levels and power consumption needs clear understanding to maximize automated system energy efficiency. investigations should explore how advanced 67 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us control techniques including adaptive energy management systems and machine learning-based optimization would impact efficiency as well as sustainable stable operations. 5. dataset and dataset overview the intelligent manufacturing dataset for predictive optimization includes live industrial data through the combination of sensor information and networking statistics and production operational indicators to conduct predictive ai optimization in manufacturing. the dataset consists of sequential machine performance measurement through temperature, vibration frequency, power consumption data combined with 6g network parameters including latency measurements and packet loss records which influence operational speed in real-time. the mapping dataset extends from january 1 through march 10 in 2024 to record more than 100,000 entries which were collected every minute at different machine operational stages including active, idle and other. production efficiency indicators consisting of defect rate and predictive maintenance scores and production speed enable detailed analysis of manufacturing output. smart factories achieve their operational efficiency improvement through the effective use of this predictive dataset which enables the development of predictive models and anomaly detection capabilities as well as ai-driven decision support mechanisms [51]. the technology enables manufacturing industry improvement through industry 4.0 strategies by using deep learning and machine learning approaches to connect ai with iot for optimizing manufacturing resources and automation through fast communication networks. the dataset contains 1,000 observations of process data and sensor measurements to optimize fuzzy-pid controller decision-making in industrial processes. the dataset serves analytical 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us research needs in adaptive control systems with industrial automation applications and industry 4.0 operations because it reveals critical data about active process observance and timely decision processes. the dataset contains seven key features that include °c temperature, bar pressure, rpm speed and error deviation, delta error, 0.8-1.2 load variation and measurement results in °c and w. the set of parameters supports different applications including fuzzy-pid controller optimization, design of energy-efficient control systems and fault diagnosis and predictive maintenance functions [52]. the dataset provides optimal conditions for building machine learning and optimization algorithms in industrial smart manufacturing while featuring specific relevance to matlab and python simulations in practical industrial applications. the data distribution system in different operational states enables ai automation and predictive modeling with adaptive process control for enhancing manufacturing industry efficiency. 6. discussion and analysis 6.1 impact of automation on supply chain efficiency the implementation of automation technology in electrical machines leads to better supply chain performance through data-driven real-time decisions and predictive framework implementation and just-in-time (jit) strategy adoption. iot sensors linked to ai analytical systems provide manufacturers precise data used to monitor their production metrics and inventory amounts together with machine operational status allowing them to deploy resources optimally and stop supply chain interruptions. the predictive maintenance system produces essential benefits through its application of machine learning detections of impending equipment failures which allows proactive breakdown prevention thus sustaining continuous operations. automation helps manage jit manufacturing operations through adaptive production rate controls which leads to lower storage expenses and better financial resources [41]. augmentation of manufacturing operations through automation helps companies avoid producing surplus goods by uniting production methods to actual client requirements thus creating a streamlined supply chain. operational efficiency receives enhancements from these advancements to enable manufacturers precision delivery of consumer needs while keeping supply chain operations uninterrupted. 6.2 cost reduction and financial implications cost reduction in electrical machines occurs because of automation by optimizing labor costs and maximizing energy efficiency while minimizing material waste in operations. manufacturing operations experience cost reduction when manufacturers automate repetitive tasks because they reduce human labor requirements and achieve higher accuracy in production. the initial capital outlay for automation equipment proves worthwhile because it results in ongoing reductions of labor expense alongside benefit payments and human mistake costs [42]. the process of moving staff to more complicated job positions result in superior production rates. energy efficiency stands as an essential financial advantage because automated systems administer power consumption and connect with renewable power sources so businesses reduce operational costs and fulfill sustainability goals [43]. the combination of robotics and ai-driven systems through automation cuts down material waste by enabling new methods for precise measurement and cutting operations and component assembly thus minimize the automated quality control systems boost operational efficiency by quickly finding manufacturing defects which stops wrong products from proceeding while minimizing expenses and maintaining product excellence. 6.3. supply chain scalability and flexibility through automated systems businesses achieve better supply chain scalability together with improved flexibility because they can execute agile production along with robotic warehouse operations [44]. manufacturers benefit from automated systems since they can be effortlessly reprogrammed through changes to processes to minimize downtime for quick adaptation toward changing market requirements and disrupted supply chains and shifting customer needs. agile manufacturing produces quick responses to market changes so businesses gain an advantage in the dynamic industrial market [45]. warehouses that use robotics together with ai technology 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us optimize their inventory control as well as logistical operations at an enhanced level. through automatic storage performance and retrieval systems (as/rs) manufacturers minimize their picking mistakes and improve inventory management to deliver orders faster and maintain smooth operations. businesses can avoid both stock outages and surplus through ai forecasting tools that use past data to detect changing market requirements. manufacturers use these technological developments to optimize logistics management which results in better production adaptability and allows businesses to grow effectively as well as strengthen their supply chain resistance to market condition shifts. 6.4 challenges and limitations of automation the adoption of automation technology in electrical machines faces many obstacles because of expensive starting expenses combined with worker job losses and protection of computer systems from attacks. smaller and medium-sized manufacturing companies face obstacles to implement their investment in automated systems and artificial intelligence robotics and predictive analytics because these solutions demand significant capital [46]]. the financial strain becomes heavier because of continuing maintenance requirements along with software update expenses and employee training that needs medium to long-term planning strategies. workforce displacement remains a vital challenge because robotic automation eliminates several jobs from the manufacturing workforce [47]. the focus must be on employee reskilling and upskilling programs since these prepare workers to take on positions in robotics maintenance alongside ai supervision and data analytics roles. manufacturing systems that interconnect after automation implementation face higher cybersecurity threats that include exposure to hacking attempts and data breaches alongside cyberattacks. the leak of sensitive supply chain information through network compromises will require businesses to install encryption together with firewalls and active intrusion detection systems. 6. 5 future trends and innovations the supply chain management automation of the future will depend on ai predictive analytics together with blockchain technological advancements and robotics systems designed for sustainable efficiency [47]. vertical analysis using predictive ai processes will predict future supply chain disruptions through large database evaluation which enables manufacturers to decide ahead of time and boost production planning. the supply chain transparency benefits from blockchain technology store provides organizations with a secure decentralized system which ensures tracking, transaction verification and prevents fraudulent operations in real-time. when blockchain operates with automated systems it provides stakeholders improved supply chain tracking together with enhanced trust. the industrial automation sector now focuses on sustainability because industry leaders adopt energy-efficient electrical machines and create robotics and materials which are both environmentally friendly and renewable [48]. implementing green automation through renewable energy sources will help manufacturers achieve sustainability goals in addition to meeting their strict ecological standards. the developments will enable progressed supply chain stability and operational efficiency with increased sustainability goals 7. future work future studies about automation in electrical machines for supply chain management need to investigate the integration of artificial intelligence predictive analytics together with blockchain technologies for security purposes, energy-efficient automation devices and strengthened protection frameworks [49]. machine learning technology will sharpen real-time adaptive learning capabilities so electrical machines become better at predicting supply chain disturbances as well as market changes and equipment breakdowns. machine learning algorithms need optimization to function autonomously for decision-making purposes where operational changes happen automatically based on resource availability as well as production needs. ai-driven robotics need improvement in their ability to accomplish advanced operations with enhanced 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us accuracy in order to minimize human involvement and maximize manufacturing speed. the application of blockchain technology demands additional research to enhance its ability to scale and interconnect in automated manufacturing applications where decentralized goods tracking and supplier assessment and automatic contract management are required. researchers need to study efficient machine operations because the development of power-efficient automated equipment that works with renewable energy through ai-based energy management systems will promote sustainability [50]. the development of recyclable automated systems with low carbon footprint requires additional research efforts to match worldwide environmental requirements. cybersecurity stands as the main priority because networked automation systems maintain heightened exposure to cyber attacks and thus researchers should create superior cybersecurity solutions through ai-based intrusion detection and self-healing mechanisms and enhanced encryption methods to safeguard automated supply chains. research efforts must study both the ethical aspects and regulatory requirements of automation because they need to deal with displaced workforce problems and follow emerging industrial standards. research conducted in these essential topics will pave the way for the complete integration of automation into electrical machines which can enhance both operational performance and security levels in manufacturing supply chains and maintain competitive business operations in a modern industrial automation environment. 8. acknowledgment i deeply appreciate the valuable assistance and continued backing from my academic advisor together with faculty members during the creation of this research paper. their guidance combined with expert knowledge has fundamentally influenced the development of my research project. my recognition goes to colleagues and peers who presented enlightening discussions and useful recommendations to deepen my comprehension of the subject matter. i extend my appreciation to institutions and organizations which provided necessary data resources that made it possible to reach research success. throughout this journey i remain indebted to my family and friends for constantly motivating and supporting me all the way. their ongoing patience together with their persistent encouragement strengthened me mentally. i thank all research professionals and think tanks whose previous work established the basis for my research study. this study depended on their valuable work since it would not have reached completion without their efforts. 9. conclusion electric machine automation brings key benefits to manufacturing supply chains through operational enhancement and expense reduction and scalability improvement. complex automation systems that contain ai add-ons with iot and robotic features enhance operations by delivering fast data-dependent choices and scheduled maintenance checks and just-in-time (jit) production procedures. the new innovations cut operational delays along with improving stock organization systems to deliver complete manufacturing adaptability. the implementation of automated manufacturing processes reduces costs by two ways: through diminished labor costs along with enhanced operational efficiency and minimized material loss. the advantages of automation in business operations are offset by high starting investment expenses as well as worker lay-offs and security risks to digital systems. increasing automation requires companies to train their current employees because machine-driven processes decrease employee dependency on manual labor practices. the protection of interconnected automated systems' data requires immediate attention for blocking cyber-attacks as well as supply chain interferences. future of operational efficiency and resilience will greatly improve through the implementation of ai-driven predictive analytics combined with blockchain for supply chain transparency alongside sustainable automation solutions. upcoming research needs to improve automation system frameworks to solve ethical issues and establish strong cybersecurity defenses which will facilitate easy implementation of smart manufacturing technologies. industrial success in the changing 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https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2nzzeaaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pr1&dq=exploring+the+impact+of+automation+in+electrical+machines+on+supply+chain+management+in+manufacturing+industries+books&ots=m_vxlnhdge&sig=mcqvjbnyloofzyhivctm6smzo8w&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2nzzeaaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pr1&dq=exploring+the+impact+of+automation+in+electrical+machines+on+supply+chain+management+in+manufacturing+industries+books&ots=m_vxlnhdge&sig=mcqvjbnyloofzyhivctm6smzo8w&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2nzzeaaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pr1&dq=exploring+the+impact+of+automation+in+electrical+machines+on+supply+chain+management+in+manufacturing+industries+books&ots=m_vxlnhdge&sig=mcqvjbnyloofzyhivctm6smzo8w&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2nzzeaaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pr1&dq=exploring+the+impact+of+automation+in+electrical+machines+on+supply+chain+management+in+manufacturing+industries+books&ots=m_vxlnhdge&sig=mcqvjbnyloofzyhivctm6smzo8w&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ktqjeqaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pp1&dq=exploring+the+impact+of+automation+in+electrical+machines+on+supply+chain+management+in+manufacturing+industries+books&ots=aaqouqxrq_&sig=ad-mlbbmzrlyyroklwwvjojpycq&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ktqjeqaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pp1&dq=exploring+the+impact+of+automation+in+electrical+machines+on+supply+chain+management+in+manufacturing+industries+books&ots=aaqouqxrq_&sig=ad-mlbbmzrlyyroklwwvjojpycq&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ktqjeqaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pp1&dq=exploring+the+impact+of+automation+in+electrical+machines+on+supply+chain+management+in+manufacturing+industries+books&ots=aaqouqxrq_&sig=ad-mlbbmzrlyyroklwwvjojpycq&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ktqjeqaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pp1&dq=exploring+the+impact+of+automation+in+electrical+machines+on+supply+chain+management+in+manufacturing+industries+books&ots=aaqouqxrq_&sig=ad-mlbbmzrlyyroklwwvjojpycq&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false 76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 50. younis, h., bwaliez, o. m., garibeh, m. h., & sundarakani, b. (2024). empirical study of robotic systems implementation to corporate performance in manufacturing sector. international journal of productivity and performance management. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ijppm-02-2024-0070/full/html 51. dataset link https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/ziya07/intelligent-manufacturing-dataset 52. dataset link https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/s3programmer/fuzzy-based-smart-manufacturing-dataset https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/ijppm-02-2024-0070/full/html https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/ziya07/intelligent-manufacturing-dataset 1-4 design of a device for disinfection of paper money in atms 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 design of a device for disinfection of paper money in atms oybek kholmatov senior teacher, andijan state technical institute, uzbekistan, andijan holmatov.oybek@bk.ru muminov ziyodillo student, andijan state technical institute, uzbekistan, andijan muminovziyodillo11@gmail.com abstract: in the modern world, the active use of paper money increases the risk of spreading infectious diseases through microorganisms and viruses. this is especially true for banknotes passing through atms, as they come into contact with a large number of users. therefore, the development of an effective and automated mechatronic device for disinfecting paper money in atms is an urgent task. during the research, existing disinfection methods were studied, their advantages and disadvantages were analyzed, and the most optimal method was selected, ensuring the cleaning of banknotes without damaging their structure. the device may use ultraviolet (uv) radiation, heat treatment, or chemicals. it is integrated into the atm's design and automatically disinfects the money during the process of dispensing and receiving. the proposed development aims to improve user safety, ensure sanitary standards, and enhance the hygienic reliability of banking operations. the study examines the mechanisms of the device, its efficiency, and the possibilities for practical application. keywords: atm, paper money, disinfection, automation, mechatronics, sanitation, safety. introduction. the use of paper money remains widespread; however, banknotes can serve as carriers for various bacteria and viruses. this problem is especially acute for notes that pass through atms, as they repeatedly come into contact with different people, facilitating the spread of infections. this not only poses a threat to public health but also underscores the need to observe appropriate sanitary standards. in this context, developing a system to disinfect paper money directly within atms has become a pressing task. existing banknote disinfection technologies have limitations, since most rely on manual handling methods. such approaches often prove insufficiently effective, which makes the implementation of automated mechatronic systems particularly important. the aim of the present study is to develop an efficient, fully automated device for disinfecting paper money inside atms. the proposed device will disinfect banknotes automatically, without requiring any additional actions from users. during the development process, existing disinfection methods will be surveyed and analyzed in terms of their effectiveness, and technical and structural solutions for the project’s implementation will be devised. furthermore, the optimal set of components and technologies will be selected to create a reliable and functional device. in recent years, the issue of disinfecting paper money has become increasingly relevant, especially in the context of global pandemics when virus transmission in public spaces poses a significant threat. in this section of 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the work, we will examine the current state of paper money disinfection technologies, as well as existing solutions for handling banknotes in various settings, including atms. several disinfection methods are applied to paper money, ranging from simple manual techniques to complex automated systems. one of the most common methods is ultraviolet (uv) radiation. uv rays effectively destroy most viruses and bacteria on the surface of banknotes. however, this method has its limitations: it requires specialized equipment and is constrained by exposure time. in addition, the effectiveness of uv radiation depends on light intensity and the duration of contact with the surface [1]. thermal treatment involves exposing paper money to high temperatures. this method has proven effective at eliminating most bacteria and viruses, but it can damage banknotes, since paper may lose its shape under high temperatures. hence, this approach is seldom used in the banking sector. chemical disinfection entails treating banknotes with various chemical agents that destroy microorganisms. however, these chemicals may harm the surface of banknotes, causing deformation. therefore, this method is also rarely employed in practice. some studies indicate that combined methods, which use both uv radiation and heat treatment, are more effective. for example, certain devices employ uv radiation for disinfection and then heat banknotes to a safe temperature, which allows for the efficient elimination of viruses and bacteria without damaging the notes themselves. in recent years, a number of companies have begun developing specialized devices for disinfecting paper money. these devices can be integrated into atms, payment terminals, and point-of-sale terminals for processing banknotes. modern disinfection devices often use uv radiation and other methods. they can be built into atms, where banknotes are automatically treated upon insertion into the machine or upon dispense. some atms now include systems with mechanisms for automatic banknote cleaning using uv rays or heat. this improves sanitary conditions, minimizes the risk of disease transmission, and increases user confidence in banking services. in recent years, robotic systems have also begun to emerge that can not only sterilize banknotes but also assess their condition (for example, verifying authenticity) [2]. such systems provide both hygienic safety and greater efficiency in handling cash. despite their advantages, existing solutions have several drawbacks. the main issues are that these technologies require significant investment in equipment, and some methods—such as chemical disinfection—can damage banknotes. methodology and technical solution. to develop an effective system for disinfecting paper money in atms, it is necessary to choose a suitable treatment method that ensures maximum safety without damaging the banknotes. this study reviewed various disinfection methods, including ultraviolet (uv-c) radiation, ionization, ozone, and chemical treatment [3]. the results of comparing the effectiveness of these different methods are presented in figure 1. figure-1. effectiveness levels of various disinfection methods. 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us as shown in the figure, ultraviolet (uv-c) radiation demonstrates the highest level of effectiveness, achieving up to 100% sterilization, making it the optimal method for use in automated systems such as atms. uv-c rays effectively eliminate microorganisms, viruses, and bacteria on the surface of banknotes, ensuring a high degree of disinfection with minimal impact on the physical integrity of the notes. a comparison with other methods, such as ionization and ozone treatment, shows that while their effectiveness is slightly lower, it is still sufficient to ensure safety. in contrast, chemical disinfection remains less effective and may damage the banknotes [4]. thus, considering its efficiency and minimal risk of damaging banknotes, uv-c radiation has been selected as the primary method for the proposed technical solution. the integration of ultraviolet sterilizers into atms allows for the automation of the disinfection process without requiring any additional actions from the user. experimental section (testing and results). in this part of the work, experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed banknote disinfection system using ultraviolet (uv-c) radiation. the main objective of the experiment was to test the device's ability to sterilize banknotes and to analyze its performance under various operating conditions, such as frequency of use and duration of uv-c exposure. for the experiment, a test setup was developed, consisting of several main components: a uv-c sterilizer, a control system, and a banknote feeding mechanism. the system was connected to an atm that simulated the process of banknote insertion and dispensing. figure 2 shows the schematic of the device setup, including all components and their interactions [5]. figure 2. mechatronic module schematic for banknote disinfection in atms designed in proteus software. the testing process consisted of several stages: ø preparation of banknotes: standard banknotes were used for the tests. these banknotes were deliberately contaminated with various microorganisms to evaluate the system’s effectiveness under realistic conditions. ø disinfection using uv-c: the banknotes were exposed to ultraviolet (uv-c) radiation for a set duration. the exposure time ranged from 30 to 90 seconds to determine the optimal treatment time. 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ø analysis of results: after the treatment, the banknotes were examined for the presence of remaining microorganisms using various methods, such as culture techniques and microscopy. the test results showed that uv-c radiation effectively destroyed up to 99.9% of all tested bacteria and viruses on the surface of the banknotes. this confirms the high effectiveness of the proposed disinfection method under typical atm operating conditions [6]. however, despite its high efficiency, some limitations were identified, such as the need for precise system calibration to ensure maximum effectiveness under different operating conditions. additionally, further experiments were conducted to determine the impact of uv-c exposure on the durability of banknotes. these experiments showed no significant damage when the device was used over an extended period. conclusion. during the study, a system for disinfecting paper money in atms using ultraviolet (uv-c) radiation was developed. the conducted experiments demonstrated the high efficiency of uv-c technology in eliminating microorganisms, confirming the feasibility of its application in atms. the chosen method delivers excellent disinfection performance without damaging banknotes, making it suitable for integration into financial devices. future research should focus on optimizing the system and assessing its durability under conditions of mass usage. references 1. bukhari, h. (2018). ultraviolet radiation in disinfection systems: applications and effectiveness. journal of environmental health, 80(5), 112–120. 2. jones, l., & patel, r. (2019). automation of financial systems: integration of ultraviolet sterilizers in atms. robotics and automation review, 15(2), 35–45. 3. smith, j. (2020). modern ultraviolet radiation technologies in atm disinfection systems. journal of applied robotics and automation, 22(3), 56–67. 4. li, a., & zhang, x. (2018). effectiveness of ultraviolet radiation in banknote disinfection in atms. international journal of environmental science and technology, 14(1), 89–100. 5. ivanov, p. a. (2017). disinfection technologies using ultraviolet radiation in automated systems. journal of robotics technologies, 10(2), 42–50. 6. kuznetsov, v. i., & morozova, t. m. (2019). use of ultraviolet sterilizers in atms for banknote disinfection. review of innovative technologies in financial systems, 12(4), 15– 22. 113 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 theoretical basis of leveling tillage in a paraplow-type slanted-column chisel plow irgashev dilmurod begmurodovich karshi state technical university abstract as is known, at present the use of static and dynamic equations alone is insufficient for solving the problem of equilibrium of agricultural units. it becomes necessary to introduce additional forces, which significantly increases the complexity of research in this field. existing studies are characterized by the fact that when analyzing the stability of a tillage implement based on equilibrium conditions, the standard plow body is considered as the working tool. keywords: equilibrium conditions, tillage unit, analytical method, graphical method, plow layer. introduction soil tillage is understood as a set of mechanical operations applied to the soil to improve its fertility and to create more favorable conditions for plant growth and development. primary tillage includes moldboard and non-moldboard methods of soil loosening. the moldboard method (plowing) is a primary tillage operation in which the treated soil layer is turned over, mixed, and loosened. the non-moldboard method (chisel tillage) is performed at a greater depth but without inverting the soil layer, which in turn reduces soil erosion and promotes moisture accumulation within the profile. plowing and chisel tillage are carried out in autumn as part of the fall tillage system or sometimes in spring. the application of these methods alters soil density and causes internal redistribution of soil layers within the fertile horizon. machines performing the moldboard method of primary tillage include reversible moldboard plows such as the russian pn-5-35 and similar models produced by foreign manufacturers, offered in various configurations with different working bodies and, accordingly, different working widths. machines implementing the non-moldboard method of soil tillage include combined units such as the russian-made акпд-6р, whose foreign analogue is the amazone tl, as well as flatcutters and deep rippers (chisels). among agricultural machines of this type it is worth noting models such as ачп-2.5 and агр-2.4 produced in russia, and the lemken series manufactured abroad. all the above-mentioned agricultural machines for primary tillage are classified, depending on the type of aggregation with the tractor unit (mta), into trailed, semi-mounted, and mounted implements. mounted agricultural machines, as is known, are 1.5–2 times lighter, significantly simpler in design, and more maneuverable during transportation than trailed ones: to turn them at the end of the field, a strip half as wide is required compared to trailed implements. therefore, mounted units have higher productivity and lower draft resistance than trailed units of equal 114 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us working width. semi-mounted machines, in turn, occupy an intermediate position between mounted and trailed implements in most performance indicators. agricultural units, as is known, are subjected during operation to forces of various magnitudes and directions. some of these forces are active (tractive force, weight), while others arise as a result of the action of active forces and are passive (soil resistance, support reactions, inertial forces). the movement of a tillage unit during operation is generally unstable due to the variability of soil resistance caused by differences in hardness, soil structure, field irregularities, and so on. therefore, to solve the problem of equilibrium of agricultural units, the use of static and dynamic equations alone is insufficient: additional forces must be included, which significantly increases the complexity of the research. to simplify the problem, researchers typically consider only static equilibrium, which is sufficient to reflect the main aspects of correct implement adjustment, taking into account the relatively low operating speeds of tools used for primary soil tillage. the equilibrium of agricultural machines is a determining factor in ensuring the stable operation of units used for primary soil tillage [1]. one of the fundamental requirements for tillage implements of any type is achieving high-quality work with minimal energy consumption. both work quality and energy consumption depend on the overall stability of the units during operation in primary non-moldboard tillage. instability of the unit leads to poor quality of technological operations, high fuel consumption, and an increased number of maneuvers performed by the tractor. the number and type of forces acting on agricultural machines during operation determine the stability of tillage units. when these forces are balanced both horizontally and vertically, the operation of the agricultural unit can be considered stable [2–4]. most studies in this field focus on the equilibrium conditions of plows with various types of aggregation (trailed, semi-mounted, mounted). many researchers emphasize that the stability of mounted implements is influenced by several factors: the physical and mechanical properties of the soil (composition, texture, structure, and moisture content); the dimensions of the cut and inverted furrow during plowing (depth and width); the tillage speed; and the plow weight. plow draft resistance has a significant impact on the stable operation of the unit. additional influences include the interactions between the working bodies (share and moldboard), their attachment to the support, the degree of wear of the cutting edge, the shape and polishing rate of casting surfaces, rolling resistance of wheels, and friction of the share nose against the furrow wall [5–7]. it is also known that soil resistance during plowing has a major influence on the evaluation of tillage unit stability. this is due to the complex and continuous reactions generated during the processes of cutting and breaking the soil on the working surfaces of the plow body. researchers have established that for proper operation, plows must maintain their designated parameters: working depth and soil-cutting width. this can be achieved if plows possess sufficient stability in both the vertical and horizontal planes, and if the distribution of forces acting on them remains in equilibrium in these two planes [8–10]. материалы и методы the study employed methods that make it possible to determine the equilibrium conditions of a system of concurrent forces in either analytical or geometric form. the equilibrium conditions were determined for a mounted five-bottom combined implement designed for layered nonmoldboard soil tillage. the analytical determination of equilibrium conditions was carried out by formulating equilibrium equations. the graphical determination of equilibrium conditions was performed by constructing force polygons for the vertical and horizontal projection planes. as is known from mechanics and statics, for a spatial system of concurrent forces to be in equilibrium, it is necessary and sufficient that the resultant of this system be equal to zero. the equilibrium of a planar system of concurrent forces is established when the algebraic sums of the projections of all forces on each of two arbitrarily chosen coordinate axes lying in the plane of the forces are equal to zero. if a free body is acted upon by a system of concurrent forces (whether spatial or planar) that 115 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us is equivalent to zero, this does not necessarily mean that the body will remain at rest relative to the chosen reference system, since the body may continue to move due to inertia. the necessary and sufficient conditions for a free body to be at rest under the action of a system of concurrent forces are as follows: – the resultant of the system of forces must be equal to zero; – the initial velocities of all points of the body must also be equal to zero. if you want, i can continue translating the next section or compile all translated parts into a ready-to-use word file for your dissertation.   −++++= 221 2 sinsin1 mglxrrmgn рxzюxzy       −      −+++− юююxzpxzюxz lctgctghrzrr   sin)(coscos 11121 :sincos 12121              −++    − pўxzю lctghlrh  ,)5,0(: 1       −−++− тt dhhzlx   (1) were µ –rolling coefficient of the support wheels of the improved chisel-type plow m –mass of the improved chisel-type plow, kg. g –acceleration due to gravity, m/s² xπ, zπ – respectively, the horizontal and vertical distances from the lower suspension points d (d₁) of the improved chisel-type plow to its instantaneous center of rotation, m; solving equations (2) and (3) simultaneously   вбв вбб хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhlh x )()()( )()( 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 22 13 2 2 −+−−+−− −−+−−+− = (2) and   вбв вб хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhh z )()()( )()( 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 2 132 −+−−+−− −−+−−+ = . (3) taking expressions (2) and (3) into account, expression (1) takes the following form           +++= pxzюxzy rrmgn  sinsin1 21 2      +−+ −+−−+−− −−+−−+−  юxz вбв вбб rmgl хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhlh cos )()()( )()( 12 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 22 13 2 2    + −+−−+−− −−+−−+ + вбв вб xz хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhh r )()()( )()( ( 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 2 132 2 116 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us    −       ++ +       −      −++ 1212 1111 )( cossin)( lctgctghlr hlctgctghr ppxz ююююxz   :coscos)(sin 11       −    −− ppkp hhh         +− −+−−+−− −−+−−+− т вбв вбб l хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhlh )()()( )()( : 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 22 13 2 2                  −−+ −+−−+−− −−+−−+ + т вбв вб dhh хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhh 5,0 )()()( )()( 1 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 2 132  . (4) ;qbm = (5) ; cos )( cos 2 11 1 ю ююю ю t xz hbveknr r  + == (6) ; cos )()( cos 2 22 2 p тppp p t xz hhbveknr r    −+ == (7) where q is the mass of the improved chisel cultivator per meter of working width, kg. taking expressions (6) and (7) into account, formulas (8)–(9) take the following form: ;cos/))(1 2 ( 2 1 юююю k xz hbvek a b r ++= (8) ;cos/)()( 2 2 ўtўўў k xz hhbvek a b r  −+= (9) м, r1xz, r2xz if we substitute the values according to expressions (8) and (9) into (4) += 21 yn           +++++ ppўў k юююю k htgbvek a b htgbvek a b qbg  )())(1 2 ( 22   −+ −+−−+−− −−+−−+−  2 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 22 13 2 2 )()()( )()( qbgl хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhlh вбв вбб       ++++− hbvek a b hbvek a b ppp k ююю k )())(1 2 ( 22  117 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us   + −+−−+−− −−+−−+  вбв вб хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhh )()()( )()( 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 2 132 +       −      −++++ 111 2 )())(1 2 ( htglctgctghhbvek a b юююююю k  :)()( 11321 2           −      −+++++ нtglctgctghllhbvek a b ppўтpўp k         +− −+−−+−− −−+−−+− т вбв вбб l хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhlh )()()( )()( : 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 22 13 2 2                  −−+ −+−−+−− −−+−−+ + т вбв вб dhh хhhhhhhlzh хhhhlhhhh 5,0 )()()( )()( 1 13 2 13 2 2 2 13 2 132  . (2.44) if these two conditions are satisfied, the body can be considered to be in equilibrium (in this case, the equilibrium conditions of a free body completely coincide with the equilibrium conditions of a free material point). however, sometimes the equilibrium of the body under consideration is understood as its motion due to inertia, not just its state of rest. therefore, in statics, problems are solved not only for bodies at rest but also for bodies moving due to inertia. if constraints are applied to the body, by adding the forces of reaction of these constraints to the active forces applied to the body, it can be considered as free (axiom of constraints). in most cases, in statics problems, for certain known active forces applied to a constrained body, it is required to determine the unknown forces of constraint reactions, assuming that the body is at rest and, therefore, all applied active forces and constraint reaction forces are balanced [11]. when solving such problems, if the lines of action of all forces applied to the body, including the reaction forces, intersect at a single point, the equilibrium conditions of a system of concurrent forces must be used in either analytical or geometric form. in the analytical method, the desired magnitudes are determined from the equilibrium equations, in the left-hand sides of which, in addition to the projections of known active forces, the projections of unknown constraint reaction forces are included. it should be noted that the relations that include projections of constraint reaction forces are called equations of equilibrium, whereas those relations that do not include projections of constraint reaction forces are called conditions of equilibrium. if the body is constrained, the number of equilibrium conditions is equal to the number of degrees of freedom of the body, i.e., the number of independent displacements that the body can undergo. in the graphical method for a system of concurrent forces, the desired constraint reaction forces or other unknown quantities in the problem are determined by constructing a closed force polygon or purely graphically, either by drawing this force polygon to a precise scale or by calculating its sides according to the rules of geometric trigonometry. if you want, i can continue translating the remaining sections and organize everything into a dissertation-ready word format with proper formatting for equations and references. [12; 13]. research results 118 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the study established that tillage implements generally have an excessive number of constraints (supports). an equilibrium condition was obtained for the forces acting on a tillage implement with working bodies for layered non-moldboard soil treatment, which has twelve constraints: five shares, each with two constraints, and two support wheels, each with one constraint. the reactions from interaction with the soil for these supports must remain positive. during operation, the supports of agricultural machines consist of commonly accepted structural elements such as shares, depth-limiting wheels, and mechanisms for aggregation with the tractor. considering that the mass of the tractor-implement unit (tiu) is significantly (approximately ten times) greater than the mass of the implement being attached, when determining the equilibrium conditions of the latter, the number of degrees of freedom is defined relative to the tractor frame [14]. the greatest number of degrees of freedom is possessed by a trailed agricultural machine, as it is connected to the tractor at a single point (the hitch point), allowing rotation along the longitudinal, transverse, and vertical axes passing through this point. the hinged attachment of the trailer to the implement frame also allows translational movement of the implement relative to the tractor in the vertical direction. thus, trailed implements have four degrees of freedom relative to the tractor. mounted agricultural machines, aggregated with the tractor via a three-point hitch mechanism, have two degrees of freedom relative to the tractor — rotation about the y and z axes. reducing the degrees of freedom of a mounted implement relative to the tractor to one is not feasible, as this could lead to damage of the attached implement (if rotation about the y-axis is restricted) or loss of tractor controllability (if rotation about the z-axis is restricted). allowing three degrees of freedom (rotation about the x, y, and z axes) is reasonable only for multi-bottom machines (five or more bottoms), when independent adaptation of the implement and tractor to the field relief in the transverse plane is required. semi-mounted agricultural machines, depending on the aggregation method with the tractor, have three or four degrees of freedom relative to the tractor. as a rule, agricultural implements have an excessive number of constraints. for example, a mounted five-bottom combined implement for layered non-moldboard soil treatment has twelve constraints: five shares, each simultaneously experiencing two forces (one parallel to the z-axis and another parallel to the y-axis) due to contact with the bottom and wall of the furrow, and two support wheels, each adding one additional constraint. the number of degrees of freedom of such an implement relative to the tiu is two; therefore, in this case, the number of redundant supports is ten. thus, modern agricultural machines are multi-operational, statically indeterminate systems, which complicates their adjustment during operation and makes it practically impossible to perform force calculations without introducing additional assumptions. therefore, for calculations, the following assumptions are made: -the shares of the implement do not contact the furrow bottom, corresponding to the case of a chisel-type share; -all implement bodies and shares are uniformly loaded; -the soil-to-steel friction coefficient (f) and the wheel rolling resistance coefficient are known const for varying wheel loads). equality of forces applied to the working surface of each bottom allows replacement of the forces and moments acting on individual bottoms with a resultant force and total moment applied to the central bottom of the implement. similarly, the forces applied to the shares of the implement 119 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us are replaced by a resultant force (f) applied to the share of the central bottom. determination of forces acting on the tillage implement can be performed by analytical and graphical methods [15]. since wheels and shares act as unilateral constraints, the equilibrium conditions of the implement during operation require that the reactions of these supports always remain positive. a check of operational stability is performed twice: for the case of sharp shares, when the angle, characterizing the inclination of the force (rxz), is positive; for worn (blunt) shares, when the angle is negative. the main force load (q) during operation is applied to the front support wheel; therefore, the construction of the force polygon is referenced to the projection points of forces relative to the front support wheel. the rear support wheel is included in the implement design to enhance frame stability parallel to the plow layer and to reduce the likelihood of gliding effects [16]. discussion and conclusion based on the results of the study, it can be noted that modern agricultural machines are multioperational, statically indeterminate systems. as a result, the process of their adjustment during operation becomes more complex, and performing force calculations without introducing additional assumptions is practically impossible. for the sake of simplification, accuracy, and the most visual representation, the problem was solved by analyzing closed force polygons, with a methodology provided for constructing them both for equilibrium conditions in the horizontal and vertical planes. the study established that tillage implements have an excessive number of constraints (supports). a mounted five-bottom combined implement for layered non-moldboard soil treatment has twelve constraints: five shares, each simultaneously experiencing two forces (one parallel to the z-axis and another parallel to the y-axis) due to contact with the bottom and wall of the furrow, and two support wheels, each adding one additional constraint. while the number of degrees of freedom of such an implement relative to the tractor-implement unit (tiu) is two, the number of redundant supports in this case is ten. the equilibrium condition of the implement relative to the plow layer requires that the reactions received from the supports, depth-limiting wheels, and shares of the implement remain always positive. the determination of forces acting on the tillage implement was performed using both analytical and graphical methods. in the analytical method, the desired magnitudes were determined from the equilibrium equations, whose left-hand sides included, in addition to the projections of known active forces, the projections of unknown constraint reaction forces. substitutions and simplifications were then made in the resulting equilibrium equations, after which calculations were carried out using standard methods for solving systems of linear equations. in the graphical method for a system of concurrent forces, the desired constraint reaction forces or other unknown quantities were determined by constructing a closed force polygon. the graphical determination of forces acting on the mounted tillage implement was performed in both the vertical and horizontal projection planes. constructing force polygons provides more accurate and visually clear results than sequentially summing the forces acting on the implement in a schematic diagram. references 1. if you provide the full list of sources, i can format them in a proper scientific style (apa, ieee, or another preferred format) suitable for your dissertation.1. paraschiv g., maican e., 120 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us paraschiv i., bucur d. study on stability at work for tillage aggregates // cercetări agronomiceîn moldova. 2007. issue 2. pp. 5–13. url: http://www.uaiasi.ro/ cercet_agromold/en-v2_2007 (дата обращения: 18.11.2019). 2. tenu i., carlescu p., cojocariu p., rosca r. impact of agricultural traffic and tillage technologies on the properties of soil // resource management for sustainable agriculture. 2012. pp. 263–296. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/47746 3. godwin r. j. a review of the effect of implement geometry on soil failure and implement forces // soil and tillage research. 2007. vol. 97, issue 2. pp. 331–340. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2006.06.010 4. askari m., khalife e. draft force inputs for primary and secondary tillage implements in a clay loam soil // world applied sciences journal. 2013. vol. 21, issue 12. pp. 1789–1794. url: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248386870_draft_force_inputs_for_primary_and _secondary_tillage_implements_in_a_clay_loam_soil (дата обращения: 18.11.2019). 5. al-suhaibani s. a., ghaly a. e. comparative study of the kinetic parameters of three chisel plows operating at different depth sand forward speed in a sandy soil // the international journal of engineering and science. 2013. vol. 2, issue 7. pp. 42–59. url: http://www.theijes.com/papers/v2-i7/ part.6/h0276042059.pdf (дата обращения: 18.11.2019). 6. deshpande sh., shirwal s. studies on operational parameters of selected tillage tools in soil bin // international journal of latest trends in engineering and technology. 2015. vol. 5, issue 3. pp. 381–389. url: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a77b/60293849cfa982ac144405774dae37ad02bf.pdf (дата обращения: 18.11.2019). 7. irgashev d. improved plug-softener technology for working between garden rows //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 7. – с. 330-336. 8. irgashev d. боғ қатор ораларига ишлов беришда такомиллашган плуг-юмшаткичнинг техник таxлили //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. d7. – с. 330-336. 9. маматов ф. м. и др. комбинациялашган машина чуқурюмшаткичлари орасидаги бўйлама масофасини асослаш //инновацион технологиялар. – 2021. – №. спецвыпуск 1. – с. 125-128. 10. irgashev d. b. agrotechnical requirements for deep tillage without turning the soil //научное обеспечение устойчивого развития агропромышленного комплекса. – 2021. – с. 591594. 11. иргашев, д. б. "боғ қатор ораларини текис ағдармасдан ишлов берадиган қия устунли юмшаткични рама констурукциясида жойлашиш асослаш." barqarorlik va yetakchi tadqiqotlar onlayn ilmiy jurnali 2.11 (2022): 138-146. 12. begmurodvich, irgashev dilmurod. "development and problems of vineyard network in uzbekistan." web of synergy: international interdisciplinary research journal 2: 441-448. 13. irgashev, d. b. "basing the constructional parameters of the plug-softener that works between the garden rows." (2024). 14. irgashev, d. b. "safarov aa tuproqqa agdargichsiz ishlov beradigan ishchi organ konstruksiylari va ularga qo’yilagan talabllar." analysis of international sciences 1.3 (2023): 6-12. 15. fayzullayev k. et al. raking plates of the combination machine's subsoiler //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2021. – т. 264. – с. 04039. 16. irgashev d. b., ar r. x. t., sadikov o. t. mamadiyorov. technical analysis of plug 121 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us software when working between gardens //international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – 2022– т. 9 – №. 5. 274 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 study the effect of residual stress on corrosion behaviour of low carbon steel sarmed a. s. altayee college of engineering, university of babylon, hilla, iraq abstract: 1. residual stress can have a significant influence on the corrosion behaviour of lowcarbon steel, which is a widely used material in various industries. low-carbon steel is widely used in industrial applications, such as construction and automotive manufacturing, due to its low cost and good mechanical properties. the primary drawback of low-carbon steel is its high corrosion sensitivity, which can lead to catastrophic failures and substantial economic losses in certain circumstances. this study investigates the effect of residual stresses on the corrosion behaviour of low-carbon steel. according to the results of this study, it is evident that compressive residual stresses can enhance the corrosion resistance of low-carbon steel. 2. introduction according to (velarde & tinoco, 2019) corrosion is a significant issue in the infrastructure industry, costing an estimated $22.6 billion annually, with $8.3 billion allocated explicitly to road bridges. steel's inherent mechanical properties make it a preferred material for bridge construction, although corrosion remains a significant concern. the resistance of steel members in bridges may decrease over time due to corrosion-induced reductions in cross-sectional area (jancula et al., 2019; z. l. li et al., 2013). stresses that can occur during the manufacturing or fabrication process and cause residual stresses in the parts can have a substantial impact on the corrosion behaviour of steel. previous studies have examined the relationship between corrosion and steel bridges, highlighting that certain varieties of steel are more resistant to air corrosion, making them ideal for use in welded, riveted, or bolted structures. nonetheless, little research has been done on how residual stresses influence the corrosion behaviour of low-carbon steel. one study investigated the effect of applied stress on the mechanical and corrosion properties of mild steel, revealing the subject's inadequate understanding (l. li et al., 2019). another study focused on the corrosion prevention of long-span, non-uniform continuous steel bridges and proposed methods to improve corrosion protection(z. l. li et al., 2013). additionally, experimental studies on the impact of corrosion on steel bridges have been conducted, emphasising the need to consider degradation processes throughout the lifetime of an engineering construction(jancula et al., 2019). it has long been known that metallic components with compressive residual stresses have higher fatigue strengths. with fatigue strength enhancement as the primary objective or as a consequence of surface hardening procedures like carburising, nitriding, or physical vapour deposition, many technical components have been shot-peened or cold-worked. other treatments, such as laser shock peening and low-plasticity burnishing, have been studied over the last decade to enhance the functionality of designed components (dalaei et al., 2011). the 275 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us impact of thermo-mechanical treatment on the pitting corrosion of reinforcing carbon steel bars was investigated by (barbosa et al., 2014; štefec et al., 1979). analysis of the steels' residual stresses revealed that the hot-rolled steels had low compressive stresses, while the cold-worked samples had substantial tensile stresses. in line with the observed internal stress distribution, hotrolled steels exhibited somewhat better resistance to pitting corrosion than cold-worked samples (peguet et al., 2007). this study will investigate the effect of residual stresses on the corrosion behaviour of low-carbon steel, aiming to design steel structures that are more resistant to corrosion and have a longer lifespan 3. methodology this research will utilize a combination of experimental and analytical methods to investigate the effect of residual stress on the corrosion behaviour of low-carbon steel . 3-1 basic corrosion : for corrosion to occur, the formation of a corrosion cell is essential. a corrosion cell is composed of the following four key components: ➢ anode: one of the two dissimilar metal electrodes in an electrolytic cell, represented as the negative terminal. the anode is the more reactive metal, where electrons are released . ➢ cathode: the other electrode in the electrolytic cell is the positive terminal. ➢ electrolyte: the medium that allows the flow of ions between the anode and the cathode . ➢ metallic path: the conductive path that enables the movement of electrons from the anode to the cathode . 3-2 forms of corrosion: corrosion in steel structures can be classified based on three main factors: the nature of the corrosive agent, the mechanism of the corrosion process, and the visual appearance of the corroded metal. corrosion can be categorized as wet or dry, depending on whether it requires a liquid or moisture or involves a reaction with high-temperature gases. the mechanism of corrosion can be either electrochemical or direct chemical in nature. furthermore, corrosion can manifest as either uniform, with the metal corroding consistently across the entire surface, or localized, where only specific areas are affected. the electrochemical corrosion behaviour of the low-carbon steel specimens will then be evaluated using techniques such as potentiodynamic polarisation and electrochemical impedance(m. c. li & cheng, 2008). 3-3 residual stress analysis: the most important mechanisms for creating surface residual stresses are mechanical procedures, such as rolling, shot peening, and forging, which involve plastic deformation and "cold or hot working" of the material. furthermore, residual stresses may be introduced by local yielding during other standard machining processes, such as grinding, turning, and polishing . nitriding and carburizing are two chemical processes that produce advantageous surface residual stress layers for ensuing service fatigue loading. on the other hand, heat treatment processes alter the metallurgical structure of the source material without altering its surface chemical composition. induction hardening and flame hardening are the two primary heat treatment techniques that create advantageous residual stress layers. other procedures, such as flame cutting, welding, quenching, hot rolling, and forging, can also be included in this group. welded junctions are among the most common locations for fatigue failures caused by residual stresses, as the parent metal, weld metal, and heat-affected zone all have distinct physical properties, including varying thermal expansion coefficients. large castings are another frequent issue associated with thermal effects and residual stresses. although the underlying cause is yet unknown, large castings are another common problem involving thermal effects and related residual strains(collacott, 2013; lampman, 1996). 276 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us metals exposed to both stress and a corrosive environment may experience stress corrosion cracking, a failure mode that forms in the surface layers and is directly related to residual stresses. materials that experience loads more significant than their yield point undergo permanent deformation, which does not entirely disappear when the load is removed. when beams undergo moments that cause partial plasticity in bending applications, some of the beam sections stay elastic while the outer fibres yield. when the load is removed, the elastically strained portions of the material cannot return to their initial unstressed state because of the permanent deformation in the yielding sections (figure 3-1). as a result, the material experiences residual strains. it is frequently assumed that the unloading process, whether from partially or totally plastic states, occurs in a purely elastic manner in order to measure the size of these residual stresses. techniques like hole drilling, neutron diffraction, and x-ray diffraction can be used to assess these residual stresses.(lampman, 1996) 4. experimental work in this study, four specimens were used to investigate the effect of residual stresses on corrosion of low-carbon steel. 4-1 materials : the materials used in this study were low-carbon steel. the specimens were prepared through a series of manufacturing processes to induce different types of residual stresses. table 4-1 micro alloy low carbon steel is used by chemical composition (wt %): steel composition c % si % mn % p % s % cr% ni % ma % element percentage < 0.2 0.26 < 0.9 0.01 0.03 <1.3 0.11 0/01 4-2 test specimens: in this investigation, four specimens were analysed. the specimens utilised in the experiment have the following measurements: length = 9 cm, width = 0.9 cm, and thickness = 0.2 cm. the specimens' shapes are shown in figures (4-1) and (4-2). fig 3-1 tensile test stress–strain curve showing elastic unloading process from any load condition fig 4-1 specimens before the mechanical polishing fig 4-2 specimens after the mechanical polishing 277 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4-3 specimen preparation: to find out how residual stresses affect corrosion, four specimens were analysed: ➢ specimen one was heated in an oven and slowly cooled to remove any residual stresses . ➢ specimen two was subjected to a compressive load to introduce compressive residual stress . ➢ specimen three was subjected to a bending load to introduce bending residual stress. ➢ specimen four was subjected to thermal treatment by rapid quenching in water after heating. 4-3 corrosion test : the polarization technique (as shown in figure 4-3) was used to study the corrosion behaviour of low-alloy low-carbon steel specimens in a 3% nacl solution at room temperature. polarization tests were conducted in a three-electrode system using a digital multimeter. the test specimen was the working electrode, a saturated calomel electrode was the reference electrode, and a graphite electrode was the counter electrode. the 3% nacl solution acted as the electrolyte. the reference and graphite electrodes were only used during potential measurements and were removed afterwards. tafel lines were constructed over 15 days to determine the corrosion current and potential. the corrosion rate was determined by measuring the icorr. after the corrosion test, the specimens were cleaned . 5. results and discussion table 5-1 provides a summary of the corrosion test findings for the four specimens. table 5-1 icorr of the four specimens applied load icorr at 0 day icorr at 4 days icorr at 7 days icorr at 15 days without any load 0.009 0.007 0.02 0.019 under compression 0.0068 0.014 0.011 0.016 under bending 0.01 0.0175 0.011 0.0195 under thermal treatment 0.01 0.012 0.013 0.0125 when compared to the other specimens, the specimen with compressive residual stresses exhibited superior corrosion resistance compared to the specimen without any load and the one which is under bending; however, the specimen subjected to thermal treatment shows good resistance to corrosion, as indicated by the results. 5-1 polarization curves without stress: figures (5-1) to (5-4) show the polarization curves for the specimen without stress tested directly after 4 days, after 7 days and after 15 days. fig 4-3 polarization test 278 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figures (5-4) to (5-8) show the polarization curves for the specimen with compressive residual stress tested directly after 4 days, after 7 days and after 15 days. figures (5-9) to (5-12) show the polarization curves for the specimen subjected to bending stress tested directly after 4 days, after 7 days and after 15 days. fig 5-1 sample number (1) in (0) day fig 5-2 sample number (1) in (4) days fig 5-2 sample number (1) in (7) days fig 5-2 sample number (1) in (15) days fig 5-5 sample number (2) in (0) day fig 5-6 sample number (2) in (4) days fig 5-7 sample number (2) in (7) days fig 5-8 sample number (2) in (15) days 279 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figures (5-12) to (5-16) show the polarization curves for the specimen subjected to thermal treatment & quenching, tested directly after 4 days, after 7 days and after 15 days. figures (5-17) to (5-20) show the polarization curves for the four specimens tested directly after 4 days, after 7 days and after 15 days. fig 5-12 sample number (3) in (15) days fig 5-9 sample number (3) in (0) day fig 5-10 sample number (3) in (4) days fig 5-15 sample number (4) in (7) days fig 5-16 sample number (4) in (15) days fig 5-13 sample number (4) in (0) day fig 5-14 sample number (4) in (4) days fig 5-11 sample number (3) in (7) days 280 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig 5-17 curves of the four samples at (0) day fig 5-18 curves of the four samples at (4) days fig 5-19 curves of the four samples at (7) days fig 5-20 curves of the four samples at (15) days 281 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5-2 corrosion rate: the following formula is used to calculate the corrosion rate: corrosion rate (mpy) = 0.129 × (icorr/zf) where icorr is the corrosion current ma / cm2 z is the number of electrons transferred per metal atom f is the faraday number ≈ 96,485 c/mol area of the sample is 20.16 (cm2) the corrosion rate was calculated from the weight loss measurement . table 5-2. the corrosion rate result. specimen type corrosion rate (0 days) corrosion rate (4 days) corrosion rate (7 days) corrosion rate (15 days) subjected to residual stress removal treatment 2.891 × 10-7 2.319 × 10-7 6.63 × 10-7 6.296 × 10-7 subjected to compression load 2.252 × 10-7 4.638 × 10-7 3.642 × 10-7 5.3 × 10-7 subjected to a bending load 3.315 × 10-7 5.801 × 10-7 3.642 × 10-7 6.463 × 10-7 subjected to heading and quenching 3.315 × 10-7 3.97 × 10-7 4.304 × 10-7 4.194 × 10-7 dissection the plots of icorr for the four samples, against exposure time to salt solution, are displayed in figures 5-17 to 5-20. for the four samples previously described, figure 5-21 illustrates the relationship between the corrosion rate (mpy) and the exposure duration to the 3% nacl salt solution. the results shown in figure 5-21 indicate that the residual stress in the low-carbon steel specimens has a significant influence on their corrosion behaviour. the specimen with compressive residual stresses exhibited better corrosion resistance, with the lowest corrosion rate when compared to specimens one and three. this can be attributed to the fact that compressive residual stresses inhibit the initiation and propagation of corrosion pits on the steel surface (chen et al., 2013). the compressive stresses counteract the tensile stresses that can develop during corrosion, thereby preventing the formation of cracks. the specimen subjected to thermal treatment from rapid quenching showed a low and stable corrosion rate compared with other samples due to the formation of dual-phase steel and its refined grain structure. the ferrite phase in the dual phase steel is more electrochemically active (anodic) than the martensitic phase fig 5-21 corrosion rate of the four samples 282 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (cathodic), leading to micro galvanic coupling. this can cause preferential corrosion of the ferrite phase when exposed to aggressive environments like acidic solutions. these findings are consistent with the observations reported in the literature(fang et al., 2004; malumbela et al., 2009; mansoor & zhang, 2013; moreno et al., 2014). the composition, structure, and morphology of the surface film on steel play a crucial role in controlling the corrosion rate, which is influenced by the residual stresses (yohai et al., 2013). overall, the results demonstrate the importance of considering the residual stresses when evaluating the corrosion performance of low-carbon steel components. 6. conclusions samples subjected to a compression load corrode at a corrosion rate lower than those without mechanical load, due to the fact that compression stress decreases stress corrosion, while tensile stress increases stress corrosion. corrosion of the sample that is heat-treated to produce dualphase steel starts with a corrosion rate higher than that of the sample not subjected to any load and the one with compressive residual stresses, but after a few days, it corrodes at a rate less than that of the other samples due to the microstructure of the dual phase steel and due to the unique corrosion behaviour of dual-phase martensitic steel. 7. refference 1. barbosa, b. a. r. s., tavares, s. s. m., bastos, i. n., silva, m. r., & de macedo, m. c. s. 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(2013). phosphate ions as corrosion inhibitors for reinforcement steel in chloride-rich environments. electrochimica acta, 102, 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2013.03.180 45-49 improving the quality system through systematizing the risk management process in analytical testing 45 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 improving the quality system through systematizing the risk management process in analytical testing laboratories masharipov shodlik masharipovich tashkent state technical university, phd. erkaboev abrorjon khabibullo ogli namangan state technical university, doctoral student abstract: the accuracy, reliability and compliance of activities in modern analytical testing laboratories directly depend on an effectively functioning quality system. the quality management system (qms) serves not only as a means of documenting and managing results in the laboratory, but also as the main infrastructure ensuring the stability of processes. therefore, international standards such as iso/iec 17025:2017 and iso 9001:2015 impose strict requirements on the laboratory quality system. in particular, requirements such as continuous quality improvement, risk-based thinking, documented information management, internal audits and elimination of undetected nonconformities have become an integral part of laboratory activities. this article analyzes improved risk management methods in testing laboratories, their digitalization, and the process of integrating them into the quality management system. keywords: testing laboratory, risk management, risk identification, risk analysis, quality management system, systematization. introduction a quality management system is a set of systematic controls and processes necessary to implement an organization’s quality policy and objectives. the iso 9001:2015 standard places the principles of a “process approach” and “risk-based thinking” at the heart of a quality management system. it is these principles that require the early identification, assessment and effective management of risks that may arise in laboratory activities [1]. similarly, the international standard iso/iec 17025:2017 also defines the reduction of quality by identifying and managing risks as a fundamental requirement, in addition to the technical capacity of the laboratory. clause 8.5.1 of this standard states that the organization must “plan actions to identify and prevent potential nonconformities”, and clause 8.5.2 states that the results of these actions must be monitored, documented and continually improved. this, in fact, requires the inclusion of the risk management process in the qms [2]. however, the risks encountered in laboratory activities are diverse: improper testing, unqualified personnel, equipment malfunctions, outdated or outdated regulatory documents, incorrect calculations, or simply errors in the documentation. although there are advanced methods for identifying and assessing these risks, most of them are not deeply integrated into all laboratory processes, that is, risk management is not only an element of the quality system, but is also carried out as a separate activity. from this point of view, one of the urgent issues is to 46 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us systematize the risk management process in laboratories, that is, to integrate it with qms based on a single, integrated management model. through this process, the laboratory can assess each of its functional activities based on a risk-based approach and improve its qms model based on real threats, priorities and control tools [6]. methodology this study will scientifically examine how to structure the risk management process, integrate it into the laboratory’s quality system, and turn it into an effective management tool. the first step in risk management is to identify risks, followed by risk analysis and prioritization. the results of this assessment are used to determine measures. it is at this final stage that the question arises of how the assessments of these risks relate to the laboratory's overall quality system. this directly raises the need to systematize risks. results and discussion the link between risks and qms is not only achieved by identifying the risk, but also by linking it to the laboratory’s: ø quality objectives; ø internal audit plans and analyses; ø corrective and preventive actions; ø stakeholder communication strategy; ø resource allocation; ø service quality monitoring; ø continuous improvement process. according to the approach developed in this study, risk management is structured around the following key components: a) risk type. this component indicates which category the risk falls into: human factor, equipment, reagent, environment, document or test sample related. this classification is determined based on the “laboratory risk classification model” and through this, measures are selected that address each risk; b) process phase. the phase at which the risk occurs is determined: pre-test, test process and post-test. this description allows for precise control of risks based on their location. this approach works in harmony with the “process approach” model; c) risk analysis and prioritization. the probability (e), impact (t) and control level (n) of the risks are determined and a priority level is determined based on an improved evaluation formula. this value indicates which risk the laboratory should pay attention to first; d) actions. once the risk has been identified, preventive or corrective measures are developed depending on its level. these are prepared in relation to the laboratory’s current quality objectives, development plan and audit recommendations; e) monitoring and automation. the most important element of systematization is the presence of constant monitoring of risk factors. for this, it is necessary to use the software we have developed for the risk management system. with the help of this system, the recurrence of risks, the actions taken against them and their effectiveness are regularly analyzed. by combining these components into a single model, a dynamic and continuously operating risk management system is formed in the laboratory, not a static one. in other words, systematization of risks creates a mechanism for not only assessing them, but also for continuously monitoring, analyzing them, and making decisions based on the results. 47 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us then, the approach: ø increases the operational efficiency of the laboratory; ø allows you to work with the root causes of non-quality situations; ø fully meets the requirements of “risk-based thinking” set out in the iso/iec 17025:2017 and iso 9001:2015 standards [3, 4]; ø and most importantly, it stimulates continuous improvement of the quality system. risk systematization is considered effective when it is directly applied in practice, not remaining at the level of a theoretical model or assessment formula. to do this, a sequential and interrelated stage system appropriate to the laboratory’s activities should be developed. based on the systematization approach proposed in this article, the risk management process is carried out in the following five main stages: 1. risk identification. the risk identification phase involves the systematic identification of risk sources within all laboratory processes (pre-test, test process and post-test). at this phase, we propose: a) risks are listed through group thinking with the participation of laboratory personnel through the “brainstorming” approach; b) risks are categorized using a modified “risk classification model”: personnel, equipment, reagents, sample, environment, documents and management system. through this combination of methods, the identification process is free from subjectivity and becomes systematic and documented. 2. risk analysis and assessment. for each identified risk, a priority level is determined based on the improved model we have developed. at this stage, the following three criteria are taken into account: ø e (likelihood) – how often the risk occurs; ø t (impact) – to what extent the risk harms the laboratory’s operations; ø n (control) – the level of control mechanisms in place to reduce the risk. based on these criteria, a numerical priority index is determined for each risk using formula (1). this number serves as the basis for risk ranking. as a result, the laboratory focuses on the most relevant risks. 𝑅 = !∙# $ . (1) 3. prioritization and assessment of risks. the assessed risks are visually classified based on a matrix or diagram depending on the level of priority [5]. the scope of actions and the form of monitoring for each priority level differ. this allows for the correct allocation of resources and the formation of a proportional approach to risk. 4. development and digitization of actions. based on the results of the assessment, for each risk: a) preventive or corrective actions are determined; b) these actions are assigned a responsible person, a deadline for implementation and a monitoring method; c) the actions are integrated into the laboratory software system we have developed, that is, digitized. this stage forms a system of activity-based actions within the organization to combat risks. these actions are placed in the system using an automation approach. 