pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) environmental impact assessment in construction activities for dahab tower building mogadishu abdullahi mohamed sheikh ali1*, abdikafi elmi abdishakur1, abdifitah m adan2, ahmed mohamed hassan1 volume 1 issue 3, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.773 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 12, 2022 accepted: october 15, 2022 published: october 17, 2022 the degree of knowledge and understanding of construction stakeholders, particularly project managers, about the environmental impacts of construction processes has to be improved because construction is one of the major causes of environmental pollution worldwide. this study aims to assess the most common environmental impacts of the dahabtower building project in mogadishu. to achieve this objective, this study’s evaluation of the project’s impact has used a checklist matrix. environmental risks were discovered to be present in the project, including waste generation (municipal, construction, and demolition wastes); changes in the characteristics of the soil; and the emission of air pollutants, among others. these risks are similar to those that are present in the majority of infrastructure and construction projects. through the suggested mitigation strategies, these risks may be effectively controlled and monitored through preferred mitigation steps. keywords environmental impact assessment, construction activities, environmental pollution, dahab tower, building, mogadishu. 1 department of civil engineering, college of engineering and technology, abrar univesity.km6 hodan district, mogadishu, somalia 2 michigan state university, room no: 1215 eb building shaw lane, east lansing, michigan, united states * corresponding author’s e-mail: marwaanka9@gmail.com introduction a project’s possible impacts, both positive and negative, on the biophysical and financial conditions are identified and assessed systematically through the environmental impact assessment (eia). along with efforts to improve good outcomes, it also identifies remedial measures that need to be performed to prevent, limit, or decrease unfavorable impacts. the eia is not a fully direct procedure; rather, several phases are finished concurrently, and the assumptions and findings are reviewed and changed as the project advances. (http:// www.epa.ie/monitoringassessment/eia/) all across the world, environmental protection is of utmost importance (tse & raymond, 2001). construction is the sector of the economy that contributes the most to environmental pollution when compared to other sectors. (shen et al., 2005). constructions have a significant direct and indirect impact on the environment during construction and mainte-nance. (levin, 1997). noise, toxic fumes, dust, and solid and liquid waste are all common forms of construction related pollution. (chen et al., 2000). this problem has pushed a variety of construction sector companies to develop environmental management systems to reduce the negative effects of their operations. (lam et al., 2011). the idea of sustainable development will progress primarily as a result of greater understanding and awareness. (zainul abidin, 2010). developed nations, professional associations, and private organiza-tions have implemented a variety of initiatives to advance the knowledge and abilities of construction professionals and to encourage the use of sustainable practices in construction projects. (zainul abidin, 2010). unfortunately, the construction sector is still learning about the sustainability movement. there is no comprehensive source available in somalia that can train construction professionals about the most dangerous environmental effects resulting from development. to determine the most common environmental impacts according to their strength of influence, this study examined their frequency and consequences. environmental impacts of construction environmental management systems will operate more efficiently by more precisely identifying the main environmental consequences of the construction process. the environmental performance of construction projects and sites will also increase as a result of the environmental effects of the building being predicted before the construction stage. by identifying the pertinent environmental implications, it will be easier to evaluate alternative on-site mitigation solutions. (gangolells et al., 2011).the environment, natural resources, and public impact are among the environmental effects of building activities (li et al., 2010). environmental impacts the construction process still has a substantial negative impact on the environment, presenting a risk to both humans and ecosystems through waste, noise, dust, and hazardous substances. (chenet al., 2004). the ecosystem’s impact on construction has become more significant as more new buildings are being developed. biological resources: various natural resources, including “energy,” “land,” “materials,” and “water,” are needed throughout the typical building process. (shen ital., 2005). additionally, using natural resources like electricity and/or diesel fuel is typically required while operating construction equipment. since raw materials need to be harvested and transported using a lot of energy, the construction industry is to blame for utilizing a lot of https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.773 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:marwaanka9%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 1-5, 2022 natural resources and causing a lot of pollution. (li et al., 2010; morel et al., 2001). public perception impact the majority of construction jobs are located in populous regions. due to the dust, vibrations, and noise created by various building activities, such as excavation, people who live close to or next to construction sites are more prone to have negative health impacts. (li et al., 2010). materials and methods the field of study dahab tower is a new high rise mixed-use building project by dahab real estate a subsidiary company of dahabshiil group, the building consists of a shopping source: skyscrapercity mall, office apartments, residential apartments, a gym, a sauna, a saloon, a reserved floor for prayers (mosque) and a secure parking yard. building location hodan district, km6, digfeer road beside abdullahi isse mosque. methodology of the study the impact of building construction projects has been assessed using a checklist matrix. comprehensive field inspections and surveys to back it up. the eia approach were used by the researcher in this investigation (screaming, scoping, impact analysis, and impact mitigation measures) with the use of on site inspections and a variety of building con-struction project criteria, the eia of construction projects in the study region was critically examined. the review checklist consists of: • describe the project. • comparison of alternatives • description of the environment that the project is anticipated to have an impact on • a summary of the project’s potential substantial consequences • outline of mitigation measures • non technical summary results and discussion environmental screening to ascertain if and at which level of review an eia assessment is required for this project, an environmental screening was conducted. screening • creation of employment and business opportunities • environmental opportunities • the market for goods and services • aesthetic enhancements • loss of vegetation • change in surface and sub-surface hydrology • change the soil characteristics • will cause air pollution • will generate noise pollution • cause heavy traffic • generate solid and liquid wastes to the environment‘ • security threats category a to complete this project, the environmental impact assessment is required. environmental scoping the physical, natural, ecological, social, economic, and cultural components of environmental issues were separated apart. impacts were further divided into shortterm and long-term effects. long list impact • aesthetic enhancements • change in surface and subsurface hydrology • change the soil characteristics • loss of vegetation • generate solid and liquid wastes in the environment • security threats shortlist impact • creation of employment and business • environmental opportunities • the market for goods and services • air pollutions • noise pollutions • heavy traffic table 1: impact analysis: checklist method aspects of eia checklist questions will the project yes no social economic creation of employment and business opportunities no social economic environmental opportunities no social economic the market for goods and services no environmental losso of vegetation yes https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec https://www.skyscrapercity.com/threads/mogadishu-dahab-tower-25-fl-u-c.2316251/ pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 1-5, 2022 environmental change on surface and sub surface hydrology yes environmental change the soil characteristics yes environmental will cause air pollution yes environmental will generate noise pollution yes environmental cause heavy traffic yes environmental generate solid and liquid wastes to the environment yes people security threats yes yes= highly adverse, no = beneficial table 2: impact mitigation measures probable impact preferred mitigation steps vegetation loss • upon completion of development, indigenous plants will be used for landscaping • maintaining beautiful gardens, and terraces, and managing the gardens’ vegetation and conservation • removing vegetation exclusively in designated locations for building and in regions where no clearing will take place changes to the hydrologyof the surface and subsurface. • according to the drainage system’s design, the surface flow should be correctly drained during construction into the public drains provided to prevent flooding on the site • drainage channels should be installed in all places that create or receive surface water, including parking areas, highways, and the space surrounding building blocks on rooftops • the channels should be covered with gratings or other suitable and approved materials to prevent accidents and the entry of dust that would cause the flow of run off. • peak volumes should be considered while designing the channels, such as times of the year with heavy rainfall, which is unusual in the project location but should be prepared for. they should not be filled at any time due to the potential for strong downpours • to ensure the safe final disposal of run-off and surface water, the drainage channels must be self-cleaning, which means they must have an appropriate gradient • stormwater generated by roof catchments must be gathered, stored, and used for a variety of household functions, including routine cleaning. less runoff will reach drainage channels as a consequence • it is preferable to cover the side walkways, driveways, and other open areas with recycled materials, such as carbon, to promote water recharging and reduce run-off volume alterations in soil properties • sprinkling water on the surface to prevent the rise of dust establishes specialized trucking paths • making sure there is enough space for water to percolate normally • contamination from construction waste may be avoided by establishing designated locations for waste collection, sorting, and transportation. drainage structures must be installed and configured correctly to ensure their effectiveness • installing cascades will reduce the impact of water entering sewers • controlling and ensuring the supervision of the excavation activities • compacting areas with loose soil • landscaping • constructing structures to prevent soil erosion in the site’s steeper parts and managing activities during the wet season pollutants in the air emissions • to stop dust from rising, water should be sprinkled on the ground before excavation and at regular intervals while work is being done • placing dust proof nets around the structures being built • using fossil fuel burners equipped with low emission machinery • controlling the operation and speed of construction trucks • frequent servicing and repair of machinery • use of clean fuels, such as sulphureted and unleaded fuels • inform and raise awareness of emission reduction techniques among construction workers https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 1-5, 2022 generation of noise • using tools with noise canceling features • placing signage around the area to alert visitors to the noise levels • equipment maintenance is necessary to keep it functional and effective • construction work should only be done at a specified time, often beginning around 800 hrs. to 1700 hrs. using tools with noise canceling features • the equipment involved shouldn’t unnecessarily be horned • providing informational billboards on the activities and timings at the site’s entrances increased heavy traffic • putting up signs around the area warning other cars of the excessive traffic and setting a speed limit there • ensuring that the project’s drivers comply with the speed limits • guaranteeing that the construction does not occupy the road reserves and complying with the requirements for traffic and land delineation generation of waste • developing and carrying out a waste management strategy • utilizing waste reduction strategies such as bulk purchasing, eating at places that serve pre-processed food, etc • identifying all waste sources, delegating control of waste management, and ensuring that wastes are handled by those who hold the necessary permits • providing the necessary infrastructure to collect, separate, and safely dispose of waste • establishing waste collection zones with equipment for managing wastes and properly identified facilities like colored bins. plastics, rubber, organics, glass, paper, electrical equipment, and other materials should each have a designated container • ensuring that dustbins are regularly cleaned and sterilized and that all waste is disposed of by minimal requirements and in the appropriate place • regulation, reduction, reuse, recycling, recovery, rethinking, and renovation alternatives are assessed and established • establishing the required storage facilities for commodities and chemicals, and controlling access to them • bins must be shielded from the rain and animals security threats • putting in place security guards or a professional security firm, and inspecting all vehicles and people entering the project • cctv cameras are used to keep an eye on on site security • collaborating with the national police on security related concerns • setting up emergency response and preparation protocols and placing alarms throughout the project result maximum number is (yes) so it is a highly adverse impact. to assess if the building project had a positive or negative influence on the environment, researchers purposefully select yes and no along with suggested experts. when the researchers realized the effects the building project had on the environment, they suggested taking the aforementioned procedures to mitigate the impact on the environment. conclusion it is clear from the analysis that the planned project will have both favorable and unfavorable effects. the majority of the negative effects are viewed as insignificant in comparison to the anticipated short and longterm advantages that would result from the proposed project’s formation and operation if it is built and run taking into consideration the suggested mitigating measures. during each of its phases, the project will have several beneficial economic effects, including the creation of employment opportunities the development of a market for products and services, and the emergence of new business possibilities for a range of organizations and people. these will help mogadishu become a metropolitan city by improving the quality and availability of the city’s infrastructure, which will help the vision for the next 20 years be realized. the project will still raise environmental issues such as waste generation (including municipal, construction, and demolition wastes), alterations to the soil’s physical characteristics, and the emission of air pollutants, which are issues that are common to building and infrastructure projects. these risks might be adequately managed and tracked by using the indicated mitigation techniques. recommendations among the recommendations are efficient waste management, the use of safety nets and sheets, the installation of warning signs for the protection of the workers, the provision of necessary personal protective equipment for them, and the use of manual labor to lower noise and air pollution. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 1-5, 2022 references chen, z., li, h., & hong, j. (2004). an integrative methodology for environmental man-agement in construction. automation in construction, 13, 621-628. chen, z., li, h., & wong, c.t.c. (2000). environmental management of urban con-struction projects in china. journal of construction engineering and management, 126, 320-324. gangolells, m., casals, m., gassó, s., forcada, n., roca, x., & fuertes, a. (2011). as-sessing concerns of interested parties when predicting the significance of environmental impacts assessment related to the construction process of residential buildings. building and environment, 46, 1023-1037. lam p.t.i., chan, e.h.w., chau, c.k., poon, c.s., & chun k.p. (2011). environmental management system vs. green specifications: how do they complement each? other in the construction industry? journal of environmental management, 92, 788-795. levin, h. (1997). systematic evaluation and assessment of building environmental per-formance (seabep)”. paper for presentation to buildings and environment paris, 9–12 june 1997. li, x., zhu, y., & zhang, z. (2010). an lca-based environmental impact assessment model for construction processes. building and environment, 45, 766-775. morel, j.c., mesbah, a., oggero, m., & walker, p. (2001). building houses with local materials: means to drastically reduce the environmental impact of construction. building and environment, 36, 1119-1126. shen, l.-y., lu, w.-s., yao, h., & wu, d.-h. (2005). a computer-based scoring method for measuring the environmental performance of construction activities. automation in construction, 14, 297-309. tse, y., & raymond, v. (2001). the implementation of ems in construction firms: a case study in hong kong. journal of environmental assessment policy and management, 3, 94 -177. zainul abidin, n. (2010). investigating the awareness and application of sustainable construction concept by malaysian developer. habitat international, 34, 421-426. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 24 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) a diagnostic study of household solid waste management in kollo, niger hassimi moussa1, laminou manzo ousmane2, bachir yaou balarabe3*, hassoumi djibo4, mohamed hafidi5 volume 1 issue 3, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.1050 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: december 04, 2022 accepted: december 08, 2022 published: december 18, 2022 household solid waste management is one of the most prevalent problems in urban areas. this study aims to diagnose the household solid waste management system in the kollo urban district of niger. specifically, the purpose of this study is to identify household waste types, determine their management methods at the household level, and estimate how much waste is produced daily. a survey of 200 households was conducted as part of the study. as a result of the study, four types of household waste, namely sand, organic matter, plastics, and others, were identified. at the scale of an urban municipality, waste production is estimated to be 9.44 tons per day or 0.72 kg per inhabitant per day. additionally, only 47% of households have garbage cans for storing waste. most households use trash cans with a capacity of 0.015 m3, with 27.5% evacuating waste daily, 50% twice a week, and 22.5% once weekly. 35 % of households dispose of waste in wild dumps, 30% dig pits to bury waste, 15% burn it openly, 15% use the waste to fertilize their fields, and 5% make other uses. the municipality provides no waste management service. the organization lacks the financial and technical resources to accomplish its goals. kollo’s urban municipality, however, must develop strategies for managing waste sustainably and environmentally. keywords management, solid waste, household, urban municipality, kollo 1 department of environmental sciences, faculty of agronomic sciences, boubakar bâ university of tillabéri, tillabéri, niger 2 department of rural engineering and water & forests, faculty of agronomy and environmental sciences, dan dicko dankoulodo university of maradi, maradi, niger. 3 school of engineering and technology, national forensic sciences university, sector-09, gandhinagar, india 4 department of socio-economics and consumer sciences, faculty of agronomic sciences, boubakar bâ university, tillabéri, niger 5 ecology and environment laboratory, faculty of sciences semlalia marrakech, cadi ayyad university, morocco * corresponding author’s e-mail: atpscontact@gmail.com introduction the production of waste is a natural consequence of all aspects of human activity, be it domestic, agricultural, industrial, or commercial, which is an unavoidable byproduct of everyday life. the practice is not considered a public issue in africa until it reaches urban areas (alouemoune, 2006.). despite being universal, this problem manifests differently in different parts of the world. solid waste is produced in africa daily in thousands of tons. most of these wastes are disposed of in open landfills and wetlands, which can contaminate surface and groundwater and pose serious health and environmental risks. it is estimated that some cities and regions produce between 0.5 0.8 kg of waste per person per day (babalola et al., 2010b; sotamenou, 2018). however, even though it seems modest compared to 1-2 kg of waste per person and per day in developed countries, the majority of waste in africa is not collected by municipal collection systems due to poor management, irresponsibility, embezzlement, equipment failure, or inadequate waste management budgets (saidou & aminou, 2015a). in general, household waste refers to all materials generated within a household. food waste, journals and papers, small metallic packaging, bottles, paper or plastic packaging, chiffons, and other textile residues. garden and other plant waste can be included in this category. cities in developed and developing countries face a significant challenge as population, prosperity, and urbanization increase. it is becoming increasingly difficult to collect, recycle, treat, and eliminate solid waste and water (holenu mangenda et al., n.d.; tchuikoua et al., n.d.-a). to achieve sustainable development in developing countries, effective, affordable, and genuinely eco-friendly waste management practices are required. sustainable development requires effective, efficient, and long-term waste management practices in developing countries. along with the cultural dimension, long-term management of solid waste should take into account the poverty of the population. the cost of disposing of waste in niger, as in most southern countries, has become increasingly unaffordable for municipal authorities. as far as the sustainability and effectiveness of interventions are concerned, economic and financial factors play a key role. each strategy should consider the ability of citizens to contribute to the collection and disposal of household solid waste. this is because of the economic difficulties that these populations face. there is no doubt that financial issues account for many of maradi’s failures(saidou & aminou, 2015a). it is estimated that the city’s budget is very limited, and the royalties collected are low. penda (2015) reports that the urban population in niger is overwhelmingly poor, has very low incomes, and is largely analphabetic. often, green spaces, school fronts, health centers, or market surroundings are used as dumping grounds for trash. people are forced to seek alternative methods of disposal of their waste when garbage collection is unreliable or nonexistent, with the sole aim of removing them from their homes. in some cases, waste is disposed of in natural disposal facilities. some people burn, bury, or spread their waste on open spaces or use it to repair roads that have been damaged by flooding (adamou, 2014). the result is chronic insalubrity in the cities of niger due to the lack of systems for precollection, storage, collection, and treatment of solid https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.1050 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 24-29, 2022 household waste. even though these tools are available, the niger government’s waste management system does not meet the needs of its citizens. in this regard, kollo’s urban community is no exception. african cities have conducted studies to address all of the inadequacies and poor practices associated with the management of solid waste (babalola et al., 2010a; holenu mangenda et al., 2020; saidou & aminou, 2015b; solomon, 2009; topanou et al., 2021). this paper provides an overview of the management of household solid waste in the tillaberi region of the niger republic’s western region, kollo, one of the largest urban communes. materials & methods zone of study this study was conducted in the municipality of kollo, and 13°25’ north and longitudes 2°17’ and 2°27’ east (figure 1). in 2022, it is expected to have 44,550 residents based on a 3.1% annual growth rate (ins, 2012). agriculture, livestock, irrigated crops, and fishing are the principal economic activities of the commune (pdc, 2012). this study was descriptive and cross-sectional, with households as the unit of analysis. participants must be at least 20 years of age and reside in one of the selected communities. furthermore, they must have lived in the area for at least one year. the selected individuals were enrolled after giving their consent. sampling data were collected through a household survey and field observations. in this study, we only looked at the urban population of the municipality, which was 17,867 residents [olm1] (about 2,620 households). from 2,620 households, 200 were sampled and distributed in six (06) districts of the urban center of the commune, which were considered the most densely populated residential areas. the number of households in each neighborhood was calculated based on the weight “p” of each neighborhood. the table below shows the distribution of household surveys by district, the distribution of households by district, and the number of inhabitants. p = n/n…………………………………(1) nm = p x e……………………………..(2) p: neighborhood weight, n: total number of households in the neighborhoods considered, n: number of households per neighborhood, nm: number of households to be surveyed in the neighborhood, and e: sample size 2.3. figure 1: kollo municipality location map (pdc, 2012) located in the kollo district of the tillabéri region in niger. a semi-urban community covering an area of approximately 146 km² located between latitudes 13°11’ table 1: distribution of households surveyed by neighborhood, type, number, and size neighborhoods populations number of households neighborhoods weight sample number of persons average size of households kollo sahara 2550 364 0.14 28 357 8,5 kollo fandou 4595 656 0.25 50 230 8,2 kollo carré 4000 571 0.22 44 95 7.9 kollo madina 1105 158 0.06 12 203 8,1 aoula koira 2095 322 0.12 25 420 8,4 sirignéré 3521 549 0.21 42 370 8,4 total 17866 2620 1 200 1675 8,25 survey data collection methods to collect survey data, individual interviews were conducted based on questionnaire sheets. each district surveyed randomly selected households. to ensure a representative sample, each household had the same probability of being picked for the survey. known as the “step” method. we selected step 4 to cover a significant portion of each neighborhood. thus, if house n°1 is the first house observed in the street, the fifth house will be the next to be examined. following the survey of four houses, a change of direction is made. estimation of waste amount in this context, measuring the amount of waste produced per day and per resident is difficult since most waste is not stored in bins. therefore, three parameters were taken into consideration: (i) the average capacity (volume) of the bins identified, (ii) the number of households with bins per storage capacity, and (iii) the frequency of trash disposal. analysis of results microsoft office excel spreadsheets and spss version 22 were used to enter and process the survey data. to assess respondents’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding waste management, proportions were calculated and compiled into a table and figures. results waste typology based on the surveys, four types of waste have been https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 24-29, 2022 identified, including sand, organic matter, plastic, and others, which are grouped with textiles, metal, glass, ceramics, etc. the following figure shows the percentage of respondents who answered questions about household waste’s physical characteristics. the response modes are independent, so a respondent may select several responses simultaneously (figure 2a). according to this figure, 42.14% of households describe their waste as composed of organic matter, plastic, sand, etc. it is followed by figure 3: volume of trash cans figure 2: (a)-household waste characteristics, (b)-households with or without trash cans, waste storage at the household level: (c)-households without trash cans, (d)-households with trash cans 27.27% with organic matter and plastic, 15.06% with organic matter, plastic, and others, and 15.53% with plastic and others. the most common household wastes are organic matter and plastics. identification of households with or without bins as shown in figure 2b, 53% of the households surveyed do not have trash bins to store their waste; instead, they pile them up on the ground (figure 2c&d). volume of trash can as shown in figure 3, three types of trash cans are used in households to collect and store solid waste. in general, 70% of households use 0.015m3 containers, followed by 24.56% using 0.06 m3 containers and 5.44% using 0.15m3 containers. frequency-based waste production estimation table 2 presents waste volumes evacuated by households with bins of 0.015m3, 0.06m3, and 0.15m3 per day and week. the results show that 27.50% of households with 0.015m3 bins dispose of an average volume of 1.155m3 daily. additionally, 50% of households dispose of their waste twice a week, i.e., 0.6m3, and 22.50% once weekly, i.e., 0.135m3. a total of 1,890m3 of waste was disposed of. in the case of households with 0.06m3 bins. overidentified households disposed of 1.680m3 daily; 42% disposed of twice a week, i.e., 0.720m3; and 29% once a week, i.e., 0.240m3. a total of 2.640m3 of waste was evacuated. lastly, for households with 0.15m3 bins. as a result, 100% of households with bins containing an average of 0.150m3 remove their waste once a week, resulting in an average of 0.450m3. using the volumes evacuated and the density of the waste, daily waste production can be estimated. approximately 0.47 kg of waste per liter is generated in niger’s households (devant, 2003). in this way, we estimated the average individual daily production at 0.72 kg. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 24-29, 2022 practices for waste disposal and evacuation in most households with children, waste disposal is prevalent. field waste is evacuated with carts, while waste intended for pits or wild dumps is evacuated with as future citizens, we need to be responsible and have a positive attitude toward life, the land, and the environment. a large amount of waste is also accumulated in this municipality. wild deposits of these wastes can be found in habitat zones, ravines, gutters, and abandoned wells. a similar situation has been described by soro et al. in the district of abidjan, côte d’ivoire (soro et al., n.d.). kollo’s household waste composition is not unique, but it is similar to that of other african cities that also produce household waste. in niamey, household waste consists mainly of organic matter, plastics, and sand, according to penda (2015) (adamou, 2014). in their diagnostic study of household solid waste management in abidjan, soro et al. (2010) reported plant waste as 23.7%. plastics, bags, textiles, paper, animal waste, stones, glass and ceramics, metals, hospital waste, and toxic waste accounted for 23.2% (soro et al., n.d.). managing household solid waste is dependent upon household collection. most households in kollo do not have waste collection bins in their homes but keep them in a corner or front of the house. however, this is not a widespread problem. in tillabéri, niger, mohammed reports that 76% of households possess trash cans within their concessions (akbari et al., 2020). in addition to the urbanized nature of tillaberi, the capital of the region, there are several explanations for this situation. almost half of the households evacuate their waste twice a week, others once a week, and the rest daily. the waste production ratio in the municipality of kollo is close to that of penda (2015), estimating the average daily production per inhabitant in niger at 0.75 kg (adamou, 2014). household waste disposal is entrusted to the children of the household. this is consistent with the observation of sotamenou (2018), who reports that it is women and children who are mainly involved in transporting waste from their homes to a landfill or a garbage bin. he adds that in morocco, for example, 50% of women and 20% of children are responsible for transporting waste outside homes. the problem that arises here is, above all, to know whether the children who are responsible for evacuating the waste receive the necessary instructions from their parents or the persons in charge of the services in charge of hygiene and sanitation to dump garbage in the right figure 4: household solid waste disposal practices wheelbarrows. according to survey results (figure 4), landfilling is the most commonly used waste disposal method among households (35%). approximately 30% of households buried their waste, 15% incinerate it in the open air, 15% use it as agricultural amendments, and 5% dispose of it otherwise. 