48 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 5. monitoring and systematic analysis of risks. the last, but most important, stage of the risk systematization process is continuous monitoring and improvement. at this stage: ø risk situations and the implementation of countermeasures against them are systematically monitored; ø reports, indicators, audit results and user feedback are the basis for monitoring; ø the level of recurrence of risk situations is assessed using statistical analysis; ø as a result, the assessment and prioritization process is restarted based on new data a cyclical model is formed. improving the quality management system in a laboratory through risk management is not limited to risk assessment alone. the main goal is to integrate the results of this assessment with the laboratory’s controls and to conduct all laboratory activities based on risk-based thinking. this approach is directly related to a number of important requirements of the iso 9001:2015 and iso/iec 17025:2017 standards. table 1. integration according to iso 9001:2015 standard iso 9001:2015 requirement appropriate activities in risk management 6.1. actions to address risks and opportunities based on the risks assessed through the model we developed, priorities are determined and incorporated into the quality system. 8.5.1. control of production and service provision each laboratory process is controlled based on the level of risk. 9.1. monitoring, measurement, analysis and evaluation monitoring of assessed risks is carried out through a digital system. 10.2. nonconformity and corrective action corrective/preventive measures are planned for the assessed risks. 10.3. continual improvement the system is re-evaluated based on dynamic analysis of risk situations through software table 2. integration according to iso/iec 17025:2017 standard iso/iec 17025:2017 requirement contact with risks 8.5.1. risk and opportunities the results of the risk analysis are monitored and continuous changes are made to the laboratory’s operations. 8.7.1–8.7.3. nonconformity management high risks identified as a result of the assessment are recognized and formalized as non-conformities. 7.10. noncorforming work dangerous situations that occur during the process are automatically detected and recorded in the system. 6.6. externally provided products and services equipment risks are assessed based on a separate control model. 8.9. management reviews the results of risk monitoring serve as the basis for management's strategic decisions. one of the most important aspects of this integration process is that the model we developed and the system it underpins directly link risks in the laboratory to quality indicators. through this model, each risk is assigned to the appropriate management strategy based on its priority level. 49 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 3. integration directions depending on the priority of the risk priority level control mechanism in the laboratory critical the risk is recognized as a strategic risk of the laboratory. it is under the direct control of management, is included as a separate indicator in the annual quality goals. a special risk notification and an emergency action plan are developed in the software system. high a risk is considered a risk that directly affects the laboratory's operational activities. these risks are included in the internal audit plans for specific checks. at the same time, continuous monitoring is established and documented as control indicators. middle these risks require additional monitoring and preventive measures. they pose a certain risk to the current activities of the laboratory, but do not require immediate intervention. the risk profile is recorded as a low-priority alert in the software system. low these risks have a minimal impact or are under sustainable control through the existing control system. such risks are monitored through planned controls and regular monitoring. no active action is required, but are included in the cycle of repeated analysis. in this way, the laboratory transforms its qms not only at the document level, but into a real active management system based on risk assessment, action, and monitoring. conclusion thus, the relationship between risk management and the quality system is not a secondary, but a functionally related element. risks are seen not as a sign of poor laboratory performance, but as one of the indicators of quality management. in other words, the model for identifying, analyzing and prioritizing risks that we have created can become not only a safety factor for the laboratory, but also one of the main mechanisms of the quality system. by systematizing this, it becomes possible to strengthen the qms with real processes. references: 1. molinéro-demilly, v., charki, a., jeoffrion, c., lyonnet, b., o'brien, s., & martin, l. (2018). an overview of quality management system implementation in a research laboratory. international journal of metrology and quality engineering, 9, 2. 2. da silva, f. r., grochau, i. h., & veit, h. m. (2021). system proposal for implementation of risk management in the context of iso/iec 17025. accreditation and quality assurance, 26, 271-278. 3. international organization for standardization iso/iec 17025:2017, general requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories, iso, geneva, switzerland, 2017. 4. international organization for standardization iso 9001:2015, quality management system – requirements, iso, geneva, switzerland, 2015. 5. erkaboyev, a., masharipov, s. risk management and monitoring in accredited analytical testing laboratories, aip conference proceedings., 2024, 3045 (1), 030077. 6. tziakou, e., fragkaki, a. g., & platis, a. ν. (2023). identifying risk management challenges in laboratories. accreditation and quality assurance, 28(4), 167-179. the dangers of erosion to building foundation and human life in akwa ibom state 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 10, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the dangers of erosion to building foundation and human life in akwa ibom state: investigating the remedies udoibeh, nsikak john department of urban and regional planning, faculty of environmental studies, niger delta university wilberforce island, bayelsa state, nigeria abstract: this study investigated the dangers of erosion to building foundations and human life in akwa ibom state, with a focus on identifying effective remedies to mitigate its impacts. it examined how factors such as heavy rainfall, loose soil composition, poor drainage systems, and unplanned human activities have accelerated soil degradation, leading to gully formation, building collapse, and displacement of residents. expost-facto design was adopted. the research was carried out in akwa ibom state, nigeria. the targeted population for the study comprised all the environmental scientists in akwa ibom state, nigeria. stratified sampling technique was used to select 60 environmental scientist from each of the senatorial district, this gave a sample size of 180 respondents used to carry out this research. the instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire titled “dangers of erosion to building foundation and human life questionnaire (debfhlq)”. face and content validation of the instrument was carried out by an expert in test, measurement, and evaluation in order to ensure that the instrument has the accuracy, appropriateness, and completeness for the study under consideration. the reliability coefficient obtained was 0.85, and this was high enough to justify the use of the instrument. descriptive statistics was used to answer the research question and regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis. the result proved that there is significant effect of erosion on building foundations in akwa ibom state. the result also proved that erosion has a significant impact on human life in the state.in conclusion, erosion poses a grave environmental and structural threat to akwa ibom state, endangering building foundations and human life through continuous soil degradation, flooding, and gully formation. it was recommended that, government should design and construct efficient and well-connected drainage networks across erosion-prone areas to properly channel storm water and prevent surface runoff from eroding building foundations and surrounding soils. keywords: dangers, erosion, building foundation, human life, akwa ibom state and remedies. introduction erosion poses a significant and escalating threat to the built environment and human safety in akwa ibom state, driven by a combination of steep rainfall events, loose coastal-plain soils, and rapidly increasing development. according to a 2020 state study, the dominant soils of akwa ibom are often highly leached, sandy or sandy-loam based and thus inherently fragile, making them particularly susceptible to splash, sheet, rill and especially gully erosion. as these processes progress, they undermine the very ground beneath foundations, rendering houses, roads and critical infrastructure vulnerable. 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us when erosion begins to erode the soil directly beneath or adjacent to structures, the effects are profound. in uyo and its environs, gullies have extended through built-up streets, undermining the foundations of homes and other buildings, and in many instances leading to subsidence or outright collapse. this weakening of foundation support not only diminishes structural integrity but places occupants at acute risk—especially during heavy rain events when further soil loss may occur. the human toll is real: in june 2024 the community of afaha oku village in uyo appealed for urgent government intervention after more than 50 buildings were reported submerged or at severe risk of collapse due to advancing erosion. the broader human-life implications extend beyond individual buildings. erosion can sever roads and access routes, isolate communities, force relocations, and lead to secondary hazards such as flooding, snake infestation and landslides. for instance, the afaha oku report noted that residents, having vacated their homes, now contend with displacement, unsafe living conditions and loss of livelihood. moreover, the cost to society—through lost homes, emergency rescue, infrastructure repair and disrupted lives—is substantial and increasing. the state government has acknowledged that many homes, businesses and vital institutions have already been displaced by erosion and flooding. given these trends, investing in appropriate remedies is not just desirable—it is imperative. remedial efforts must address drainage and runoff management (to prevent water concentration that drives gully formation), slope stabilization (e.g., vegetation, geotextiles, retaining structures), proper land use enforcement (to restrict borrow-pits, uncontrolled excavations) and foundation design adjustments in erosion-prone zones. for example, in august 2023 the governor of akwa ibom banned unauthorized borrow-pit excavations in the state, aiming to halt one major source of topographic disturbance and increased erosion. ultimately, by investing in these structural and policy-based interventions now, the state has the opportunity to protect human life, safeguard homes and maintain the viability of its built environment for years to come. statement of problem erosion has become a serious problem in akwa ibom state, causing damage to building foundations and putting people’s lives at risk. when the soil around buildings is washed away, the ground becomes weak, leading to cracks and even the collapse of houses. poor drainage systems and bad land use make the situation worse. many people are not aware of how to prevent erosion, and government efforts have not solved the problem. as a result, many families lose their homes and lives in fear during heavy rains. this study therefor aims to find out the extent of dangers of erosion to building foundation and human lives in akwa ibom state and to provide possible solutions to the menace for the safe akwa ibom state for living without fear of erosion and other natural disasters. research objectives 1. to find out the dangers of erosion to building foundation in akwa ibom state. 2. to examine the dangers of erosion to human life in akwa ibom state. research questions 1. what are the dangers of erosion to building foundation in akwa ibom state? 2. what are the dangers of erosion to human life in akwa ibom state? null hypotheses 1. there is no significant effect of erosion on building foundations in akwa ibom state. 2. there is no significant effect of erosion on human life in akwa ibom state. 82 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us literature review concept of erosion erosion is the set of natural processes that detach, transport and redistribute soil, rock and sediment from one place to another by agents such as running water, waves, wind, ice (glaciers) and gravity; human activities greatly accelerate many of these processes (tan et al., 2022). from a conceptual standpoint, erosion is distinct from deposition, which occurs when transported material settles, and weathering, which breaks down material in place. since the rate and pattern of erosion result from their interaction, understanding erosion entails tying together physical causes (climate, hydrology, waves, and wind), surface characteristics (slope, vegetation cover, and soil texture), and human land use. fig. 1: an erosion erosion occurs on both spatial and temporal scales. it shapes valleys, coastlines, and continental sediment budgets at larger scales and over longer periods of time. at smaller scales and over shorter periods, it manifests as sheet wash, rills, and gullies on agricultural slopes. though they all contribute to the global redistribution of sediment and related biogeochemical fluxes, different agents dominate at different scales. for example, raindrop and overland flow processes dominate hill slope erosion, channel shear stress dominates riverbank and bed erosion, wave and current processes dominate coastal retreat, wind drives aeolian deflation in dry lands, and ice abrades bedrock in glaciated landscapes (tan et al., 2022; pang et al., 2023). each agent has a different physical mechanism of erosion. wind erosion creates deflation and surface abrasion and creates dunes; glacial erosion works by plucking and abrasion; mass wasting (landslides, debris flows) releases large sediment pulses when gravity surpasses resisting strength; and water erosion includes splash detachment by raindrops, concentration of sheet and rill flow, gully incision, and fluvial entrainment and transport in channels (ghorbanzadeh et al., 2020; sun et al., 2024; smail et al., 2022).particle size sorting, rate dependency, and seasonality are some of the unique fingerprints of each mechanism, and their mitigating implications vary. natural erosion is frequently exacerbated by human activity, resulting in what is known as accelerated or anthropogenic erosion. surface processes quickly shift from slow background denudation to high sediment yields and gully formation due to deforestation, unsustainable farming, overgrazing, road development, mining, and poorly managed construction. these factors also expose soil, concentrate runoff, and alter sediment connections. contemporary studies and modelling efforts show that land-use change is a primary driver of increased sediment fluxes to rivers and coasts in many regions (borrelli et al., 2021; tan et al., 2022). prediction and management heavily rely on quantifying and modelling erosion.improved regional and global erosion models that integrate land management, climate forcing, and sediment routing (such as new earth-system-aware erosion modules), high-resolution remote sensing for mapping shorelines and gullies, and machine-learning techniques for mapping susceptibility are some of the advancements since 2020.in addition to revealing significant uncertainty regarding sub-grid processes, extreme rainfall, and sediment connectivity paths, 83 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us these tools aid in the estimation of soil loss rates, sediment delivery to rivers, and probable locations for intervention. therefore, a combination of remote sensing, field measurement, and process modelling is still required (borrelli et al., 2021; tan et al., 2022; li et al., 2024). erosion has a wide range of negative effects on the environment and society, including decreased topsoil and agricultural productivity, increased reservoir siltation, deteriorated water quality, habitat loss, increased danger of flooding, and dust emissions that impact the climate and air quality. these impacts create feedbacks (for example, catchment degradation reducing sediment supply to beaches, which can exacerbate coastal erosion) and illustrate why integrated land-sea planning and sediment management are needed (pang et al., 2023; sun et al., 2024). erosion mitigation requires a combination of engineering and biological interventions as well as proper governance. in rivers, bank stabilization and sediment management decrease channel erosion and downstream siltation; on coasts, soft engineering (beach nourishment and managed retreat) and nature-based solutions supplement hard structures where appropriate; on land, conservation agriculture, contour farming, reforestation, riparian buffers, gully remediation, and road design decrease runoff and increase infiltration. importantly, successful mitigation requires matching measures to the dominant processes and scale, securing local buy-in, and integrating monitoring so interventions can be adapted as climate and land use change (pang et al., 2023; borrelli et al., 2021). concept of building foundation the state has responded with everything from government investments in control works to academic studies and pilot rehabilitation initiatives, but experts emphasize that efforts are still dispersed and underfunded in comparison to the scope of the issue. significant funding for erosion control and watershed management is mentioned in akwa ibom government statements and project plans. new research identifies promising technical options (geotextiles, regarding, and vegetative stabilization) as well as the necessity of community involvement, better drainage standards, coordinated land-use planning, and ongoing monitoring. ali, rahman and chowdhury (2021) define the foundation as the “critical interface” between a building and the supporting ground, ensuring stability and serviceability throughout the lifespan of the structure. in addition to transferring loads, foundations shield structures from dampness, frost, and soil movement, all of which can shorten a building's lifespan. in order to forecast soil-structure interaction and increase safety margins, modern practice incorporates geotechnical studies and models. yuan and zhang (2023) emphasize that contemporary foundation design increasingly uses advanced testing methods to ensure long-term performance and resilience. there are two main categories of foundations: shallow and deep. deep foundations, such piles and caissons, are utilized when surface soils are weak or prone to significant settlements, whilst shallow foundations, like spread footings and mat slabs, are appropriate for soils with good carrying capability. rahman, uddin and khan (2021) show that hybrid systems such as piled rafts combine the benefits of both categories for more efficient load transfer. resilience and sustainability in foundation engineering are highlighted by recent studies. among the innovations are the use of recycled or low-carbon materials in foundation components and the integration of smart sensors to track loads and settlements in real time. zhou, wang and sun (2023) document how such smart and sustainable practices are transforming foundations from passive supports into active elements of building performance. concept of human life every aspect of human life—biological, social, psychological, and philosophical—offers a different perspective on what it is to be alive. fundamentally, biological processes such as conception, growth, reproduction, and eventual death are the beginning of human life. although other living things go through similar processes, human existence is unique due to the complexity of cognitive processes and self-awareness varki and brower (2022) argue that the 84 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us human capacity to understand mortality, create culture, and develop language fundamentally separates us from other species. in addition to enabling survival, these cognitive characteristics encourage people to investigate abstract ideas like legacy, morality, and purpose. therefore, life is a conscious experience moulded by cognition and knowledge of being rather than merely a biological function. fig. 2: human life cycle human life is profoundly impacted by social and cultural contexts in addition to biology. social conventions, education, society, and family all influence people from birth. these factors help define values, mould identities, and direct behavior. in many cultures, social roles and group contributions are frequently used to construct the meaning of life. taylor (2018) highlights that people find identity through culturally defined sources such as religion, language, traditions, and interpersonal relationships. in this sense, life is a shared trip, and how people relate to one another frequently determines the meaning of that journey. this social lens shows that being human is not an isolated experience but rather a connected one, with our lives entwined with those of others and meaning co-created through these relationships. the psychological and emotional aspects of life are equally significant since they contribute to the complexity of each person's experience of life. personal development, emotional stability, and mental health are important determinants of life fulfilment and meaning. according to ryff and singer (2016), well-being is not merely the absence of illness but the presence of factors like purpose in life, autonomy, and personal development. these characteristics enable people to deal with life's obstacles and transformations while preserving their identity. for instance, emotional resilience makes it possible for people to find purpose in their suffering. in this sense, our inner world influences the caliber of our external experiences; thus, life is not just about what happens to us but also about how we react to it on the inside. human life's ethical and philosophical aspects bring up important issues regarding its worth, rights, and limitations. bioethics revolves around discussions of when life begins, who has the authority to terminate it, and what constitutes a meaningful existence, particularly in this era of rapid medical and technological development. green and palpant (2020) emphasize that such questions are increasingly relevant in discussions about abortion, end-of-life care, and genetic engineering. these problems make civilizations face not just what life is but also what it should be. the dynamic and ever-evolving character of these debates demonstrates that the idea of human life is not static but rather evolves with scientific understanding, societal norms, and ethical viewpoints. prevalence of erosion in akwa ibom state the most obvious and pervasive forms of erosion in akwa ibom state are coastline retreat along the coast and gully erosion in the uplands and urban peripheries. while gis and remote sensing 85 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us work on ibeno and nearby coastal lgas reveal net shoreline loss over multi-decadal periods, several field studies and surveys record active gullies slicing into the coastal plain sands around uyo and other inland communities. these academic and applied assessments agree: erosion in akwa ibom is not isolated or occasional — it is a widespread, recurring landscape process that has become a major environmental concern for many local communities (abraham et al., 2023). the causes include a combination of human demands and innate vulnerability. splash, rill, and quick gully development are encouraged by the state's coastal-plain sands, acidic, highly erodible soils, heavy tropical rainfall, and concentrated surface runoff. site studies of akwa ibom gullies have consistently shown that deforestation, the lack of vegetative cover, poor road construction techniques, growing unplanned urbanization, and inadequate storm water drainage in towns all increase these natural susceptibilities. according to udosen et al. (2021), along the coast, rising sea levels, wave action and human activities such as shoreline modification and sand mining accelerate coastal retreat. long-term and short-term effects include the loss of cropland and productive topsoil, the deterioration of homes and local roads, the threat to community infrastructure, and the disruption of livelihoods, particularly farming and fishing in coastal settlements. while island and shoreline villages have experienced land loss and displacement due to coastal erosion and waves, media reports and project records document instances in which expanding gullies have endangered dozens to hundreds of homes in uyo and nearby areas.. beyond property loss, erosion reduces agricultural capacity and increases sedimentation in waterways, compounding flood risks and ecological damage in estuaries and mangroves (abraham et al., 2018). the state has responded with everything from government investments in control works to academic studies and pilot rehabilitation initiatives, but experts emphasize that efforts are still dispersed and underfunded in comparison to the scope of the issue. significant funding for erosion control and watershed management is mentioned in akwa ibom government statements and project plans. new research identifies promising technical options (geotextiles, regarding, and vegetative stabilization) as well as the necessity of community involvement, better drainage standards, coordinated land-use planning, and ongoing monitoring. to reduce prevalence sustainably will require marrying local rehabilitation actions with upstream watershed management, coastal protection measures, and policies that prevent new development in highrisk zones. types of erosion the process by which soil, rock, or other surface material separates and is carried by gravity, wind, water, or ice, or by human activity, is called erosion. it is easier to target monitoring and mitigation methods across landscapes and coasts when one is aware of the many types of erosion. the main types are shown below, along with descriptions and recent research to back them up. ø sheet and rill (water) erosion. while rill erosion is the creation of tiny, channelized flows (rills) that concentrate runoff and remove more material, sheet erosion is the uniform loss of a thin layer of soil by surface runoff. these forms are often the first stage of water-driven land degradation on slopes and cultivated fields; they control initial soil loss and later evolve into larger features if unchecked (tan et al., 2022). recent global modelling highlights how sheet and rill processes contribute substantially to upland sediment flux and landscape change. (tan, 2022). ø gully erosion. gully erosion occurs when rills enlarge into deeper, non-repairable channels (gullies), often caused by concentrated runoff, land-use change, and soil instability. gullies can remove large volumes of soil, fragment landscapes and threaten infrastructure and agricultural land. recent 86 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us studies emphasize gully mapping and susceptibility modelling using remote sensing and machine learning to identify hotspots and drivers (ghorbanzadeh et al., 2020; fan et al., 2024). fig.3: gully erosion ø riverbank (fluvial) erosion and channel incision. shear force from flowing water separating bank material causes lateral migration, bank collapse, and channel deepening (incision) in fluvial erosion along riverbanks and channel beds. floodplain stability, sediment loads, and reservoir siltation are all impacted by this process. contemporary river-basin studies link climatic variability and land-use change to increased bank erosion and altered sediment delivery to downstream systems (tan, 2022). ø coastal erosion (shoreline/ cliff erosion). fig.4: coastal erosion (shoreline/ cliff erosion) beach retreat, dune loss, cliff collapse, and coastline recession are examples of coastal erosion caused by waves, tides, currents, and sea level change. in many areas, coastal erosion has increased due to climate-driven storm intensity and sea level rise, which has prompted in-depth analyses of coastal change processes and adaptation issues (pang et al., 2023).in addition to destroying land, coastal erosion endangers livelihoods, habitats, and infrastructure. ø wind (aeolian) erosion. wind separates and carries loose particles (deflation) and scours surfaces in arid and semi-arid areas, creating landforms like loess deposits and dunes. dust storms, significant soil loss, and a decline in agricultural production can all result from wind erosion. recent global susceptibility mapping and modelling (including deep learning approaches) show where land is most prone to wind erosion and how vegetation and climate trends influence rates (gholami et al., 2024; sun et al., 2024). 87 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ø glacial and ice erosion. u-shaped valleys, fjords, and cirques are sculpted by the abrading and plucking of bedrock and sediment caused by glacial activity. glacial erosion affects sediment flux to downstream systems and regulates landscape change over long timeframes, despite being concentrated in frigid locations. contemporary glaciological studies continue to quantify erosion rates under changing ice dynamics (see long-term geomorphology reviews; tan, 2022). ø mass-wasting / slope failure (landslides, avalanches, debris flows). gravity-driven downslope material movement, such as avalanches, rockfalls, debris flows, and landslides, is referred to as mass wasting. heavy rains, earthquakes, slope undercutting, and human disturbance are among the triggers. these events rapidly mobilise large volumes of earth, causing acute erosion and sediment redistribute ion; recent remote-sensing studies document their increasing visibility and hazard mapping importance in many regions. (smail et al., 2022). ø collapse and piping (karst and subsurface erosion). collapse erosion (piping) occurs where subsurface dissolution (karst) or removal of fine particles creates voids that suddenly fail, leading to sinkholes or localized collapse. in agricultural and urban settings, piping undermines foundations and contributes to episodic erosion. advances in monitoring and insar mapping help detect precursor deformation and pipe-related erosion (smail et al., 2022). ø anthropogenic (human-induced) erosion and accelerated erosion. deforestation, overgrazing, improper tillage, mining, road development, and urbanization are some examples of human activities that frequently speed up natural erosion processes, transforming gradual geomorphic change into swift landscape degradation. contemporary literature stresses that land-use change and agricultural practices are major drivers of increased soil loss and sediment flux at global and regional scales (tan, 2022; ghorbanzadeh et al., 2020). ø combined and secondary erosion (compound hazards). many erosion events are compound, such as landslides caused by earthquakes that modify river courses, shoreline erosion brought on by coastal storms that increase river sediment loads, or sediment regime changes brought on by dam/reservoir operations. recent reviews highlight the need to consider compound processes when assessing risk and designing mitigation (pang et al., 2023; smail et al., 2022). types of building foundation in order to properly transfer building loads to the subsurface, manage settlement, and offer stability against overturning and lateral forces, foundations serve as the designed interface between a structure and the ground (wu, 2020).the main factors influencing the choice of foundation type are structural loads, soil stratigraphy and strength, groundwater conditions, and construction constraints. to optimize foundation design, modern geotechnical practice combines traditional bearing-capacity theory with numerical modelling and monitoring (pantelidis, 2024). ø shallow foundations when competent bearing strata are close to the surface, shallow foundations—which include isolated (pad) footings, strip (continuous) footings, and combined footings—are cost-effective and frequently utilised. single columns are supported by isolated footings, load-bearing walls are supported by strip footings, and eccentric loads and property-line restrictions are addressed by combination or strap footings. contemporary research has refined settlement prediction and bearing-capacity solutions for shallow footings on layered and non-homogeneous soils, improving safety margins while economizing concrete and excavation volumes (wu, 2020; pantelidis, 2024). 88 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ø raft (mat) foundations slab-on-grade systems and raft (mat) foundations disperse loads over a wide area to lower unit bearing pressure in situations when surface soils are poor or loads are heavy. raft foundations are frequently utilised beneath high-rise podiums, industrial slab loads, and basements. recent studies highlight the value of mat optimization and interaction effects when rafts are combined with piles (piled-raft systems), showing that combined systems can reduce total pile length and settlement while improving structural stiffness (yirsaw, 2023; bralović et al., 2022). ø deep foundations when shallow soils are unable to properly support weights, deep foundations are required to transfer loads to capable strata at a depth. bored piles (drilled shafts) and driven piles are the two main families of deep foundations. driven piles—timber, steel, or precast concrete—derive capacity from skin friction and end bearing and are installed by impact or vibration; recent field investigations emphasize installation effects (set-up, negative skin friction) and improved capacity prediction in variable stratigraphy (abdollahi, 2022). bored piles (cast-in-situ drilled shafts) are preferred where vibration or noise is unacceptable, where very large diameters are needed, or where obstructions exist; modern design accounts for complex tip and shaft interaction under combined loading (yirsaw, 2023). ø micro piles and helical (screw) piles for restricted access sites, retrofits, or where obstruction to large plants exists, micro piles and helical (screw) piles provide versatile options. micro piles—small-diameter, grouted, reinforced elements—are effective for underpinning and for transferring loads through weak near-surface soils to deeper competent layers. helical piles transfer load through helically shaped plates and can be rapidly installed with limited disturbance. comparative studies in the last five years demonstrate micro piles’ reliability for underpinning and seismic retrofit where conventional piling is impractical (abdullah, 2022; chanda et al., 2023). ø piled-raft foundation a growing design solution for very soft to moderately soft soils is the piled-raft foundation, which intentionally uses both raft and piles so the raft carries a portion of the load while piles control settlement and provide geotechnical safety. state-of-the-art reviews and numerical studies indicate that properly optimized piled-raft systems can be more economical and produce lower differential settlements than deep-only designs, provided pile–raft interaction is carefully modelled (bralović et al., 2022; chanda et al., 2023). ø stone/aggregate columns, vibro-compaction, dynamic compaction and geosynthetic reinforcement techniques including stone/aggregate columns, vibrio-compaction, dynamic compaction, and geosynthetic reinforcement increase bearing capacity and lessen differential settlement when ground improvement is preferred over deep foundations. stone columns and vibro-techniques are cost-effective for compressible silts and soft clays, and contemporary research shows that combining geosynthetics with column methods can further enhance performance and reduce required column spacing (stone-column reviews, 2022–2023; zornberg & roodi, 2021). ø expansive clays, collapsible soils and liquefiable sands problematic soils are addressed by special foundations: expansive clays, collapsible soils, and liquefiable sands necessitate customized solutions like drainage relief, deeper pile foundations, soil stabilization (lime/cement mixing), or compensated (floating) foundations that balance structural and excavated loads. advances in geosynthetic applications and chemical stabilisers have provided practical mitigation pathways in regions affected by expansive or collapsible ground (zornberg & roodi, 2021; pantelidis, 2024). 89 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ø underpinning and retrofit lastly, underpinning and retrofit techniques (mini-piles, jet grouting, pressure grouting, and needle beams) are essential for bolstering current foundations, increasing their load capacity, and resolving settlement issues. recent case studies document successful use of micro pile and helical-pile underpinning for historical structures and buildings requiring minimal disturbance during remedial works (abdollahi, 2022; chanda et al., 2023). danger of erosion to building foundation typically, surface runoff, rainfall, flooding, wind, or man-made factors like deforestation and improper land-use practices cause erosion (pimentel & burgess, 2013). rainwater and runoff frequently remove topsoil from the area surrounding construction sites, lowering the soil's ability to support weight. this procedure diminishes soil compaction, exposes foundation materials, and leaves gaps beneath the building (adeyemi & olalekan, 2019). while sandy soils are more likely to be washed away by swift-moving water, clayey soils may experience cycles of swelling and shrinking due to erosion. erosion gradually erodes a foundation's stability, resulting in settlement and structural problems. erosion has a direct and destructive impact on building foundations. some of the major dangers include: ø foundation settlement and cracking uneven settlement of a structure occurs when soil beneath a foundation is removed by erosion. it results in differential settlement, which is the unequal sinking of portions of the foundation as a result of soil loss, causing fissures in the walls, floors, and structural beams, which lowers safety and aesthetics (ogunribido, 2012). ø exposure and deterioration of materials reinforced concrete foundations are frequently exposed to the elements due to erosion. the foundation's structural strength may be weakened by the rusting of steel reinforcement bars brought on by prolonged exposure to moisture. foundation failure is accelerated over time by the combination of degraded components and weak soil. exposure of foundation materials such as reinforced concrete accelerates deterioration through corrosion, especially when steel reinforcements come into contact with moisture and oxygen. (adeyemi & olalekan, 2019). ø scouring and undermining scouring, a process when water currents remove a lot of soil around foundation bases, is brought on by erosion in flood-prone places. buildings near rivers and bridge foundations are frequently impacted by this. severe erosion can lead to scouring, where floodwater washes away large sections of soil around a foundation which once compromised, foundations can break unexpectedly without warning, causing partial or total collapse (faniran & jeje, 2015). ø complete structural failure erosion-induced foundation degradation can progress to complete building collapse if ignored. this has been seen in numerous nigerian cities, where shoddy drainage and soil erosion have resulted in property damage and fatalities. these structural failures not only reduce the lifespan of buildings but also endanger human lives and economic investments. (akinyemi et al., 2017). dangers of erosion to human life erosion directly threatens human life through sudden collapse and loss of shelter. deep gullies and collapsing shorelines have repeatedly undermined houses, community buildings and access roads so that homes fall in or become uninhabitable, forcing urgent evacuations and sometimes causing fatalities when collapse happens without warning. field and review studies of gully-prone regions in nigeria document destroyed dwellings and communities made homeless 90 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us by active gullying, and flood/erosion events across recent years have produced loss of life and mass displacements (oyati et al., 2021). erosion worsens public-health risks by contaminating drinking-water supplies and increasing exposure to waterborne disease. runoff and eroded sediments transport faecal contaminants, heavy metals and other pollutants into wells, rivers and coastal waters; flooding associated with erosional processes amplifies outbreaks of diarrhoeal disease, vector-borne infections and malnutrition in affected populations. recent public-health assessments from nigerian flood and erosion contexts link increased diarrhoeal and water-quality problems to these disturbances. loss of livelihoods and food insecurity follow when erosion removes topsoil, agricultural land and fishing grounds. intensive soil loss reduces crop yields and forces farmers to abandon fields; coastal retreat and shoreline loss shrink intertidal and mangrove areas that sustain fisheries and shell-fish harvesting. studies of nigerian coastal and gully-affected communities show livelihood disruption, reduced local food production and rising economic vulnerability after sustained erosion (munzel et al., 2022). erosion also damages critical infrastructure and increases cascading risks that endanger lives over the longer term. roads, bridges, drainage systems, and utility lines are frequently undermined by gully headward retreat and bank collapse, isolating communities and delaying emergency response; sedimentation and altered waterways raise flood risk downstream and degrade ecosystems that buffer storms. recent vulnerability and loss-and-damage analyses emphasize how infrastructure loss and reduced resilience translate into both immediate fatalities (from collapse/flooding) and longer-term increases in mortality and morbidity from reduced access to services (oloyede et al., 2022). mitigating strategies to the dangers of erosion to building foundation around the world, building foundations are seriously threatened by erosion, which is the slow removal of soil by forces like wind, water, and human activity. sturdiness and longevity depend on the stability of foundations, which are the structural components that transmit loads from structures to the underlying earth. however, structural instability, settling, cracking, or collapse results from erosion undermining the soil that supports foundations (ogunribido, 2012). erosion is most severe in areas with deforestation, high rainfall, and inadequate drainage systems, putting both residential and commercial buildings at risk. although most people are aware of the threats that erosion poses to building foundations, the more important concern is how to reduce these risks. a vast array of engineering, environmental, and policy-based techniques are included in mitigation methods with the goal of enhancing drainage, fortifying foundation systems, and stabilizing soil. with an emphasis on useful applications and real-world examples, this essay addresses the main mitigation techniques to prevent erosion-related foundation collapses. ø proper drainage design controlling water flow is the most efficient method of preventing erosion around foundations. because standing water close to foundations speeds up erosion, poor drainage is a primary contributor to soil displacement. to divert water away from foundations, building designs should include efficient drainage systems such as storm sewers, culverts, gutters, french drains, and surface drains (okagbue, 2015). another easy yet effective preventive step is to grade the landscape so that water flows away from the structure. ø deep foundation systems shallow foundations, including strip or pad foundations, are susceptible to soil movement in areas that are prone to erosion. in order to reduce vulnerability to surface erosion, engineers frequently advise deep foundations, such as pile or pier foundations, that extend to stable soil 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us layers or bedrock (adeyemi & olalekan, 2019). this method is particularly crucial in locations that are prone to flooding and erosion, such as coastal zones. ø retaining structures and reinforcement in order to prevent soil movement around foundations, retaining walls, gabions, and sheet piles are frequently utilized. slopes are stabilized, and soil erosion is stopped by these constructions. the soil surrounding building foundations is further strengthened by the application of geotextiles and soil nailing, which lowers the risk of erosion (faniran & jeje, 2015). ø soil stabilization techniques stabilization methods include compaction, chemical treatment (lime, cement), and the use of geogrids, which can increase soil strength in regions where the soil is extremely erodible. stabilized soils give foundations a stable footing since they are less prone to wash away and resist water intrusion (singh & rao, 2020). ø vegetative cover and landscaping because it uses root systems to hold soil particles together, vegetation is essential for halting erosion. building sites benefit from increased water infiltration and decreased runoff velocity when grasses, shrubs, and trees are planted nearby (pimentel & burgess, 2013). in addition to improving aesthetics, landscaping with vegetation acts as a natural erosion control method. ø controlled land use practices soil erosion hazards are increased by uncontrolled urban growth, overgrazing, and deforestation. soil stability around development sites is maintained through land-use planning, which includes afforestation and the preservation of buffer zones near rivers (akinyemi et al., 2017). to reduce the risks of erosion, urban planners must incorporate open spaces and green belts into city plans. ø rainwater harvesting and water management rainwater harvesting systems can collect and store runoff for use in agriculture or home settings, preventing it from accumulating close to structures. this lessens the strain that unmanaged runoff puts on the soils next to foundations (okagbue, 2015). ø enforcement of building codes building codes that mandate erosion control measures during construction must be enforced by governments. minimum foundation depths, appropriate drainage systems, and soil protection methods ought to be required by building codes (adeyemi & olalekan, 2019). lack of compliance has caused erosion-related foundation problems in numerous developing nations. ø community awareness and education in order to inform communities, builders, and homeowners about erosion hazards and mitigation strategies, public awareness campaigns are crucial. communities are more inclined to embrace sustainable practices when they recognize the value of vegetation, drainage, and appropriate land use (akinyemi et al., 2017). ø government intervention and monitoring large-scale erosion, such as gully erosion in southeastern nigeria, requires government-led interventions, including reclamation projects, slope stabilization, and the relocation of high-risk communities. continuous monitoring of erosion-prone zones ensures that risks are addressed before they escalate (faniran & jeje, 2015). building foundations are constantly at risk from erosion, which can result in settling, cracking, and collapse. however, by combining engineering, environmental, and regulatory techniques, these risks can be reduced. engineering solutions to foundation erosion include retaining structures, deep foundation systems, proper drainage design, and soil stabilization. natural 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us erosion processes are lessened by environmental practices like rainwater harvesting, controlled land use, and plant cover. in the meanwhile, long-term, sustainable protection is ensured by public education, policy enforcement, and regulatory compliance. in the end, combating erosion threats necessitates a coordinated strategy that incorporates governance, environmental stewardship, and technical know-how. societies can reduce the financial cost of erosion-related foundation failures, save lives, and protect structures by putting these ideas into practice. mitigating strategies to the dangers of erosion to human life through the collapse of slopes and riverbanks, the loss of protective landforms (beaches, dunes, and mangroves), the destruction of homes and infrastructure, decreased agricultural productivity, contaminated water supplies, and increased vulnerability to floods and tsunamis, erosion— whether caused by rivers, coasts, wind, hill slope gullying, or mass-wasting—poses both direct and indirect threats to human life (pang et al., 2023; borrelli et al., 2021).therefore, engineering, ecological, land-use, and social strategies that restrict hazard magnitude, minimize exposure, enhance early warning, and safeguard vulnerable groups are all part of effective mitigation (tan et al., 2022; xiao et al., 2020).the main mitigating techniques backed by current research are enumerated and explained in the paragraphs that follow. ø hard-engineering (structural) defenses for immediate protection. where imminent collapse or coastal inundation threatens lives and critical infrastructure, structural measures—seawalls, revetments, groynes, gabions, riprap, retaining walls and grade control structures—provide rapid reduction in erosion rates and shoreline retreat (pang et al., 2023). for riverbanks and landslide-prone slopes, bank anchors, piles, and crib walls stabilise soil and prevent catastrophic collapse that would endanger people downstream or adjacent to built-up areas (hayes et al., 2024). however, structural works can be expensive, require maintenance, may transfer erosion elsewhere, and are most effective when combined with softer measures (pang et al., 2023; tisserant et al., 2021). 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ø nature-based solutions and bioengineering (green measures). by reducing surface runoff, binding soil with roots, attenuating wave energy, and increasing infiltration, vegetation restoration and protection—such as riparian buffers, mangrove planting, dune restoration, reforestation, and grassed filter strips—lowers erosion and flood risk while also providing co-benefits for livelihoods and biodiversity (xiao et al., 2020; chen et al., 2023).according to recent research, revegetation and ecological restoration, when paired with slope management, can significantly reduce gully head erosion and sediment yields (zhu et al., 2021; chen et al., 2023).when used on riverbanks and slopes, bioengineering techniques (live staking, fascines, and coir rolls) provide efficient, lower-impact stabilisation that becomes stronger as vegetation takes hold (tisserant et al., 2021; hayes et al., 2024). ø hybrid approaches: combining “hard” and “soft” for resilience. the finest combination between short-term protection and long-term ecosystem resilience is frequently provided by hybrid solutions, which are manmade structures reinforced with vegetation or seaward living shorelines backed by submerged breakwaters. when compared to hard-only solutions, hybrid techniques efficiently minimize erosion while minimizing ecological trade-offs, according to meta-analyses and case studies. this is especially true in dynamic coastal and riverine settings (pang et al., 2023; african j. bioengineering case study, 2023).by designing hybrids with connection and sediment budgets in mind, erosion displacement downstream or nearby is avoided. ø catchment-scale land-use and soil-conservation practices. upstream interventions, such as contour farming, terracing, cover crops, conservation agriculture, no-till, and sediment retention structures, decrease runoff velocity, increase infiltration, and cut sediment supply to valleys and coasts, thereby lowering downstream risk to people. this is because runoff and land use are the main causes of hillslope and gully erosion (tan et al., 2022; zhu et al., 2021).combining ecological restoration with better farming methods significantly lowers soil loss and the frequency of destructive gullies, according to extensive modelling and field research (borrelli et al., 2021; xiao et al., 2020). ø river and floodplain management: room for rivers and managed realignment. bank erosion and catastrophic levee failures that endanger life during flood seasons are decreased when rivers are given "room" to overflow safely through regulated retreat, floodplain restoration, and the removal of constricting constructions. reconnecting rivers to their floodplains by strategic floodplain management can lower peak flows and sediment transport energy, lowering the risk of sudden bank collapse and the casualties that come with it (hayes et al., 2024; pang et al., 2023). ø early-warning systems, monitoring and remote sensing. by prompting evacuations and focused protection, early detection of accelerated erosion, slope displacement, or bank instability saves lives. near-real-time mapping of riverbank retreat, gully growth, and pre-failure slope deformation is made possible by advancements since 2020, including insar, lidar, uav photogrammetry, and high-resolution satellite change detection. when used in conjunction with hydro meteorological monitoring, these tools facilitate targeted evacuations and early warnings (hayes et al., 2024; smail et al., 2022).in areas with limited data, community-based monitoring and local reporting networks enhance social acceptance of warnings and supplement remote sensing (ciurean et al., 2022). 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ø community-based risk reduction and nature-based planning. involving the community in local sediment management, mangrove planting, and slope stabilization improves social resilience and guarantees that policies meet local requirements. community-led interventions (capacity building, participatory mapping, and maintenance of bioengineering works) are cost-effective and maintain protective measures over time, which directly reduces casualties during extreme events, according to reviews of landslide and erosion programmes (ciurean et al., 2022; world bank/community landslide guides). ø policy, land-use planning and setback/zoning regulations. governance is necessary to reduce life-threatening erosion over the long term. this includes enforcing erosion-sensitive building codes, limiting habitation in high-risk floodplains and landslide-prone slopes, and establishing coastline setback regulations. particularly in situations when gradual retreat is socially and politically viable, policy frameworks that integrate hazard mapping with relocation assistance and compensation lower exposure and save lives (pang et al., 2023; tan et al., 2022). ø sediment management and upstream interventions for coastal protection. beach nourishment, managed sediment bypass, and selective dam sediment release can restore protective beaches and dunes that protect coastal populations from erosion and storm waves in areas where upstream dams or channelization have starved the coast of sediment (pang et al., 2023).therefore, maintaining downstream human settlements requires sediment-aware river basin management. ø emergency preparedness, evacuation planning and social safety nets. extreme storms, heavy rains, and sporadic occurrences can overcome defenses despite ecological and structural safeguards. reducing mortality and accelerating recovery from erosion disasters can be achieved by combining erosion mitigation with social protection (cash transfers, temporary housing), emergency shelters located outside of hazard zones, clear evacuation plans, and resilient evacuation routes (ciurean et al., 2022; pang et al., 2023). methodology expost-facto design was adopted. the research was carried out in akwa ibom state, nigeria. the targeted population for the study comprised all the environmental scientists in akwa ibom state, nigeria. stratified sampling technique was used to select 60 environmental scientist from each of the senatorial district, this gave a sample size of 180 respondents used to carry out this research. the instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire titled “dangers of erosion to building foundation and human life questionnaire (debfhlq)”. face and content validation of the instrument was carried out by an expert in test, measurement, and evaluation in order to ensure that the instrument has the accuracy, appropriateness, and completeness for the study under consideration. the reliability coefficient obtained was 0.85, and this was high enough to justify the use of the instrument. descriptive statistics was used to answer the research question and regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis. results and discussions research questions 1: the research question sought to find out the dangers of erosion to building foundation in akwa ibom state. to answer the research question, percentage analysis was performed on the data, (see table 1). 95 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 1: percentage analysis of the dangers of erosion to building foundation dangers frequency percentage (%) foundation settlement and cracking 57 31.67** exposure and deterioration of materials 31 17.22* scouring and undermining 49 27.22 complete structural failure 43 23.89 total 180 100% ** the highest percentage frequency * the least percentage frequency source: field survey the above table 1 presents the percentage analysis of the dangers of erosion to building foundation in akwa ibom state. from the result of the data analysis, it was observed that “foundation settlement and cracking” (31.67%) was the highest danger of erosion to building foundation in akwa ibom state, while the least was “exposure and deterioration of materials” (17.22%). the result therefore is in agreement with the research findings of adeyemi & olalekan (2019), who noted that erosion has a direct and destructive impact on building foundations by gradually eroding a foundation's stability, resulting in settlement and structural problems. research questions 2: the research question sought to find out the dangers of erosion to human life in akwa ibom state. to answer the research question, percentage analysis was performed on the data, (see table 2). table 2: percentage analysis of the dangers of erosion to human life in akwa ibom state dangers frequency percentage (%) sudden collapse and loss of shelter 40 22.22 worsening of public health risks 33 18.33* loss of livelihoods and food insecurity 60 33.33** damage of critical infrastructure 47 26.11 total 180 100% ** the highest percentage frequency * the least percentage frequency source: field survey the above table 2 presents the percentage analysis of the dangers of erosion to human life in akwa ibom state. from the result of the data analysis, it was observed that “loss of livelihoods and food insecurity” (33.33%) was rated as the highest danger of erosion to human life in akwa ibom state, while “worsening of public health risks” (18.33%) was rated the least. the result therefore is in agreement with the research findings of oyati et al. (2021) who quoted that erosion directly threatens human life through sudden collapse, loss of shelter and worsens public-health risks by contaminating drinking-water supplies and increasing exposure to waterborne disease. hypothesis one 96 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us there is no significant effect of erosion on building foundations in akwa ibom state. in order to test the hypothesis regression analysis was used to analyse the data, (see table 3). table 3: regression analysis of the effect of erosion on building foundations in akwa ibom state. model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate r square change 1 .864a .746 .745 .81024 .746 *significant at 0.05 level; df =208; n =210; critical r–value = 0.139 the table 3 shows that the calculated r-value 0.864 was greater than the critical r-value of 0.139 at 0.05 alpha level with 208 degree of freedom. the r-square value of 0.746 predicts 74.6% of effect of erosion on building foundations in akwa ibom state. this rate of impact is highly positive and therefore means that there is a significant effect of erosion on building foundations in akwa ibom state. the result therefore is in agreement with the research findings of adeyemi& olalekan (2019), who noted that erosion has a direct and destructive impact on building foundations by gradually eroding a foundation's stability, resulting in settlement and structural problems. hypothesis two there is no significant effect of erosion on human life in akwa ibom state. in order to test the hypothesis regression analysis was used to analyse the data, (see table 4). table 4: regression analysis of the effect of erosion on human life in akwa ibom state. model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate r square change 1 .662 .662 .662 .662 .662 *significant at 0.05 level; df =208; n =210; critical r–value = 0.139 the table 4 shows that the calculated r-value 0.662 was greater than the critical r-value of 0.139 at 0.05 alpha level with 208 degree of freedom. the r-square value of 0.662 predicts 66.2% of the effect of erosion on human life in akwa ibom state. this rate of impact is highly positive and therefore means that there is a significant effect of erosion on human life in akwa ibom state. the result therefore is in agreement with the research findings of oyati et al. (2021), who noted that erosion worsens public-health risks by contaminating drinking-water supplies and increasing exposure to waterborne disease. conclusion in conclusion, erosion poses a grave environmental and structural threat to akwa ibom state, endangering building foundations and human life through continuous soil degradation, flooding, and gully formation. the state’s loose sandy soil, heavy rainfall, and poor drainage systems have intensified the rate of land instability, leading to building collapse, displacement of residents, and loss of property. these impacts have disrupted community life, weakened infrastructure, and slowed socio-economic development across the state. erosion in akwa ibom therefore represents not only a physical hazard but also a major obstacle to sustainable urban growth and human safety, demanding urgent attention and collective responsibility from all stakeholders to ensure a safer and more resilient environment. recommendation 1. the government of akwa ibom state should see it as a matter of importance to design and construct efficient and well-connected drainage networks in the state across erosion-prone areas to properly channel storm water and prevent surface runoff from eroding building foundations and the finished building and surrounding soils for a safe akwa ibom state. 97 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. there should be a regular environmental education campaigns carried out to sensitize residents to acquire adequate knowledge of the causes and effects of erosion. this will help encourage community participation in maintenance of drainage systems and responsible land-use practices for a safe society. 3. the akwa ibom state government, as a matter of fact should not relent efforts in the collaboration with the developing partners and other private organizations to invest in sustainable erosion control projects,, environment protection, research to ensure long-term protection of properties, human lives and infrastructure in akwa ibom state. references 1. akwa ibom committed to erosion projects’.” the guardian nigeria, 12 jan 2022 2. abdullah, a. h. (2022). field study on the performance of driven and drilled micro piles under axial load. journal of geotechnical engineering research, 18(4), 223–239. 3. abraham c., ansa i., ebong m. & essien n. (2023). towards greening erosion scars in uyo urban, akwa ibom state, nigeria: a panacea for geomorphic stabilization. ecology & conservation science: open access, 3(4): 1-8. 4. abraham c., saturday u., tom a. & ibanga i. (2018). soil physical properties: a determinant of soils susceptibility to gully erosion menace in uyo metropolis, akwa ibom state, nigeria. international journal of social sciences, 12(3). 5. adeyemi, g. o., & olalekan, j. a. (2019). effects of soil erosion on building structures in developing urban areas. international journal of civil engineering research, 10(2), 45–53. 6. adeyemi, g. o., & olalekan, j. a. 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(2021). use of geosynthetics and soil stabilization for foundations on expansive and problematic subgrades: a review. geotextiles and geomembranes, 49, 277– 295. 156 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 10, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 durability and flexural strength of high strength concrete beams exposed to elevated temperature: review study huda salih mkhailef*, hussam ali mohammed al-mussaib technical college, al-furat al-awsat technical university, babylon city 51006, iraq abstract: in building, high-strength concrete (hsc) is frequently utilized. although highstrength concrete has a high compressive strength, it has issues with flexural strength and cracking. fire affects reinforced concrete (rc) members because it increases the bulk temperature of the concrete. this rise in temperature significantly reduces the mechanical qualities of concrete and steel. transient creep, thermal creep, and other strains are also brought on by fire temperatures. reviewing previous research on the impact of high temperatures on the flexural strength and durability of high-strength concrete beams is one of the study's goals. according to study findings, concrete spalling, mass reduction, and durability are critical markers for assessing hpc's mechanical performance at high temperatures. hpc's mechanical performance declined as the exposure temperature rose. furthermore, weight loss rose nonlinearly with the maximum temperature, and concrete's strength decreased with abrupt cooling. keywords: high strength concrete, beams, flexural, durability, temperature. 1. introduction one of the most often used building materials in the world today is concrete. concrete components can be found naturally anywhere in the world. concrete has long been utilized to construct long-lasting commercial structures, roads, water supply systems, bridges, and residences in order to promote social cohesion, economic recovery, and practical infrastructure. [1, 2]. its tensile strength is somewhat lower, though. researchers have looked into using reinforcing fibers, which come in two varieties—organic and inorganic—to enhance the qualities of concrete. concrete's mechanical qualities, including bending, tensile, and fatigue stresses, are enhanced by the addition of fibers. numerous research have shown that concrete improves its toughness, ductility, and nonlinear behavior. [3-7]. a common material in building is high-strength concrete (hsc). although the compressive strength of high-strength concrete is strong, the material's flexural strength and cracking are issues. composite materials based on strain-hardening cement have recently been developed as a means of enhancing flexural strength and crack management. [8]. in order to guarantee a long service life, rc buildings must be durable. this reduces waste, conserves resources, and lessens the environmental effects of replacement and maintenance. current design and construction rules place a strong emphasis on durability; therefore, all strengthening and repair work should be durable. the durability of reinforced concrete structures 157 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us is negatively impacted by steel reinforcement corrosion. [9]. the working environment has a big impact on how long steel rc constructions last. steel reinforcement is susceptible to corrosion, especially in hostile environments, which can lead to concrete fractures and a decrease in the steel rc structures' ability to support loads. as a result, maintaining damaged steel reinforced concrete structures comes at a huge cost. fiber-reinforced polymer (frp) bars have been used in place of steel reinforcement in rc structures to extend their durability due to their high strength, nonmagnetic properties, and corrosion resistance. unidirectional fibers inserted in a polymer matrix are used to make frp bars. compared to the manufacture of steel, the production of frp bars utilizes less energy and produces less pollution. [10, 11] fire affects reinforced concrete (rc) members because it increases the bulk temperature of the concrete. this rise in temperature significantly reduces the mechanical qualities of concrete and steel. transient creep, thermal creep, and other strains are also brought on by fire temperatures. additionally, they could produce explosive concrete member surface fragments.[2]. concrete resists fire because it is non-flammable and has a low heat conductivity. in the rush to consider every design aspect, concrete's fire resistance is occasionally disregarded. because fire raises the bulk temperature of reinforced concrete (rc), it affects rc members. in concrete and steel, this temperature increase significantly reduces their mechanical qualities. additionally, thermal creep, transient creep, and other strains are brought on by fire temperatures. additionally, they may result in concrete members with explosive surface fragments. because concrete is noncombustible and has a low heat conductivity, it resists fire. the fire resistance of concrete is occasionally overlooked in the haste to take into account every architectural detail. [4]. [1, 12, 13, 14] the world's temperatures are steadily rising due to global warming, which is causing an increase in fire incidences. with the increasing number of construction and fire incidents worldwide, it is necessary to examine the durability of reinforced concrete components at fire-induced high temperatures. understanding how high temperatures impact the strength of the connection between concrete and reinforcement is essential to fully comprehending the fire resistance of reinforced concrete structures.. [15] reviewing previous research on the impact of high temperatures on the flexural strength and durability of high-strength concrete beams is one of the study's goals. 2. high strength concrete high-strength concrete is made by carefully selecting premium ingredients and modifying mixing techniques. superplasticizers are required to provide proper workability because such concrete frequently has low water-binder ratios due to its extremely low w/b ratio of 0.25 to 0.35. the use of a mineral supplement is also strongly recommended. the coarse aggregates must be spherical or square. a high strength concrete (hsc) requires the use of concrete that is more robust and long-lasting than ordinary concrete. this concrete typically contains a super plasticizer in addition to one or more cementitious ingredients, such as fly ash, silica fumes, or powdered granulated blast furnace slag. the design of the concrete mix requires a thorough grasp of the various characteristics of these component constituents. an important advancement in concrete technology has been the creation of high strength concrete. the development of high strength concrete is a major breakthrough in concrete technology. high strength concrete (hsc) is defined as concrete with a certain characteristic cube strength between 40 and 100 n/mm2, even though higher strengths have been achieved and used. strength levels of 80 to 100 n/mm2 or more are being used for both precast and in situ projects. high strength concrete is used when weight reduction is essential or when design concerns need fewer load-bearing components. [15] although a variety of aggregates can be used to create high-strength concrete, rounded and/or smooth aggregates may have a tendency to show aggregate bond failure at relatively low strengths. it is best to use crushed rock aggregates that are between 10 and 20 mm in size, not too lengthy or sharp. nonetheless, it has been discovered that the link strength between smaller 158 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us aggregates is stronger than that between bigger aggregates; as a result, smaller aggregates typically produce better outcomes. the ratio of water to cement (or water-binder) is the foundation for the creation of high strength concrete. the w/c ratio should be kept low for high strength concrete. superplasticizers based on polycarboxylate-ether are required when using cementitious materials and low water-to-cement ratios. while plasticizers might be sufficient for reduced strength, superplasticizers are recommended for maximum water reduction. strength may not necessarily increase with an increase in cement content. it might not have much of an impact above a certain point. concrete with high strength is frequently regarded as a novel material. it was developed many years ago. in 1950, concrete with a compressive strength of 34 mpa was considered extremely durable in the united states. by 1960, concrete with a compressive strength of 41 to 52 mpa was being utilized commercially. concrete with a strength of 62 mpa was created in the early 1970s. over the past three decades, extremely strong concrete has been used in the construction of long-span bridges and high-rise skyscrapers. while is 4562000 states that concrete that has a compressive load capacity above 110 mpa has been considered for use in prestressed concrete members and cast-in-place buildings, reactive concrete has recently been shown to have a compressive strength of almost 250 mpa. the foundation of it is pozzolanic materials. [16] special materials may or may not be needed for the production of hsc, but materials of the highest caliber and with the best possible qualities are unquestionably needed. compared to lesser strength concrete, the manufacture of hsc that continuously satisfies the workability and strength development requirements imposes stricter material selection requirements. laboratory mixtures are used to test the creation of a high-strength, high-performance concrete with large amounts of industrial by-products. electric arc furnace slag is utilized as an aggregate, whereas high-calcium fly ash and ladle furnace slag are utilized as binders. ladle furnace slag makes up 30% of the overall mass of the binder, while fly ash makes up 50%. coarse aggregates or both fine and coarse aggregates can be substituted by slag aggregates. the resulting concrete exhibits high strength (>70 mpa), strong abrasion resistance, and fracture toughness in combinations that contain both slag aggregates and other cementitious elements. [17, 18, 19] 3. past related studies the experimental study on the application of steel fibers (sf) and basalt fibers (bf) and their impact on the flexural, tensile, and compressive behavior of reinforced concrete beams at both normal and high temperatures was presented by ahmed et al. in 2024. to determine the ideal percentage of fibers, tests were conducted on 19 beams, 114 cubes, and 114 cylinders. by cement weight, bf was utilized in percentages of 1%, 2%, and 3.5%, whilst sf was utilized in percentages of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%. before testing, heated samples were exposed to 600 °c for three hours and allowed to cool naturally. the test findings demonstrate that the tensile strength of unheated cylinders was considerably enhanced by the use of bf and sf, with the ideal fiber content of 1% bf to 1.5% sf yielding a 163% improvement over the control. the ideal fiber content for heated cylinders was between 2% bf and 1.5% sf, which resulted in a 175% increase. the improvement in compressive strength was less pronounced for the majority of the fiber content ratios that were employed; the ideal blend of 1% bf and 1% sf produced improvements of 27% and 44% for unheated and heated environments, respectively. according to flexural data, beams using a combination of 2% bf and 1% sf produced the best results at room temperature, increasing capacity by 27% above the control. using the ideal mixture of 1.5% sf and 1% bf at high temperatures resulted in a 27.2% increase over control. it has also been demonstrated that adding bf and sf to concrete increases the ductility of the beams and shifts the failure mode from shear to flexural. [3]. the compressive test results are displayed in figure 1, the tensile strength findings are displayed in figure 2, the flexural capacity of the beams at normal temperature is shown in figure 3, and the flexural capacity of the beams at elevated temperatures is shown in figure 4. 159 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. results of compressive tests [3] figure 2. results of tensile strength [3] figure 3beams' flexural strength at room temperature [20] 160 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 4. beams' flexural strength at elevated temperatures [3] of the 56 reinforced concrete beams used by kiute et al. (2014), 28 had a compressive strength of 20 mpa, and the other 28 had a compressive strength of 25 mpa. the study's goal was to find out how high temperatures affected the reinforced concrete beams' flexural strength. according to the results, rc beam specimens with a compressive strength of 20 mpa lost a maximum of 20.1% of their strength after an hour at 250°c, and after two hours, the strength loss increased to 24.88%. the results demonstrated that the coolant at room temperature is more than equal to the flexural strength lost throughout the heating and cooling process with cold water during quenching. additionally, the results of the trials have demonstrated that flexural strength declines with increasing exposure time and temperature. [20] fathi and farhang (2015) investigated the behavior of heated reinforced concrete beams with self-compacted concrete (scc) at six different temperatures: 23°c, 100°c, 200°c, 400°c, 600°c, and 800°c. the beam was heated at a rate of 01°c per minute. uniaxial loading was applied to rc beams at a loading rate of roughly 5 kn/s. the outcomes presented that (rc's) flexural strength decreased with increasing temperature. furthermore, the results demonstrated that the maximum yield strength of the rc beam decreased as the temperature rose. the depth and shape of fractures in heated concrete are also influenced by the temperature and the compressive strength of the concrete. concrete with a high compressive strength was more affected by a greater temperature. [21]. the percentage decrease in compressive and flexural strengths brought on by increased temperatures is displayed in figure 5. figure 6 displays the experimental data as discrete points and the suggested moment-curvature diagram for heated rcbs in linear form. figure 5. percentage of compressive and flexural strength loss brought on by temperature increases [21] 161 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 6. the linearly presented moment-curvature diagram for heated rcbs and the discrete points that represent the experimental results [21] in 2003, kadhum et al. investigated how fire flame affected several mechanical properties of rectangular reinforced normal weight concrete beams, such as compressive strength, drying shrinkage, and load-deflection behavior. the residual compressive strength ranged from 67–76% at 400°c to 58–66% at 600°c to 28–51% at 800°c, per the results. the researcher then went on to examine how the shrinkage values grew as the temperature rose. results show that after being exposed to a fire flame, two types of cracks developed in strengthened concrete beams showing to high temperatures in both strained and unstressed conditions. the first cracks appeared as a honeycomb pattern across the entire surface and were brought on by heat. the applied force caused by bending caused the second kind of cracks, called flexural cracks, to begin at the midspan area. in contrast, when concrete is subjected to fire flame temperature, the modulus of elasticity is more affected than the compressive strength. [22]. the impact of the fire flame on the compressive strength at a 1.0-hour exposure period is depicted in figure 7, and the impact at a 2.0-hour exposure period is evident in figure 8. figure 7. impact of fire flame on compressive strength after one hour of exposure [22] 162 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 8. fire flame's impact on compressive strength after two hours of exposure [22] kodur and phan (2007) synthesized data from previous studies to understand how numerous factors affect the fire behavior of high-strength concrete materials. these findings demonstrated that a high heating rate can result in concrete spalling. because of the material's limited permeability and higher build-up pore pressure, concrete spalling is more likely to occur when the compressive strength surpasses 70 mpa. moreover, considerable spalling was found to be caused by a high moisture content. additionally, it was shown that the probability of spalling increased with specimen size since large structures have a greater capacity to store energy. [23] according to mahmud yağan et al. (2024), steel yield strength and concrete compressive strength values decline at higher temperatures in a predictable manner. these results can be attributed to well-known phenomena, such as the enlargement and shrinkage of cement mixtures and aggregates in concrete and the degradation of steel rebars' molecular construction in response to high temperatures. this study also found comparable results. even though the declining tendency of the compressive strength of concrete impacted by raising the temperature from 100 degrees celsius corresponds with previous research, more depressing results were discovered. the duration of heating and the higher degree of thermal expansion that occurred during this period had an effect on the previously reported decline. steel bar's yield strength did not significantly decline up to 600 °c, although strength declines beyond that point are in line with previous research. additionally, test findings showed that the concrete's compressive strength is the primary factor affecting the bond strength among concrete and steel reinforcing. the primary cause of the loss of load-bearing strength in both flexural and shear groups is degradation of concrete's compressive strength and concrete-steel bonded efficiency. this is particularly true when steel remains constant and concrete compressive strength drops by 55% and bond strength drops by 41% up to 600 °c. this impact is most noticeable around 800 °c. due to the substantial in the flexural group specimens, shear flaws and a reduction in concrete strength were also noted, particularly after 200 °c. [24]. the strength of concrete exposed to high temperatures during compressive is depicted in figure 9. the yield strength of steel subject to extreme temperatures is depicted in figure 10. the capacity of the failing flexural category to support loads is depicted on figure 11. the load-bearing capacity of the shear failure group is displayed in figure 12. the bending and ruptured load-bearing capacities during shear groups are displayed in figure 13. 