5% of households fill rainwater gullies with waste. garbage is accumulated and abandoned by households in the urban commune of kollo near housing, on vacant lots, in public places, and in open gutters. most households are satisfied with their practices, especially those who live near ravines or in areas where rainwater stagnates. in contrast, others are not. these households use garbage dumps, and uncontrolled dumps installed next to homes. families living next to food shops with garbage. the waste left in landfills and pits emits foul smells and attracts flies and mosquitoes. discussion as a result of the survey, 38% of the population is illiterate. however, 42% have a primary level of education, 17% have a secondary level, and only 3% have a higher level of education. the population of kollo is undereducated and cannot adopt proper waste management behaviors. education is based on eco-citizenship, according to tchuikoua (2010) (tchuikoua, louis bernard, n.d.-b). table 2: weekly and daily waste disposed of by households with bins with average capacities of 0.015, 0.06, and 0.15m3. 0,015 m3 trash cans frequency everyday twice a week once a week proportion of households 27,5% 50% 22,5% volume /week (m3) 1,155 0,600 0,135 total volume / week (m3) 1,890 0,06 m3 trash cans frequency everyday twice a week once a week proportion of households 29% 42% 29% volume /week (m3) 1,680 0,720 0,240 total volume / week (m3) 2,640 0,15 m3 trash cans frequency everyday twice a week once a week proportion of households 0 0 100% volume /week (m3) 0,450 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 24-29, 2022 place (sotamenou, 2018). this does not seem to be the case because, in some neighborhoods with collection infrastructure, garbage is sometimes dumped on the ground near housing and along roads. in contrast, the dumps intended to receive them are empty despite their proximity to households. this situation is similar to that experienced in kinshasa, described by likoli (2007), more precisely in the commune of limete. according to this author, in almost all the markets of this commune, mounds of rubbish litter the aisles of the places where foodstuffs are sold. however, households that do not dispose of their waste mostly correspond to large concessions at the corner of which waste is piled up, as reported by lelo (2008) (benoît et al., 2021b; lelo nzuzi, 2008). in the commune of ngaliema, 91% of households have plot gardens where they bury household waste. according to mohamed (2019), 64% of households in tillaberi dispose of their waste through landfills and wild animals, 15% through incineration, 4% through private service providers, and 1% through burial (akbari et al., 2020). many of the waste disposal practices used in the commune are hazardous to the health of the residents, including malaria and diarrhea. however, niger has enacted a framework law on environmental management and quality of life. as part of this law, municipalities can delegate all or part of their responsibility for solid waste management. in addition, they can define responsibilities and establish the principle of integrated and environmentally sound waste management. other african cities are also experiencing the same problem. indeed, benoît et al. found that waste management in the mambanda district of douala, cameroon, is very similar to that of kollo. as per benoît et al. (2021a), 50% of households have mosquitoes running rampant, 33.23% have mice, 10.7% have cockroaches, and 5.9% have flies. it is the poor management of waste that causes such diseases as malaria, typhoid fever, cholera, diarrhea, etc., to spread. abidjan’s yellow fever epidemic that struck the city in 2005 led to victims in precarious neighborhoods, including yopougon, according to (dongo et al., 2008; dongo, n.d.). towards the settlement of kollo, according to the head of the hygiene and sanitation service (sha), the management of household solid waste there is characterized by a lack of financial means, materials, and equipment, as well as by the inadequacy of the sha, which is exacerbated by the incivility of some households in the evacuation of waste. conclusion in the study, poor practices in solid waste management were revealed at the household level, as well as their shortcomings. a key point to note was that waste collection and disposal were inappropriate. as a matter of public health and the environment, this should be of concern. in light of this situation, the population and the public authorities are under pressure to develop practical and lasting solutions. in addition to creating a pleasant living environment, effective waste management can provide socio-economic and energy opportunities for the future by recovering material and/or energy from waste streams. it is, therefore, necessary to integrate the management of this resource into the planning of municipalities. according to the recommendations, it would be of particular importance that the municipality and, indirectly, the government properly fulfill their roles in ensuring the population’s safety. this is because improper waste storage exposes the population to severe risks. in the future, studies can focus more on the actual effects of these wastes on the environment. acknowledgments the authors would like to extend their appreciation to the department of environmental sciences, faculty of agronomic sciences, boubakar bâ university of tillaberi. conflict of interest the authors have declared no conflict of interest. funding this study was supported by the department of environmental sciences, faculty of agronomic sciences, boubakar bâ university of tillaberi. references a. babalola, h.t. ishaku, i. busu, m.r. majid,(2010). the practice and challenges of solid waste management in damaturu , yobe state , nigeria, 384–388. https:// doi.org/10.4236/jep.2010.14044. a. mohamed.(2019) impact de la gestion des déchets solides ménagers dans la commune urbaine de tillaberi. mémoire de master. université de tillaberi. 74 francis.(2008). lelo nzuzi, kinshasa : ville et environnement, l’harmattan. h. holenu mangenda, p. mulaba, a. kiawutua, gestion des déchets ménagers dans la ville de kinshasa : enquête sur la perception des habitants et propositions, (n.d.).https://doi.org/10.4267/dechets-sciencestechniques.4272ï. h. holenu mangenda, p. mulaba, a. kiawutua, (2020). gestion des déchets ménagers dans la ville de kinshasa : enquête sur la perception des habitants et propositions, environnement, ingénierie & développement. n°83mars 2020. https://doi.org/10.4267/dechets-sciencestechniques.4272 h. saidou, & s. aminou (2015). solid waste management in the town of maradi in niger republic. j. environ. prot. (irvine, calif), 06, 359–373. https://doi.org/10.4236/ jep.2015.64036. j. sotamenou, (2018). proposition d’un outil d’évaluation du service publique de gestion des déchets solides municipaux en afrique, environnement, ingénierie & développement. n°76-avril 2018. https://doi. org/10.4267/dechets-sciences-techniques.3775. k. dongo, f. kouamé, k. koné, j. biém, m. tanner, g. cissé. (2008). analyse de la situation de https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 24-29, 2022 l’environnement sanitaire des quartiers défavorisés dans le tissu urbain de yopougon a abidjan, côte d’ivoire. [vertigo] la revue électronique ensciences de l’environnement, 8(3). m. benoît, a.c. viviane, n.e. laurentine, (2021). gestion des déchets ménagers dans le quartier mambanda (douala-cameroun) : quelles stratégies durables?, european scientific journal esj. 17. https:// doi.org/10.19044/esj.2021.v17n39p138. n. topanou, j.k. fatombi, j.g. gbaguidi, t. aminou, j. gérard, m. domeizel, (2021). impact of domestic solid waste management on wet land water quality : case of abomey-calavi municipality in benin republic, natural resources. 12, 10–17. https:// doi.org/10.4236/nr.2021.121002. n. soro, l. ouattara, k. dongo, e. konan kouadio, e. k. ahoussi, g. soro, m. s. oga, i. savane, j. biemi. (2010). dechet municipaux dans le district d’abidjan en cote d’ivoire : sources potentielles de pollution des eaux souterraines.int. j. biol. chem. sci. 4(6), 22032219. p.o. (2014). adamou, diagnostic du système de gestion des déchets solides ménagers de l’arrondissement communal iv de la ville de niamey (niger) et proposition de solutions d’amélioration ce travail est dédié. p. devant, (2003). la gestion des dechets solides menagers a niamey au niger : essai pour une strategie de gestion durable. s. alouemoune, g. matejka, c. zurbrugg, & m. s. mohamed. (2006). caractérisation des ordures ménagères à nouakchott : partie ii : résultats en saison sèche et en saison humide. environnement, ingénierie & développement, episciences, 2006, n°44-octobrenovembre-décembre. 9-13. ff10.4267/dechetssciences-techniques.75ff.ffhal-03183203ff t. l.(2022). bernard. gestion des déchets solides ménagers a douala au cameroun : opportunité ou menace pour l’environnement et la population ?, carnets de géographie (en ligne), 1/2010, mis en ligne le 01 octobre 2010, consulte le 28 novembre. http://journals. openedition.org/cdg/2325. https//doi.org/10.4000/ cdg.2325 u.u. solomon, (2009). the state of solid waste management in nigeria, waste management. 29, 2787–2788. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.06.030. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 6 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) entity-level greenhouse gas emission of university of science and technology of southern philippines-oroquieta mitchie roa1* volume 1 issue 3, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.665 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 12, 2022 accepted: october 15, 2022 published: october 17, 2022 presently, climate change is still one of the pressing environmental concerns in the world generally caused by greenhouse gas emission. among the greenhouse gases emitted by various sources, carbon dioxide contributes largely to the emission. in this study, the entitylevel greenhouse gas emission of the university of science and technology of southern philippines-oroquieta for year 2020 was estimated following the 2006 ipcc guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. based on the results, emission from mobile combustion sources was estimated to be 0.0895 tco2e while emission from stationary combustion sources was 0.139 tco2e yielding a total ghg emission for scope 1 of 0.2285 tco2e. moreover, the electricity consumption of the campus which corresponds to the scope 2 emission yielded 24.7135 tco2 constitutes largely to the overall greenhouse gas emission. this might be due to the flexible learning modality where faculty members stay at their respective offices to conduct their classes hence regularly utilizing electricity from air conditioners, computers, mobile phones and others. keywords carbon dioxide emission, entitylevel greenhouse gas emission, greenhouse gas accounting 1 university of science and technology of southern philippines-oroquieta, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: mitchie.roa@ustp.edu.ph introduction the issue about the global climate change caused by greenhouse gases was recognized in 1970s but international initiatives started in 1990s. since then, the primary goal of global researches focused on reducing emission sources and enhancing carbon sinks to combat greenhouse gas emission (montagnini & nair, 2004). some of these include innovative engine and vehicle technologies to reduce fuel consumption (shaheen & lipman, 2007), tree planting, maintaining and restoring forest ecosystems (domke et al., 2020), and ratification of global climate agreements such as the unfccc (united nations framework convention on climate change), kyoto protocol and, the most significant to date, paris agreement (maizland, 2021). the paris agreement which entered into force last november 2016 aims to limit the increase in global temperature below 2 degrees celsius by strengthening global response, which includes climate change adaptation and mitigation, to the threats and impacts of climate change (unfccc, 2020; zhao et al., 2018). the university of science and technology of southern philippines (ustp)-oroquieta is one of the satellite campuses of the ustp system. it is located at mobod, oroquieta city in the province of misamis occidental which geographically lies within latitude 8°29’ north and longitude 123°47” east (ustp-oroquieta, n.d.). an initiative of ustp-oroquieta relevant to becoming a carbon-neutral campus has been conducted by select faculty members engaged in science-related profession to quantify and consequently suggest campus policies for low carbon emission through estimating the entitylevel greenhouse gas (ghg) emission which results from the operations of the campus following the 2006 ipcc guidelines for national ghg inventory accounting methodology. as of 2020, there has been a significant decrease or interruption on the usual activities or operations in the campus brought about by the covid-19 pandemic, hence, the results of this accounting might serve as a baseline data for future studies. the ghg accounting was created to monitor the direct and indirect ghg emissions of ustp-oroquieta. this can also be considered as the initial step to planning the activities and programs that the campus could implement to mitigate ghg emission. furthermore, it seeks to meet the following objectives: • identify the sources of ghg emissions from the operations of ustp-oroquieta; • quantify the amount of ghg emissions from identified activity sources; and • determine appropriate projects and activities that would reduce the campus’ ghg emission. literature review climate change occurs because of natural and anthropogenic activities, and the main contributors to this are the greenhouse gases (yue & gao, 2018). these gases are naturally present in the earth’s atmosphere, hence making the planet warm. without these, the world would be as cold, or even colder, as ice (ma, 1998). these can be emitted naturally by volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, solar radiations, and earth orbital changes, however excessive emission has been observed through the years because of human activities (nunez, 2019). global greenhouse gas emission the world resources institute (wri) reported that the global annual greenhouse gas emissions have increased to 48.94 mtco2e since 1990 with the energy sector as the biggest source contributing 76% of the emission https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.773 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:mitchie.roa%40ustp.edu.ph?subject= pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 6-11, 2022 worldwide in 2018. at the same period, similar trend was observed in the philippines which had approximately 136.60 mtco2e increase in ghg emissions from 19902018. approximately 59% of the total emission was contributed by the energy sector with a whopping 138.51 mtco2e in 2018 followed by the agriculture sector with 26.14% (climate watch, n.d.). carbon dioxide is one of the key greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere through burning of fossil fuels, solid wastes and biomass (us epa, 2020). it can also be emitted from direct human-induced impacts on forestry and other land use changes such as deforestation, grazing and degradation of soil, which dramatically elevated since the start of the industrial revolution (arneth et al., 2019). in the latest record of the world resources institute climate analysis indicator tool (wri cait), the global total co2 emission excluding the land-use change and forestry (lucf) in 2018 was 35.25 gtco2 while the total ch4, n2o and fluorinated gas (f-gas) only contributed 8.18 gtco2e, 2.99 gtco2e and 1.14gtco2e, respectively (climatewatch, n.d.). over the past decades, carbon dioxide emission was already increasing every year by about 1%; however, the impact of the covid-19 pandemic in 2020 led to the drastic change in emission (friedlingstein et al., 2019; jackson et al., 2019; peters et al., 2020). quéré et al. (2020) cited that although there is a decrease in global co2 emission in 2020 due to the reduced activity of the people and businesses during the pandemic as the world governments enforced stringent measures to lessen and stop the transmission of the virus, this is not enough to combat climate change. although the covid-19 pandemic struck every country and continues to immobilize and limit various sectors from emitting co2, researchers found that this is far from achieving net zero emissions due to the lack of enactment of “green” recovery policies. this decrease in emission is even just temporary as the adaptation and recovery measures of the government permits to continue people and business activities. entity-level greenhouse gas emission generally, there are two types of reporting greenhouse gas emission, mainly the entity-level and community-level. both types include three scope emissions, and the present study only applied the entity-level ghg accounting. here, scope 1 refers to the direct ghg emissions contributed by mobile and stationary combustion sources, scope 2 refers to the indirect ghg emissions from the purchase of electricity, and scope 3 refers to all the other indirect emissions such as domestic air travels, employee commuter travel, waste disposal and others (ipcc, 2014). carbon dioxide emission in the philippines the philippines is known to have a very small carbon footprint; however, it is one of the countries that is most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change which slow down its economic development (tribe, 2018; durana, 2017). in 2020, philippines had a carbon dioxide emission of 136.02 mtco2 while other developing countries such as pakistan, vietnam, thailand and malaysia have emitted 234.75 mtco2, 254.30 mtco2, 257.77 mtco2, and 272.61 mtco2, respectively (ritchie & roser, 2020). in the succeeding year, the country ranked 17th among all of the countries with the highest risks and most affected by extreme weather conditions according to the global climate risk index (congressional policy and budget research department, 2021). the country experienced calamities and is in fact highly prone to natural disasters especially sea-level rise, coastal flooding, typhoons, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (world bank, 2005; bollettino et al., 2020). other climate change impacts observed in the philippines which generally resulted from the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide were experienced such as temperature rise, decreased regularity of precipitation, decreased quantity of surface water due to higher air temperatures, and northward shift of marine species due to increased temperature in the ocean (tribe, 2018). materials and methods research setting the accounting estimates the entity-level ghg emissions from the operations of ustp-oroquieta which cover the buildings and facilities in the campus for year 2020 following the 2006 ipcc guidelines for national inventories methodology. the ghg emissions to be accounted for were determined through the boundary conditions, mainly the “organizational boundaries” which refer to the facilities owned or controlled by the campus and “operational boundaries” which refer to the types of emissions included or excluded from various emission sources. generally, ustp-oroquieta consists of the administration building, it building, dressmaking building and canteen; the canteen however stopped operating since the pandemic started because there was no longer face-to-face classes. presently, the campus owned a car which has never been used and a motorcycle used for errands. most of the fuel consumption for year 2020 therefore came from the usage of the campus-owned motorcycle, rented vans for research and training purposes, and rented equipment for landscaping and construction of the makeshift classrooms. moreover, the operational boundary categorizes emissions resulting from facilities and activities of ustp-oroquieta classified as direct and indirect emissions and further into scopes as presented in table 1. here, each emission sources are further classified according to scope and category. scope 1 refers to direct ghg emissions from sources owned and controlled by ustp-oroquieta such as the motorcycles and rented vans for official travel and errands, scope 2 refers to indirect emissions from the purchase of electricity and scope 3 are for all other indirect ghg emissions that occur as consequence of the activities and operations of the campus. fugitive emissions from the use of fluorinated gases in refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, emissions https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 6-11, 2022 table 1: direct and indirect emission of ustp-oroquieta operational boundary classification scope category included/ excluded reason for exclusion direct emissions 1 mobile combustion included stationary combustion included fugitive emission excluded data not available indirect emission 2 purchased electricity included 3 air business travel excluded no air travel made transmission and distribution loss excluded data not available employee commute excluded no employee commute made solid waste disposal excluded data not available from transmission and distribution loss and emissions from solid waste disposal are excluded due to unavailability of data. furthermore, emissions from air business travel as well as employee commute are excluded since no travel has been made through these means in 2020 due to various travel and gathering restrictions imposed by the covid-19 inter-agency task force (iatf) nationwide. although various greenhouse gases are covered in the 2006 ippc guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, this accounting shall only focus on the three most prevalent ghg, namely the carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch4) and nitrous oxide (n2o) for scope 1 while only co2 is accounted for the scope 2 emission assuming complete combustion has been achieved by power generating plants. a summary of the ghg covered in ustp-oroquieta is shown in table 2 in order for greenhouse gases to obtain an equivalent mass of carbon dioxide, the global warming potential table 2: direct and indirect emission of ustp-oroquieta emission sources scope co2 ch4 n2o sf6 pfcs hfcs mobile combustion from owned vehicles and stationary combustion from generator set 1 ✓ ✓ ✓ x x x electricity consumption of owned buildings/offices 2 ✓ x x x x x employees’ official air business travel 3 x x x x x x employee’s commute 3 x x x x x x transmission and distribution loss 3 x x x x x x (gwp) is used. it is an index that attempts to integrate the overall climate impacts of a specific action (e.g., emissions of ch4, nox or aerosols). table 3 shows the global warming potentials of the three ghgs based on the fifth assessment accounting (ar5) of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) which are considered in this accounting. data collection and data quality assurance table 3: global warming potential used (ipcc, 2014) common name chemical formula global warming potential carbon dioxide co2 1 methane ch4 28 nitrous oxide n2o 265 the data were collected from the designated personnel in ustp-oroquieta. the activity data for scope 1 were obtained from the supply inspector of the campus while the data for scope 2 were taken from misamis occidental electric cooperative inc. i (moelci-i). presented in table 4 is a summary of the quality of the activity data collected. table 4: self-assessment on the quality of activity data activity data data source data collector quality assurance remarks fuel consumption (liters) fuel purchase receipts; trip ticket campus inspector high the quantity and fuel type were recorded by the supply inspector. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 6-11, 2022 data analysis generally, the calculation of scope emissions in the present study utilizes descriptive statistics. here, the emissions from mobile combustion of ustp-oroquieta are from the owned motorcycle as well as the rented vans utilized for research and training conducted by the campus. in 2020, only gasoline fuel was purchased. pursuant to republic act no. 9367 or the biofuels act of 2006, “all diesel fuels sold throughout the philippines are currently blended with 2% biodiesel by volume and 10% bioethanol by volume for gasoline,” hence a correction factor was used to account for the biofuels blend in the fuel consumption of the campus (official gazette, 2007). the total co2e emission from the fuel consumption of ustp-oroquieta for 2020 was determined using the formula emission (tonsco₂e)=(activity data)(emission factor)(1) further, the stationary combustion sources such as the chainsaw, lawn mower, and mixer for landscaping and construction of makeshift classrooms are accounted. the emissions from methane and nitrous oxide were converted into its equivalent co2 emission using the respective global warming potentials. similarly, the total tco2e emissions from stationary combustion was determined using the formula emission (tonsco₂e)=(activity data)(emission factor) (gwp) (2) the scope 2 emission was calculated using the data collected from moelci-i and the grid emission factor for mindanao obtained from the department of energy (department of energy, 2020). for the entire campus, there is only one meter reader hence there has been no difficulty in obtaining the monthly electricity consumption. the values of the emission factor for fuel combustion and purchased electricity were obtained from the us epa (us epa, 2021) and moelci-1, respectively, while no activity data have been recorded for scope 3 emissions. emission (tonsco₂)=(activity data)(grid emission factor) (3) results and discussion accounting for all the greenhouse gas emissions excluding co2 from biogenic sources, the total ghg emission from both mobile and stationary fuel combustion is equivalent to 0.0895 tco2e and 0.139 tco2e, as shown in table 5 and table 6, respectively. adding the emissions from mobile and stationary combustion sources, the total scope 1 emission is 0.2285 tco2e. the scope 1 emission of ustp-oroquieta categorized electricity consumption (kilowatt hour) monthly electrical bills moelci-i high the entire campus only has one electric meter which measures the kwh used in a monthly basis. a summary of the electricity consumption of the campus for 2020 was requested from moelci-i. table 5: ustp-oroquieta emissions from mobile combustion fuel consumption (liters) total tco2e emission (excluding tco2 from biofuel)gasoline bioethanol 42.858 4.2858 0.0895 table 6: ustp-oroquieta emissions from stationary combustion fuel consumption (liters tco2 tco2 from bioethanol tch4 tn2o total tco2e emission (excluding biofuel tco2 gasoline bioethanol 66.71 6.671 0.139 0.0155 1.689e-04 7.8e-07 0.139 from mobile and stationary combustion sources is illustrated in figure 1 while the monthly emission from the electricity consumption in 2020 is illustrated in figure 2. as can be gleaned from figure 1, the emission from mobile combustion is higher than the emission from stationary sources having 61% and 39%, respectively. the monthly emission from the electricity consumption of the campus for 2020 is presented in table 7. here, it can be seen that the highest amount of electricity consumed was on february which therefore has the highest emission while the lowest was observed for the month of april. overall, ustp-oroquieta was found to obtain a total ghg emission of 24.7135 tco2e. figure 1: scope 1 emission per combustion source https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 6-11, 2022 finally, since no domestic air travel nor employee commutate has been made in 2020 due to the covid-19 pandemic which imposed travel and gathering restrictions for safety, the campus has therefore no recorded scope 3 emissions. the total greenhouse gas emissions from various sources and operations in ustp-oroquieta for table 7: ustp-oroquieta emissions from monthly purchase of electricity month (2019) electricity consumption (kwh) megawatt total ghg emission (tco2) january 2400 2.4 1.90104 february 4160 4.16 3.295136 march 2160 2.16 1.710936 april 1040 1.04 0.823784 may 1280 1.28 1.013888 june 1600 1.6 1.26736 july 2400 2.4 1.90104 august 3040 3.04 2.407984 september 3360 3.36 2.661456 october 3280 3.28 2.598088 november 3520 3.52 2.788192 december 2960 2.96 2.344616 total 31200 31.2 24.7135 year 2020 is summarized in table 8. generally, the scope with the highest emission is scope 2 followed by scope 1 emissions which consist of 99.086% and 0.914%, respectively. scope 3 emissions on the other hand has obviously no ghg estimate since no activities have been made to account for it. table 8: ghg emissions by scope or category scope tco2e % total emission scope 1 0.228 0.914 scope 2 24.714 99.086 scope 3 0 0 total emission 24.942 100 conclusion based on the results and analyses obtained in this study, the author concludes that the total ghg emission produced from the activities and operations of the campus for year 2020 was largely contributed by scope 2 emissions. similarly, the emission from mobile combustion is higher than the stationary combustion constituting 61% of the scope 1 emission. although most of the operations were immobilized due to the covid-19 pandemic, some activities, mostly for faculty development, were still conducted following strict health protocols. lastly, no emission for scope 3 has been recorded from the operations of the campus for 2020 since no air travel nor land commute was recorded even before the travel restrictions were imposed due to the pandemic. acknowledgements the author would like to acknowledge ms. junefer malinis, a faculty member of the campus, as well as the misamis occidental electric cooperative inc. i for providing a summary of the monthly electricity bills of ustp-oroquieta. references arneth, a., barbosa, h., benton, t., calvin, k., calvo, e., connors, s., . . . haughey, e. 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(2018, may 3). adaptation and mitigation for combating climate change – from single to joint. ecosystem health and sustainability, 4(4), 85-94. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/20964129.2018.146663 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 28 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) efficacy of newly developed activated carbon from bark of butea monosperma for removal of hexavalent chromium hunge s.s.1* volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.180 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: march 11, 2022 accepted: may 09, 2022 published: may 12, 2022 heavy metals present in the aquatic systems have become a serious problem. due to this reason, it has been a great concentration on the development of new technologies for the removal of heavy metal ions from contaminated water. the adsorption process is one of the effective technology for the removal of toxic heavy metal ions. hexavalent chromium is one of the major metal ion pollutants in the environment and is present in wastewater from most of the various industrial sections. several conventional physical and chemical treatment technologies are reported in the literature for the removal of hexavalent chromium. but, these processes are expensive and energy intensive and lead to the generation of harmful and carcinogenic by-products. in the recent study, the adsorption ability of activated carbon derived from the bark of butea monosperma for removal of cr(vi) from polluted water has been studied with respect to different parameters like the effect of ph, adsorbent dosage, contact time and initial metal ion concentration. the hexavalent chromium uptake was dependent on equilibrium ph=6.5, being the optimum ph value. cr(vi) elimination from aqueous solution increases with an increase in contact time, and equilibrium was attained at 150 min. further, on increasing the adsorbent dose, there was an increase in cr(vi) removal. the maximum adsorption of cr(vi) (96%) was examined at 5.0 g/l of adsorbent dose. the upsurge in the initial concentration of cr(vi) decreases the percent removal of cr(vi). this examination proved that the newly synthesized activated carbon from the bark of butea monosperma could be used as a cost-effective and less energy-intensive adsorbent to remove hexavalent chromium from aqueous solution and can be successfully applied for the treatment of wastewater. keywords activated carbon, adsorption, bark of butea monosperma, hexavalent chromium. 