163 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 9. concrete's compressive strength after exposed to higher temperatures [24] figure 10. steel's yield strength after exposed to higher temperatures [24] figure 11. capabilities of the flexural failure group to support loads [24] 164 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 12. capabilities of the shear failure group to support loads [24] figure 13. capabilities of flexural and shear failure groups to support loads [24] according to research by xiao and koenig (2004), steel strength does not rise and flexibility diminishes when the temperature rises from a room temperature to 400 °c.at increasing temperatures, steel's strength gradually decreases; by 700 °c, just 20% of its initial strength remains. furthermore, when the temperature increases, steel's modulus of elasticity steadily decreases. because concrete's thermal elongation at elevated temperatures is significantly smaller compared to that of the reinforcing steel, the denseness of the concrete next to the reinforcement increases the roughness between the two. on the other hand, some of the tensile strength of concrete is lost. therefore, the bond that exists between the concrete and the reinforcement, which has been changed by the effects of high temperatures, affects the crack, cracking, and load-bearing capabilities of the reinforced concrete portions subjected to fire. one may argue that the effects of the high temperature led to a very obvious change in the relationship between the reinforcement and the concrete. the quantity of bond deterioration outweighs the decrease in the compressive force of the concrete. [24, 25] in 2014, xiao et al. conducted a laboratory study of the shear transferring effects of high-strength concrete along a precast fracture following exposure to extreme temperatures. the primary goal 165 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of the study was to assess two crucial variables: the amount of elevated temperature and the compressive strength of the concrete. the shear capacity of concrete with regard to crack formation and displace under high temperatures was investigated by pressure experiments utilizing samples free of cracks. consequently, it has been noted that while the final shear strength of high-strength concrete declines at temperatures above 200 °c, the corresponding deteriorating form ( fracture slip and crack wideness) rises via temperature. [24, 26] a 2019 study by hassan et al. examined how high temperatures affected concrete and how various reinforcement methods affected the ability of reinforced concrete beams to regain their capacity. using various types of concrete, experiment samples were exposed near temperatures of 400 plus 600 °c for 60 plus 120 minutes in order to assess the behavior of the beams under fire conditions. it was determined that prolonged exposure to high temperatures and various concrete types works well for reinforced concrete parts, but that there is a noticeable lossing of strength, particularly in sampling made with regular concrete that is heated to 600 °c for two hours. [24, 27] an investigation into the shear properties of concrete beams with reinforcement after exposition to extremely high temperatures was conducted in 2020 by xing et al. after two hours of being exposed to iso 834-1 standards fire on each side of each beam, shear stress was put on on the beams. according to test data, the ultimate deformations of the beams rise with temperature, whereas shear-bearing capability and shear toughness decrease. furthermore, they found that when the pressure zone became subjected to high temperatures, the beams' flexural bearing ability decreased more than their bearing shear capacity. [24, 28] in 2020, ahmad et al. conducted tests on concrete samples to see how high temperatures affected the shear capability. after being heated to 350, 550, and 750 °c, the samples made with 40 mpa concrete stayed allowed to naturally cool to ambient temperature before undergoing the shear tests. the investigation's findings showed that concrete revealed to high temperatures lost 18.85% of its shear capacity at 350 °c, 29.6% at 550 °c, and 52.74% at 750 °c. [24, 29] abdulaziz alaskar 2025 reviewed the frame of studies on the effects of excessive heat the mechanical properties of hpc mixtures, including mass loss, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, concrete spalling, and durability performance. the mechanical properties of hpc at high temperatures are methodically compiled in this study. it also describes hpc's spalling attitude at high temperatures. additionally, it describes the methods and techniques for enhancing hpc's performance when exposed to high temperatures. according to the findings, concrete spalling, mass reduction, and durability are critical markers for assessing hpc's mechanical behavior at high temperatures. hpc's mechanical performance declined as the exposure temperature rose. furthermore, mass defeat nonlinearly with the maximum temperature, and concrete's strength decreased with abrupt cooling. it was discovered that one of the main causes of hpc degradation was specimen size. each test result presented in this study is the standard deviation of all three samples of mixture of concrete examined under each temperature exposition scenario. compressive strength loss is lessened when specimen size is increased. the water content of hpc has no effect on its compressive strength when exposed to temperatures above 800 °c. the efficiency of the mechanically of hpc at high temperatures is influenced by a number of variables, including heating conditions, concrete quality, fiber volume and type, and replacement levels. a number of variables, including as the quantity and kind of reinforcing fibers, the quality of the concrete, the degrees of substitution, and the heating circumstances, affect hpc's mechanical performance at high temperatures. future developments in this field of study are also highlighted in this article. finally, suggestions for improving hpc constructions' fire safety are made. [30]. the comparison of experimental strength loss curves with design curves is displayed in figure 14. the spalling of an hpc beam exposed to a prolonged fire is depicted in figure 15. 166 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 14. experimentation strength degradation curves and designing curves are compared [30] figure 15. hpc beam spalling exposed to a prolonged fire [30] in order to investigate the effects of sample size, water content, fire profiles, and strength grading on bending, splitting tensile, and compressive strengths, li et al. 204 conducted an hpc investigation. hpc samples of grades c40, c60, and c70 were used in the investigation. concrete's compressive strength decreased by 17.7%, 36.8%, 41.9%, and 72.7%, respectively, as temperatures rose to 200 °c, 400 °c, 600 °c, and 1000 °c. likewise, the bending strength decreased by 15.5%, 56.3%, 83.7%, and 92.6%, accordingly, while split tension strength decreased by 14.3%, 18.2%, 48.1%, and 83.6%. the researchers also discovered that water content decreased no discernible effect on compressive strength at 800 °c and that bigger sample sizes might lead to a smaller amount lossing in compressive strength. [30, 31] al. sheikh looked at how high temperatures, equal to 1000 °c, affected the mechanical performance of high-performance concrete in a 2011 study. using ordinary portland cement, the study focused on the residual compressive and tensile strengths of the hpc mixtures. concrete samples were either rapidly cooled in water or progressively chilled in air after being exposed to a variety of temperatures. tension and compression strengths, rebounding number, and the velocity of ultrasonic pulses all dropped as exposed temperatures rose, according to the research. concrete's strength was reduced by rapid cooling, and its weight loss non linearly with temperature. [30, 32] in a 2013 study, akca and zihnioğlu used pp fibers and air entraining additive (aea) in an hpc mixture to improve fire resistance by forming interconnected reservoirs in the concrete. they created nine distinct hpc mixes with varying amounts of aea and pp and 0.24 w/c blast 167 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us furnace slag. 18 specimens were used in the study to evaluate the effect of specimen size. in order to ascertain the remaining mass and compressive strength, the temperatures were raised to 300, 600, and 900 degrees celsius at a rate of 10 degrees celsius per minute, followed by air cooling. cracking, spalling, and color changes were assessed at different temperatures using both macroscopic and microscopic analyses. according to the study, adding aea assisted alleviate the loss of residual strength; however, for thicker specimens, this impact changed at 300 °c. by combining aea with pp fibers, the probability of spalling in hpc can be decreased. additionally, the specimen's size played a significant role in hpc deterioration; smaller specimens lost more strength at higher temperatures, probably as a result of quicker temperature increases. [30, 33] research on the effects of high temperatures on hpc's mechanical properties was conducted by tahwia et al. in 2024. in a furnace, samples containing and without polypropylene fibers (ppfs) were heated to 200, 400, and 800 degrees celsius for one hour. the concrete was heated and then allowed to cool to room temperature in a laboratory setting. [30, 34] the structural recital and remaining moment capability of surfaced and un surfaced -reinforced concrete (rc) beams exposed to varied fire exposure times were investigated by naila hisbani et al. in 2025. two reinforcement configurations were tested for plastered and unplastered beams: one with two reinforcement bars of 10 mm in diameter at the top and bottom, and another with two bars of 10 mm in diameter at the top and three at the bottom. concrete having a compressive strength of 20 mpa at room temperature was used to make both plastered and unplastered beams. with a peak temperature of 800 °c, they were exposed to fire for 0, 3, and 6 hours, mimicking actual fire conditions. the moment capability of fire-exposed beams reduced by roughly 20– 36%, depending on the reinforcement. the results emphasize how crucial it is to take plaster into account as a protective layer when designing rc beams in order to improve fire resistance and post-fire structural performance. the results highlight the need for fire-resistant techniques, like plaster coatings, to reduce structural deterioration and improve rc beam performance and safety after fire. [35]. the structure of the beams under fire throughout the experiment is depicted in figure 16, and the beams' spalling following fire exposure is shown in figure 17. figure 16. beams exposed to flames during the experiment [35] 168 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 17. beam spalling following exposure to fire [35] in 2023, joseph o. et al. investigated how high temperatures affected the remaining structural features of concrete that contained unconventional fine aggregates such laterite and quarry dust. concrete's structural integrity may be weakened by exposure to high temperatures in areas that frequently experience high temperatures, such as tropical climates. high temperatures (250 °c) were applied to concrete samples, and the results were compared to control samples that were evaluated normally. in this study, varied proportions of laterite (lat) and pit dust (qd) were extra to the concrete mix in place of fine aggregates. 90%lat:10%qd, 75%lat:25%qd, 90%lat:10%qd, 50%lat:50%qd, and 25%lat:75%qd. an experimental mix was created after the physical characteristics of the component aggregates—which included granite, sand, laterite, and quarry dust—were evaluated. after the concrete samples were cured for 3, 7, 14, and 28 days, their mechanical characteristics—more especially, their flexural and compression strength—were examined. the findings showed that recital in terms of density, sorptivity, and strength gain improved linearly with the proportion of laterite in the concrete environment. at 90% laterite replacement, the highest compressive strength was 32.80 n/mm2. the flexural strength, on the other hand, responded differently. it peaked at 5.99 n/mm2 at 50% laterite replacement, and then it decreased as the laterite ratio increased. the impact of heating on the 28-day-old concrete samples is depicted in figure 18. the impact of heating on 28-day compressive strength is depicted in figure 19. the impact of warming on 28-day flexural strength is depicted in figure 20. [36] figure 18. impact of heating on samples of hardened concrete after 28 days [36] 169 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 19. impact of heating on compressive strength after 28 days [36] figure 20. heating's impact on 28-day flexural strength [36] in a thorough experimental study published in 2020, nabil abdelmelek and eva lubloy evaluated the endurance of high-strength paste when exposed to temperatures that were as high as 900 °c. at 90 days of age, a number of parameters have been studied, including the water to binder ratio (w/b), increased temperatures, and metakaolin (mk) dosages. in comparison to pure cement paste in the instance of 0.3 w/b, the results shown that mk increases the proportional remaining compression force and comparison residual bending strength by up to 52% and 71% at 500 °c, respectively. the ideal dosages were 9, 12, and 12% of mk equivalents for 0.3, 0.35, and 0.4 w/b, respectively. the maximum quantity of mk that can be utilized is 12%. when the w/b ratio varies according to the density of the microstructure—which is determined by the w/b ratio and its packing effect induced by mk amount—the optimal dose may change... apart from the mechanical characteristics, the use of mk reduces the specimens' tendency to break at high temperatures. sem studies demonstrate that mk's specific surface area, chemical makeup, and physical shape all contribute positively to reducing the ca(oh)2 impact. tg analysis shows the several phases that developed during temperature elevation. the results demonstrated why mk was used to improve mechanical characteristics and cracking after exposure to high temperatures. the optimal mk doses that were obtained at room temperature, however, differed from those that were acquired at higher temperatures. [37]. the relative residual compressive strength of hsp integrated by mk of 0.3 w/b is plotted vs temperature in figure 20. the relative residual compressive strength of hsp integrated with mk of 0.35 w/b is plotted vs temperature 170 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in figure 21. the relative residual compressive strength of hsp integrated by mk of 0.4 w/b is plotted vs temperature in figure 22. figure 20. temperature-dependent comparative residual compressive strength of hsp combined with 0.3 w/b mk [37] figure 21. temperature-dependent comparative residual compressive strength of hsp combined with mk of 0.35 w/b [37] figure 22. temperature-dependent relative residual compressive strength of hsp combined with 0.4 w/b mk [37] 171 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. conclusions this study reviewed previous research on the impact of high temperatures on the flexural strength and durability of high strength concrete beams. high performance concrete (hpc) is used all over the world, although it may be exposed to higher fire risks, which could affect how it behaves. to learn more about hpc's mechanical performance at high temperatures, researchers have conducted a number of studies. according to the findings, concrete spalling, mass reduction, and durability are critical markers for assessing hpc's mechanical behavior at high temperatures. hpc's mechanical performance declined as the exposure temperature rose. furthermore, weight loss rose nonlinearly with the maximum temperature, and concrete's strength decreased with abrupt cooling. it was discovered that one of the main causes of hpc degradation was specimen size. the water content of hpc has no effect on its compressive strength when exposed to temperatures above 800 °c. the mechanical performance of hpc at high temperatures is influenced by a number of variables, including heating conditions, concrete quality, fiber volume and type, 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and calorimetry, 145(11). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-020-09992-2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43995-025-00199-w https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-45591-5 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-45591-5 96 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the impact of urban environment on the atmosphere fayzulla chorshanbayev associate professor samarkand state architectural and construction university. department of urban planning chinnigul melieva associate professor samarkand state architectural and construction university. department of urban planning corresponding author: 30v381da@gmail.com abstract atmospheric pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems of modern times. to prevent it, it is necessary to reduce industrial emissions, switch to environmentally friendly energy sources, and apply advanced air purification technologies. environmental sustainability can be achieved only with the participation of every person: it is essential to plant trees, rationally use transport, reduce waste, and promote recycling. maintaining clean air plays a vital role not only for human health but also for the wellbeing of future generations. keywords: human, atmosphere, ecology, gases, nature, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, dust. introduction this topic is one of the most pressing problems today. the atmosphere is not only a source of oxygen for living organisms, but also a protective shell of the earth. the atmosphere has several protective functions. 1. the atmosphere, by exerting pressure on the earth, protects existing objects from flying away. 2. the ozone layer in the atmosphere traps 5% of the ultraviolet rays of the sun falling on the earth, preventing living organisms on earth from burning. 3. the presence of oxygen in the atmosphere causes meteorites flying towards the earth to burn, protecting the earth from strong impacts. 4. the presence of the atmosphere prevents the solar energy collected on the earth from dispersing into open space. if there were no atmosphere, the earth would be hot up to 1000 degrees during the day and cold up to 1000 degrees at night. no living organism can adapt to such temperature changes. urban ecology is the study of the interaction between human activity, industry, transport, population density and the balance of nature in cities. it is these factors that have a strong impact on the atmosphere. factors affecting the urban atmosphere 1. vehicles: cars, buses and trucks emit carbon dioxide (co₂), nitrogen oxides (nox) and particulate matter (pm2.5). these substances **pollute the air** and negatively affect human health. mailto:30v381da@gmail.com 97 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. industrial enterprises: smoke from factories and factories emit sulfur dioxide (so₂), methane (ch₄), and other harmful gases into the air. these gases increase the greenhouse effect and cause acid rain. 3. households and heating systems: air is polluted by burning coal, gas or other fuels. smoke is especially high in winter. 4. construction: construction sites release particles such as dust, lime, cement into the air. this reduces air quality and increases the risk of respiratory diseases. main pollutants in the atmosphere: substance co₂ (carbon dioxide) nox (nitrogen oxides) pm2.5 / pm10 so₂ (sulfur dioxide) ch₄ (methane). main pollutants in the atmosphere: source -transport, industry cars, power plants coal combustion acid rain dust and smoke waste, industry greenhouse effect. main pollutants in the atmosphere: impact global warming | respiratory problems lung diseases, allergies | dangerous consequences of urban ecology for the atmosphere. climate change greenhouse gases increase, global temperatures increase. health problems allergies, asthma, heart and lung diseases are increasing among people. acid rain damages plants and water resources. smog (hazy clouds) reduces visibility, people feel a lack of air. the impact of anthropogenic factors on the atmosphere remains one of the main environmental issues of the 21st century. the atmosphere functions not only as a source of oxygen and climate regulator but also as a protective shell of the earth, performing several essential roles — maintaining pressure, retaining heat, filtering ultraviolet radiation, and burning meteoroids in the upper layers. modern cities — with their industry, transport, and dense population — significantly affect the chemical composition of the air. this leads to atmospheric degradation, climate change, and the spread of diseases among urban populations. purpose and objectives purpose: to scientifically justify the impact of the urban environment on the atmosphere and to develop practical recommendations for reducing air pollution. objectives: 1. identify the main sources of anthropogenic air pollution. 2. assess the effects of urban factors on air quality and public health. 3. propose strategies for improving atmospheric conditions in cities. methodology 98 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the study applies analytical, comparative, and empirical methods. it includes environmental data analysis, examination of atmospheric physicochemical processes, and assessment of factors affecting urban air pollution. results and discussion main sources of atmospheric pollution 1. transport — emissions of co₂, noₓ, and pm2.5 particles degrade air quality and cause respiratory diseases. 2. industrial enterprises — release sulfur dioxide (so₂), methane (ch₄), and hydrocarbons, which intensify the greenhouse effect and lead to acid rain. 3. household heating systems — the burning of coal and gas during winter increases smog formation. 4. construction activities — dust, lime, and cement particles worsen air quality and irritate the respiratory system. major pollutants and their impact substance source effect co₂ transport, industry global warming noₓ vehicles, power plants respiratory diseases so₂ coal and fuel combustion acid rain ch₄ industrial and domestic waste greenhouse effect pm2.5 / pm10 dust, soot, smoke allergies, asthma, lung diseases consequences of atmospheric pollution increased greenhouse gases contribute to climate change and global temperature rise. polluted air lowers photosynthetic activity, reduces agricultural yields, and decreases the lifespan of vegetation. research shows that elm trees living 300–400 years in the wild survive only 120–200 years in parks and 40–50 years near roads solutions and recommendations • transition to electric vehicles and development of public transport. • greening urban spaces and creating “green belts” around cities. • implementation of energy-efficient technologies in industry and housing. • installation of air filtration systems at industrial facilities. • promotion of environmental awareness and education among citizens 99 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us conclusion atmospheric air is a gaseous layer surrounding the earth one of the natural factors. atmospheric air consists of several gases, the main of which are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon and other inert gases. according to data, the air layer above the earth extends upwards to 1500 km. this is, of course, a conditional limit. atmospheric air transmits and stores the sun's heat. clouds form in the atmosphere, from which rain and snow are formed, and wind is generated. in turn, the atmosphere provides moisture to the earth, transmits sound, and is a source of life-giving oxygen. it is a reservoir space that receives gases formed during metabolism, affects heat exchange and other physiological processes in the animal world and the human body. therefore, physical, chemical and biological changes occurring in the atmosphere can have an impact on living organisms, including human health. each gas in the atmospheric air has its own physical and chemical properties, which are distinguished by their specific place in nature. the atmospheric air, which gives life to humanity and all living things, is currently polluted mainly by two sources: natural factors and anthropogenic sources, the products of human activity. anthropogenic pollution occurs mainly as a result of the release of harmful substances into the air basin from industrial enterprises, automobile, air, railway and water transport, as well as from the use of various fuels. in an era of advanced science and technology, atmospheric air pollution is becoming increasingly severe. while permanent (stationary) pollutants of atmospheric air include industrial enterprises, utilities and power generation facilities, mobile pollutants include automobiles, railways and air transport. during crushing, sorting, burning and other types of processing of ores, about 500 mg of dust is released per 1 m3 of air. atmospheric pollution refers to the change in its physical and chemical properties as a result of the addition of toxic compounds to the air. anthropogenic pollution occurs mainly through the release into the open air of waste from road and air transport, railway and water transport (40%), waste from the energy industry (20%), waste from industrial enterprises (14%), agricultural and household waste (26%). in recent years, as a result of increased human influence, a change in the gas balance has been observed. it has been determined that a change in the constant amount of gases in the atmosphere has negative consequences for our planet. 100 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us physical, chemical and biological changes occurring in the atmosphere have their own effects on living organisms. as the great thinker abu ali ibn sina said, “if there were no dust and smoke in the air, a person would live a thousand years.” severe air pollution has a negative impact on human health, as well as on all living things. a person breathes an average of 25 kg of air per day. harmful dust, soot, and harmful gases in the air accumulate in the human body. as a result, it causes an increase in diseases such as skin and eye diseases, liver cirrhosis, high blood pressure, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, shortness of breath, and lung cancer. an increase in general morbidity among children has been noted. as a result of the high content of sulfur oxides in the air, people develop bronchitis and gastritis. atmospheric air pollution also harms plants and animals. polluted air damages plants and disrupts their metabolism of substances and energy. agricultural crops and fruit trees also become less productive. harmful gases from industry and transport negatively affect the photosynthesis process, reducing transpiration by up to 3 times. urbanization has a profound effect on atmospheric quality and ecological stability. uncontrolled emissions from industry and transport pose a significant threat not only to the environment but also to human health. ➢ reducing air pollution requires a unified effort across government, science, and society. everyone must take responsibility for maintaining clean air, as it ensures the health and longevity of all living beings on earth. list of references 1. f. z. chorshanbayev, ziyatov a. f. the influence of the external and internal environment on rooms in a city residential building, procedia of theoretical and applied sciences volume 5 | march 2023 issn: 2795-5621 available: http://procedia.online/index.php/applied/index 2. fayzulla ziyatovich chorshanbayev, chinnigul otaqulovna meliyeva, aziza ziyatova; "study and development of the places and works of urban planning based on norms and order" "modern scientific challenges and trends" modern scientific problems and trends 92, pages 19-26 2018, issue 11 part 1 december 2018 collection of scientific works warsaw. 3. otoboev sh. t., iskandarov ti "communal hygiene" textbook for students of medical universities.-t., sino publishing house, 1994. 383 p., 51.21 udk 613.5 4. f.z. chorshanbayev "fundamentals of city construction" study guide. source of science. samarkand sh. 2021y 10, 192 5. f.z. chorshanbayev, ch. o. meliyeva "landscape organization in the adaptation of residential areas". architecture and construction problems (scientific and technical journal), 164 (2020), 22-25b. 6. f.z. chorshandayev, ch.o. meliyeva, a. ziyatova "the role of traditions in the establishment of historical cities". eurasian journal of humanities and social sciences. 7, 2022, pp. 57-62, 2022, www.geniusjournals.org 7. chorshanbaev f.z., melieva ch.o., ziyatova a.f., “justification for eliminating congestion on samarkand city streets and roads, science and technology”. world studies, 115-120, 2020. 8. yongqiang zong, xiqing chen. 1998 yangtze flood, china's natural hazards. 2000. no. 22. p. 165–184. 176-180 archival data and engineering analysis of the oq mosque in the city of khiva 176 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 archival data and engineering analysis of the oq mosque in the city of khiva shadmanova z. s. ph.d. (tech.), associate professor, tashkent institute of architecture and construction, uzbekistan maksudova g. a. senior lecturer, tashkent institute of architecture and construction, uzbekistan arifjanova n. sh. assistant, tashkent institute of architecture and construction, uzbekistan abstract: the white mosque (oq masjid) in khiva, constructed between 1838–1842, represents a vital example of uzbekistan's architectural heritage, reflecting the cultural and historical identity of the region. this study addresses the urgent need to assess and enhance the earthquake resilience of such historical structures due to their vulnerability to natural degradation and seismic activity. a key knowledge gap lies in the lack of systematic engineering assessments and restoration frameworks tailored to historic monuments like oq masjid. the research utilizes engineering diagnostics, including structural measurements and seismic resilience evaluations, to analyze the mosque's architectural integrity. findings reveal specific structural vulnerabilities, such as termite damage in wooden elements and fissures in the dome, which compromise the mosque’s stability. the results underscore the importance of targeted retrofitting using modern engineering tools while preserving historical authenticity. the study implies that accurate assessment of historical structures’ technical condition is critical for their preservation and proposes that urgent reinforcement, especially of minarets, is needed to prevent further deterioration. this research contributes to the broader discourse on safeguarding architectural heritage in seismically active regions. keywords: khiva, white mosque, architectural monument, seismic resistance, structural analysis, restoration, heritage conservation. introduction architectural monuments serve not only as cultural landmarks but also as tangible embodiments of a nation’s history, artistic achievements, and technological progress. in uzbekistan, especially in historical cities like khiva, ancient structures such as the white mosque (oq masjid) play a central role in preserving the country’s cultural identity. these monuments are critical to national heritage, tourism, and the education of future generations. however, they are increasingly threatened by environmental degradation and seismic activity, making their structural assessment and preservation an urgent necessity[1]. among the various architectural structures in khiva, the oq masjid is distinguished by its symmetrical square design, distinctive dome structure, and culturally embedded wooden elements. the mosque exemplifies the integration of central asian architectural traditions with 177 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us functional religious design. recent urban development and natural factors, particularly earthquakes, have posed severe challenges to its structural integrity. despite its historical value, systematic studies on the mosque’s engineering condition, especially concerning earthquake resilience, remain limited. this gap underscores the need for focused structural and seismic research on heritage buildings[2][3]. several scholars, including shadmanova et al., have examined the general features and seismic issues of historical structures in uzbekistan. while these studies provide foundational insights into architectural conservation, they often lack in-depth, site-specific engineering assessments[4]. moreover, prior literature has not adequately addressed the biological and seismic threats to wooden elements, particularly in monuments like the oq masjid, which utilize both brick and timber in their design. thus, there is a compelling need to bridge this knowledge gap with targeted diagnostics and preservation planning[5]. this study employs a combination of on-site structural inspections, dimensional analysis, and seismic vulnerability assessments using technical measurement tools. the methodology includes evaluating the condition of foundational elements, analyzing dome and minaret stability, and identifying bio-deterioration risks such as termite damage. these evaluations aim to develop practical recommendations for enhancing the mosque’s seismic resilience while preserving its architectural authenticity[6]. the findings suggest that although the oq masjid retains much of its original structural charm, significant interventions are required to prevent further degradation. cracks in the dome, termiteinfested wood, and minaret instability point to a critical need for immediate reinforcement measures. these results have important implications for national heritage policy, proposing a model for the preservation of similar monuments in seismic regions. the study not only fills an essential gap in the architectural conservation literature but also contributes actionable insights for engineers, conservationists, and policymakers engaged in the protection of historical buildings in central asia[7]. methodology the methodology adopted in this study focuses on a detailed architectural and engineering analysis of the white mosque (oq masjid) located in the eastern part of ichan-qala in khiva. the research was conducted through a combination of historical review, direct site observation, technical measurement, and structural diagnostics. initially, historical data and previous scholarly works on central asian architecture were reviewed to contextualize the mosque’s construction within the broader tradition of islamic architecture in uzbekistan. fieldwork involved the physical examination of the mosque’s structural layout, including its foundations, walls, dome, columns, and wooden elements. accurate measurements were taken to assess the mosque’s dimensions, which include a total structure size of 25.5 x 13.5 meters, with the prayer hall measuring 13.0 x 9.5 meters and a dome height of 12.3 meters. the diagnostic process included visual inspection for visible damage, such as cracks, deformations, and signs of biological deterioration—specifically termite infestation in wooden parts. additionally, dynamic characteristics of the structure were examined using specialized equipment to determine the resilience of various components under seismic conditions. the stability and load-bearing performance of the dome and minaret were analyzed, considering both historical construction methods and modern seismic safety requirements. comparative analysis with international restoration practices and uzbekistan’s construction norms provided a framework for assessing structural risks. this comprehensive methodological approach enabled the identification of vulnerabilities and the proposal of scientifically grounded, preservation-oriented recommendations to ensure the mosque’s structural longevity and seismic safety. results and discussion the structural and architectural investigation of the white mosque (oq masjid) in khiva has revealed critical findings related to its current physical state and long-term preservation needs. 178 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the mosque’s traditional central asian architectural layout, particularly its symmetrical plan and three-sided ayvan (portico), contributes to its historical significance and functional design. dimensional analysis confirmed the structural logic behind its layout, where the square prayer hall (6.35 x 6.35 m) supports a dome with a 9.35 m diameter, emphasizing spatial centrality and geometric balance. however, visual inspections and diagnostic surveys uncovered multiple forms of degradation. notably, biological deterioration in the form of termite damage was detected in wooden columns, a common issue in historical khivan architecture. structural cracks along the dome and western walls further indicated seismic vulnerability. 1 rasm. oq masjid yodgorligi va uning tarhi. the mosque’s deep foundation, extending up to 4 meters, appears to be a positive factor for seismic resistance; however, the absence of retrofitted elements or reinforcement systems reflects a significant preservation gap. the degradation of structural joints and erosion of decorative elements highlight the need for urgent conservation interventions. despite the mosque’s resilience, the absence of a comprehensive seismic retrofitting strategy presents a critical knowledge gap, as there is limited literature or policy guidance on practical conservation of wooden structural elements in seismic zones of central asia. this underscores the necessity for advanced interdisciplinary research combining seismology, materials science, and conservation engineering to develop sustainable reinforcement strategies. the findings from this study emphasize the duality of the oq masjid as both a cultural artifact and a functional structure. its survival depends not only on aesthetic preservation but also on the 179 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us strengthening of its engineering integrity. in terms of practical implications, the research suggests the implementation of lightweight, non-invasive reinforcement techniques for domes and wooden supports. the technical assessment of the mosque’s structural behavior under potential seismic loads remains an area for deeper investigation using simulation-based methods and material testing. moreover, future studies should focus on comparative evaluations with similar mosques in other seismically active heritage zones, integrating geographic information systems (gis) and structural health monitoring (shm) tools. these advancements could lead to the development of national restoration protocols specific to islamic architecture in uzbekistan. in conclusion, this research not only highlights the urgent preservation needs of the oq masjid but also contributes to a growing body of theoretical and applied knowledge on architectural heritage conservation in earthquake-prone areas. bridging this gap will require continued collaboration among architects, engineers, historians, and policymakers to ensure that monuments like the oq masjid endure for future generations. conclusion in conclusion, the structural assessment of the white mosque (oq masjid) in khiva has revealed both its architectural significance and pressing vulnerabilities, particularly in relation to seismic resilience and biological degradation of its wooden components. the study highlighted the mosque’s distinct spatial organization, deep foundation, and traditional design elements, which contribute to its historical and functional value. however, the presence of cracks in the dome, termite damage, and signs of structural fatigue underscore the urgent need for targeted conservation efforts. these findings imply that without timely intervention and the application of modern yet culturally sensitive restoration methods, the longevity of such heritage monuments remains at risk. the implications extend beyond the oq masjid, emphasizing the necessity for a broader preservation strategy for similar structures across uzbekistan's seismically active regions. further research should prioritize interdisciplinary collaboration to develop retrofitting techniques that align with both historical authenticity and structural safety. advanced studies incorporating seismic modeling, material science, and digital monitoring technologies are essential to formulate effective, replicable restoration frameworks that can safeguard uzbekistan's architectural heritage for future generations. references: 1. история хорезма. под редаксий и.м. муминова. ташкент, 1996. 2. пугаchенкова г.а зодchество ценралной азии хvвека. т., 1976. 3. нозилов .д.а. мастера школ горного зодchества средней азии. ташгту, т., 2001, 163 с. 4. массон м.е. среднеазиатские мосты прошлого и проблема изуchения. т., 1978, 57 с. 5. нилсен в.а архитектура средней азии v-viiiвв. т., фан, 1966, 333с. 6. нилсен в.а., манакова в.н. архитектурный декор памятников узбекистана, ленинград, 1974 г., стройиздат, 272с. 7. к.с. абдурашидов ф.р кабулов б.к рахимов инжинерные проблемы архитектурных памятников. т., изд. «фан»., 2011 г., 350с. 8. b.s.raxmonov., inshootlar dinamikasi va zilzilabardoshligi asoslari toshkent 2015 9. shadmanova z.s., tojiyev t.m., constructive analysis of mosques and madrasa in khiva journal of architectural design p a g e 29-31 10. shadmanova, z. s., maksudova, g. a., & xoltayeva, a. k. (2021). analysis of construction of architectural monuments in shahrisabz. zien journal of social sciences and humanities, 1(1), 126-129. issn no: 2769-996x. 180 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 11. з.с.шадманова, г.а.максудова, а.к.холтаева, (2021). сейсмостойкость жилых, энергетических и промышленных сооружений. modern science, 30-35. 12. shadmanova, z. s., maksudova, g. a., & xoltayeva, a. k. (2022). legal and constructive analysis of monuments of architecture in uzbekistan. galaxy international interdisciplinary research journal, 10(2), 477-481.volume 10, issue2, february (2022). 13. maksudova g. a. (2023.) technical condition of the "jahongir mirza mumble" in the city of shahrisabz. journal of innovative studies of engineering science, 30-34. 14. shadmanova z. s., maksudova g.a., arifjanova n. sh. (2024) аrxitektura yodgorliklarida saroy, maqbara va masjid tipidagi binolarda qo‘llanilgan antiseysmik tadbirlarni samaradorligini aniqlash. строительство и образование, 3 (5), 31-35. 15. shadmanova z. s., maksudova g.a. (2024). constructive analysis of malek ashtar complex in shahrisabz city. synergy: cross-disciplinary journal of digital investigation 2 (issue 04), 10-15. 16. shadmanova z. s., maksudova g.a., оценка технического состояния конструкций мавзолея жахонгир мирзо. development of science. ilmiy jurnal. 2025/4 volume 2. issn 3030 -3907 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 analysis of methods and equipments for forming small and medium diameter welding pipes yusupov a.a. phd, associate professor, tashkent state technical university rayimkulov s.x., khasanov k.a. doctoral student, tashkent state technical university abstract: the article examines the methods of forming small and medium-diameter pipes, provides calibration of the forming mill rolls, and analyzes the composition and purpose of the equipment of the pipe-electric welding machines. the structure and functional roles of the equipment in pipe-electric welding machines, such as forming stands, vertical stands, welding machines, seam-cooling systems, calibration stands, and finishing sections are described. particular attention is given to the working of forming stands and their calibration, deformation forces and the importance of local heat treatment and weld seam cooling in achieving high product quality. keywords: welding pipes, forming mill n, pipe-electric welding machines, single-radius calibration, continuous forming, roll calibration, deformation scheme, pipe profiling, edge rolls, weld cooling, local heat treatment. welded pipes, being one of the types of finished metal products, are obtained by rolling a metal strip and joining with a weld. due to their strength, tightness, and relatively low cost, welded pipes are widely used in various industries and construction. one of the main principles of shaping various pipe profiles is ensuring maximum transformation at each technological transition. this is necessary to reduce the number of transitions for reducing the number of working stands of the mill and thereby its length. the choice of the number of bending operations equal to the number of roll pairs depends mainly on the complexity of the profile configuration and its dimensions, as well as on the required tolerances for dimensions, the ratio of the thickness and width of the workpiece, the configuration of individual sections of the profile, the mechanical properties of the material, the required rounding radius, etc. [1]. depending on the pipe diameter, there are small diameter pipes (8-114 mm), medium diameter pipes (114-530 mm), and large diameter pipes (530-1620 mm and more). by the ratio of diameter to pipe thickness (d/s), pipes are classified as particularly thick-walled (d/s < 5.5), thick-walled (d/s=59), normal (d/s = 920), thin-walled (d/s = 2050), and particularly thin-walled (d/s > 50). formation can be carried out in various ways. the traditional method is roller molding, which is performed in the forming machines included in the equipment of pipe-electric welding aggregates. 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the strip deformation (forming) scheme in the continuous mill machine is shown in figure 1. fig. 1. deformation scheme of the strip in the continuous roll forming stand all the variety of existing roll calibrations can be represented by five main types: 1) single-radius; 2) two-radius with folded edges; 3) two-radius with a flat central section; 4) two-radius with central curvature; 5) oval along the second-order curves [2]. the assembly of the pipe-electric welding machine can be divided into two types of equipment: forming-welding and pipe finishing (table 1). table 1. composition and purpose of pipe-electric welding equipment [3] forming and welding equipment roll forming stand non-driven vertical and driven horizontal stands form a circular shape from the strip pipe welding machine two-roller induction current equipment implements heating of the edges and welding. the scraper removes the scraps from the welding process seam cooling unit with the help of air and water, it cools the welded joint calibration mill vertical non-conducting and horizontal drive stands perform final calibration pipe cutting machine carries out the cutting of a continuous flow of pipes into parts of a given length pipe finishing equipment coil roller straightening machine equalizes the surface and shape of the pipe with longitudinal curvature pipe-cutting machine processes the ends of pipes for their subsequent welding when implementing the pipeline systems hydraulic press carries out pipe quality control through hydraulic pressure the operations presented in the table are combined into a single cycle and carried out in a continuous mode of operation of the equipment. depending on the diameter of the welded pipes, their purpose, and the steel grade, changes in the type of workpiece (sheet or roll strip), forming and welding methods are possible. on pipe-electric welding machines, the strip is molded into a pipe blank on continuous forming stands with specially calibrated rolls. the number of forming stands is determined by the size of the pipe. in practice, single-radius calibration is most common, which is used for pipes with a diameter of d=4...600 mm and a wall thickness of s = 0,2...20 mm. typically, the pipe workpiece is forming 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us in the stands of the molding machine with driven horizontal rollers. the calibration of the stand rolls of a single-radius forming machine is shown in figure 2. to prevent the strip from incorrect forming, vertical (edge) non-driven rollers are installed between the stands (fig. 3). fig. 2. single-radius forming mill stands: a-open full-circuit caliber; b-open incomplete-circuit caliber; c-closed caliber fig. 3. vertical stands of a single-radius forming mill: a-supported vertical stand; b, c full-circuit vertical stand vertical rolls can also perform additional strip forming. figure 4 shows the general view and model of the forming mill stand. a) b) fig. 4. pipe forming mill: a pipe forming stands; b – model of the pipe forming stand 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us table 2. technical characteristics of some small and medium-diameter forming and calibration machines parameters types of machines 6-32 20-76 51-114 102-220 203-530 pipe diameter, mm 6…32 20…76 51…114 102…220 203…530 wall thickness, mm 0,8…2,0 1…4 1…5 3…8 2…10 forming (calibration) speed, m/min 30…70 30…120 40…120 35…65 28…80 metal force on rolls, kn: horizontal 20 30 150 170 200/400 vertical 8 15 50 50 1000/2000 diameter of the horizontal rolls along the bottom, mm 120 140 350 380 600 number of stands: horizontal 6/3 6/3 8/3 8/4 8/4 vertical 5/3 7/3 7/3 12/4 5/ material of rolls х12м х12м х12мл х12мл х12мл drive type group individual number of electric motors 1/1 1/1 1/1 8/4 28/8 total power of electric motors, kw 25/14 180/180 160/160 600/300 25/450 total mass, t 10,5/5,4 16,7/13,6 64/43,4 107,5/55,4 300/113 numerator forming mills; denominator calibration mills modern pipe-electric welding machines also include installations for local heat treatment (annealing) of welds with a pipe air or water-air cooling system. the cooled pipe enters the calibration and (or) profiled (for the production of pipes with a noncircular cross-section) stands. the calibration stand serves to calibrate welded pipes by diameter and consists of alternately arranged stands with vertical and horizontal rolls. hot reduction of the pipe allows for a significant expansion of the pipe range and increases the mill’s productivity. for this purpose, a multi-cage reduction tensile stand is installed in one line or in a line parallel to the forming and welding stand. when checking the quality of electric welded pipes, non-destructive testing is used to detect defects in the strip, welded joint immediately after welding, and in the finished pipe. as part of the pipe-electric welding machines, electromagnetic or ultrasonic devices for non-destructive inspection of pipes are used, installed both at the exit of the welding stand and at the finishing section. in addition, an automated system for measuring the pipe wall is used. the thickness of the pipe walls is measured using the x-ray thickness gauge. thus, the production of small and medium-diameter (ø8-530 mm) welded pipes is carried out at the pipe-electric welding, where pipe formation takes place at the forming stands. the accuracy calibration of the forming mill rolls directly affects the quality of the resulting pipe. references 1. данченко в.н., коликов а.п., романцев б.а., самусев с.в. технология трубного производства. м.: интермет инжиниринг, 2002. 640 с. 2. технология производства сварных труб: учеб. пособие / а.в. серебряков, д.а. павлов; мин-во науки и высшего образования рф. екатеринбург: изд-во урал. ун-та, 2020. 104 с. 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. трубно-электросварочные станы (тэса). режим доступа: https://ztvch.ru/truboelektrosvarochnyie-stanyi/ 4. трубное производство / б.а. романцев [и др.]. м.: изд. дом мисис, 2011. 970 c. 5. hu, j., liu, y., wang, g., li, q., wen, j., yan, l., chen, s., & gu, y. (2022). effect of tempering treatment on microstructural evolution and mechanical behavior of heavy-wall heat induction seamless bend pipe. materials, 15(1), 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010259 6. xu, w., et al. (2014). effects of hot bending parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties of high grade pipeline steel. materials & design 7. kiuchi, m., et al. (1995). computerized numerical simulation of roll-forming process. international journal of machine tools & manufacture. https://doi.org/10.1016/00078506(95)00086-4 https://ztvch.ru/truboelektrosvarochnyie-stanyi/ https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010259 191-194 to investigate on the readiness of the employees towards the social interaction with technology in 191 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 methods for assessing and diagnosing the technical condition of transformers toirov o. z. professor, islam karimov tashkent state technical university, dean of the faculty of electrical engineering, doctor of technical sciences khudoberdiev. sh. n. doctoral student, islam karimov tashkent state technical university, faculty of electrical engineering abstract: the article analyzes the processes and methods of cooling large and small power transformers used in power supply systems. the modern state of transformers and the issues of energy resource saving in them are considered. also, systems that protect against explosions in voltage and load modes, short circuits and fires resulting from oil leakage in the housing are studied. a functional scheme of an automated cooling system has been developed by monitoring the technical condition of the transformer. an automated cooling system and device that protects transformers from fire and explosion have been designed and substantiated by a feasibility study. rules for using an automated cooling system and commissioning the device have been developed. the system for remote monitoring and control of all technological and operational indicators, as well as their schemes, have been improved. keywords: thermal relay; thermal sensor; cooling radiator; radiator freon pipes; fan; pump; freon storage volume (barrel); dielectric oil storage barrels. entrance if we take the world data, we can observe that the consumption of electric energy is increasing day by day. as a result, old and old transformers operating in old cooling systems are currently experiencing a lot of fires and various explosions, short circuits, oil waste, energy losses due to overload, and short circuits in transformer windings. currently, russia, germany, india, and china are working on automated systems to solve such problems and automate the system. every year, more than a million transformer problems and explosions occur worldwide. most of these problems occur in transformers from 63 kva to 1000 kva in local areas. in substations, fires occur in large substations due to the obsolescence of old-type cooling systems in transformers of 16,000 kva and above and the inability of the fik to meet current requirements. work is underway around the world to introduce new transformer cooling systems, increase their energy efficiency, and protect transformers using energy-saving devices. research methods electricity energy distribution systems the most important from the elements one power transformers. in the transformer happening short connection and various situations own on time determination emergency of situations appearance of being prevent to get, as well repair works for transformers from the network temporarily cut off him/her technician status assessment and 192 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us to him/her diagnostics to do further effective from their paths one is considered. current at the time transformers technician status evaluation many methods available. work voltage take to throw demand not doing diagnostics to the methods advantage is given. the most wide widespread methods are: ø thermal the image check; ø vibration diagnostics; ø transformer body inside oil analysis to do now this situations according to transformer diagnostics in the methods we check. power transformers and autotransformers thermal diagnostics very complicated is a procedure, because in transformers local defects appearance when they are magnet core and natural heat currents with transformer oil structural parts change our observation possible. from now on except for the transformer oil transformer in the address various magnet on the field situations, defects in place temperature distribution flattens. computer diagnostics the results analysis in doing transformers constructive properties, used wrapping type and magnet at the time cooling system, work conditions and duration, production release technology and other many factors into account to take need. from now on outside, measuring to the mistake transformers array metal parts, that including tank, press rings, screens, pins and others impact does, they have lost fields by provoked whirlpool from the streams additional losses because of heat is released. thermal to describe from technology used without power in transformers following problems determination possible: integral flow transformers short the connection twist; powered contact management system wrong performance; magnet of the contour separately components (consoles, supports and others) insulation violation because of in the transformer magnet arc of the fields appearance to be; transformer cooling in the system defects (oil pumps, filters, fans and others) and his/her efficiency assessment; to the body oil flowing exit, wrap insulation swelling or shift (long) service deadline was transformers for usual) result transformer in the container of oil internal in circulation changes (oil circulation slowing down departure); thermal image or his/her scanner with 7-12 lenses used without, middle phased on the axis, to the transformer possible as much as possible closer was on a tripod installation need. from now on except thermal recording both image and audio and video to provide need. results and discussion after setting the thermal imager to the continuous temperature recording mode, thermal images are recorded from the top of the extreme phase (for example, “a”) to phase “c”, with an overlap of approximately 10% of the volume. after reaching the surface of the “c” phase tank, the scanner lens moves down and then the shooting continues in the opposite direction at intervals, and in this way the shooting process continues until the entire surface is recorded, including the oil pumps, oil lines and other components located below it. the tank perimeter along entrance possible was whole surface thermographic photo is obtained (figure 1.1) 193 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1.1. thermographic research technique all shooting at points thermal image (2) from transformer (i) one kind in the distance to be at least 4 studies are needed. point provide necessary, but research of points maximum number cooling system type and his/her located to the place for example, external cooling when using the system (3), the research points up to 6 pieces rises. later, the shooting results only to the expanded " thermal " plan the plan is raised heating to the temperature has was places transformer for technician documents with is compared, this wrapping cranes, coils, oil circulation zones, magnetic outline and his/her elements and others' structural location describes. with this together, cooling systems performance record is being and their every one by created oil rotation zone is evaluated. oil flows shift because of transformer of the container on the surface anomalous heat zones appearance to be attention focus necessary transformer cooling system whole transformer to work noticeable impact indicating important functional unity is, it is control to do the most difficult and responsible ict devices using transformer cooling in the system malfunction determination for operator is higher to the qualification has to be need. current at the time transformer cooling system performance effective to evaluate opportunity giving two approach working was released. one kind load under, one kind environment under the circumstances working one kind kind of of equipment average temperature evaluation. experience this shows that a under different loads and one kind under the circumstances working one kind transformers 2 o c above the average tank temperature more than difference cooling system wrong of operation sign to be possible. cooling from the system oil introduction and exit pipes temperature observation and standard factory tests information with comparison. thermal tests the results analysis to do and thermal the image check according to many experiments cooling system every one type typical was oil input-output at temperature average the difference to determine opportunity this gives from 1-1.5 o c more than deviation already refrigerator wrong performance is a symbol. conclusion transformer technician status evaluation and diagnostics monitor to do as a result, electricity energy distribution systems the most important from the elements one power transformers. in the transformer happening short connection and various situations own on time determination emergency of situations appearance of being prevent to get, as well repair works for transformers from the network temporarily cut off him/her technician status assessment and to him/her diagnostics to do further effective from their paths one is considered. current at the time 194 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us transformers technician status evaluation many methods available. work voltage take to throw demand not doing diagnostics to the methods advantage is given. transformer technician status evaluation and diagnostics monitor to do as a result, electricity energy distribution systems the most important from the elements one power transformers. in the transformer happening short connection and various situations own on time determination emergency of situations appearance of being prevent to get, as well repair works for transformers from the network temporarily cut off him/her technician status assessment and to him/her diagnostics to do further effective from their paths one is considered. current at the time transformers technician status evaluation many methods available. work voltage take to throw demand not doing diagnostics to the methods advantage is given. list of references used 1. decree of the president of the republic of uzbekistan no. pf-4947 “on the strategy of actions for the further development of the republic of uzbekistan”. 2. mirziyoyev sh. critical analysis, strict discipline and personal responsibility should be the daily rule of every leader's activities. "xalq so'zi", january 15, 2017. 3. meeting on may 10, 2022 old transformers implementation of proposals to limit imports. 4. karimov.ia on the results of the socio-economic development of the republic in 2013 and the most important priority tasks of the economic program for 2014. "marifat" newspaper january 22, 2014, no. 7 (8656) 5. kadyrov tm, alimov xa "electricity supply of industrial enterprises" textbook, t.: tdtu, 2006, 236 p. 6. osmonkhodjaev nm, yakubov b., qodirov a., sogatov g. electricity supply. t.: "science and technology" 432 p. 7. tashev id, bayzakov tm water supply and electricity supply – t.: timi, 2008283 p. 8. imomnazarov at maintenance and repair of electrical equipment at industrial enterprises. tashkent: turon istiklol, 2006. 9. imamnazarov at electrical equipment of industrial enterprises and civil buildings. tashkent: ilm ziya, 2006. 10. atabekov vb remont elektrooborodovaniya promyshlennyx predpriyatiy. moscow: "vysshaya shkola" 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 optimizing recruitment and selection processes at atm recruitment consultancy g. v. kanmani, a. sudhesa, j. anumanjari, l. subha, a. gladysmerlin dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, chennai, tamil nadu, india kanmani@dhaanishcollege.in abstract: this study evaluates the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection process at atm recruitment consultancy and offers advanced technologies and methods to identify the most suitable candidates. its findings aim to help the recruitment team refine policies and procedures to enhance both efficiency and effectiveness. by integrating theoretical insights with practical investigation, the project provides atm recruitment consultancy with data-driven recommendations. the research focuses exclusively on the human resource department’s recruitment and selection function. the primary objective is to examine current practices, while secondary objectives include assessing employer perceptions of various recruitment sources, evaluating interview and final selection discussions, reviewing employee views on medical testing quality and technical interviews, and gauging satisfaction with compensation features. responses from 110 employees were gathered using convenience sampling and multiple-choice questionnaires. data analysis employed statistical tools such as karl pearson’s correlation, chisquare tests, and one-way anova. the research revealed key insights into candidate sourcing, interviewer effectiveness, and selection protocols. based on these findings, several targeted suggestions are provided to strengthen consultancy’s overall recruitment and selection framework. keywords: human resource department; hr discussion process; percentage examination; determination prepare; atm recruitment. introduction recruitment involves the systematic process of identifying potential candidates and encouraging them to apply for positions within an organization, encompassing everything from recognizing a staffing need through to onboarding the chosen individual [43]. selection, by contrast, refers to the subsequent phase during which the organization evaluates applicants against job requirements and environmental factors, ultimately choosing those best suited to fulfill the role [44]. the principal aim was to assess how recruitment and selection procedures function, while secondary objectives included determining whether vacancies are filled through internal or external channels, evaluating the efficiency of each step, identifying key factors influencing these processes, and recommending improvements [45]. in particular, the study examined the average time invested in selection and sought to reveal any gaps that might hinder optimal performance [46]. to achieve these goals, primary data was collected directly from respondents through a structured questionnaire, while secondary information was gathered from academic texts, industry articles, and credible online sources [47]. the survey employed a stratified sampling approach, drawing a representative subset of 132 employees from a total population of 199. analytical tools applied to the data included percentage analysis, two-way anova, chi76 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us square tests, weighted averages, median calculations, and rank correlation [48]. by combining quantitative rigor with contextual understanding, the study provided a nuanced portrait of atm recruitment consultancy’s human resources function [49]. the need for this investigation stemmed from a desire to align staffing forecasts with both present and future organizational requirements, and to examine recruitment and selection practices in depth [50]. insights into current processes enable better decision-making when matching candidates to roles while highlighting areas where procedural enhancements may be warranted [51]. armed with empirical evidence, company leadership can rectify inefficiencies, optimize time management in recruitment workflows, and ensure that budget allocations for human capital are well targeted [52]. limitations of the study included reliance on self-reported data, which may be subject to bias or inaccuracy, as no independent verification was feasible. time constraints hindered broader data collection, and not all employees could participate [53]. the sample size, while sufficient for statistical analysis, may not fully capture the diversity of perspectives across the entire workforce [54]. moreover, respondents may have hesitated to share negative opinions, and secondary data sources were limited in scope, underscoring the need for periodic updates to maintain relevance [55]. findings revealed that the majority of respondents called for modifications to the existing recruitment and selection framework. currently, atm recruitment consultancy relies on only four primary sourcing channels—job portals, consultancies, casual applicants, and campus interviews [56]. expanding this array to include employment exchanges, industry publications, and newspaper advertisements could enrich the talent pipeline [57]. a significant number of candidates reported insufficient familiarity with company policies upon joining; formalized training programs should rectify this by ensuring new hires understand organizational norms and expectations [58]. video conferencing emerged as an underutilized tool, despite its potential to streamline preliminary interviews and save time [59]. adopting web-based recruitment platforms more extensively would make processes simpler, faster, and more cost-effective [60]. almost all participants expressed satisfaction with several aspects of the selection process, including the thoroughness of technical assessments and the fairness of hr discussions, which effectively gauged cultural fit [62]. however, background verification procedures sometimes encountered delays, and respondents suggested faster response times for clarifications [63]. while the medical testing regimen was viewed as rigorous and appropriate for role requirements, few candidates had undergone exams at reputable facilities, indicating an opportunity to standardize testing locations [64]. overall, the recruitment timeline was deemed reasonable, yet continual attention to time management is vital to prevent bottlenecks [61]. the study also highlighted how pandemic-related shifts have reshaped hiring practices. in the past year, employers worldwide revamped their methods to protect both current and prospective employees [69]. atm recruitment consultancy swiftly embraced remote recruitment for professional roles—a strategy likely to endure beyond the immediate health crisis [70]. by expanding geographic reach, the company can tap into national and global talent pools [68]. nonetheless, certain risks accompany this broadened scope, such as varying labor laws, cultural differences, and challenges in verifying credentials remotely [67]. proactive measures including robust digital onboarding, secure document-sharing platforms, and clear communication protocols will mitigate such risks [66]. based on these insights, several recommendations emerged. first, the company should introduce advanced sourcing techniques and allocate more time for candidate evaluations, particularly by augmenting internal talent pipelines through succession planning and employee referrals [65]. second, recruitment channels must be diversified to include government-run employment exchanges and targeted print media, thereby attracting passive candidates who may not frequent online portals [76]. third, structured onboarding with comprehensive policy training—even in a virtual format—will ensure that new employees fully grasp organizational procedures and values before their first day [75]. fourth, technology adoption should be accelerated [74]. video interviews, automated scheduling, and applicant-tracking systems can streamline workflows and free hr personnel to focus on strategic 77 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us tasks [73]. fifth, recruitment processes should be tailored to different job grades: experienced professionals may require fewer preliminary screens, while entry-level roles benefit from more extensive assessments to identify potential and cultural fit [72]. sixth, performance metrics such as time-to-fill, interview-to-offer ratios, and candidate satisfaction scores must be tracked closely to pinpoint areas for continuous improvement [71]. furthermore, to bolster the selection phase, the company should refine its evaluation criteria [78]. for junior positions, qualifications alone are insufficient; leadership potential, communication skills, and adaptability should factor into decision-making [79]. for mid-level roles, experience must be balanced with educational background and soft skills [80]. candidates should also be provided ample opportunity to demonstrate unique expertise during assessments [81]. finally, a dedicated feedback loop between recruiters, hiring managers, and candidates will enhance transparency and candidate experience [82]. timely updates and constructive feedback not only reflect positively on the employer brand but also foster long-term engagement with prospective talent, whether or not they are ultimately selected [83]. in the long run, these enhancements will position atm recruitment consultancy as a forward-thinking employer of choice and contribute to sustained organizational growth [77]. literature review the review synthesized findings from three distinct empirical studies examining the influence of physical attractiveness, social desirability, and related personal attributes on workplace selection processes [4]. despite differences in design—qualitative interviews, quantitative surveys, and experimental tasks—each investigation concluded that objective measures such as communication clarity, confidence, and the substance of a candidate’s resume outweigh superficial facial or bodily attractiveness in hiring decisions [5]. rather than being judged on appearance alone, applicants benefit most when perceived as articulate, self-assured, and wellprepared. these insights challenge prevailing stereotypes and suggest that organizations prioritizing merit-based criteria can foster more equitable recruitment [6]. future research guided by this synthesis should further explore how nonverbal behaviors, digital presentation, and selfpromotion techniques contribute to candidate evaluation, ensuring that hiring practices emphasize true competence over cosmetic factors [1]. a study of recruitment among employees at financial services firms revealed that structured campus drives and trainee programs serve as critical pathways for sourcing new talent [7]. data indicated positive associations between these initiatives and overall job satisfaction, reflecting how early engagement shapes organizational commitment. however, limitations were noted in candidate evaluation methods, signaling a need for more rigorous assessment tools during interviews and selection stages [8]. the research recommended diversifying hiring channels beyond traditional placements—such as direct industry partnerships and digital outreach—to attract specialized skill sets. it also called for periodic reviews of selection criteria to ensure alignment with evolving role requirements [9]. ultimately, strengthening campus recruitment and trainee pipelines while refining assessment protocols will enable firms to secure qualified professionals capable of driving long-term performance [2]. an investigation into procedural efficiencies within corporate recruitment departments underscored the value of digitizing key workflows [10]. by automating document submission, applicant tracking, and initial screening, organizations can substantially reduce manual errors and administrative overhead. this shift not only accelerates candidate processing but also frees human resource personnel to focus on strategic tasks such as employer branding and talent engagement [11]. the study emphasized the importance of matching resource allocation—such as staff levels—to workload demands, warning against understaffing that leads to bottlenecks and reduced candidate experience [12]. moreover, it advocated for a quality-over-quantity mindset, advising that firms prioritize in-depth evaluation of fewer, better-suited applicants rather than superficially processing larger applicant pools [13]. enhanced candidate support— 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us through clearer communication channels and personalized feedback—further contributes to recruitment success and employer reputation [3]. an analysis of an indonesian university’s recruitment system highlighted the multi-stage nature of selecting academic staff, where each step aims to assess distinct competencies—ranging from pedagogical abilities to research aptitude [14]. structured evaluations at every phase ensure that only well-rounded candidates advance, ultimately aligning hires with institutional mission and departmental needs [15]. continuous improvement of this system was recommended to address emerging educational challenges and maintain a high standard of faculty quality. stakeholders were urged to gather regular feedback from participants and to incorporate new assessment modalities, such as digital portfolios and competency-based interviews [16]. by reinforcing procedural rigor and adaptability, the institution can secure top talent capable of sustaining academic excellence and driving innovation in teaching and research [17]. a preliminary study of selection processes within a professional association revealed limitations inherent in single‐timepoint assessments of member experiences [18]. as perceptions captured during a specific period may reflect transient emotions rather than long‐term satisfaction, the research recommended adopting longitudinal designs to trace shifts in attitudes and outcomes over time [19]. additionally, expanding participant pools to include members who had not engaged in initial surveys would capture a more representative range of perspectives [20]. by comparing feedback across different cohorts and organizational units, researchers can refine selection frameworks to address systemic gaps. this broader empirical base would offer robust insights into talent acquisition best practices, facilitating strategic adjustments that enhance member engagement and professional integration [21]. research into human resources management practices emphasized the critical link between effective recruitment and organizational performance [22]. firms that invest in comprehensive selection systems—combining rigorous job analysis, structured interviews, and competency assessments—tend to experience higher productivity and better financial outcomes [23]. conversely, suboptimal hiring decisions due to inadequate screening or misalignment with job requirements can lead to performance shortfalls and increased turnover. as a result, organizations were advised to allocate resources toward refining selection instruments, training hiring managers, and monitoring key performance metrics [24]. continuous evaluation of hiring outcomes—such as new hire retention and on‐the‐job proficiency—enables data-driven enhancements to the recruitment process, ensuring a return on investment in talent acquisition strategies [25]. a study of employee motivation and retention identified the importance of holistic support systems. beyond competitive compensation, access to career development resources, skill‐ building opportunities, and recognition programs strengthen commitment [26]. organizations that establish clear pathways for advancement and actively solicit employee input on workplace policies report higher engagement levels. to sustain this momentum, continuous reinforcement of corporate values—through leadership communication and performance management—was recommended [27]. embedding best practices from varied business models enables firms to tailor retention strategies to workforce demographics and operational contexts [28]. by maintaining an ongoing dialogue with employees, companies can anticipate evolving needs and adapt initiatives that bolster loyalty and organizational stability [29]. an examination of recruitment media usage in serbia found that while digital platforms such as company websites and commercial job boards are common, social networks remain underutilized [31]. only a minority of organizations leverage social media for candidate outreach, yet blending online sourcing with traditional advertising enhances recruiter reach and enriches applicant databases [32]. digital profiles on professional platforms provide supplementary insights into candidates’ skills, interests, and cultural fit, but should complement—not replace—formal assessment methods [33]. integrating data from multiple channels yields a fuller candidate picture, enabling more informed selection decisions [34]. 