1 chintamani college of science, pombhurna, gondwana university, gadchiroli (ms), india * corresponding author’s e-mail: sudhir@chintamani.edu.in introduction water is the most significant resource for all living things throughout the world (berger, et.al.,2017; brandes, et.al.,2019; tran, et.al.,2021; anush, et.al.,2019). however, water pollution is considered the greatest stimulating issue all over the world, especially in developing countries like india (anush, et.al., 2019;jackcina stobel,et. al.,2019;tofighy,et.al.,2020). origin of pollution of water is mainly in urbanization, industrialization and the increase in human population observed during the past one and half-century. among these, different industries release several toxic contaminants such as heavy metals, organic dyes, pharmaceuticals, petroleum products, and others into water bodies (hokkanen, et.al.,2016; mohd., et.al.2020; qin x., et.al.,2019). owing to their noxiousness and bioaccumulation, they supply enormous hazards to living things ( md ariful, et.al., 2020; he c, et.al. 2017; amanda, et.al.,2020). some of the metal ions can have toxic effects on many forms of human life and the environment [shahnaz, et.al.,2020; tshikovhi, et.al.,2020; bhanjana, et.al.,2017). metals that are toxic to human beings and ecological environments include copper, chromium, lead, mercury, cadmium, nickel, iron, and cobalt (vilardi, et.al.,2018; yu g, et.al.,2019; hou s,et.al.,2019). even the presence of a low concentration of these heavy metal ions in the environment may cause serious environmental and health issues (alidokht, et.al.2011; yu x, et.al.,2014). chromium and its derivative compounds are the most toxic water pollutants out of these toxic metal ions. chromium (vi) is present in the effluents of electroplating, metal finishing, magnetic tapes, wood preservation, leather tanning, pigments and chemical manufacturing industries (gupta, et.al.,2019; wang, et.al., 2012). chromium is present in the environment in two oxidation states, viz. trivalent cr(iii) and hexavalent cr(vi). cr(iii) is referred to as a crucial trace nutrient for humans, while cr(vi) is highly toxic to human life (dobrowolski & otto,2010; nriagu & nieboer,1988). because of the mutagenic and carcinogenic properties of hexavalent chromium affect skin irritation, lung cancer and kidney, liver, and gastric damage (mansri, et.al.2009). as determined by ntp, iarc and who, chromium (vi) is a human carcinogen at a level above its who standard value (ozgunay,et. al.,2007; hauber & buljan,2000). according to the who, the tolerance limit for cr(vi) for discharge into inland surface water is 0.1 mg/l and in filtered water is 0.05mg/l. the ethiopian environmental protection authority (epa) also set a minimum standard of 0.1 mg/l for hexavalent chrome containing industrial effluent (belay,2010). several technologies have been developed for the treatment of water and wastewater. the most common technologies for chromium-carrying wastewater remediation include membrane filtration, ultrafiltration, ion exchange, co-precipitation, electrolytic methods, photocatalysis, and adsorption (hegazi, 2013). most of https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.180 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:sudhir@chintamani.edu.in pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 28-33, 2022 these techniques are not capable of efficient removal of chromium metal ion concentration up to the tolerable limit (zare,et.al.,2018). they also have some technical drawbacks such as intensive operation, high energyexpensive, high cost, a lot of chemical consumption and the generation of secondary products which are toxic and harmful (maitlo,et.al.,2019). therefore most conventional techniques are not profitable as an industrial-scale method for removal of hexavalent chromium from an aqueous solution (jin l,et.al.,2019). amongst these methods, adsorption is a very effective and economical process. adsorbents are prepared from various kinds of biomass, agricultural by-products, clay, corncob and fly ash ( selvi, et.al., 2001; rao, et.al., 2007; ait bentaleb, et.al., 2016) which are used for the removal of contaminants from the water. a large number of low-cost biosorbents are developed from different by-products, such as green coconut shell (kumar & meikap,2014), sugarcane bagasse (singh,2017), coffee husk (berihun,2017), rice husk (dai, et.al.,2015), mango kernel (rai,et.al., 2016), maize cob (ibrahim, 2013), sawdust (ibrahim & jimoh, 2012), hazelnut shell (kobya, 2004), groundnut hull (owalude & tella, 2016), sugarcane bagasse (kumari, 2017), pea pod peel (sharma, et.al.,2016), avocado seed kernel (mekonnen, et.al.,2015), tea waste (malkoc & nuhoglu, 2007) and olive bagasse (demiral, et.al.,2008) had been used for cr(vi) adsorption. in the recent work, the studies are carried out for the removal of cr(vi) from an aqueous solution using activated carbon generated from the bark of butea monosperma. butea monosperma is a flowering plant belonging to fabaceae family, locally known as dhak or palas. butea monosperma is mostly used in ayurveda, unani and homeopathic medicine (the ayurveda pharmacopeia of india,1999) and has become a cynosure of modern medicine (sindhia & bairwa, 2010). the characterization of newly prepared activated carbon from the bark of butea monosperma was done by xrd, ftir and scanning electron microscopy (sem) studies. the batch equilibrium method was conducted at 308k to evaluate the efficacy of the newly developed adsorbent for the abatement of hexavalent chromium from the aqueous solution. experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of ph, adsorbent dosage, contact time and initial metal ion concentration. thus, recently activated carbon has been confirmed a very excellent adsorbent and successfully utilized the abatement of hexavalent chromium from an aqueous solution. materials and method chemicals: the chemicals of ar grade are used and purchased from global marketing, nagpur (india). activated carbon preparation from the bark of butea monosperma (acbbm): the bark of butea monosperma tree is collected in a native forest area. the bark of the tree was divided into small pieces and washed with tap water to get rid of sand particles. the washed material was then immersed in formaldehyde to prevent the formation of pigment in the aqueous solution. it is also washed with water. once drying, the bark is subjected to the pyrolysis process for carbonization at 7500c for 5 to 6 hr. so that volatile matter was removed and converted into a char. the char is placed in a microwave oven for microwave activation for 30 min. activated carbon particles were grounded and sieved in 120-200 mm size. the newly generated activated carbon was then washed with double distilled water and dried at 105oc for 4 to 5 hr. characterization of acbbm characterization of acbbm was done by sem (fig.1), ftir ( fig.2), xrd (fig.3) adsorption studies standard operating solutions were developed from the cr(vi) stock solution. the batch equilibrium method is performed for cr(vi) removal using acbbm. the different parameters such as ph effect, contact time, adsorbent dosage and initial metal ion concentration have been examined. the ph impact and contact time were investigated at 350c with an initial metal ion concentration of 25 mg/l and 5g/lit of adsorbent, i.e., acbbm. the impact adsorbent dose turned into studied with varying quantities of adsorbent from 1g to 9g with cr(vi) concentration of 25mg/l, while the effect of initial metal ion concentration was investigated with concentrations ranging from 5mg/l to 50mg/l with an adsorbent dose of figure a: bark of butea monosperma figure b: activated carbon derived from bark of bm 5g/l at 350c and the residual concentration is measured the usage atomic absorption spectrophotometer. result and discussion characterization of acbbm ftir analysis: ftir analysis (fig.1) was performed to identify the various functional group present in acbbm. the spectrum of acbbm implies that different absorption peaks are present that indicate the complex https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 28-33, 2022 nature of acbbm. a band at 3420 cm-1 represents –oh and –nh group stretching. the absorption peak at 2960 cm-1 can be proven withinside the aliphatic c-h group. the peak at 1740cm-1 was displayed in the -c=o group, similar to the carboxylic or ester group. a band around at 1620cm-1 displaying in –c=o group (the amide band is usually a stretching band). the peak at 1520 cm-1 implies that –c=o group corresponds to the carbonyl stretching band. sem analysis: the scanning electron microscopy (sem) of acbbm, as proven in fig. 2, suggests that it has a clean pore shape structure developed on the floor of acbbm. it was noticed that there had been very small and big cavities on the surface of the acbbm. due to the existence of the hollow space like the shape of an adsorbent, acbbm possessed excessive surface area and high adsorptive properties. the adsorption method of any heavy metal relies upon the dimension of hallow space on the surface of the activated carbon. xrd analysis: the xrd is tested to observe the crystalline or amorphous nature of the acbbm and is shown in figure 3. the fabric is an amorphous characteristic in the comprehensive xrd pattern structure, indicating an extremely disordered structure. the elevation is found around to 2θ value of around 22°, figure 1: ftir spectrum of activated carbon of bark of butea monosperma(acbbm) figure 4: ph effect on cr(vi) adsorption figure.5: effect of contact time figure 3. x-ray diffractogram of acbbm and small peaks near 16° and 35° and is associated with crystalline cellulose (barnette, et.al., 2012). impact of ph: the impact of ph on cr(vi) adsorption is shown in fig.4. it is proven that ph of the solution plays an essential role in the elimination of cr(vi). the elimination percentage of cr(vi) increases from 55 to 94.5 as the initial ph of the solution rises from 1 to 6.5 and is appreciably better at 6.5 ph . the adsorption percentage gradually decreased to 80% as the ph of the solution increased from 6.5 to 8.0. so the adsorbent, i.e., acbbm, can be effectively used at 6.5 ph for the adsorption of cr(vi). effect of contact time on cr(vi) adsorption: sorption of cr(vi) ion with contact time was studied and shown in fig.5. the figure indicates the removal of cr(vi) ability to extend with increasing contact time before reaching equilibrium. alternative limitations like a dose of acbbm, solution ph and initial cr(vi) ion concentration were unbroken optimum. from fig.4, it is observed that removal potency inflated from 50% to 96% once contact time increased from 60 to 150 min. the optimum contact time for acbbm was found to be 150 min. however, when equilibrium is achieved, it is nearly constant. figure 2. x-ray diffractogram of acbbm https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 28-33, 2022 effect of adsorbent dosage: the result of adsorbent dose on cr(vi) sorption is shown in fig 6. the study was performed by changing the acbbm value from 1 to 9 g/l while maintaining other limiting parameters like the ph scale of the solution, contact time and initial metal in concentration fixed. the figure shows that the proportion of cr(vi) removal inflated with the rise in the dose of acbbm. the highest cr(vi) removal was found at 94.5% with a dose of adsorbent 6gm. this is often attributed to the fact that more accessibility of cavity and availability of surface area of the adsorbent. once the figure 6: effect of adsorbent dose figure 7: effect of concentration on cr(vi) adsorption bound dose of adsorbent, the potency of the removal remains unchanged as a result of the utmost sorption set and cr(vi) ion present within the solution are sure to the adsorbent almost unchanged. impact of initial metal ion concentration: the result of initial metal ion concentration on hexavalent chromium removal by acbbm as shown in fig.7. it is ascertained that the percentage of cr(vi) removal decreases with increasing of cr(vi) ion concentration. in the current study, the experiments were performed to gauge the effect of initial metal ion concentration at 10mg/l to 50mg/l. a dose of adsorbent was taken at 5g/l.the result shows a decrease in cr(vi) removal from 96% to 73%.this will be even because the adsorbent has a restricted number of active sites or pores that are saturated beyond. conclusion • powder x-ray confirmed that acbbm was crystalline with a diffraction pattern, the scanning microscopy (sem) of adsorbent acbbm steered that it had clear little cavities developed at the surface, and ftir showed numerous functional groups is associated with them. • acbbm was the foremost effective adsorbent for the removal of cr(vi), i.e., 95% removal at ph 6.5. after ph 6.5, the removal of cr(vi) was decreased. therefore adsorbent is employed most effectively at ph 6.5 for removing cr(vi). • further increase within the adsorbent and exaggerated contact time is found to extent cr(vi) removal percentage • as the dose of acbbm was fixed, surface assimilation of cr(vi) from aqueous solution decreased with the rise within the initial cr(vi) ion concentration. • we can say that the newly developed acbbm material features a potential application prospect as an economical adsorbent for cr(vi) removal from waste water through a price effective and environment-friendly method. acknowledgements the author is highly thankful to dr. p.k.rahangdale, bhawabhuti mahavidyalaya, amgaon and prof. mamata lanjewar, pgtd chemistry, rtm nagpur university nagpur, for their valued guidance, moral provision, timely help and persistent encouragement during the course of this investigation. the authors also thanked scientist incharge, saif, stic, cochin university, cochin for ftir and sem analysis of the sample. the authors are also thankful to the managing director of deenee chemical laboratory (dcl), chandrapur, for letting us accessing the atomic absorption spectrophotometer and uvvisible spectrophotometer. references ait bentaleb k., el khattabi e., lakraimi 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(2019), ‘phytoextraction of cadmium-contaminated soils: comparison of plant species and low molecular weight organic acids’. int. j. phytoremediation, 22, pp.383–391. yu x.z.; wang d.q.; zhang x.h.(2014), ‘chelatorinduced phytoextraction of zinc and copper by rice seedlings’. ecotoxicology, 23, pp.749–756. zare e.n., motahari a., sillanpaa m.,(2018),‘nano adsorbents based on conducting polymer nanocomposites with main focus on polyaniline and its derivatives for removal of heavy metal ions/ dyes: a review’. environmental research, 162:173-195. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 23 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) solid waste management system through 3r strategy with energy analysis and possibility of electricity generation in dhaka city of bangladesh f.a. samiul islam1* volume 2 issue 2, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i2.1767 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 19, 2023 accepted: july 18, 2023 published: july 22, 2023 solid waste management is considered as one of the serious environmental problems in developing asian countries like bangladesh. although municipal authorities in the city of dhaka recognize the importance of adequate solid waste collection as well as resource recovery and recycling, it is beyond their resources to effectively deal with the growing volume of solid waste. as a result, solid waste is dumped indiscriminately on streets and open drains causing serious health risks and degradation of the living environment for millions of urban people. in the last decade, the importance of community involvement in solid waste management and the use of adaptive technologies to improve solid waste management systems have been recognized but waste is a material that no longer serves a purpose and is therefore discarded. all wastes are particularly hazardous if not disposed of carefully, they will have an impact on the environment, be it unsightly litter on urban streets or polluted air, soil, or water. solid waste management practices are not very satisfactory in the recent world and adequate policies and awareness about various aspects of waste management are needed to help reduce waste generation and improve waste management processes. this research paper has worked on dhaka city, the capital city of bangladesh and it has tried to find out the current status of solid waste through 3r strategy including energy analysis. moreover, this paper has discussed the potential of power generation from solid waste. keywords 3r strategy, electricity generation, energy analysis, environmental benefit, solid waste management 1 department of civil engineering, uttara university, dhaka, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: samir214100@yahoo.com introduction solid waste is generated through various human activities like industrialization, urbanization, improvement of the standard of living, etc. in bangladesh, industrialization is growing rapidly and it is putting severe pressure on our natural resources, which is a major challenge for sustainable development. a noticeable cause of environmental degradation in most cities is unorganized waste management and dumping. a municipal corporation of dhaka city is trying to manage this problem but they are unable to control the waste management effectively. “in 2022, more than 7,500 tons of solid waste is produced daily in two dhaka city corporations.” (prothomalo.2022) “dhaka city generates a lot of waste in various ways, such as in hospitals, small-scale industries, tanneries, and other heavy industries.” (course hero. 2021) “bangladesh is the ninth most populous country and the twelfth most densely populated country in the world. dhaka is one of the most polluted cities in the world and one of the related problems is solid waste management.” (wikipedia. march 2022) a clean city and a good environment are logical demands for city dwellers. due to limited financial and organizational capacity, it has become really difficult for municipalities to ensure efficient and appropriate delivery of solid waste collection and disposal services to the entire population. most people are not concerned about solid waste management. this is an important cause of waste mismanagement. household waste in dhaka city is dumped on roadsides and open spaces. sources of solid waste are garbage, waste, sludge, and discarded materials and wastes produced by industries, hospitals, or household social activities. waste management is a technique used primarily to collect waste from various sources, including recycling and reused materials. objectives 1. to discuss the sources and composition of solid waste in dhaka city. 2. to identify the type of solid waste available in dhaka city. 3. to discuss the education level of solid waste workers in dhaka city. 4. discussing public participation in recycling, employment, and financial benefits. 5. to discuss organic, inorganic, and hazardous solid waste items. 6. to evaluate the effectiveness of 3r principles, i.e. recycle, reuse, and reduce as an improved solid waste management system for dhaka city. 7. showing energy analysis from the collected solid waste of dhaka city. methodology this research paper uses both primary and secondary data which was conducted from 2nd january 2023 to 15th june 2023. this study mainly focused on the present status of the solid waste management system in the capital dhaka city of bangladesh, and a flow chart of the work process in given below. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i2.1767 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 primary data collection through questionnaire survey to find out the solid waste management system of dhaka city, primary data was collected from different categories of people and through a questionnaire survey from households to assess the actual status of solid waste management. primary data was also collected by visiting the waste collection process and selected dumping areas. to assess expert opinion, key informant interviews were conducted with various stakeholders who were experts and associated with solid waste management practices in dhaka city. secondary data collection secondary data was collected about the volume of waste generation and solid waste management activities in dhaka city, bangladesh. data analysis although the information was collected from various sources it was transcribed and the information was categorized according to content. the organized data was then overviewed to get a general idea of emerging trends, patterns, and solid waste concepts. the data were grouped into broad categories such as waste generation, public involvement in the decision-making process of waste collection, etc. limitations it may be mentioned that this study is completely selffinanced work by the author of this paper. the author faced some limitations while completing the research work including collection of primary and secondary data and information about the problem under research investigation. there were some budget constraints and a lack of time for this research work. due to this limitation, the sample size for the study was small and it was not sufficient and very difficult to generalize the output of the study. this limitation of budget and time was the foremost limitation for gathering data and information about the problem under research investigation. despite some limitations, the author has been able to collect all relevant information about the problem under research investigation. solid waste management in dhaka city a well-planned waste management process will not only help in ensuring a clean environment but will also be costeffective for the citizens and dhaka city corporation is mainly fulfilling this responsibility. according to the previous study of the author of this paper, dhaka city corporation has divided its area into 10 zones to monitor solid waste generation. total solid waste management involves 3 categories: mechanical engineering, storage, and transportation. the conservation department of dhaka city corporation currently operates around 370 trucks and container carriers, 300 handcarts and 4,920 bins/containers and is supported by 190 supervisory officers and 7,156 cleaners and only 1 officer to supervise transport for all activities. (islam, f. s. 2016) impact of inappropriate solid waste on climate change bangladesh is a region vulnerable to climate change. (akter h. 2022) when organic waste decomposes, methane and carbon dioxide gases are produced. methane is produced in the absence of air, on the other hand, carbon dioxide is a natural product and produces when something decomposes in the air. incineration of inorganic waste uses natural resources such as metals, fuel, and wood in their production and thereby releases greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide. plastic waste emits greenhouse gases at every stage, as the extraction and transportation of plastics are dependent on oil, gas, and coal. the production and disposal of plastic also emit tons of carbon. extreme climate conditions significantly affect agricultural production and water insecurity nationally. (kwame. d. 2022) solid waste management is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and thus contributes to climate change. (university of colorado. 2020) moreover, used plastic figure 1: flow chart of work process https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 products are ending up in the ocean, thus deteriorating the overall marine ecosystem, thereby reducing oxygen production in the ocean, which has a direct impact on climate change. composition of solid waste figure 2: flow chart: composition of solid waste solid waste management by dhaka city corporation dhaka north city corporation and dhaka south city corporation do the following for solid waste management in dhaka city 1. dhaka north city corporation and dhaka south city corporation sweeps highways, roads, and drains daily. 2. they collect waste from houses and roadsides 3, the cleaners of dhaka north city corporation and dhaka south city corporation collect the waste and transfer it to the nearest dustbin or container. 4. trucks of dhaka north city corporation and dhaka south city corporation dump solid waste at the dumping depot. 5. finally, solid waste is dressed by bulldozers, tiredozers, pay-loaders, and excavators. impact of solid waste disposal on environment 1. open-air dumping creates an unsanitary environment and poses a great threat to human beings and causes environmental problems and nuisance due to the nauseating strong smell. 2. the situation is worsened by the indiscriminate disposal of hospital and clinical waste, which encourages the spread of disease. 3. due to solid waste disposal in the environment, there are very high levels of total and facial coliforms. moreover, it pollutes water bodies. 4. solid waste produces carbon dioxide and methane gas, and these gases are produced in landfills through aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds, which pose a threat to the environment. education level of the solid waste workers by the questionnaire survey of this work, the education level of solid waste workers in dhaka city, bangladesh is given in the table below: table 1: education level of the respondent (found from questionnaire survey) education level of the workers percentage(%) uneducated 15% primary school pass 40% under ssc pass 35% ssc pass 06% hsc pass 02% hsc pass to under graduate 02% total 100% the table shows that the percentage of uneducated people is about 15%, primary school pass is about 40%, under ssc pass is about 35%, ssc pass 06%, hsc pass 02%, and hsc pass to undergraduate is about 02%. we can understand the condition from the figure below: figure 3: education level of the respondent https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 process of household waste management figure 4: process of household waste management evaluation of household waste collection system the household waste collection involves many aspects. the perception of what is important depends on stakeholders, such as waste management companies, local authorities, national environmental protection agencies, waste researchers, environmentalists, and the public; and they all have different perspectives. there are several reasons for evaluating waste collection systems. figure 5: reasons for evaluating the function of waste collection systems assessment of collection systems depends on system boundaries and will always be site-specific to some degree. however, it is possible to significantly improve comparability through stratified investigations and the use of simple, consistent indicators. solid waste generation in dhaka city of bangladesh 2023: 7500 tons/day (prothomalo.2022) 2032: 8500 tons/day (prothomalo.2022) 2040: 10000 tons/day (estimated) 2050: 12000 tons/day (estimated) potential sources of waste there are many possible sources of waste generation and some of them are explained herecommercial sources commercial sources are a huge source of waste generation. commercial sources refer to various industries such as garments, pharmaceutical companies, hospitals and other industries. mainly used by various industries as massive chimeric sulfuric acid, chromium, ammonium sulfate, ammonium chloride and calcium oxide. the waste may contain chromium salts and/ or tannic acid. manufacturers also use pesticides and fungicides. metallurgical and non-metallic industries can generate solid waste containing some types of heavy metals. the odors from those factories or dust emitted from furnaces can often contain some amount of heavy metals so if the dust is not disposed of properly, the dust will also be a source of soil pollution. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 pharmaceutical industries and hospitals generate three types of waste1. infectious waste(organs, blood and blood products, body parts, pathological tissues, human excreta, placenta, body fluids, culture materials from laboratories, and other infectious materials.) 2. sharp waste(intravenous set, saw, scalpel, syringes, needles, broken glass, blades, nails, and sharps generated from support service, etc.) 3. non-infectious waste(radioactive waste, waste contaminated with cytotoxic drugs, leftover cytotoxic drugs, and expired medicines.) domestic waste domestic waste is another major source of solid waste which includes paper, vegetable peels, onion seed casings, broken plastics, cobwebs, soil and dust, yarn scraps, animal mouths, grass, used shoes, cloth scraps, bottles, glass, used items, fused bulbs, blades, razors, tooth paste tubes, car parts, etc. hospitals and clinical waste there are probably more than 800 clinics and hospitals in dhaka city and they are generating massive amounts of waste every day. since clinic and hospital wastes contain toxic and infectious substances, they are more unsafe than other types of waste. all types of medical waste are dumped in dhaka city municipal dustbins, resulting in the easy spread of diseases. tanning waste tanning waste is another type of industrial waste, which is dangerously polluting the environment of dhaka city. there are probably more than 200 tanning industries in the hazaribagh area of dhaka city, bangladesh. tannery waste contains chromium, sulfate, ammonium, calcium, ammonium chloride, and sulfuric acid which have a negative impact on the ecosystem, groundwater, and surface water of dhaka city. environmental benefits of waste recycling a healthy environment is an essential condition for all living things and waste management is essential for a healthy environment. waste management is a process that includes collection, transportation, processing, recycling or disposal and monitoring of waste materials. waste management practices involve the processing of waste materials for the purpose of producing new products. recycling waste reduces air, water, and land pollution, it also limits the need for new natural resources such as wood, petroleum, fiber, and other materials. reducing waste is one way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which are a contributing factor to global warming. recycling waste will help reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing the energy required to make products from raw materials. reducing emissions from incinerators and landfills. recycling solid waste can eliminate air, water, and land pollution. recycling, employment, and finalcial benefit wastes are not only a great source of investment but they can also play a huge role in employment by creating huge employment opportunities. waste recycling will help us reach a sustainable solution and develop our entrepreneurial activism but we need to start the waste management process at the micro level, i.e. at the community level. the unemployment problem is a crucial issue for dhaka city and waste recycling is the best solution for it because it will provide us with three major details, financial benefits, employment, and recycled products. elimination of environmental problem the following measures should be taken to eliminate environmental problems: 1. increasing door-to-door collection facilities in all areas and ensuring regularity in the collection and transportation of solid waste from households, bins, and primary dumping stations. 2. raising awareness to collect waste from households and reduce solid waste generation. 3. apply appropriate environmental laws in bangladesh. 4. transport solid waste at night instead of during the day. if it is transported during the day, use a cover on the waste transport vehicle to reduce odor pollution and other related problems. 5. increase wages and safety of workers working in solid waste management systems. collected solid waste items from dhaka city of bangladesh it is impossible for the author of this paper to collect all the solid waste items of dhaka city, but a total sample of 25.21 kg of solid waste items was collected to get an idea of the current situation of this city. table 2: collected solid waste items item name weight(kg) percentage of total weight coin 0.035 0.14% rope 0.045 0.18% paper 4.5 17.85% cloth 3.7 14.68% foam 0.03 0.12% food 8.5 33.72% plastic 1.2 4.76% tissue 0.9 3.57% rubber 0.03 0.12% cast iron(metal) 0.5 1.98% polythene 3.5 13.88% head phone 0.015 0.06% glass 0.19 0.75% packet 0.5 1.98% hangers 0.015 0.06% plastic rope 0.8 3.17% coffee cup 0.75 2.98% total 25.21 100% https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 table 2 shows that, the total weight of the coin is 0.035 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 0.14%. the total weight of the rope is 0.045 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 0.18%. the total weight of the paper is 4.5 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 17.85%. the total weight of the cloth is 3.7 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 14.68%. the total weight of the foam is 0.03 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 0.12%. the total weight of the food is 8.5 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 33.72%. the total weight of the plastic is 1.2 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 4.76%. the total weight of the tissue is 0.9 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 3.57%. the total weight of the rubber is 0.03 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 0.12%. the total weight of the cast iron(metal) is 0.5 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 1.98%. the total weight of the polythene is 3.5 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 13.88%. the total weight of the head phone is 0.015 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 0.06%. the total weight of the glass is 0.19 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 0.75%. the total weight of the packet is 0.5 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 1.98%. the total weight of the hangers is 0.015 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 0.06%. the total weight of the plastic rope is 0.8 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 3.17%. the total weight of the coffee cup is 0.75 kg and its percentage of the total weight is 2.98%. we can understand the status of table 2 from the figure below: discussion of organic, inorganic and hazardous items a discussion of organic, inorganic, and hazardous items is given in the table below. from the collected solid waste items, table 3 shows the total weight and percentage of the total weight of organic, inorganic, and hazardous items. table 3 shows that the total weight of organic items is 13.94 kg, the total weight of inorganic items is 10.75 kg, and the total weight of hazardous items is 0.545 kg. this table also shows that the total percentage of the weight of organic items is 55.3%, the total percentage of the weight of inorganic items is 42.5%, and the total percentage of the weight of hazardous items is 2.2%. we can understand the status of table 3 from the figure below: figure 6: collected solid waste items with percentages table 3: organic, inorganic and hazardous items organic inorganic hazardous weight(kg) item weight(kg) item weight(kg) 8.5 plastic 1.2 head phone 0.015 4.5 rubber 0.03 cast iron(metal) 0.5 0.9 coin 0.035 foam 0.03 0.045 cloth 3.7 polythene 3.5 glass 0.19 packet 0.5 hangers 0.015 plastic rope 0.8 coffee cup 0.75 total weight 13.94 10.72 0.545 % of weight 55.3% 42.5% 2.2% https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 table 4 shows the discussion of the 3r application. here it shows that the total weight of reducible items is 0.08 kg and its percentage of weight is 0.31%. again it shows that the total weight of reusable items is 8.23 kg and its percentage of weight is 32.65%. moreover, it also shows that the total weight of recyclable items is 16.9 kg and its percentage of weight is 67.04%. we can understand the status of table 4 of the 3r application from the figure below: figure 7: percentage of weight of organic, inorganic and hazardous items table 4: 3r application reducible reusable recyclable item weight(kg) item weight(kg) item weight(kg) coin 0.035 paper 4.5 food 8.5 rope 0.045 cloth 3.7 plastic 1.2 foam 0.03 tissue 0.9 rubber 0.03 cast iron(metal) 0.5 polythene 3.5 head phone 0.015 discussion of 3r application a discussion of the 3r application is given in the table below. figure 8: bar chart of 3r application. discussion of energy analysis a discussion of the energy analysis is given in the table below according to energy content, table 5 shows that food energy is 4652 kj/kg and energy available from food is 39542 kilojoules. plastic energy is 32564 kj/kg and energy available from plastic is 39077 kilojoules. paper energy is 16747.2 kj/kg and energy available from paper is 75362 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 kilojoules. rubber energy is 23260 kj/kg and energy available from rubber is 698 kilojoules. cloth energy is 17445 kj/kg and energy available from cloth is 64547 kilojoules. cast iron(metal) energy is 697.8 kj/kg and energy available from cast iron(metal) is 349 kilojoules. glass energy is 139.56 kj/kg and energy available from glass is 27 kilojoules. dirt’s energy is 6978 kj/kg and energy available from dirt is 45426.78 kilojoules. finally, the total energy obtained from 25.21 kg solid waste items of dhaka city is 265029 kilojoules. discussion of energy content in percentage a discussion of the energy content in percentage is given in the table below. table 6: percentage of energy content percentage of energy content material types according to energy content total energy (kilojoules) percentage of energy content energy content food 39542 14.92% plastic 39077 14.74% paper 75362 28.44% rubber 698 0.26% cloth 64547 24.36% cast iron(metal) 349 0.13% glass 27 0.01% dirt’s 45426.78 17.14% total 265029 100% table 5: energy analysis energy analysis material types according to energy content energy (kj/kg) total energy (kilojoules) food 4652 39542 [calculation: 4652×8.5=39542] plastic 32564 39077 paper 16747.2 75362 rubber 23260 698 cloth 17445 64547 cast iron(metal) 697.8 349 glass 139.56 27 dirt’s (e.g. foam, tissue, polythene, head phone, packet, hangers, plastic rope, coffee cup) 6978 45426.78 total 265029 in terms of energy content, table 6 shows that the energy content of food is 14.92%. the energy content of plastic is 14.74%. the energy content of the paper is 28.44%. the energy content of rubber is 0.26%. the energy content of cloth is 24.36%. the energy content of cast iron(metal) is 0.13%. the energy content of the glass is 0.01%. the energy content of dirt is 17.14%. we can understand the status of table 6 of the percentage of energy content from the figure below: figure 9: bar chart of the percentage of energy content https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 electricity generation from solid waste by generating electricity from solid waste, we will be able to simultaneously meet the demand for electricity, as well as accelerate the speed of proper solid waste management in dhaka city of bangladesh. this paper believes that it is possible to establish this power plant through the combined efforts of engineers. this paper proposes below the main methods of electricity/power generation from solid waste. h) transmission line: finally, this electricity generated from solid waste can be delivered directly to consumers through transmission lines. advantages of electricity generation from solid waste there are several advantages of generating electricity from solid waste and some of them are discussed below. i. it will reduce the amount of waste: incinerators can reduce the amount of waste by up to 95% and can reduce the solid content of the original waste by 8085% depending on the composition of the solid waste. (conserve energy future. 