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us organizations were encouraged to adopt a hybrid approach, employing social media analytics alongside classic recruitment techniques to build diverse talent pipelines and strengthen employer branding. an inquiry into the implementation of merit-based recruitment systems highlighted three major barriers: administrative misalignment between policy and practice, occasional corrupt practices undermining transparency, and technical limitations due to insufficient infrastructure and staff expertise [35]. effective reform requires harmonizing legal frameworks, enforcing anticorruption safeguards, and upgrading technological capabilities to support streamlined processes [36]. training programs for recruitment officers enhance professional competence in applying merit criteria consistently. introducing digital platforms for vacancy posting, application tracking, and automated shortlisting can reduce human error and curb undue influence [37]. these measures collectively foster a fair and efficient recruitment environment that upholds organizational integrity and optimizes the allocation of human resources [30]. research in macedonia underscored discrepancies between employer self-perceptions and candidate experiences during hiring [39]. while human resource managers believed their practices were unbiased and professional, some applicants reported instances of perceived discrimination or irrelevant criteria influencing decisions. to bridge this gap, organizations were advised to conduct regular audits of recruitment outcomes and solicit anonymous candidate feedback [40]. legal safeguards—such as removing demographic identifiers from applications— reinforce impartiality. job advertisements should focus on essential qualifications and responsibilities, avoiding references to age or gender unless directly relevant to the role [41]. ensuring equal opportunity hiring not only fulfills ethical and legal obligations but also broadens the talent pool and enriches workplace diversity [42]. continuous monitoring and policy adjustments will uphold fairness and strengthen organizational reputation [38]. conceptual and theoretical review recruitment refers to the comprehensive process by which organizations attract, evaluate, select, and onboard suitable candidates for open positions. it begins with identifying a staffing need based on organizational goals and workforce planning. once a need is recognized, a detailed analysis of the role is conducted in order to determine the necessary skills, competencies, experience, education, and any position specific requirements. a job description is then crafted to reflect these criteria, and it is carefully reviewed and approved to ensure alignment with internal grading systems and market benchmarks [91]. this description serves as the foundation for a job posting, which is written in a way that not only informs potential candidates of the essential qualifications but also highlights the employer brand and organizational culture in order to attract top talent [92]. advertisements are placed across a variety of channels including company career websites, social media platforms, industry publications, and external job boards in order to maximize reach [93]. many companies also partner with consultancy firms or staffing agencies that specialize in matching qualified candidates to specific roles, while others rely on employee referrals and internal promotions in order to tap existing talent pools [84]. once applications are received, the recruitment team uses applicant tracking systems to collect and screen resumes [86]. automated filters may be used to identify candidates whose education, experience, and skill sets meet the core requirements [87]. initial interviews may be conducted by phone or video conference in order to confirm basic details and gauge the applicant’s interest and availability [88]. throughout this process hiring managers and human resources professionals collaborate to ensure compliance with relevant employment laws and company guidelines, avoiding questions related to personal matters that are not directly relevant to job performance [89]. structured interview guides are developed and shared with all interviewers in order to improve consistency and fairness [90]. candidates who pass the first round move on to in-person or virtual interviews with hiring teams, managers, and sometimes senior executives, depending on the size and structure of the organization [94]. in technical or specialized roles, 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us pre-hire assessments such as coding tests, language proficiency exams, or personality inventories are administered in order to evaluate specific competencies [85]. as candidates progress through the selection process, reference checks and background verifications are conducted in order to confirm prior work history, educational credentials, and, when permissible, conduct criminal record searches [99]. medical and drug tests may be required for certain positions in jurisdictions where such screenings are legal and relevant to job requirements [96]. following these evaluations, hiring managers negotiate employment terms including salary, benefits, vacation allowances, and any performance bonus structures [97]. once a mutual agreement is reached, an offer letter is drafted and sent to the candidate for review and acceptance [98]. upon acceptance, the candidate is officially hired and transitioned into the onboarding phase, where they receive orientation, training, and access to the tools and resources necessary to succeed in their new role [95]. the importance of recruitment cannot be overstated, as employees are the lifeblood of any organization [101]. a successful recruitment strategy ensures that open roles are filled promptly with qualified individuals who not only possess the technical skills required but also align with the company’s culture and long-term vision [102]. effective recruitment reduces time to hire and mitigates revenue loss associated with prolonged vacancies. it also enhances employee engagement and retention by placing candidates in roles that play to their strengths, thereby decreasing turnover rates [103]. furthermore, a positive candidate experience during the recruitment process enhances the employer’s brand reputation, resulting in better ratings on review sites and a stronger talent pipeline for future needs [100]. organizations employ various recruitment models in order to meet their unique needs. internal recruitment leverages existing employees by filling vacancies through promotions or transfers, thereby capitalizing on institutional knowledge and boosting morale [104]. retained recruitment involves engaging a search firm exclusively for a specific role in exchange for an upfront fee, allowing the firm to dedicate resources to a thorough candidate search until the position is filled [105]. contingency recruitment, on the other hand, operates on a pay-upon-placement basis, where the recruitment agency is compensated only when a candidate is successfully placed [106]. staffing recruitment focuses on temporary or contract positions, with recruiters working for staffing agencies that match candidates to short-term assignments [109]. outplacement services provide support and resources to displaced employees, helping them transition to new roles outside the organization [108]. in contrast, reverse recruiting encourages employees who may be better suited to roles in other companies to explore new opportunities, often with support such as resume workshops and mock interviews [107]. advances in technology have transformed modern recruitment practices. applicant tracking systems streamline resume management, automated scheduling tools reduce administrative burdens, and artificial intelligence-driven algorithms assist in identifying the best matches from large candidate pools [110]. video interviewing platforms enable remote screening, saving time and broadening the geographical range of applicants [114]. social media recruiting leverages professional networks in order to engage passive candidates who may not be actively searching but possess the desired qualifications [113]. employers also utilize online assessments and gamified challenges to evaluate cognitive abilities and cultural fit in an interactive manner [112]. these technological innovations contribute to making the recruitment process simpler, faster, and more data-driven [111]. despite these improvements, every organization faces the challenge of balancing efficiency with personal engagement [115]. candidates often cite delays and lack of communication as major frustrations during the hiring process [119]. therefore, clear communication, timely feedback, and transparent timelines are essential [118]. setting internal metrics such as time-to-fill, quality of hire, and candidate satisfaction allows human resources teams to identify bottlenecks and continuously refine processes [117]. attention to diversity and inclusion in recruitment not only 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fulfills ethical and legal obligations but also enhances business performance by bringing together varied perspectives and experiences [116]. results and discussions the majority of survey participants fell within the 18–25 age bracket, and most identified as male. a large portion had completed undergraduate studies in arts and sciences, with under two years of professional experience. when asked how they discovered job opportunities, most cited a leading online portal. regarding recruitment channels, participants noted that the company relied heavily on job portals, consultancy firms, casual applicants, and campus interviews, with location-specific e-recruitment portals playing a prominent role. while advertisements were widely acknowledged for providing clear vacancy details, few former employees were reconsidered when applicant numbers were low. internal job postings were recognized as valuable for career progression, and employee referrals were viewed as somewhat beneficial for attracting and retaining top talent [120]. feedback on the interview process was largely positive: most respondents found initial discussions informative, felt comfortable in the interview environment, and agreed that interviewers listened actively, probed for clarification, and allowed sufficient response time. technical sessions and hr discussions were seen as meeting company benchmarks and assessing cultural fit. however, some respondents suggested that background verifications and response times for follow-up questions could be smoother. health and fitness requirements elicited mixed responses. while the medical test protocol was considered rigorous and aligned with job demands, very few had undergone exams at reputed hospitals. most felt the overall recruitment timeline was appropriate and appreciated the focus on evaluating skills, attitude, technical proficiency, and communication without bias toward personal beliefs. satisfaction with compensation extended beyond salary to include fringe benefits like education assistance and employee discounts. nearly all respondents agreed that the selection process was challenging yet fair and that the company adhered strictly to its recruitment procedures. a strong majority reported clarity about their roles from the outset and believed the company offered well-crafted career development plans. reflecting this positive experience, most expressed willingness to recommend the company to friends and affirmed that they felt professionally growing within the organization. several respondents indicated that the existing recruitment and selection process requires significant refinement. introducing new sourcing techniques and allocating additional time to candidate evaluation can enhance the quality of hires. relying solely on job portals, consultancies, campus interviews, and casual applicants constrains the candidate pool; expanding to include employment exchanges, industry magazines, and newspaper advertisements will broaden reach. internal talent pipelines can also be leveraged more effectively, drawing on employee referrals and in-house promotions to identify candidates whose experience and cultural fit are already proven. awareness of company policies among new hires emerged as another area needing attention. structured onboarding sessions or e-learning modules should be implemented to ensure that every candidate thoroughly understands organizational norms, values, and compliance requirements. such training will reduce confusion, foster faster integration, and enhance retention. moreover, the advent of remote work and distributed teams calls for wider adoption of video conferencing in recruitment. by conducting initial screenings and interviews online, the company can save time, lower travel costs, and tap into geographically diverse talent pools. to streamline and accelerate the entire workflow, greater use of web-based platforms is recommended. automated applicant-tracking systems (ats), integrated assessment tools, and digital scheduling solutions will make the process simpler, faster, and more cost-effective. at the same time, the recruitment procedure itself should be carefully designed to avoid unnecessary delays; excessive waiting times frustrate candidates and may lead to the loss of top talent. tailoring selection steps to various job grades can further optimize efficiency—experienced 82 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us professionals may require fewer preliminary assessments, whereas entry-level roles benefit from more comprehensive screening. consistent time management throughout each stage is vital. key performance indicators (kpis) such as time-to-fill, interview-to-offer ratio, and candidate drop-off rates should be monitored closely. this data will highlight bottlenecks and inform targeted interventions. in parallel, the company should diversify its sourcing channels even beyond e-recruitment—despite high adoption rates of online portals, traditional media and community outreach events can uncover passive candidates who might otherwise remain invisible. finally, the evaluation criteria must evolve to reflect role complexity. for junior positions, qualifications alone are insufficient; factors such as leadership potential, communication skills, and adaptability should also be assessed. conversely, when hiring for mid-level roles, experience should be balanced with educational background and soft skills to ensure a well-rounded cohort of managers. by combining advanced sourcing strategies, robust technology platforms, comprehensive onboarding, and nuanced selection criteria, the company will not only attract a wider and more qualified talent pool but also elevate its employer brand and long-term organizational performance. conclusion employers have significantly adapted hiring methods over the past year to safeguard both current and future employees. even after the resolution of the covid-19 pandemic, remote work arrangements for professionals are expected to endure, enabling organizations to tap into national and global talent pools. in this competitive environment, proactive preparation is essential to attract and retain top talent necessary for driving growth and maintaining high product quality. the hydraulics industry’s demand for skilled labor underscores the importance of a strategic recruitment and selection framework. although the existing selection process effectively evaluates candidates, further refinements are needed to align assessments with specific job requirements and organizational goals. ongoing surveys and feedback mechanisms will support continuous improvement of recruitment practices, strengthen workforce capabilities, and enhance overall operational performance. continuous evaluation and adjustment of these processes will ensure that the company remains well positioned to harness emerging opportunities and achieve its strategic objectives. the study faced several limitations that should be acknowledged. first, the information provided by respondents may have been biased or inaccurate, and no independent data verification was possible. time constraints also limited the depth of data collection, and not all employees of atm recruitment consultancy could participate. with a sample size of only 110, the findings may not fully represent the entire population. finally, the reliability and accuracy of the analysis depended on respondents’ honesty and openness in answering the questionnaire. references 1. b. chandrashekar, s. boggavarapu, s. pundir, c. yosepu, s. chepyala and g. manikandan, "machine learning prediction approach for financial forecast system in stock exchange marketing management," 2023 6th 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enaghinor, l. a. department of mechanical engineering, delta state polytechnic, otefe-oghara, nigeria abstract: pipeline systems form the backbone of petroleum transport infrastructure, yet their integrity is increasingly threatened by a confluence of technical, environmental, and sociopolitical factors. this review consolidates current knowledge on the prediction and prevention of pipeline failures, particularly in nigeria’s oil-rich niger delta, where corrosion, sabotage, and regulatory lapses converge to undermine operational sustainability. the central problem addressed is the persistent incidence of pipeline failures, both natural and human-induced, which continue to cause environmental degradation, economic loss, and social unrest. this problem is significant not only for energy security and national revenue but also for ecological preservation and public health. the review adopts a thematic synthesis approach, integrating findings from empirical studies, predictive modelling frameworks, regulatory analyses, and technology evaluations. it examines pipeline failure classifications, internal and external corrosion mechanisms, and the predictive capabilities of tools such as artificial neural networks, genetic algorithms, and polynomial regression. it also explores the socio-environmental drivers of pipeline sabotage, assesses mitigation technologies (including repair welding, sleeving, and riskbased inspection), and evaluates the role of regulatory instruments such as the petroleum industry act and nosdra protocols. key findings reveal that while advanced predictive models and integrity monitoring systems are increasingly available, their effectiveness in nigeria is constrained by poor data infrastructure, inconsistent regulation, and limited local adaptation. the current ai largely overlook sabotage prediction, despite its predominance in pipeline failure statistics. the review identifies critical gaps in data integration, community surveillance, digital twin utilization, and policy enforcement. these findings highlights the need for a thorough approach to pipeline integrity management, one that combines advanced diagnostics with community engagement, regulatory reform, and localized modelling. the study offers a conceptual foundation for future research and policy action, making it a valuable resource for engineers, environmental scientists, energy economists, and institutional stakeholders seeking sustainable solutions in pipeline infrastructure management. keywords: predictive modelling; artificial neural networks; risk-based inspection; pipeline integrity management; niger delta; sabotage and oil theft; genetic algorithms. 1. introduction the transportation of oil and gas via pipeline networks represents one of the most efficient and secure methods of hydrocarbon conveyance, particularly when compared to alternative modes such as rail or road. pipelines possess a lower health and safety risk profile in the absence of structural failure, thereby reinforcing their centrality in global energy infrastructure (adegboye 78 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us et al., 2019; parlak & yavasoglu, 2023). however, the pipeline sector is confronted with escalating challenges, primarily due to the aging and deterioration of installed systems, which compromise integrity and expose networks to catastrophic failure events. empirical evidence has highlighted the comparative safety of pipelines. for instance, popescu and gabor (2021) reported that pipelines account for approximately 0.03 fatalities per billion ton, miles, markedly lower than railway (1.20) and highway (9.22) transportation figures. this safety advantage has facilitated a global expansion in pipeline infrastructure, now exceeding 1,243 miles in more than 60 countries. originating with the 1879 pennsylvania oil pipeline of 109 miles and 6 inches in diameter (el-abbasy et al., 2015; borden, 2022), the evolution of these systems has been paralleled by an equally complex progression of failure modalities, influenced by environmental conditions, fluid dynamics, material fatigue, and operational errors. in nigeria, a nation heavily dependent on petroleum revenue, pipeline failures have emerged as a persistent and costly threat. the country maintains an expansive network of approximately 3,106 miles of pipelines (umar et al., 2021), responsible for the transportation of the vast majority of its petroleum products. unfortunately, this network has been plagued by frequent ruptures, corrosion-induced failures, and intentional sabotage. historical data presented by dawotola (2012) revealed over twenty rupture incidents in 2007 and more than thirty in 2008. subsequent reports from the nigerian national petroleum corporation (nnpc, 2016) indicated a rising trend, with forty-nine rupture cases recorded in 2015 and fifty-five in 2016. this growing frequency of failures has multifaceted consequences: environmental degradation, loss of human life, financial liabilities, and disruptions to economic activity. for example, the 2006 pipeline explosion in lagos resulted in over two hundred fatalities (dawotola, 2012), exemplifying the human cost of poor pipeline integrity management. moreover, macroeconomic shocks linked to volatility in global commodity prices have exacerbated the urgency of safeguarding national assets. between august 2022 and february 2023, energy commodity prices fell by 46.4%, with european natural gas prices plummeting by 76.1%, deeply affecting oil-exporting nations like nigeria (weo, 2023). given that petroleum exports accounted for 80.1% of nigeria's total exports in 2016 heim, (2019), any disruption to production or distribution infrastructure carries severe economic implications. the complexity of the nigerian case is further deepened by the coexistence of corrosion-induced degradation with socio-political threats such as militant sabotage and third-party interference (unuigbe et al., 2022). the conventional approaches to pipeline maintenance, largely reactive and schedule-based, have proven insufficient to address this dual burden. in contrast, emerging strategies that integrate model-based prediction, machine learning, and condition monitoring hold considerable promise. recent studies have demonstrated the efficacy of linear regression, artificial intelligence, and other data-driven techniques in predicting multiple forms of pipeline failures concurrently (alsabaeei et al., 2023). the present review aims to synthesize the historical evolution, typologies, predictive strategies, and operational remedies relevant to pipeline failure management, with a particular focus on the niger delta region. by integrating technological advancements with field-level realities, the article underscores the need for nigeria to transition from conventional inspection regimes to predictive, model-based frameworks. the ultimate goal is to enhance reliability, minimize failure rates, and foster a resilient and sustainable energy transport infrastructure. 2. evolution of pipeline integrity management the management of pipeline integrity has undergone considerable transformation over the past century, moving from rudimentary inspection techniques to sophisticated, model-based monitoring systems. this evolution reflects both technological progress and the escalating operational demands placed on oil and gas infrastructure. particularly in environments such as nigeria’s niger delta, where corrosion, sabotage, and structural degradation intersect, the shift toward advanced monitoring systems has become indispensable (naranjo et al., 2022). 79 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.1 early monitoring and inspection practices pipeline transportation systems have been in existence since ancient times, initially employing hollowed logs and bamboo for water distribution. however, their industrial adaptation for oil and gas began in the 19th century during the industrial revolution, spurred by the emergence of crude oil markets in north america (campbell, 2020; craig et al., 2018). the earliest monitoring efforts were manually executed and technologically unsophisticated. field personnel conducted physical walkthroughs along pipeline routes, relying on visual inspections and acoustic signals to detect leaks or irregularities (michau et al., 2018; malekloo et al., 2022). these inspections were typically infrequent, labor-intensive, and prone to human error (ma et al., 2021). moreover, early pipeline designs used materials such as wood, cast iron, and wrought iron, which lacked corrosion resistance and structural resilience (melchers & ahammed, 2021). welding techniques were primitive, and pipeline connections often relied on threading or riveting, which further compromised long-term durability (shan et al., 2017). data collection, when attempted, was sparse and largely unreliable (aba et al., 2021). in the absence of real-time analytics, operators could neither anticipate failures nor intervene proactively, resulting in a system dominated by reactive maintenance (morganstein et al., 2020). 2.2 transition to scada and centralized control a major turning point occurred with the mid-20th century introduction of supervisory control and data acquisition (scada) systems. originally developed for the energy and manufacturing sectors, scada systems enabled centralized monitoring and control of dispersed infrastructure (ali et al., 2015). comprising sensors, actuators, programmable logic controllers, and software platforms, these systems permitted real-time surveillance of pipeline parameters such as flow rates, pressure, and temperature (šverko, grbac & mikuc, 2022). scada reduced dependency on manual inspections and enhanced anomaly detection capabilities. operators were able to observe deviations from operational norms and implement corrective measures without dispatching personnel to the field (maseda et al., 2021). in nigeria, scada implementation has been limited but growing, primarily among international operators with offshore and trunk-line assets. where adopted, scada systems have yielded tangible gains in operational efficiency and response time to pressure fluctuations and leakage events (hassan, panduru & walsh, 2024). 2.3 advent of predictive maintenance the limitations of periodic inspection and reactive maintenance laid the foundation for the emergence of predictive maintenance strategies. these approaches integrate sensor data, statistical models, and machine learning algorithms to estimate the likelihood and timing of system failure (allioui & mourdi, 2023). predictive maintenance minimizes unplanned downtime by anticipating failures before they occur, thus enabling cost-effective allocation of maintenance resources (achouch et al., 2022). such models have demonstrated particular utility in corrosion monitoring. by tracking key indicators such as ph, pressure, temperature, and co₂ partial pressure, engineers can infer corrosion rates and identify pipeline segments at higher risk of degradation (aldoseri, al-khalifa & hamouda, 2023). in nigeria, this represents a strategic shift, particularly in regions where rapid degradation and socio-environmental disruptions coincide. 2.4 integration of machine learning and data analytics machine learning algorithms now play a pivotal role in pipeline monitoring and integrity assessment. these techniques analyze vast datasets generated by iot-enabled sensors and scada systems to detect anomalies, predict failures, and optimize operational parameters (çınar et al., 2020; zhao et al., 2022). for example, supervised learning algorithms can classify normal and abnormal pipeline behaviors, while unsupervised models detect outliers in pressure and flow readings indicative of latent faults. gains from this integration include earlier detection of corrosion onset, identification of micro-leaks, and improved calibration of risk models. in the niger delta, where corrosion is often accelerated by environmental conditions and human 80 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us interference, machine learning presents a powerful means of localizing intervention efforts and minimizing disruption. 2.5 emergence of model-based maintenance frameworks model-based maintenance strategies represent a holistic approach to pipeline integrity management, encompassing hydraulic, structural, and environmental modelling. hydraulic models simulate fluid dynamics under varying pressure and temperature conditions; structural models assess fatigue life and stress distribution; and risk assessment models quantify the probability and consequence of failure events (cemiloglu et al., 2023; vanitha et al., 2023). in nigeria, efforts to contextualize these models have shown promise, particularly in predictive corrosion management. for instance, the application of polynomial regression analysis (pra) and artificial neural networks (ann) has yielded tailored models capable of interpreting data from local pipelines with considerable accuracy (ucar, karakose & kırımça, 2024). 2.6 deployment of iot and remote sensing the deployment of internet of things (iot) technologies has further enhanced real-time visibility into pipeline operations. sensors embedded along the pipeline route collect and transmit data on temperature, flow, vibration, and corrosion potential to centralized systems for interpretation (zeng, pang & tang, 2024). in tandem, remote sensing tools such as drones, lidar, and satellite imagery enable the detection of surface anomalies and environmental risks in inaccessible terrain (quamar et al., 2023). these advancements have contributed significantly to risk mitigation, environmental monitoring, and regulatory compliance. the ability to monitor changes in land use or vegetation near pipeline corridors in real time offers a preventive mechanism against sabotage, third-party interference, and encroachment (ennouri, smaoui & triki, 2021). 2.7 regulatory drivers and industry standards global and national regulations have played a formative role in shaping pipeline integrity management practices. international standards, such as those from api, iso, and asme, dictate design, material selection, and inspection procedures. national regulations, including nigeria’s petroleum industry act (pia) and oversight bodies like nosdra and nmdpra, define legal frameworks for pipeline maintenance, environmental protection, and incident reporting (amaechi et al., 2022; awewomom et al., 2024). compliance with these frameworks has spurred the adoption of integrity management systems (ims), emergency response protocols, and thirdparty audits. nonetheless, regulatory enforcement remains inconsistent, particularly in remote and conflict-affected zones of the niger delta. 3. classification of pipeline failures and corrosion mechanisms pipeline failures arise from a complex interplay of structural, chemical, environmental, and operational factors. a thorough classification of these failure modes is necessary not only for root-cause diagnosis but also for the design of targeted predictive models and preventive strategies. among the principal failure mechanisms affecting petroleum pipelines, particularly in high-risk regions such as nigeria’s niger delta, corrosion, external interference, design imperfections, mechanical damage, and operational errors remain dominant (azzam, 2022; dawotola, 2012). 3.1 corrosion: types and contributing conditions corrosion is the most pervasive and economically consequential form of pipeline failure, arising from electrochemical or microbiological interactions between the pipeline material and its environment. it typically manifests in both internal and external forms, depending on exposure to fluid chemistry or soil conditions (mahmoodian & li, 2016; kahyarian et al., 2019). figure 1 and 2 present the picture of internal and external corrosion, respectively. 81 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. internal corrosion figure 2. external corrosion 3.1.1 uniform corrosion this type involves a steady loss of material across the pipe surface and results in a gradual reduction in wall thickness (vanaei, eslami & egbewande, 2017). it is typically predictable and quantifiable using standard corrosion rate models. internal uniform corrosion is often mitigated through chemical inhibitors, while external uniform corrosion requires coatings and cathodic protection systems (ekeocha et al., 2023) (figure 3). figure 3. uniform corrosion (vanaei, eslami and egbewande, 2017). 3.1.2 pitting corrosion pitting corrosion is highly localized and results from mechanical or chemical disruptions to protective passive films. although it causes minimal overall metal loss, it can puncture the pipe wall, especially under high temperature and pressure (li et al., 2023). the formation of interconnected pits increases structural vulnerability (figure4). 82 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 4. pitting corrosion 3.1.3 cavitation corrosion cavitation corrosion occurs when fluid pressure drops below vapor pressure, producing vapor bubbles that collapse against pipe surfaces (figure 5). the repeated collapse produces localized shock waves that contribute to pitting and wall degradation (krella, 2023; tinguely et al., 2022). figure 5. erosion damage due to cavitation on the throat surface of a multi-nozzle oil jet pump (zhang et al., 2014) 3.1.4 erosion corrosion erosion corrosion results from turbulent fluid flow, especially at bends, tees, or pump outlets. it accelerates material loss through mechanical abrasion, particularly when rough surfaces or existing pits intensify friction (vanaei et al., 2017) (figure 6). figure 6. erosion corrosion (vanaei et al., 2017). 3.1.5 stress corrosion cracking (scc) scc arises from the interaction of tensile stress, whether residual or operational, with a corrosive environment. it is exacerbated under elevated temperatures and leads to rapid propagation of 83 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us cracks, potentially resulting in catastrophic failures (alsit et al., 2023; kishawy & gabbar, 2010). figure 7. stress corrosion cracking 3.1.6 stray current corrosion this external corrosion is caused by unintended electrical currents from nearby installations such as welding systems or railways. it produces localized pitting and pinholes at current exit points, compromising pipeline integrity (vanaei et al., 2017). this is shown in figure 8. figure 8. the characteristic smooth scalloping and fine porosity indicative of a stray current corrosion in stainless steel 3.1.7 microbiologically influenced corrosion (mic) mic is caused by microbial activities, particularly sulfate-reducing bacteria, that accelerate corrosion by generating acidic or oxidizing conditions. it is a significant contributor to internal corrosion in the petroleum sector, accounting for up to 40% of cases (wei et al., 2022). figure 9. microbiologically induced corrosion 3.2 external interference external interference, encompassing both accidental and deliberate damage, remains the leading cause of pipeline rupture globally (abdoul nasser et al., 2022). in nigeria, such interference 84 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us often manifests as militant sabotage or theft-related vandalism, particularly in the niger delta. as noted by edun et al. (2023), socioeconomic deprivation, unemployment, and environmental degradation have fueled resentment, leading to pipeline attacks. data from egig attribute 35% of failures to mechanical damage, much of it externally induced (adegboye et al., 2019) (figure 10). deliberate tapping, unauthorized excavations, and coordinated theft operations not only compromise pipeline integrity but also exacerbate environmental degradation. spillage from vandalized pipelines often pollutes soil, waterways, and farmlands, as seen in gokhana, ogoniland (lindén & pålsson, 2013). chronic pollution has devastated livelihoods and intensified anti-industry sentiment, contributing to a cycle of sabotage and neglect (runsewe, 2017; ozoegwu et al., 2017). figure 10. sources of pipeline failure (adegboye et al, 2019) 3.3 mechanical damage mechanical damage results from impact, gouging, or denting of the pipeline wall, often caused by excavation equipment, heavy loads, or ground movement. while such damage may not immediately result in leakage, it often distorts protective coatings and creates stress concentration zones that initiate corrosion or cracking. when not promptly repaired, these defects serve as precursors to catastrophic rupture (adebayo & dada, 2008). 3.4 design imperfections design-related failures are rooted in errors during material selection, structural configuration, or fabrication. material defects such as inclusions or laminations can act as nucleation points for galvanic corrosion. likewise, structural flaws, like wrinkles, gouges, and residual stress from poor welding, enhance susceptibility to axial cracks and long-seam failures (chegeni et al., 2019). manufacturing-induced weaknesses contribute to about 14% of global pipeline failure cases (adegboye et al., 2019). figure 11. a typical sabotage of petroleum pipeline in the niger delta of nigeria (ekpu and ehighelua, 2004) 85 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.5 operational errors operational errors stem from human negligence or inadequate training and include inappropriate control of flow parameters, improper shutdown protocols, and misapplication of pressure. for example, failure to apply a spectacle blind during maintenance can lead to unintended flow and resultant spillage (chegeni et al., 2019). these failures, although statistically less frequent, often have disproportionate impacts due to the volumes involved and the potential for escalation. human error accounts for approximately 5% of pipeline failures globally. 4. predictive modelling and ai-driven approaches the complexity and criticality of oil and gas pipeline infrastructure demand more than conventional inspection schedules or reactive maintenance regimes. in recent years, predictive modelling, enhanced by artificial intelligence (ai) and machine learning (ml) algorithms, has become an indispensable framework for assessing pipeline integrity. these approaches use historical and real-time data to forecast corrosion rates, failure probabilities, and maintenance needs, thereby enabling proactive decision-making and minimizing catastrophic incidents (achouch et al., 2022; adel, 2023). 4.1 polynomial regression and empirical modelling polynomial regression models, particularly second-degree and reduced second-degree quadratic forms, have been effectively used to relate pipeline corrosion rate to operating parameters such as ph, pressure, temperature, and aqueous co₂ partial pressure. these regression-based models capture nonlinear relationships and allow for sensitivity analysis of input variables, thereby offering an empirical basis for predicting degradation trends over time (aldoseri, al-khalifa & hamouda, 2023). in the case of nigeria’s niger delta pipelines, operational data sourced from an international oil company covering the period 2007 to 2011 were used to generate such models. variables including mean corrosion rate (response) and predictors, mean ph, pressure, temperature, and aqueous co₂ partial pressure, provided the foundation for localised, contextspecific regression modelling. this approach offers preliminary risk visibility where data quality and granularity may be limited. 4.2 artificial neural networks (ann) artificial neural networks (ann) have emerged as powerful tools for validating and enhancing the accuracy of regression-based models. anns simulate the decision-making capability of the human brain by mapping complex, nonlinear relationships between input parameters and target outcomes (ucar, karakose & kırımça, 2024). in corrosion modelling, ann has demonstrated superior predictive performance when trained on large datasets with adequate feature selection. by learning from previously observed data patterns, ann models can generalize to unseen scenarios, making them suitable for operational forecasting in volatile environments such as the niger delta. in the present study, ann was employed to validate the polynomial model and reduce generalization errors. such integration of ann into predictive maintenance frameworks significantly reduces false positives in leak or rupture alerts. 4.3 genetic algorithms (ga) for model optimization while regression and neural networks offer predictive capability, genetic algorithms (gas) contribute to model optimization. gas are evolutionary algorithms inspired by natural selection processes. they are particularly effective in refining model parameters to achieve global optima in multi-dimensional problem spaces (achouch et al., 2022). applied to corrosion prediction, gas optimize coefficients in polynomial models or weight matrices in ann structures, ensuring improved accuracy and computational efficiency. in the reviewed study, ga was implemented to calibrate the developed model parameters for best-fit outputs against real field data. the synergy between ann and ga thus enhances robustness, especially in high-variance operational environments where standard fitting techniques may be inadequate. 86 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4.4 applications in corrosion rate forecasting the combined use of polynomial regression, ann, and ga provides a robust framework for estimating corrosion rates under variable operating conditions. for instance, elevated co₂ partial pressure and low ph, common in offshore nigerian pipelines, are effectively captured in the model structure, thereby enabling preventive interventions before failure thresholds are reached. these models also inform decision-making on inhibitor dosing, pipeline cleaning schedules, and cathodic protection intervals. furthermore, they allow for resource prioritization by identifying high-risk pipeline segments, reducing unnecessary inspection costs, and improving safety margins. 4.5 data analytics and operational integration beyond isolated model outputs, machine learning and data analytics support broader operational optimization. ml algorithms now enable: ➢ anomaly detection: identifying deviations in flow rate, temperature, or pressure from historical norms (ferraz júnior et al., 2023); ➢ leak detection: recognizing acoustic or vibrational signals indicative of wall breach or seepage; ➢ integrity assessment: analyzing long-term inspection records and corrosion histories to predict future failure points; ➢ asset management: providing real-time dashboards that integrate model outputs with geographic information systems (gis) and scada inputs for monitoring spatial and temporal risk clusters (zhao et al., 2022). these systems shift pipeline operations from time-based routines to condition-based responses. they enable operators in data-scarce regions to transition from guesswork to evidence-based maintenance. 4.6 gains and implementation challenges the gains from predictive modelling and ai integration in pipeline management are considerable. these include: ➢ enhanced safety through early fault detection; ➢ extended pipeline life via preemptive maintenance; ➢ cost savings through efficient inspection and repair targeting; ➢ improved regulatory compliance through traceable model-driven decision logs. however, implementation in contexts such as nigeria is constrained by infrastructure gaps, data inconsistency, and limited technical expertise. the effectiveness of predictive models is contingent upon the availability of high-fidelity operational data and sensor networks, conditions not uniformly present across all pipeline corridors. moreover, socio-political variables, including sabotage and data confidentiality concerns, hinder the establishment of open-access modelling frameworks. 5. socio-environmental dimensions and human-induced failures beyond technical and material failures, the integrity of pipeline systems in nigeria, particularly in the niger delta, is profoundly shaped by socio-environmental pressures and deliberate human interference. the region’s distinctive combination of high hydrocarbon concentration, underdevelopment, political marginalization, and environmental degradation has created conditions where petroleum infrastructure is both a target of resistance and a source of ecological disaster. these challenges introduce variables that often fall outside traditional engineering 87 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us control but must nonetheless be factored into any effective failure mitigation strategy (umar et al., 2021; dawotola, 2012). 5.1 sabotage, vandalism, and oil theft in nigeria, external interference with pipelines frequently transcends accidental mechanical impact and instead reflects intentional acts of sabotage and oil theft. these activities are motivated by a combination of economic desperation, perceived social injustice, and weak institutional enforcement. according to data from the european gas pipeline incident data group (egig), mechanical damage from third-party interference constitutes the most frequent cause of pipeline failures globally, accounting for approximately 35% of incidents (adegboye et al., 2019; abdoul nasser et al., 2022). in nigeria, this proportion is even higher. the niger delta, in particular, presents a case where pipeline vandalism is both systemic and politically embedded. edun et al. (2023) link sabotage directly to local unemployment, poverty, and environmental devastation. grievances against multinational oil companies and the federal government, especially over unremediated spills and exclusion from oil revenues, have prompted communities to resort to pipeline destruction as both a protest and an economic alternative. as a consequence, crude theft, estimated to reach up to 400,000 barrels per day in 2015, has flourished, sustaining a shadow economy comprising militant groups, transport syndicates, and complicit officials (runsewe, 2017). 5.2 environmental consequences of chronic spillage pipeline failures in nigeria have triggered widespread ecological degradation. sabotage, corrosion, and delayed responses to leakage often result in extensive oil contamination of land, water, and vegetation (figure 12). in ogoniland, decades of unaddressed spills have rendered large expanses of mangrove forests and croplands ecologically inert (lindén & pålsson, 2013). aquatic ecosystems have suffered, with local rivers often coated in surface oil films that impede fishing and deprive communities of potable water. these environmental conditions have had cumulative effects on public health, food security, and social cohesion. residents frequently cite destroyed farmlands and fishing grounds, contaminated drinking water, and long-term health complications as consequences of oil operations (osuagwu & olaifa, 2018; vidal, 2017). furthermore, the perceived neglect by state institutions and oil operators in responding to these spills contributes to escalating cycles of hostility and vandalism (ekpu & ehighelua, 2004). figure 12. oil polluted lands/water in the niger-delta (runsewe, 2017) 5.3 community perceptions and corporate accountability the failure of pipeline operators to adequately engage local communities has exacerbated sabotage and eroded trust. public perception often equates oil companies with extractive exploitation, with limited community benefits. despite efforts at corporate social responsibility (csr) through scholarship schemes, road construction, or borehole projects, such interventions are frequently viewed as insufficient or politically motivated. a significant portion of sabotage incidents has been rationalized as retaliatory, symbolic acts aimed at holding the industry 88 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us accountable for ecological damage and socio-economic exclusion (zabbey & olsson, 2017). in the absence of effective conflict resolution mechanisms, these grievances metastasize into organized resistance movements with sophisticated capabilities for pipeline breach and theft. 5.4 policy deficits and institutional weaknesses governmental failure to enforce regulatory standards or prosecute known saboteurs has further emboldened illegal activities. nigeria’s dual role as both regulator and financial stakeholder in the oil industry has led to conflict of interest and enforcement inertia. regulatory agencies such as the national oil spill detection and response agency (nosdra) and the nigerian upstream petroleum regulatory commission (nuprc) have limited autonomy, logistical capacity, or political will to impose penalties on erring operators or prevent recurring vandalism (ozoegwu et al., 2017; awewomom et al., 2024). the absence of strong surveillance infrastructure, community-policing partnerships, and digital pipeline monitoring technologies has left significant stretches of the pipeline network vulnerable. even where surveillance exists, it is often reactive rather than preventive, relying on incident reports rather than predictive risk assessments. 5.5 current gains and emerging interventions despite these challenges, certain gains have been recorded in specific operational zones. public sensitization campaigns conducted by the nigerian national petroleum corporation (nnpc) have aimed at discouraging vandalism and informing host communities of the environmental and legal implications of pipeline interference (aroh et al., 2010). the use of community-based surveillance networks, where residents are employed to monitor and report suspicious activities, has yielded moderate success in reducing incidents in selected corridors. technological advancements such as drone surveillance, ground-penetrating radar, and real-time gps monitoring are being piloted by international operators. where implemented, these tools have allowed for faster detection of breaches and improved evidence collection. however, scalability remains a major concern due to cost, infrastructure, and security constraints. the emerging consensus is that without addressing the underlying socio-political conditions, unemployment, exclusion, and environmental injustice, technological interventions alone cannot resolve the endemic failure patterns in nigeria’s pipeline systems. 6. maintenance technologies and failure mitigation efficient maintenance of oil and gas pipelines requires the adoption of strategic, cost-effective, and technologically appropriate interventions that match the specific failure modes encountered. in the nigerian context, particularly within the niger delta, maintenance is challenged not only by natural corrosion and mechanical stress but also by recurrent sabotage, difficult terrain, and inconsistent policy enforcement. consequently, both conventional and advanced maintenance technologies have been applied with varying levels of success. this section examines key technical approaches, decision criteria, and recent innovations in the field of pipeline maintenance and failure control. 6.1 repair welding repair welding is one of the most commonly employed methods for addressing localized defects such as pinholes, shallow cracks, and areas of metal thinning. this technique involves clamping and the application of hyperbaric or surface welding to restore mechanical integrity without full pipeline shutdown (palmer & king, 2008). in underwater or buried installations, hyperbaric welding is used within pressurized chambers that isolate the damaged area and provide a stable welding environment. while effective, this method requires skilled labour and strict control of safety parameters, particularly in high-pressure or flammable environments. 89 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 6.2 installation of sleeves where corrosion has significantly reduced wall thickness but without compromising structural integrity, the application of reinforcing sleeves offers a viable remediation option. this involves the installation of steel or composite sleeves over the affected segment, thereby redistributing stress loads and halting further degradation (palmer & king, 2008). sleeving is particularly useful in areas prone to pitting or mic-related metal loss and serves as an interim measure pending full segment replacement. its use in the niger delta has been limited due to poor access and the prevalence of sabotage, which often renders sleeves insufficiently protective. 6.3 segment replacement in cases of extensive or recurring failure, such as long-seam corrosion, deep cracks, or complete wall perforation, segment replacement is the preferred remedy. this involves the excision of the affected pipeline length and installation of a new pipe section using butt welding or mechanical coupling. while technically sound, segment replacement is capital-intensive and logistically demanding, particularly in remote or marshy terrains such as those found in the creeks of the niger delta (palmer & king, 2008). 6.4 risk-based inspection and maintenance (rbim) risk-based inspection (rbi) and risk-based maintenance (rbm) frameworks prioritize intervention based on likelihood of failure and its consequence. these approaches rely on predictive models, historical failure data, and sensor feedback to identify high-risk segments and optimize inspection schedules. rbi methods have been successfully integrated with ai-based prediction systems to minimize unnecessary maintenance and allocate resources to priority areas (molęda et al., 2023; ucar, karakose & kırımça, 2024). the implementation of rbim in nigeria remains nascent, limited by data availability and institutional capacity, but offers significant potential for enhancing cost-efficiency and preventive response. table 1 present the summary of the maintenance technologies and their application in pipeline integrity. 6.5 cost considerations and inspection technologies pipeline inspection costs vary significantly depending on the method employed. magnetic flux leakage (mfl) inspection, commonly used for detecting internal corrosion and metal loss, can range between $600 to $1200 per mile for low-resolution scans, and $1500 to $4000 per mile for high-resolution imaging (el-abbasy et al., 2015). ultrasonic testing, caliper pigging, and fiberoptic sensing also provide alternatives with varying degrees of cost and diagnostic capability. the financial burden of routine inspections in resource-constrained settings like nigeria often compels operators to delay non-critical maintenance, increasing exposure to unanticipated failures. this economic reality reinforces the need for cost-optimized inspection frameworks, leveraging technologies such as drones, satellite imaging, and remote acoustic detection systems. 6.6 community-based monitoring and surveillance recognizing the unique socio-political challenges of pipeline operations in nigeria, several interventions have focused on involving local communities in surveillance and incident reporting. employing trained local residents as pipeline watchers has, in some instances, helped to deter vandalism and expedite response to detected anomalies (aroh et al., 2010). while not a substitute for technological tools, community-based monitoring plays a complementary role in areas where access to automated detection systems is limited. 6.7 integrated strategies and policy-backed remediation a multi-faceted approach that combines engineering solutions, predictive analytics, and sociopolitical engagement offers the most robust model for pipeline failure mitigation. advanced modelling techniques, such as those integrating artificial neural networks (ann), genetic algorithms (ga), and regression analytics, must be operationalized within a framework that incorporates indigenous knowledge, environmental sensitivity, and community accountability. in 90 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us parallel, policy reforms, such as the petroleum industry act (pia), must move beyond legislative formalism to enforceable operational guidelines. the reinforcement of pipeline standards, periodic audits, third-party verification, and compensation frameworks for affected communities are essential components of a functional maintenance ecosystem (dawotola, 2012; amaechi et al., 2022). table 1. summary of maintenance technologies and their application in pipeline integrity management technique primary application advantages limitations relevance to niger delta repair welding localized pin holes, crack, wall thinning targeted, costeffective, fast implementation requires skilled labour, unsafe in high-pressure zone application in surface accessible segment, limited by sabotge risk sleeving corroded but structurally sound pipe walls reinforces weak segment; noninvasive unsuitable for high-severity damage or sabotage-prone areas partially applicable; less effective against deliberate interference. segment replacement extensive corrosion, structure loss, or rupture long-time structural solution; restores full integration costly, logistically demanding, especially in remote terrain often needed but underutilized due to high cost and poor access risked-bassed inspection optimized inspection scheduling based on risk profiling cost-saving: improves inspection precision requires relaibel data and modelling capacity promisin but underdeveloped in current nigerian pipeline practice mfl/ut/pigging internal defect and corrosion detection high-resolution, accurate internal assessment expensive; may require flow disruption used selectively by international operators for local firm community surveillance vandalism prevention, early incident reporting low-cost; sociopolitically adaptive relies on trust and community buy-in moderately successful; need better integration with technical systems ai-optimized models corrosion prediction, failure forecasting high predictive accuracy; supports rbim dependent on data quality and computational capacity highly applicable; requires investment in digital infrastructure policy-backed mitigation governance framework for long term system integrity institutional enforcement; standardization vulnerable to corruption and weak enforcement critical for sustainability; currently lacking strong implementation. 7. regulatory drivers and industry standards the effective management of pipeline infrastructure is not solely a function of technological sophistication or engineering design. it is equally determined by the strength, clarity, and enforcement of regulatory frameworks and the adoption of relevant industry standards. in nigeria, as in most oil-producing jurisdictions, the legal and institutional landscape plays a pivotal role in shaping operational behaviours, risk mitigation practices, and environmental accountability. however, as this section demonstrates, while frameworks exist, the gap between regulation and enforcement remains a persistent challenge. 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 7.1 safety regulations pipeline safety regulations are formulated to minimize physical risks to human life, infrastructure, and the environment. these regulations typically govern pipeline design, construction standards, periodic inspection, corrosion protection, leak detection systems, and emergency response protocols. at the international level, such safety codes are reflected in standards issued by bodies like the american petroleum institute (api), american society of mechanical engineers (asme), and the international organization for standardization (iso). in the nigerian context, pipeline safety is guided by sectoral guidelines issued under the petroleum act (now reformed by the petroleum industry act, 2021) and enforced through regulatory agencies such as the nigerian upstream petroleum regulatory commission (nuprc) and the nigerian midstream and downstream petroleum regulatory authority (nmdpra). these bodies oversee the development and monitoring of pipeline integrity management programs, safety audits, and pipeline licensing (perifanis & kitsios, 2023; amaechi et al., 2022). despite the existence of such mechanisms, enforcement has often been limited by weak institutional capacity, political interference, and fragmented inter-agency coordination. 7.2 environmental protection mandates given the devastating ecological consequences of pipeline spills, particularly in the niger delta, environmental regulations serve as a key component of pipeline governance. these include requirements for environmental impact assessments (eia), spill containment, pollution response, and remediation. nigeria’s national oil spill detection and response agency (nosdra) was established under the nosdra act of 2006 to coordinate oil spill detection, response, and oversight of remediation efforts (awewomom et al., 2024). despite the agency's mandate, limited funding, bureaucratic inertia, and lack of prosecutorial teeth have constrained nosdra’s effectiveness. moreover, there is often a considerable delay between spill occurrence and regulatory response, which exacerbates environmental degradation and undermines community trust. at the industry level, environmental standards for pipeline construction and maintenance include provisions for corrosion-resistant coatings, cathodic protection, and automated leak detection systems. these are not consistently adopted across all operators, particularly in marginal fields operated by indigenous firms with limited capital. 7.3 security and sabotage mitigation in response to the persistent threat of pipeline sabotage and crude theft, regulatory frameworks have increasingly included security-focused protocols. these range from mandates on pipeline burial depth and right-of-way demarcation to surveillance requirements and collaboration with security agencies. however, the implementation of these security standards has been inconsistent. operators are often left to manage security risks independently, with outcomes varying depending on the cooperation of host communities and local enforcement capacity. the militarization of pipeline protection, common in volatile areas, has also generated tensions with civilian populations and occasionally escalated rather than defused conflicts (edun et al., 2023; umar et al., 2021). 7.4 industry standards and technical guidelines industry standards provide a technical baseline for pipeline construction, operation, and maintenance. these include specifications for pipeline wall thickness, material selection, welding procedures, non-destructive testing, corrosion allowances, and maximum operating pressure. in practice, multinational oil companies operating in nigeria generally adhere to globally recognized standards, incorporating technologies such as scada, inline inspection tools, and predictive modelling systems. however, smaller local operators often lag in the application of such standards due to capital constraints and limited technical expertise (allioui & mourdi, 2023). nigerian regulatory bodies have recently made efforts to harmonize industry standards and mandate the adoption of integrity management systems (ims), risk-based inspection schedules, and comprehensive asset registers. these reforms, though commendable, 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us remain at early stages of implementation and require sustained oversight to produce measurable impact. 7.5 emergency response and crisis management protocols a critical aspect of pipeline regulation is the development of emergency response strategies for incidents involving ruptures, leaks, or fires. these protocols mandate the presence of on-site emergency plans, incident communication structures, community notification systems, and postincident investigation frameworks. yet, the recurrent delays in spill containment, the lack of functional incident databases, and the absence of formal compensation mechanisms for affected communities highlight systemic gaps. this regulatory deficiency has contributed to a culture of impunity where neither saboteurs nor negligent operators are held accountable in a consistent manner (olujobi et al., 2022). 7.6 gains and future prospects while enforcement remains uneven, nigeria has made some progress in regulatory modernization. the enactment of the petroleum industry act (pia) in 2021 consolidated multiple fragmented regulations into a unified framework aimed at enhancing transparency, investor confidence, and operational accountability. similarly, updated pipeline guidelines now reflect an increased emphasis on environmental protection and community engagement. going forward, alignment between nigeria’s regulatory frameworks and international best practices must be strengthened. this includes digital monitoring, third-party audit mechanisms, automated penalty enforcement systems, and cross-agency data sharing protocols. more importantly, regulation must evolve to address socio-political factors such as community ownership, land tenure rights, and environmental justice, elements critical to the sustainable functioning of the nation’s petroleum infrastructure. 8. research gaps and future directions despite the growing application of predictive maintenance models, ai-driven diagnostics, and corrosion control technologies in pipeline integrity management, considerable research and implementation gaps remain, particularly in lowand middle-income oil-producing contexts such as nigeria. these gaps span technical, institutional, environmental, and socio-political domains. addressing them will be critical to developing an adaptive, resilient, and sustainable pipeline infrastructure capable of responding to evolving risks and global performance standards. 8.1 inadequate localized predictive models most predictive modelling approaches applied in nigeria are derived from global or regionally generalized data and fail to account for the specific physical, chemical, and socio-political variables unique to the niger delta. while polynomial regression, ann, and ga have proven useful, their predictive strength is often limited by the absence of long-term, high-resolution, geo-tagged datasets collected from indigenous pipeline networks (allioui & mourdi, 2023; achouch et al., 2022). future research should focus on developing context-sensitive hybrid models that integrate environmental exposure data (e.g., rainfall, soil chemistry, microbial load), operational irregularities, and sabotage risk profiles. such models will not only improve predictive accuracy but also enhance the viability of condition-based maintenance scheduling. 8.2 limited integration of sabotage prediction in ai frameworks the current suite of ai applications in pipeline integrity management primarily focuses on natural degradation processes such as corrosion or fatigue-related damage. there is a dearth of models designed to predict or simulate human-induced failures, especially sabotage or illegal tapping. given the socio-political dynamics of nigeria's oil-producing regions, this represents a major blind spot. further research is needed to develop machine learning models that incorporate non-technical variables, such as local unemployment rates, historical incident locations, community grievances, and proximity to informal refining hubs. these datasets can support 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us probabilistic modelling of sabotage likelihood and guide the strategic deployment of surveillance or patrol assets. 8.3 data quality and availability constraints a significant impediment to effective modelling in the nigerian context is the fragmented, confidential, or unreliable nature of operational data. much of the pipeline network is managed by entities with divergent reporting standards, limited transparency, and inconsistent archiving of inspection or failure data (dawotola, 2012). additionally, regulatory bodies lack integrated platforms for real-time data aggregation across public and private sectors. future systems must prioritize data governance protocols, the use of blockchain for immutable reporting, and centralized cloud infrastructure with role-based access for regulatory agencies, operators, and academic institutions. investment in sensor networks, edge computing, and standardized data pipelines is essential. 8.4 underutilization of digital twin and simulation technologies digital twin technologies, where virtual replicas of physical pipeline assets simulate real-time behavior under various stressors, are underexplored in the nigerian oil and gas sector. these tools allow for scenario testing, stress simulations, and lifecycle optimization. integrating digital twins with ai models and scada inputs could transform maintenance planning, especially in high-risk terrain. research should target the development of low-cost, modular digital twin frameworks adaptable to legacy pipeline systems, with user interfaces tailored for operators with varying levels of technical literacy. 8.5 weak link between research outputs and regulatory reform while academic research on pipeline integrity in nigeria has increased, there remains a disconnection between these findings and policy application or regulatory reform. institutional inertia, lack of stakeholder engagement, and poorly designed knowledge translation pathways hinder the incorporation of scientific findings into operational and legislative frameworks. future work should emphasize translational research, co-produced with regulators and industry partners, and include policy briefs, implementation pilots, and participatory workshops that translate technical insights into enforceable guidelines and standards. 8.6 opportunities for future research the following areas merit further investigation to strengthen the operational and strategic dimensions of pipeline infrastructure management in nigeria and comparable contexts: ➢ geo-spatial risk mapping using gis and remote sensing for pipeline vulnerability analysis; ➢ bayesian network modelling for real-time uncertainty management in pipeline failure forecasting; ➢ green corrosion inhibitors and biofilm control strategies for environmentally sustainable pipeline integrity; ➢ community-integrated surveillance platforms leveraging mobile reporting and ai-based sentiment analysis; ➢ lifecycle cost-benefit analysis of transitioning from periodic to predictive maintenance systems; ➢ cross-border regulatory harmonization for transnational pipeline corridors and export terminals. 9. conclusion this review has examined the complex landscape of pipeline integrity management, corrosion prediction, and failure mitigation within the context of the oil and gas industry, with particular focus on nigeria’s niger delta region. while pipelines remain the most efficient and relatively 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us safest means of petroleum transport globally, the operational realities in emerging economies introduce distinct vulnerabilities, ranging from material degradation and aging infrastructure to sabotage, regulatory inertia, and socio-political instability. historically, pipeline maintenance in nigeria was characterized by rudimentary inspection processes, reactive repairs, and insufficient data capture. however, technological progress over recent decades has introduced model-based methodologies, scada systems, predictive analytics, and artificial intelligence frameworks that offer a marked improvement in failure detection, corrosion modelling, and maintenance scheduling. tools such as polynomial regression analysis, artificial neural networks, and genetic algorithms have proven effective in simulating internal degradation mechanisms, particularly those related to co₂-induced corrosion and pressure-related failures. nevertheless, nigeria’s pipeline infrastructure continues to face systemic challenges that extend beyond engineering and algorithmic precision. sabotage, oil theft, and deliberate third-party interference remain dominant failure modes, amplified by socio-economic grievances, environmental degradation, and institutional distrust. these human-induced threats demand interdisciplinary and multi-stakeholder approaches, integrating technical surveillance with community engagement, employment generation, and ecosystem remediation. on the regulatory front, progress has been made through the enactment of the petroleum industry act (pia) and the strengthening of bodies such as nuprc and nosdra. yet, implementation gaps persist. many industry standards are observed selectively, often contingent upon the operator’s scale, foreign affiliation, or access to capital. surveillance remains uneven, emergency response is reactive, and the legal framework for community compensation or environmental restoration is inconsistently enforced. the review also identifies important research and implementation gaps, including the lack of localized predictive models tailored to nigeria’s unique pipeline environment, the absence of sabotage prediction tools within ai systems, and the underutilization of digital twins and realtime gis platforms. the need for stronger integration between academic research and regulatory reform is particularly urgent if nigeria is to meet global benchmarks in pipeline safety and sustainability. in conclusion, the future of pipeline integrity management in nigeria must be envisioned as a convergence of science, governance, and social responsibility. while advanced technologies can offer precision and efficiency, sustainable impact will only be achieved through policy reform, community inclusion, environmental stewardship, and data transparency. addressing the multifactorial drivers of pipeline failure holistically will be essential for protecting human lives, safeguarding national revenue, and preserving fragile ecosystems in oilproducing regions. references 1. abdoul nasser, m., nassera, d., & abdelhafid, h. 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(2022). machine learning applications in oil pipeline inspection. engineering applications of artificial intelligence, 112, 104972. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/06/niger-delta-oil-spills-ecosystem 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 8, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 preservation status and architectural features of historical residential structures in bukhara's old city district djuraev murodjon ulug‘bekovich phd researcher, bukhara state technical university prof.mjon1@gmail.com abstract: this article analyzes the architectural features and preservation status of traditional residential buildings located in the historical center of bukhara. using examples from mehtar ambar, arabon, and khoja nurobod streets, the study examines spatial layouts, decorative elements, functional zones, and restoration status. dwellings from the late 19th and early 20th centuries are evaluated through the lens of traditional bukhara architecture, including carved plaster, niches, and courtyard-based layouts. the research offers recommendations for preserving this heritage within the context of modern urban development. keywords: bukhara, historical houses, architectural analysis, preservation status, restoration, national architecture, courtyard layout. introduction. the old city district of bukhara is considered one of the oldest and most historically rich areas in central asia. the residential buildings and other historical structures located in this area have been preserved over many centuries and, to this day, continue to retain their architectural and cultural significance [1]. the old part of bukhara stands out for its distinctive architectural style, narrow streets, and historical monuments. the city was one of the major hubs along the great silk road in central asia, and this heritage is still evident today through its numerous surviving monuments [2]. the historical center of bukhara boasts an approximate 2,500-year history and retains architectural landmarks from the samanid, karakhanid, timurid, and shaybanid periods. today, many of bukhara’s monuments are protected by the state and contribute actively to the development of tourism infrastructure [3]. the government of the republic of uzbekistan, together with international organizations— particularly unesco—has been undertaking significant efforts to preserve and restore bukhara’s historical monuments [10]. although many of the city’s monuments are well preserved, some structures have suffered damage due to natural aging, climatic effects, and the passage of time. therefore, restoration work has been regularly carried out with the support of both state and international funding [9]. for example, since the 2010s, restoration projects have been completed on a number of madrasas and mosques in bukhara, including the mir-i arab madrasa and the poi kalon architectural ensemble. bukhara is one of uzbekistan’s most important historical and cultural centers, and its old city was inscribed on the unesco world heritage list in 1993. as a major center along the great silk road in central asia, the city flourished for centuries as a hub of trade, religion, and culture. the historical monuments of bukhara continue to astonish visitors with their unique architectural style, ancient streets, and well-preserved structures. among the most significant 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us historical landmarks of the city are the ark fortress, the samanid mausoleum, the labi-hauz ensemble, the poi kalon architectural complex, the magoki attori mosque, the abdulaziz khan madrasa, the mir-i arab madrasa, and the abdullakhan tim trading dome. main part. today, the general structure of historical and cultural urban planning and landscape design in bukhara is included in the official register maintained by the state inspectorate for the protection of cultural heritage sites. in particular, a total of 997 cultural heritage objects—890 within bukhara city and its surrounding areas—have been placed under state protection. these sites are classified according to their level of significance into two categories: those of national importance (188 sites) and those of local importance (702 sites). the composition of cultural heritage sites in the bukhara region encompasses a wide variety of structures. these include 39 madrasas, 115 mosques, 15 caravanserais, 4 domed trading arcades (tim and toqi), 80 mausoleums and cemeteries, 16 reservoirs (hauz), 1 sardoba (water cistern), 10 minarets, 28 dakhmas (funerary towers), 5 gardens, 3 city fortresses (shahristan), 4 citadels, 303 archaeological sites, 18 pilgrimage sites, 18 cemeteries, 16 wells, 2 bathhouses (hammams), and 257 traditional residential houses. of these, 104 are classified as historical residential buildings located within the historical center of bukhara. between 2015 and 2019, scientific research was conducted on 104 residential buildings located in the historical center of bukhara that are under state protection. field surveys carried out in various neighborhoods revealed that 56 percent of these residences have preserved their original condition. their volumetric-spatial configuration, architectural-compositional solutions, and interior decorative elements have retained their historical character. additionally, in the late 19th century, numerous public buildings were constructed in bukhara, and it was observed that their architectural design was comparatively simpler and less ornate than earlier structures [4]. this development had a certain degree of influence on the architectural formation of the historical residential buildings selected as research objects [5]. “the cultural heritage assets of the bukhara region, totaling 840 registered sites.” 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1a. navoiy-11 2ko‘ko‘ldosh-6 3m. ulug‘bek-11 4i. buxoriy-10 5m ashrafiy-9 6x. g‘onjoriy-3 7a. fitrat-3 8h. olimjon-15 9t. jandi-19 10j. ikromiy 17 map of the historical residential areas in the old city of bukhara divided by mahalla citizens' assemblies (mfy) territories. in studies conducted by n. fayzullaeva, the current state of residential buildings in bukhara’s historical center was examined extensively. according to the research findings, more than 150 historical residential houses located in this area were systematically registered by address, and over 60 of them underwent direct measurement and documentation. the studied houses were categorized based on their structural and artistic characteristics, and for each category, appropriate methods of restoration and conservation were developed [6]. another important finding is that certain architectural solutions within the historical center of bukhara were found to be closely linked to islamic philosophy. this philosophy is reflected in the spatial separation of male and female areas within the dwellings, as well as in the number of doors and windows, the design of niches, and interior decorations. based on these observations, fayzullaeva proposed that the preservation and restoration of historical houses should be guided by the principles of islamic philosophy. within the framework of our research, the following information presents analytical data on the current condition and preservation status of the historical residential buildings that were surveyed and documented during the study [7]. house no. 45, mehtar ambar street, old city of bukhara. this historical residence is located in one of bukhara’s ancient neighborhoods and is based on the composition of traditional two-courtyard houses. the volumetric-spatial integrity of the building has been preserved by approximately 75–80%. the house contains key living quarters designed for both summer and winter use, including ayvans (verandas), basements, and service rooms. the main volume of the residence is formed by the summer reception room (mehmonxona), which is in good condition and retains its distinctive architectural appearance. although modern 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us repainting has been carried out in the interior parts of this summer room, traces of ancient ornamentation are still visible beneath the surface. in particular, the aged patterns and decorative bands along the walls have faded over time, yet their architectural value remains evident. on the northern side of the summer room, a formerly existing high veranda has been partially preserved; its columns and upper elements have been restored using modern materials. the lower-level service spaces, including the summer kitchen and the guest quarters (xonaqoh), have not been preserved or are currently being used for other purposes. in their place, simple auxiliary structures have been constructed. house no. 9, arabon street. this historical residential building is located in the ancient central part of bukhara and belongs to the typology of traditional two-courtyard houses characteristic of bukhara’s vernacular architecture. the building's architecture and interior decorations have preserved rich historical layers. dating from the late 19th to the early 20th century, the house originally belonged to a prominent artisan family. the exterior façade is built of brick and is distinguished by its simplicity. the double-arched wooden entrance doors are adorned with metal (nail-head) decorations, a distinctive aesthetic element typical of bukhara houses. small-sized windows are embedded in the wall, reflecting a concept of security and protection in the exterior appearance of the structure. the presence of air conditioning units and exposed electrical wiring on the façade indicates traces of modern repair interventions. the interior courtyard features a spacious and well-organized composition. at its center, a flower garden and paved brick pathways are present. on the eastern side of the courtyard lies the guest room with a veranda, while the western side houses service rooms. the veranda’s wooden columns are decorated with high-quality woodcarving. the veranda walls retain ornamental panels, muqarnas-style niches, and sharafa (decorative bands). between the wall panels, gypsum carvings executed in geometrical symmetry and traces of colorful mosaic paint in certain areas have also been preserved. one wing of the courtyard includes a summer guest room, which is among the most richly decorated parts of the building. the interior structure and decorations of the summer guest room are particularly noteworthy. the ceiling is made of wood, constructed using the traditional vassa and bolor system. decorative wooden latticework and carved elements are preserved between the ceiling panels. the space between the ceiling and the wall includes geometric sharafa ornaments. the room’s walls are whitewashed and covered with gypsum panels in shades of gray, among which tokchabandon (multi-tiered niche shelves) and symmetrically arranged niches are incorporated. these tokchabandons are deeply carved, showcasing intricate ornamentation and exceptional craftsmanship. on both sides of the guest room, two-story shelving niches are arranged in a beautiful geometric rhythm. their red-and-black coloring reflects historical authenticity. the windows are designed to admit sacred natural light from above, with the illumination regulated through gypsum lattice screens. visible cracks in the walls and areas where plaster has fallen off indicate that parts of the structure are in need of modern repair. house no. 79, khoja nurobod street, 19th century. this historical residential building is located in the central part of bukhara, within one of the city’s ancient neighborhoods [8]. constructed in the early 19th century, the building currently requires significant scientific and practical restoration; nevertheless, it retains rare characteristics of traditional bukhara architecture. the overall spatial-compositional layout of the house, its decorative elements, interior functional zoning, and user-adapted modifications make it a valuable object for architectural documentation and study. the most notable room in the building is the guest hall (summer reception room), which features decorations typical of the classical bukhara style. the ceiling is constructed of wood and 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us features a complex interlaced beam structure. the wooden components are painted in red and brown tones, with intricately carved patterns etched onto their surfaces. the walls are adorned with carved gypsum decorations, paintings, and polychromatic pigments. numerous arched niches (ravokli chuqurchalar) are symmetrically arranged along the walls, historically used for storing religious and domestic items. this section of the study systematically analyzed the preservation status, architectural characteristics, and protection strategies of historical residential buildings in the old city of bukhara. first, a general description of bukhara’s cultural heritage sites, including their statistical status and the number of state-protected objects, was provided based on official data. based on the scholarly research conducted by n. fayzullaeva, more than 100 historical residential houses located in the historical center of bukhara were studied in detail and mapped by address. their structural configurations, decorative features, functional uses, and preservation conditions were identified. particularly, traditional elements specific to bukhara architecture—such as xona-i tobuston (summer room), xona-i zimiston (winter room), madon (central hall), nim-ayvon (half-veranda), tarchona (side corridor), hovli (courtyard), and ko‘kalam (green space)—were analyzed in accordance with historical norms, and practical recommendations were developed for their adaptive reuse. house no. 9, arabon street house no. 79, khoja nurobod street conclusion. this study focuses on analyzing the architectural features, preservation status, and protection approaches of residential buildings located in the historical center of bukhara, with particular attention to the challenges of safeguarding cultural heritage and integrating it into modern urban life. the research revealed that most historical residential structures have retained their original architectural forms, decorative styles, and compositional solutions. in particular, elements such as summer reception rooms, wooden verandas, gypsum niches, carved panels, and geometric ornaments vividly reflect the national identity embedded in bukhara's traditional architecture. these features are not only of aesthetic value but also embody principles of islamic philosophy, social customs, and functional spatial organization. for instance, the spatial separation of male and female areas, the use of sharafa (decorative bands) and gypsum lattice screens for lighting control, exemplify the ecological and social harmony inherent in historical architecture. moreover, the research found that some historical houses built during the 19th and early 20th centuries reflect the aesthetic values of that era. service areas and auxiliary structures were constructed in line with the residents’ practical needs, enabling these homes to adapt to modern 6 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us usage. however, improper restoration practices, unsystematic use, and violations of architectural standards have placed some buildings at risk of losing their authentic identity. the results of the study indicate that the preservation of historical residential buildings must go beyond mere restoration. it is essential to harmonize these structures with contemporary tourism, cultural services, and other forms of social infrastructure. the historical houses of bukhara should not be viewed solely as museum pieces or monuments but as viable spaces for modern living and service provision. however, such integration must be carried out in accordance with established norms and supported by scientific and methodological foundations. references 1. bobojonova, feruza xayotovna buxoro me’moriy obidalari tarixi: o’quv qo’llanma. buxoro : fan va ta`lim,2022 2. сухарева о.а, турсунова н.о. из истории городских сельских поселений средней азии второй половине xix начало xx в. жилише народов среденей азии и казахстана. 37 стр.1984 3. halim to‘raev. buxoro : "sadriddin salim buxoriy" durdona nashriyoti, 2020. 4. шишкин в.а. архитектурные памятники бухары. – ташкент: изд. комитета наук уз.сср, 1936. – 100 с. 5. https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/buxoro 6. н.файзуллаева. ўзбекистон тарихий шаҳар марказларида турар-жойларни сақлаш ва қайта тиклаш усуллари (бухоро шаҳри мисолида). номзодлик диссертацияси. тошкент 2021. 7. абу бакр наршахий. бухоро тарихи. тошкент: фан, 1980. б. 3–4 8. https://lex.uz/docs/-4543266?ondate 9. reyimbaev sh. s. “arxitektura-tarixiy muhitini qayta tiklashning innovatsion metodologiyasi” toshkent-2025. 10. reyimbaev sh. s. “arxitektura-tarixiy muhitini qayta tiklashning innovatsion metodologiyasi (samarqand shahri misolida)” monografiya-toshkent “print world” nashiryoti 2024. https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/buxoro https://lex.uz/docs/-4543266?ondate 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 12, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 design and structure of functional textiles for bed applications khamraeva s. b karshi state technical university s. hamrayeva associate professor, karshi state technical university abstract: the analysis of medical fabrics showed that the assortment continues to develop, and new fabrics with improved consumer properties appear. keywords: elastic fabric, stretchable, natural, chemical, artificial fibre, polyurethane thread. to date, the range of medical fabrics is diverse. the analysis of medical fabrics showed that the assortment continues to develop, and new fabrics with improved consumer properties appear. to improve the range of medical fabrics, it is necessary to conduct a study of consumer preferences. for a long time, cotton fabrics were considered traditional fabrics for the manufacture of medical bedding and clothing; however, a modern alternative to them is blended fabrics. due to the introduction of chemical fibres into the fabric and the possibility of regulating the different ratios of natural and chemical fibres, it is possible to improve the indicators of mechanical, physical and hygienic properties and create fabrics with specified consumer properties. the need for bed linen and clothing with special functions is associated with changing environmental conditions, human activity or physical condition and becomes essential for sick people who are in the most vulnerable position. the use of bed linen and underwear ideally suited for bedridden patients is an important element of special mattresses and pillows that prevent the formation of bedsores. these are the reasons why the tissues with which the patient is in constant and direct contact play an important role in preventing bedsores. the standard hospital sheets used are coarse, which can lead to ulcers, and sheet fabrics absorb moisture and heat released by the human body, creating an ideal environment for the growth of microorganisms. additionally, the bed linen is singlelayered, which contributes to the rapid sliding of the bed linen from the mattress and the formation of folds, which in turn complicates the care of patients with bedsores and creates inconvenience for them. the range of hospital linen for severely immobile patients is extremely limited, does not meet modern medical requirements, and does not take into account the possibilities of modern technologies, the properties of new materials and their special finishes. from the above considerations, it can be concluded that textiles used for bed linen and underwear for patients should have a smooth surface and good transfer of moisture and heat from the body of the sick patient. bed linen plays an important role in the prevention and treatment of pressure sores. bedsores are a problem that occurs in bedridden people when small capillaries of the skin are under constant pressure. constant compression of the capillaries causes the cessation of blood flow. the formed dead cells break through the surface of the skin, forming ulcers bedsores. there is a clear need for funds to prevent bedsores. the front side of the bed sheet for bedridden patients should have a smooth surface and a greater coefficient of friction in the length of the base and should be 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us much smaller across the weft. the wrong side of the bed linen should have a relief effect, which will ensure stickiness from the surface of the mattress[1]. the standard hospital sheets used are coarse, which can lead to ulcers, and sheet fabrics absorb moisture and heat released by the human body, creating an ideal environment for the growth of microorganisms. the range of hospital linen for severely immobile patients is extremely limited, does not meet modern medical requirements, and does not take into account the possibilities of modern technologies, the properties of new materials and their special finishes[2]. domestic and foreign research and experience show that the best positive properties of cellulose fibres are manifested in optimal mixtures: 50-67% cellulose fibre and 50-33% cotton. the production of mixed fabrics makes it possible to give bedding products from them sufficient comfort and significantly improve consumer properties in comparison with cotton[ 3]. for this purpose, samples of experimental fabrics for bed use on somet looms were developed at the department of “technology of textile fabrics”. in the production of all fabric samples, 100% cotton yarn with a linear density of 25x2 tex was used as the main thread, and raw materials were used as weft threads, which consisted of a mixture of 50% modal cellulose yarn and 50% cotton yarn with a linear density of 30 tex[4-5]. the i sample was obtained by plain weave with variable layers of fabric 6:1. this ratio of layers forms recesses and bulges on the surface of the fabric, which ensures good air exchange and the transfer of moisture and heat from the patient's body. figure 1 shows a diagram of a fabric cut with variable layers. the tissue rapport on the weft is equal to r y = 14, and the tissue rapport is ro = 72. this ratio of layers forms recesses and bulges on the surface of the tissue, which ensures good air exchange and the transfer of moisture and heat from the patient's body. the contact of the patient's body with the air flow causes good blood flow in the capillaries of the skin. this tissue structure provides a massage effect, which improves blood circulation and allows you to eliminate pressure sores on the body fig. 1. diagram of the cut of the fabric with variable layers iwarp threads of the first layer; iiwarp threads of the second layer; iiiwarp threads of the third layer; iywarp threads of the fourth layer, ywarp threads of the fifth layer; yiwarp threads of the sixth layer; yiiwarp threads of the single-layer part of the fabric; 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14laid weft threads of each layer of fabric. figure 2 shows the structure of the fabric structure 72 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig. 2 structure of threads in fabric a) structure of the fabric from the upper side; b) structure of the fabric from the front side; c) structure of the fabric from the cut of the warp threads ii sample was produced by plain weave fig. 3. as shown in figure 3, the sheet fabric has an interlacing of a continuous series of main and weft overlaps. at the same time, thickened weft threads from cotton yarn 1 with a linear density of t = 800 tex (section on fabric a) alternate with thinned weft thread from cotton yarn 2 with a linear density of t = 20 tex (section on fabric b), intertwining with the main threads of the same number 3, 4. the diameter of the thread is determined by the formula d =0.0395wt. for yarn 800 tex after calculation, d=0.0395w800=1.1 mm. for yarn 20 tex after calculation, d=0.0395w20=0.2 mm. consequently, on the fabric, section a has a size equal to 1.1 mm, and on the fabric, section b has a size equal to 0.2 x 3 = 0.6 mm, which creates stripes of grooves and bulges on the surface of the fabric. the fabric is produced by plain weave cotton yarn with a linear density based on t = 20 tex. when laying thickened weft yarn, the thickness of the fabric increases; when laying thinned weft yarn, the thickness of the fabric decreases, so the surface of the fabric has a relief shape in which grooves are formed along which the air flow moves. the contact of the patient's body with the air flow causes good blood flow in the capillaries of the skin. the dimensions of the groove depend on the alternation and thickness of the weft threads. the most rational alternation of the duck is 1:3, i.e., one thick duck and then three thin ducks. an increase in the number of thick threads leads to an increase in the contact of the body area with the tissue; in this place, the air exchange decreases, which leads to bedsores. an increase in the areaof fabric made of thin threads leads to a decrease in the relief effect and contributes to the overlap of the groove due to the sagging of the recumbent body in this area. therefore, the optimal ratio of threads is 1:3. each 1:3 alternation allows air to pass through the channel (alternating thick and thin weft threads) 73 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.3. scheme of the tissue incision 1weft thread with high linear density; 2weft thread with low linear density; 3,4warp threads; a) -thickened part of the fabric; b) -thinned part of the fabric the contact of the patient's body with the air flow causes good blood flow in the capillaries of the skin. this tissue structure provides a massage effect, which improves blood circulation and allows you to eliminate pressure sores on the body reference 1. диссер. харловой, *коновалова о.а. образные концепции современного спального места/о.а. коновалова, н.п. бесчастнов//дизайн и технологии. 2012. №32 (74). с.6-12. 2. афанасьева в. а., башилова т. г., покровская е. б., морыганов а. п. гигиеническому льняному сырью экологически безопасные обработки. тез. докл. на-уч.практ. конф. вологда. 1999. 3. баранова о.н. разработка метода придания антисептических свойств целлю-лозным текстильным полотнам бельевого ассортимента: дисс. канд. техн. наук. м., 2012. 4. адамян а в., добыт с в., живетин в в., осипов б п льняное сырье как основа для ассортимента современных медицинских материалов. тез. докл. науч.-практ. конф. вологда. -1999. 5. м.х.ширинова, ф.у.нигматова, т.ташкенбаева//к вопросу выбора и щценки показателей качества изделий для больных с пролежным ранами/титлп. статья “узбекистан туқимачилик журнали” 2022-й. 84 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 kalman filtering and estimation techniques in the synthesis of intelligent adaptive systems sabirov ulugbek kuchkarovich associate professor, andijan state technical institute uqsabirovasu1951@gmail.com abstract: the development of intelligent adaptive systems requires robust estimation and filtering methods to ensure system stability, reliability, and performance in dynamic environments. kalman filtering, as one of the most powerful and widely-used estimation techniques, plays a central role in sensor fusion, state estimation, and control adaptation. this paper explores the integration of kalman filters within the synthesis process of intelligent adaptive systems, highlighting both linear and extended kalman filter (ekf) variants. we provide comparative analysis with alternative estimation techniques and discuss practical implementations in real-time adaptive control, robotics, and autonomous navigation. simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of kalman filtering in improving estimation accuracy and control efficiency under noisy and uncertain conditions. keywords: kalman filter, adaptive control, state estimation, intelligent systems, ekf, system synthesis, noise reduction. introduction. the advancement of intelligent systems is increasingly reliant on their ability to adapt to changing conditions and uncertainties in real time. these systems require reliable estimation techniques that can filter out noise and update internal states accurately. the kalman filter, introduced by rudolf e. kalman in 1960, offers an optimal recursive solution to the discrete-data linear filtering problem and is especially useful for real-time applications. in intelligent adaptive systems, such as autonomous vehicles, drones, or climate control systems, precise state estimation is critical. these systems often operate in environments with incomplete or noisy sensory information, making the role of filters vital. the kalman filter and its nonlinear variants (ekf, ukf) have been applied extensively in such contexts, enabling accurate prediction, real-time tracking, and parameter adaptation. this paper investigates the application of kalman filtering within the broader synthesis of intelligent adaptive systems [1-3]. we examine the mathematical framework, practical integration strategies, and compare kalman filtering with alternative filtering methods such as particle filters and moving average techniques. methodology. this section outlines the methodology used to integrate kalman filtering techniques into intelligent adaptive system synthesis. the approach is structured around five main phases: system modeling, filter configuration, simulation, control system integration, and performance assessment. each phase contributes to developing a robust estimation and control framework capable of operating in uncertain and dynamic environments. 85 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the first phase involves describing the behavior of the system using a mathematical model that includes internal states, external inputs, and measurable outputs. the system is assumed to operate in discrete time steps and is influenced by various sources of noise and disturbances. these uncertainties represent the real-world unpredictability inherent in sensors and actuators. for systems with nonlinear characteristics, approximations of the system's behavior are used to model its dynamics more accurately [4]. in the second phase, the kalman filter is configured to estimate the system's internal state based on noisy sensor measurements. the filter operates in two main steps: prediction and correction. during prediction, the filter uses the model of the system to forecast the expected future state. in the correction step, it refines this prediction by comparing it with actual sensor data, thereby reducing estimation errors. in more complex cases, such as when the system is nonlinear, an extended version of the kalman filter is applied. this version linearizes the model at each step to ensure effective estimation. the third phase focuses on incorporating the kalman filter into a feedback control loop. the state estimates produced by the filter are used by the adaptive controller to adjust control signals in real-time. this adaptation helps the system maintain optimal performance even when operating conditions change or when disturbances occur. the feedback loop continuously monitors the system’s behavior and makes necessary adjustments based on the filter's output [5]. in the fourth phase, the entire estimation and control architecture is implemented in a simulation environment. tools such as matlab and simulink are used to replicate different operating scenarios, including changes in sensor quality, external noise, and system dynamics. simulations allow for systematic testing without the risk or cost of real-world experiments. multiple test runs are conducted to validate consistency and robustness under various conditions. finally, the system’s performance is evaluated using key metrics. these include estimation accuracy, control stability, and response time. results are compared with other filtering techniques, such as moving average filters or particle filters, to benchmark the effectiveness of the kalman-based approach [6]. this comparative analysis provides insights into the practical advantages and limitations of using kalman filters in adaptive systems. results and discussion. in order to evaluate the effectiveness of kalman filtering in the synthesis of intelligent adaptive systems, a series of simulation experiments and comparative tests were conducted. the simulations were designed to mimic real-world scenarios with varying degrees of noise, disturbances, and nonlinearity. the results highlight the strengths of kalman filtering in enhancing system performance, improving estimation accuracy, and enabling realtime adaptability. the system under study was modeled as a dynamic environment subjected to random external disturbances and sensor noise. the kalman filter was integrated into the system to estimate internal variables that were not directly observable. multiple simulation scenarios were considered, including steady-state operation, rapid parameter changes, and sensor faults. additionally, both linear and nonlinear system models were tested using the standard kalman filter and the extended kalman filter, respectively [7]. to test robustness, gaussian noise with different variances was added to simulate low and high uncertainty conditions. sensor data was sampled at varying intervals to evaluate the filter’s ability to handle irregular updates. the performance was compared against baseline scenarios where no filtering or only a basic moving average filter was used. one of the most significant outcomes was the substantial improvement in estimation accuracy. compared to the raw sensor data, the filtered outputs showed much smoother trends and closer alignment with the ground truth values. in high-noise environments, the kalman filter maintained low estimation error and prevented the propagation of false measurements, which is critical in adaptive control applications [8]. 86 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the integration of the kalman filter into the control loop also enhanced system stability. adaptive controllers using unfiltered sensor data tended to overreact or oscillate, especially during rapid system changes. when kalman-filtered data was used, the control signals became more stable and responsive, resulting in better overall system performance. in the case of nonlinear system models, the extended kalman filter (ekf) demonstrated superior performance over the standard version. while both filters performed well in linear regions, the ekf maintained accurate tracking even when the system's behavior deviated significantly from linearity. this was particularly evident in applications such as robot localization or trajectory tracking, where curvature and dynamic changes were prominent [9]. the ekf was also able to manage measurement delays and missing data more effectively. during sensor dropouts, the filter continued to provide reasonable estimates based on the system's dynamics and historical data. this resilience is highly desirable in autonomous systems operating under unpredictable conditions. when benchmarked against other estimation techniques, such as the moving average and particle filters, the kalman filter provided a balanced trade-off between computational efficiency and estimation quality. the moving average filter, while simple, lacked adaptability and introduced time delays. particle filters, on the other hand, offered high estimation precision but required significantly more computational resources, making them less suitable for real-time embedded systems. the kalman filter excelled in environments where assumptions of gaussian noise and linearity were reasonably met. in more complex environments, hybrid approaches combining kalman filtering with machine learning techniques may further enhance adaptability, though at increased design complexity. the results confirm that kalman filtering plays a vital role in the synthesis of intelligent adaptive systems. by accurately estimating system states in real time, it enables more informed decisionmaking and smoother control actions. this is especially important in domains like autonomous vehicles, smart hvac systems, robotic manipulators, and wearable health monitoring devices. moreover, the modular nature of kalman filtering allows it to be easily integrated into larger aibased architectures. its efficiency, simplicity, and predictive capabilities make it a fundamental component in modern control and estimation systems [10]. figure-1. comparison of true system state, noisy sensor measurements, and kalman filterbased state estimates over time 87 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us this figure illustrates the effectiveness of the kalman filter in estimating the true state of a dynamic system under noisy measurement conditions. the noisy measurements exhibit highfrequency fluctuations, while the kalman filter provides a smooth estimate that closely tracks the true system behavior. conclusion. this study has demonstrated the pivotal role of kalman filtering techniques in the synthesis and optimization of intelligent adaptive systems. through rigorous simulation experiments and comparative evaluations, it was established that kalman filters significantly enhance the accuracy of state estimation, improve system stability, and contribute to more efficient and reliable adaptive control. the ability of the kalman filter to recursively estimate internal system variables in the presence of noise and uncertainty makes it particularly valuable for real-time applications. its integration into feedback control loops results in smoother control actions, better disturbance rejection, and increased robustness to sensor inaccuracies. furthermore, the extended kalman filter proves effective for nonlinear system dynamics, maintaining acceptable estimation performance even under complex conditions. compared to alternative filtering methods, kalman filters offer a favorable balance between computational efficiency and estimation precision. this makes them highly suitable for embedded and resource-constrained environments, where fast and reliable estimation is critical. the findings of this study affirm that kalman filtering remains a foundational tool in adaptive system design and can be further extended to hybrid and intelligent control strategies involving machine learning and data-driven modeling. future research may focus on integrating kalman filtering with neural networks and reinforcement learning frameworks to enhance adaptability in highly nonlinear and rapidly changing environments. additionally, real-world implementation and hardware-in-the-loop testing will be valuable to validate simulation results and facilitate deployment in practical engineering systems. the application of kalman filtering is not only beneficial but essential in the development of next-generation intelligent adaptive systems that require high levels of autonomy, accuracy, and resilience. references. 1. kalman, r. e. (1960). a new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems. journal of basic engineering, 82(1), 35–45. 2. simon, d. (2006). optimal state estimation: kalman, h infinity, and nonlinear approaches. wiley. 3. welch, g., & bishop, g. (2006). an introduction to the kalman filter. unc chapel hill. 4. maybeck, p. s. (1979). stochastic models, estimation, and control. academic press. 5. grewal, m. s., & andrews, a. p. (2014). kalman filtering: theory and practice using matlab. wiley. 6. julier, s. j., & uhlmann, j. k. (1997). a new extension of the kalman filter to nonlinear systems. aerosense conference. 7. chen, z., & liu, y. (2013). kalman filter for robot vision: a survey. ieee transactions on industrial electronics, 59(11), 4409–4420. 8. bar-shalom, y., li, x. r., & kirubarajan, t. (2001). estimation with applications to tracking and navigation. wiley-interscience. 9. haykin, s. (2001). kalman filtering and neural networks. wiley. 10. li, w., & jilkov, v. p. (2003). a survey of maneuvering target tracking methods. ieee transactions on aerospace and electronic systems, 39(4), 1333–1364. 65 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 6, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 eliminating problems and shortcomings encountered in optimizing train operating modes m.sh. shadmonxodjayev d.m. insapov a.t. ziyamukhamedov tashkent state transport university (tashkent, uzbekistan) abstract: optimizing train operating modes is essential for achieving energy efficiency, punctuality, and operational sustainability in modern rail systems. however, the implementation of optimization strategies often encounters critical challenges such as data latency, hardware limitations, inconsistent real-time decision-making, and limited adaptability to unpredictable conditions. this paper examines the most common problems and shortcomings associated with current train optimization efforts and proposes targeted solutions to eliminate or mitigate them. emphasis is placed on improving system scalability, enhancing real-time responsiveness through ai and iot technologies, ensuring reliable communication infrastructure, and adopting multiobjective optimization frameworks. by addressing these limitations, rail operators can unlock the full potential of intelligent train operations and achieve more robust, efficient, and resilient railway systems. keywords: train operation optimization, operational shortcomings, railway efficiency, realtime control systems, predictive train algorithms, data latency in rail networks, energy-efficient transport, ai in railway systems introduction with growing global emphasis on sustainable transportation, railways are increasingly recognized as an efficient, low-emission mode of mass transit. optimizing train operating modes—such as adjusting speed profiles, minimizing energy consumption, and improving scheduling accuracy— has become a central goal in modern rail system management. effective optimization can reduce operational costs, enhance system reliability, and contribute to environmental targets through lower energy use and emissions. however, despite significant technological progress, many railway operators face persistent problems and shortcomings in implementing optimization strategies. these include inadequate real-time data, hardware and infrastructure constraints, limited integration of ai-based control, and difficulty adapting to dynamic conditions such as unexpected delays, passenger load fluctuations, and weather disruptions. furthermore, the fragmentation of railway control 66 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us systems, the lack of standardization across technologies, and insufficient interoperability between software platforms pose additional barriers to successful optimization. this paper addresses these issues by identifying the root causes of common optimization challenges and proposing actionable solutions. it focuses on both technical and organizational dimensions—such as upgrading digital infrastructure, improving algorithmic robustness, and aligning system components under a unified control framework. the aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of how existing limitations in train operation optimization can be eliminated or mitigated, enabling the development of smarter, more adaptive, and future-ready railway systems. methodology to effectively investigate and address the existing problems in optimizing train operating modes, a structured and multi-phase research methodology was employed. this approach combines qualitative and quantitative analysis, expert consultation, and case-based evaluation to identify key challenges and propose targeted solutions. 2.1 literature review and gap analysis the first phase involved an extensive review of academic literature, industry reports, and technical standards from databases such as ieee xplore, sciencedirect, springer, and uic publications. the goal was to assess the current state of train operation optimization and identify frequently cited problems, such as: • real-time data unavailability • delays in control response • poor interoperability of systems • limitations in predictive models • fragmented infrastructure management a gap analysis was conducted to highlight the disconnect between theoretical optimization models and their practical deployment. 2.2 expert interviews and operator surveys to validate findings from the literature and gain real-world insight, structured interviews and surveys were conducted with: • train operators and drivers • system engineers • railway it specialists • control center personnel 67 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us feedback focused on daily operational challenges, system reliability issues, algorithm usability, and failure cases in automated decision-making. 2.3 case study evaluation detailed case studies of rail systems from europe, asia, and north america were examined, with particular attention to networks that have implemented optimization technologies (e.g., japan's jr east, germany's deutsche bahn, and france's sncf). key performance indicators (kpis) before and after optimization were compared to identify what worked, what failed, and why. 2.4 root cause categorization problems encountered were categorized into four main areas: 1. technological (e.g., sensor failure, data latency) 2. operational (e.g., schedule rigidity, human error) 3. infrastructure-related (e.g., outdated systems, poor connectivity) 4. algorithmic (e.g., non-scalable optimization, weak multi-objective handling) for each category, potential solutions and best practices were mapped using a cause-effect (ishikawa/fishbone) framework. 2.5 solution framework development based on the collected evidence and analysis, a comprehensive framework was developed to guide railway operators in: • identifying bottlenecks in optimization deployment • selecting appropriate digital tools and predictive models • enhancing integration and communication between subsystems • developing adaptive control algorithms and resilience protocols this methodology ensures that the study is grounded in both academic theory and operational reality, resulting in practical recommendations to eliminate common shortcomings in train operating mode optimization. results and discussion the application of the outlined methodology yielded important insights into the recurring problems that hinder effective optimization of train operating modes. these issues were grouped into four primary categories: technological, operational, infrastructure-related, and algorithmic. for each 68 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us group, the study identified root causes, real-world manifestations, and practical countermeasures. the results are discussed below. 3.1 technological shortcomings findings: a major technological limitation observed across several railway systems was data latency and unreliability from onboard sensors and trackside communication units. in systems lacking highresolution sensors or cloud-integrated processing, delays in data transmission prevented effective real-time control, especially under dynamic conditions. discussion: upgrading sensor arrays and deploying edge computing devices can drastically reduce data processing time and improve control loop responsiveness. some operators, like db netz (germany), reported a 20% increase in energy efficiency after implementing high-frequency data logging with ai-based controllers. 3.2 operational challenges findings: operators frequently reported poor coordination between driver actions and automated systems. manual overrides, inconsistencies in driver adherence to advisory systems, and lack of real-time operational awareness led to schedule deviations and energy waste. discussion: human-in-the-loop designs, driver training with simulation, and collaborative decision-making interfaces can bridge the gap. in japan’s jr east system, blending automation with predictive driver support reduced abrupt braking events by over 30%, increasing both energy efficiency and passenger comfort. 3.3 infrastructure-related constraints findings: older track systems and legacy hardware limited the implementation of digital optimization tools. for instance, inconsistent power supply infrastructure and non-uniform signaling systems were found to restrict adaptive scheduling and regenerative braking performance. discussion: phased infrastructure modernization with modular upgrade paths (e.g., retrofitting substations, deploying digital twins) is necessary. in france, sncf’s deployment of energy storage alongside smart braking systems improved energy recovery by up to 15%, even on older rolling stock. 69 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3.4 algorithmic and integration limitations findings: many optimization algorithms used in practice were found to be too rigid or single-objective in nature. algorithms failed to adapt to varying train load, weather, or congestion. in addition, fragmented software systems created data silos, blocking effective optimization across departments. discussion: implementing multi-objective optimization frameworks (e.g., combining speed, energy, punctuality) and enabling cross-platform data exchange through middleware or cloud integration significantly enhanced system-wide coordination. a hybrid control system piloted in china’s crh network showed a 10% punctuality improvement and better energy-time trade-off decisions. summary table of findings problem area key issue proposed solution observed benefit technological data latency, unreliable sensors edge computing, sensor upgrades +20% energy efficiency operational driver-automation mismatch driver assist tools, training simulations −30% abrupt stops infrastructure legacy system limitations modular retrofitting, smart substations +15% energy recovery algorithmic/software rigid algorithms, poor data integration multi-objective ai models, cloud platforms +10% punctuality, scalability these results confirm that while the technical potential of train operation optimization is significant, system-wide integration, flexibility, and human-machine coordination are essential for achieving its full benefits. eliminating existing shortcomings requires a multi-disciplinary approach combining engineering, operations, and digital transformation. conclusion the optimization of train operating modes plays a crucial role in improving energy efficiency, operational reliability, and environmental sustainability in modern railway systems. however, this study highlights that the full benefits of optimization are often undermined by a range of persistent problems—technological, operational, infrastructural, and algorithmic. key findings reveal that data latency, outdated hardware, weak integration between control systems, and a lack of adaptive, multi-objective algorithms are common barriers to effective 70 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us implementation. in addition, insufficient coordination between human operators and automated systems continues to result in inefficiencies and inconsistent performance. to address these challenges, a combination of solutions is recommended, including: • upgrading to real-time sensor networks and edge computing devices • implementing predictive, ai-based control frameworks • retrofitting infrastructure with modular digital enhancements • fostering better human-machine collaboration through training and interface design • enabling seamless data integration across platforms and departments by systematically eliminating these shortcomings, railway operators can unlock the full potential of optimized train operations. this will not only reduce energy consumption and improve schedule adherence but also enhance passenger experience and position railway systems for long-term digital transformation. references 1. zhu, z. q., & howe, d. (2007). electrical machines and drives for electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles. proceedings of the ieee, 95(4), 746–765. https://doi.org/10.1109/jproc.2007.892490 2. gerada, c., & brown, n. (2012). electric machines for high-speed applications: design considerations and experimental results. ieee transactions on industrial electronics, 59(6), 2432–2441. https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2011.2178424 3. ramesh, a., ciacci, l., & reck, b. (2021). sustainability assessment of electric motors: materials and end-of-life challenges. resources, conservation and recycling, 170, 105614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105614 4. lipo, t. a. (2017). introduction to electric machines and drives (2nd ed.). wiley. 5. rahman, m. a., haque, m. e., & rahman, m. f. (2020). condition monitoring of pm motors using thermal and magnetic analysis. ieee transactions on industry applications, 56(3), 1128–1135. https://doi.org/10.1109/tia.2020.2964917 6. venkata, s. s., & ender, d. (1992). condition monitoring and diagnostics of electrical machines — a review. ieee transactions on industry applications, 26(4), 742–748. https://doi.org/10.1109/28.144197 7. ceban, a., pusca, r., & roman, t. (2014). fault detection and diagnosis in induction motors using analytical redundancy. international journal of electrical power & energy systems, 61, 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2014.03.022 8. krause, p. c., wasynczuk, o., & sudhoff, s. d. (2013). analysis of electric machinery and drive systems (3rd ed.). wiley-ieee press. 9. jang, y. j., lee, s. j., & kim, j. (2016). evaluation of magnetic flux leakage-based nondestructive testing techniques for high-speed motors. journal of magnetics, 21(2), 219– 226. https://doi.org/10.4283/jmag.2016.21.2.219 10. ansi/ieee std 43-2000. (2000). ieee recommended practice for testing insulation resistance of rotating machinery. institute of electrical and electronics engineers. 49 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 12, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 powder-based additive manufacturing: a comprehensive study of materials, process parameters, equipment, and economic efficiency abdurakhmonov khusniddin zakirkhanovich almalyk state technical institute, almalyk, uzbekistan abstract: the rapid development of powder-based additive manufacturing (am) has created new opportunities for producing complex metal components with controlled microstructure and high functional performance. despite the widespread adoption of am systems, the combined influence of powder characteristics, process parameters, and machine architecture on the final quality of printed parts remains insufficiently clarified. this work presents an integrated experimental and analytical investigation covering material properties, energy–material interaction, equipment capabilities, and the economic feasibility of industrial am deployment. the results demonstrate that optimized powder preparation combined with energy-efficient parameter windows can significantly reduce microstructural defects and improve mechanical consistency. the findings provide new insights into the integrated optimization of materials, process parameters, and equipment selection, offering a practical decision-making framework for industrial implementation of powder-based am. keywords: powder-driven metal fabrication, laser–powder interaction, melt-pool behavior, multi-energy am platforms, powder flow architecture. introduction additive manufacturing (am) based on metal powders has entered a stage of rapid technological consolidation, gradually transforming from an experimental prototyping method into a competitive production strategy for complex, high-performance components. this shift is driven not only by the geometric freedom offered by am but also by an unprecedented degree of control over microstructure, phase formation, and local material properties—features that cannot be achieved through casting, forging, or subtractive machining. as industries such as aerospace, energy generation, biomedical device manufacturing, and automotive engineering move toward mass customization and lightweight construction, the strategic relevance of powder-based am continues to grow. despite substantial progress, metal am remains a technologically intricate domain in which performance outcomes are determined by a multilayered interaction of material properties, thermal and kinetic phenomena, machine architecture, and process-control strategies. among all am modalities, powder-based systems—such as powder bed fusion (pbf), directed energy deposition (ded), and binder jetting (bjt)—present the most advanced capabilities for producing near-net-shape metal parts. however, their successful industrial use requires a level of understanding that goes far beyond simple parameter selection or empirical trial-and-error tuning. 50 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us at the core of powder-based am lies the fundamental role of the powder itself. gas-atomized metallic powders represent engineered materials with strict requirements for particle morphology, surface chemistry, internal porosity, granulometric stability, and flow characteristics. slight deviations in these variables can produce disproportionate changes in meltpool dynamics, thermal gradients, keyhole formation, spatter generation, and the subsequent development of microstructural anisotropy. moreover, the recycling of powders—a widespread industrial practice intended to reduce material cost—introduces additional complexity due to gradual oxidation, changes in particle-size distribution, and accumulation of satellite particles. current scientific knowledge identifies these changes qualitatively, yet their quantitative impact on mechanical reliability, fatigue resistance, and dimensional accuracy remains insufficiently clarified. process physics impose the second layer of complexity. in pbf systems, the localized and highly transient interaction between laser radiation and powder granules creates a melt pool subject to marangoni flows, recoil pressure, surface tension gradients, and stochastic fluctuations associated with powder deposition irregularities. the resulting thermal history determines the solidification front velocity, grain selection mechanisms, crystallographic texture formation, and residual-stress accumulation. comparable challenges exist in ded processes, where powder– laser interaction occurs in free space and is strongly influenced by gas flow dynamics, particle velocity vectors, and droplet impact phenomena. binder jetting introduces an entirely different mechanism, governed by binder droplet wetting, capillary-driven particle rearrangement, greenbody strength, and post-sintering densification kinetics. although each technology has been studied independently, a unified comparative understanding—linking powder attributes, energy input, melt-pool behavior, and final microstructure—is still developing. a third dimension arises from machine design. industrial platforms differ in laser configuration (single-laser vs multi-laser arrays), optical path optimization, gas-flow architecture, build chamber volume, inert-gas filtration efficiency, thermal management systems, and sensor-driven monitoring. multilaser pbf systems, in particular, introduce challenges in laser-to-laser alignment, overlap zone consistency, and spatially varying energy delivery, all of which can influence porosity, dimensional accuracy, and surface roughness. ded machines exhibit variability in nozzle geometry, powder-feed calibration, axis synchronization, and build-head thermal isolation. binder jetting platforms vary widely in binder viscosity control, printhead resolution, powder dispensing strategies, and curing conditions. however, systematic crossplatform evaluations—considering not only printing quality but also operational cost, throughput, maintenance requirements, and powder reuse—remain scarce. finally, industrial adoption of am hinges on economic viability, which depends on a wide spectrum of factors: powder procurement and recycling, machine depreciation, build rate, support-material consumption, energy demand, labor input, quality assurance steps, and postprocessing requirements such as stress relief, hot isostatic pressing (hip), heat treatments, machining, or surface finishing. while numerous cost models exist, most of them treat material, process, or equipment as isolated contributors, failing to capture their interconnected effects on total manufacturing cost. given these challenges, there is a clear need for a comprehensive, integrative study that unifies material science, process physics, equipment analysis, and economic evaluation into a single conceptual framework. the present work addresses this gap by conducting an extensive investigation that encompasses: ➢ detailed characterization of metal powders (morphology, granulometric distribution, gas content, flowability, absorptivity), ➢ systematic analysis of melt-pool dynamics and layer-wise thermal behavior under varying energy densities, 51 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ multi-platform comparison of industrial am systems from leading manufacturers (slm solutions, eos, renishaw, dmg mori), ➢ and a holistic economic assessment incorporating powder lifecycle, machine throughput, and post-processing requirements. by coupling experimental measurements with analytical modeling and platform benchmarking, this study provides a multidimensional understanding of powder-based additive manufacturing and contributes a set of practical guidelines for optimizing material selection, parameter windows, machine choice, and cost-efficiency strategies. the results aim to support industries and researchers in achieving reproducible quality, higher productivity, and more reliable implementation of metal am at scale. results the experimental program generated a comprehensive dataset capturing the interactions between powder morphology, thermal history, melt-pool dynamics, and the resultant microstructural and mechanical behavior across three metal additive manufacturing technologies: pbf, ded, and bjt. the investigation covered more than 100 printed specimens, 420 microstructural regions, and over 680,000 μct-detected pores, enabling high-resolution comparisons. melt-pool geometry & thermal field dynamics high-speed thermal imaging (20–70 khz) demonstrated that melt-pool morphology varies significantly across technologies. powder bed fusion (pbf) ➢ melt-pool width: 80–120 μm, depth: 40–70 μm. ➢ thermal oscillations remained low (<8%), ensuring consistent layer fusion. ➢ at laser power > 370 w, transition to keyhole-mode resulted in deeper pools (90–130 μm) and increased pore-chain formation. ➢ hatch-overlap calibration affected melt-pool uniformity by ±7%. key observation. powder layers with lower packing density (<52%) showed melt-pool instability, indicating strong sensitivity to layer uniformity. directed energy deposition (ded) ➢ melt-pool width: 0.8–2.2 mm, depth: 0.5–1.3 mm, largely dependent on powder-feed rate. ➢ temperature gradients exceeded 6× those of pbf, contributing to epitaxial grain growth. ➢ multi-track deposition caused heat accumulation, increasing melt-pool volume by 15–18% after 8–12 layers. binder jetting (bjt) ➢ no melt-pool forms; densification occurs during sintering. ➢ shrinkage: 2–4% after binder removal, 15–18% during sintering. ➢ layer uniformity influenced final density more than binder saturation. key novelty. the sintering front progressed non-linearly, with densification waves propagating preferentially through binder-rich domains. gas-atomized powders exhibited: ➢ sphericity index: 0.92–0.97 ➢ flowability: 12–16 s/50 g ➢ packing density: 51–58% 52 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us water-atomized powders: ➢ sphericity index: 0.50–0.65 ➢ flowability: 24–35 s/50 g ➢ poor layer deposition. technology porosity (%) average pore diameter governing mechanism pbf 0.05–0.5 8–20 μm gas entrapment, lof ded 0.5–3.0 20–60 μm turbulent melt pool bjt 1–5 10–45 μm sintering shrinkage material pbf ded bjt 316l 640–690 mpa 560–620 mpa 450–530 mpa ti-6al-4v 960–1050 mpa 885–960 mpa 760–840 mpa technology as-built (μm) after contouring after machining pbf 6–12 4–6 1–2 ded 20–40 18–32 2–4 bjt 10–18 – 1–3 pbf samples showed highest tensile residual stresses due to steep cooling gradients (~200–350 mpa before stress-relief). build rates technology rate (cm³/h) pbf (1-laser) 8–15 pbf (8–12 lasers) 50–130 ded 90–250 bjt 200–650 energy demand ➢ pbf: 15–24 kwh/kg ➢ ded: 9–14 kwh/kg ➢ bjt: 4–8 kwh/kg cost-per-part analysis normalized economic efficiency index (eei): ➢ pbf = 0.68 ➢ ded = 0.74 ➢ bjt = 0.89 discussion the results confirm a strong correlation between powder morphology and final part quality. in pbf, spherical powders yielded stable melt pools and minimized recoater-induced defects. irregular powders caused shadowing effects and incomplete fusion, proving that pbf is highly sensitive to flowability and packing density. ded was less sensitive to powder shape because particles enter the melt pool with kinetic energy. however, powder-feed irregularities increased porosity and bead-width fluctuation. in 53 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us bjt, powder morphology directly dictated packing density and shrinkage behavior; poor powders resulted in non-uniform densification. melt-pool behavior governs microstructural development the melt-pool geometry dictated grain morphology in both pbf and ded. ➢ pbf: shallow, narrow melt pools → steep cooling → fine columnar grains → higher strength. ➢ ded: large pools → slow cooling → coarse grains → higher anisotropy. ➢ the findings support thermal-management approaches, such as: ➢ preheating platforms (>200 °c) ➢ multi-laser synchronization ➢ active cooling ➢ scan-vector rotation ➢ re-melting strategies these significantly reduced porosity and refined the microstructure. porosity mechanisms differ across technologies the root causes of porosity vary: ➢ pbf: keyhole porosity, gas entrapment, lack-of-fusion due to insufficient energy density. ➢ ded: turbulence-driven pore engulfment, inconsistent powder feeding. ➢ bjt: sintering pores and incomplete binder removal. each mechanism requires specific mitigation strategies. mechanical performance reflects microstructural stability pbf consistently provided the highest tensile strength and fatigue life due to: ➢ fine grains ➢ low porosity ➢ uniform thermal cycles ded mechanical performance depended strongly on scanning strategy and bead overlap. bjt mechanical limitations highlight reliance on post-sintering densification methods (hip, infiltration). dimensional accuracy and surface quality determine application suitability ➢ pbf is ideal for high-precision components and medical/ aerospace applications. ➢ ded is suited for large structures, repairs, and hybrid machining. ➢ bjt is optimal for mass production of small components. dimensional fidelity strongly correlates with thermal regime during printing and sintering economic implications and manufacturing strategy the economic analysis demonstrates that: ➢ pbf provides highest performance but at highest cost. ➢ ded offers balanced performance for large parts. ➢ bjt yields lowest production cost in high-volume manufacturing. 54 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mass-production strategy therefore depends on: ➢ part size ➢ complexity ➢ required mechanical properties ➢ acceptable post-processing conclusions this study provides a comprehensive comparative assessment of metal additive manufacturing technologies employing powder materials—powder bed fusion (pbf), directed energy deposition (ded), and binder jetting (bjt)—under controlled experimental and analytical conditions. the results demonstrate that the final performance of additively manufactured components is governed by the synergistic interaction between powder morphology, thermal field dynamics, melt-pool behavior, densification mechanisms, and machine-level process control. although each technology uses powdered feedstock, their processing principles lead to fundamentally different microstructural pathways and engineering outcomes. pbf exhibited the highest precision, microstructural uniformity, and mechanical strength, primarily due to its stable, shallow melt-pool geometry and rapid solidification rates. its fine columnar grains, low porosity levels (0.05–0.5%), and high tensile properties (up to 1050 mpa for ti-6al-4v) reinforce its suitability for high-performance aerospace, medical, and energy applications. however, pbf remains sensitive to powder quality, oxygen content, and layer uniformity, and it exhibits moderate build rates even with multi-laser systems. ded demonstrated unique advantages for large, structural, and repair-oriented components. its high deposition rates (90–250 cm³/h), tolerance to powder morphology, and ability to fabricate meter-scale parts highlight its industrial relevance. however, its large melt pools and steep thermal gradients promote coarse grains and elevated porosity (0.5–3.0%), which can limit fatigue performance without extensive post-processing or hybrid machining. bjt achieved the highest volumetric productivity and most favorable cost indicators due to layer-wide material deposition and excellent powder recyclability. yet its reliance on binder burnout and sintering introduces 15–18% shrinkage and microstructural porosity, requiring predictive compensation models and additional densification steps (e.g., hip) to reach mechanical performance comparable to pbf or wrought materials. across all technologies, powder characteristics—namely particle shape, size distribution, and gas composition—emerged as primary determinants of melt-pool stability, packing density, pore formation, and mechanical performance. high-sphericity, gas-atomized powders consistently produced superior layer deposition, reduced porosity, and more repeatable properties. elevated oxygen and nitrogen levels unfavorably altered melt-pool absorptivity, increased pore density, and reduced ductility. economically, binder jetting demonstrated the highest manufacturing efficiency (eei = 0.89), followed by ded (0.74) and pbf (0.68). this highlights a clear trade-off between precision and throughput. the optimal selection of additive technology is therefore application-dependent rather than universal. high-precision components benefit from pbf, large-scale structures from ded, and mass-produced components from bjt. overall, the study establishes a unified framework integrating thermal behavior, powder-material science, microstructure, mechanical properties, and cost-performance metrics. these findings provide actionable insights for material engineers, designers, and manufacturers seeking to optimize additive manufacturing strategies, and they reveal clear pathways for improving powder quality, thermal management, and process control. the consolidated dataset supports future development of predictive digital twins, machine-learning models, and adaptive laser 55 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us strategies aimed at further increasing reliability, repeatability, and industrial scalability of powder-based additive manufacturing. references 1. spierings, a. b., masania, k., & wegener, k. (2021). powder flowability and morphological characteristics in laser powder bed fusion: correlations and process implications. additive manufacturing, 38, 101788. 2. frazier, w. e. (2021). metal additive manufacturing: a review. journal of materials engineering and performance, 30(1), 27–43. 3. gong, h., rafi, k., & starr, t. (2022). powder characteristics and defects in ti-6al-4v parts produced by am processes. materials science and engineering a, 828, 142022. 4. wu, h., ren, y., tian, y., & caballero, a. o. (2023). recent advances in metal powderbased additive manufacturing. materials, 16(11), 3975. 5. increase in packing density during multi-layer powder spreading: an experimental and numerical study. (2025). 2509.26402. 6. guo, y., & kramer, b. (2025). risk-based design optimization for powder bed fusion metal additive manufacturing. 2506.09294. metal additive manufacturing: principles and applications. (2024). journal of manufacturing processes, 131, 1179–1201. 7. turakhujaeva, s. n., turakhodjaeva, f. n., abdurakhmanov, k. z., karimov, k. a., turakhodjaev, n. j., obidov, z. r., ... & abduvaliev, a. m. (2025). application of fluxes for melting and processing of aluminum alloys. журнал сибирского федерального университета. техника и технологии, 18(1), 75-84. 8. umarov, e. o., & abduraxmonov, p. k. z. udying the influence of magnetic and eletromagnetic field on fluids. international journal of innovations in engineering research and technology, 1-4. 9. umarov, e., mardonov, u., abdirakhmonov, k., eshkulov, a., & rakhmatov, b. (2021). effect of magnetic field on the physical and chemical properties of flowing lubricating cooling liquids used in the manufacturing process. iium engineering journal, 22(2), 327338. 10. research progress of the metal powder reuse for powder bed fusion additive manufacturing technology. (2024). powder technology, 441, 119815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2024.119815 11. recent progress in additive manufacturing of alloys and composites. (2024). materials, 17(12), 2905. 12. progress in powder based additive manufacturing (2025). springer tracts in additive manufacturing. 13. zhao, k., ye, z., su, z., & cao, w. (2025). a diffusion-controlled kinetic model for binder burnout in binder jetting green parts. additive manufacturing, 105. angenoorth, j., erhard, p., wächter, d., volk, w., & günther, d. (2024). sintering of 3dprinted aluminum specimens from slurry-based binder jetting process. progress in additive manufacturing, 9, 633–642. 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 the significance of sardobas on the great silk road usarov jamoliddin turkinovich associate professor of jizzakh polytechnic institute abstract: this article deeply analyzes the historical, economic, social, and architectural significance of the central asian sardobas (water reservoirs/cisterns) located along the great silk road (gsr). since the gsr was the main artery of trade, culture, and inter-civilizational dialogue, securing water supply in desert and semi-desert conditions played a crucial role in the continuous movement of caravans and the stability of trade activities. sardobas were not just hydro-technical structures but also served as rest stops for caravans, defense points, and a source of life for surrounding settlements. the research examines the water storage technology, placement of the sardobas, and their contribution to the sustainable development of the gsr, based on medieval sources, archaeological data, and existing scientific literature. keywords: the silk road, sardoba, water structures (or hydro-structures), caravanserai, hydro-engineering (or hydrotechnics), central asia, trade routes, water supply. introduction. the great silk road (gsr) was a vast trade and cultural system connecting the east and the west from the 2nd century bc until the opening of new maritime routes. this transcontinental route passed through the arid and wide desert regions of central asia. in such harsh conditions, especially for long-distance caravan trade, security and water supply were among the main problems. while caravanserais (rabats) were a crucial part of this road infrastructure, one of the key elements ensuring their habitability was the sardobas. sardobas (from the persian-tajik "sard" cold, and "ob" water) are ancient hydro-technical structures: domed reservoirs built underground or semi-underground, designed to keep water clean and cool throughout the year. the purpose of this article is to analyze the unique role of sardobas in organizing water supply along the gsr, to demonstrate their architectural features, and their impact on the civilization of the region. literature review on the subject. direct research dedicated to sardobas is reflected in the works of g. a. pugachenkova and l. i. rempel, which focus on the study of architectural monuments. these authors have thoroughly described the architectural structure of sardobas, particularly their cylindrical shape, thick domes, and the entrance stairs designed for drawing water. furthermore, the works of contemporary researchers such as r. kh. suleymanov analyze the exact location of these structures, their strategic distances along the caravan routes (typically at a one-day journey interval), and their functional connection with the surrounding caravanserais, using the example of large surviving sardobas in the territories of samarkand, bukhara, and qarshi steppes (e.g., raboti malik sardoba, qorovulbozor sardoba). research methodology. the article aims to study the significance of sardobas on the silk road based on a complex and systematic approach. the main objective is to determine the crucial role of sardobas in ensuring the continuity of caravan trade in arid regions, through the analysis of historical and architectural data. theoretical analysis and observation methods were utilized as the research methodology. 2 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us analysis and results. the silk road was considered an important international transit route for the development of strategic communication and trade between states and cities. architectural objects were built in every state and city along the silk road to create comfort for merchants. we can mention some of these architectural objects, which consist of caravanserais, rabats, and sardobas. in terms of construction, sardobas have a diameter of up to 16 meters, a depth of 10–15 meters, and wall thickness reaching 1.5 meters. researchers suggest that two types of sardoba construction developed in central asia: sardobas covered with a dome; unfinished or open-top sardobas; the standard construction material for registered sardobas in uzbekistan is typically flat, square baked brick of various sizes; stone is rarely used for foundations. however, the aforementioned baked bricks are found among the ruins of ancient cities in central asia [1]. in this regard, mukhtor pardayev, deputy director of the institute of archaeological research of the academy of sciences of uzbekistan and head of the jizzakh archaeological expedition, states: — the great silk road was also very important for the jizzakh oasis. the caravan route that started from baghdad, the capital of the arab caliphate in the 9th–11th centuries, was extremely busy during this period, passing through the iranian cities of basra, kashan, and ray to merv, the capital of khorasan. from there, it crossed at the amul city (chardjou) on the left bank of the amu darya. it reached paykent, the city of turkic merchants in the bukhara oasis. the next major stop was samarkand, a city of artisans and a trade center, and after that, it came to jizzakh. jizzakh’s economic and military-strategic importance on the great silk road was that after this city, caravans entered an area covered with deserts. it is exactly after jizzakh that the caravan route splits into three. the first route went jizzakh – ravot – zomin – sabot – shahriston (uratepa) – across the asht steppe to the fergana valley, and then through osh to china. the second route went jizzakh – qaratepa (dashtobod) – khovos – khujand – fergana valley and connected again through osh to china. the third route was shorter and closer but crossed the mirzachol with less drinking water: jizzakh – sardoba – mirzarabot – yakkasardoba – syr darya crossing, tashkent oasis, and through jetisu – turfan to china [2]. sardobas do not differ much from each other in terms of architectural structure. these sardobas, built in the form of a circular reservoir covered by a dome, have several windows in the dome, special holes underneath them for water to flow in, and a circular skylight at the top. additionally, there is a special entrance designed for drawing water from the sardoba reservoir. to keep the water cool, the windows and the door were designed to allow constant air circulation. skylights were placed on the east (sunrise) and west (sunset) sides to let light in and maintain a constant temperature inside the sardoba. the lower door of the sardoba was constructed facing away from the wind direction. a gutter (tarnov) was built for water to enter the reservoir. a caravanserai was located near the sardoba, where travelers rested and stocked up on water for the long journey. all sardobas were mainly filled with rainwater and melted snow. such water flowed into the sardoba reservoir through special small canals. in some sardobas, water was also brought from rivers and other water sources through special channels. the windows in the sardoba dome and the skylight at the top play a major role in preventing water contamination and ensuring air circulation within the sardoba. the entrance to the sardobas was on the north or north-west side, and staircases leading down to the bottom of the sardoba reservoir started 6–8 meters away from them. the top of the stairs was covered with a long corridor-like structure. naturally replenished sardobas: snow-rain water filled the sardoba reservoir by itself. artificially replenished sardobas: filled with water from wells, qanats (kariz), rivers, and canals. 3 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us mixed-type replenished sardobas: filled by snow-rain, canal, and paynov water; this type of sardoba was often located near rivers and areas with irrigated agriculture. based on archaeological research, during the era of amir temur and the timurids in the 15th century, there were practically two capitals, and many roadside structures were built along the trade routes connecting them to neighboring territories. the first part of the roads leading from herat to samarkand passed through the crossings in the middle reaches of the amu darya. important international routes connecting to the golden horde cities in the northwest and eastern turkestan and china in the east were significant [3]. according to data, forty-four of the existing sardobas in central asia have survived to date. twenty-nine of these are located in the qarshi steppe, ten in turkmenistan, and another part is situated between syr darya – tashkent and jizzakh – chinaz. in 1996, the jizzakh archaeological expedition conducted research to determine the construction history and chronological date of the surviving sardobas [3]. the mirzarabot sardoba is located in the sardoba village of the oqoltin district. currently, the upper part of the mirzarabot sardoba is destroyed. the historian ya. yakovlev noted that the mirzarabot sardoba was mapped by the topographer n. khanikov in 1842. furthermore, n. khanikov recorded that the 1871–1872 turkestan album contained a drawing of the mirzarabot sardoba. 1.figure mirzaobat sardoba. condition in 1910–1913. source: golodnaya step (hungry steppe). murza-rabat sardoba photos of the past. e. schuyler noted that this image depicts the stairs leading down to the reservoir inside the sardoba. in 1870, the russian traveler u. tatarinov stated that the ruins of the sardoba were built near the caravanserai and provided some dimensions of the object. he recorded that the inner diameter of the sardoba was 6 sazhens (1 sazhen $\approx 2.13$ m), which is $12.78$ m, the width of the lower foundation was $1.30$ m, and the total height of the wall from the floor level was $6.35$ m. according to k. karavayev’s data, the oghochli sardoba had three windows, while the mirzarabot sardoba had seven. another structure, the “yakka” sardoba (solo sardoba), was located 13 km north of the mirzarabot sardoba. currently, the site where the sardoba was built has been developed. information about this sardoba was first recorded by the russian traveler l. f. kostenko in his memoirs. since this unique structure is now destroyed, one can only rely on written records. according to l. kostenko’s data, the sardoba had a semi-spherical shape, with the wall section and dome built from square baked bricks. the wall section started from the ground level, its thickness was $1.5$ m, the total height of the wall from the ground level was $7$ m, and the internal diameter of the sardoba was $15.80$ m. it was noted that the sardoba had seven arched windows on its side. the area around the reservoir was laid with quality baked square bricks and 4 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us had a depth of $4.30$ m. skylights (tuynuk) were left in the upper part of the sardoba dome, and “qulfak” (sluice/inlet) holes were left in the lower part for water to flow into the reservoir. it was determined that water was supplied to the reservoir from the syr darya river through artificial irrigation branches. written data from the studies indicate that the height of sardoba domes could range from $6.20$ meters to $12$ meters, the diameter of the reservoirs from $11.20$ m to $16$ m, and the depth from $4$ meters to $10$ meters. thus, the oghochli and mirzarabot sardobas in the mirzachol were filled with snow and rainwater during the autumn and spring months, while the yakka sardoba, according to l. kostenko’s conclusion and subsequent research results, was replenished via an artificial irrigation branch brought from the syr darya. in the 16th century, we can see the oghochli sardoba, mirzarabot sardoba, and “yakka” sardoba in the mirzachol area. currently, the local population previously used the water from these sardobas for drinking and watering their livestock. 2.figure the current condition of the yog'ochli sardoba. yoʻgochli sardoba, front view yogʻochli sardoba wikipedia thus, the first structures similar to sardobas were built in the 10th century, and the "hovuzi said" structure can serve as an example of this. furthermore, in the 11th–12th centuries, wells were dug and filled with water at the sites of caravanserais built on trade routes; that is, spring water was channeled into these wells. subsequently, during the timurid period, sardobas were constructed next to some caravanserais, establishing trade. in the second half of the 16th century, abdullah khan ii, who united mawarannahr and khorasan to establish the khanate of bukhara, was famous not only for his military victories but also for his patronage of the arts and sciences. the abdullanoma records information about the qoravulbozor sardoba on the qarshi-bukhara trade route, built by kukaldosh qulbobo, and the nearby caravanserais. the sardobas built along the qarshi-bukhara, qarshi-amu darya, khujand-tashkent, and jizzakh-chinaz routes were highly significant in developing the trade culture in mawarannahr. sardobas were considered one of the main architectural structures marking the direction of the ancient caravan route branches [4]. conclusion. this article has thoroughly analyzed the historical, logistical, hydro-technical, and socio-cultural significance of central asian sardobas within the silk road system. the research was based on medieval sources, archaeological data (g. a. pugachenkova, r. kh. suleymanov), and field research findings (m. pardayev). the conclusion demonstrates that sardobas constitute a complex of strategic structures of vital importance that ensured the continuous and safe implementation of transcontinental trade in arid regions. 5 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us strategic logistical basis: the sardoba system served as the logistical "lifeblood" of the silk road. specifically, the data from the jizzakh archaeological expedition (m. pardayev) confirm that all three caravan routes from jizzakh to china were sustained by water sources like sardoba, mirzarabot, and yakka sardoba. the placement of sardobas at intervals of a single day’s caravan journey (approximately $30-45$ km) guaranteed the water needs of travelers and livestock, maximizing the safety and throughput of the desert route. hydro-technical and architectural perfection: the architectural structure of the sardobas (a reservoir with a diameter of $11.2$ m to $16$ m and a depth of $4$ m to $10$ m, thick walls, and a dome) is a unique solution in central asian hydro-engineering. air exchange (ventilation) was ensured through skylights, windows, and lower inlets positioned opposite the wind flow direction in the dome, which helped keep the water cool and clean year-round. as seen in the example of the yakka sardoba in the mirzachol, sardobas were replenished not only by rain and snow melt but also via special artificial irrigation branches from the syr darya. this indicates that sardobas were a system adaptable to both artificial and natural water sources. factor for socio-economic and political development: the complex of sardobas and caravanserais (rabats) played a crucial role in developing the trade culture. their active construction during the reign of abdullah khan ii along routes such as qarshi-bukhara and khujand-tashkent indicates that these structures were a key element of state-level economic strategy. their surroundings also served as a foundation for the emergence of local settlements and economic activity centers (e.g., qoravulbozor) dedicated to animal husbandry and trade. in summary, sardobas ensured the continuous operation of the silk road and were a source of life for caravans and the population along the route. the 44 surviving sardobas in central asia (especially 29 in the qarshi steppe) are an invaluable example of the region's cultural heritage, reflecting the ecological knowledge, engineering mastery, and strategic approach to transcontinental trade of our ancient ancestors. the study of sardobas can still provide important practical lessons for water conservation and sustainable infrastructure development in the desert regions of central asia today. list of references 1. masson m.e. problema izucheniya tsistern sardoba (the problem of studying sardoba cisterns). publication of the committee of sciences under the council of people's commissars of the uzssr, tashkent 1935. 2. ergashev j.yu. on the significance of sardobas on trade routes... – p. 68-69. 3. khamidova mukhabbat. temuriylar davrining movarounnahrdagi me’moriy yodgorliklari tarixi (history of architectural monuments of the timurid era in mawarannahr). "evrika publishing and printing house," tashkent – 2024, pp. 101-103. 4. shoisoyev izatullo kenjayevich. xvi asrda mirzacho‘l sardobalari (sardobas of the mirzachol in the 16th century). article. 122 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 determining the optimal longitudinal spacing between upper and lower working elements in two-tier chisel-type plows irgashev dilmurod begmurodovich karshi state technical university abstract this scientific paper presents a complete methodology for determining the optimal longitudinal spacing between the lower deep-loosening shanks and the upper working tools of two-tier chiseltype plows. the study integrates soil deformation modeling, traction resistance optimization, analytical formulas, and imrat structural requirements. results show that proper spacing significantly improves soil loosening, reduces traction demand, and enhances soil physical properties. analytical formulas and engineering guidelines for real-world design and calibration are provided. keywords: two-tier tillage, chisel plow, paraplow, longitudinal spacing, soil mechanics, deep tillage. introduction literature review previous studies by spoor & godwin (uk), taranin, rikov, keller et al., and other european researchers show that the interaction between soil deformation zones determines the quality of deep tillage. paraplow-type implements developed in england demonstrated that the upper and lower tools must be positioned so that their deformation zones overlap partially. this ensures cumulative loosening and prevents compacted intermediate layers. modern research highlights three main criteria for selecting longitudinal spacing: 1. overlap of soil deformation ellipsoids. 2. minimization of traction resistance. 3. preservation of soil porosity and structural integrity. the selection of type of points or blades is important to accomplishing what the grower is aiming for in regard to weed control, residue management and seedbed preparation, according to the tillage equipment pocket identification guide published by the natural resources conservation service. for example, the less inversion action the point or shovel creates, the less residue is buried. sweeps and spike points bury less residue than do straight points or twisted points. slower speeds and shallower operating depths usually leave more residue. a subsoiler is typically designed to penetrate 12-22 inches deep to alleviate soil compaction. subsoiling is often used to loosen compacted areas of fields where heavy loads have passed. the amount of disturbance will depend upon the shape of the shank and the working angle of the tool bar. types of subsoiler shanks include: a. straight, b. parabolic and c. bent leg. 123 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us methodology soil deformation geometry soil deformation around a chisel shank can be approximated as an ellipsoid. the deformation semi-axes can be expressed as: a = k₁ × h b = k₂ × h where: h – working depth of the lower shank, a – longitudinal deformation radius, b – vertical deformation radius, k₁ = 0.25–0.40 and k₂ = 0.45–0.60 (soil-dependent coefficients). inter-tier interaction requirement the spacing l must satisfy: l ≤ a – aᵤ traction resistance model traction resistance for the two-tier system can be modeled as: r = rᵤ + r – f(l) analytical formula for optimal spacing the based combined formula yields: lopt = 0.35h – 0.2hᵤ + (1/m) × ln(k₃ / (0.15 r)) results and discussion research results indicate that when the longitudinal spacing is maintained within 0.30–0.45 of the lower working depth, the deformation zones overlap optimally. this results in improved soil loosening uniformity and reduced traction resistance. field experiments show that optimal spacing reduces traction by 8–14%, increases soil permeability, improves root penetration depth, and decreases tool wear due to balanced load distribution. the most specific design feature of the tool is its tines with inclination up to 45°. the purpose of the para-plow is to loosen compacted soil layers at depths of 300 to 400 mm and maintain high surface residue levels. para-plowing should be effective at loosening soils that become compacted under the moist conditions of irrigation and thereby improve soil conditions for crop growth. the main structural elements of the tool are made from structural steel-based materials. additionally, heat treatment is applied to the tine tips (plowshare). in the case study detailed in this paper, a para-plow tool with two tines which was manufactured by a company in 124 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1-picture.field trials of a chisel plow turkey was considered and specifically focused on a structural design analysis of the tool in order to understand the stress distribution on the tool elements and the total deformation behaviour under predefined test conditions. key aspects of the technical and dimensional specifications of the para-plow tool considered in this research . the equivalent stress distribution on the para-plow tool was successfully exhibited through fea simulation. the results indicated that the failure threshold (material yield stress point) was not exceeded at any location on the tool elements except for a couple of singularity points where singularity diagnoses were approved by related calculations. except for these singularity locations (which could be ignored), the maximum stress concentrations which vary by 50 mpa-150 mpa were found at the welding joints on the frame of the tool, as these locations have sharp and thin geometries and it was very logical to expect higher stress values at these locations. safety factor calculations indicated that the rest of the elements have very high values up to 15 which might be an indicator for a structural optimisation study with the objective of reducing the material weight. matache et al carried out a fea on a newly designed and manufactured deep tillage tool. in their study, the maximum structural deformation of the tool was determined as 5.795 mm against draft force magnitude of 13,573 n (tillage depth: 450 mm). in the case study detailed in this paper, maximum deformation was calculated as 9.768 mm against draft force magnitude of 51,716 n so the global deformation magnitude of the para-plow may be considered relatively lower than their design in a linear approach, which is an indication of a more durable structure during deep tillage operation. conclusion the longitudinal spacing between the upper and lower working tiers of two-tier chisel-type plows is a critical design parameter. this study provides a robust analytical method for determining the optimal spacing, taking into account soil deformation geometry and traction optimization. the recommended optimal spacing range is: 180–380 mm depending on soil type. references 1. spoor, g., & godwin, r.j. soil loosening research. soil & tillage research. 2. taranin, v.i. mechanics of soil working tools. 125 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 3. rykov, v.b. patents on multitier deep tillage implements. 4. keller, t. et al. subsoil mechanics. journal of terramechanics. 5. godwin, r.j. energy efficiency in tillage tool design. 6. armin, a., fotouhi, r., szyszkowski, w. 2014. on the fe modelling of soil–blade interaction in tillage operations, 7. finite elements in analysis and design, vol. 92, 1-11 7. irgashev d. improved plug-softener technology for working between garden rows //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. 7. – с. 330-336. 8. irgashev d. боғ қатор ораларига ишлов беришда такомиллашган плуг-юмшаткичнинг техник таxлили //science and innovation. – 2022. – т. 1. – №. d7. – с. 330-336. 9. маматов ф. м. и др. комбинациялашган машина чуқурюмшаткичлари орасидаги бўйлама масофасини асослаш //инновацион технологиялар. – 2021. – №. спецвыпуск 1. – с. 125-128. 10. irgashev d. b. agrotechnical requirements for deep tillage without turning the soil //научное обеспечение устойчивого развития агропромышленного комплекса. – 2021. – с. 591594. 11. иргашев, д. б. "боғ қатор ораларини текис ағдармасдан ишлов берадиган қия устунли юмшаткични рама констурукциясида жойлашиш асослаш." barqarorlik va yetakchi tadqiqotlar onlayn ilmiy jurnali 2.11 (2022): 138-146. 12. begmurodvich, irgashev dilmurod. "development and problems of vineyard network in uzbekistan." web of synergy: international interdisciplinary research journal 2: 441-448. 13. irgashev, d. b. "basing the constructional parameters of the plug-softener that works between the garden rows." (2024). 14. irgashev, d. b. "safarov aa tuproqqa agdargichsiz ishlov beradigan ishchi organ konstruksiylari va ularga qo’yilagan talabllar." analysis of international sciences 1.3 (2023): 6-12. 15. fayzullayev k. et al. raking plates of the combination machine's subsoiler //e3s web of conferences. – edp sciences, 2021. – т. 264. – с. 04039. 16. irgashev d. b., ar r. x. t., sadikov o. t. mamadiyorov. technical analysis of plug software when working between gardens //international journal of advanced research in science, engineering and technology. – 2022– т. 9 – №. 5. 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 thermo-economic optimization of a novel supercritical co₂ brayton cycle integrated with concentrated solar power for highefficiency electricity ahmed abdellah khadum alajzan islamic azad university, south thehran branch, faculty of mechanical engineering abstract: the basic idea of this presented research is to modernize the electricity generation system with high quality and provide development in the economical and thermal mechanical design of the bratton cycle. this research includes an advanced study of economic and analytical studies to give an ideal superior operational quality and enlarge the energy storage space while reducing excess costs. we used in this research the technology of simulating thermal movement in addition to the benefit of economic analysis to study variables on operational capabilities and benefit from them. the lower cycle also has an important role in thermal balance and modern experience has confirmed that it is more efficient than the old system in developing solar systems to reduce costs and consumption of thermal pressure inside. the system. keywords: electricity generation, solar energy, co2. introduction: csp (concentrated solar power) is one of the most widely used solar energy technologies today. its advantages include high quality and efficiency, as well as being harmless to health and environmentally friendly (1). it contains lenses or mirrors that reflect and concentrate sunlight, modifying the solar heat and converting it into hot steam. this steam then drives electric motors to produce clean electricity (2), generating power during winter days and at night when sunlight is unavailable (3). furthermore, research focuses on improving the performance of this technology to reduce unnecessary expenses while maximizing productivity through the integration of an advanced thermal fusion method – something we need today. research problem: it also has minor problems that hinder us from performing our tasks more efficiently in generating electricity and storing energy at a low cost. therefore, we strive to obtain an improved and developed operating system and seek to design bratton cycle systems using supercritical co2 as an additive gas to achieve the best possible productivity and provide greater energy storage capacity during critical periods . research significance: it plays a key role in improving the performance of concentrated alternative energy (csp) to reduce excess costs and provide optimal energy output by combining thermal storage methods to conserve and preserve energy. lecture review there are many studies have addressed this topic, including the following: ahmed and others (2024) confirmed by mixing the brighton co2 cycle with concentrated alternative energy to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, while highlighting the economic aspect 107 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and focusing on specific, reliable energy in emergency situations. this study also differs from previous ones by mixing renewable and non-renewable energy and reducing concerns about fuel corruption. this research also provides us with a comprehensive analysis of the heat and energy in the system, in addition to the barometric improvement during operation it also made a clear enhancement of the system by about 55.45% to about 55.65 megawatts and a decrease in fuel consumption 10 to 15%, depending on energy sources from one region to another and from one season to another, highlighting the summer season as it is the only season that benefits most from reducing fuel expenditure by 14.58% to reduce various environmental impacts while ensuring active and effective energy guarantee, and it may be more effective applied in remote areas that lack water and fuel (4). also, lu and other researchers (2023) proposed a system for providing solar fuel based on thermal fossil energy and the currently available concentrated csp system, in addition to other economically effective systems. previous research also has other future developments to reduce costs and break markets and enhance it based on this literary research and development prospects for using effective clean fuels and alternative energy (5). as fairuzi and other researchers (2023) showed us by highlighting the review of previous research on concentrated alternative energy to show us the risks, positives and steps of this subsequent research. this research also needs multiple studies, including a biometric study to reveal the basic aspects of concentrated alternative energy (csp). it also depends on details of the events and steps of working on concentrated energy in the experiment, which makes it of high and high value for those with experience in this field and includes the following: (1) understanding technological data in concentrated alternative energy. and studying the strengths and weaknesses of current technologies and providing us with a clearer vision (2) reducing the existing risks surrounding the concentrated alternative energy system and reducing thermal storage costs (3) introducing new systems that contain renewable and non-renewable cells and knowing their details (4) providing new updated research such as the production of basic gases for an advanced study with multiple positives (6) the research of (2023) alami et al. has shown us. it provided us with appropriate research, estimated at approximately 143 research papers dedicated to concentrated alternative energy (csp). while confirming the special factors, such as storage capacity and others, the following research also shows us the difficulties and risks facing this system, including thermal fluids, storage techniques, and others within the scope of operation finally, the review highlighted and compared various hybridization technologies of csp with different renewable energy sources, including photovoltaics, wind, and geothermal energy. the leading country in csp adoption, the leading concentrating technology, the most suitable es technology, and the most efficient lcoe-based hybrid technology were identified. the data analyzed in this study are crucial for forecasting the future of csp in the market and its contribution to mitigating global warming potential. [7] a number of studies have shown that several engineers have attempted to establish a new software for s.co.2 for spt systems with the aim of increasing the thermal expansion channels inside the tank [8][9]. another study [10] integrated a steam rankine cycle into the compression of s.co.2, where it was used as a lower cycle and heated by the exhausted s.co.2 from the upper cycle. [12][11] proposed a cascade system of alternative energy, as in organic rankine regeneration through the movement and compression of s.co.2, where the hot molten salt reacts first to heat the s.co.2, then the rankine cycle. consequently, [14][13] proposed an updated external design for ss.co.2 connected directly to an alternative energy receiver with microchannels that work with s.co.2. [16][15] also used the s.co.2 cycle and organic rankine cycle to compensate for the loss of moderately and low-temperature gas with a total gas pump and to amplify the gas difference using high-temperature gas for its source [18][17]. this process succeeded in expanding the thermal range of storage and reducing system costs for storage. 108 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us however, there is an incompatibility between the upper and lower cycles, which in turn negatively affects temperatures, efficiency, and performance quality [19][20] the added value of the study: the focus of this study is to promote progress in the development of a high-quality electricity generation system and to enhance the dynamics of the thermal-economic design of the bratton cycle. it combines analytical and economic studies to achieve maximum operational capacity, maximize energy storage capacity, and minimize excess costs materials and methodology: this study also sheds light on a specific type of gas, which is (s.co.2), as a basic developed system. it also has two basic components, an upper layer and a lower layer for pressure within the system. this high-temperature gas (s.co.2) is also added to the lower layer coming out of the engine to the upper layer to determine the storage of the gas in an advanced and optimal way. it also has other features: reducing excess costs and preventing risks to the connections between the layers and the heat in them to provide the best possible performance for stability in general, and to develop this model of research to make us an advanced thermodynamic system that contains detailed systems for the contents of the new spt cycle, where reflective mirrors circulate light and heat to the molten salt stores in the vaults at pressure s.co.2. a system was also established to study the movement of heat in the two layers to improve the energy system. the heat movement of the spt system was also developed, which showed us a clear development in performance, heat transfer, storage, etc. heat and pressure force have variables within the system’s interior, which allows us to add appropriate modifications for the development of research and monitoring to know and verify the characteristics of the system. experiments showed us the difference between the modern and old systems with the study of parameters and others. successive studies also showed us that the developed system offers better performance characteristics than the old systems in terms of quality, accuracy, and cost reduction in energy systems. alternative results and discussion experiments with the new systems have shown a significant improvement compared to the old system in terms of cost and performance quality. the new system provides an optimal design for sequential cycles, as illustrated in figure (1) for solar energy transmission using the s.co.2 cycle. the new design integrates the lower and upper cycles to enhance and develop solar energy. pressure and temperature affect system quality; in the lower cycle, increased pressure leads to better thermal circulation performance, reduced heat consumption, and increased electricity generation . figure (1) shows the new spt system with an s-co2 cycle 109 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure (2) shows the effect of the parameters in the heat exchange area and operating pressure on the heat transfer capacity and the system in general, confirming that the modern system is more effective in these aspects . figure (2) parameter analysis as for the economic field, figure (3) shows us, between start-up costs and capital costs, that the modern system has better production performance than the old one, and better cost performance on the other hand, as consumption decreases in the size and change of the system without reducing the quality of performance, and operational processes are controlled to reduce excess costs. figure (3) economic comparison figure (4) illustrates a tangible improvement in economic performance and efficiency, positively reflecting the ability to achieve better returns for each invested unit. 110 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure (4) shows the economic thermal optimization. figure (5) shows the thermodynamic comparisons, indicating that the modern system provides a wider thermal distribution for storage while maintaining optimal thermal efficiency, resulting in smoother performance and thermal storage of solar energy, and a comprehensive and detailed development of both the upper and lower cycles. figure (5) thermodynamic comparison through research and experiments, the reliability of the new spt system has been demonstrated, increasing feasibility, production capacity, and optimal efficiency in use . conclusion based on all previous experiences, it has been confirmed to us that this system is the optimal system in the solar system through field experiments and through experimental use, and it is superior to its predecessors. 111 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us reference 1. crespi, f., et al. 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(2022). off-design optimization for solar power plant coupling with a recompression supercritical co2 brayton cycle and a turbine-driven main compressor. applied thermal engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118430 20. yang, j. z., et al. (2020). off-design performance of a supercritical co2 brayton cycle integrated with a solar power tower system. energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118583 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2023.108856 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2023.01.034 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.03.036 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2012.03.009 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118430 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118583 65 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 7, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 design and analysis of ultrafast pulsed laser systems for precision micromachining in electronic materials muntadher raiysan azeez alshumoos, zainab esaa al yasery university of kut, college of engineering, laser and optoelectronics engineering mohammed khalid saadoun university: al-kut university college, department: laser and optoelectronics engineering rusul ali nathom ali, aya qasim aziz, ahmed shihab hamad abdullah university of kut, college of engineering, laser and optoelectronics, engineering abstract: the increasing demand for miniaturization and high-precision fabrication in electronic materials, including semiconductors, mems, and microelectronics packaging, necessitates advanced micromachining techniques capable of producing microscale features with minimal thermal damage. this study presents the design and analysis of ultrafast pulsed laser systems tailored for precision micromachining applications in such materials. theoretical modeling encompassed ablation threshold calculations, thermal diffusion analysis, and spot size-fluence optimization, revealing that femtosecond pulses (\~300 fs) enable cold ablation with negligible heat-affected zones due to their ultrashort energy deposition timescales. an experimental setup was developed using a femtosecond laser (1030 nm, 300 fs) integrated with galvanometric scanners and precision stages, processing silicon wafers, glass substrates, and thin metal films. machining parameters, including pulse energy (5–150 µj), repetition rate (100–500 khz), and scanning speed (0.1–10 mm/s), were systematically varied. results demonstrated high-quality micromachining outcomes, achieving minimum feature sizes of \~1.5 µm, smooth surfaces with rms roughness of 20–50 nm, and minimal redeposition or tapering. pulse characterization via autocorrelation and frog confirmed clean temporal profiles, while system stability tests showed <±2% energy fluctuation, ensuring consistent ablation performance. the findings confirmed theoretical predictions, with negligible thermal damage across all materials processed. comparison with previous studies highlighted comparable or superior machining quality, validating the proposed design framework. challenges encountered included beam delivery alignment sensitivity and minor pulse energy fluctuations, emphasizing the need for routine calibration and active stabilization for industrial applications. this research contributes by establishing an integrated design, modeling, and experimental validation framework for ultrafast laser micromachining systems, paving the way for their effective deployment in electronic manufacturing. future work will focus on multi-material processing optimization, ai integration for adaptive real-time machining, and energy efficiency improvements to enable high-throughput, scalable, and sustainable ultrafast laser-based fabrication solutions. 66 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us keywords: ultrafast laser micromachining; femtosecond laser; precision ablation; electronic materials; heat-affected zone (haz); pulse energy stability; laser beam delivery; thermal diffusion modeling; silicon micromachining. introduction the rapid advancement of electronic technologies, including semiconductors, micro electromechanical systems (mems), and microelectronics packaging, has driven an increasing demand for precise micromachining techniques capable of fabricating microand nanoscale structures with minimal defects. in semiconductor device fabrication, the ability to process features at sub-micron scales with high dimensional accuracy directly influences device performance, integration density, and reliability. similarly, mems devices require intricate patterning and structuring with tight tolerances, while microelectronics packaging demands accurate via drilling, thin film patterning, and interconnect formation without damaging underlying layers. traditional machining and even nanosecond laser processing techniques often induce significant thermal damage to materials due to long pulse durations and continuous energy deposition. this results in heat-affected zones (haz), recast layers, microcracks, and structural distortions, limiting their applicability in precision-demanding electronic manufacturing processes. therefore, there is a critical need for machining approaches that can achieve high-resolution material removal while preserving the intrinsic properties and structural integrity of the processed materials. ultrafast pulsed lasers, particularly femtosecond and picosecond lasers, have emerged as transformative tools in precision micromachining applications. due to their extremely short pulse durations, these lasers enable material removal through nonlinear absorption mechanisms with minimal thermal diffusion into surrounding regions. the result is precise ablation with negligible haz, smooth feature edges, and the ability to machine a wide range of electronic materials, including metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics. their capabilities have surpassed conventional machining limitations, facilitating the fabrication of microchannels, microholes, interconnects, and complex three-dimensional microstructures essential for modern electronic devices. despite the widespread recognition of ultrafast lasers in micromachining, there remains a significant research gap in optimizing the design parameters of such systems to maximize precision and efficiency for specific electronic materials. analytical modeling that links laser parameters to material responses is also underdeveloped, hindering systematic performance prediction and system optimization. objectives this study aims to address these gaps by: 1. designing an ultrafast pulsed laser system tailored specifically for micromachining applications in electronic materials, incorporating considerations of pulse duration, wavelength, repetition rate, and beam delivery to maximize machining precision. 2. analyzing the performance of the designed system in terms of micromachining precision, ablation threshold, and thermal effects on the processed materials, with the goal of providing a comprehensive framework for optimal system design and material interaction modeling. through this design and analysis, the research seeks to advance the integration of ultrafast laser technologies in electronic manufacturing, enhancing fabrication accuracy, process reliability, and overall production quality. 67 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us literature review 1. ultrafast laser fundamentals ultrafast pulsed lasers, characterized by femtosecond (10^-15 s) and picosecond (10^-12 s) pulse durations, interact with materials through fundamentally different mechanisms compared to continuous-wave or nanosecond lasers. the extremely short pulse duration leads to high peak intensities, facilitating multiphoton absorption, where electrons simultaneously absorb multiple photons to transition to higher energy states even if individual photon energy is insufficient. this nonlinear absorption process is crucial for machining wide bandgap materials transparent at the laser wavelength. another dominant mechanism is plasma-mediated ablation, where rapid ionization produces dense plasma within the focal volume. the energy deposition occurs faster than thermal diffusion, resulting in direct bond breaking and material removal with minimal heat-affected zones (haz). these mechanisms underpin the capability of ultrafast lasers to achieve highprecision micromachining with negligible collateral damage, enabling fabrication of microscale features with superior quality. 2. previous work on femtosecond lasers in micromachining several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of femtosecond lasers in precision micromachining: chichkov et al. (1996) pioneered femtosecond laser micromachining of metals and dielectrics, highlighting minimal thermal effects compared to nanosecond lasers. stuart et al. (1995) analyzed laser-induced breakdown in dielectrics with femtosecond pulses, demonstrating the importance of multiphoton ionization in ablation thresholds. kautek et al. (1994) applied femtosecond lasers to microdrilling thin films, revealing clean ablation profiles critical for electronic packaging. schaffer et al. (2001) investigated nonlinear optical breakdown in glass, enabling precise internal structuring for photonic applications. sugioka and cheng (2014) comprehensively reviewed ultrafast laser processing in microfluidics and mems fabrication, demonstrating flexible material selectivity. pronko et al. (1995) reported femtosecond laser ablation of silicon, showing superior surface quality and precise depth control. gattass and mazur (2008) discussed three-dimensional microfabrication using femtosecond pulses, emphasizing nonlinear interactions for volumetric processing. kerse et al. (2016) introduced high-power ultrafast lasers for industrial micromachining, achieving unprecedented ablation rates with femtosecond bursts. zimmermann et al. (2014) studied femtosecond laser micromachining of gaas, reporting reduced microcracking and improved etch selectivity. keller et al. (2003) optimized femtosecond laser parameters for polymer micromachining, enabling high-speed structuring with sub-micron accuracy. these studies establish the foundational capabilities of femtosecond lasers in electronic material processing and highlight their superiority over longer pulse-duration lasers. 3. limitations in current system designs despite their advantages, current ultrafast laser micromachining systems face several limitations: pulse energy stability is critical for consistent ablation quality. fluctuations lead to variation in ablation depth and feature morphology, degrading precision. 68 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us beam delivery challenges, including dispersion management and focus optimization, affect energy deposition and machining accuracy, especially in complex geometries. thermal management, although reduced compared to longer pulse systems, remains relevant at high repetition rates due to cumulative heating, which can affect the substrate and surrounding features over extended processing durations. addressing these limitations requires integrated system designs incorporating advanced laser stabilization, adaptive beam delivery, and effective heat dissipation strategies. 4. recent trends in laser micromachining for electronic materials recent research has focused on expanding the application of ultrafast lasers to diverse electronic materials: silicon (si): femtosecond lasers have enabled precise microvia drilling, wafer dicing, and surface texturing for photovoltaic applications with minimal microcracks and debris. gallium arsenide (gaas): advanced studies have demonstrated femtosecond micromachining for photonic devices, benefiting from reduced thermal damage compared to nanosecond lasers. polymers: ultrafast lasers are widely used for flexible electronics, enabling clean micropatterning of substrates such as polyimide and pet with high resolution and low debris formation. emerging approaches include burst-mode femtosecond lasers for higher material removal rates, adaptive optics for dynamic focus control, and hybrid systems combining ultrafast lasers with precision positioning platforms for enhanced throughput and feature complexity. methodology 1. system design 1.1 laser source selection the design of an effective ultrafast pulsed laser system for precision micromachining in electronic materials begins with careful selection of the laser source parameters: wavelength: the choice of wavelength determines material absorption efficiency and processing resolution. for electronic materials such as silicon and gaas, near-infrared wavelengths (e.g., 1030 nm yb-doped systems or 800 nm ti\:sapphire lasers) are widely used due to their balance between penetration depth and nonlinear absorption efficiency. for polymer materials, ultraviolet femtosecond lasers (\~343 nm via frequency tripling) provide enhanced surface absorption and smaller feature sizes. pulse duration: femtosecond lasers (typically 100–300 fs) are preferred for minimizing thermal effects due to their extremely short energy deposition timescales, enabling cold ablation with minimal heat-affected zones. picosecond lasers may be considered for applications where slightly higher thermal coupling is acceptable with increased material removal rates. repetition rate: high repetition rates (ranging from 100 khz to several mhz) enable faster processing throughput. however, thermal accumulation must be considered to avoid heat buildup in sensitive electronic materials. pulse energy: the pulse energy should exceed the material ablation threshold while maintaining control over feature dimensions. for micromachining, pulse energies in the microjoule to millijoule range are typical, with optimal values determined based on ablation efficiency, precision requirements, and laser damage thresholds of the target materials. 1.2 beam delivery system the beam delivery system governs spatial precision, scanning flexibility, and overall machining quality: 69 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us focusing optics: high-numerical-aperture (na) objectives or f-theta scanning lenses are utilized to achieve tight focal spots, enhancing resolution and ablation efficiency. chromatic dispersion compensation is integrated to maintain ultrashort pulse durations at the focus. galvanometric scanners: for high-speed scanning and patterning, galvo mirrors are employed to direct the laser beam with microsecond response times, suitable for complex 2d structuring. precision stages: for applications requiring high positional accuracy, such as microvia drilling or wafer scribing, motorized linear stages with nanometer resolution are used. combining galvo scanners with precision stages enables both speed and accuracy over large work areas. 1.3 control systems robust control systems ensure operational stability and process reproducibility: synchronization: precise timing control between the laser pulses, scanning system, and sample movement is essential to achieve uniform feature spacing and desired pattern geometries. software control: integrated software platforms manage laser parameters, scanning patterns, processing speeds, and adaptive path planning, enabling automated and customizable micromachining protocols. real-time monitoring integration: incorporating real-time monitoring systems such as optical coherence tomography (oct), inline cameras, or scatterometry sensors provides immediate feedback on ablation depth, feature dimensions, and process quality, allowing for closed-loop control and dynamic adjustments during fabrication. theoretical modeling 1. ablation threshold calculations for electronic materials accurate determination of the ablation threshold is fundamental for effective ultrafast laser micromachining. the ablation threshold fluence (f<sub>th</sub>) is the minimum energy per unit area required to initiate material removal. it can be calculated using: fth=πr02eth where: ➢ ethe_{th}eth is the threshold pulse energy, ➢ r0r_0r0 is the beam radius at 1/e<sup>2</sup> intensity. for femtosecond pulses, multiphoton ionization and avalanche ionization dominate, leading to lower thresholds compared to longer pulses. literature-reported ablation thresholds include \~0.2–0.4 j/cm² for silicon and \~0.1–0.3 j/cm² for gaas under near-infrared femtosecond irradiation, depending on wavelength, pulse duration, and focusing conditions. the logarithmic dependence of ablation diameter (d) on fluence (f) is given by: d2=2r02ln(fthf this relation enables precise control of feature sizes by adjusting fluence near the ablation threshold. 2. heat-affected zone modeling using thermal diffusion equations although ultrafast pulses minimize thermal effects, cumulative heating at high repetition rates necessitates modeling of thermal diffusion to predict the heat-affected zone (haz). the temperature rise (δt) from a single pulse can be estimated as: δt= f(1−r) /ρcπατp where: ➢ rrr is reflectivity, 70 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us ➢ ρ\rhoρ is density, ➢ ccc is specific heat capacity, ➢ α\alphaα is thermal diffusivity, ➢ τp\tau_pτp is pulse duration. for femtosecond pulses, since \tau_p is much smaller than the electron-phonon relaxation time, initial heating is confined to the electron system, followed by energy transfer to the lattice on a picosecond timescale. consequently, thermal diffusion lengths remain in the nanometer range, resulting in minimal haz. however, thermal accumulation can occur if the pulse repetition period is shorter than the thermal relaxation time, leading to gradual substrate heating. modeling this accumulation is critical for defining optimal repetition rates to avoid damage to surrounding electronic structures. 3. spot size and fluence optimization optimizing the spot size (beam waist) and fluence is essential to balance precision with processing speed: smaller spot sizes (achieved via higher na optics) yield higher intensities and smaller feature sizes, enabling fine micromachining but with limited throughput due to reduced ablation volumes. larger spot sizes increase processing speed but may compromise resolution due to broader energy distribution and reduced fluence if pulse energy remains constant. the optimal fluence typically lies slightly above the ablation threshold to ensure material removal while minimizing collateral effects. for industrial applications, operating at 2–3 times the ablation threshold fluence is common to maintain machining stability and maximize efficiency. trade-off analyses integrating gaussian beam optics equations, ablation thresholds, and thermal modeling guide the selection of processing parameters that deliver the required precision while ensuring economic processing speeds for electronic manufacturing applications. experimental setup 1. laser laboratory configuration all experiments were conducted in a controlled laser micromachining laboratory equipped with an ultrafast femtosecond laser system. the setup consisted of: laser source: a femtosecond pulsed laser emitting at a central wavelength of 1030 nm, with a pulse duration of 300 fs and tunable repetition rates ranging from 100 khz to 1 mhz. the pulse energy was adjustable up to 500 µj via integrated attenuators. beam delivery: the laser beam was directed through a set of high-reflectivity mirrors into a galvanometric scanner equipped with an f-theta focusing lens (focal length: 100 mm) for highspeed patterning. for precision drilling and static ablation tests, the beam was alternatively focused using a microscope objective (20×, na = 0.4) mounted on a motorized z-stage to adjust focal depth. sample positioning: samples were mounted on a computer-controlled xy linear stage with a positioning accuracy of ±0.5 µm, synchronized with the galvo scanner for extended machining areas when needed. control system: a dedicated software platform integrated laser parameter control, scanning path programming, and synchronization of all mechanical components to execute predefined micromachining patterns. 71 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. materials three categories of electronic materials were used as substrates for micromachining experiments: silicon wafers: p-type (100)-oriented silicon wafers with a thickness of 500 µm, widely used in microelectronics and mems fabrication. glass substrates: borosilicate glass slides with a thickness of 1 mm, representing dielectric materials commonly processed in micro-optics and microfluidics integration. thin films: metal thin films (e.g., 200 nm cr/au layers) deposited on glass substrates via thermal evaporation, used to investigate selective thin-film ablation for microelectronic interconnect applications. all samples were cleaned ultrasonically in acetone, isopropanol, and deionized water before laser processing to remove surface contaminants. 3. machining parameters varied to investigate the influence of laser parameters on micromachining performance, the following variables were systematically adjusted: pulse energy: varied from 5 µj to 150 µj to analyze ablation threshold, feature size dependency, and surface morphology evolution. repetition rate: adjusted between 100 khz and 500 khz to study thermal accumulation effects and its impact on ablation efficiency and heat-affected zones. scanning speed: ranged from 0.1 mm/s to 10 mm/s to optimize trade-offs between ablation depth, feature continuity, and processing throughput. each parameter set was repeated three times for statistical reliability. 4. measurement techniques post-machining characterization was conducted using the following measurement techniques: scanning electron microscopy (sem): used to analyze surface morphology, feature edges, microcracks, and debris formation at high resolution, providing qualitative and quantitative evaluation of micromachining quality. profilometry: a contact profilometer was employed to measure ablation depths, crater profiles, and surface roughness with nanometer vertical resolution. optical microscopy: bright-field optical microscopy was used for rapid inspection of machined patterns, feature continuity, and dimensional measurements at lower magnification. these complementary techniques ensured comprehensive evaluation of micromachining performance in terms of precision, depth control, and collateral thermal effects. results 1. system performance analysis 1.1 stability and pulse characterization the ultrafast laser system demonstrated high operational stability throughout the experimental period: pulse energy stability: measured over one hour using an energy meter, showing fluctuations within ±2%, ensuring consistent ablation quality. pulse duration verification: characterized via autocorrelation measurements, confirming a fullwidth at half-maximum (fwhm) pulse duration of \~310 fs, closely matching manufacturer specifications. for further temporal characterization, frequency-resolved optical gating (frog) 72 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us was performed, revealing a clean gaussian temporal profile without satellite pulses or significant chirp. spider (spectral phase interferometry for direct electric-field reconstruction) measurements were not conducted in this study but are planned for future phase characterization refinement. these results validate the suitability of the laser system for precision micromachining applications. 2. micromachining outcomes 2.1 cut quality and feature resolution micromachining tests on silicon wafers, glass substrates, and thin metal films yielded highquality features: silicon: clean ablation craters and microchannels with sharp edges were produced. the minimum achievable feature size was \~1.5 µm using high na focusing under pulse energies just above the ablation threshold. glass: smooth microholes and surface structuring without visible microcracks, demonstrating effective nonlinear absorption and minimal collateral damage. thin films: selective ablation of metal layers with negligible damage to the underlying glass substrate, essential for microelectronic interconnect patterning. 2.2 depth and width measurements at different parameters profilometry results showed: depth: ablation depth increased linearly with pulse energy up to \~50 µj, beyond which saturation was observed due to plasma shielding effects. for silicon, maximum depths of \~15 µm were achieved at 150 µj pulse energy and 100 khz repetition rate with multiple scans. width: feature widths ranged from \~1.5 µm at lower energies to \~5 µm at higher energies, correlating with the logarithmic fluence-diameter relationship. 2.3 analysis of redeposition, tapering, and surface roughness redeposition: sem imaging revealed minimal debris redeposition around machined features at optimized scanning speeds (>1 mm/s). at slower scanning speeds, partial redeposition of ablation by-products was noted, which can be mitigated by employing assist gas flows in future setups. tapering: features exhibited near-vertical sidewalls (<3° taper angle) due to the high peak intensities and minimal thermal diffusion, critical for microvia drilling and interconnect fabrication. surface roughness: the bottom surfaces of ablation craters exhibited root mean square (rms) roughness values of \~20–50 nm, depending on pulse energy and material, indicating smooth processing suitable for microelectronic applications. 2.4 thermal effects assessment optical microscopy and sem analyses revealed: negligible heat-affected zones (haz): no evidence of microcracks, thermal discoloration, or melted edges was observed across all materials, confirming the ultrafast laser’s capability for cold ablation. the short pulse duration ensured that energy deposition occurred faster than thermal diffusion, thereby confining interactions to the focal volume with minimal collateral thermal impact. these results validate the theoretical advantages of femtosecond laser micromachining in achieving high-precision features with superior surface quality and structural integrity across various electronic materials. 73 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us discussion 1. interpretation of results relative to theoretical models the experimental results align well with the theoretical models developed for ultrafast laser micromachining: ablation thresholds: the measured feature diameters followed the predicted logarithmic dependence on fluence, confirming the validity of ablation threshold calculations for silicon and glass. the thresholds obtained experimentally (\~0.25–0.35 j/cm² for silicon) were within reported literature ranges, supporting the accuracy of the theoretical approach used for system design. heat-affected zone modeling: thermal analysis indicated negligible heat-affected zones (haz), as predicted by the thermal diffusion models for femtosecond pulses. the minimal thermal diffusion length, calculated to be on the nanometer scale, was consistent with the absence of microcracks, recast layers, or thermal discoloration in sem and optical microscopy images. spot size and fluence optimization: trade-off analyses guided optimal parameter selections, where fluences slightly above the ablation threshold achieved clean ablation with minimal debris and high machining resolution, corroborating the model predictions. 2. comparison with previous studies the machining quality achieved in this study compares favorably with previous work: feature resolution: the minimum feature size of \~1.5 µm is consistent with studies such as pronko et al. (1995) and kautek et al. (1994), who reported sub-2 µm features in silicon and thin films using similar femtosecond systems. surface quality: rms roughness values of 20–50 nm are comparable or superior to those reported by keller et al. (2003) in polymer micromachining, highlighting the system’s capability for fabricating smooth microstructures essential for electronic and optical device applications. processing efficiency: the linear increase in ablation depth with pulse energy up to plasma shielding limits is similar to trends observed by chichkov et al. (1996), validating the operational effectiveness of the designed system for precision micromachining. 3. challenges encountered several practical challenges emerged during experimentation: beam delivery alignment: precise alignment of the focusing optics with the galvo scanner was critical to maintain focus stability and machining accuracy across the scan field. minor misalignments led to variations in feature dimensions, emphasizing the need for routine calibration. pulse energy fluctuation: although overall energy stability was within ±2%, occasional transient fluctuations affected ablation uniformity. implementing active feedback stabilization systems would enhance consistency for industrial applications. 4. design considerations for industrial scalability for integration into industrial micromachining processes, several design considerations are essential: maintenance requirements: the optical components, particularly focusing lenses and mirrors, are susceptible to contamination by ablation debris, necessitating regular cleaning schedules. incorporating protective windows and purging systems can reduce maintenance frequency and enhance system longevity. integration into production lines: successful industrial deployment requires seamless integration of the ultrafast laser system with existing manufacturing workflows. this includes: 74 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us automated sample loading and unloading systems to minimize operator intervention. real-time monitoring and feedback control for process validation and adaptive parameter adjustments. safety enclosures and interlocks compliant with laser safety standards to protect personnel. moreover, scalability would benefit from the implementation of burst-mode femtosecond lasers or parallel beam splitting technologies to increase processing throughput while maintaining precision. conclusion this study presented the design and analysis of ultrafast pulsed laser systems for precision micromachining in electronic materials, integrating theoretical modeling, experimental validation, and practical design considerations. key findings optimal laser parameters: the experiments identified that femtosecond pulse durations (\~300 fs), moderate pulse energies (20–50 µj), and near-threshold fluences yield superior machining precision for silicon, glass, and thin metal films. repetition rates of 100–500 khz balanced throughput with minimal thermal accumulation. machining benefits: compared to conventional nanosecond or mechanical machining methods, ultrafast lasers demonstrated negligible heat-affected zones, superior surface quality (rms roughness \~20–50 nm), and minimal redeposition or tapering, enabling fabrication of highresolution microstructures with enhanced structural integrity essential for semiconductor, mems, and microelectronic packaging applications. contributions this work contributes to the field of micromachining by: developing a systematic design framework integrating laser source selection, beam delivery optimization, and control system integration for electronic material processing. providing analytical models for ablation thresholds, thermal effects, and precision optimization, validated experimentally to guide future ultrafast laser system developments. demonstrating practical system performance with stability and machining outcomes comparable or superior to previously reported studies, highlighting the system’s industrial viability. future work to further advance ultrafast laser micromachining technologies, future research will focus on: 1. multi-material processing optimization: extending experimental and modeling studies to heterogeneous electronic systems (e.g., si-gaas stacks, flexible polymer circuits) to establish material-specific parameter libraries for rapid process adaptation. 2. ai integration for adaptive machining: developing artificial intelligence algorithms for realtime monitoring data interpretation, enabling dynamic adjustment of laser parameters for optimal machining quality under variable conditions. 3. energy efficiency improvements: designing high-throughput processing strategies such as burst-mode operation, parallel beam splitting, and optimized scanning algorithms to maximize material removal rates while minimizing energy consumption in industrial manufacturing environments. 75 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us references: 1. chichkov, b. n., momma, c., nolte, s., von alvensleben, f., & tünnermann, a. 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[https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01567636](https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01567636) https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01567636 79 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 architectural and planning organization of shopping centers in regional centers of uzbekistan i.k. eshatov associate professor, department of “urban planning” (phd) samarkand state architecture and construction university named after mirzo ulugbek (samsacu), lolazor str. 70, 140143 samarkand, uzbekistan f.f. muxamadjanov teacher of the department of “urban planning” samarkand state architecture and construction university named after mirzo ulugbek (samsacu), lolazor str. 70, 140143 n.b. kadirova teacher of the department of “urban planning” samarkand state architecture and construction university named after mirzo ulugbek (samsacu), lolazor str. 70, 140143 abstract in the modern world, special importance is given to the development of social infrastructure, including the growth of trade and service complexes at the agglomeration level. today, developed countries are actively seeking measures to enhance socio-economic relations and to utilize agglomeration highways more effectively in this field. particular attention is paid to the implementation of comprehensive projects aimed at forming agglomeration trade complexes connected to highways, as well as the reconstruction of existing trade centers to meet modern standards and address current needs. scientific research conducted around the world places special emphasis on the rational use of trade and service infrastructure facilities along highways (trade and service complexes), architectural solutions for trade complexes both in city centers and on their outskirts, and the improvement of urban planning methods for the optimal placement of trade facilities. many countries are working on the development of design standards that are aimed at practical implementation by design organizations [1,2,3,4,10,12,14]. in this direction, developed countries such as the united states and turkey have made significant progress in analyzing and studying large trade complexes, such as eastland in the detroit city area and the grand bazaar in istanbul. a priority focus is the study of the architectural and planning features of new, modern types of trade and service complexes. keywords: architectural planning, urban design, shopping centers, regional centers, commercial architecture, urban infrastructure, spatial organization. introduction in our republic, large-scale activities are being carried out and tangible results are being achieved in connection with the practical implementation of scientific research related to the rational use of infrastructure facilities of trade and service complexes located along interregional and intercity highways. in achieving these goals, architectural solutions for trade and service complexes in city centers and suburban areas, the improvement of proper methods for placing trade facilities, and the development of design standards by project organizations are of great importance. in particular, the international community is seeking ways to further strengthen international relations and make better use of existing highways in this field. the summit 80 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us (international forum) of the shanghai cooperation organization held in samarkand in 2022 also highlighted the relevance of this topic and demonstrated the need for action in this direction. the decrees of the president of the republic of uzbekistan, such as no. pf-60 dated january 28, 2022, “on the development strategy of new uzbekistan for 2022–2026,” no. pf-5963 dated march 13, 2020, “on additional measures to deepen reforms in the construction sector of the republic of uzbekistan,” as well as the presidential resolution no. pq-2853 dated march 27, 2017, “on the approval of the program for the reconstruction of farmers’ markets and the construction of modern trade complexes on their territory in 2017–2019,” and other legal and regulatory documents relevant to this activity, to a certain extent, contribute to the implementation of the tasks outlined in the resolution of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of uzbekistan no. 253 dated august 28, 2012, “on additional measures for the regulation of market and trade complex activities.” the introduction of the study justifies the relevance and necessity of the topic. it outlines the goals and objectives, the object and subject of the research, its alignment with the priority areas of science and technology development in the republic, describes the scientific novelty and practical outcomes, as well as the implementation of research results in practice, published works, and the structure of the dissertation. the topic “factors and conditions for the formation of trade and service complexes in the regional centers of uzbekistan” explores the socio-economic and urban planning factors influencing the formation of agglomeration-based trade and service complexes across regions, as well as the historical development of service-oriented trade complexes. the study examines the natural and climatic conditions influencing the formation of these complexes in uzbekistan. to date, it has been established that clear boundaries between different types of trade and service complexes have largely disappeared. instead, they now appear in fragmented forms, often interconnected or supplemented depending on key influencing factors. urban planning elements, city size, the layout of transport networks, the number of visitors to these complexes, and the optimal ratio between trade and service zones — all determine the volumetric-spatial solutions and architectural direction of trade complexes. in agglomerated areas, a complex system of trade and service facilities has emerged along existing transport routes, making the use of public transportation more effective. under current conditions, it is important to improve the trade and service system in line with changes in urban development, population distribution in large cities, and to establish centers that provide periodic and episodic trade and service complexes. urban trade complexes should be strategically located near the main transport hubs that serve city residents. landscape architecture and urban planning, as seen through the organization of trade and service complexes, have thus defined their trajectory. this chapter provides a scientific analysis of the architectural and typological solutions developed up to the present day in the construction of trade and service complexes within the main urban centers of each region. it defines the socio-economic aspects of their formation and investigates the categories and functional characteristics of trade complex facilities. traditional markets and trade structures (such as tim, tok, chor-su, and lavka), which were built in uzbekistan’s historical cities and have been preserved to this day, as well as modern trade and service buildings and structures built upon them, are considered important in solving the outlined problems. cities like samarkand, bukhara, shakhrisabz, urgench, and herat were mainly built at the crossroads of trade routes. at the intersections of city streets, domed, enclosed trade complexes were prominent. 81 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the historical development of trade and service complexes in uzbekistan’s regional centers and their placement along city streets and intercity roads has been scientifically analyzed. due to high air temperatures and intense solar radiation during the hot and dry summer period in uzbekistan, there is a growing need for shaded and cool environments. this need is reflected in both people’s daily lives and in the architectural organization of urban social spaces. construction must be planned in accordance with the natural and climatic characteristics of the area, taking into account the necessary technical and structural measures, while also creating favorable conditions for public buildings in a hot, dry climate from the perspective of urban design. the selected areas for trade and service complexes should be assessed in terms of ease of access, entry and exit points, and the availability of parking for both public and private transport. the scale of modern trade and service complexes depends on the organization and layout of interconnected social environments — central streets, public squares, and pedestrian zones — which form the core of the agglomeration center. today, the clear distinctions between building types are fading, while key influencing factors merge, resulting in hybrid, multifunctional, interconnected, or complex spatial forms. based on international experience, modern trade and service architecture today stands out for its uniqueness and innovation. these centers contribute to the overall cityscape, attract public attention, and help increase the flow of customers, visitors, and tourists [8,9]. 2-analytical method: "analysis of architectural solutions for trade and service complex buildings" — this section examines the condition and architectural features of trade and service buildings from the soviet period, as well as the current state and architectural characteristics of shopping centers in foreign countries. it includes an analysis of urban planning and natural-climatic conditions involved in the development of trade and service complexes. the study explores the organization of trade and service complexes, their architectural solutions, and infrastructure systems, taking into account the impact of climatic conditions across different regions. an analysis of trade markets in both urban centers of uzbekistan and abroad — particularly the major ones in the usa, turkey, and tajikistan from the soviet period — as well as integrated trade markets in urban centers of uzbekistan, has revealed both achievements and shortcomings, which play a significant role in this research. in this regard, each region of uzbekistan hosts, or is developing, several major trade complexes offering varying levels of convenience. however, none of the agglomeration-level shopping centers or roadside infrastructure branches offer proper parking services. in fact, the need for such facilities has existed for a long time. furthermore, many infrastructure buildings in regional centers of uzbekistan provide insufficient — or in some cases, completely inadequate — parking space for vehicles, which has led to various public debates and disputes. experience from developed countries shows that shopping centers should be built around cities in such a way that visiting them does not require significant travel time [12,13]. according to the classification by v. gruen and l. smith, shopping centers are divided into three main types based on their size and service characteristics: 1. regional shopping center: designed to serve a population of 150,000–400,000 people, with a total retail area ranging from 27,900 to 93,000 m². the center is usually located within a 25-minute drive. 2. community (intermediate) shopping center: serves 40,000–150,000 people, with a retail area of 9,300 to 23,250 m². the travel time to this center is about 15 minutes by car. 3. neighborhood shopping center: serves a local population of 5,000–40,000 people and has a retail area between 2,790 and 9,300 m². 82 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us according to the national research institute of supermarkets under the u.s. trade association, more than 30,000 supermarkets have been built across the united states, with the following distribution: -27% in small shopping centers; -20% in large shopping centers; -30% within cities and suburbs; -23% along highways. the land in shopping centers is typically divided as follows: 1. buildings (retail and service buildings, offices, and other public facilities); 2. parking lots; 3. pedestrian walkways and corridors; 4. roads for vehicle traffic; 5. public transport areas; 6. buffer zones (landscaped areas separating parking from external roads); 7. reserve space (for potential future expansion of the center) [18,20,21,25,35,36]. the main objectives of transportation planning for shopping centers should be structured as follows: a) ensuring smooth traffic flow along the road systems surrounding the shopping center; b) providing efficient access from major roads to the shopping center and within its territory; c) organizing convenient and cost-effective parking; d) separating service vehicle traffic from customer traffic; e) allocating designated areas for public transportation and passenger drop-off. essentially, this planning involves determining the size, location, and type of each shopping center depending on the type and quality of products offered. v. gruen, l. smith, and a. urbach emphasized that the primary goal of retail planning is to select the appropriate store types and locations in such a way that they attract and guide as many consumers as possible through the center, maximizing customer flow. it is important to ensure pedestrian connectivity and encourage interaction between stores. trade and service complexes of this type are often more cost-effective for consumers than other formats. the significance of such roadside trade complexes is particularly high on urban and regional highways. the development of modern trade and service centers — designed for efficient and pleasant visits by both residents and tourists — remains one of today’s most pressing issues. it is recognized that regional highways in uzbekistan are associated with the development of trade and service complexes along city and district-level roads, although the distribution of these complexes has been uneven. new design proposals and recommendations have been developed for the organization of special agglomeration-based buffer zones in areas of uzbekistan’s regional centers where these roads pass through populated zones. in the development of these design proposals, key focus was placed on forming architectural, structural (planning), and volumetric-spatial solutions for trade complexes that take into account modern trends, national traditions, and other factors under the conditions of a hot, rapidly changing continental climate. following the research conducted in this chapter, strategies were identified for the development of large agglomeration-based trade and service complexes in the city centers of karshi, jizzakh, and urgench, as well as along regional highways, based on centralized functional requirements [24,25,26,28,29,30,31]. 83 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us as a result of this study, it has been possible to partially resolve several key issues in this area. 3-result: “recommendations and proposals for the improvement of agglomerationbased trade and service complexes in the regions and their architectural and planning solutions” this section discusses modern trends in the development of trade and service complexes in regional centers, as well as the formation of agglomeration-based trade and service facilities in district centers, taking into account the influence of urban planning and natural-climatic factors. proposals and recommendations are provided for the architectural and planning organization of agglomeration-level trade and service complexes in regional centers. a scientific analysis has been conducted on trade and service complexes located at the entrances and exits of highways in regional centers and major cities of uzbekistan. the outcomes in this area were studied alongside the international experience, which has been actively discussed in recent years within the urban planning practices of many countries. based on this, architectural design proposals have been developed for buildings of agglomeration trade and service complexes that could be constructed in specific locations. the rational organization of pedestrian and vehicular traffic is of significant importance in the architectural planning of agglomeration-level trade and service complexes. architects and professionals in the construction sector should rely on the latest achievements in science and technology when addressing the advancement of design and construction practices for trade and service complexes at the agglomeration scale, in accordance with the requirements of modern urban planning. there is a clear need for modern “agglomerations of large trade and service complexes and retail facilities” within urban areas of uzbekistan’s regions, as well as along highways of regional and city-level importance. new conceptual design proposals and recommendations have been developed in this regard. the previously widespread method of locating trade establishments within a multi-tiered population service system can no longer be applied, as in the past, trade and service complexes were strictly controlled by the state. today, the capacity and development of commercial and service enterprises are driven primarily by the private sector. the development of social systems within agglomerated urban areas has been examined, including the organization of central, intermediate, and peripheral zones, and relevant recommendations have been provided. based on these analyses, different types of trade and service complexes were categorized. the infrastructure systems of trade and service complexes located along highways were scientifically examined, and directions for their development and operation were outlined in the form of a proposed schematic framework. 84 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. the history of the city includes the shopping area (a), community centers (b), the location of buyers (c) and the territorial scheme of transport (g). therefore, the service network is classified by zones, regions and at the same time by the type and character of service. thus, for the purpose of determining the capacity and type of shopping centers at the agglomeration level, they are divided into the types of shopping centers serving the densely located large residential area of the main city of the agglomeration or the types of shopping centers serving the entire agglomeration [30,31,32,33,34]. when solving urban planning issues, it is necessary to take into account a large number of customers visiting them and a large amount of cargo flow. the first factor requires the organization of entry and exit to the complexes, and the second is the organization of roads for the delivery of goods and products. therefore, taking into account the specific requirements of these structures, that is, we consider it advisable to design closed, semi-open and open commercial and household service complex buildings in accordance with the natural climate. results: the location of the shopping center is very important for its successful development. transport connections of the regional center with other settlements in the agglomeration should be taken into account for the placement of the commercial and household service complex. a suitable geographic location for a construction site is determined by the economic aspects that characterize the area. economic aspects are related to the adaptation of the agglomeration core to trade and household service complexes. when considering two plots of land that may be identical in all other respects, it is necessary to carefully consider their location and relevant economic data. in order to avoid the risk of blind establishment of a shopping complex, it is always necessary to take into account the nature of the area where the shopping center is located, regardless of whether the selected land is available for urban planning or a suitable place has not yet been found. in this case, it is necessary to take into account the service radius in the master plan, that is, the maximum distance between shopping complexes and customers. in shopping complexes, 85 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us access by vehicle should be convenient, and the flow of external cargo and the flow of customers should be separate [5,4,8,12,21,22]. the formation of shopping complexes in the regions we are considering, connected from urban centers by roads of regional significance figure 2-3-4. schematic model of urbanization of the urban centers of karshi, jizzakh and urgench. 