2023) in this way, generating electricity from solid waste will reduce the amount of waste in dhaka city. ii. it will create an efficient waste management: power generation from solid waste will create an efficient waste management in dhaka city. iii. it will reduce groundwater pollution: usually, solid waste from dhaka city is dumped on land, and the land releases toxic chemicals into the water table below, thus contaminating the groundwater system. if this solid waste is used for power generation in dhaka city, land pollution and groundwater pollution will definitely be reduced. iv. the functional material is recyclable after generating electricity: metals will remain intact when incinerators burn solid waste to generate electricity because they have high melting points. after the waste incineration process is completed, power plant workers will remove the remaining metal and recycle it. the remaining ash can be used for construction or other purposes. v. it will create a beautiful waste-free city: if we use solid waste for power generation in dhaka city, most of the solid waste will be used for power generation. this will reduce the solid waste of this city and create a beautiful waste-free dhaka city. there are many other benefits of generating electricity from solid waste which cannot be summarized. disadvantages of electricity generation from solid waste there are several disadvantages of generating electricity from solid waste and some of them are discussed below: i. it is wasteful to burn waste: solid waste is made up of materials such as glass, paper, and plastic, and burning these valuable materials to generate electricity discourages resource conservation efforts. after incineration of solid waste, it will generate waste again. ii. waste is not a viable fuel: to generate only a small amount of energy to produce electricity would waste a large amount of recyclable materials. so it is more profitable to produce recycle product than to produce electricity from solid waste. iii. if we burn waste to generate electricity, the waste will produce toxic emissions: if waste is burned to generate electricity, it will be very dangerous for the environment of dhaka city because even the most advanced technology will pollute the environment. figure 8: a flow process for electricity generation all the waste materials that are collected should be brought to the waste department. then there are mainly two types of waste to be classified; solid waste (dry) and solid waste (wet). a) solid waste(dry): the dry solid waste will go directly to the blast furnace. b) solid waste(wet): wet-type solid waste will pass through a pre-heater section and reduce its moisture content. thus most of the daily dumped waste will be used to reduce its moisture content. c) pre-heater: a pre-heater is a device used to heat the waste material before entering the blast furnace. it will basically dry the wet solid waste. d) blast furnace: the blast furnace will essentially act as the heating part of the process and in this part, the waste materials will be burned to produce a temperature that will heat the boiler and generate steam. e) boiler: normal-temperature water in the boiler section will be heated by the temperature generated by the blast furnace and then steam will be produced. this steam will be used to rotate the turbine. f) turbine: a turbine is a continuous power generation machine in which a wheel, usually mounted on a vane, is made to rotate by a high-speed flow of water, steam, gas, or air. the turbine must be connected to a generator to produce electricity. g) generator: usually, the speed of the turbine is used in a generator to generate electricity. hence, a generator is mainly a machine for converting mechanical energy into electricity. mainly electricity will be generated in this part. (abdur, jannati, jannatun. 2019) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 23-32, 2023 iv. burning waste will contribute to climate change in dhaka city: incinerators actually emit more co2 than natural gas-fired, oil-fired, or even coal-fired power plants. (zero waste europe. 2018) excess co2 gas will lead to climate change in dhaka city. v. the power plant will generate ash, flue gas and excess heat: converting waste materials to power generation will generate ash, flue gas, and excess heat in dhaka city and will worsen the overall environmental condition of the city. there are many other disadvantages of generating electricity from solid waste and specific new research is needed to elaborate the disadvantages. conclusion in dhaka city of bangladesh, we dream of a clean and tidy city and the waste recycling process can make these dreams come true. but not only in bangladesh, it is not possible for the government of any country to shoulder all the responsibilities alone. we, the people of this city, must work together to share this responsibility. dhaka north city corporation and dhaka south city corporation have started organizing their own waste collection services to keep their areas clean. both city corporations started their work based on their community planning system. waste is collected from households and taken to municipal roadside containers. community-run door-to-door waste collection services are gaining momentum in the capital dhaka city and are gradually expanding into a larger environmental movement. we can save our environment and ultimately benefit through concerted efforts. recycling waste also reduces greenhouse gas emissions. recycled waste helps reduce energy requirements for new products and reduces carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. that’s why we need to be more proactive in recycling waste and help increase environmental benefits for future generations. there are both advantages and disadvantages of generating electricity from solid waste. so dhaka city or any other city in the world should do proper research before generating electricity from solid waste, then proceed to generate electricity. it is true that we need electricity, but our environment and our planet earth are the first priority. waste management is a matter of new attention because this problem is very evident in dhaka city of our country. further research is needed in the future to find ways to overcome the problems arising from improper solid waste management in dhaka city, bangladesh. acknowledgement i am grateful to my students aador muhammad hossain and mashrur areeb risan for helping me in collecting data for this research paper. i would like to thank m. a. naimul islam, who graduated from the department of electrical and electronic engineering, university of chittagong, (email: noiem0409@gmail.com), bangladesh for his kind support with the knowledge of electricity generation in this research paper. i would also like to thank md. masud alom, assistant professor, department of civil engineering of daffodil international university, bangladesh for his kind advice to complete this research paper. references abdur r., jannati n. n., jannatun n. i. and shahinur h., sadat r.. (2019). waste to energy: an approach to generate electricity by solid waste incineration in rajshahi city, bangladesh. international conference on mechanical engineering and renewable energy 2019 (icmere2019). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/350873906_waste_to_energy_an_ approach_to_generate_electricity_by_solid_waste_ incineration_in_rajshahi_city_bangladesh/citations (open educational resource) akter, s., howladar, m. f., ahmed, z., chowdhury, t. r., & shahnewaz sayem, s. m. (2022). assessing the climatic influence on river in bangladesh: in perspective of morphology and discharge of surma river. american journal of environment and climate, 1(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.181 conserve energy future (2023). various advantages and disadvantages of waste incineration. https:// www.conserve-energy-future.com/advantages-anddisadvantages-incineration.php course hero (2021). https://www.coursehero.com/ f i le/105380165/waste-managementsystem-in-dhaka-citydocx/ colorado (2020). environmental center waste and its contribution to climate change. university of colorado. https://www.colorado.edu/ecenter/2020/12/10/ waste-and-its-contribution-climate-change islam, f. s. (2016). solid waste management system in dhaka city of bangladesh. journal of modern science and technology, 4(1), 192-209. https://zantworldpress. com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/17.-samiul.pdf (a previous study by the same author of this paper.). prothomalo (2022). what is the future of the waste management master plan? retrieved on march 21, 2022. https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/city/ what-is-the-future-of-the-waste-management-masterplan richard kwame, a., mulala danny, s., & memory,. r. (2022). the threats of climate change on water and food security in south africa. american journal of environment and climate, 1(2), 73–91. https://doi. org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.568 wikipedia (2022). waste management in bangladesh. retrieved on march, 2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/waste_management_in_bangladesh zero waste europe ( 2018). 9 reasons why we better move away from waste-to-energy, and embrace zero waste instead. retrieved on february 9, 2018. https://zerowasteeurope.eu/2018/02/9-reasonswhy-we-better-move-away-from-waste-to-energyand-embrace-zero-waste-instead/ https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajebi pa ge 1 pa ge 30 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) magnitude of anemia and its associated factors among pregnant women in jowhar district, somalia sharmarke burhan taste1*, nurezeman gali1, dessalegn tamiru1 volume 1 issue 3, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.832 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 25, 2022 accepted: december 22, 2022 published: december 26, 2022 globally, anemia affected 1.62 billion people; of these, 56 million anemia cases were found in pregnant women. anemia is a global public health problem that affects both developing and industrialized countries with major consequences of social and economic burdens. this study set out to determine the prevalence of anemia and its associated factors among pregnant women attending antenatal care at public hospitals in jowhar district, south somalia. a total of 376 study respondents were included in the study. structured questionnaires and laboratory investigation was used to collect data. data were analyzed using binary and multivariable logistic regression. the significance of the association was declared at a p-value < 0.05. the overall prevalence of anemia was 53.1%. most of the participants were mild anemic (36.53%). the mean hemoglobin concentration of pregnant women was 10.7 ± 2.0 g/dl. in second trimester of pregnancy (aor=0.32, 95%ci=0.12-0.83), taking meal less than two times per day (aor=4.80, 95%ci=1.41-16.36), rare meat (aor= 43.07, 95%ci=2.56-73.50) and fruit (aor= 6.01, 95%ci= 1.05-34.33) consumption and lack of iron folic supplementation (aor= 10.06, 95%ci= 1.51-67.05) were significantly associated with anemia among pregnant women. findings indicated that more than half (53.1%) of the pregnant women were anemic, which is a severe public health problem according to who classifications. therefore, the federal ministry of health and its counterpart in hirshabelle state should work together to tackle anemia through nutrition education and folic iron supplementation. keywords maternal anemia, pregnant health, jowhar district, south somalia 1 department of nutrition and dietetics, jimma university, ethiopia * corresponding author’s e-mail: dr.sharmab143@gmail.com introduction centers for disease control and prevention (cdc) and the world health organization (who) defined anemia as a hemoglobin concentration of less than 11 g/dl (who, 2011; alemayehu et al., 2016). according to who classifications, anemia in a pregnant woman is categorized as severe, moderate, and mild if the blood hemoglobin concentration is <7 g/dl, 7 to 9.9 g/dl, and 10.0 to 10.9 g/ dl, respectively (mihiretie. et al. 2015; who, 2017). the world health organization classified the burden of anemia as a problem of public health based on its prevalence among the population in a particular area and anemia is considered as a public health problem if its prevalence is 5% or greater (who, 2017; de benoist b. et al. 1993). although both males and females of all ages can be affected by anemia, pregnant women and young children are the most vulnerable groups due to an increment of iron requirement (alemayehu, a. 2016; fidler, 2017). according to who estimations, currently, the prevalence of anemia among pregnant women is 41.8% and african pregnant women account for 61.3%. studies showed that sub-saharan african countries are highly affected by anemia and the prevalence of anemia among pregnant women is estimated at 17.2 million which is almost 30% of all global cases (mclean, erin, et al. 2009). various studies have confirmed that anemia in pregnant women is still one of the most serious unsolved public health issues in developing countries, owing to a variety of socio-cultural challenges such as illiteracy, poverty, lack of awareness, cultural and non-secular taboos, poor dietary habits and a high parasitic infestation (karaoglu, leyla, et al. 2010). anemia is an indicator of both poor nutrition and healthcare services (who, 2017). anemia during pregnancy is liable for increased fetomaternal morbidity and mortality and a high risk of lbw, which will continue into subsequent generations (alemayehu, a. et al. 2017; who, 2017). anemia contributes to 20% of maternal mortality worldwide. maternal anemia is related to a twofold and threefold increased risk for pre-term delivery and delivery of an lbw infant, respectively. the economic loss because of anemia, specifically iron deficiency anemia, is estimated at approximately $2.32 per capita or 0.6 % of gross domestic product (gdp); this figure even rises to $16.78 per capita or 4.05% of gdp if cognitive losses are considered. (klemm r. et al 2010) appropriate diagnosis and treatment of anemia are capable of restoring personal health and raising national productivity levels by a maximum amount of 20% (breda j. 2020). anemia in pregnancy has unfavorable implications for both the mother and the baby, including maternal morbidity and mortality, prenatal and postpartum child loss, and physical and cognitive loss. in the jowhar district of south somalia, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of anemia and its associated factors among pregnant women. methodology study setting facility-based cross-sectional study design was conducted https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.832 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 30-36, 2022 in jowhar district, south somalia from april 20 to june 01, 2021. jowhar district was bordered by jalalaqsi and bulobarde districts to the north, adale district to the west, and bal’ad to the south. it has an estimated population of 269,851. jowhar district is located at a distance of 90 km from mogadishu, the capital of somalia. in the jowhar district, there are two public hospitals that offer a full range of comprehensive health services. source and study population all pregnant women attending antenatal care clinics at public hospitals in jowhar district were considered as the source population, while selected pregnant women who were attending antenatal care from april 20 to june 01, 2021, were the study population. sample size and sampling procedure single proportion formula was used to calculate the sample size, and the following assumptions were considered: the prevalence of anemia in the jowhar district was 50% and 10% non-response. then, 384 sample sizes were calculated. as the number of pregnant women in the study area was 3200, the correction calculation was used, and the final sample size was 376. the sampling frame was prepared by using pregnant women’s registration forms from the hospitals. simple random sampling was used to select the final respondents to give them an equal chance of being selected for the study. data collection procedures pre-tested structured interviewer-administered questionnaires were used. the questionnaire was adapted from different literature, and it was initially prepared in english and then translated into somalia language. the interview was conducted by trained bsc nurses, and the response of each pregnant woman to every question was recorded on the questionnaire as per the pre-determined instructions. following the completion of the interview of each pregnant woman, they were requested to give blood and stool specimens for the hematological and parasitological examinations, respectively. the laboratory investigation was conducted after the necessary specimen was collected. a stool specimen examination was performed within 30 minutes. two slides were prepared from each stool specimen using direct wet-mount and formol-ether concentration techniques. the slides were examined by two senior laboratory technicians using 10x and 40x microscopic objectives (cheesbrough, m. 2005). thick and thin blood films were prepared by collecting blood from a finger prick and stained with giemsa stains. the thick blood film provides enhanced sensitivity to the blood film technique and is used to detect low levels of parasitemia. the thin blood film was fixed with methanol and stained with diluted giemsa-stain using buffered water at ph 7.2 to emphasize the parasite inclusions in the rbc (trivedi nd, 2010). hemoglobin (hgb) concentration was determined by hemocue hb 201+ analyzer (hemocue, angelholm, sweden). the blood sample was collected by finger pricking after rubbing the fingertip with sterile cotton (immersed in 70% alcohol), and pricking it with a sterile disposable lancet. a drop of blood was allowed to enter the optical window of the micro cuvette through capillary action. the microcuvette was placed into the cuvette holder for photometric determination of hemoglobin level. then, the concentration of hemoglobin level was quantitatively determined in g/dl (nkrumah b, 2014). in this study, pregnant women were considered as anemic if the hb concentration was <11 g/dl. then, anemia is defined as mild, moderate, and severe if the hb concentration is 10-10.9 g/dl, 79.9 g/dl, and less than 7 g/dl, respectively (2). data quality control the questionnaire was translated into somali language and then back into english to detect any discrepancies. the hemocue photometer (hemocue201+) was calibrated before taking any sample. the precision of hemocue was repeatedly checked. standard operating procedures (sops) were followed for all laboratory analyses. data processing and analysis data were coded, and entered into epidata version 3.1, and then checked for completeness and consistency. the data was exported to spss version 26 for analysis. descriptive analyses such as frequency and mean were performed to summarize the findings of the data. the kolmogorovsmirnov test was done to check the normality of the data distribution. the relationship between anemia and independent variables were investigated through bivariate analysis. in bivariate analysis, variables with a p-value < 0.20 were selected as candidates for multivariable logistic regression analysis to identify significantly associated variables with anemia and control confounding variables. multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed by the entry method and model fitness was confirmed by the hosmer-lemeshow test. frequency tables and charts, odds ratios, p-values, and 95% confidence intervals were used to present the results univariate, bivariate, and multivariable logistic regression analyses. for all statistical tests, a p-value<0.05 was considered statistically significant. results the mean age of the respondents was 25.78 (±5.3) years, and 128 (34.1%) of respondents were in the age group 21-25 years. the majority (320) of the interviewed women were married (85.3%) and urban dwellers (251, 66.9%). more than one-third (39.7%) of respondents could not read and write. the majority of respondents were housewives (218, 58.1%). one hundred sixty (42.7%) participants were in the second trimester. it was also found that 151 (40.3%) of the respondents had a history of bleeding during the current pregnancy (table 1). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 30-36, 2022 table 1: socio-demographic and obstetric characteristics of pregnant women attending antenatal care in jowhar district, south somalia, 2021. characteristics categories total percent (%) age 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 ≥36 76 128 121 32 18 20.3 34.1 32.3 8.5 4.8 residence urban rural 251 124 66.9 33.1 mothers’ education unable to read and write primary education (1-8) secondary level and above 149 134 94 39.7 35.7 24.5 marital status married unmarried 320 55 85.3 14.7 trimester first trimester second trimester third trimester 124 160 91 33.1 42.7 24.3 gravidity <3 >3 365 10 97.3 2.7 birth interval <24 months >24 months 217 158 57.9 42.1 blood loss during pregnancy yes no 151 224 40.3 59.7 prolonged menstruation yes no 91 284 24.3 75.7 history of abortion yes no 114 261 30.4 9.6 mothers’ occupation house-wife employed student servant 218 67 22 68 58.1 17.9 5.9 18.1 income availability yes no 148 227 39.5 60.5 almost half (49.1%) of the respondents ate meals thrice daily. more than half of the pregnant women (176, 49.7%) took meat every other day. about one hundred sixty-six (48.8%) of pregnant women ate vegetables every other day. most respondents (184, 64.1%) said they drink tea after every meal, and 97 (45.1%) drink coffee after every meal. most of the respondents attended anc greater than two times (67.7%). a large proportion of respondents (341, 90.9%) took iron supplements during their current pregnancy (table 2). table 2: dietary practice and anc service utilization characteristics of pregnant women attending antenatal care in jowhar district, south somalia, 2021. characteristics categories total percent (%) meal frequency per a day more than three times three times less than two times 99 184 92 26.4 49.1 24.5 meat frequency per a day everyday every other day once a week once a month 81 176 77 20 22.9 49.7 21.8 5.6 vegetables frequency everyday every other day once a week once a month 127 166 39 8 37.4 48.8. 11.5 2.4 fruits eating frequency everyday every other day once a week once a month 124 105 52 26 40.4 34.2 16.9 8.5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 30-36, 2022 staple food injera and broth maize and beans spaghetti rice 88 161 31 95 23.5 42.9 8.3 25.3 frequency of drinking tea after every meal once a day every other day occasionally 184 67 19 17 64.1 23.3 6.6 5.9 frequency of drinking coffee after every meal once a day every other day occasionally 97 57 28 33 45.1 26.5 13.0 15.3 number of anc visit one >two 121 254 32.3 67.7 iron/folate yes 341 90.9 supplementation no 34 9.1 the findings of this study showed that the mean hb concentration of the study participants was 10.7 ± 2.0 g/ dl ranging from 6.5 g/dl to 15.6 g/dl. one hundred thirtyseven (36.53%) had mild anemia (hb<9.0-10.9g/dl and 61(16.3%) had moderate anemia. the leading parasitic infection among pregnant women in the area was giardia lamblia 171 (45.6%) followed by entamoeba histolytica 100 (26.7%). a large number of (61.1%) participants had a table 3: magnitude of anemia and other diseases among pregnant women attending antenatal care in jowhar district, south somalia, 2021 characteristics categories total percent (%) anemic not anemic mild anemia moderate anemia 176 137 61 46.93 36.53 16.3 parasitic infection giardia lamblia trichuris trichiura ascaris lumbricoides strongyloides stercoralis entamoeba histolytica hookworm hymenolepsis nane 171 9 72 3 100 17 3 45.6 2.4 19.2 0.8 26.7 4.5 0.8 malaria species plasmodium falciparum plasmodium vivax mixed (p.f+p.v) 129 97 17 53.1 39.9 7.0 known history of malaria attacks in the last year (table 3). findings of multivariate analysis showed being a second trimester (aor=0.32, 95%ci=0.12-0.83), taking meals less than two times (aor=4.80, 95%ci=1.41-16.36), poor meat (aor=43.07, 95%ci=2.56-73.50) and fruit consumption (aor=6.01, 95%ci=1.05-34.33), lack of iron folate supplementation (aor=10.06, 95%ci=1.5167.05) were significantly associated with maternal anemia (table 4). table 4: multivariable logistic regression analysis of factors associated with anemia among pregnant women attending antenatal care in jowhar district, south-somalia, 2021. characteristics category anemic not anemic cor(95% ci) aor(95% ci) p occupational status house-wife employed student servant 101(46.3) 45(67.2) 17(77.3) 36(52.9) 117(53.7) 22(32.8) 5(22.7) 32(47.1) 0.77(0.45-1.32) 1.82(0.91-3.65) 3.02(1.0-9.13) 1 1 1.52(0.35-6.87) 8.89(0.94-83.74) 1 0.588 0.056 marital status married unmarried 156(49.7) 20(36.4) 164(51.3) 35(63.6) 1.67(0.92-3.01) 1 2.91 (0.86-9.87) 1 0.087 educational status unable to read & write primary level secondary and above 76(51.0) 58(43.3) 65(70.7) 73(49.0) 76(56.7) 27(29.3) 0.43(0.25-0.75) 0.32(0.18-0.56) 1 0.55(0.12-2.45) 0.35(0.09-1.30) 1 0.434 0.116 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 34 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 30-36, 2022 trimester first second third 79(63.7) 66(41.3) 54(59.3) 45(36.3) 94(58.8) 37(40.7) 1 0.40(0.245-0.65) 0.83(0.46-1.45) 1 0.32(0.12-0.83) 1.10(0.39=-3.08) 0.019 0.850 history of intestinal parasites yes no 139(60.7) 90(39.3) 60(41.1) 86(58.9) 2.21 (1.45-3.38) 1 1.27(0.50-3.23) 1 0.617 bleeding during pregnancy yes no 64(42.4) 135(60.3) 87(57.6) 89(39.7) 2.06 (1.36-3.14) 1 2.15(0.74-6.24) 1 0.161 history of abortion yes no 49(43.0) 150(57.5) 65(57.0) 111(42.5) 1.79(1.15-2.80) 1 0.55(0.18-1.68) 1 0.291 number of meals per day >3 times per day three times per day <2 times per day 83(83.8) 90(48.9) 26(28.3) 16(16.2) 94(51.1) 66(71.7) 1 13.17(6.5,26.56) 2.43(1.42-4.16) 1 30.12(7.05, 28.6) 4.80(1.41-16.36) 0.000 0.012 meat consumption everyday every other day once a week once a month 31(38.3) 103(58.5) 40(51.9) 15(75.0) 50(61.7) 73(41.5) 37(48.1) 5(25.0) 1 2.28 (1.33-3.90) 1.74(0.93-3.28) 4.84(1.60-14.64) 1 3.27 (1.18-9.12) 1.80 (0.52-6.19) 43.07(2.56-73.5) 0.023 0.353 0.009 vegetables consumption everyday every other day once a week once a month 56(44.1) 100(60.2) 24(61.5) 5(62.5) 71(55.9) 66(39.8) 15(38.5) 3(37.5) 1 1.92(1.20-3.07) 2.03(0.97-4.23) 2.11 (0.48-9.22) 1 0.86(0.33-2.28) 0.41(0.07-2.39) 2.50(0.11-58.73) 0.767 0.320 0.569 frequency of eating fruits everyday every other day once a week once a month 73(58.9) 49(46.7) 31(59.6) 21(80.8) 51(41.1) 56(53.3) 21(40.4) 5(19.2) 1 0.61(0.36-1.03) 1.03(0.53-1.99) 2.93(1.04-8.29) 1 0.58(0.22-1.54) 0.98 (0.32-3.03) 6.01(1.05-34.33) 0.276 0.977 0.044 tea drinking after meal after every meal once a day every other day occasionally 73(39.7) 35(52.2) 10(52.6) 12(70.6) 111(60.3) 32(47.8) 9(47.4) 5(29.4) 1 1.66(0.95-2.92) 1.689(0.66-4.36) 3.65(1.23-10.79) 1 1.95(0.80-4.78) 0.71(0.13-3.81) 2.36(0.50-11.11) 0.143 0.694 0.277 coffee drinking after meal after every meal once a day every other day occasionally 61(62.9) 9(15.8) 19(67.9) 17(51.5) 36(37.1) 48(84.2) 9(32.1) 16(48.5) 1.59(0.72-3.54) 0.18(0.07-0.47) 1.99(0.69-5.66) 1 iron/folate supplement yes no 175(51.3) 24(70.6) 166(48.7) 10(29.4) 1 8.28(1.057-4.91) 1 10.1(1.51-67.05) 0.017 previous delivery place health institution home 152(56.3) 47(44.8) 118(43.7) 58(55.2) 1.59(1.01-2.50) 1 1.01(0.40-2.55) 1 0.978 discussion the overall prevalence of anemia among pregnant women during this study was 53.1%. this finding is much higher than the national prevalence of anemia in pregnant women, which is 45.5% (wbg, 2016). however, this finding is lower compared to findings from mogadishu (84.3%) (bekele a, 2016) ethiopia (62.7%), algeria (76.5%) (coutinho gg, 2005), india (74.8%) (makhoul z. et al. 2012), eastern sudan (62.6%) (adam i. et al. 2005), niger delta and nigeria (66.7%) (isa a. et al 2012).this discrepancy could be due to the sociocultural and time gap differences. findings of this indicated that pregnant women in the second trimester were more likely to be anemic compared to the women in the first trimester. this finding is supported by previous studies conducted in ghana and india (mockenhaupt fp. et al. 2000; viveki rg. et al. 2012). furthermore, research conducted in malaysia, vietnam, and nepal discovered that a higher gestational age is linked to a higher risk of anemia. this could be 1= reference, cor=crude odds ratio and aor=adjusted odds ratio because of increment of demands and lowering mother’s blood’s iron binding capacity. the study also revealed that iron supplementation was significantly associated with anemia. pregnant women who did not take iron supplements during their pregnancies had a higher risk of having an anemic mother. different studies from ethiopia (addis alene k, 2014; gebre a, mulugeta a, 2015), uganda (ononge s. et al, 2014), nigeria (nwizu en. 2011), vietnam (aikawa r. et al 2005) and india (banerjee b. et al. 2009) revealed similar findings. the results of this study also showed that pregnant women who ate fewer than two meals per day were more anemic than those who ate more than three meals per day. this might be due to the fact that during pregnancy there is an increased energy and nutrient requirement. this finding is consistent with previous studies conducted in southern sudan and kenya, which found that pregnant women who consumed ≥3 meals/ day were less anemic (ndegwa sk. 2019; fan fs, 2016; ghose b. et al. 2016). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 30-36, 2022 consumption of meat was significantly associated with anemia among the pregnant women. pregnant women who were rarely consuming meat were more highly exposed to anemia compared pregnant mothers who frequently consumed meat. studies have also demonstrated that eating meat significantly reduces the risk of developing anemia since meat and meat products are healthy dietary sources of iron (obse n. et al. 2013). this study also revealed that eating fruit was substantially linked to preventing anemia. pregnant women who consumed fruits were less likely to develop anemia compared to their counterparts. additionally, studies from pakistan and turkey revealed a link between eating fruit twice a week or more and a lower incidence of anemia. studies have also shown that eating fruits and green leafy vegetables promotes non-heme iron absorption. these kinds of food provide nutrients such as ascorbic acid, which is required for non-heme iron absorption. conclusions findings of this study showed that more than half (53.1%) of the pregnant women were anemic in jowhar district which significantly associated with second trimester, meal frequency, meat and fruit consumption and folic iron supplementations. therefore, the minister of health of the federal government of somalia should closely work with both government and non-government organizations to tackle the problem of anemia among pregnant women by providing nutrition education and iron folic supplementation. limitation of the study this study has significant input in prevention of anemia and to create awareness as there is no study specifically in jowhar district as well as south somalia. however, it is difficult to say whether anemia came before or after the predisposing factors as the study design was crosssectional. additionally, we were unable to examine morphology assessment of rbcs, serum ferritin, folate, or cobalamin 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(2011). haemoglobin concentrations for the diagnosis of anaemia and assessment of severity. no. who/nmh/nhd/ mnm/11.1. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 23 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) antibacterial activity of cassava manihot esculenta leaves extract against escherichia coli neil john l. buendia1, angel lhi d. alcalde1*, rikka bianca j. condes1 volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.484 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 09, 2022 accepted: august 15, 2022 published: august 18, 2022 the purpose of this research is to determine the antibacterial activity of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaf extract against escherichia coli. the experiment involved the determination of plants, extraction using the maceration method, and antibacterial testing of the fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leave extracted with concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ethanol against the bacterial growth of (escherichia coli) and culture media using merck nutrient agar. a caliper was used to measure the size of (escherichia coli) growth in millimeters. the results showed that extracts of fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with ethanol concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% have antibacterial activity against escherichia coli. this study examined the efficacy of fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract against (escherichia coli) in the 18th and 24th hours. the mean of fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract is 4.4, which differs considerably from the mean of dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract, which is 3.9. the fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was the most potent therapy against (escherichia coli) in the 18th hour, according to the findings of this investigation. furthermore, at the 24th hour, the fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was the most potent therapy against (escherichia coli). fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract has a mean of 4.4, which differs significantly from dried (manihot esculenta) leaves extract, which has a mean of 3.9. according to the findings of this study’s testing, the 20 percent concentration of fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with an average of 5.75 was the most active treatment against (escherichia coli). it has been proposed that cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves could be turned into standardized antibacterial herbal. future research should investigate the effects of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves used as an antibacterial agent on human health. keywords escherichia coli. manihot esculenta, leaves extract, antibacterial, cassava 1 notre dame of midsayap college, midsayap, cotabato, philippines. * corresponding author’s e-mail: delacruzangellhi@gmail.com introduction plants have long been utilized to treat people and are now recognized as a source of medicine in conventional health care systems (meilawaty et al., 2019). according to recent research (shah et al., 2013), some indigenous plants offer interesting biological features that may be of interest to people all over the world. the plants include medicinal compounds, antibiotics, and microbial components that can benefit people. many ancient herbal uses are being investigated as potential sources of natural components for novel medications. people have known for a long time that some plant-based medications can treat ailments and kill microorganisms. many plant parts used in traditional medicine can be found in rural regions for about the same price as contemporary treatment. rural locations have more medicine and it is less expensive than in cities. plants produce a large number of secondary metabolites, which are essential sources of microbicides, pesticides, and many pharmaceuticals. pharmaceutical substances used in traditional medicine are still primarily derived from plants. people are getting increasingly interested in a variety of traditional organic components. e. coli lives and grows in the gastrointestinal tracts of many animals, including humans (clevelandclinic, 2020) the majority of the time, this bacteria is absolutely harmless. it aids in the digestion of food. however, these are e. coli strains that could enter a human’s stomach and produce diarrhea, stomach ache, cramps, and a low-grade fever. natural resources from the philippines are extensively used in everyday life as a culinary item in tropical countries. cassava leaves can be used to treat ulcers, rheumatism, gout, diarrhea, fever, headache, night blindness, intestinal worms, and “beriberi” disease, in addition to consuming them. furthermore, cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract demonstrated antibacterial activity against clinical isolates of staphylococcus epidermidis as well as propionibacterium acnes, and the findings of a related study indicated that cassava leaves extract was effective in treating pimple-causing bacteria. (mustarichie at. al., 2020) treatment for e. coli is entirely dependent on the administration of antibacterial agents, particularly antibiotics, which may result in more disease-causing germs, new strains of microbial resistance to antibiotics, and even renal failure. as a result, it is critical to seek out alternative methods of assistance, one of which is the usage of herbal plants, notably the cassava plant, which has phytochemical qualities such as flavonoid and rutin e. coli diagnosis and treatment mayo clinic, 2020). flavonoids, according to (kumar & pandey, 2013), are a class of plant metabolites that are hypothesized to have antioxidant and antibacterial properties via cell pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 23-30, 2022 signaling pathways. flavonoids are powerful antioxidants that promote a variety of health benefits. aside from antioxidant action, these compounds have anti-viral, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic properties. rutin, on the other hand, is a pigment and a strong bioflavonoid component found in the cassava plant that is responsible for its antibacterial properties (ullah et al., 2020). there hasn’t been a lot of research done on the usefulness of cassava leaf extract as a treatment for disease-causing bacteria. this study compares the antibacterial activity of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract against s. epidermidis and p. acnes (mustarichie et al., 2020). as a result, our study to assess the antibacterial activity of cassava leaf extract is both contemporary and pertinent. the study examined and assessed the effectiveness of fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with ethanol concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% in inhibiting the growth size of (escherichia coli). finally, the goal of this study was to give scientific evidence that cassava (manihot esculenta) leaf extract has the ability to treat germs (escherichia coli). what is cassava (manihot esculenta)? cassava is a tuberous food plant that is native to the tropics of the american continent. it is a member of the spurge family (euphorbiaceae) and is also known as manioc, mandioca, and yuca. according to the research, the cassava leaf contains a high concentration of phytochemical components like tannins, alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, and saponins (babalola & ahmed, 2005). the leaves of the cassava plant were the source of these antibacterial and antioxidant chemicals. cassava leaf extract was studied for its potential antibacterial effects against staphylococcus epidermidis and propionibacterium acnes mustarichie et al. (2021)the results of this study indicated that the cassava plant (manihot esculenta) had antibacterial activity against staphylococcus epidermidis as well as propionibacterium acnes. in addition, it was determined that ethanol extracts of cassava leaves had antibacterial activity against both of the bacteria that were tested, with ethyl acetate being the most active component of the extract. the treatment that was found to be most successful against staphylococcus epidermidis was a concentration of 5 percent with an average of 5.0. on the other hand, a concentration of 2.5 percent against propionibacterium acnes was found to be the most effective treatment. the average concentration was 4.1. according to (landers et al., 2012) antibiotic development leads to bacterial resistance due to a variety of circumstances. these circumstances include inappropriate antibiotic usage in human and animal health and their continuous use as growth promoters at sub-clinical levels in poultry and cattle production. in addition, improper antibiotic usage in human and animal health can lead to antibiotic resistance. this research looked at the effectiveness of an extract made from cassava leaves as an antibacterial agent in the treatment of diarrhea brought on by e. coli infections in both humans and animals. according to the findings of the study, the extract of cassava leaf was effective in treating diarrhea brought on by e. coli. similarly, a study that was carried out by saad et al. (2014) investigated the antibacterial efficacy of five medicinal plants against five clinical pathogens. these plants were moringa oleifera, cymbopogon citrates, cynodon dactylon, and manihot esculenta. plectranthus ambonicus was also included in this study (escherichia coli, klebsiella pneumonae, pseudomonas aeruginosa, staphylococcus aureus, and bacillus subtilis). it was shown that an extract of the leaves of the cassava plant (manihot esculenta) has antibacterial activity against five clinical isolates of pathogens. these pathogens included escherichia coli, klebsiella peumoniae, pseudomonas aeruginosa, staphylococcus aureus, and bacillus subtilis. however, research conducted by sari (d. b. 2019) evaluated the antibacterial activity of three different varieties of cassava leaf (manihot esculenta crantz.) against the germs bacillus cereus, shigella dysenteriae, and vibrio cholerea. maceration with varying concentrations of ethanol, a positive control, and negative control was used in an experiment to investigate the antibacterial properties of an ethanol extract of three different kinds of cassava leaves. based on the findings, it was determined that an ethanol extract of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves was the antibacterial substance that was the most efficient against bacillus cereus. what is escherichia coli? according to wikipedia, e. coli, sometimes known as escherichia coli, is a type of bacteria that can be found in people’s intestines (felson, 2020). it has also been found in the gastrointestinal tracts of other mammals. in addition to having food poisoning from e. coli, a person may develop pneumonia or a urinary tract infection. in fact, e. coli is the causal culprit in 75 to 95 percent of all instances of urinary tract infections. because e. coli is a common colon dweller, it frequently travels through the bowel to enter the urinary tract. several strains of e. coli have been related to diarrhea, including the kind that causes watery travelers’ diarrhea. antibiotics have been demonstrated to lessen the amount of time spent experiencing symptoms and may be recommended to people with moderately severe illnesses. inadequate antibiotic use may expedite the development of germs resistant to the drugs used to treat them. however, (riley, 2014) emphasized that extraintestinal pathogenic e. coli, the specialized strains of e. coli that cause the bulk of extraintestinal e. coli infections, pose a significant yet underappreciated hazard to public health. these e. coli strains cause the majority of extraintestinal e. coli infections. despite the fact that the roots of their evolution are unknown, e. coli has a unique ability to cause disease in places of the host body other than the intestinal tract. the many virulence characteristics pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 23-30, 2022 that e. coli possesses illustrate this potential. effective preventive interventions against the morbid and costly infections caused by e. coli may be possible if there is a better understanding of the existence and significance of e. coli, as well as the distinct virulence mechanisms, reservoirs, and transmission pathways associated with these bacteria. according to gomes et al. (2016) study, e. coli causes digestive diseases, the most prevalent of which is diarrhea. diarrhea is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in disadvantaged countries. hemorrhagic colitis is caused by e. coli cytotoxins or shiga-like toxins, which are responsible for the disease. it is currently relevant to public health since it is easily isolated from waste items left behind by humans and animals, both of which contribute to the pollution of the environment (hernadez-cortez et al., 2017). because of the frequency of food and water contamination in the environment, people, particularly newborns and the elderly, pose a substantial risk to their health. human and animal feces can contain contaminants as well as infectious organisms such as e. coli. tannins, flavonoids, and rutin are just a few phytochemical compounds that can be found in a variety of plant extracts. these chemicals are capable of treating bacterial infections. this study aimed to provide antimicrobial effects by utilizing a natural antibacterial agent with suitable extraction parameters and concentrations. the antibacterial activity of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract against escherichia coli will give future researchers baseline data, changing it into a standardized antibacterial herb plant (mujeeb, et al., 2014). phytochemical compounds of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves the presence of tannins, alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, and saponins in m. esculenta leaves extract was discovered by a phytochemical investigation (clemen-pascual et al., 2022). plant phytochemical compounds assess the medicinal value of plant leaves. antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of flavonoids and tannins alkaloids, on the other hand, have significant physiological effects, particularly on the neurological system. the presence of these three phytochemicals in the leaves of m. esculenta revealed that this plant is physiologically active and has the capacity to inhibit germs that cause diseases. this investigation supported the antibacterial activity of m. esculenta leaves extract. future research should focus on isolating, identifying, and purifying these phytochemicals, as well as determining their antibacterial potencies and toxicity evaluation in order to formulate antibiotics. research from chaiareekitwa et al. (2022) investigated the antioxidant components and chlorophyll content, as well as the antioxidant activity of cassava leaf flour extract from different plant ages and groups. the antioxidant content (vitamin c, polyphenols, and carotene) was considered high and increased as the plants grew. the presence of these antioxidant compounds on the cassava leaf flour extract demonstrates its efficacy as an antibacterial agent. the mature the leaf is, the larger the level of antioxidants. according to the findings of this study, cassava leaf flour extract is high in antioxidants, particularly flavonoids. cassava leaf flour extract’s flavonoid level suggests its antibacterial activity. according to (shrestha et al., 2021, kabra et al., 2019, and saini et al., 2013)) m. esculenta leaves were reported to have antibacterial action, and anti-oxidant, anti-tyrosinase, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective. the high flavonoid content of m.esculenta leaves was responsible for these actions. according to a recent study (chahyadi & elfahmi, 2020), seven glycoside flavonoids are present in cassava leaves, with rutin being the most abundant. according to the findings, m.esculenta leaves are a rich source of rutin, making extraction the best method for obtaining a high yield of bioflavonoids. according to this study, the maceration procedure with ethanol was the best extraction method for obtaining rutin. according to the evaluations linked to this work, the antibacterial efficacy of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract can deter escherichia coli. cassava leaves’ phytochemical characteristics enable researchers to create antibacterial drugs from their extract. fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves were macerated with 95 percent ethanol. in this study, varying percentages of concentration (5 percent, 10%, 20%, and 30%) were observed to assess the level of effectiveness of fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves and their concentration. concentrated extracts of fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves were tested for antibacterial activity against escherichia coli, a bacteria often found in human and animal intestines. this study will give baseline data on the efficacy of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract against e. coli infections. this study also found that cassava (manihot esculenta) leaf extract has antibacterial activities that are useful not only in treating pimple-causing bacteria (staphylococcus epidermidis and propionibacterium acnes), but also in infections caused by escherichia coli. materials the present study was conducted to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract against clinical isolate of escherichia coli. this experimentation tested the effectiveness of treatment-a using fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract and treatment-b using dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract. research design. this study manipulates clinical isolates of escherichia coli where procedures and experimentation were done in the biological laboratory of notre dame of midsayap college. thus, this study adopts an experimental research design using a randomized complete block design (rcbd). instrumentations. the experimental method was used in this study to test the antibacterial activity of cassava (manihot esculenta) against escherichia coli. randomized pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 23-30, 2022 complete block design was the method used in this study, in which experimental units were grouped into fresh and dried setups. rcbd was the method used since experimental units are grouped into blocks or replicates. a caliper was used in measuring the bacterial growth size and was measured in millimeters. the treatment of the extracts was done between 18 and 24 hours at room temperature. the results of the experimentation were recorded and analyzed using anova and t-test tools. beaker, erlenmeyer flasks, graduated cylinder, stirring rod, inoculating loop, alcohol lamps, petri-dishes, mortar and pestle, electric oven, pressurized cooker, inoculating chamber, and the caliper was used in this study. manihot esculenta leaves were obtained at san mateo, aleosan, cotabato and determined using picturethis plant identification application. chemicals. distilled water, and 95% ethanol were used in the experimentation. medium for bacterial growth. merck nutrient agar was used. microbial test. clinical isolates of e. coli from the university of southern mindanao were used in this study. procedures collection of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves. the study began with material collection by selecting cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves, which were not affected by pests, collected and sorted into 2 setups. setup 1 was freshly picked cassava leaves, while setup 2 was dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves. both were macerated and extracted at room temperature for 48 hours. preparation and sterilization of media 28g of merck nutrient agar was dissolved in a beaker with 1 liter of distilled boiling water. then, the medium, petri-dishes, beaker, and flask were sterilized using an autoclave at 121°c psi for 15 minutes. the autoclave process will eliminate unwanted microorganisms to ensure decontamination of the culture media. the sterilized medium and laboratory apparatus was placed on a disinfected incubator to cool off. extraction fresh and dried manihot esculenta leaves were macerated using 95%. this method was selected to prevent the occurrence of damage to the thermolabile chemical compounds contained in the cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves. the samples were mashed using mortar and pestle, then soaking it in the petri dishes with different concentrations. in each dish, 30g of mashed cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves was soaked with concentrations of 5% (95ml distilled water and 5ml ethanol), 10% (90ml distilled water and 10ml ethanol), 20% ( 80ml distilled water and 20ml ethanol), and 30% (70ml distilled water and 30ml ethanol) of 95% ethanol. the maceration was carried out for 48 hours at room temperature. antibacterial activity test the clinical isolate of e. coli was suspended using inoculating loop into the sterile petri-dishes with 20ml of sterile merck nutrient agar (solidified at room temperature). in each of the dishes, fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract were added with concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% using a sterile dropper. the test media were then incubated for 18-24 hours. in the 18th hour, the diameter of the test bacteria was measured using a caliper. and in the 24th hour, the diameter of the test bacteria was measured using a caliper. data gathering procedures extraction the efficiency of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract against e. coli was investigated in this experimentation. in this design, cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves were collected and assigned to the two groups (fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves) and was extracted with concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of 95% ethanol. the varying concentration of fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) was done to test its level of effectiveness against e. coli. the responses of the growing size of e. coli to fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) on the 18th and 24th hours were the data to be gathered and analyzed. antibacterial treatment fresh and dried manihot esculenta leaves extract with concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of 95% ethanol were applied against the colony formed by cultured e. coli for 18 and 24 hours of treatment. the diameters of the treated e.coli was measured in the 18th and in the 24th hour respectively using a caliper. after close observation, both groups were tested to measure the degree of change in the growth size of e. coli. statistical tools and treatment of data using a t-test, both fresh and dried manihot esculenta leaves extract were compared according to their level of effectiveness against e. coli during 18 and 20 hours of treatment. anova test was used in analyzing the effectiveness of the concentrations between 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of both fresh and dried manihot esculenta leaves extract. a conclusion was drawn after the analysis of the results. results table 1 presents the bacterial growth response of escherichia coli to the fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) with concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ethanol. caliper was used in measuring the diameter of treated escherichia coli in the 18th and 24th hours. the data gathered in this study was analyzed using a t-test and anova test. pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 23-30, 2022 table 1: fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with concentrations 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ethanol treatment against escherichia coli diameters (millimeters) time control 5% 10% 20% 30% 18th hour 4 mm 4 mm 6 mm 4 mm 9 mm 24th hour 2 mm 3.5 mm 5.5 mm 3 mm 8 mm table 2: dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with concentrations 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ethanol treatment against escherichia coli. diameters (millimeters) time control 5% 10% 20% 30% 18th hour 4 mm 4 mm 4 mm 6 mm 5 mm 24th hour 3 mm 4 mm 3 mm 5.5mm 4 mm table 2 present the s bacterial growth response of escherichia coli to the dried cassava (manihot esculenta) with concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ethanol. the diameter was measured in millimeters using a caliper. bacterial growth sizes were measured in the 18th and 24th hours. the data gathered in this study were analyzed using a t-test and anova test. table 3: the t-test result for fresh cassava manihot esculenta extracts in comparison to 18 and 24 hours t-test paired two samples for means. time observations mean df t-value 18 hours 5 5.4 4 0.01* 24 hours 5 4.4 *significant at α=0.05 table 3 compares the effects of fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract after 18 and 24 hours of therapy. fresh manihot esculenta leaves exhibit a significant difference, with the 18-hour having a mean of 5.4 and the 24-hour having a mean of 4.4. the fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract is most active around the 18-hour mark of treatment, according to this finding. table 4 compares table 4: the t-test for dry manihot esculenta extracts in comparison to the 18 and 24 hours t-test paired two samples for means time observations mean df t-value 18 hours 5 4.4 4 0.05ns 24 hours 5 3.9 *not significant at α=0.05 the effects of dried manihot esculenta leaves extract after 18 and 24 hours of therapy. there is no significant difference in the dried manihot esculenta after 18 and 24 hours of treatment. according to this finding, dry manihot esculenta leaves were effective for both 18 and 24 hours. in 18 hours of therapy, table 5 compares the effectiveness of fresh and dried manihot esculenta leaves extract. with a mean of 5.4, the fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract differs significantly from the dried manihot esculenta leaves extract, which has a mean of 4.4. fresh manihot table 5: the t-test result for fresh and dried manihot esculenta leaves extracts in 18 hours in t-test paired two samples for means. type of leaf extract observations mean df t-value fresh 5 5.4 4 0.19* dried 5 4.4 *significant at α=0.05 esculenta leaves extract was the most effective treatment against escherichia coli after 18 hours. in 24 hours of treatment, the efficiency of fresh and dried manihot esculenta leaf extracts against escherichia coli is compared in table 6. with a mean of 4.4, the fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract differs significantly from the dried manihot esculenta leaves extract, which has a mean of 3.9. after 24 hours, fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract was the most effective against escherichia coli. table 7 examines the effectiveness of fresh manihot table 6: the t-test result for fresh and dried manihot esculenta extracts in 24 hours t-test paired two samples for means. type of leaf extract observations mean df t-value fresh 5 4.4 4 0.19* dried 5 3.9 *significant at α=0.05 table 7: the anova result for the concentration between the control, 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% for fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract. source of variation ss df ms f p-value rows 73.57 2 36.78 21.71 0.00* columns 22.12 3 7.37 4.35 0.05* error 10.16 6 1.69 total 105.86 11 *significant at α=0.05 pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 23-30, 2022 esculenta leaves extract at concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30%. with a p-value of 0.00, the fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract demonstrates a significant difference. with an average of 0.16, the control extraction of fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract is the least active therapy against escherichia coli. with an average of 5.75, the 20% concentration is the most effective therapy against escherichia coli, while the 5% concentration is the second most effective treatment against escherichia coli, with an average of 5. table 8 examines the table 8: the anova result for the concentration between the control, 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% for dry manihot esculenta leaves extract. source of variation ss df ms f p-value rows 46.20 2 23.10 52.23 0.00 columns 5.57 3 1.85 4.19 0.06 error 2.65 6 0.44 total 54.43229 11 *significant at α=0.05 effectiveness of dry manihot esculenta leaves extract at concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30%. with a p-value of 0.00, the dry manihot esculenta leaves extract shows a significant difference. with an average of 0.16, the control extraction of dry manihot esculenta leaves extract was the least active treatment against escherichia coli. the 20% concentration is the most active treatment with an average of 4.5, while 10% was the second most active treatment with an average of 4.125. findings based on the results and findings of this study, the fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with concentrations 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of ethanol had effective antibacterial activity against the bacterial growth size of escherichia coli. in the 18th and 24th hour mark of treatment, both fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with concentrations 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of ethanol treatments were active against escherichia coli. the fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract exhibited a significant difference and was most active treatment against escherichia coli on both 18th and 24th hour mark of treatment. in addition, according to the results of the study the fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with concentrations 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of ethanol was most active on the 18th hour mark of treatment against escherichia coli. on the other hand, dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with concentrations 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of ethanol treatments against escherichia coli had no significant difference in the changes of bacterial growth size. according to the findings of this study, the dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was least active on the 18th and 24th hour mark of treatment. the findings of this study concluded that fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with concentration of 20% of ethanol was most active treatment against the bacterial growth size of escherichia coli. this concentration was most active in both 18th and 24th hour mark of treatment. according to (santos, 2013), the fresh cassava leaves extract contains rich amount of tannins, bioflavonoids and rutins. the presence of this phytochemicals indicates its active antibacterial ability in suppressing the bacterial growth size of escherichia coli. on the other hand, the most active concentration of dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was 20% of ethanol concentration. the results of the study affirmed that the optimal concentration added to the cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was 20% ethanol. it was supported by (chatterjee, 2006) that 20% ethanol was a high concentration and was bacteriostatic. this concentration prevents the growth of bacteria. summary the primary objective of this research was to examine the antibacterial activity of fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract against the escherichia coli colonies. the antibacterial efficiency of fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was added with varying concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ethanol. these concentration was added to test the fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract level of effectiveness in treatment against escherichia coli. the maceration method was used in the extraction process, which required utilizing 95 percent ethanol and keeping it at room temperature. this method was selected to prevent the occurrence of damage to the thermolabile chemical compounds contained in the cassava leaves (mustarichie, 2021). the maceration method was done by soaking the powdered cassava leaves into the macerator with concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ethanol and was leaf for 48 hours with occasional stirring. the bacterial growth size of escherichia coli that was treated with fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract with concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ethanol, was measured in the 18th and 24th hour using a caliper. the data results were gathered and analyzed using t-test and anova-test tools. conclusion the results of this study concluded that fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract demonstrated antibacterial activity against escherichia coli. this study compares the effectiveness of fresh manihot esculenta leaves extract at concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30%, as well as dried manihot esculenta leaves at concentrations of 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30%. the varying concentrations added to the fresh and dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract will examine the level of efficiency as an antibacterial agent against escherichia coli. the fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract at a concentration of 20% has the most active treatment in pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 23-30, 2022 suppressing the colony size of escherichia coli, with an average of 5.75. in addition, in the 18th hour of treatment, the 20% concentration of fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was the most active. taking the control out of the evaluation, the 5% concentration of fresh manihot esculenta leaves was the least effective treatment in reducing the bacteria’s growth size. in the 18th and 24th hours of treatment, the dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract exhibits no significant difference. the dried cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was found to be efficacious in both the 18th and 24th hours. the 20 percent concentration of dry cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was the third most active therapy against escherichia coli, with an average of 4.5. then there’s a 10% concentration with an average of 4.125. as a result, it can be stated that a 20 % concentration of fresh cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves extract was most effective in reducing escherichia coli growth size. recommendation with the results presented, the cassava plant can be used not only as a good source of food, but also in microbiology and medicine. future research should look into the impact of cassava leaves on human health after they’ve been used as an antibacterial agent. future researchers also could conduct a study regarding to effectiveness of cassava (manihot esculenta) in treating infections and diseases caused by escherichia coli. in addition, recommendations have been made to educate the community with the antibacterial efficiency of cassava leaves to provide immediate response and treatment on common bacterial infections. additional research into the cassava plant’s nutrient content and application as an antibacterial agent against various microbial infections that cause disease is highly recommended. future researchers especially in the field of medicine must further evaluate the effectiveness of cassava (manihot esculenta) leaves in treating bacterial infections and developed it as a standardized antibacterial agent. references babalola, o., & ahmed, z. 