86 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the image above shows the isochrons of transport adequacy: 1-primary urbanized urban centers; 2-highly urbanized areas; 3-second-level centers; 4-second-level centers gether with the main urban centers. in our republic, urban settlement development projects are being implemented based on both theoretical and practical knowledge, drawing from international experience. when planning cities, it is essential to study the natural and climatic conditions of the area and design and construct trade and service buildings in an integrated manner, taking into account the lifestyle of the local population [20,21,22,23,24,25,33,34,35]. to achieve this, considering scientific and technological progress, the following design proposals and placement methods for modern commercial facilities have been developed: i. intra-urban “agglomeration” trade complexes with a service radius of 30–80 km: these intra-urban trade and service complexes are sometimes referred to as "green belt" trade centers. they must have a highly attractive tenant mix to draw visitors and a sufficient total area to make the visit worthwhile. these complexes should be integrated with large-scale rest area facilities of new roadside tourist complexes, including: special areas for smoking, emergency and medical service call points, retail stores, cafés or tea houses, atms, camping areas, road hotels ("rotels", especially for mountainous and scenic regions). all of the above are recommended to be designed in a unified architectural style. ii. trade and service complexes along major state roads with an “agglomeration” service radius of 80–100 km: depending on the coverage radius, agglomeration-level trade and service complexes are classified into regional (city-level), inter-district, and district-level facilities. larger facilities attract visitors from a radius of at least 20 km, but are only effective if the travel time to the complex does not exceed 60–90 minutes. the development of trade and service complexes at various levels has followed this model: i. agglomeration-level trade and service complexes in central cities: 1. size: 50,000 – 100,000 m² 2. service radius: 80 – 100 km 3. population served: 500,000 – 1,500,000 people 4. travel time: 60–90 minutes ii. inter-district trade and service complexes: 1. size: 20,000 – 50,000 m² 2. service radius: 30 – 80 km 3. population served: 100,000 – 500,000 people 4. travel time: 30–60 minutes iii. district-level trade and service complexes: 1. size: 10,000 – 20,000 m² 2. service radius: 5 – 30 km 3. population served: 10,000 – 100,000 people 4. travel time: 5–30 minutes design proposals and recommendations for trade and service complexes in the cities of karshi, jizzakh, and urgench have been developed based on: 87 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the main legal and regulatory documents currently in force in our republic (such as construction codes and interagency standards), international best practices, the results of scientific and practical research. developing trade and service complexes in this way along regional and city-level roads in the regional centers of uzbekistan will become a vital factor in the further expansion of infrastructure and the enhancement of trade networks [5,6,8,10,12,16,18]. 5. conclusion: 1. it has been established that in uzbekistan, there is potential for the modern use of ancient caravanserais, ribats, and sardobas—historically formed along old caravan routes and crossroads—in integration with trade and service complexes. 2. the trade and service complexes in the cities of karshi, jizzakh, and urgench have been spatially and functionally organized. 3. based on the proposed recommendations, the service radius of trade and service complexes located at the entrances and exits of karshi, jizzakh, and urgench has been defined. 4. in accordance with current requirements, the service radii and location addresses of trade and service complexes at both regional and city levels have been determined. 5. when forming agglomeration-level trade and service complexes in the regions, the level of public satisfaction—considering passenger and transport flows—is assessed based on existing standards. the capacity and service radius of the facilities for both pedestrians and vehicles are calculated, and proposals for their planning have been developed as a potential design tool. 6. in line with the development of trade and service complexes along existing highways, it has been proposed to establish modern infrastructure complexes on major transportation routes. 7. in designing modern agglomeration trade and service complexes on regional roads, several key factors are taken into account, including: passenger and transport flows, satisfaction of user needs, urban planning parameters, the capacity of pedestrian and transport facilities, service radius, and socio-economic factors. proposals have been developed using experimental planning tools. 8. taking into consideration the natural and climatic zones of the regions, new design proposals for trade complexes were developed for: comfortable moderate oasis zone (jizzakh region), severe climate zone (kashkadarya region), desert zone under extreme conditions (khorezm region), including: open-type trade and service complexes in foothill valleys with moderate climates, semi-open trade and service complexes for cities located in open desert areas but naturally shielded to some extent, closed trade and service complexes for cities surrounded by desert terrain and exposed to extreme climatic conditions. 9. the research indicated a dominance of agglomeration-level trade complexes along regional and city roads in uzbekistan, compared to those located within city neighborhoods. 88 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 10. a positive trend is the formation and development of agglomeration trade and service complexes in the regions of uzbekistan. a systematic approach to their design and placement proves that such complexes, located along interregional and intercity roads, play a vital role in strengthening socio-economic linkages. the proposals for organizing trade and service complexes along regional highways of cities may also be applicable in neighboring countries. list of references 1. eshatov i.k. historical bazaars of central asia – predictors of modern shopping centers. international journal on integrated education, vol. 2, issue iv, sept–oct 2019, pp. 23–27. 2. eshatov i.k. formation of trade and service complexes in the regional centers of uzbekistan. arhitektura, qurilish, dizayn journal. tashkent: taqi, 2020, no. 2, pp. 69–75. 3. eshatov i.k. socio-economic and urban planning factors in the formation of trade and service complexes in the regions. memoarchilik va qurilish muammolari ilm.tex. journal, samdaqi no. 2 (special issue), 2023, pp. 168–171. 4. eshatov i.k. placement trends of agglomeration trade and service complexes in the regions of uzbekistan. memoarchilik va qurilish muammolari ilm.tex. journal, samdaqi no. 2 (special issue), 2023, pp. 173–174. 5. eshatov i.k. considering natural climatic conditions in the formation of trade and service complex buildings for the regions of uzbekistan. memoarchilik va qurilish muammolari ilm.tex. journal, samdaqi no. 2 (special issue), 2023, pp. 17–19. 6. eshatov i.k. features of trade and service complexes in the regional centers of uzbekistan. proceedings of the scientific–practical conference “modernization of architecture, urban planning, and design of the republic of uzbekistan: issues and solutions,” apr 17–18, 2019. 7. eshatov i.k. the scheme of territorial placement of agglomeration commercial and household complexes in uzbekistan (article in english). tajik technical university named after academician m.s. osimi. part one. dushanbe, 2022, p. 221. 8. eshatov i.k. recommendations for architectural-design organization of trade and service complexes in regional centers. proceedings of the international scientific–practical conference “sustainable architecture—achievements and challenges of today and tomorrow,” may 18–19, 2023. 9. eshatov i.k. architectural and design of agglomeration commercial complexes in uzbekistan. conference of turkic “science and scientific research in the modern world,” may 28, 2023. 10. eshatov i.k., m.m. xidirov, m.z. mustafoyeva. characteristics and unique challenges in the modernization of trade and service complexes in the regional centers of uzbekistan. memoarchilik va qurilish muammolari ilm.tex. journal, samdaqi no. 2, 2019. 11. turdimurodovich m.i., djurakulovich g.b., quziyevich e.i. the role and place of the khanqahs in spreading mysticism and spiritual purification to the peoples of central asia. international journal of scientific and technology research, 2020, 9(3), pp. 561–563. 12. xidirov m.m., eshatov i.k. analysis of organizing agglomeration-level trade and service complexes in the qashqadaryo regional center. arhitektura, qurilish, dizayn journal. tashkent: taqi, 2021, no. 2. 13. xidirov m.m., eshatov i.k. status and architectural characteristics of trade building solutions in foreign countries. memoarchilik va qurilish muammolari ilm.tex. journal, samdaqi no. 2, 2021. 89 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 14. xidirov m.m., eshatov i.k. forecasting the placement of agglomeration trade and service complexes in the regions of uzbekistan. memoarchilik va qurilish muammolari ilm.tex. journal, samdaqi no. 1, 2022. 15. eshatov i.k., m.d. mavlonov, f. maxmudova. analysis of placement of agglomeration levels of commercial services in jizzakh city structure. journal of architectural design, 2022, vol. 5, pp. 6–11. 16. eshatov i.k., s.x. ashurov. architectural–design recommendations for trade and service complexes in regional centers (karshi, jizzakh, urgench). arhitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar journal, issn 2181-3469, vol. 2, issue 1, 2023. 17. eshatov i.k., e.e. jurayeva. the scheme of territorial placement of agglomeration commercial and household complexes in uzbekistan. arhitektura, muhandislik va zamonaviy texnologiyalar journal, vol. 2, no. 2, 2023, pp. 62–67. 18. xidirov m.m., eshatov i.k. ways to improve trade and service complexes in qashqadaryo region. proceedings of the inter-university scientific and practical conference “current issues in designing modern rural settlements,” 2014, pp. 60–61, samdaqi. 19. eshatov i., k. baratov, o. jo‘rayev. urban planning culture in central asia and the modernization and restoration of historical urban centers according to contemporary needs. aktualnie nauchnie issledovaniya v sovremennom mire, 2017, no. 6-3, pp. 54–56. 20. xidirov m.m., eshatov i.k. architectural–design organization of agglomeration trade and service complexes in regional centers. proceedings of the republic’s scientific–practical conference “issues of urban planning, landscape architecture, and design formation and development in uzbekistan’s extreme natural and climatic regions,” jun 15, 2021. 21. xidirov m.m., eshatov i.k. considering natural climatic conditions in the formation of trade and service complex buildings. proceedings of the republic’s scientific–practical conference “issues of urban planning, landscape architecture, and design formation and development in uzbekistan’s extreme natural and climatic regions,” jun 15, 2021. 22. hidirov m.m., eshatov i.k., f. mahmudova. architectural and planning organization of agglomeration trade and service complexes in uzbekistan. e-conference globe, june 2021, pp. 60–64. 23. eshatov i., m. abduraimov, a. aymatov, b. mustayev, s. xaydarov, f. maxmudova, d. inoyatov. placement of trade and household service complexes in regions of uzbekistan according to climatic conditions. e3s web of conferences, vol. 559, 2024, p. 01006. 24. eshatov i.k., a.a. aymatov, f.f. soliyev. regional location of commercial and household service complexes in uzbekistan regions taking into account natural-climatic conditions. american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture, 2023, 1(10), pp. 31–38. 25. raximov k.d., a.a. aymatov, d.z. kamalova, t.sh. mamatmusayev, sh.s. reyimbayev. me’moriy-tarixiy muhit va ta’mirlash asoslari (textbook), 2024. 26. eshatov i.k. features of architectural–design formation of trade and service complexes in the regional centers of uzbekistan. monograph, iscience sp. z o.o., isbn 978-83-66216-90-..., 2024. 27. shukurov i.s., a.t. xatamov. engineering preparation of urban territories (textbook), tashkent: iqtisod-moliya, 2018. 28 tulakov e., a. kurbonov, d. inoyatov, i. eshatov, s. abdullayeva. study on the heat and vapor transfer resistance of basement outer walls and moisture regime calculations: a case study of uzbekistan. e3s web of conferences, vol. 563, 2024, p. 02022. 29. akram i., zukhra k. problems and prospects of transport development in samarkand. global scientific review, 2022, vol. 3, pp. 19–22. 90 a journal of the american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 30. tulakov e.s., d.t. inoyatov, a.s. kurbonov. waterproofing and insulation thickness calculation for basement walls of low-rise energy-efficient houses in accordance with domestic and foreign standards and norms. international journal of scientific and technology research, 2019, vol. 8, no. 11, pp. 3311–3314. 31. gutnov a.e., lezhava i.g. the future of the city. moscow: stroizdat, 1977, 126 pp. 32. jencks c. the new paradigm in architecture (translated, from english). proekt international, 2003, no. 5. 33. zenis z.e. methodology and methods of socio-economic-geographical research. riga: zinatne, 1980, 262 pp. 34. zabelina e. the search for new forms in landscape architecture. moscow: arhitektura-s, 2005, 90 pp. 35. egorov y.a. urban planning in belarus. moscow: stroizdat, 1954, 282 pp. 36. gruen, v., smith, l. shopping centers of the usa. moscow: stroyizdat, 1966. pp. 3–8. 37. urbakh, a.i. problems of the formation of new types of commercial buildings and complexes. moscow: stroyizdat, 1973. 38. tursunov, kh.k. spatial and planning organization of settlement in the territory of uzbekistan, 2012 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 9, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 identifying the practical application opportunities of architectural design through a creative approach irgashev ravshan sobirjonovich teacher at rismi. tashkent city abstract: this article analyzes the theoretical foundations of a creative approach in the field of architectural design, its application possibilities in the educational process and practice, as well as its effectiveness factors. the concept of creativity is explained based on scientific sources, highlighting its role in developing students’ independent thinking, creative decision-making, and professional competencies. in addition, the article demonstrates the practical importance of a creative approach in urban planning, landscape design, interior design, and the integration of national heritage. the results of the study confirm that classes organized on the basis of a creative approach ensure high efficiency in improving students’ professional skills. keywords: creative approach, architectural design, professional competence, innovation, urban planning, national heritage. introduction in today’s era of globalization, the development of a creative approach in the educational process has become one of the most urgent issues. as science and technology continue to advance rapidly worldwide, traditional approaches are no longer sufficient for preparing the new generation of specialists. therefore, methodological principles aimed at fostering creativity, independent thinking, and innovation are becoming increasingly important. the field of architectural design is distinguished by its complexity, multidimensional nature, and invaluable role in the development of society. in this area, not only technical and functional requirements but also the harmony of aesthetic, ecological, and national values play a vital role. hence, the use of a creative approach in teaching architectural design enriches students’ theoretical knowledge with practical skills, develops their ability to make independent decisions, and prepares them for the modern labor market. as the president of the republic of uzbekistan, sh. m. mirziyoyev, emphasized: “educating young people to become mature, independently thinking individuals and fully unlocking their abilities and talents is one of the priority directions of state policy” [1]. this principle is directly reflected in architectural design education, serving as an important methodological foundation for realizing students’ creative potential. the purpose of this article is to reveal the theoretical foundations of a creative approach in the field of architectural design, to analyze its application opportunities in education and practice, and to identify factors of effectiveness. the theoretical foundations of the creative approach the concept of creativity has been interpreted in various ways in scientific literature. j.p. guilford (1967) defined creativity as a form of human thinking directed towards finding 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us unconventional solutions [2]. torrance (1993), on the other hand, described creativity as “the ability to perceive a problem in a new way and solve it through an unusual method” [3]. in the pedagogical process, the creative approach is a methodological orientation aimed at developing students’ personal abilities, interests, and initiative. it is based on the following principles: considering the student as an active subject of the educational process; reinforcing knowledge through project-based and practical tasks; encouraging creative problem-solving; harmonizing national and contemporary values. in architectural design, the creative approach encompasses not only theoretical knowledge but also the mechanisms of applying this knowledge in practice. the application of the creative approach in the educational process the effective forms of applying the creative approach in teaching architectural design are as follows: project-based learning – students work in small groups to develop various structures, models, and interior design projects. this process enhances their practical skills, fosters teamwork culture, and increases responsibility. furthermore, project-based learning develops problemsolving abilities by allowing students to face real-life challenges that architects encounter in professional practice. use of information technologies – creating virtual models and simulating project processes with the help of programs such as 3d max, autocad, and sketchup. these tools not only increase visualization skills but also prepare students for the requirements of the modern design industry, where digital literacy has become an essential professional competence. interactive methods – encouraging the search for creative solutions in problematic situations through methods such as “brainstorming,” “case study,” and “debate.” the use of interactive strategies motivates students to exchange ideas, think critically, and defend their solutions, thereby strengthening both creative and analytical thinking. integrative approach – combining architectural design with mathematics, physics, ecology, and art. for example, using knowledge of geometry to develop constructive forms or applying ecological principles in sustainable design projects. this approach helps students understand the interdisciplinary nature of architecture, where aesthetic beauty, scientific calculation, and environmental responsibility must all come together. in summary, the creative approach in education provides opportunities for students to actively participate in the learning process, gain hands-on experience, and develop professional skills that meet the demands of the 21st-century architectural landscape. 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1. “creative approach in architectural design education” practical applications of the creative approach in urban planning and landscape design. through a creative approach, it is possible to design eco-friendly and energy-efficient buildings and to widely implement the concept of “green zones” in urban planning. for instance, in uzbekistan, the construction of new residential complexes in recent years demonstrates practical examples of creative solutions, where energyefficient materials and sustainable technologies are increasingly being used. moreover, landscape design projects are being enriched with environmentally conscious planning, such as the integration of pedestrian-friendly spaces, vertical gardens, and renewable energy systems. in interior design. creativity is expressed in interior design by harmonizing elements of national decorative arts with contemporary minimalism. in this field, the use of ecological materials, innovative lighting design, and ergonomic furniture plays a significant role. such an approach not only enhances aesthetic appeal but also improves functionality and comfort, ensuring that interior spaces meet modern lifestyle needs while preserving cultural identity. integration of national heritage. the creative use of historical monuments and traditional folk arts contributes to enriching modern architectural projects with a national identity. for example, in the architecture of craft centers in the fergana valley, the combination of traditional ornaments with modern construction materials illustrates the integration of heritage into contemporary design [4]. this direction opens up opportunities for sustainable cultural continuity, where architecture serves as a bridge between past traditions and future innovations. figure 1. a step-by-step guide to successful innovation teachingtimes 107 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us practical applications of the creative approach in urban planning and landscape design. through a creative approach, it is possible to design environmentally friendly and energy-efficient buildings and to widely implement the concept of “green zones” in urban planning. for example, in uzbekistan, the use of energy-efficient materials in the construction of new residential complexes in recent years serves as a practical expression of creative solutions. in interior design. creativity is expressed in interior spaces by harmonizing elements of national decorative art with modern minimalism. in this field, the use of ecological materials, innovative lighting design, and ergonomic furniture is of particular importance. integration of national heritage. the creative use of historical monuments and folk applied arts enriches modern architectural projects with a national identity. for instance, in the architecture of craft centers in the fergana valley, the harmony of traditional ornaments with modern materials can be observed [4]. advantages and effectiveness of the creative approach the creative approach in architectural design leads to the following positive outcomes: ➢ develops students’ skills in independent thinking and creative decision-making; ➢ enhances professional competence by integrating education with practice; ➢ contributes to the harmonization of national values and modern innovations; ➢ increases the efficiency of the educational process through the use of interactive and innovative methods. experimental studies show that in classes organized on the basis of the creative approach, students demonstrated 25–30 percent higher results (in terms of the quality of creative projects, the level of independent work, and critical thinking skills) [5]. conclusion. the application of the creative approach in the field of architectural design is an effective means of developing students’ professional skills. it ensures the integration of theory and practice while enriching national architectural traditions with modern innovations. therefore, it is essential to widely introduce methods based on the creative approach in architectural education. list of used literature: 1. mirziyoyev, sh.m. the strategy of new uzbekistan. tashkent: uzbekistan, 2021. 2. guilford, j.p. the nature of human intelligence. new york: mcgraw-hill, 1967. 3. torrance, e.p. creativity: prospects for the 21st century. greenwood publishing, 1993. 4. abdurakhmonova, d. “creative pedagogy and its role in education.” journal of education and innovation, 2021, no. 2. 5. nazarov, a. fundamentals of architectural design. tashkent: national publishing house of uzbekistan, 2019. 6. unesco. creative education: building capacities for the 21st century. paris, 2010. 284 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 high-efficiency bidirectional dc-dc converter with interphase transformer for electric and aerospace applications m. shagar banu department of electrical and electronics engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, padappai, chennai, tamil nadu, india b. vaidianathan, m. mohamed sameer ali, m. mohamed thariq, c. satheesh, pandi maharajan dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, padappai, chennai, tamil nadu, india abstract: the importance of power density and converter efficiency is growing in the electric car industry. losing weight is one way to lower the power consumption of an electric car. an efficient dc-dc bidirectional converter (12v to 48v) with a power density of 1.5 kw is demonstrated in this dissertation report. this converter made use of planar magnetics, a substrate with thermal conductivity, and cooling semiconductors with two sides. the design of the converter was a double interleaved boost based on an interphase transformer. to guarantee that power could flow in both directions, the circuit's design included a full bridge. magnetic cores, capacitors, heat sinks, and connections were all part of the semiconductor devices that were optimized for electrical, mechanical, and thermal aspects. the use of a thermal clad board allowed for the symmetry of the power circuit and the reduction of parasitic impedance. the efficiency of the dual interleaved boost converter was tested in both static and dynamic modes of operation. theory and criteria were satisfied by all waveforms. coil current sharing and strong coupling are features of the planar interphase transformer. design predictions for temperature and power loss were met by a number of components. the efficiency of both the boost and buck modes was 94% under the rated condition. with and without heat sinks, the power densities were 1.8 kw/liter and 5.1 kw/liter, respectively. an example of how commercially available components can achieve high efficiency and power density is demonstrated by the proposed converter. this converter allows an electric vehicle to attach additional loads to its 12v battery. aircraft and electric ships both use it for the same purpose. keywords: dc-dc bidirectional converter; high efficiency; power density; electric vehicles; planar magnetics; interphase transformer; boost architecture; thermal optimization. introduction in the current automotive landscape, power electronic converters play a critical role in enabling the efficient operation of electric vehicles (evs) [7]. these converters serve as essential interfaces between the vehicle's power sources—such as batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors—and its electrical loads, including motors, actuators, and a wide range of electronic accessories [8]. a major challenge in advancing ev technology lies in reducing the size and cost of these converters while simultaneously improving their efficiency [9]. achieving these goals could significantly enhance the mass-to-performance ratio of ev systems, thereby reducing overall vehicle weight [10]. this reduction leads to decreased energy and fuel consumption, which is paramount for promoting sustainability across transportation modes like electric vehicles, aircraft, and ships [11]. 285 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us by increasing power density, which refers to the amount of power processed per unit volume or mass, modern converters outperform their traditional counterparts [12]. however, this also introduces greater thermal, electrical, and mechanical stress, making it increasingly complex to balance performance with reliability [13]. thus, developing highly power-dense converters with excellent efficiency remains one of the foremost challenges in realizing greener transportation systems [14]. the automotive industry has made remarkable strides over the past two decades in introducing diverse types of evs into the market. among these, three categories have gained widespread acceptance: plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (phevs), fuel cell electric vehicles (fcevs), and hybrid electric vehicles (hevs) [15]. despite the superior environmental credentials of fully electric vehicles (evs), their mass adoption faces several barriers [16]. these include higher production costs, prolonged battery charging times, limited operational range, and a heavy reliance on power grids [17]. consequently, these factors have contributed to the comparatively slower acceptance of pure evs, even though they are more efficient and environmentally friendly [18]. hybrid electric vehicles combine internal combustion engines with electric motors, powered by rechargeable batteries [19]. these batteries are essential for the functioning of hevs, which have evolved through different stages—from micro-hybrid systems to mild hybrid setups and eventually to full hybrid vehicles [20]. full hevs, like the volkswagen touareg tsi hybrid, mercedes mclass hybrid, lexus rx 400h, bmw x6, and toyota prius, are capable of running solely on electric power and are equipped to handle all electric-based functionalities within the vehicle, including traction and auxiliary systems [21]. fuel cell electric vehicles take the innovation further by replacing the traditional combustion engine with a hydrogen fuel cell [22]. this enables zero-emission performance. however, despite their promising environmental benefits, fuel cell vehicles are still not commercially widespread due to technological challenges such as the complexity of hydrogen storage, the need for advanced reformers, and issues related to water byproduct management [23]. these challenges contribute to the high cost and limited deployment of fuel cell systems [24]. moreover, they typically require supplemental energy storage components like batteries or supercapacitors due to their limited voltage regulation capabilities [25]. plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, on the other hand, enjoy an edge over conventional hevs by offering the capability to recharge from standard electrical outlets [26]. this additional flexibility enhances their usability, particularly in urban environments where daily travel distances are often within the electric-only range offered by phevs [27]. notable examples include the mercedes vision s500 plug-in hybrid, chevrolet volt, and the toyota prius plug-in hybrid [28]. these vehicles are often seen as the most practical option in today’s ev market, offering a favorable balance between energy efficiency and usability [29]. a significant limitation in the current ev landscape is the absence of a universal electrical architecture within the vehicle. different ev configurations use various methods to power the main traction motor [30]. the three primary configurations are series, parallel, and series-parallel. in the series configuration, both the engine and battery are aligned in series to supply energy [31]. in the parallel configuration, the battery and engine operate in tandem to deliver power, whereas the series-parallel setup combines features of both [32]. across these configurations, a high-power dc-dc converter is a crucial component that ensures voltage transformation from 200–300 volts at the battery end to approximately 500–700 volts at the inverter end of the motor drive [33]. additionally, components like flywheels or supercapacitors are often employed to act as peak power buffers [34]. these elements interface with the high-voltage dc link through smaller-scale dc-dc converters, playing a pivotal role in power management during transient load conditions [35]. apart from traction systems, electric vehicles incorporate numerous auxiliary loads such as electric power steering, air conditioning units, infotainment systems, lighting, and safety mechanisms [36]. these systems typically operate at lower voltages—around 12v or 42v—and require separate power management strategies [37]. for this purpose, low-power dc-dc converters are used to link these auxiliary systems to the main powertrain [38]. for instance, several hybrid vehicle models, including the toyota lexus, gmc yukon by general motors, and 286 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us chevrolet tahoe, employ converters that modify the main battery’s voltage from 300v to 42v, making it suitable for powering components like electronic steering systems [39]. in addition to these powertrain components, some hybrid systems integrate starting alternator technologies. in such configurations, a starter alternator powered by a belt is used in tandem with the main engine to support auxiliary power unit (apu) functionality [40]. in some advanced systems, fuel cells or battery-powered apus are explored to achieve more efficient power generation at higher voltages like 42v [41]. given the expanding electrical demands within evs, the adoption of dual-voltage architecture, particularly 42v/12v systems, has emerged as a practical solution [42]. this dual-bus system ensures more efficient and flexible power delivery across both high and low power demands [43]. consequently, one of the emerging research areas involves determining the most stable and efficient way to manage power between these two voltage buses. two options are currently under consideration [44]. the first involves standardizing the entire system at a lower voltage like 12v or 14v while using separate, dedicated dc-dc converters to manage higher power loads (at 42v or 48v) [45]. the second approach is to develop an advanced bidirectional dc-dc converter that can manage power flow in both directions, offering enhanced energy efficiency and control [46]. to address this need, a project was undertaken to develop a highly power-dense and efficient bidirectional dc-dc converter that converts 12v to 48v and vice versa [47]. this converter leverages cutting-edge technologies, including double-sided cooling semiconductor switches, highpower planar magnetic components, and thermally conductive substrates to achieve high performance in a compact footprint [48]. surface-mount components were chosen throughout the design to minimize space requirements and optimize thermal management [49]. all design choices, including component selection and circuit topology, were guided by a holistic optimization strategy targeting electrical, mechanical, and thermal performance [50]. the experimental results of the developed converter demonstrated impressive performance metrics. at a rated power of 1.5 kilowatts, the converter achieved an efficiency level of approximately 94% [51]. this figure reflects the system's ability to minimize power loss during conversion, making it suitable for use in modern electric vehicles where energy efficiency is paramount [52]. while the project specifically focused on 12v to 48v conversion, the same system architecture can easily be adapted to other voltage levels, such as 12v to 42v or 14v to 42v, by simply modifying the duty cycles of the semiconductor switches [53]. this adaptability further enhances the converter’s applicability across different ev platforms, allowing for flexible integration into a variety of auxiliary power systems. the successful development of this converter marks a significant step forward in meeting the evolving power demands of electric vehicles [54]. as the transportation sector continues to shift toward electrification, innovations in power electronics—such as this bidirectional dc-dc converter—will play a vital role in overcoming existing limitations related to efficiency, weight, and cost [55]. by enabling compact, efficient, and robust power conversion, such technologies pave the way for the next generation of electric transportation solutions, contributing meaningfully to the global sustainability agenda. literature review a small-signal, sampled-data model is developed for a dual-interleaved boost converter that includes the interphase transformer’s differential inductance and a peak current-mode controller. this model leverages half-cycle waveform symmetry and is validated using saber simulation and a 10-kw prototype. the study reveals significant dynamic differences based on the duty ratio: for d ≤ 0.5, slope compensation is necessary to avoid subharmonic instability, especially when the inductance ratio exceeds 4.0. the control-to-output transfer function also becomes sensitive to inductance changes in this mode. in contrast, for d > 0.5, the need for slope compensation decreases as the inductance ratio increases. these findings underscore the importance of duty ratio and inductance values in designing stable and efficient power converters for electric vehicle applications [1]. the automotive industry is undergoing a transition toward more electrical systems to meet rising 287 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us vehicular load demands. over the next 10 to 20 years, automotive power systems must evolve significantly to support this shift. presently, rising fuel economy standards and the demand for more onboard electric power are pushing system voltages higher. forecasts suggest that future vehicles could require power levels as high as 10 kw—three to four times today’s demand. meeting this challenge necessitates integrating power electronics-based solutions within vehicle systems. this paper aims to review the current and future landscape of electrical power systems in electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles, with a particular focus on the architectures and applications of dc/dc and dc/ac converters [2]. this study explores power interface options for pem fuel cells, focusing on part-load operation and its impact on component selection and magnetic stress. a comparison is made between a standard two-phase interleaved boost converter and a transformer-coupled version that includes a single input inductor and a phase-coupling transformer. using experimental voltage-current input profiles derived from an industrial pem fuel cell’s polarization curve, the research evaluates the performance of a 3 kw prototype. it also includes an investigation into the magnetic design and sizing of air-cooled components for higher power ranges up to 45 kw. this analysis helps optimize the use of magnetic components and supports the efficient design of fuel cell converter systems in electric vehicles [3]. this paper discusses the design and construction of a high-power bidirectional dc-dc converter used to link a supercapacitor energy buffer with a higher voltage traction system in compact electric vehicles. the proposed 18 kw dual interleaved boost converter features an interphase transformer and is carefully designed to maximize both volumetric and gravimetric power density. the physical layout simplifies assembly and enhances thermal management. the resulting prototype achieves impressive power densities of 6.5 kw/kg and 7.9 kw/l. efficiency results and thermal performance are presented alongside a detailed mass and loss audit of key components. this converter addresses the challenge of compact, lightweight power solutions for high-efficiency energy transfer in modern evs [4]. improving the efficiency of full-bridge dc-dc converters in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (phevs) is essential for extending driving range and reducing energy loss. this paper presents a new technique that enhances zero-voltage switching (zvs) in converters connecting the highvoltage traction battery to the 12v battery. a passive asymmetrical auxiliary circuit is used to expand the soft-switching range but creates extra circulating currents. the proposed method minimizes these currents by adjusting the switch duty cycle, reducing conduction losses and improving efficiency, particularly at light loads. a 2 kw converter is tested, showing significant gains in efficiency. this approach provides a practical solution to enhance energy conservation in phev powertrains [5]. this paper outlines key modeling strategies for simulating power electronic devices, whether operating independently or integrated into broader power systems. it covers various methods for representing power converters and semiconductor devices accurately. a brief overview of the alternative transients program (atp) is included, highlighting its usefulness in simulating power electronic circuits. the paper details how atp’s capabilities can model components typically found in power electronics systems. it also provides general modeling guidelines and discusses simulation challenges. finally, the paper presents case studies showcasing power electronics applications in transmission, distribution, and renewable energy systems, demonstrating how simulation supports system design and optimization [6]. methodology this paper presents the methodology for designing a 1.5 kw bidirectional dc-dc boost converter, specifically aimed at achieving a voltage conversion ratio of four, from 12v to 48v. the design process began with selecting a suitable converter topology based on a comparative analysis of switch losses. among the various options, the dual interleaved boost converter topology, integrated with an interphase transformer, was identified as the most optimal 288 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us configuration for the desired power rating and voltage gain. the choice of this topology is justified by its inherent advantages in terms of improved efficiency, reduced ripple current, and superior thermal performance due to current sharing across phases [56]. following the topology selection, the steady-state operation of the circuit was thoroughly analyzed to establish essential design parameters [57]. analytical equations were developed to facilitate component sizing, ensuring the converter's performance remains robust under the intended operating conditions. the main objective of this phase was to derive relationships for inductor current, switch duty cycle, voltage gain, and current ripple, which are fundamental to the converter’s efficient functioning [58]. the circuit components were then carefully selected based on these design equations to ensure a balanced trade-off between electrical, thermal, and mechanical performance [59]. critical components, such as inductors, capacitors, and switching devices, were chosen with attention to minimizing losses, achieving compactness, and ensuring thermal stability [60]. two fundamental circuit configurations were considered in this analysis—unidirectional and bidirectional boost converters [61]. the basic structure of a conventional unidirectional boost converter includes an inductor, a switching device, and a capacitor [62]. in contrast, the bidirectional version employs two active switches configured to enable power flow in both directions [63]. in the bidirectional configuration, switching polarity is reversed as required, utilizing the body diode of one switch and the conduction of the other to facilitate reverse power flow [64]. this feature is particularly important for applications involving energy regeneration or battery charge-discharge cycles. result and discussion the designed converter operates in two primary modes: continuous inductor current mode (ccm) and discontinuous inductor current mode (dcm). in either mode, the inductor stores energy when a switch is in the on-state and transfers it to the load when the switch is turned off. however, the selection of operating mode significantly impacts the design of passive and active components [65]. dcm operation, while beneficial for enabling zero voltage switching (zvs), also introduces challenges such as increased electromagnetic interference (emi) and higher conduction losses in the switches due to current discontinuity [66]. despite these drawbacks, zvs in dcm allows for high-frequency operation with minimal switching loss, making it advantageous for power-dense converter applications. thus, careful consideration was given to balancing the benefits of high-frequency operation with the need to manage emi and thermal stress [67]. the outcome is a highly efficient, compact, and thermally optimized converter suitable for use in modern electric vehicle architectures and other high-performance power conversion applications [68]. the use of these designs in more modern electric vehicle models was illustrated in reference [69]. a typical powertrain design for series, parallel, and series-parallel hybrid electric vehicles is depicted in the figure 1 [70]. in the series configuration, the engine and battery are connected in series through an alternator and rectifier [71]. figure 1: four individual ipt turns, dimensions, and interconnecting points(mm) figure 2 depicts the top view of the converter following the connection of the inductor and ipt to the t-clad board. in reality, cables were used to measure the currents flowing through them 289 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us even though they were used to connect the t-clad board and the ipt [72]. ipt will be mounted above the input connector in the finished product, and planar copper bus bars will be used to connect it to j1 and j2 [73]. a bank of variable resistors was set up that could provide a load value between 1.5 and 18.5 ω. in light of the 12 v to 48 v operation, the converter may be tested for a power range of 124.5 w to 1500 w [74]. a gate drive circuit from the lab was utilized to operate the converter in open loop mode. two ipt windings have two current probes linked to them. during the experiments, multimeters and necessary voltage probes were also connected [75]. the temperature of the components was tracked using an infrared imaging camera (figure 2). figure 2: top view of the converter circuit recent advancements in materials, components, and circuit topologies have significantly accelerated progress in power electronics, leading to more compact, efficient, and power-dense converter designs [76]. these improvements are particularly relevant to the electric vehicle (ev) industry, which increasingly relies on advanced power electronic solutions to enhance vehicle performance and compete with traditional fuel-powered counterparts [77]. research in this area has become increasingly critical, with power electronics potentially contributing up to one-third of an ev's total cost [78]. this study demonstrated the feasibility of developing a highefficiency, high-density 12v to 48v bidirectional dc-dc converter rated at 1.5 kw. this converter can be a valuable component of an ev’s auxiliary power unit, enabling the connection of auxiliary loads to either the drivetrain or a 12v battery system [79]. beyond evs, similar converter configurations are also applicable in electric ships and aircraft. the research presented in this paper covers an overview of the entire design process, key contributions, design tradeoffs, and areas for future work [80]. to begin, a thorough literature review was conducted, examining electric vehicle powertrain architectures, topological comparisons, magnetic material innovations, and semiconductor technologies [81]. the goal was to identify a converter design with minimal components while maintaining high performance [82]. among the various topologies evaluated, the dual interleaved boost converter with an interphase transformer was selected for its efficiency and power density advantages. design equations were developed based on an operational analysis of the circuit [83]. the directfet international rectifier mosfet was chosen for its low profile, superior cooling capacity, and robust performance [84]. a thermal-clad substrate was selected to complement the power device's thermal performance [85]. thermal modeling was performed for the mosfet to ensure effective heat management and to refine the thermal layout of the converter. the converter design involved two core magnetic components, each chosen for specific functional roles. the input inductor, which supports the full power load, required a core material with high saturation flux density, leading to the selection of an amorphous-metal core. in contrast, the interphase transformer handled only ripple currents and therefore used a low-loss ferrite core with lower saturation flux. to minimize weight and volume, a planar transformer configuration was employed for the ipt. both magnetic components were designed using optimized core and winding configurations based on current density, window area utilization, and minimal ripple criteria. high-performance multilayer ceramic capacitors were used for input and output filtering due to their compact size and strong thermal capability [86]. 290 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the final assembly was built on a thermal-clad, single-sided board with a symmetrical power circuit layout to reduce parasitic effects. a heat sink was selected following a detailed power loss audit. special attention was paid during construction to ensure precision in inductance values and effective winding coupling in the ipt, achieved through a custom fabrication method. testing validated the converter’s excellent performance in both buck and boost modes, exhibiting accurate current sharing and minimal ripple in accordance with the design. thermal tests confirmed that the converter could operate reliably at full load for extended periods. the resulting design achieved a power density of 1.8 kw/liter and an efficiency of approximately 94%, confirming its effectiveness and suitability for integration in modern ev power systems. conclusion a dc-dc boost converter is becoming increasingly essential in the development of advanced electric vehicle (ev) systems. ongoing research in both academic and industrial sectors focuses on improving these converters, with power density being the most critical design factor. a higher power density ensures compact, efficient, and cost-effective solutions suitable for the competitive automotive market. the 12v to 48v bidirectional dc-dc converter plays a vital role in linking auxiliary systems, such as connecting 48v loads to a 12v battery or interfacing the 12v and 48v power buses within an ev. to meet these needs, a power-dense converter using an interphase transformer (ipt)-based dual interleaved boost topology was selected for its high efficiency and proven compactness. this topology is favored for its small magnetic circuit design and reduced ripple currents, especially at higher frequencies. efforts are now being made to enhance the current architecture for further miniaturization. early project work includes a detailed study of the circuit and magnetics. research has identified that the input inductor and ipt design are crucial to achieving high power 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using deep mining strategy for detection,‖ in 2021 2nd international conference on smart electronics and communication (icosec), trichy, india, 2021. 68. i. nallathambi, r. ramar, d. a. pustokhin, i. v. pustokhina, d. k. sharma, and s. sengan, ―prediction of influencing atmospheric conditions for explosion avoidance in fireworks manufacturing industry-a network approach,‖ environ. pollut., vol. 304, no. 7, p. 119182, 2022. 69. h. sharma and d. k. sharma, ―a study of trend growth rate of confirmed cases, death cases and recovery cases of covid-19 in union territories of india,‖ turkish journal of computer and mathematics education, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 569–582, 2022. 70. a. l. karn et al., ―designing a deep learning-based financial decision support system for fintech to support corporate customer’s credit extension,‖ malays. j. comput. sci., vol.36, no.s1, pp. 116–131, 2022. 71. a. l. karn et al., ―b-lstm-nb based composite sequence learning model for detecting fraudulent financial activities,‖ malays. j. comput. sci., vol.32, no.s1, pp. 30–49, 2022. 72. p. p. dwivedi and d. k. sharma, ―application of shannon entropy and cocoso methods in selection of the most appropriate engineering sustainability components,‖ cleaner materials, vol. 5, no. 9, p. 100118, 2022. 73. a. kumar, s. singh, k. srivastava, a. sharma, and d. k. sharma, ―performance and stability enhancement of mixed dimensional bilayer inverted perovskite (ba2pbi4/mapbi3) solar cell using drift-diffusion model,‖ sustain. chem. pharm., vol. 29, no. 10, p. 100807, 2022. 74. a. kumar, s. singh, m. k. a. mohammed, and d. k. sharma, ―accelerated innovation in developing high-performance metal halide perovskite solar cell using machine learning,‖ int. j. mod. phys. b, vol. 37, no. 07, p.12, 2023. 75. g. a. ogunmola, m. e. lourens, a. chaudhary, v. tripathi, f. effendy, and d. k. sharma, ―a holistic and state of the art of understanding the linkages of smart-city healthcare technologies,‖ in 2022 3rd international conference on smart electronics and communication (icosec), trichy, india, 2022. 76. p. sindhuja, a. kousalya, n. r. r. paul, b. pant, p. kumar, and d. k. sharma, ―a novel technique for ensembled learning based on convolution neural network,‖ in 2022 international conference on edge computing and applications (icecaa), ieee, tamil nadu, india, pp. 1087–1091, 2022. 77. a. r. b. m. saleh, s. venkatasubramanian, n. r. r. paul, f. i. maulana, f. effendy, and d. k. sharma, ―real-time monitoring system in iot for achieving sustainability in the agricultural field,‖ in 2022 international conference on edge computing and applications (icecaa), tamil nadu, india, 2022. 78. srinivasa, d. baliga, n. devi, d. verma, p. p. selvam, and d. k. sharma, ―identifying lung 296 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us nodules on mrr connected feature streams for tumor segmentation,‖ in 2022 4th international conference on inventive research in computing 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mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 innovative integration of hybrid energy sources for air conditioning and space heating systems: maximizing performance with solar energy and advanced evacuated collector technologies yahea a. nasser chemical department, engineering college, al muthanna university, muthanna, iraq abstract: the hybrid design of cooling and air-conditioning establishes the main consumers of building energy in areas branded by hot and cold climatic circumstances. the examined design includes six unit components: compressor, shell-and-tube heat exchanger, expansion valve, a coil-and-tank, a vacuum collector, and a solar power. several experiments were conducted by methodically changing important working limits to measure their effect on the thermal presentation of the hybrid design system. the inspected limits comprised cooling discharge (2, 3, 4, and 5 l/min), temperature (14, 12, 10, and 8 °c), refrigerant mass rate (70, 50, and 30 kg/h), tank temperature (80, 75, and 70 °c), and solar light intensity under the meteorological conditions of muthanna in iraqi. the results exposed that the design's presentation declines with an increase in temperature from 8 °c to 14 °c, the coefficient of performance (cop) lower from 2.8 to 1.98, accompanied by an increase in consumption of compressor power from 650 w to 980 w. also, the thermal performance of the design was found to be markedly affected by the cooling water discharge. an improvement in discharge led to a consistent development in the cop. when the cooling discharge increased from 2 l/min to 6 l/min, the cop improved from 2.6 to 3.2, though consumption of compressor power reduced from 1050 w to 670 w. keywords: power energy, renewable energy systems, thermal collectors, solar energy, evacuated solar collector. 1. introduction construction signifies one of the main power-consuming sectors internationally, needful considerable quantities of energy for its process. together, buildings explanation for about 40% of the world’s total yearly energy consumption, chiefly for illumination, heating, cooling, and air-conditioning. in the new year, the ideas of maintainable systems and building have gained substantial fame within the building manufacturing[1] . engineers progressively know that through brainy system plans, it is likely to meaningfully reduce power consumption and alleviate the ecological footprint of structures [2] .sustainably designed structures that assimilate renewable energy schemes strive to function with negligible need for non-renewable energy sources [3]. this method efficiently decreases ecological influences throughout the structure development. it is projected that about 1.74 × 10¹7 watts of solar energy strikes the earth’s outer sky, around 30% is copied back into space, though the remaining 70% is absorbed by the earth’s oceans, land surfaces, and impressive mechanisms [4]. so, the total solar power engrossed by the atmosphere, oceans, and landmass is about 3.85 × 1024 (j/yr), with 2.8 × 1024 j engrossed by terrestrial and sea schemes .according to bp’s global energy report [5] , total universal power consumption in 2008 was assessed at 4.74 × 1020 j, with more than 80% resulting from fossil 127 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fuel combustion. this comparison designates that the solar power absorbed yearly by the land and sea is 5900 times greater than the total global power consumption in 2007. in detail, the solar energy engrossed by the ground in just one hour generates the total quantity of energy expended globally within a complete year, underlining the huge potential of solar power as a clean, sustainable alternative to fossil fuels[6].rising ecological anxieties, attached with incessant progressions in study and technical novelty, have considerably increased global interest in solarassisted air-conditioning (sac) designs. many protest projects worldwide have long-established the technical adulthood and working dependability of sac designs [7]. though no pilot-scale applications of such designs have been led in iraq to date. associated with traditional airconditioning processes, solar-assisted designs offer multiple compensations solar-assisted air [8]. they decrease dependence on grid electricity, lower working costs, and minimize greenhouse gas emissions. besides, sac designs exhibit peak presentation during the summer period— exactly when cooling demands are uppermost—thus contributing to the discount of electrical peak loads related to conventional grid-dependent cooling designs [9].widespread assignment of sac systems has the conceivable to meaningfully reduce grid-based electricity consumption and, concurrently, decrease capital spending associated with power generation and distribution infrastructure. thermally driven solar air-conditioning skills offer an extra advantage: in areas where cooling is obligatory seasonally, the same designs can be applied for domestic hot water production or other thermal requests [10]. though the intermittent nature of solar radiation has limited customer adoption, such disadvantages can be alleviated through the addition of supplementary designs powered by conservative fuels or through thermal inclusion [11] .so, the design of the hybrid design must be prudently enhanced to achieve user supplies while exploiting power competence and ecological aids [12]. in spite of the many compensations of sac designs over conservative air-conditioning systems, numerous mechanical, financial, and policyassociated barriers last to obstruct their large-scale placement[13]. though solutions to practical tests are being industrialized, the financial viability and supportive policy frameworks continue to be vital for enabling marketplace expansion [14]. a thorough review of the global marketplace route reveals important potential for the large-scale acceptance of sac skills, eased by improved design competence, increased public consciousness, and promising governmental rules [15]. the rising interest in solar-based cooling requests has made a wide body of literature encompassing experimental presentation analyses, design demonstrations, and real-world case studies of successful application [16].amongst the numerous system configurations, combined solar airconditioning designs have gained specific attention because of their ecological compensations and reduced power consumption compared to conservative designs [17]. these combined designs utilize solar thermal energy as a supplementary heat source to support the vapor compression refrigeration procedure, thus lessening the overall electrical power demand [18].the present work aims to examine the effect of key working limits—for instance, room temperature, solar energy intensity, and cooling load—on the cop, cooling capacity, and energy consumption of a vapor compression refrigeration design. the work includes the systems and building of a solar-assisted vapor compression refrigeration new setup, shadowed by a complete assessment of its thermal performance. 2. experimental 2.1 instrumentation and measurements the equipment was outfitted with the required instrumentation to assess the prototype's performance in several scenarios. a schematic diagram of the device that shows where the instrumentation is located within the prototype. variations in the temperature and flow rate of cooling water, heating water, refrigerant, electrical voltage and power, ambient temperature, and solar intensity were all detected by a variety of monitoring equipment. 128 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.2 solar radiation intensity the ministry of industry and minerals' department of research and industrial development provided the ambient temperature and solar intensity data for al muthanna city, which is two to three kilometers distant from the collector. 2.3 the solar system design the solar system design contains the evaporator, collector loop, and compressor. the evaporator is made up of a 2 m, 5/8-inch-diameter copper coil flooded in a 25-liter water tank that is 25 cm in diameter and 35 cm in height. the piping diagram of the prototype design, which comprises all of the system's installed arrangement, is shown in figure 1, where each of the three loops has a clear label with r-24 as the working fluid, the air conditioning loop is associated in series with the cooling tower loop, and the charge loop. the evaporator bent into a spiral coil, filling the whole height of the galvanized steel tank to maximize heat exchange. a ball valve is installed as a safety device to prevent the tank from overflowing. the tank is insulated to reduce heat loss to the environment, preserving the temperature of the water for use. in a typical solar heating system, the collector loop transfers heat from the solar collectors to the balance of the system. the experimental solar heating loop is composed of an evacuated tube solar collector, a circulating water pump, and a heat exchanger. in the present study, the evacuated tube solar collector comprises fourteen (14) borosilicate glass tubes, each with a total length of 180 cm, supplying heated water to a horizontal storage tank with a capacity of 50 liters. the circulation of water within the collector operates through natural convection, wherein the heated water ascends through the tubes and is continuously replaced by cooler water from below. the hot water generated accumulates in the storage tank, ensuring a continuous supply for the system. the collector assembly is mounted on a steel support structure that allows for flexible adjustment of the tilt and azimuth angles (β, γ) to accommodate various geographic locations. for standard operation, the collector tilt angle (β) is set to 45° from the horizontal, while the azimuth angle (γ) is set to 0°, corresponding to a south-facing orientation suitable for sites located in the northern hemisphere.each evacuated tube consists of two concentric borosilicate glass cylinders fused at the top and hermetically sealed at the bottom to create a vacuum layer between them. the outer glass tube has an external diameter of 4.8 cm and a length of 150 cm, while the inner (absorber) tube has an internal diameter of 3.6 cm and an effective length of approximately 150 cm, accounting for a 6 cm deduction corresponding to the tank wall thickness. each tube holds approximately 2.5 liters of water, and both the inner and outer walls have a thickness of 0.14 cm.the inner tube, which contains the working fluid (water), is externally coated with a dark nitrite aluminum layer characterized by high absorptivity and thermal conductivity. this selective coating enhances the absorption of incident solar radiation and facilitates efficient heat transfer to the water inside. the evacuated annular space between the two glass walls functions as an effective thermal insulator, minimizing heat losses by suppressing both convective and conductive mechanisms. consequently, the absorbed solar energy is retained within the system, reducing radiative losses to the surroundings through the greenhouse effect.the entire evacuated tube assembly is supported at its lower edge by a horizontal spring-mounted holder containing a barium getter, which maintains the vacuum integrity within the tubes and ensures long-term thermal performance stability. the water in the basin at the bottom of the tower was kept at (120 mm) level height constant using a system of a controlling float valve connected to the make–up water tank (upper tank ) of ( 400 mm ) diameter and ( 850 mm) height.the tower basin also has a drain pipe (44 mm) diameter to drain the overflow water to the drain tank (lower tank) of (400 mm) diameter and (850 mm) height.a 2.54 cm copper tube having nine nozzles was used to distribute the water over the water distributor basin, which was made of a (2 mm) thick perspex colorless plate with (15 × 6) number of holes. these holes are of (1.5 mm) diameter, designed in such a way that the drops of water are evenly dispersed over the packing. 129 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 1: the diagram of the hybrid design 3. results and discussion 3.1 the heat transfer rate the heat transfer rates through both the evaporator and the condenser were calculated. the heat transferred through the evaporator and the condenser was also measured by the energy gained by the refrigerant [19]. heat transfer through both the evaporator and condenser was calculated, and is shown in equations (1) and (2): 𝑄𝑐 = �̇�𝑟 (ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑜 ) (1) 𝑄𝑒 = �̇�𝑟 (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑖 ) (2) where �̇�𝑟 is the mass flow rate of the refrigerant, and ℎ𝑖through ℎ𝑜 signify the enthalpies at the consistent points through the air conditioning loop [20]. 3.2 the calculation of cop when examining the air conditioning system, one of the most crucial factors is the system's cop. it explains how much heat is extracted from cooled water relative to the compressor's real power usage[21]. equation (3) below displays the formula used to get the air conditioner's cop : cop = qe wcomp (3) where 𝑄𝑒 and 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝it is envisioned based on the power increased by the refrigerant and the real electrical power consumption of the compressor, respectively [22]. to find out how well the system worked under different circumstances, a variety of experiments were run. two types of tests were run: constant flow rate of water in the cooling tower, and constant evaporator water load temperature tests [23]. different storage tank temperatures and refrigeration flow rates were used for the two types. the cooling tower's constant water flow rate, which corresponds to the condenser tests' constant water flow rate, was operated at 3 liters per minute [24]. and at five different load temperatures (14, 12, 10, 9, and 8 ºc). the constant load temperature tests, which also mean constant water temperature in the evaporator tank, were also run at 12 ºc, and at four different water flow rates in the cooling tower (2.5 l/min, 3.5 l/min, 4.5 l/min, and 6 l/min) [20]. 3.3 the effect of evaporator water temperature the effect of evaporator water temperature variation on the evaporator and condenser heat transfer rates. these tests were run at a constant water condenser flow rate, ṁr = (70, 50, and 30) 130 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us kg/hr and storage tank water temperatures = (80, 75, and 70) ºc. the influence of evaporator water temperature (load temperature) on the evaporator cooling capacity is presented in figures 2, 3, and 4 [25]. the information obviously designates that the all-out cooling capacity is reached at a temperature of 14 °c. as the load temperature increases, the consistent temperature also increases, subsequent in a notable improvement in cooling capacity—from an average of about 1700 w to 2800 w. this development can be credited to the higher enthalpy change and the augmented inlet vapor density under elevated temperature circumstances [26]. figures 5–7 further prove that the condenser heat transfer rate of the air-conditioning system exhibits a relative upsurge with the evaporating temperature. this conduct rises from the enhanced evaporator heat transfer rate, which elevates the refrigerant temperature at the condenser input. so, the enthalpy change across the condenser upsurges, thus supplementing the overall condenser heat transfer rate. as the evaporating temperature upsurges from 8 °c to 14 °c, the condenser heat transfer rate consistently rises from an average of 2100 w to 3700 w[27]. conversely, at lower temperatures, a deterioration in cooling capacity is experiential— commonly. under these circumstances, inadequate refrigerant flow limits the heat absorption within the evaporator, lessening the local heat transfer coefficient and, so, plummeting the overall cooling performance of the scheme [28]. figure 2: change of heat transfer rates with water temperature at 70 kg/hr figure 3: change of heat transfer rates with water temperature at 50 kg/hr 131 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 4: change of heat transfer rates with water temperature at 30 kg/hr figure 5: change of condenser rates with tank temperature at 70 kg/hr figure 6: change of condenser rates with tank temperature at kg/hr 132 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 7: change of condenser rates with tank temperature at 30 kg/hr 3.4 the effect of power consumption and cop the difference in compressor power consumption with the water temperature and mass flow rate system was investigated in figures 8,9, and 10. the change in temperature from 8°c to 14°c, while the water flow rate was adjusted to 70, 50, and 30 kg/h [29]. the results reveal a clear dependence of compressor performance on both operating parameters. as the evaporator water temperature increased, the compressor power consumption rose significantly from 650 w to 1050 w. this behavior is credited to the decrease in the cooling consequence at higher evaporator temperatures, which requires the compressor to operate at higher load conditions to maintain the desired cooling capacity [30]. at a fixed flow rate, increasing the evaporator water temperature caused a noticeable increase in suction pressure, thereby raising the compressor discharge pressure and overall energy consumption. conversely, reducing the water flow rate led to an improvement in the heat exchange process between the solar collector and the evaporator, resulting in a slightly lower compressor load at lower flow rates [31]. among the tested conditions, the lowest power consumption was observed at 8°c and 30 kg/h, whereas the maximum power consumption occurred at 14°c and 70 kg/h [32]. figure 8: change of compressor power with temperature at 70 kg/hr 133 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 9: change of compressor power with temperature at 50 kg/hr figure 10: change of compressor power with temperature at 30 kg/hr the effect of cooling water discharge on the compressor power consumption of the hybrid system was examined while maintaining the evaporator water temperature range between 8°c and 14°c. the experimental results indicate that as the cooling water flow rate increased from 30 kg/h to 70 kg/h, as shown in figures 11,12, and 13 . this increase is mainly attributed to the enhanced heat transfer rate at higher flow rates, which elevates the evaporating pressure and subsequently raises the compressor’s discharge pressure and workload [33]. at lower flow rates (30–50 kg/h), the system exhibited relatively stable operation with lower compressor energy consumption, suggesting more favorable thermodynamic conditions for efficient heat absorption from the evaporator [34] . however, at higher flow rates (above 50 kg/h), the compressor demand increased sharply, leading to a reduction in the overall coefficient of presentation. the results emphasize that an optimal cooling flow rate exists, balancing sufficient heat removal from the evaporator with minimal compressor energy input. hence, operating the system near the moderate flow range provides better energy efficiency and stable cooling performance for solar-assisted air-conditioning applications [35]. 134 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 11: change of compressor power with cooling water discharge at 70 kg/hr figure 12: change of compressor power with cooling water discharge at 50 kg/hr figure 13: change of compressor power with cooling water discharge at 30 kg/hr 135 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the difference in the coefficient of presentation (cop) with respect to changes in the flow rate was investigated for the hybrid design system. the flow rate was adjusted from 30 kg/h to 70 kg/h, while the evaporator water temperature varied from 8°c to 14°c. the results demonstrate that the cop decreases progressively with increasing cooling water flow rate. at lower flow rates, the system achieved a higher cop due to more effective utilization of the solar thermal input and reduced compressor work. as the flow rate increased, the compressor power demand rose faster than the corresponding increase in cooling capacity, resulting in a net decline in cop as shown in figures 14,15, and 16 [36]. at the low mass flow rate of 30 kg/h, the system reached its all-out cop, indicating that the refrigerant and evaporator water had sufficient time for efficient heat exchange. however, as the flow rate increased to 50 kg/h and 70 kg/h, the cop values declined because the higher water velocity reduced the temperature difference across the heat exchanger, thereby lowering the overall thermal effectiveness. figure 14: change of cop with cooling discharge rate at 70 kg/hr figure 15: change of cop with cooling discharge rate at 50 kg/hr 136 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us figure 16: change of cop with cooling discharge rate at 30 kg/hr 7. conclusions in conclusion, the hybrid of renewable energy sources into air conditioning designs signifies a transformative step to attaining energy efficiency, conservation, sustainability, and reduced reliance on fossil fuels. a detailed debate is given on the growth and process characteristics of solar thermal energy-powered air conditioning and cooling design. the system's thermal presentation is meaningfully wedged by the temperature of the evaporator water (load). a higher load temperature increases the evaporation temperature, which increases the average cooling capacity from 1500 w to 2900 w. moreover, there is an upsurge in compressor power practice. as a consequence of these influences, the cop designs dropped from 2.8 to 2 as the evaporation temperature increased 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n. çerçi, i. r. o. silva, and k. hooman, “investigation of the energetic and exergetic performance of hybrid rotary desiccant-vapor compression cooling systems using different refrigerants,” energy, vol. 302, p. 131732, 2024. 98 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 7, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 analysis transient stability and short circuit of ieee 9 bus system by power world simulator wafeeqa abdulrazak hasan southern technical university, technical college basrah, iraq abstract: transient stability is typically regarded as a vital aspect of electrical power system design and development. investigating and understanding the power system's stability was the goal of this investigation. this study used the power world simulator to model and analyze transient stability on the ieee-9 bus system. furthermore, load flow investigations were conducted using the newton-raphson method to ascertain the system's pre-fault state. changes in the system's power angle and frequency were examined using a three-phase balanced fault. a dependable indicator for identifying power system flaws is frequency. in order to bring the system back to stability, an examination of the three-phase balanced fault's quick fault clearing time was also carried out. as a result, the system's protection mechanism ought to react quickly. this analysis suggests that load shedding and quick fault clearing techniques can be used to improve system stability. keywords: transient stability, three-phase balanced faults, ieee-9 bus system, short circuit, power world simulator. 1. introduction in the field of electrical engineering nowadays, maintaining the integrity and stability of power systems becomes crucial. maintaining stability and balance becomes increasingly difficult as these systems evolve and become more complicated. due to sudden changes in load, operational transitions, and unanticipated malfunctions, these systems experience a variety of disturbances, underscoring the urgent need to restore stability and balance after such disruptions [1][2]. electrical systems are said to be stable if they can maintain synchronization during normal operating conditions and then regain this balance after disruptions. there are three main types of system stability: dynamic stability, transient stability, and static stability [1][3]. the transient stability of systems, also known as temporary stability, is the main subject of this study. it describes the system's capacity to maintain synchronization during disruptions that occur before regulating devices take effect. to ascertain whether stability is jeopardized during this primary phase, transient stability is analyzed within a brief timescale equal to the initial system oscillation [1]. the initial state of the system as well as its status throughout the disturbance are critical factors in transient stability. initial swing instability, which is caused by non-periodic fluctuations brought on by insufficient synchronizing torque, is the outcome of these disturbances, which change the way the system operates and leave it in a post-disturbance state different from its initial configuration [4]. in electrical systems, transient stability analysis is the study of how these systems behave and remain stable when subjected to brief (transient) disruptions. an essential component in assessing the performance and stability of electrical power networks is this analysis [5]. a system's critical clearing time (cct) is the longest period of time it can withstand shocks without becoming unstable [6]. the algebraic/differential 99 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us equations are solved using a methodical calculation process employing time domain simulation because transient stability is quite nonlinear. newton raphson's second technique can also be used to determine stability using the direct method[7]. electrical currents and voltages fluctuate as a result of the system's equilibrium being upset by electrical disturbances such as breakdowns or variations in load. understanding how the system responds to these disruptions and its capacity to quickly return to stability and balance is the goal of transient stability analysis.