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(2020). important flavonoids and their role as a therapeutic agent. pubmed, 25(22), 5243. https:// doi.org/10.3390/molecules25225243 pa ge 1 pa ge 31 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) effects of varying nutrient solution to brassica rapa “bokchoy” grow under hydroponic system angel lhi d. alcalde1*, chinitt p. sinco1, ma. lourdes s. cantor1, michelle t. viña1, jolai r. garcia-bolaños1, romeo jr. b. bordios1 volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.485 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 09, 2022 accepted: august 15, 2022 published: august 20, 2022 the fact that farming is dependent on available land becomes even more complex when the climate is changing drastically. from this perspective, soilless system production is advantageous since it allows farmers to utilize land that has been unproductive due to pollution or illness, while simultaneously reducing the quantity of water consumed. according to the discussion and conclusions that accompany the results, the growth and development of brassica rapa are affected by the nutrients it receives in treatments. the concentrations of nutrient solutions have a significant impact on the growth of brassica rapa. as the number of brassica rapa layers increases, the brassica rapa yield increases and improves, particularly in terms of plant yield. the effects of nutritional solutions on plant growth, fresh weight, water consumption, and the number of nutrients in leaf tissue demonstrated that the interactions between factors are not the same. according to the findings of the study, the collected nutrients could be used as fertilizer. therefore, hydroponic systems will require less mineral fertilizer. the environmental temperature is one of the most important abiotic factors that could slow down the process of development, production, and spread. based on the data, it is feasible to conclude that the cultivar is more resistant to cold stress. keywords hydroponics, brassica rapa, interaction, climate change, nutrient solution, hydroponic system 1 notre dame of midsayap college, midsayap, cotabato, philippines. * corresponding author’s e-mail: delacruzangellhi@gmail.com introduction hydroponics is an agricultural method for growing vegetables that have been studied in depth. hydroponics research began at the university of the philippines at los baños, and several filipino scholars are now at the top of their fields. what hasn’t been done yet, and this is why this research is important, is to use hydroponics in cities, anywhere, or on rooftops, and to come up with a competitive business model that connects local production to local consumption, which lowers the costs of the food supply chain. this model is not only a good way to do business in agriculture, but it is also a good way to do business that will last. brassica rapa, which is a common item sold on the market, was an important part of the study. its leaves can be eaten and are often used in soups and stews. brassica rapa is a herb that grows back every year and grows best in temperate climates. in many countries, it is grown as a vegetable that can be eaten and to make vegetable oil to feed the growing population. but changes in temperature have a big effect on how plants grow and develop and how they make bioactive compounds. a study of how cold stress affects the germination of seeds, the growth of biomass, and the amount of biosynthesis in medicinally important brassica rapa (iiyas et al., 2022). brassica is a group of vegetables that are important all over the world and are affected by both biotic and abiotic stresses. the results showed that the response expression was higher after treatments for abiotic stress. the results suggest that chitinase genes could be helpful in making brassica plants that can handle stress (ahmed et al., 2012). researchers looked at the effects of water stress in controlled experiments. water shortages mostly hurt the yield and the parts of the yield. the results showed a big drop when there wasn’t enough water from anthesis to maturity (champolivier & merrien, 1996). in a study, the cause of plant diseases could be in different parts of the plant, like the leaf, root, or stem. however, the leaf is one of the most important places to look for signs of infection. the study looked at different things that cause abiotic and biotic stress in plants (kaur & gautam, 2021). in a greenhouse experiment, different levels of salinity were used to study the effects of salt and drought on the growth, physiology, and biochemistry of brassica rapa. the results showed that both drought and salt stress had a negative effect on plant growth, as measured by the fresh and dry weights of the shoots and roots. on the other hand, the bad effects of each stress factor were made worse when drought and salinity were both presentssahin et al., 2018). salinity is one of the most important environmental factors that affect the growth of brassica crops. pavlovic et al. (2018) looked into the physiological, biochemical, and hormonal effects of short-term salinity treatments on seedlings, with a focus on how auxin is made and broken down. changes in biochemical stress markers were seen in the seedlings’ fresh weight and root growth, as well as in the rate of photosynthesis and the number of reactive oxygen species. a study that looks at how mine species deal with arsenic toxicity and compares the results from plants exposed to arsenic in contaminated soil and from plants grown in a hydroponic solution. the results showed that how plants take in arsenic, move it from the roots to the leaves, distribute it, and get rid of it depends on the growth pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 31-37, 2022 conditions. when grown in soil, it had the most arsenic in its roots and shoots compared to other species. however, when grown in hydroponics, it had less arsenic in its roots and shoots than when grown in soil (zabludowska et al., 2009). there are things below the plowed zone that make it less likely that production will be sustainable, such as the amount of calcium in the soil. this could stop the roots from getting longer and make the crop more vulnerable to drought. experiments have shown that low-calcium tolerance can be different between and within cultivars (spehar & souza, 1995). when there is a lot of salt in the soil, it is harder for plants to find and take up ca2+. this causes membranes to break down and other problems that are caused by a lack of ca2+ in plants. how well calcium is taken in and used when the environment is salty. arshad et al. (2012) found that plants that take in and use calcium well in salty environments may be better able to handle salty conditions in the field. most of the time, the response to high salt and low ca2+ has been done against high salt alone. due to low calcium and high salinity, the length of the shoot, the length of the roots, and the fresh weight of the shoot and roots all decreased by a lot. so, the study shows that some genotypes are better able to take in and use calcium when there is less calcium available, which makes salt better in salty conditions. when the ph of the medium is lower than quantitative trait locus (qtl) analysis, proton rhizotoxicity stops roots from growing. the fact that the mechanisms of resistance and aluminum resistance are controlled by different genes shows that there is no simple link between the genes that control each trait (ikka et al., 2007). in a hydroponic experiment, the role of potassium and silicon in reducing the bad effects of nacl on different plant genotypes with different salt tolerances was tested. the results showed that k and si made plant genotypes more resistant to salt stress. this was due to less na+ and more k+, which improved the k+/n ratio, which is a good way to measure how well plants can handle salt stress (ashraf et al., 2010). chromium (cr) is a well-known cancer-causing substance that is found in half of the epa’s drinking water (epa). the x-ray absorption spectroscopy (xas) results for this study showed that some of the supplied cr (vi) was taken up by the roots. however, the analysis of the plant tissues showed that it was completely turned into cr (iii) in the leaf tissues (aldrich et al., 2003). brassicaceae in soilless condition nutrient analysis was conducted on pechay grown on two mediums by the central analytical services laboratory of the national institute of molecular biology and biotechnology (biotech) of uplb. organically grown pechay in conventional plots fertilized with organic matter such as compost was compared with pechay grown on hydroponics solution. the result showed that the pechay grown in hydroponic acquired a higher value in crude protein, crude fiber, and crude fat that helps in the elimination of waste, and toxins, protects from diseases, and keeps the body active and resistant. hence, being low in crude protein and crude fat is nonetheless important in supplementing a poor diet. the study also reported higher calcium and iron content in hydroponically grown pechay (rotor, 2014). iron (fe) aids in the oxygenation of the body through the lungs and blood. since oxygen is essential to life, people who lack iron are anemic, docile, and sickly. the most source of iron is leafy vegetables especially the member of the family brassicaceae (rotor, 2014). phosphorus (p) is important in the proper functioning of the brain and nerves/ iodine and phosphorous are very important in brain development. while calcium is important to build and rebuild tissues in the bones and muscles and all the cells of the body (rotor, 2014). the book chapter (aires, 2018), presents a general overview of the role of hydroponics in the enhancement of important types of nonessential nutrients, and based on the discussion of the book, hydroponics can be an essential instrument to have vegetables with high nutritional quality. however, both hydroponics and soilbased production systems require proper control and must be implemented correctly with full respect for plant needs, soil, water, environment, growers, and consumer safety. hence, a study by (gashagari et al., 2018) compared and find the best system that will cover the current and future demand with the least cost natural resources consumption. the result showed that the type of seeds doesn’t have a significant effect on plant growth. however, the planting system has a significant effect on plant growth, the hydroponic system has a higher growth rate. in the study of ezziddine et al. (2021), the performance of nutrient solution on plants yield, fresh weight, water consumption, and nutrient content in leaf tissue showed no significant difference in the yield. the study showed that nutrients recovered can be utilized as fertilizer, thereby reducing the dependency on mineral fertilizer in a hydroponic system. nutrient solution a higher photosynthesis rate contributed to the accumulation of photosynthetic products and supported the material requirements for increasing biomass and improving rhizome functional ingredients (cao et al., 2021). the over-fertilization with nh4+, si, or b lead to higher yields, increased color indexes, firmness, sucrose content, and sweetness indexes. furthermore, the fertilizations led to an improved shelf-life (valentinuzza et al., 2018). brassica contains essential minerals and a range of low molecular weight carbohydrates, but the presence of these nutrients can be affected by moisture stress. the study of pathirana et al. (2017) determines the response of brassica rapa to moisture stress. the result of the study showed confirmed that biomass production and pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 31-37, 2022 nutritional quality are greatly affected by moisture stress. the study of different greenhouse species was grown with different relative humidity. the result was dry weight increased significantly by increasing relative humidity from the lowest to the highest level. shoot length increased very considerably by increasing the relative humidity in most of the plants. the number of leaves was increased by relative humidity in some of the species while not in others (mortensen, 2018). methodology research site the study was undertaken at midsayap, north cotabato, philippines is located in a province between 5 and 8 degrees latitude, which means that midsayap and all places within its authority were less affected by typhoons. the municipality was classified as having a fourth kind of climate, which was defined by an annual rainfall distribution that is more or less uniform. research design the study employed a strip-plot design. as a result, it is deemed to have an equal selection of each brassica rapa with three replications. the following will be the treatments: research specimen the study used the brassica rapa or the bok choy as a high valued crop in the market. it is a type of chinese cabbage used as food. research instruments the study used the following instruments to measure the factors affecting the length, width, height, number of leaves, and yield of brassica rapa. ruler. it was used to measure the height, length, and width of the leaves of brassica rapa. timer. it was used to regularly monitor the collection of data. spectrometer. it was used to measure the temperature and humidity of the controlled environment of the plants. power of hydrogen (ph) tester. it was used to check the levels of ph of the nutrient solutions. research procedure seedling production of brassica rapa brassica rapa seeds were put in a sowing tray that was filled with heat sterilized coco coir before being transplanted. when the seedlings sprouted, there were placed beneath a structure made of plastic covering to protect them from the elements, particularly rain and direct sunshine. when the seedlings reached the true-leaf stage, there were poked by placing the healthy individual in a sowing tray and were placed in a hardening place with a small container. three days following the germination of the seedlings, a starter solution consisting of a half-strength (12.5 ml) nutrient solution dissolved in 10 liters of water was supplied to the seedlings within 10 days. ten days before being transplanted, the seedlings were hardened off. until it showed evidence of temporary wilting, the seedlings were gradually exposed to sunshine and watered down until they show signs of temporary withering. snap hydroponics system set-up after being grown for 10 days, the seedlings were transferred to a growing box with a polyethylene plastic container and were transferred to the treated half-strength solution for 14 days. a total of around 30 liters of water with a nutrient solution was stored in each empty growing box (30 cm x 40 cm in size). these were lined with polyethylene bags with a thickness of .05 cm. the cover of the growing box was fitted with ventilation holes (2-3 cm in diameter) in order to allow for proper ventilation. there were nine holes, measuring15-20 cm in diameter, and were drilled to accommodate the cups in which the brassica rapa was planted. the cups could hold 8oz to hold the brassica rapa seedlings and were half-filled with coco coir to support the roots of the brassica rapa. due to its high cation exchange rate, coco coir stores and releases nutrients as needed, yet it has a tendency to retain calcium, magnesium, and iron. this means that it needs to supplement crops with specialized coco coir nutrients to increase their calcium, magnesium, and iron levels (advanced nutrients, 2018). particularly in cases where the roots have not yet developed extensively, the base of the cup is always immersed in the solution. the solution was maintained at 2-4 cm between the bottom of the cup and the top of the solution while the roots grow and develop. nutrient solution application in this study, the nutrient solution was replenished once a week to ensure the water in the growing media decreases the required amount for growing the brassica rapa. thus, it is required to be checked every tuesday and thursday (8:00 am, 10 am, 12 pm, 2 pm, and 4 pm) for possible deficiencies of the brassica rapa and contamination of the nutrient solution in the growing box. the number of brassica rapa per treatment was replicated 3 times in a random arrangement with randomly assigned numbers. following transplantation, the brassica rapa was available for harvesting 45 days after it was transplanted. types of nutrient solution the nutrient solution was important in a hydroponic system setup. therefore, it is important to test the levels of nutrient solution applied to the brassica rapa and its effects on plant growth and development. the different levels of nutrient solution used are as follows: c0 = normal c1 = nutrient solution a (nutrihydro) c2 = nutrient solution b (yamasaki) c3 = nutrient solution c (snap) pa ge 34 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 31-37, 2022 data gathering procedure the data were gathered in accordance with the methodology used in the study in order to be appropriately led in the data collection process: 1. brassica rapa height and width. the height of the plant was recorded by measuring the plant from the surface of the stalk of the brassica rapa that was seen to the tip of the last leaflet. while the width was measured with the diameter for each brassica rapa. this was one week of growing the brassica rapa seeds out in the growing tray. there were 243 brassica rapa plants that were randomly placed in each block with 9 holes planted with brassica rapa. 2. brassica rapa weight. the weight of the brassica rapa was determined in the yield of the production to compare the differences between the treatments. the result was controlled with varied light intensity and different types of nutrient solutions used for a higher yield. 3. number of the leaves of brassica rapa per plant. the leaves of brassica rapa were counted per plant for each treatment. 4. type of nutrient solution. the type of nutrient solution was monitored to check the relationship and differences between each treatment. 5. light intensities. the amount of light received during the treatment was a greater factor to increase and decrease the yield of brassica rapa. thus, it was important to measure and check the difference in the result from the replanting to the harvesting period of the brassica rapa. 6. time temperature. this measured the differences between the growth of brassica rapa with the length measured with varied time (8 am, 12 pm, and 5 pm) temperature and determined the relationship within the result. hence, specimen temperature was monitored by the researcher to investigate and observe. treatment of data for the purpose of determining the relationships and mean the difference between data treatments (light intensity and level of nutrient solution) applied to brassica rapa, an analysis of variance (anova) was used in the study. as a result, the tests for normal distribution of each sample the researcher was randomly picked in a growing brassica rapa out from the population of the fully grown seedlings of brassica rapa was tested in varied lights and treatments. the analysis of variance and test for correlation were employed to determine the relationships. experimental design and analysis the strip plot design was used in this study. the light intensities (t0 – under normal environmental condition, t1 – the wooden frame that will scaffold the one layer of mosquito net, t2 – wooden frame that will scaffold the three layers of mosquito net), was the vertical and the amount of nutrient solution (n0 – no nutrient solution a, n1 – 30 ml/box of nutrient solution b, n2 –with yamasaki 30 ml/box nutrient solution, and n3 with snap with 30 ml/box nutrient solution c). each treatment was replicated three times. the anova was employed in the strip-plot design that was used to analyze the data for the comparison of each treatment, a post hoc test was used for the comparison of the mean difference, while to test the relationship of the intensity of light, humidity, yield, and layers of mosquito net pearson-r correlation was employed. results effects of varying light intensities as evidenced by an f-ratio of 6.40 and a p-value of 0.00, table 1: a differences in the varying light intensities in the numbers of leaves on brassica rapa source ss df ms between-treatments 107.08 3 35.69 within-treatments 2651.80 476 5.57 f =6.40* total 2758 479 the f-ratio value is 6.40. the p-value is 0.00. the result is significant at p <.05 this result exhibited a statistically significant difference between the varying of one, two, and three layers. the anova test revealed a significant difference in the amount of leaves developed by brassica rapa when light intensity was varied across one, two, and three layers. for pairwise comparisons of treatment in layers based on anova data. t0 (m = 3.54) was substantially different (p = 0.00) from t1. t0 was significantly different (p = 0.03) from the mean of t2 with two layers of net covered (m = 4.45), but t1 was considerably different (p = 0.03) from the mean of t3 with three layers of net covers (m = 5.07). t0 and t3, t1 and t2, and t2 and t3 comparisons, on the other hand, revealed no significant changes. light intensities had a significant effect on the growth and development of brassica rapa. however, some treatments had no effect on growth and development when compared to others. interactions of varying light and nutrient solutions data revealed that there is a relationship in the length (r = 0.834), width (r = 0.909), height (r = 0.896), number of leaves, yield (r = 0.911) in the growth and development of brassica rapa. the p-value of 0.000 < 0.05 level of significance indicates that the null hypothesis had significant relationships between variables is rejected. therefore, the growth and development of brassica rapa had significant effects in brassica rapa to the varying type of intensities of light used in each group. length (r = 0.834), width (r = 0.909), height (r = 0.896), number of leaves (r = 0.911), and yield of brassica rapa are correlated with growth and development, according to the data. as a result, the growth and maturity of brassica rapa interacted with the different light intensities used by each group. consequently, when brassica rapa light intensities increases as light, width, height, the number of leaves, and yield all increase. the analysis revealed that there was a substantial difference (p <.05) in the total number of leaves produced by each treatment as well as by each individual treatment pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 31-37, 2022 table 2: pos hoc tukey analysis on varying light intensities pairwise comparisons hsd.05 = 1.23 q.05 = 3.66 q.01 = 4.46 hsd.01 = 1.50 t0:t1 m0 = 3.54 1.53 q = 6.34 (p = .00)* m1 = 5.07 t0:t2 m0 = 3.54 0.91 q = 3.78 (p = 0.03)* m2 = 4.45 t0:t3 m1 = 5.07 0.62 q = 2.57 (p = 0.26) m3 = 4.16 t1:t2 m1 = 5.07 0.62 q = 2.57 (p = 0.26) m2 = 4.45 t1:t3 m1 = 5.07 0.91 q = 3.78 (p = 0.03)* m3 = 4.16 t2:t3 m2 = 4.45 0.29 q = 1.21 (p = 0.82) m3 = 4.16 table 3: relationship of length, width, height, number of leaves, and yield in the varying light intensities variable interactions of varying light of 48 brassica rapa r-value p-value decision length 0.834** 0.000 s width 0.909** 0.000 s height 0.896** 0.000 s number of leaves 0.870** 0.000 s yield 0.911** 0.000 s ** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) table 4: relationship of length, width, height, number of leaves, and yield in the varying types of nutrient solutions variable interactions of varying nutrient solutions of 48 brassica rapa r-value p-value decision length 1.000-** 0.000 s width 0.903** 0.000 s height 0.946** 0.000 s number of leaves 0.961** 0.000 s yield 0.909** 0.000 s ** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) (f-statistics = 16.76). because of this, the quantity of leaves produced by each treatment is significantly different due to the differences in the nutritional solution. there is a statistically significant gap between the sample means of t0 (m = 3.54) and t1, which has a value of 4.81; t0 (m = 3.54) and t3, which has a value of 5.28; t1 (m = 4.81) and t2 (m = 3.59); and t2 (3.59) and t3, which has a value of 5.28. as a result, it has been established that the applied nutrient solution had an effect on several groups and had a significant effect on the growth and production of plants in both the control group and the treatment group. there was also no discernible change found between t0 (m = 3.54) and t2 (m = 3.59), as well as t1 (m = 4.81) and t3 (m = 5.28). in light of this finding, a comparison of the treatments used within these groups revealed that the growth and yield were unaffected by the table 5: growth and yield response of brassica rapa to varying nutrient solution. source ss df ms between-treatments 263.66 3 87.88 within-treatments 2495.21 476 5.57 f=16.76* total 2758.88 479 the f-ratio value is 16.76. the p-value is 0.00. the result is significant at p <.05 various types of applied solutions, despite the fact that these solutions were of different types. interactions of varying light and nutrient solutions there was a substantial correlation between the light and nutrient solution intensities that the brassica rapa was exposed to and its subsequent growth and development. the findings provide credence to the findings of ilyas et al., 2022, which state that variations in temperature have a significant impact on the growth and development of plants as well as the generation of bioactive chemicals. an examination of the impact that cold stress has on seed germination, the accumulation of biomass, and the production of biosynthesis. the findings revealed that response expression occurred after abiotic stress treatments, indicating that greater potentials were present. ahmed et al., 2012 about the creation of stressresistant brassica rapa. the consequences of water stress were explored through a series of studies conducted under carefully monitored conditions. water was the primary factor that determined the yield components. the findings revealed a significant decrease whenever there was a water shortage between anthesis and maturity (champolivier & merrien, 1996). pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 31-37, 2022 table 5: pos hoc analysis of the differences in growth and yield pairwise comparisons hsd.05 = 1.23 q.05 = 3.66 q.01 = 4.46 hsd.01 = 1.50 t0:t1 m0 = 3.54 1.27 q = 5.44 (p = .00)* m1 = 4.81 t0:t2 m0 = 3.54 0.05 q = 0.21 (p = .99) m2 = 3.59 t0:t3 m0 = 3.54 1.74 q = 7.43 (p = .00)* m3 = 5.28 t1:t2 m1 = 4.81 1.22 q = 5.23 (p = .00)* m2 = 3.59 t1:t3 m1 = 4.81 0.46 q = 1.99 (p = .49) m3 = 5.28 t2:t3 m2 = 3.59 1.69 q = 7.22 (p = .00)* m3 = 5.28 response of brassica rapa in growth and yield brassica rapa yield production exhibits stronger growth and development responses, particularly in plant yield, as the number of the plant layers net increases. however, the study discovered that increased net layers showed not only accelerated plant growth but also improved plant quality, particularly in terms of compactness. also, there were significant differences between the effects of nutritional solution on plant yield, fresh weight, water utilization, and the number of nutrients in leaves. the investigation demonstrated that the recovered nutrients are suitable for use as fertilizer. this means that less mineral fertilizer can be used in a hydroponic system. droughts, which are anticipated to worsen and occur more frequently due to climate change, have the greatest impact on the economy. consequently, managing good yields should be the first priority when considering agricultural drought risk mitigation (foster et al., 2015). likewise, the study by yan et al. (2019) demonstrates that low temperature is one of the most significant non-living elements that inhibit growth, productivity, and spread. the results of this experiment indicate that the cultivar is better able to withstand cold stress (chilling and freezing stresses). conclusions temperature is an essential component in plant growth. as a result of climate change, temperatures are anticipated to rise, and more extreme temperature events are possible. this affects plant development in controlled trials with net layers and various types of nutritional solutions. warm temperatures provided a significant effect on improved phenological development. also affected are the leaf area and vegetative output relative to normal temperatures. changes in temperature have a significant impact on plant growth and development. according to the findings, higher potentials were seen following abiotic stress treatments. the development of stress-resistant brassica rapa was the result of controlled experiments in which the effects of various nutritional solutions and controlled settings on plant growth and development varied. the found nutrients can be utilized as recommended nutrients for brassica rapa, consequently, in hydroponic systems, less mineral fertilizer, less water usage, and a brassica rapa resistant to high temperatures were created. references ahmed, n. u., park, j., jung, h., kang, k., hur, y., lim, y., & nou, i. 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(2009). search for a plant for phytoremediation – what can we learn from field and hydroponic studies? search for a plant for phytoremediation – what can we learn from field and hydroponic studies? 77(3), 301–307. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.07.064 pa ge 1 pa ge 15 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) deterioration of plant resources in contact with nigerian refugees, returnees and internal displaced chadians in kaya, lake region, western chad bayang sirbele1* volume 2 issue 3, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i3.1848 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 30, 2023 accepted: july 28, 2023 published: august 28, 2023 chad in general and kaya in particular, hosts a large number of refugees, returnees and internally displaced persons. wars, inter-community conflicts and the nebulous boko haram sect are the causes of massive displacement of populations from neighboring countries to chad and kaya. the arrival of nigerian and nigerian refugees, returnees and internally displaced chadians has increased the population and the need for energy, especially firewood and charcoal. moreover, to meet their food and financial needs, these migrants are forced to destroy the plant resources of the region and of kaya in order to survive. this is damaging the natural environment and the economy of the lac and kaya region. thus, 25 refugees, returnees and displaced persons were studied and empirical data collected in order to determine their responsibility in the degradation of vegetation in kaya. then, 3 people in charge of the environment in bagassola were interviewed to gather their opinions on the role played by refugees, returnees and idps in kaya in the environmental degradation in this area. five interviews were held with ngos in bagassola to find out the underlying reasons that lead refugees, returnees and idps to destroy nature. keywords deterioration, refugees, plant resources, kaya, lake region, chad 1 department of geography, higher teachers’ training college, n’djamena, chad * corresponding author’s e-mail: bayangsirbele@gmail.com introduction the chadian sahel covers an area of 553,590 km2 or 43.11% of the country (baohoutou, 2007). the lake region, on the other hand, covers an area of 22,320 km2. the vegetation in this part of the country is steppe-like (cabot and bouquet, 1978). indeed, the chadian sahel in general, and kaya in particular, abounds in plant resources that have been subjected to unprecedented degradation in recent decades by local populations (4th national report on biological diversity, 2009). recurrent droughts, especially those of 1972 and 2007 (drem, 2008), which have occurred in the lake region, on the one hand, and human actions on the other, have contributed to the degradation of the plant cover (field surveys, 2021; bayang, 2023). among human actions, it should be noted that for almost a decade, in 2015, where 32,000 chadians and other internally displaced people fled attacks by the nebulous boko haram sect. this is because the sect has committed atrocities in nigeria and niger, forcing people from neighboring countries, returnees and displaced chadians to take refuge on the lake in general and in kaya in particular. the flow of displaced people is compromising the survival of the environment in general and plant resources in particular in this part of chad (united nations communication group, 2014; ocha, 2021). it is well known that the impact of this degradation of plant resources is enormous, and is felt at several levels in the lac and kaya regions. the sectors most affected by this phenomenon are agriculture and livestock breeding. materials and methods study area kaya, the study area, is located in western chad. it is figure 1: situation and location of baqassola pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 15-23, 2023 located some 400 km from the chadian capital and is part of the lac region. the department of kaya comprises the cantons of nguéléa 1, nguéléa 2 and boudouma dallah, whose respective chief towns are nguéléa, bagassola and ngouboua. kayac comprises 171 villages and covers an area of 1,302 km². bordered to the north by the liwa subprefecture, to the south by the kangallam sub-prefecture, and to the east and west by the bol sub-prefecture (figure 2), the two cantons have an estimated population of 45,000. nguéléa 2, which is the subject of this study, has a population mainly made up of farmers and herders, who play an important role in the environmental degradation of the lac region through their activities. refugees, returnees and internally displaced persons also have a negative impact on bagassola’s plant resources. in the lake region in figure 1, bagassola, chief town of nguéléa 2 canton, is bordered by two main towns on the lake, bol and liwa, and by nigeria, a giant african country. bagassola is home to a large number of nigerian refugees, returnees and internally displaced people. methodological approach several methods were combined in this study: • fieldwork: this involved collecting data on the degradation of plant resources from public and private officials in the environmental field with group interview guides; • surveys were carried out and empirical data collected on anthropogenic actions of encroachment from nigerian refugees, returnees and internally displaced people in bagassola with a survey sheet; • using gps, the geographical coordinates of refugee, returnee and idp sites, viewpoints and other points relating to the degradation of bagassola’s plant resources were recorded. results steppe vegetation formation of the lake in perpetual anthropic degradation the vegetation of the lac region in general, and kaya in particular, belongs to the sahelian domain, with a steppe formation characterized by thorny acacias, but others such as calotropis procera are not. steppe characterized by a shrubby landscape this landscape features a diversity of shrub species at kaya that differs from one environment to another. around the natron valleys, the most common species are doum palms, roasting palms, leptadenia pyrotechnica, calotropis procera and ka-you . here, in this environment, it should be noted that these species are spread along the sides of the valleys. in the villages of the natron areas, a category of ligneous trees is found. these include soap trees (balanites aegyptiaca) and neem trees (as in the village of kaya). in the bush, leptadenia pyrotechnica, acacia and soap trees predominate. it should also be noted that plant species such as acacia albida, jujube, gum tree, etc. are found in the natron valley zone (field survey, 2021, table 1). table 1 shows a plant society in the natron area. this plant society is defined by a group of plants living together in a common habitat and subject to the same living conditions. the dunes and the plant colonies are arranged jointly in a process referred to as a perfectly predictable “symbiotic partnership”. calotropis procera is one of the most widespread plant species in the natron area (figure 2). table 1: plant species at bagassola in the lake district geographical unit plant species scientific name name in local arabic name in kanembou around villages and water points leptadenia pyrotechnica rtem kalemo acacia seyal kitir/asharat koloul balanites aegyptiaca hidjilid ziziphus mauritiana nabak kongue acacia sieberiana kouk keringa calotropis procera atchoro kaya acacia raddiana ou tortilis talha kidile acacia albida/faidherbia2 haraz kouroulou acacia nilotica garate prosopis juliflora soubsoubane kangar,komé around the natron valleys calotropis procera atchoro kaya hhyphaena thebaïca dom soullou leptadenia pyrotechnica kalemo borassus aethiopum kourtou mdina salvadora persica arak kayou at the bottom of natron without tree without trees source: field survey, july 2021 pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 15-23, 2023 figure 2: view of calotropis procera in kaya (photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023) andja, january 31, 2023 (n13°41’0.09’’; e 14°16’29.1’’) figure 3: view of a fenced field in dar salam (bagassola) photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023) dar salam, january 31, 2023 (n 13°32’9.3’’ and e 14°18’49.6’’) figure 2 shows calotropis procera growing on the sand dune at kaya. calotropis procera is most commonly found in the brown zone. this species (figure 2) preferentially colonizes well-depleted soils. it has become the indicator of tired, infertile soils, known in arabic as naga. it is protected to prevent silting-up of the valleys. it should be noted that, depending on the geomorphology of the terrain, certain dominant species are found around the natron valleys and in the villages. these include calotropis procera and leptadenia pyrotechnica. grass-dominated lake vegetation grasses populate the sand dunes of the lake region. they include: aristida pallida, aristida funiculata, cymbopogon giganteus, andropogo gayanus, etc. (cabot et bouquet, 1974, 1978 and field survey, 2021). vegetation destroyed by salt trees don’t grow at the bottom of valleys because of their salinity. because the lowest parts of natron valleys are barren, they are devoid of all vegetation (pias, 1970). prosopis juliflora or prosopis chilensis is bushy and therefore tolerates these salty, highly acidic soils. it is a species of american origin, but has become pan tropical. it is an evergreen plant. vegetation in the lake region and in kaya is nowadays experiencing a high mortality rate of certain species due to the effects of climate change (field survey, 2021). this degradation is due to agricultural, pastoral and logging activities in the region and in kaya. in fact, the degradation of nature is the result of human action, with agriculture using thorn fences. the overexploitation of woody vegetation is explained by the need to protect fields (korelo) with thorn fences or kalyi, to combat the incursions of the region’s relatively large herd. penicillary millet is grown on the dunes. to fence their fields, farmers and refugees generally use thorny acacia trees such as acacia seyal, acacia nilotica, etc. (figure 3). figure 3 shows that the penicillium fields in dar salam are fenced. the fences are made of branches of acacia nilotica and other shrubs. in addition, dune fields are found on the outskirts of villages. this type of cultivation contributes significantly to the degradation of the ecosystem in the lac and kaya regions. demographic growth of the lac population in human terms, the population of the lac, like that of other attractive regions of chad, is constantly increasing. this is due to the natural potential of the lake region. as a result, many chadians refer to the lake as one of the breadbaskets of chad. its approximate population was 88,911 in 1962. in 1968, an administrative survey put the population at 92,801. in 1989, the population was 127,974. with the 1st general census of population and housing (rgph1), which took place in chad in april 1993 and lasted 6 months, the population of the lake was 248,226. this was the largest census in chad’s history, carried out by the bcr (bureau central du recensement). sixteen (16) years after the 1st census, i.e. in 2009, the 2nd census was carried out. at this latest census, the population of the lake was 451,369. from 1993 to 2009, the population of le lake almost doubled. from 248,226 to 451,369 souls. the population almost doubled from 2009 to 2021. from 451,369 to 804,165. this is what draws attention to the fact that the population of le lac is indeed evolving. it is made up of sedentary and nomadic populations. the kanembou and boudouma are in the majority in the region. migrant population at the lake the lac is a cosmopolitan region, as its population includes several african nationalities (senegalese, malians, nigerians, cameroonians, beninese, ghanaians, etc.) (figure 12). nigerians are the most numerous and the most mobile. the fricans who live in the region are attracted by the fishing opportunities on lake chad. they are concentrated on islands such as kinaserom, tetoua, fitiné, koulfoua, tchongolé and others. as youssouf mbodou mbami, bol township chief, explains: “the islands are heavily exploited by foreigners pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 15-23, 2023 who engage in intensive fishing and export their products to nigeria. but with fishing no longer profitable, some of the foreign islanders are growing sugar cane and potatoes. others have become lumberjacks. these are the returnees and refugees. this foreign population also includes chadians from other regions (figure 4). the site reserved mainly for nigerian refugees is located 12 km from bagassola, in a locality called dar salam. according to cnarr, there will be 18,247 people in this camp by 2023. the majority are haoussa, followed by other ethnic groups including peul, kanouri, peul, boudouma, arab, kanembou, margui and gousa. they have come from baga kawa in nigeria and karaga in niger. they have been in the dar salam camp since 2014(figure 5). figure 4: percentage distribution of the lake’s population source: laoro, 2001 and ocha (2021) figure 4 shows that natives account for over 87.98%. other ethnic groups from chad to the lake are representative at 7.3% and expatriates are at 4.72%. the population of the lac region increased in 2015 with the arrival of refugees, returnees and displaced persons (table 2) due to the boko haram sect. table 2: new migrants in lake migrants number/year 2021 2023 refugees (dar salam camp) 16 277 18 247 refugees outside camp 12 120 returnees 30 356 total 46 633 30 367 source : ocha, 2021 and cnarr , 2023 table 2 shows the number of new migrants to lac. there are 16,277 refugees. there are 30,356 returnees. this gives a total population of 46,633 in 2021, according to ocha. updated statistics for 2023, according to cnarr, give a total of 18,247 refugees in the dra salam camp and 12,120 refugees outside the camp. this makes a total of 30,367 people. given chad’s population growth rate of 3.23% and the number of refugees and returnees to the lake, the population of the lake region in 2021 will be 804,165. this population has almost doubled in the 20 years between 2009 and 2021. the growth of the lac population has a very strong influence on the plant resources of the lac and kaya regions. characteristics of refugee, returnee and idp sites and shelters in kaya three sites shelter refugees, returnees and internally displaced persons (idps) in kaya in the lac region. figure 5: view of a refugee dwelling and tents at dar salam (bagassola) (photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023) dar salam, february 01, 2023 2021 (n 13°3730.8’’ and e 14°17’50.7’’) figure 5 shows, from left to right, a refugee shelter in the dar salam camp. the shelter is made from a tarpaulin and fenced with an aquatic plant from lake chad, known in the local language as kaye. opposite this habitat, tented houses have been set up in the camp, with financial support from the hcr. on the other hand, 30,356 returnees and 45,951 internally displaced persons are housed in shelters in a village 2 km west of bagassola called kousseri 1, 2, 3. most of them are boudouma. they live in dwellings built by international ngos (figure 6). photo 1 of figure 6 shows the makeshift shelters in kousseri 3. these shelters are made of kaye, an aquatic grass found in lake chad, with a tin roof. the shelters were built with funding from the unhcr and implemented by the chad red cross (crt). photo 2 of figure 6 shows shelters in kousseri 2. these shelters are still made by kaye with financial assistance from the luxembourg red cross, and the project was carried out by boudouma women. there is an elementary school in the dar salam camp. the school has a total of 3,055 pupils from cp1 to cm2, of whom 1,625 are refugee children. the school was created by the foulbé community of dar salam in 2010, and became official on february 03, 2015. the school is run by mahamat abakar adam and 18 other community teachers supported by unhcr. the wfp provides food for the children, while unicef donates school supplies (figure 7). pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 15-23, 2023 figure 7 shows the dar salam elementary school. it shows classrooms and a schoolyard with pupils running around and a teacher in a white coat at recess. outside the dar salam camp, in kousseri 1, there is also a full-cycle elementary school from cp1 to cm2, called the “ecole de la paix”, with 1,038 pupils, including 359 children of displaced persons and 205 children of returnees. the school is run by mahamat tchari ali and has 11 teachers (figure 8). figure 8 shows the peace elementary school in kousseri 1. classrooms are visible, as well as pupils are running and others playing soccer during recess. the three categories of displaced persons in lac and kaya, namely returnees, internally displaced persons (idps) and third-country nationals (tcns), are mobile ( dtm , 2019). they have a negative impact on plant resources in the lac and kaya regions, causing enormous damage to these resources. degradation of plant resources by refugees, returnees and idps in kaya the gradual destruction of plant resources in the lac and kaya areas is nothing new, as it is not a recent phenomenon. plant damage is generally caused by farmers, herders, etc. in lac and kaya. refugees, returnees and displaced persons have now been added to the list of people damaging plant resources in lac and kaya. the most deforested plant species is acaca nilotica, known in local arabic as garate (table 1). indeed, given the precarious living conditions endured by these vulnerable people and the poor care they receive, the activities (farming and livestock rearing) carried out by mobile people force them to degrade the vegetation. many of the refugees, returnees and displaced persons have integrated into the socio-economic life of kaya by growing small millet and beans. others, on the other hand, raise goats and sheep. both of these activities contribute negatively to the degradation of vegetation (figure 3). in addition, men, women and children in and outside the dar salam camp are engaged in the massive destruction of plant resources all around the sites some 1 or 2 km away (figure 9). figure 9 shows the cleared area at kousseri 3. the area figure 6: returnee and idp shelters in kousseri 3 and 2 (photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023), photo 1: kousseri 3, february 01, 2023 (n 13°31’35.3’’; e 14°17’35.7’’), photo 2: kousseri 2, february 01, 2023 (n 13°31’37.3’’; e 14°17’48.0’’) figure 7: view of the pri (school in dar salam (bagassola) photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023) dar salam, february 01, 2023 2021 (n 13°37’24.4’’ and e 14°17’34.4’’) figure 8: view of the primary school la paix in kousseri 1 (bagassola) (photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023) dar salam, february 01, 2023 2021 (n 13°31’57.2’’ and e 14°18’21.7’’) photo:1 photo: 2 pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 15-23, 2023 figure 10: view of bags of charcoal and firewood at bagassola market (photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023) photo 1. bagassola market, february 01, 2023 (n 13°32’8.22’’; e 14°18’35.2’’) photo 2. bagassola market, february 01, 2023 (n 13°32’8.37’’; e 14°18’38.3’’) shows trees cleared in the vicinity of the makeshift shelters at kousseri 3. a few trees are still visible in this area and have not been cut down. trees are felled to provide firewood, charcoal and wood for building sheds (figure 10). the principal of the peace school said that parents use their children to degrade the environment, and a refugee at the dar salam site admitted that during the vacations, children cut wood for their parents. the environmental inspector in bagassola reported that migrants play a major role in the destruction of vegetation in kaya, and urged that their living conditions be improved so that they can limit their “massacring of nature” (field survey, 2023). photo 1 of figure 10 provides information on charcoal. a koro of charcoal costs 300 fcfa and a bag 5,000 fcfa, while the photo 2 on figure 10 shows that firewood is still being moved to the bagassola market by boudouma figure 9: view of a cleared area at kousseri 3 (bagassola) (photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023) kousseri 3, february 01, 2023 2021 (n 13°31’57.2’’ and e 14°18’21.7’’) women. a heap of this wood is sold for 1,250 fcfa. international and national ngos such as hcr, crt, etc. have contributed to the deterioration of plant resources in kaya by helping to finance the construction of shelters for refugees, returnees and internally displaced persons. these buildings are generally made from kaye, a herbaceous plant that grows in lake chad. as a result, many people have taken to cutting down these kayes in order to raise money. hence the massive deterioration of the kayes in kaya. consequences of the degradation of plant resources by refugees, returnees and idps disappearance of plant and wildlife species degradation of plant resources has had a considerable impact, as many plant species have disappeared. in addition, there are empty spaces. trees have been cleared, so no agricultural activities are carried out on these deforested areas (figure 11). figure 11 shows the deforested area at kousseri 3. no trees can be seen in the vicinity of the makeshift shelters at kousseri 3. this is because the area is devoid of trees figure 11: view of a cleared area at kousseri 3 (bagassola) (photo: bayang sirbélé, 2023) kousseri 3, february 01, 2023 2021 (n 13°31’35.4’’ and e 14°17’35.7’’) due to the deforestation carried out by the returnees and displaced persons. the deterioration of the vegetation is forcing the animals photo:1 photo: 2 pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 15-23, 2023 to disappear. they no longer have habitats in which to hide. as a result, they are threatened and attacked by hunters. as a result, they are forced to flee and migrate to areas where they can survive. aquatic plants such as the kayes of lake chad should provide shelter and breeding grounds for the fish and other aquatic animals that frequent the lake’s littoral zone. they also provide food for certain aquatic organisms. unfortunately, we have to admit that these organisms will no longer have shelter and food, as the kayes have been destroyed for humanitarian purposes. soil stripping the lake district boasts a variety of soils. these soils are known as brown or red-brown soils, brown steppic sandy soils and salty soils. they are poor and erodible. in the lake district, we can also distinguish between soils such as naga (arabic for sterile), modern polders, semi-modern polders, traditional polders or false polders, sandy soils and sub-arid brown soils. the soils are increasingly bare and degraded today, and erodible by the wind as a result of natural and anthropogenic actions. agro pastoral impacts as far as human activities are concerned, the effects of the degradation of the vegetation cover are visible and real. village dwellings are scattered and visible from a distance due to the absence of vegetation. the soil is bare, which leads farmers in general and refugees, returnees and internally displaced persons to have dune fields on the outskirts of villages due to the destruction of vegetation. this reduces the productivity of cereals and market garden produce. livestock farming is also suffering a fatal blow from the degradation of plant resources. animals are finding it extremely difficult to feed themselves. as a result, they have to fall back on dried calotropis procera leaves for food. discussion of results recurrent droughts at the lake everywhere else, rainfall is the determining factor in human activities, as it is an indispensable link in the sahel in general and in the natron area in particular. rainfall is very poorly distributed in the lake region. rainfall and its intensity are irregular and low. most of the time, it comes late, leading to droughts (beauvilain, 1995, p. 8; koumbaye, 1996, p. 19). figure 12: low rainfall at ngouri source: climatology division, dgm/n’djamena, 2018 figure 13: low rainfall at bol source: climatology division, dgm/n’djamena, 2018 droughts are frequent in cilss member countries. in the lac, they are present because the region experiences rainfall deficits almost every ten years. in chad in general, and in the lake region in particular, the drought years of 1972 and 1984 justify this. these periods of drought have attracted the attention of many researchers and pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 15-23, 2023 governments. to better understand the phenomenon of drought in the lake region, we can observe the low rainfall in bol and ngouri to understand the intervals of drought. rainfall records for 1972, 1987, 1982, 1998, 2007, etc. at bol and 1972, 1984, 1987, 1989, 2004, etc. at ngouri are clearly deficient (figures 11 and 12). figure 12 shows data covering the period from 1960 to 2007. this range of years shows that the lowest rainfall was recorded in 1972 (78.6 mm). low and irregular rainfall was also observed in 1984 (114.4 mm), 1987 (141.5 mm), 1989 (154.5 mm), 2004 (155.1 mm) and 1996 (161.7 mm). it can be seen that 11972 and 1984 were years of low precipitation. figure 12 also gives an idea of the eight-year low rainfall in the period 1960-2007, with an average of 145 mm. figure 13, on the other hand, shows the case of the bol station (1960-2007), with the lowest rainfall in 1972 (62.0 mm) compared with ngouri (figure 12). low rainfall was also recorded in 2007 (80.1 mm), 1987 (102.8 mm) and 1982 (113.4 mm). the average low rainfall over thirteen (13) years is 141.3 mm (figure 13). the irregular rainfall observed at ngouri is also found at bol. the low rainfall in the region has a negative impact on production. increasingly dry and violent winds in the lake region generally speaking, the intertropical zone is the domain of trade winds, including the harmattan or boreal trade wind. this is a dry wind that considerably dries out nature. it then transports fine particles (sand, silt, etc.), giving rise to dry mists. it comes from the saharan anticyclone. it carries winds from the east and north-west of the sahara to the south-west, and dominates during the dry season. according to natron operators, the wind generally blows from november to february or march. another type of wind that prevails in the lake region is the so-called monsoon. this is a moisture-laden maritime wind. it moves in the opposite direction to the harmattan. of these two air masses, harmattan is the main cause of silting in the natron valleys at le lac (table 3). table 3 shows that the average wind speed at mao varies from season to season. the average maximum wind speed oscillates between 1.6 m/s and 1.9 m/s. the absolute maximum wind speed recorded at mao was 4.7 m/s in november 1989. due to the lack of wind speed data in the lac region, the mao data were collected in the kanem region, adjacent to the lac region. in addition, the old data on rainfall table 3: average wind speed (m/s) for mao année j f m a m j j a s o n d t 1970 2,1 2,5 2,3 2,3 2,0 2,0 2,0 1,6 1,9 2,3 2,5 2,6 2,2 1971 2,4 2,4 2,3 2,3 2,2 2,3 2,2 1,6 1,7 2,3 2,6 2,7 2,3 1972 2,2 2,7 2,7 2,0 1,9 1,9 1,9 2,1 1,9 2,1 2,8 2,5 2,2 1973 2,5 2,5 2,7 2,4 2,4 2,1 2,3 1,7 1,9 2,3 2,9 2,5 2,4 1974 3,1 2,8 2,8 2,1 2,3 2,3 2,1 1,7 1,8 2,0 2,6 2,7 2,4 1975 2,6 2,3 2,4 2,1 2,0 2,2 1,9 2,0 1,8 2,1 2,2 2,6 2,2 1976 2,3 2,5 2,2 2,3 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,0 1,6 1,8 2,1 2,2 2,1 1977 2,3 2,8 3,2 2,4 2,0 2,1 2,3 1,6 1,6 2,2 2,1 2,4 2,3 1978 2,2 2,1 2,4 1,9 1,8 2,1 2,1 1,6 1,6 1,5 2,1 2,1 2,0 1985 3,0 3,2 3,5 3,0 2,9 2,2 1,9 2,1 1,8 2,0 2,1 1,9 2,5 1989 3,1 3,3 3,9 2,2 2,2 2,7 2,7 2,4 1,8 3,6 4,7 3,8 3,0 source : dgm of n’djamena (2019) and temperature are due to the lack of data data available from the general directorate of meteorology. conclusion ultimately, the study concludes that the destruction of the ecosystem is generally caused by man and by nigerian refugees, nigeriens, returnees and internally displaced chadians, who are directly involved in modifying the plant landscapes of the lac and kaya in a very significant way. this is to harvest firewood, charcoal, etc., leading to deforestation associated with human settlements and their expansion. however, as this ecosystem is degraded, the consequences for mankind are far-reaching. for farmers and shepherds in lac and kaya, this degradation of plant resources has a considerable impact on cereal and pastoral production. references anoubacar, i. and bertrand, g., (2009). from fixed dune to recovered basin: the example of the natural resource management support project in niger, 27. anthelme, f., waziri, m. m., et al., (2006). degradation of plant resources in contact with human activities and conservation prospects in the aïr massif (sahara, niger). in dossier: africa facing sustainable development 7(2). barry, t. a., (1997). silting in guinea: causes, effects and assessment of actions taken against silting. in isesco, tunisia, 51-77. bayang, s., (2002). agropastoral activities in lallé (chad) and their impact on the environment. maîtrise de recherches en géographie dissertation. university of n’ndjamena, 78. bayang s., (2009). natron production in the ouadis of pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 15-23, 2023 kaya and andja (chad) and its socio-economic impact. master’s thesis in geography. université de ngaoundéré, 159. bayang, s., (2023). the environmental and socioeconomic impact of the silting up of natron valleys in the lake region (western chad). phd thesis in geography. university of maroua, 356. beauvilain, a., (1995). rainfall table in chad and bénoué basin from station creation to december 1984. cnar, n’djamena, 103. beauvilain, a., (1996). rainfall in the lake chad basin. n’djamena, 15. bonfils, m., (1987). halting desertification in the sahel. kartala, paris, 263. bouquet, c., (1973). islands and shores of southern kanem: a study of regional geography. ceget, bordeaux, 200. diapama, j. m., (2009). the risks of ecosystem degradation linked to cotton cultivation in burkina faso: the case of pô national park. in revue de l’université de moncton, 40(2), 29-52. hach, s., (1997). silting in morocco: extent, location, treatment and economic evaluation of interventions. in isesco. tunisia, 79-96. isesco and acct, (1997). silting control and dune stabilization. tunisia, 197. khatteli, h., (1997). inventory and technical evaluation of actions to combat silting in the six governorates of southern tunisia. in isesco. tunisia, 23-49. khatteli, h., (1997). synthesis of the main research results obtained in the field of erosion and silting control in arid and desert tunisia. tunisia, 143-154. koumbaye, b., (1996). drought and desertification: consequences on the lives of chadians. in institut panos, n’djamena, 19-25. mahamat, m. d., (1997). chad’s experience in combating silting in isesco. tunisia, 133-142. mbaidedji, n. f., (2010). the protection of the environment at the lake: several challenges to be met. in chad and culture. 289. 16-17. mbaîdedji, n. f., (2010). sodelac: hedgerows to counter silting. chad and culture. 289, 17. mbaïro, p., (2008). geographical analysis of silting processes and wind erosion control strategies in the southern part of the kanem department. dea in geography. university of ngaoundéré, 75. mohamed, t., (1997). considering physical and climatic constraints in combating desertification and stabilizing dunes: the case of jaffera in south eastern tunisia. in isesco. tunisia, 165-187. mouradi, b., (2009). combating the silting-up of oases in mauritania. republic of chad, 1998. law no 014/pr/98. 15 p. republic of chad, 2018. environmental and social impact study. 94 p. saleh, m., a., (2008). the degradation of the ecosystem restricts living space: productive agricultural land is shrinking. the progress n° 2448, 19 june 2008, 12-13. zabeirou, t., (1997). niger’s experience in combating silting. in isesco, tunisia, 103-132. zouhair, m., (1997). activities to combat silting in the médenine governorate (southern tunisia). in isesco, tunisia, 17-22. pa ge 1 pa ge 91 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) relationship between climate variables (rainfall and temperature) and ginger yield across the climate belts of nigeria okoye n. n.1*, nwagbara m. o.2, weli v. e.3 volume 2 issue 3, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i3.1846 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: september 27, 2023 accepted: october 30, 2023 published: november 08 2023 rainfall and temperature are very important elements and factors of weather and climate needed in the successful production of crops, including ginger. the relationship of these elements and ginger yield has not been given the due attention in nigeria. therefore, this study examined the relationship between climate (rainfall and temperature) and ginger yield across the climate belts of nigeria. rainfall and temperaturedata were obtained for the study from nigerian meteorological agency (nimet), abuja while ginger yield data were collected from the experimental farms of national root crops research institute (nrcri), umudike, agricultural development programme (adp) and nigerian bureau of statistics, abuja. these data covered a period of 40 years (1980 -2019) and were analysed using simple linear regression, correlation and analysis of variance (anova). results obtained showed thatrainfall and temperature significantly predicted ginger yield across the four climate belts at p<0.05:tropical monsoon(tm) (f,12.0934)and jointly explained 45.2% of variation in ginger yield(r=.672and the r2=.452);tropical savanna (ts)(f,17.3452)and jointly explained 35.6% of variation in ginger yield (r = .597 and r2= .356);warm semi-arid (wsa) (f,24.9501)and jointly explained 20.9% of variation in ginger yield (r= .457 and r2= .209); and warm desert (wd)(f,29.8517) and jointly explained 30.1% of variation in ginger yield(r =.549 and r2= .301).based on these results, it is concluded here that there is a significant relationship between rainfall and temperature and ginger yields over the years and across the climate belts. the study recommends among others that planting and harvesting of ginger by farmers should align with the seasons as found in each of the four climate belts. keywords climate variables, rainfal, temperature, ginger yield, climate belts 1 agro-met unit, national root crops research institute, umudike, abia state, nigeria 2 department of water resources and agrometeorology, michael okpara, university of agriculture, umudike, abia state, nigeria 3 department of geography and environmental management, university of port harcourt, chuba, uturu, abia state, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: nkimoore@yahoo.com introduction ginger (zingiber officinale rosc.), belonging to the zingiberaceae family originated from southeast asia (shuhaimi et al., 2012) and has been cultivated for thousands of years for use as a spice and for herbal medicinal purposes (akram et al., 2011) is a commercially important herbaceous perennial plant, usually grown as an annual spice. it is extensively cultivated in the tropical to temperate climates of the world for its flavour, and pungency, and aromatic and healing characteristics associated with its essential oil and oleoresin contents (srinivasan et al., 2018). ginger can be grown under both rainfed and irrigated conditions depending on the frequency and distribution of rainfall (sharma & sharma, 2012).the underground rhizomes are thick, hard and much branched, giving rise to primary, secondary and tertiary rhizomes. the mature roots of ginger are fibrous and the juice from old ginger roots is extremely potent and often used as spices and a quintessential ingredient of chinese, korea, japanese and many south asian cuisines for flavouring dishes (jakes, 2007). it is also used largely as recipes such as ginger bread, cookies, crackers, cakes, ginger-ale and ginger beer. the medicinal values of these great ancient spices are widely recognized across the continents to contain a number of unique organic phytochemical ingredients that can take care of some human ailments. recent studies on health related effects of ginger which have also stimulated farmers concern on the growth of the plant have shown the efficacy of the plant in some life challenging ailments such as enterotoxin induced diarrhoea, diabetic nephropathy, nausea, plasma antioxidant, vomiting, high cholesterol, high blood pressure and inflammation (chen et al., 2019; ernest and pittler, 2008; kim et al., 2010). the current major five exporting countries have been china, nigeria, india, jamaica, and brazil asumugha (2003). nigeria is the fifth largest producer of ginger in the world (fao, 2014) and the largest producer and exporter of ginger in africa (fao, 2008). ginger is one of ten commodities identified by the united states of america international department (usaid) and nigerian export promotion council (nepc) in 2002 as having the greatest potential for creating increased economic growth, external and internal trade, opportunities for employment, and increased income and wealth for nigerians (sidi et al., 2014). the cultivation of ginger in recent years especially in the rainforest zone of nigeria is on the increase (egbuchua and enujeke, 2013). for successful cultivation of the ginger, a moderate rainfall at the sowing time till the rhizomes sprout, fairly heavy and well-distributed showers during the growing period, and dry weather with a temperature of 280 to 350c for about a month before harvesting are necessary (zaied & zouabi, 2016; garberof & jäckering, 2021; singh, et al., 2022). temperature above 350c and sunlight can result in leave scorch particularly in young plants on pa ge 92 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 the other hand, low temperatures induce dormancy while high humidity throughout the crop period is necessary (pavlova et al., 2014, byrnes & bumb, 2017; borras, et al., 2022, salnikov et al., 2022; karatayev et al., 2022). in nigeria, ginger is a crop mostly grown in tropical savanna climate belt with kaduna state as the chief producer (ayodele & sambo, 2014). although, in recent times with the increase in population growth and demand, ginger is now being produced in other climate belts of nigeria particularly in the tropical monsoon (such as abia, anambra, cross river, delta and imo states), tropical savanna which includes kaduna and nasarawa states, warm semi-arid (sokoto and zamfara) and warm desert climate (bernard 2008, ayodele & sambo, 2014). in nigeria, cultivation of crops is generally rain fed and with significant diurnal and seasonal variations in temperature thus making rainfall and temperature strong factors in crop production in the country. rainfall does not start at the same time across the country and amounts also vary from the coast hinterland with the coastal areas receiving the highest while the extreme north receives the lowest. the success of ginger cultivation across nigeria could be said to be largely dependent on rainfall and temperature, which