[5]. the pre-fault voltage magnitude must be known in order to perform transient stability analysis. important details in the power flow research include the generator bus power flow, the power flow and losses in the transmission line, the bus voltage magnitude, the bus voltage phase angle, etc. [8]. the newton-raphson approach or the rapid de-coupled method can be used to extract pre-fault conditions from load flow. the reserve bus selection has no bearing on convergence in the newton-raphson approach. all unknown parameters are first estimated using this procedure [9]. the electrical power system is nearly interconnected in our day and age, so faults might happen and high-rate currents need to be interrupted before normal circumstances can be established. both symmetrical and unsymmetrical flaws can occur in a variety of forms. the three-phase or symmetrical faults are the most serious failures that cause the most disruption in network accessories [10]. fault is an undesirable and unexpected circumstance that results in equipment failure, which affects costs in addition to stressing the network. blocking the excessive current flow is essential before causing any damage to any equipment. an undesirable circumstance that increases the network's stress level is called a fault in a distribution network. a very high current flow is the result of a malfunction, and it must be stopped before it destroys any network segments [10]. one computer application that focuses on examining and modeling electric power systems is called power world simulator. with the help of power world simulator, electrical engineers may build intricate models of electrical power systems and examine how they behave under various scenarios. the tool allows for the simulation of network operation, pregnancy distribution analysis, dynamic stability testing, and operating effects study. drawing the system's electrical circuits and determining various physical characteristics, including voltage, current, and other pertinent data, are made possible by power world simulator's user-friendly graphical interface. [11] this work's investigation of the ieee-9 bus system model's transient stability is its main goal, which the power world simulator technology was used to emulate. transient stability refers to the system's capacity to maintain synchronization throughout the disruption and before the governors have a chance to take action. one swing's duration is the brief time frame within which the transient stability study is conducted. the purpose of this study is to determine whether or not the system becomes unstable during the initial swing. ieee-9 bus power systems in both normal and abnormal operating conditions are used to test the proposed work. this paper's succeeding sections are organized as follows: a power flow analysis is described in section 2. methods employed in section 3 to use the ieee-9 bus system model to analyze transient stability and short circuit. results from the ieee-9 bus system model and simulation are presented and discussed in section 4. the results are shown in section 5. 2. a power flow studies a recognition of the pre-fault voltage magnitude is necessary for transient stability studies. the generator bus power flow, transmission line power flow and losses, bus voltage magnitude, bus phase angle, and other important data are all included in the power flow analysis [8]. newton raphson or rapid decoupled methods can be used to obtain pre-fault circumstances based on load flow analysis [9]. 2.1 fast decoupled method in order to solve power flow-related difficulties, this approach is thought to be quick and effective. this approach is essentially a continuation of the newton-raphson method. stott and 100 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us alsac initially introduced this technique in 1974[12-14]. this method quickly became the most often used approach in power flow problems because it is based on the newton-raphson method, which makes computations much simpler and yields solid answers with fast convergence. this method yields quick algorithms for power problems by using polar coordinates and a few approximations. but occasionally, non-convergence is also the result of using specific approximations. examples include situations where low voltages occur at certain busses and situations where resistance-to-reactance ratios are high. when approximations cause the solutions to not converge cleanly, one must make certain assumptions in order to simplify the jacobian matrix [15]. 2.2 newton-raphson method this approach is named for sir isaac newton and raphson, who developed it. this approach uses an iterative process. this technique uses taylor series to approximate nonlinear simultaneous equations into linear ones. but only the first order approximations of the taylor series are enlarged. when compared to similar techniques, this numerical method's strong convergence properties make it popular for power flow calculations. shows up at some buses. in certain situations, one must make certain assumptions in order to simplify the jacobian matrix because the solutions do not converge cleanly due to approximations [15]. conditions before the fault can be derived from load flow analysis utilizing the rapid decoupled approach or newton-raphson method. the reserve bus selection has no effect on convergence in the newton-raphson approach. this approach begins by making an initial estimate for each unknown parameter [9]. it depends on establishing taylor series equations for power balance problems, which are essentially linear approximations to these equations. when working with a complex network, this is crucial. with the exception of the slack bus, it first concentrates on pq buses, enabling actual and reactive power to be functions of angles and voltage [16]. first, the presence of a load bus and a distant pq bus is investigated. in reference to the ith bus: 𝑝𝑖 = ∑𝑛 𝑘=1 |𝑉𝑖| ∗ |𝑉𝑘| ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑘| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖) = 𝑝𝑖( |𝑉|, 𝛿𝑘 ) (1) 𝑄𝑖 = ∑ 𝑛 𝑘=1 |𝑉𝑖| ∗ |𝑉𝑘| ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑘| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖) = 𝑄𝑖( |𝑉|, 𝛿𝑘 ) (2) i.e., both real and reactive powers are functions of ) |v|, 𝛿), where: |𝑉| = (|𝑉1|, … . , |𝑉𝑛 |𝑇 )𝛿 = (𝛿1, … . , 𝛿𝑛)𝑇 (3) 𝑃𝑖 (|𝑉|) = 𝑃𝑖(𝑥) (4) 𝑄𝑖 (|𝑉|) = 𝑄𝑖(𝑥) (5) 𝑥 = [ 𝛿 |𝑉| ] (6) assume that the load buses' scheduled powers are pi and qi. using newton raphson's second technique, x should gravitate to that value during iteration, creating stability [11]. 𝜕𝑃𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜕𝛿𝑘 = − |𝑉𝑖| |𝑉𝑘|| 𝑌𝑖𝑘| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖 ), (𝑖 ≠ 𝑘 ) (7) 𝜕𝑃𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜕𝛿𝑘 = ∑𝑛 𝑘=1 𝑘≠𝑖 |𝑉𝑖||𝑉𝑘||𝑌𝑖𝑘| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖) , (𝑖 = 𝑘) (8) 𝜕𝑃𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜕|𝑉𝐾| = |𝑉𝑖||𝑉𝑘| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 |𝑌𝑖𝑘|𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖) , (𝑖 ≠ 𝑘) (9) 101 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 𝜕𝑃𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜕|𝑉𝐾| = 2|𝑉𝑖| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 |𝑌𝑖𝑘|𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖𝑖 + ∑𝑛 𝑘=1 𝑘≠𝑖 |𝑉𝑘||𝑌𝑖𝑘|𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖), (𝑖 = 𝑘) (10) 𝜕𝑄𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜕𝛿𝑘 = |𝑉𝑖||𝑉𝑘||𝑌𝑖𝑘| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖), (𝑖 ≠ 𝑘) (11) 𝜕𝑄𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜕𝛿𝑘 = ∑ 𝑛 𝑘=1 𝑘≠𝑖 |𝑉𝑖||𝑉𝑘||𝑌𝑖𝑘| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖) (𝑖 = 𝑘) (12) 𝜕𝑄𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜕|𝑉𝐾| = |𝑉𝑖||𝑌𝑖𝑘| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖) (𝑖 ≠ 𝑘) (13) 𝜕𝑄𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜕|𝑉𝐾| = 2|𝑉𝑖| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 |𝑌𝑖𝑘|𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖𝑖 + ∑𝑛 𝑘=1 𝑘≠𝑖 |𝑉𝑘||𝑌𝑖𝑘|𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖), (𝑖 = 𝑘) (14) 3. methodology the power world simulator program was used for this investigation. the standard is used to conduct the load flow and short circuit studies initially. the outcomes are documented for the ieee 9-bus system. using the newton-raphson iterative approach, the software has assessed the load flow. the two studies described above are then carried out once again after one generator has been taken out of the test system. after being recorded, the outcomes of these studies on this new system are compared to those derived from the conventional system. 3.1 test system specifications. comprising nine buses connected by transmission lines, an analysis and research tool for power systems is the ieee 9 bus system. it is an eliminated model of a power distribution network and is frequently used to investigate a number of power system topics, encompassing load flow analysis, fault classification and detection, the impact of incorporating renewable energy, system stability analysis, and power flow optimization [15]. ieee 9bus circuit: the ieee 9 bus circuit is a famous model in the field of electric power systems, consisting of nine buses, three generators, three loads, and three transformers make up the typical ieee 9 bus system, as shown in figure (1)[11]. furthermore, the ieee-9 bus system's standard parameters for each bus are shown in table (1), followed by table (2). provide the ieee-9 bus system's line information. fig. 1 single line diagram of ieee-9 bus test system. table1. data for each bus of ieee-9 bus system. angle (degree) v (kv) v(p.u) type no 0.0 16.5 1.04 slack 1 9.3 18.0 1.025 pv 2 4.7 13.8 1.025 pv 3 102 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2.2 230 1 pq 4 4.0 230 1 pq 5 -3.7 230 1 pq 6 3.7 230 1 pq 7 0.7 230 1 pq 8 2.0 230 1 pq 9 table 2. line data of ieee-9 bus system the study of transient stability examines the impact of significant, abrupt disruptions, such as a large-scale cable outage, a fault, or the abrupt load removal or application. the purpose of transient stability analysis is to make sure that a system can withstand the transient state that follows a disturbance. in power world simulator, follow these steps for transient stability analysis: step one: an ieee-9 bus system is chosen. the power world simulator implements and runs the system model, and load flow is carried out. the newton raphson approach aids in the load flow analysis of a nine-bus system. step two: following load flow, the system's initial parameters, such as bus voltages, bus frequencies, bus power angles, and generator power angles, are examined. step three: using the newton-raphson method, a three-phase balanced fault is delivered to a transmission line at different buses, and tests the increased and decreased load in bus 5 and 6 and test outage the generator the outcomes are displayed in power world simulator. step four: use power world simulator to investigate how load switching affects the ieee 9 bus model. the transient stability analysis is carried out for a short time 4. results and discussion the system model has been loaded and it simulated by used power world simulator software ware to generate the output results as well as the load flow analysis using the newton raphson technique at different as following: case 1: before the fault 1. load flows the load flow analysis and transient stability for the standard ieee, bus system are performed as indicated in table (3). table 3 outcomes of the ieee 9 bus system's fault-free load flow analysis from to r(p.u) x(p.u) b(p.u) 1 4 0 0.0576 0 4 5 0.01 0.085 0.176 4 6 0.017 0.092 0.158 6 9 0.039 0.17 0.358 5 7 0.032 0.161 0.306 9 3 0 0.0586 0 7 2 0 0.0625 0 9 8 0.0119 0.1008 0.209 7 8 0.0085 0.072 0.149 sr. no bus no area nom (kv) p.u. (kv) volt (kv) angel (deg) load (mw) load (mvar) gen (mw) gen (mvar) 1 bus1 1 16.50 1.040 17.160 0.00 0 0 71.6 27.91 2 bus2 1 18.00 1.025 18.450 9.35 0 0 163.00 4.90 103 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. the power flows for examining these needs, the power flow is the fundamental instrument. the voltage magnitude and angle at each bus in a power system operating in a balanced three-phase steadystate condition are determined by the power flow. as seen in table (4), it also calculates the actual and reactive power flows for every piece of equipment that connects the buses. table .4 outcomes of fault-free power flow analysis from bus to bus branch device type mw from bus mvar from bus mva from 8 9 line -24.01 -0.4 34.2 6 4 line -30.56 -13.69 33.5 7 8 line 76.5 -0.25 76.5 9 6 line -59.45 -16.31 61.6 5 4 line -40.96 -35.71 54.3 7 5 line 86.51 -2.54 86.5 4 1 transformer 71.96 24.8 75.8 2 7 transformer -163 2.28 163 9 3 transformer 85.01 -3.65 85.01 case 2: three phase short circuit balanced fault in the overall scheme of electrical systems, transient stability analysis is the study of how these systems behave and remain stable when subjected to brief (transient) disruptions. 1. fault between bus 4 and bus 5 at 1.0 s the transmission line between buses 5 and 4 experienced a three-phase short circuit balanced fault at 1.0 seconds, which was resolved at 1.1 second. all three generators' rotor angles are displayed in figure 2. additionally, figure 3 shows the frequencies of the three generators. . fig.2: the rotor angles of three generators for a three-phase short circuit balanced fault between buses 4 and 5 at 1.0 seconds during the transmission line. 3 bus3 1 13.80 1.025 14.145 5.14 0 0 85.00 -11.45 4 bus4 1 230.00 1.025 227.01 -2.22 0 0 0 0 5 bus5 1 230.00 0.999 220.25 -3.68 125.00 50.00 0 0 6 bus6 1 230.00 1.012 224.36 -3.57 90.00 30.00 0 0 7 bus7 1 230.00 1.026 229.12 3.80 0 0 0 0 8 bus8 1 230.00 1.017 226.70 13.4 100.00 35.00 0 0 9 bus9 1 230.00 1.032 230.78 2.44 0 0 0 0 104 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.3: bus frequencies between buses 4 and 5 for the three-phase short circuit balanced fault on transmission lines at 1.0 second case 3: increased load on buses here, at 1.0 s, bus 5 increases load 1 by 50% while bus 6 increases load 2 by 50%. explain the effects of this load adjustment. 1. increased load1 50% on bus 5 at 1.0s in addition, bus 5's load is instantly reduced at 1.1 seconds after being raised by 50% at 1.0 seconds. figure 4 displays the rotor angles of the three impacted generators. the system stabilizes after a while. figure 5 displays the system's frequency response at each bus. changes in the frequency of the linked system are also brought on by abrupt variations in load at bus 5. it rises as a result of unexpected loading and falls as an outcome of the system's heavy load at bus 5. thus, the three generators on bus 5 will have their rotor speeds altered by the change in load 1 on bus 5, as shown in figure 6. fig.4: three generators' rotor angles for an abrupt 50% load rise on bus 5 at 1 second fig.5: bus frequencies for an abrupt 50% load rise on bus 5 at 1 second fig. 6: three generators' rotor speed for an abrupt 50% load rise on bus 5 at 1 second 105 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 2. increased load2 50% on bus6 at 1.0s this causes bus 6's load to spike by 50% at 1.0 seconds and then be instantly removed at 1.1 seconds. figure 7 displays the three impacted generators' rotor angles. after a while, the system stabilizes. the response to frequency of the whole system at each bus is shown in figure 8. the frequency of the linked system varies as a result of the sudden changes in load at bus 5. when bus 6 is overloaded, the system's performance deteriorates, while unexpected loading causes it to grow. and the three generators on bus 6 will have their rotor speeds altered by the change in load 2 on bus 6, as illustrated in figure 9. fig.7: three generators' rotor angles for a 50% load rise on bus 6 at 1 second fig.8: bus frequencies for an abrupt 50% load rise on bus 6 at 1 second fig. 9: three generators' rotor speed for an abrupt 50% load rise on bus 6 at 1 second case 4: decreased load on buses in this case, load1 is decreased by 50% on bus 5 and load 2 by 50% on bus 6 at 1.0 s. describe the impact of this load adjustment. although all three generators have a rotor angle divergence, the system eventually stabilizes. the angle difference, however, likewise rises as the cct time does. this indicates that the system is operating in an unstable state. the cct needs to be incredibly short to maintain system synchronization because if it takes longer to resolve the problem, the system will lose synchronization [17]. 106 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 1. decreased load1 50% on bus 5 at 1.0s in figure 10, the system buses' frequency response is displayed. additionally, the unexpected load change at bus 5 causes a change in the frequency of the connected system. figure 11 shows how the three generators' rotor angles changed when the load on bus 5 dropped by 50% at one second. moreover, figure 12 illustrates the impact of an abrupt 50% drop in bus 5's load at a single minute in speed for the three generators' rotors. fig.10: bus frequencies for an abrupt 50% load decrease on bus 5 at 1 second fig.11: three generators' rotor angles for a 50% load decrease on bus 5 at 1 second fig. 12: three generators' rotor speed for an abrupt 50% load decrease on bus 5 at 1 second 2. decreased load2 50% on bus 6 at 1s figure 13 displays the system buses' frequency response. the sudden decrease in load at bus 5 also causes a change in the frequency of the connected system. figure 14 shows the three generators' rotor angle changes for a 50% drop in bus 6 load at 1 second. additionally, figure 15 illustrates the impact of a sudden 50% drop in bus 6's load at a single speed shift for the three generators' rotors. 107 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.13: bus frequencies for an abrupt 50% load decrease on bus 6 at 1 second fig.14: three generators' rotor angles for a 50% load decrease on bus 6 at 1 second fig. 15: three generators' rotor speed for an abrupt 50% load decrease on bus 6 at 1 second case 5: outage of generator figure 16 shows the rotor angles of the generators when generator 1 is not in use for 1.0 seconds. because of the system outage, generator 1 does not have any rotor angle fluctuation, but generators 2 and 3 do. figure 17 illustrates how changes in the frequency of the associated system are also brought on by the generator1 outage. because the system has less generation as a result of the outage, the frequency of the system drops. because bus 5 is no longer loaded due to a fault, the system's frequency rises as a result of less system loading. 108 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us fig.16: three generators' rotor angles during a single generator outage 1 second fig.17: bus frequencies during a 1.0 second generator1 outage 5. conclusion considering generators 2 and 3 are closer to the problem point than generator 1, it can be concluded that their rotor angle deviation is the greatest. the system stabilizes after a period of time. a higher critical clearing time result in a greater angle difference. the system is in an unstable status as a result. if it takes longer to fix the issue, the system will be out of sync; hence, the cct needs to be very tiny to keep the system in sync. due to a transmission line problem between buses, the associated system's frequency also fluctuates. 4. and.5. as the load at bus 5 is eliminated owing to a malfunction, the system experiences less loading, which results in a rise in frequency. furthermore, graphs in the ieee 9 bus architecture show that the power angle curves are not stable and the system's frequency suddenly decreases when the unexpected load is increased by 50%. otherwise, all three generators exhibit a rotor angle deviation; however, the system eventually stabilizes. however, the angle difference likewise lengthens when the cct duration is increased. this shows that there is instability in the system's operation. to maintain system synchronization, the cct must be reasonably short since if more time is required to resolve the problem, the sudden change in the load on buses 5 and 6 would also cause the system to get out of sync. references: 1. prabha s. kundur, om p. malik, “power system stability and control”, second edition, mc graw hill education, 2022. 2. ziad m. ali, martin ćalasan, francisco jurado, and shady h. e. abdel aleem, “complexities of power quality and harmonic-induced overheating in modern power grids studies: challenges and solutions'', 2024. 3. poulose, a.; kim, s. “transient stability analysis and enhancement techniques of renewable-rich power grids. energies 2023, 16, 2495. https:// doi.org/10.3390/en16052495. 109 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 4. anionovo u. e., dr. emmanuel c. e., augutine n. n., and prof. josiah c. o., “hybrid transient stability analysis solution for power system stability studies', ire journals | volume 5 issue 9 | issn: 2456-8880 5. peter w. sauer , m. a. pai , joe h. chow ,“ power system dynamics and stability”, 2nd edition , wiley_ieee press , july 2017 . 6. n. yorino, a. priyadi, h. kakui, and m. takeshita, “a new method for obtaining critical clearing time for transient stability,” ieee transactions on power systems, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 1620–1626, aug. 2010, doi: 10.1109/tpwrs.2009.2040003. 7. j. c. das, power system analysis: short-circuit load flow and harmonics. boca raton, fl, usa: crc press, 2002. 8. p. demetriou, m. asprou, j. quiros-tortos, and e. kyriakides, “dynamic ieee test systems for transient analysis,” ieee systems journal, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 2108–2117, dec. 2017, doi: 10.1109/jsyst.2015.2444893. 9. s. akram and q. ul ann, “newton raphson method,” international journal of scientific & engineering research, vol. 6, no. 7, pp. 1748–1752, jul. 2015. 10. shaikh, s. a., kumar, k., solangi, a. r., kumar, s., & soomro, a. a. (2018),''. short circuit analysis & over current relaying coordination of ieee 9-bus system'', 2018 5th international multi-topic ict conference (imtic). doi:10.1109/imtic.2018.8467260. 11. naveed anwar, aamir hanif, hafiz farhaj khan,and mian farhan ullah,'' transient stability analysis of the ieee-9 bus system under multiple contingencies'', engineering, technology & applied science research vol. 10, no. 4, 2020, 5925-5932 12. stott, b. and alsac, o. (1974) fast decoupled load flow. ieee transactions on power apparatus and systems, pas-93, 859-869. 13. stott, b. (1974) review of load-flow calculation methods. proceedings of the ieee, 62, 916-929. 14. adejumobi, i.a., et al. (2014) numerical methods in load flow analysis: an application to nigeria grid system. international journal of electrical and electronics engineering. 15. r. kaur and d. kumar, “transient stability improvement of ieee 9 bus system using power world simulator,” matec web of conferences, vol. 57, no. 3, jan. 2016, doi: 10.1051/matecconf/20165701026, art no. 01026. 16. j.duncan glover , thomas j.over bye ,mulukutla s.arma “ power system analysis & design ” , p.22-(1.5) ,sixth edition copyright 2017 _ cengage learning 17. olukayode a. afolabi, warsame h. ali, penrose cofie, john fuller, pamela obiomon, emmanuel s. kolawole,'' analysis of the load flow problem in power system planning studies'', energy and power engineering, 2015, 7, 509-523 91 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 5, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 classification of student actions through 2d pose-based cnn-lstm networks iskandarova sayyora nurmamatovna, jurayev xudoyshukur utkir ugli tashkent university of information technologies named after muhammad al-khwarizmi abstract: automated analysis of student behavior in classrooms offers educators a reliable method to enhance engagement and assess participation. this study introduces a 2d pose-based cnn-lstm model designed to classify student actions—hand raising, writing, and reading— from video data using the edunet dataset. video frames were processed with mediapipe to extract pose landmarks, focusing on upper-body features. the proposed architecture leverages convolutional neural networks (cnn) for spatial analysis and long short-term memory (lstm) units for temporal sequence understanding. despite constraints imposed by a limited dataset size, the model successfully achieved a validation accuracy of 98.83%. these findings confirm that pose-based approaches provide precise, efficient alternatives to traditional behavior analysis. future enhancements, such as expanding datasets and modeling multi-person scenarios, are recommended to improve applicability in diverse classroom environments. keywords: cnn-lstm, 2d pose estimation, student action classification, mediapipe, edunet dataset, classroom behavior analysis, computer vision, educational analytics, human action recognition, deep learning. 1. introduction understanding and accurately interpreting student behaviors within educational environments is critical for enhancing learning outcomes and creating engaging classroom experiences. traditionally, educators rely heavily on manual observational methods to analyze student engagement and actions, a process that is often time-consuming, labor-intensive, and susceptible to observer bias. recent advancements in computer vision and machine learning have presented significant opportunities to automate the analysis of student behavior, potentially overcoming the limitations associated with manual methods. computer vision techniques, including object detection, pose estimation, and video analysis, have been increasingly applied in educational research to objectively capture and interpret student actions and interactions. pose estimation, in particular, has gained considerable attention due to its ability to accurately represent human posture and movements in detail. among these techniques, the integration of convolutional neural networks (cnn) and long short-term memory (lstm) networks stands out due to their effectiveness in processing spatial and temporal data, respectively. this study aims to classify specific student behaviors—hand raising, writing, and reading—using a cnn-lstm model based on 2d pose data extracted from the edunet video dataset via mediapipe. the study’s primary objectives include evaluating the feasibility and accuracy of this approach and examining its potential to reduce reliance on subjective observational methods. 92 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the paper is organized as follows: section 2 reviews relevant literature and highlights existing methods. section 3 outlines the methodological approach, detailing dataset selection, data preparation, and model architecture. section 4 presents experimental results and analysis. sections 5 and 6 discuss findings, implications, and future research directions, concluding with recommendations for enhancing the model's generalizability and practical applicability. 2. related work previous studies in student behavior analysis have used various computer vision approaches, including whole video-based methods, image-based object detection models like yolov8, and pose estimation techniques. whole video-based approaches analyze temporal features across entire video sequences but often require significant computational resources. for instance, köpüklü et al. (2019) [1] examined a yowo(you only watch once) deep learning model that processes entire classroom videos to detect spatio-temporal actions, achieving promising results but with high computational costs. image-based methods, such as yolov8, focus on detecting specific objects or actions within individual frames, offering real-time performance but sometimes lacking temporal context. h. chen and g. zhou (2023) [2] utilized yolov8-based object detection to identify hand-raising gestures in classrooms, enabling real-time feedback but without considering motion across frames. pose-based approaches, both 2d and 3d, provide detailed information about human posture and movement, enabling more nuanced behavior classification. z. ren and x. xiao (2024) [3] employed 3d pose estimation to analyze student attention by tracking head and body orientation, achieving high accuracy but with increased computational demands. on the other hand, 2d pose estimation methods have gained popularity due to their balance between accuracy and computational efficiency. f.-c. lin and h.-h. ngo (2021) [4] demonstrated that 2d pose-based models could effectively classify student actions like writing and reading with lower computational overhead. there are also hybrid approaches, which use rgb + pose data or rgb-sequence + pose data. while they also provide promising results, they also require high computational resources. this study builds upon these methodologies by implementing a 2d pose-based approach using the edunet dataset, aiming to enhance the accuracy and reliability of student behavior classification, with the aim of achieving good results with low computational resources. 3. methodology 3.1. dataset selection and preparation the selection of an appropriate dataset is crucial for training and evaluating behavior analysis models. for this study, the edunet dataset was chosen due to its comprehensive annotations of student actions in educational environments. edunet comprises short video clips capturing various classroom activities, annotated with labels corresponding to ten different actions. to tailor the dataset to our specific focus, we selected three actions: hand raising, writing, and reading. a total of 120 video clips were used, with 40 clips dedicated to each action category. the videos contain one or two students in a controlled setup. while this setting provides clear and direct views of the targeted actions, it introduces limitations regarding the model's ability to generalize to real-life classroom environments — where multiple students and different backgrounds are common. acknowledging this, we aimed to first achieve promising results within this controlled context. we anticipate that expanding the dataset with more samples and diverse scenarios will enhance the model's generalizability in future work, including its adaptation for real-world classrooms in central asia. each video was divided into individual frames, and mediapipe was utilized to extract 2d pose data from each frame. we have extracted 32 points (see figure 1) from a pose data along with 93 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us their confidence score. since we are targeting upper-body specific actions, we only used 1-24 points in our work. figure 1. mediapipe pose estimation landmarks then we used extracted pose data to build a new dataset for our next training. figure 2. the preparation of the training dataset using mediapipe 3.2. model architecture the proposed model integrates convolutional neural networks (cnn) with long short-term memory (lstm) networks to capture both spatial and temporal features of student behaviors. the input to the model consists of pose sequences with a shape of (max_frames, 24, 3). the limited dataset size of 120 clips poses a challenge for training a well-generalized model, as deep learning models typically require large amounts of data to perform optimally. to address this, the model architecture was designed to be efficient and capable of learning from limited data. a timedistributed cnn layer processes each frame individually through a series of conv1d and maxpooling1d layers, extracting local spatial features from the pose data. by sharing weights across time steps, the timedistributed layers help in reducing the number of parameters, mitigating overfitting risks. following the convolutional layers, the flattened output is fed into an lstm layer with 128 units to capture temporal dependencies across the sequence of frames. the lstm layer is particularly effective in modeling sequential data, allowing the model to understand how pose configurations change over time for each action. to further prevent overfitting—a significant concern given the small dataset size—a dense layer with l2 regularization and a dropout layer with a rate of 0.6 are incorporated before the final output layer. the output layer employs a softmax activation function to classify the input into 94 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us one of the three action categories. this architecture leverages the strengths of cnns in spatial feature extraction and lstms in sequence modeling, aiming to achieve high classification accuracy even within the constraints of limited data. figure 3. model architecture 3.3. training strategy the model was trained using a categorical cross-entropy loss function and the adam optimizer, chosen for its efficient handling of sparse gradients and adaptive learning rate capabilities. the dataset was split into training and testing sets to evaluate the model's generalization performance. given the limited number of samples, the split was carefully managed to maintain a representative distribution of each action category in both sets. to enhance training efficiency and prevent overfitting, several strategies were implemented: 1. early stopping: training was monitored using early stopping, which halted the process if the validation loss did not improve over three consecutive epochs. this helps prevent the model from overfitting to the training data. 2. learning rate scheduling: the learning rate was reduced by a factor of 0.5 if the validation loss plateaued for two consecutive epochs, with a minimum threshold set to 1e-6. this adaptive approach allows the model to converge more effectively. 3. batch size and epochs: the model was trained for a maximum of 100 epochs with a batch size of 32. these parameters were chosen to balance computational efficiency with the need for sufficient training iterations. despite these efforts, we acknowledge that training on only 120 short clips is insufficient for developing a highly generalized model applicable to real-world classroom settings. however, achieving good results on this dataset serves as a proof of concept. it demonstrates the potential of using 2d pose-based cnn-lstm architectures for student behavior analysis. we anticipate that increasing the dataset size and diversity in future work will significantly enhance the model's performance and generalizability, allowing it to better handle the complexities of real-life environments with multiple students and varied backgrounds. 5. results the training process spanned 20 epochs, with the model demonstrating progressive improvement in both training and validation accuracy. starting with an initial accuracy of approximately 95 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us 35.68% and a validation accuracy of 33.33% in the first epoch, the model's performance steadily increased, reaching a peak training accuracy of 97.27% and a validation accuracy of 98.83% by epoch 30. the loss metrics similarly decreased, indicating effective learning. notably, the model exhibited robust performance in distinguishing between the three action categories, with validation accuracy consistently above 80% in the later epochs. however, minor fluctuations were observed towards the end of training, potentially due to the limited size of the dataset. the final model achieved an overall validation accuracy of 98.83%, demonstrating the efficacy of the 2d pose-based cnn+lstm approach in classifying student behaviors. (figure 4) figure 4. training results 6. discussion the results indicate that the 2d pose-based cnn+lstm model is effective in classifying student actions such as hand raising, writing, and reading. the significant improvement in accuracy over the training epochs underscores the model's ability to learn complex spatial and temporal patterns inherent in the pose data. compared to image-based approaches like yolov8, the pose-based method offers a more focused representation of human actions, potentially reducing noise from irrelevant background information. however, the relatively small dataset size poses limitations, as the model may benefit from additional data to enhance its generalization capabilities. moreover, the single-person focus of the model restricts its applicability in multi-student scenarios, a common occurrence in real classroom settings. future work could address these limitations by expanding the dataset and adapting the model to handle multiple individuals simultaneously. 7. conclusion this study successfully demonstrated the application of a 2d pose-based cnn+lstm model for analyzing student behavior in educational environments. by focusing on three key actions—hand raising, writing, and reading—and utilizing the edunet dataset, the model achieved high classification accuracy, highlighting the potential of computer vision techniques in educational 96 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us analytics. the findings suggest that pose-based approaches can effectively capture and interpret student engagement, providing valuable insights for educators and administrators. despite promising results, the study acknowledges the need for larger and more diverse datasets and the extension of the model to handle multi-person scenarios. future research in this direction could further enhance the applicability and robustness of automated student behavior analysis systems. 8. future work building upon the current study, future work will explore several avenues to enhance the robustness and applicability of student behavior analysis models. one key area is the expansion of the dataset to include a larger number of video clips and a more diverse range of student actions, which would improve the model's generalization capabilities. additionally, extending the model to handle multi-person scenarios is essential for real-world classroom environments where multiple students interact simultaneously. incorporating 3d pose estimation could also provide more detailed spatial information, potentially increasing classification accuracy. furthermore, integrating real-time analysis capabilities would enable immediate feedback for educators, facilitating dynamic classroom management. finally, exploring transfer learning techniques and more advanced architectures, such as transformer-based models, could further boost performance and adaptability across various educational settings. references 1. o. köpüklü, x. wei, and g. rigoll, "you only watch once: a unified cnn architecture for real-time spatiotemporal action localization," arxiv preprint arxiv:1911.06644, 2019. 2. h. chen, g. zhou, and h. jiang, "student behavior detection in the classroom based on improved yolov8," sensors, vol. 23, no. 20, p. 8385, oct. 2023, doi: 10.3390/s23208385. 3. z. ren, x. xiao, and h. nie, "empowering efficient spatio-temporal learning with a 3d cnn for pose-based action recognition," sensors, vol. 24, no. 23, article 7682, nov. 2024, doi: 10.3390/s24237682. 4. f.-c. lin, h.-h. ngo, c.-r. dow, k.-h. lam, and h. l. le, "student behavior recognition system for the classroom environment based on skeleton pose estimation and person detection," sensors, vol. 21, no. 16, p. 5314, aug. 2021, doi: 10.3390/s21165314. 5. v. sharma, m. gupta, a. kumar, and d. mishra, "edunet: a new video dataset for understanding human activity in the classroom environment," sensors, vol. 21, no. 17, p. 5699, aug. 2021, doi: 10.3390/s21175699. 6. liu, j., shahroudy, a., xu, d., & wang, g. (2016). "spatio-temporal lstm with trust gates for 3d human action recognition". in european conference on computer vision (pp. 816–833). springer, cham. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-46487-9_50. 7. lugaresi, c., tang, j., nash, h., et al. (2019). "mediapipe: a framework for building perception pipelines". arxiv preprint arxiv:1906.08172. 8. zhu, y., lan, g., & sun, x. (2022). "real-time student action recognition based on cnnlstm model and pose estimation". ieee access, 10, 12312–12322. doi: 10.1109/access.2022.3150928. 9. cao, z., simon, t., wei, s. e., & sheikh, y. (2017). "realtime multi-person 2d pose estimation using part affinity fields". ieee conference on computer vision and pattern recognition (cvpr), pp. 7291-7299. doi: 10.1109/cvpr.2017.143. 10. dwivedi, a., & chaturvedi, a. (2020). "deep learning approaches for action recognition in classroom videos: a review". ieee transactions on learning technologies, 13(3), 517531. doi: 10.1109/tlt.2020.2998737. 1 journal of engineering, mechanics and architectur 139 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us american journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture volume 3, issue 11, 2025 issn (e): 2993-2637 a transfer learning approach for real-time parking availability classification using mobilenetv2 and efficient net s. manimaran*1 , s.r. saranya2, m. mohamed thariq3 1,2,3department of computer science engineering, dhaanish ahmed college of engineering, padappai, chennai, tamil nadu, india *correspondence: manimaran@dhaanishcollege.in abstract: it is hard for computers to tell if parking is available because of things like different parking lot layouts, different types of vehicles, and photos that are low quality or grainy. we propose a transfer learning method based on tensorflow hub to create a large-scale multi-class image classification system for determining whether a parking space is available. to improve the model's performance, pre-trained architectures such as mobilenetv2 and efficient net are utilised to create rich feature representations from images of parking lots. we utilise a publicly available dataset with annotated images of parking lots and cars for training and testing. to improve the quality and reliability of the data, various preprocessing methods are employed, including image scaling, normalisation, and augmentation. we use categorical cross-entropy loss to improve the model, and we evaluate it using top-1 and top-5 accuracy metrics. the results demonstrate that this method is effective and can be applied in real-time parking availability detection, smart city solutions, and automated parking management systems. we also examine problems, including class imbalance, vehicles blocking each other, and misclassification, as parking layouts are identical. this work demonstrates how transfer learning can be beneficial for classifying large numbers of images, particularly for use on edge devices and in real-time applications that track parking availability. keywords: mobilenetv2, efficient net, image scaling, normalisation, augmentation, real-time monitoring, internet of things introduction in a world that is rapidly becoming more urban, the number of cars is increasing at an alarming rate, making parking spaces one of the most significant challenges that modern cities face [51]. urban infrastructure is struggling to keep pace with the growing demand for parking as the number of individual and commercial vehicles continues to increase [70]. because there aren't enough parking places, drivers get frustrated every day, and urban traffic management systems don't work as well as they could. in cities and other densely populated areas, drivers often spend a significant amount of time searching for a parking spot by driving around parking lots or city blocks [60]. this attitude not only causes problems and delays but also contributes to larger societal issues, such as traffic congestion, increased fuel consumption, and environmental pollution. the lack of a smart, real-time, and centralised parking management system exacerbates these problems [67]. this makes things harder for both drivers and the parking authority. this experience would be much better with a smart parking management system that can track, forecast, and notify users in real-time when parking spots are available [79]. this would reduce the time spent searching for spaces, optimise parking usage, and enhance overall urban mobility. the problems with traditional parking systems come from the fact that they are manual and don't change [73]. most cities manage parking spaces with either physical attendants or traditional ticket-based systems. these systems don't give drivers or administrators real-time information http://www/ mailto:manimaran@dhaanishcollege.in 140 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us [86]. this means that drivers often don't know if a spot is open or where it is when they pull into a parking lot. due to this ambiguity, people often drive around in parking areas, wait longer, and become frustrated [78]. additionally, these systems cannot dynamically set prices, utilise predictive analytics, or intelligently allocate slots, which could help better balance parking demand and availability [50]. the total effect of these problems is significant: drivers spend time, fuel, and endure stress, all of which contribute to pollution and traffic congestion in cities [59]. this issue is not exclusive to major metropolitan areas; it is also manifesting in smaller towns and semi-urban locales where vehicle ownership is increasing. this study presents a comprehensive smart car parking management system that leverages internet of things (iot) technology, real-time data processing, and mobile application interfaces to deliver a seamless user experience [80]. the suggested system utilises current sensors, wireless connections, and cloud computing to establish a networked infrastructure that can determine whether each parking space is full or empty [55]. the data collected is sent to a central platform, where it is processed and made available to users through a dedicated mobile app. with this app, users can view real-time parking availability, reserve spots in advance, get directions to their chosen parking location, and make secure digital payments [74]. the system provides a comprehensive solution to the growing parking problem by integrating hardware components, such as ultrasonic or infrared sensors, with software elements, including mobile app interfaces and cloud-based databases [91]. not only do drivers gain from this kind of system, but so do parking authorities, city planners, and municipal governments [66]. being able to verify parking availability before arriving at a site makes life much easier for drivers and cuts down on the time they spend searching for spots [71]. the device simplifies parking officials' tasks by automating the monitoring process and reducing human errors. planners in cities may also use the data from the system to make informed decisions about building new infrastructure, such as determining where parking lots will be needed in the future or where there is a high demand [68]. the system's data analytics component can also enable dynamic pricing models, which help optimise the use of available spaces and alleviate congestion during peak times. the proposed smart parking management system is based on the integration of several new technologies. the primary function of iot sensors is to determine whether each parking space is occupied or available [63]. each location has these sensors, which can detect the presence of a car. depending on how the infrastructure is set up, the gateways utilise wi-fi, lora, or gsm technologies to wirelessly transmit data from these sensors to a central server. then, the server processes this data and updates the database in real time [81]. users may then access it using a mobile app interface. the smartphone app is the primary means by which users interact with the system. it allows them to view available slots, book a spot, locate the parking location, and pay. for real-time updates, the hardware (sensors), software (mobile app), and database (cloud server) must be able to communicate with each other seamlessly [90]. if there is any delay or data loss, the availability information could be wrong, which would make users less likely to trust the system [54]. because of this, the project emphasises the use of reliable communication protocols, methods for identifying and resolving errors, and techniques for synchronising data efficiently. the system is also designed to be scalable, which means it can add thousands of sensors in various locations without slowing down [69]. because it can be scaled up or down, the system can be utilised in various settings, ranging from small commercial parking lots to large public parking facilities in cities. the mobile app component is particularly important for the ease of use of the system. the design prioritises ease of use, accessibility, and functionality [61]. when you open the app, you get a mapbased interface that shows local parking lots and colour-coded signs of slot availability: green for available, red for occupied, and yellow for reserved [77]. users can select a facility, view its details such as price, distance, and available spots, and then reserve a spot. once a spot is booked, the app uses built-in gps services to give directions to the exact location of the parking space. the app not only helps you find your way, but it also has secure payment gateways that enable you to pay with credit cards, debit cards, or digital wallets [87]. this eliminates the need for cash transactions http://www/ 141 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and makes the parking process even easier. a management portal for administrators is another important part of the proposed system [48]. the parking authority can use this portal to monitor occupancy levels, generate reports on usage, manage bookings, and receive maintenance alerts from the sensors [72]. the site provides managers with useful information about how people use the service, enabling them to make informed decisions based on data, such as adjusting prices or adding more parking spaces in areas with high demand [89]. analytics also lets you develop prediction models, which assist officials in planning for spikes in demand during events, weekends, or holidays [82]. it's also important to discuss how the system impacts the environment [53]. the method directly helps reduce carbon emissions and fuel use by cutting down on the time drivers spend idling or circling in search of parking spots. research indicates that a considerable fraction of urban air pollution is derived from automobiles idling in traffic or seeking parking [75]. therefore, utilising a smart parking management system benefits both users and managers, and it also supports broader environmental objectives. additionally, as more people become interested in building smart cities, these technologies align with global initiatives to establish smart and environmentally friendly city infrastructure [83]. the proposed system's dependability and performance are highly contingent upon the resilience of its foundational technologies. for example, iot sensors must be robust and able to withstand the weather so they can function effectively in outdoor environments [64]. there should be minimal delay in the communication network so that data can be sent in real-time. additionally, the mobile app must function smoothly on various devices and operating systems, allowing everyone to utilise it. another important consideration is data security [56]. because the system stores user data, location information, and payment information, it needs to utilise robust encryption and authentication methods to prevent data breaches and unauthorised access. one of the best features of the system is that it can be used in a variety of ways. it can be used in shopping malls, hospitals, office buildings, airports, commercial complexes, and on-street parking in cities [84]. you can modify each implementation to suit your specific needs. for example, an airport deployment would focus on long-term parking with the opportunity to reserve ahead of time. in contrast, a mall deployment might focus on managing short-term parking and rapid turnover. in all cases, the system's modular design enables the addition or modification of functionality without impacting its current operation [52]. there are significant economic effects of implementing such a system. by automating the parking management process, costs for labour, tickets, and manual monitoring decrease. additionally, parking operators can increase their revenue by optimising the use of their parking spaces. the system can provide cities with useful information on how cars move and how much parking is required [57]. this information can be used to make upgrades to the infrastructure or implement congestion-reduction measures [76]. the social effects are just as important as the technological and economic ones. drivers are less stressed, have shorter wait times, and are happier with urban transit services [62]. better parking management benefits local governments and companies by enhancing traffic flow, reducing congestion, and enhancing their public image. when this system is integrated into larger smart city frameworks, it can yield synergistic benefits that not only improve parking but also enhance public transport coordination, road safety, and overall urban mobility [88]. the rapid rise in the number of cars and the resulting lack of parking places is a growing problem that requires innovative technical solutions. the smart car parking management system proposed in this paper is a comprehensive solution that leverages iot, real-time data processing, and mobile app development to effectively address this issue [49]. the technology makes parking easier by providing users with real-time updates on parking availability, the ability to make reservations, and secure payment options [85]. this reduces traffic congestion and enhances the user experience. it helps not only individual drivers but also the city as a whole by making it more efficient, environmentally friendly, and economically viable [65]. as cities become increasingly smart and networked ecosystems, technologies like these will have a growing impact on how people navigate cities in the future [58]. as technology continues to improve and smart city frameworks become more http://www/ 142 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us common, intelligent parking solutions will help make cities cleaner, safer, and more efficient, which is what modern living needs. methodology we the creation of the vehicle parking availability monitoring and efficient management system with app follows a set plan. the project begins with a thorough examination of the requirements to determine what both users and system components need. next, the system architecture is designed [93]. this includes the sensor network for monitoring parking spaces, the backend infrastructure, and the mobile app interface. then, iot-based sensors, such as ultrasonic or infrared sensors, are installed in each parking space to detect the presence of a car [101]. these sensors send real-time data to a central server over wi-fi or another compatible communication protocol. the microcontroller connects them [97]. at the same time, a mobile app is being developed that will provide users with capabilities such as real-time slots. the paper is structured methodically to provide a thorough understanding of the vehicle parking availability monitoring and efficient management system with an app [99]. the first chapter talks about the project, including its background, importance, issue description, goals, scope, and area of study. it provides the reader with a foundation to understand why the system was created and what its objectives are. the second chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the literature, highlighting previous work and current technologies in the field of smart parking systems [95]. it examines the pros and cons of past methods and explains why the proposed system is necessary. the third chapter is all about analysing and designing the system [100]. it discusses requirement specifications, system architecture, and data flow diagrams, and provides a comprehensive description of the hardware and software components used in the project. this project aims to design and build a smart parking system that utilises iot technologies and a mobile app to efficiently monitor and manage parking spaces [98]. with a simple app, the system enables customers to view real-time parking availability, book spots in advance, navigate to their designated parking spot, and make digital payments[92]. this method reduces the time it takes to find a parking spot, eases traffic congestion, and makes getting around the city easier overall. the chapter also includes a problem statement, which addresses the primary issues with parking inefficiencies and the absence of real-time monitoring [96]. the project's goals are outlined, with a focus on delivering a solution that is reliable, scalable, and user-friendly. we discuss the project's scope to establish limits and regions where it can be applied, such as shopping malls, office buildings, and public parking lots [94]. the project's domain is also specified, highlighting its importance in smart transportation, the internet of things (iot), and the creation of mobile applications. literature review this research introduces an iot-enabled smart parking framework designed to optimise the management of urban parking facilities. the system utilises a network of sensors that are interconnected to detect the presence of a vehicle in real-time and transmit that information to a central platform. the system can identify empty spaces, reduce the time drivers spend searching for parking, and maximise space utilisation by continuously monitoring the situation [9]. the authors emphasise that responsiveness, reliability, and scalability in real-time are crucial design elements. the system architecture has sensors, gateways, and a cloud server that stores and processes data. users can access real-time parking information, book spots, and receive assistance with directions through a smartphone app. the proposed method utilises iot infrastructure to reduce traffic, fuel consumption, and pollution, while also enhancing the user experience and operational efficiency [34]. the paper shows how iot could change static parking systems into smart, adaptable, and environmentally friendly solutions for cities. this work concentrates on the utilisation of deep learning models to forecast real-time parking availability and mitigate traffic congestion in metropolitan environments [35]. the suggested solution combines advanced neural network architectures to analyse traffic patterns, sensor data, http://www/ 143 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us and historical occupancy trends to predict parking demand. the framework combines computer vision methods and time-series prediction models to make predictions more accurate in changing situations [21]. by combining these predictive analytics with mobile communication platforms, drivers can receive real-time alerts on when parking spaces are expected to become available, which reduces unnecessary car movement. the authors emphasise that forecasting traffic flow and urban mobility efficiency is more important than merely observing them [45]. the method also helps reduce fuel consumption and environmental harm. the study demonstrates how deep learning facilitates proactive parking management, converting reactive parking searches into strategically planned and optimised operations that align with the objectives of smart city infrastructure. this study investigates the creation of an intelligent parking management system utilising wireless sensor networks [25]. the technology utilises sensors spread across parking lots to monitor the number of cars parked and transmit the information wirelessly to a central control unit. the communication between sensors and computers enables real-time tracking of accessible spaces, which users can access through a digital interface. the study's primary objectives are to enhance monitoring accuracy, reduce communication delays, and ensure the system's scalability [36]. the proposed architecture is well-suited for large-scale use, as it utilises energy efficiently and can handle faults effectively. the solution eliminates the need for manual supervision and reduces driver frustration by automating the identification and reporting of parking status [1]. the work demonstrates how sensor-based technologies can be a key component of intelligent transportation systems. they can be used to build smart, data-driven urban parking infrastructure, making better use of space and making it easier for users. this article provides an in-depth examination of current smart parking systems, assessing the technology, approaches, and challenges associated with contemporary parking management [44]. the authors categorise current methods into iot-based, image-processing-based, and hybrid systems, discussing the advantages and disadvantages of each. they emphasise that real-time communication, accurate statistics, and an easy-to-use design are all crucial for enhancing parking overall. the research identifies significant obstacles, including sensor dependability, data confidentiality, system scalability, and interoperability with other smart city platforms. it also discusses new trends, such as utilising machine learning to predict demand and leveraging cloud computing to manage data [10]. the authors provide a structured overview of how smart parking systems are evolving to meet the needs of urban mobility by comparing various layouts and technologies. the document is a valuable resource for researchers and professionals seeking to develop intelligent, efficient, and sustainable parking management systems for densely populated areas. this study presents a hybrid framework that integrates internet of things and cloud computing technologies to enhance the management of urban parking spots [11]. the system utilises sensor networks to determine the number of people in a car at any given time. it then sends this information to cloud-based servers for storage, processing, and visualisation. cloud computing enables various users and administrators to access updated parking information simultaneously, making it scalable and accessible. the system's setup enables it to function more effectively by reducing latency and enhancing data accuracy. with centralised management, administrators can monitor occupancy patterns, adjust prices in real-time, and plan for additional space [38]. the mobile interface gives users real-time information about availability, booking alternatives, and payment options. the study demonstrates how combining iot and cloud technology can enhance smart city projects, alleviate urban traffic congestion, and optimise resource utilisation. the framework utilises distributed sensing and centralised intelligence to enhance parking management, making it more sustainable, efficient, and user-friendly [2]. this study concentrates on utilising image processing and deep learning to enhance the management of parking spaces [33]. the technology utilises computer vision algorithms to capture real-time images of parking lots using cameras strategically placed at key locations. convolutional neural networks process these images to automatically find unoccupied and occupied spaces. the deep learning model is trained on a variety of datasets to ensure it performs well in a wide range http://www/ 144 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us of lighting and environmental conditions. the processed data is sent to a server and displayed to users through a mobile app, which allows them to verify availability and book spaces [20]. the authors point out that combining picture recognition with smart data analysis makes it less necessary to use hardware sensors while still keeping accuracy [43]. this method is a cheap and easy way to set up parking lots, both indoors and outdoors. the system demonstrates how aidriven automation can transform traditional parking management into a smart, flexible, and effective process. this project demonstrates how to create a comprehensive smart parking solution by integrating internet of things technologies with mobile applications [26]. the framework utilises iot sensors to determine if parking spaces are available and sends this information to a central cloud platform in real-time. the mobile app serves as the user interface, allowing drivers to view open slots, book spaces, request assistance with directions, and make digital payments [12]. the goal of the system is to reduce traffic congestion by minimising the time vehicles spend searching for parking and making parking managers' jobs easier. its modular design makes it easy to add or change modules to fit different city settings, such as shopping malls, office buildings, and public parking lots [22]. the authors emphasise the importance of systems being reliable, data being secure, and users being comfortable. this combination of iot and mobile technology represents a significant step towards smart city transportation and sustainable transportation systems [37]. project description most of the time, parking management systems in cities rely on either manual monitoring or simple sensor-based solutions that are ineffective when there are more cars on the road [8]. many current systems lack smart image-based automation or real-time processing, resulting in traffic jams, wasted space, and user frustration. they aren't as useful as they could be because they lack smart features such as automatic vehicle detection, number plate recognition, and cloud updates [19]. additionally, existing systems often require significant human input, are prone to errors, and fail to provide precise, real-time information about slot availability. the proposed smart parking management system utilises computer vision and iot technology to automate and enhance the parking experience, surpassing current techniques [32]. it uses a raspberry pi microprocessor, a camera module, and an ultrasonic sensor to find cars and read license plates using deep learning-based object detection. people can check if parking spots are available through a web or mobile interface, as the data is updated in real-time on a cloud platform like firebase [13]. this system ensures that slots are monitored accurately and that vehicles are managed efficiently with minimal manual input. advantages • automation: reduces human effort through real-time vehicle detection and monitoring. • accuracy: enhances the ability to identify occupied or free parking slots accurately. • cost-effective: utilises low-cost hardware, such as the raspberry pi, and open-source libraries. • real-time updates: provides live slot status updates via a cloud-based interface. • scalability: the modular design enables expansion across larger parking areas or multiple sites. • security: captures license plate information, aiding in secure and traceable parking access. proposed work the vehicle parking availability monitoring and efficient management system's proposed design integrates image processing, sensor data, and cloud-based mobile access to deliver a seamless parking experience [42]. the main component of the system is a raspberry pi microcontroller, which is connected to a camera module and ultrasonic sensors. the camera constantly takes pictures of the parking lot, and the sensors notify the camera when a car is in each slot [7]. this method of collecting data in two ways ensures that the results are quite accurate, even when visual detection is challenging. the photos are prepared for model training by scaling and normalising http://www/ 145 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us them and adding bounding boxes around each parking space. this dataset is used to train a deep learning model, either yolov5 for object detection or mobilenetv2 for object classification [39]. the model is designed to work well on edge devices, allowing it to run on the raspberry pi with minimal latency and support real-time inference. the system evaluates the data locally and updates the occupancy state of the slots as cars enter or leave [46]. users can use the app to find out whether there are any parking spots available, reserve one, get directions, and pay for their parking with a credit card. to make training more efficient and prevent overfitting, we utilise tools such as tensorboard and early stopping callbacks [27]. this architecture ensures that the smart parking system is affordable, scalable with the city's growth, and easy to use (figures 1 to figure 3). figure 1. system architecture figure 2. architecture diagram figure 3. flow diagram http://www/ 146 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us data collection for our smart parking management system, image data was captured using a camera module attached to a raspberry pi. the device captures images of parking spaces in real-time to track the number of people using them [18]. we temporarily store each image frame and use object detection methods to figure out if a slot is empty or full. along with picture data, readings from ultrasonic sensors were also taken to confirm the presence of vehicles [40]. this made the readings more accurate in low-light or obscured visibility settings. the dataset that was gathered has labelled frames that show parking spot ids and whether they are occupied or empty [3]. we used this labelled data to teach the object detection model and set the ultrasonic sensor thresholds. the gathering procedure ensured that the model would work well in the real world by covering a wide range of environmental situations, including daytime, nighttime, and shadows [29]. a series of preprocessing techniques was employed to prepare the image data for model training and real-time analysis. to make the input for the model more consistent, each image taken by the camera module was enlarged to a standard resolution, such as 224x224 pixels [23]. next, pixel normalisation was used to change values from the range of 0–255 to a scale of 0–1. this made the training more stable and better. next, bounding boxes were drawn around parking spaces in sample frames, allowing the vehicle recognition model to be trained using object detection methods such as yolo (you only look once) [14]. these annotations were converted into a tensor format to enable quick processing on a gpu during both training and inference. to reduce noise and facilitate cross-checking of imagebased predictions, the sensor data was filtered and averaged over time intervals. we trained the object detection model for 40 epochs using a dataset of labelled parking space photos [6]. the model learnt to find cars and match them to certain slots during each period. we used a gpuenabled environment (like google colab) to speed up the training process [28]. model evaluation was undertaken using a validation set captured under diverse lighting and weather conditions to emulate real deployment settings. we maintained accurate records of training and performance indicators. implementing and testing the implementation step was crucial in transforming the idea into a functional parking availability detection system that leveraged image processing and deep learning [15]. in this phase, we utilised python and tensorflow to assemble various components of the application, including data acquisition, preprocessing, model selection, the training pipeline, and real-time inference. we began by obtaining and processing parking lot images, either from publicly available datasets or a new dataset created using overhead cameras. each parking space was marked as occupied or vacant using an annotation file that accompanied it. we pre-processed the photographs by resizing all of them to a uniform size of 224x224 pixels, ensuring they would be compatible with the input layer of our model. we also normalised the pixel values to a range of [0, 1] to make training more stable and help it converge faster. we used the mobilenetv2 architecture for model creation, as it is efficient and highly accurate for tasks that involve images[30]. we utilised the pre-trained model from tensorflow hub as a feature extractor and set it to not be trainable, so that it could retain its learnt representations. for binary classification—predicting if a parking space is vacant or occupied—a bespoke classification head with a global average pooling layer and a dense output layer with sigmoid activation was included [47]. the adam optimiser and binary cross-entropy loss function were used to construct the model [41]. this is a suitable option for addressing issues involving two classes. training was performed for 40 epochs with a batch size of 32. we utilised callbacks, such as early stopping, and added tensorboard to visualise the performance of the training and validation metrics in real-time [17]. this helped us avoid overfitting and reduce unnecessary computation. we used a different validation set to test the model after it was trained. we examined conventional metrics, including accuracy, precision, recall, and f1-score [24]. a confusion matrix helped http://www/ 147 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us identify false positives and false negatives, indicating that the algorithm sometimes misclassified parking spaces that were only partially visible or shaded. these insights suggest ways to further improve the experience, including enhancing the lighting, incorporating additional data, or utilising higher-resolution photographs. we also examined how well the model performed in situations where it had to make decisions in real-time [4]. the trained model exhibited minimal latency and utilised resources efficiently, making it ideal for use in embedded systems or edge devices. a simple web interface was made to mimic live forecasts. this allows users to upload a picture of a parking lot and receive real-time feedback on the number of available spaces [16]. in short, the implementation and testing phase demonstrated that the system functioned as intended and that deep learning can be utilised to track parking availability in real-time. testing the system: system testing ensures that the entire parking availability monitoring system functions as intended in real-time situations. it checks that all the parts work together and can accurately find parking spots (table 1) [5]. this includes the camera modules, object detection and classification algorithms, data storage, and the mobile app. unit testing table 1. unit testing. module test case expected output status camera module capture image clear image of the parking area passed object detection identify vehicles in frame bounding boxes around vehicles passed classifier determine slot status "occupied" or "free" label passed integration testing: we tested modules such as image processing, firebase integration, and mobile app interfaces together to ensure the entire workflow functioned correctly (table 2). table 2. integration testing test case result image captured → sent to detection. success detected output → classifier → cloud successfully updated the app reads from the cloud and displays the status. status correctly shown functional testing: functional testing confirmed that the system meets the functional criteria, including parking detection and user notifications (table 3) [31]. table 3. functional testing functionality result detect vacant/occupied slots. accurate (≥90%) real-time update to working http://www/ 148 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us firebase user views status on mobile. working qr payment and exit validation working test result • accuracy: 91% average detection accuracy using mask r-cnn. • latency: average image-to-output response time: ~1.8 seconds. • reliability: no system crashes or data mismatches during 100 test cycles. • user feedback: positive feedback on app responsiveness and ease of use. results and discussions the system was very efficient in both learning performance and the amount of computing power it used. the training curves exhibited smooth and steady convergence, with the loss decreasing over epochs and the validation accuracy increasing consistently. earlystopping stopped the training at the right time to avoid overfitting and conserve computing power. the speed of the inference was also promising. the technology can be utilised for real-time applications, such as smart parking systems, as it processes each image in under a second. the lightweight mobilenetv2 architecture enables quick inference and minimal memory usage, which is crucial for embedded systems like parking monitors that utilise raspberry pi. the preparation pipeline, which included shrinking and normalising images, made training faster and used less memory. dividing photos into groups of 32 made the training process faster and kept the gpu working efficiently. we used tensorboard visualisations to monitor the model's performance during training. the validation measures indicated that the model was learning effectively, as there were no unusual spikes. this meant that it was not underfitting or overfitting. comparison with existing methods the suggested system offers several benefits over standard parking detection systems, including sensors or loop detectors. sensor-based systems often require expensive infrastructure and ongoing maintenance [102]. our image-based solution, on the other hand, requires only camera input and software processing, making it cheaper and easier to scale [104]. when the lighting or weather changes, traditional image processing approaches that involve edge detection or colour thresholding don't work as well. our deep learning-based system, on the other hand, is robust against shadows, occlusions, and other environmental effects due to transfer learning. our model is faster and more accurate than heavier cnn models, such as vgg16 or resnet50. it works well on limited hardware, requiring minimal memory and processing power. additionally, the system is easy to use and accessible to non-technical individuals in smart city or commercial parking applications, as it provides real-time feedback through a simple user interface [103]. in general, the suggested system is more flexible and efficient than both classical and some deep learning-based methods. it also fits well with the limitations of real-world deployment. conclusion and future enhancements this study demonstrates the effectiveness of deep learning and transfer learning in addressing realworld scenarios, such as determining the availability of parking spaces. we developed a system that can identify open and occupied parking spaces in real-time with excellent accuracy and efficiency by utilising the mobilenetv2 architecture with transfer learning from tensorflow hub. http://www/ 149 journal of engineering, mechanics and architecture www. grnjournal.us the project had a comprehensive pipeline, spanning from image collection and preprocessing to model training and testing. choosing lightweight models and tools for real-time visualisation made training and monitoring easy for users. the result is a parking management system that can be scaled and used in smart cities, businesses, and public transportation hubs. future enhancements while the system performs well, several future enhancements could further increase its accuracy and utility: • dataset expansion: adding more varied parking situations, such as multi-level lots, different weather conditions, and nighttime pictures, may help the model perform better. • video stream integration: switching from still photos to video stream analysis would enable you to receive real-time updates on parking and track it effectively. • ensemble models: combining outputs from multiple architectures (such as efficientnet and resnet) can aid in classification, particularly in challenging situations. • bounding box localisation: utilising object detection methods such as yolo or ssd can help identify each parking space and determine its occupancy with greater accuracy in space. • a mobile app that indicates available places and provides directions might make the app much easier to use. • mixed slot detection: some parking lots have designated spaces for people with disabilities, reserved spaces for electric vehicles, or both. • categorising these groups might make the system more useful. the final model performed exceptionally well in classifying images in the validation dataset and demonstrated robustness across a wide range of image scenarios. the precision and recall numbers showed that the model could reliably find both vacant and occupied slots. the training and validation curves indicated that the model was likely to converge and that it wasn't overfitting excessively. when we tested the predictions on photographs we hadn't seen before, the results were correct and confident. the sigmoid 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