are not only elements of weather and climate but also factors of climate. despite this and the estimated magnitude of nutritional and potential economic importance of ginger farming in nigeria, the impact of rainfall and temperature on the yields of ginger across the climate belts of nigeria has not received the deserved attention. materials and methods the study area is nigeria and lies between longitudes 2° 49’e – 14° 37’e and latitudes 4° 16’n – 13° 52’n (fig. 1). it is bounded on the north by the republic of niger, east by cameroon and west by benin republic while the southern boundary is gulf of guinea which is an arm of the atlantic ocean (ofomata, 1975). nigeria has four climate types following koppen’s climate classification. these climate types are distinguishable from the southern part of nigeria to the northern part through northcentral nigeria. they are tropical monsoon climate (am), tropical savanna climate (aw), warm semi-arid climate (bsh), and warm desert climate (swh) (but for easy identification of these climate belts in this study, they were recoded as tm, ts, wsa and wd respectively). the tropical monsoon climate has a very small temperature range. the temperature ranges are almost constant throughout the year. the southern part of nigeria experiences heavy and abundant rainfall. these storms are usually convectional in nature due to the regions proximity, to the equatorial belt. the annual rainfall received in this region is very high, usually above the 2,000mm (78.7 in) rainfall totals giving for tropical rainforest climates worldwide. over 4,000 m (157.5 in) of rainfall is received in the coastal region of nigeria around the niger delta area (mmom, 2003).the tropical savannah climate or tropical wet and dry climate, is extensive in area and covers most of western and northcentral parts of nigeria beginning from the tropical monsoon climate boundary in southern nigeria to the central part of nigeria, where it exerts enormous influence on the region. this climate exhibits a wellmarked rainy season and a dry season with a single peak known as the summer maximum due to its distance from the equator. temperatures are above 18°c (64 °f) throughout the year (obasi and ikubuwaje, 2012). rainfall total in tropical savanna nigeria varies from 1,100 mm (43.3 in) in the lowlands of the river niger benue trough to over 2,000 mm (78.7 in) along the south western escarpment of the jos plateau (okoh et al., 2017). the warm semi-arid climate or tropical dry climate is the predominant climate type in the northern part of nigeria. annual rainfall totals are lower compared to the figure 1: map of nigeria showing the study area (tropical monsoon climate belt) pa ge 93 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 tropical monsoon and tropical savanna belts of nigeria. the rainy season in this belt last for only three to four months (june–september) while the rest of the year is hot and dry with temperatures climbing as high as 40°c (okoh et al., 2011). due to their location in the tropics, this elevation is high enough to reach the temperate climate line in the tropics thereby giving the highlands, mountains and the plateau regions standing above this height, a cool mountain climate (oluwole and ike, 2013). nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannahs (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land. (the latter is the least common, and is mainly found in the mountains near the cameroon border.) both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts. some of the forest zone’s most southerly portion, especially around the niger river and cross river deltas, is mangrove swamp. north of this is fresh water swamp, containing different vegetation from the salt water mangrove swamps, and north of that is rain forest (olajuyigbe & adaja, 2014).the savannah zone’s three categories are divided into guinean forestsavanna mosaic, made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees, the most common across the country; sudan savannah, similar but with shorter grasses and shorter trees; and sahel savannah patches of grass and sand found in the northeast (mohammed, 2013). the data used in this study included the primary and secondary data types. the secondary data are the climate data covering a period of 40 years from 1980 to 2019 included mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures; and mean monthly rainfall were obtained from the office of nigerian meteorological agency (nimet), abuja for this study, and data on ginger in tons per hectare were collected from the experimental farms of national root crops research institute (nrcri), umudike, agricultural development programme (adp) and nigerian bureau of statistics, abuja.. the study employed the use of statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 22. simple linear regression and correlation were employed to explain the time series variations in meteorological parameters and ginger yield. the analysis of variance (anova) was used because it has the capacity to determine the divergence in the mean of data, particularly, when the data sets are up to or more than three independent sets (wahab & jiao, 2020; kumawat & yadav, 2021). results and discussions table 1 shows the mean monthly distribution of rainfall amounts in the climate belts of nigeria. during the study period, the month of january was wetter in the tropical monsoon (tm) climate belt with mean monthly rainfall of 33.5mm. the highest mean total rainfall amount of 348.4mm was recorded in the month of september whereas the lowest mean total rainfall amount of 33.1mm was recorded in the month of december. the month of july also recorded high amount of rainfall of 327.2mm followed by june that recorded 291.9mm mean amount of rainfall. there is rainfall in all the months of tm climate belt. the warm desert (wd) climate belt recorded the lowest amount of mean monthly rainfall. its highest mean monthly rainfall of 202.1mm was in the month of august followed by the month of july which recorded 173.9mm amount of rainfall. the lowest amount of rainfall of 6.4mm was recorded in the month of april. the wd climate had total number of six months of rainfall which starts from the month of april and ends in the month of october. the wd climate recorded the highest number of months without rainfall (january, february, march, november and december). the mean monthly rainfall amount is higher than that of the tropical savanna (ts) climate belt which had a mean monthly rainfall for january as 9.3mm. in ts climate, the highest mean total amount of 265.5mm rainfall was recorded in the month of september as well whereas the lowest of 9.3mm of mean rainfall amount was recorded in the month of january. the month of july also recorded high amount of rainfall of 222.9mm, followed by june which recorded 210.4mm. ts climate had rainfall in all the months. the other two climate belts of warm semi-arid (wsa) climate belt and the warm desert climate are exceptionally dry in the month of january with 0.2mm and 0mm of mean monthly rainfall respectively. the same pattern can be seen for february and march. though, in april, the sign of wetness is witnessed in the warm desert climate and a 6.4mm mean monthly rainfall is documented. for wsa climate, the highest mean monthly rainfall of 205.7mm was observed in the month of august and 179.4mm in the month of july while the lowest was 0.2mm in the month of january. however, the months of november and december recorded 0.0mm and 0.0mm respectively making it have total number of seven months of rainfall. table 2 reveals the analysis of variance for differences in the seasonal amounts of rainfall in the study area. the table 1: monthly rainfall (mm) distribution across the climate belts of nigeria (1980-2019) months tropical monsoon climate tropical savanna warm semi-arid climate warm desert climate january 33.5 9.3 0.2 0 february 54.8 20.8 0.3 0 march 126.4 55.2 1.8 0.3 april 186 113.7 7.9 6.4 may 248.6 175.2 52.2 30.9 june 291.9 210.4 82.5 75.3 pa ge 94 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 seasons were the december january and february (djf), march april and may (mam), june july and august (jja), then september october and november (son). the essence here was to see if there have been differences in the patterns of rainfall within the seasons of the year. it is also critical to understand that whereas the second season (mam) is critical for the planting, the third season (jja) is majorly for growth and maturity of root and tuber crops in nigeria, while the fourth (son) and the first (djf) seasons are critical for the harvest and storage of root and tuber crops in nigeria in the tropical monsoon climate. similarly, the second season (mam). for the tropical monsoon, all the seasons appeared to have been significantly different at p<0.05. the same can be said about the other climate belts of the country. this explains in clear terms that there have been significant changes in the seasonal rainfall amounts across the climate belts of the country over the past 40years (1980 – 2019). the temperature data presented in figure 2 shows that in the tropical monsoon climate belt, temperature ranged from 25.60c in july to 27.5 in may. the months of june july august, appear cooler due to the effect of the rainy season in this belt at this period of the year. the tropical savanna climate belt observed the highest temperature a little differently from the tropical monsoon climates’. in this belt the highest temperature was encountered in the months of march and april, with 28.50c and 28.70c respectively. the coolest temperature was recorded in september with a mean monthly temperature of 26.10c. in the warm semi-arid climate, april also recorded the highest temperature of 29.50c. the coldest month was the month of january with a temperature of 230c. july 327.2 222.9 179.4 173.9 august 282.8 203.8 205.7 202.1 september 348.4 265.5 108.5 102.7 october 277.3 167.4 20.4 13.2 november 103.5 27.3 0 0 december 33.1 11.2 0 0.1 mean 2313.7 1482.6 659 604.8 table 2: seasonal differences in rainfall in the climate belts tropical monsoon months groups sum of squares df mean square f sig. djf between 902365.12 3 157 7.1363 .006 within 813565.23 116 22 mam between 848565.13 3 144 13.0909 .001 within 712265.11 116 11 jja between 765165.13 3 163 11.6428 .003 within 622365.15 116 14 son between 635565.21 3 164 13.6666 .000 within 479765.11 116 12 tropical savanna djf between 772639.33 3 451 6.6323 .040 within 684730.31 116 68 mam between 580822.56 3 131 7.7058 .031 within 474914.16 116 17 jja between 259005.85 3 168 16.800 .000 within 164097.54 116 10 son between 147189.23 3 289 15.2105 .000 within 44280.22 116 19 warm semi-arid climate djf between 880364.11 3 201 10.5789 .001 within 704455.45 116 19 mam between 557547.15 3 189 12.6000 .000 within 245638.24 116 15 jja between 644729.99 3 204 9.2727 .001 within 192178.99 116 22 pa ge 95 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 the reason for the low temperature in january is the closeness of the region to the sahara desert and the cold tropical continental air mass which is more boisterous at that time of the year thereby affecting temperature of the area. this same condition applies to the warm desert climate, which also had its coldest mean monthly temperature in the month of january (22.60c). table 3 reveals the anova computations for differences in the seasonal mean temperature in the study area. for the tropical monsoon, all the seasons appeared to have been significantly different at p<0.05. in the tropical savanna belt all the other seasons of the year were significantly different at p<0.05, but djf was not significant at p>0.05. this could be possibly caused by the closeness of the son between 843564.12 3 228 17.5384 .000 within 563455.11 116 13 warm desert climate djf between 868557.39 3 296 12.3333 .000 within 622659.45 116 24 mam between 730354.01 3 189 14.5384 .000 within 631255.7 116 13 jja between 606760.77 3 263 16.4375 .000 within 550862.47 116 16 son between 499464.16 3 223 10.6190 .001 within 239065.85 116 21 djf=december, january, february; mam=may, june, july; jja=june, july, august; son=september, october, november figure 2: mean monthly temperature distribution across the climate belts of nigeria table 3: seasonal differences in temperature across the climate belts in nigeria tropical monsoon months groups sum of squares df mean square f sig. djf between 900365.22 3 123 10.2500 .000 within 854565.2 116 12 mam between 808765.17 3 181 12.0667 .000 within 762965.15 116 15 jja between 717165.13 3 103 5.7222 .012 within 671365.10 116 18 son between 625565.08 3 134 6.3810 .010 within 579765.05 116 21 tropical savanna djf between 672639.08 3 89 1.4127 1.04 within 586730.77 116 63 mam between 500822.47 3 112 5.8947 .034 within 414914.16 116 19 jja between 329005.85 3 193 4.2889 .041 within 243097.54 116 45 pa ge 96 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 region to the region where the tropical continental air mass prevails at the time of the year. in the warm semiarid climate, it was mam that was not significant at p>0.05. the other seasons of the year were significant at p<0.05. finally, the warm desert climate had all seasons of the year statistically significantly different at p<0.05 except djf season that was not significant at p>0.05. figure 3a reveals the time series plot for rainfall in the tropical monsoon climate belt. the plot yielded a model with an r2 0.6 and y=1.85x + 2269.5. the model revealed a quasi-decadal pattern with no much noticed anomaly or deviation. also, figure 3b showed that there are some inherent anomalies in the rainfall distribution. particularly, 1986 was exceptionaly dry and represented son between 157189.23 3 123 7.2352 .020 within 71280.926 116 17 warm semi-arid climate djf between 980364.23 3 108 9.8182 .000 within 744455.67 116 11 mam between 508547.11 3 192 2.4304 .231 within 272638.55 116 79 jja between 636729.99 3 134 9.5714 .003 within 199178.56 116 14 son 830564.006 3 117 7.8000 .005 624455.698 116 15 warm desert climate djf between 718557.39 3 161 1.6598 .067 within 662659.08 116 97 mam between 830354.01 3 110 5.0000 .001 within 774455.7 116 22 jja between 606760.77 3 143 3.7632 .051 within 550862.47 116 38 son between 494964.16 3 119 4.9583 0.041 within 439065.85 116 24 djf=december, january, february; mam=may, june, july; jja=june, july, august; son=september, october, november. figure 3: rainfall and temperature time series and anomaly plots for the tropical monsoon climate belt. pa ge 97 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 the year with the driest rainfall with anormaly value of -350mm. in figure 3c the temperature timeseries plot is presented. in the figure the temperature ranges between 260c to 30.50c. the temperature appeared to be on the increase contineously, although with some anomalies. there are two deviations within the continum, as seen in the year 1995 and 2004. in figure 3d showed the anormalies in the temperature data, where 1995 and 2002 were very cool with the temperature anomalies of -1.50c for each of them. figure 4a reveals the time series plot for rainfall in the tropical savanna climate belt. the plot yielded a model with an r2=0.046 and y=58.15x. the model revealed a quasi-decadal pattern with no much anomaly or outliers. on the other hand, figure 4b showed that there are some inherent anomalies in the rainfall distribution. particularly, 1996 was abnormaly dry and represented the year with the driest rainfall with anormaly value of -45mm. in figure 4c the temperature timeseries plot is presented. in the figure the temperature ranges between 260c to 29.50c. the temperature appeared to be on the increase contineously, although with some anomalies. there are two deviations within the continum, as seen in the year 2016 and 2018. in figure 4d showed the anormalies in the temperature data, where 2013 and 2015 were very cool with the temperature anomalies of -0.130c figure 4: rainfall and temperature time series and anomaly plots for the tropical savanna climate belt. and 0.150c respectively. figure 5a reveals the time series plot for rainfall in the warm semi-arid climate belt. the plot yielded a model with an r2 0.7 and y=35.05x. the model revealed a quasi-decadal pattern with two peaks while figure 5b shows that there are some inherent anomalies in the rainfall distribution. particularly, 1995 was abnormaly dry and represented the year with the driest rainfall with anormaly value of -48mm. in figure 5c, the temperature timeseries plot is presented. in the figure the temperature ranges between 260c to 280c. the temperature appeared to be on the increase contineously, although with some anomalies. there is one peak within the continum, as seen in the year 2010. in figure 5d,it is shown that the anormalies in the temperature data, where 2010 was very cool with the temperature anomaly of 0.150c. figure 6a reveals the time series plot for rainfall in the warm desert climate belt. the plot yielded a model with an r2 = 0.55 and y=1.17x + 692.73. the model revealed a quasi-decadal pattern with two peaks. however, figure 6b showed that there are some inherent anomalies in the rainfall distribution. particularly, 2000 was abnormaly dry and represented the year with the driest rainfall with anormaly value of -212mm. in figure 6c, the temperature timeseries plot is presented. in figure 6c, the temperature ranges between 26.50c to 31.50c. the temperature appeared to be on the increase continuously, although with some anomalies and a decade long consistent temperature distribution. there is three peaks within the continum, as seen in the years 1988 (30.50c) 1997 (30.70c) and 2017 (310c). figure 6d shows the anormalies in the temperature data, where 1997 was very hot with the temperature anomaly of 2.50c. most of the agricultural practices in the country are climate dependent. it is therefore possible to trace the yields of crops to the climate type of the place. it is also very common to use the amount and buoyancy of rainfall and temperature to measure these relationships. this is because these elements of weather and climate are pervasive and have controlling effects on other components of the environment. table 4indicates the pa ge 98 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 figure 5: rainfall and temperature time series and anomaly plots for the warm semi-arid climate belt. figure 6: rrainfall and temperature time series and anomaly plots for the warm desert climate belt. relationship between climate (rainfall and temperature) and the yields of ginger over the years. here, the dependent variable (ginger) is regressed against rainfall and temperature (predictors). in the tropical monsoon climate belt, the rainfall and temperature significantly predicted ginger yield (f=12.0934; p<0.05) which indicates that temperature and rainfall play significant role in the yield of ginger in the tropical monsoon climate belt. the model revealed a positive relationship (r=0.672) and the r2 was .452. this means that rainfall and temperature jointly explained 45.2% of variation in ginger yield in the tropical monsoon belt of nigeria. in the tropical savanna climate belt, the rainfall and temperature significantly predicted ginger yield (f=17.3452; p<0.05) which indicates that temperature and rainfall play significant role in the yield of ginger in the tropical savanna climate belt. the model revealed a positive relationship (r=.597) and the r2 was .356. this pa ge 99 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 means that rainfall and temperature jointly explained 35.6% of variation in ginger yield in the tropical savanna belt of nigeria. in the warm semi-arid climate belt, the rainfall and temperature significantly predicted ginger yield (f=24.9501; p<0.05) which indicates that temperature and rainfall play significant role in the yield of ginger in the warm semi-arid climate belt (b1= r; .173 p<0.05, b2= t.343 p<0.05). the model revealed a positive relationship (r=.457) and the r2 was .209. this means that rainfall and temperature jointly explained 20.9% of the variation in ginger yield in the warm semiarid environment of nigeria. table 4: the relationship between ginger yields and climate (rainfall and temperature) in the climate belts of nigeria climate zone regression weights n beta r r2 f p-value tm rainfall, temp→ginger 40 .332 .672 .452 12.0934 0.004 .423 ts rainfall, temp→ginger 40 .354 .597 .356 17.3452 0.003 .341 wsa rainfall, temp→ginger 40 .173 .457 .209 24.9501 0.040 .343 wd rainfall, temp→ginger 40 .317 .549 .301 29.8517 0.002 .281 n:b: tm=tropical monsoon; ts=tropical savanna; wsa= warm semi-arid climate; wd=warm desert climate. in the warm desert climate environment, rainfall and temperature significantly predicted ginger yield (f=29.8517; p<0.05) which implies that temperature and rainfall play significant role in the yield of ginger in the warm desert climate environment. the model revealed a positive relationship (r=.549) and the r2 was .301. this means that rainfall and temperature jointly explained 30.1% of variation in ginger yield in the warm desert climate belt of nigeria. discussion of findings climate, especially rainfall and temperature, is generally perceived to affect the growth, development and yield of crops in nigeria (agele & bolarinwa, 2018). annual, seasonal and monthly rainfall and temperature values have been seen from the results of the study that they vary with climate belt thus affecting the yields of ginger across the climate belts of nigeria. the relatively low amounts of rainfall of wsa and wd climate belts as against tm and ts threatened the yield of ginger in the belts which call for irrigation if maximum yield is to be attained (agele & bolarinwa, 2018). this is corroborated by zaied & zouab, (2016), garbero, & jäckering (2021) and singh, et al. (2022) who stated that successful production of ginger can be attained where a moderate rainfall at the sowing time till the rhizomes sprout, fairly heavy and well-distributed showers during the growing period, and dry weather with a temperature of 280 to 350c for about a month before harvesting are available. on the other hand, flooding and water-logging resulting from heavy rainfall and water stress such as drought resulting inadequate rainfall reduce the yields of root and tuber crops including ginger (ayanlade, et al., 2010). generally, the identified climate events that affect ginger farming are extreme rainfall (tm & ts), flooding (tm, ts & wsa) and drought conditions (ts, wsa & wd). this is in line with the work of (nwachukwu et al., 2012) who affirms that rainfall and temperature significantly affect agricultural production. the assessment of the mean monthly temperature for the various climatic belts showed that there has been a difference in the monthly temperatures which ranged from 0.50c to 2.10c. in the tm climate belt, the months of october and april were hottest, while december was coolest. the coldness experienced in december in this belt was caused by the prevailing harmattan wind, which blows over the tm climate belt at this time of the year. the changes in the temperature hotness or coldness were traceable largely to the controls of the climate of nigeria. and these include; but not limited to air masses (tropical maritime and tropical continental), elevation, rotation and revolution. on the anthropogenic side, urbanization, transportation, gas flaring, deforestation and the burning of bushes could be held accountable (onwuka, 2012), as climate change becomes a topic of concern around the world (hamisi & abdillah, 2022: amosah et al., 2023). in the other belts that is, the ts, wsa and wd, the months of april, may and november were very critical as they stood out as the very hottest and erratic months of the year, when it came to temperature. this finding corroborated the finding of (ayodele & sambo, 2014). the temperature ranged from 25.6 0c in july to 27.5 0c in may for the tm. the months of june july august, were cooler because of the rainy season in this belt at this period of the year. the tropical savanna climate belt observed the highest temperature a little differently from the tropical monsoon climates belt in which temperature ranged from 26.10c in december to 28.70cin april. in the warm semi-arid climate belt, april also recorded the highest temperature of 29.5 0c. the coldest month was the month of january with a temperature of 230c. the adducible reason for this low temperature in january is the closeness of the region to the sahara desert and the cold tropical continental air mass which is more boisterous at pa ge 10 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 91-100, 2023 that time of the, year thereby affecting temperature of the area. this same condition applies to the warm desert climate belt, which also had its coldest mean monthly temperature in the month of january (22.60c). this finding is in line with (onyeka, 2014), who argued that the sahara desert and the atlantic ocean play significant roles in the climatic outcomes of nigeria. whereas, the atlantic ocean provides a cooling effect to the south, the sahara desert play both cooling and heating effect to the north section of the country (onwuka, 2012).in general, the temperatures across the climate belts are relatively good for the successful production of ginger as the temperatures are not above 350c to leave scorch particularly in young plants and also not low to the extent of inducing dormancy.the works of byrnes & bumb(2017); borras, et al. (2022) and salnikov et al.(2022) corroborate this assertion. conclusion there is a significant relationship between rainfall and temperature and ginger yield from 1980 to 2019. also, rainfall is more variable than temperature over the period studied and across the climate belts. ginger is purely a product of the rainfall and temperature as observed, other climate variables and factors notwithstanding. this study recommended that climate smart agriculture should be encouraged. planting and harvesting of ginger by farmers should align with the seasons as found in each of the four climate belts. also, improvement in the agricultural practice and technology for farming is greatly needed. if nigeria continues to rely on rainfall for ginger production without involving irrigation when the rains are gone will make the country not maximize the yield of the crop, and by extension reducing the economic benefits from ginger. therefore, dams should be built by governments at all levels (federal, state and local government area) so as to encourage irrigation. references akram, a., merunka, d. and shakaib akram, m. (2011). perceived brand globalness in emerging markets and the moderating role of consumer ethnocentrism. international journal of emerging markets, 6(4), 291303. https://doi.org/10.1108/17468801111170329 amosah j. lukman t. & nabomya e.d. (2023). assessing indigenous and modern adaptation strategies to climate change among legumes producers in the bongo district of the upper east region, ghana. american journal of environment and climate, 2(2), 1-14 asumugha, g. n., ayaegbunam, h. n., ezulike, t. o., nwosu, k. l. (2006). guide to ginger production and marketing in nigeria. national root crops research institute, umudike nigeria. ext. guide 7,1-7 chen, g. t., yuan, b., wang, h. x., qi, g. h. and cheng, s. j. (2019). characterization and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides obtained from ginger pomace using two different extraction processes. international journal of biological macromolecules, 139, 801–809. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijbiomac.2019.08.048 egbuchua, c. n. & enujeke, e. c. (2013). growth and yield responses of ginger (zingiber officinale) to three sources of organic manures in a typical rainforest zone, nigeria. j. hortic. for., 5(7), 109-114. ernest, e, pittler, m. h. (2008). efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trial. br. j. anesth. 84(3), 367-371. fao (2008a). soaring food prices: facts, perspectives, impacts and actions required. document hlc/08/ inf/1 prepared for the high level conference on world food security: the challenges of climate change and bioenergy, 3–5 june 2008, rome faostat (2014). production– crops (2014) data. food and agriculture organization of the united nations. www.fao.org/faostat. garbero, a., & jäckering, l. (2021). the potential of agricultural programs for improving food security: a multi-country perspective. global food security, 29, 100529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100529 hamisi, s. h., & abdillah, m. k. (2022). role of climate change during the covid-19 pandemic. american journal of environment and climate, 1(3), 12–16. j. m., woodley, c. m., cech, jr., j. j., and hansen. l. j., (2004). effects of global climate change on marine and estuarine fishes and fisheries. reviews in fish biology and fisheries, 14, 251-275. jakes j.s. (2007). ginger as “beverage of champion”. j. plant nutr. 38(6), 45-56. kim, j.s. and kim, m.j. (2010). in vitro antioxidant activity of lespedeza cuneata methanolic extracts. paavola, j. (2003). livelihoods, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in the morogoro region, tanzania centre for social and economic research on the global environment, university of east anglia, norwich nr4 7tj, uk working paper edm roessig, sharma m, sharma r. (2011). synergistic antifungal activity of curcuma longa (turmeric) and zingiber officinale (ginger) essential oils against dermatophyte infections. j essent oil bear plants., 14(1), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0972060x.2011.10643899. shuhaimi-o. m., nadzifah, y., umirah, n. s., ahmad, a. k. (2012). toxicity of metals to tadpoles of common sunda toad, duttaphrynus melanostictus . toxicological and environmental chemistry. 94(2), 364–376. singh, r. k., joshi, p. k., sinha, v. s. p., kumar, m. (2022). indicator based assessment of food security in saarc nations under the influence of climate change scenarios. future foods, 5100122. srinivasan, k. (2018). ginger rhizomes (zingiber officinale): a spice with multiple health beneficial potentials. pharma nutrition, 5(1), 18–28. https:// doi. org/10.1016/j.phanu.2017.01.001 zaied, y. b., & zouabi, o. (2016). impacts of climate change on tunisian olive oil output. climatic change, 139(3–4), 535–549. https://doi. org/10.1007/ s10584-016-1801-3 pa ge 1 pa ge 12 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) seagrass diversity and distribution in maribojoc bay, bohol, philippines honey jane c. mascariñas1*, julie b. otadoy2 volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.217 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: april 19, 2022 accepted: april 24, 2022 published: may 3, 2022 seagrasses are major parts of coastal and marine biodiversity. unfortunately, these aquatic plants and their ecological values are virtually unknown to many filipinos. this study assessed the seagrasses in maribojoc bay, particularly in the coastal areas of the three municipalities, namely maribojoc, dauis, panglao, and the city of tagbilaran. ecological assessments were conducted to determine the species composition, abundance, distribution, percent cover, diversity, dominance, and evenness of seagrass species. eight sampling sites were surveyed from october to december 2020. seven seagrass species were identified, with thalassia hemprichii as the most abundant (52.79%). there was a significant difference (p>0.05) in seagrass species relative abundance. the shannon diversity index implies low diversity (h’=1.40) of seagrass species. high dominance (2.98) and low evenness (0.72) were attributed to the high abundance of t. hemprichii in the seagrass beds. the seagrass coverage was characterized by patchy and continuous meadows, with percentage cover ranging from 17.45% (poor) – 60% (good). maribojoc bay had a seagrass percentage cover of 38.65%, which can be classified under “fair” condition. seagrass community structure implies sparse coverage and low diversity, probably due to the deterioration of once-continuous meadows. however, further studies concerning seagrass communities are recommended in order to implement rehabilitation program or improve current management in maribojoc bay. keywords seagrass, relative abundance, percentage cover, biodiversity, maribojoc bay 1 college of technology and allied sciences, bohol island state university, calape, bohol, philippines 2 department of biology, school of arts and sciences, university of san carlos, talamban, cebu, philippines * corresponding author’s email: hjmascarinas@yahoo.com introduction seagrass meadows are among the most productive ecosystems (mcroy & mcmillan, 1997; duarte & chiscano, 1999) and support a whole range of highly valuable ecosystem services that rival those well-known ecosystems such as coral reefs and mangrove forests (phillips & milchakova, 2003; nordlund et al., 2016). about 72 species of seagrasses are found worldwide (saenger et al., 2013). western australia has more than 30 seagrass species recorded. while the philippines has 16 species of seagrasses widely distributed throughout the country (meñez et al., 1983; fortes, 1989; calumpong & meñez, 1997). although unknown to many, seagrasses are beneficial in the province as the majority of boholanos are directly dependent on the coastal resources for food and livelihood. unfortunately, seagrass beds are faced with serious threats from construction and reclamation activities in some parts of bohol (green et al., 2002). in maribojoc bay, human pressure on its coastal area increases as the coastline is fringing a fast-growing city and urbanized municipalities. as observed, the shallow coastal habitats colonized by most seagrass meadows are often either dug up or covered to allow coastal development. multiple environmental stressors, often attributable to human activities have caused seagrass reductions such as water eutrophication, coastal salinity changes, water turbidity in relationship to sediment management, and alien species (orth et al., 2006; waycott et al., 2009). land-based activities also put pressure such as wastewater pollution and run-off from deforestation, mining, and agriculture (hemming & duarte, 2000; short et al., 2011). likewise, climate change is a largescale pressure that affects seagrass ecosystems. hence, resources productivity might be affected in the coming future (mckenzie et al., 2007). if these problems are not addressed, seagrass ecosystems may be threatened by stresses causing the natural productivity and ecosystem values to be compromised and degraded. besides, seagrass degradation will not only cause scarcity in resource availability but affecting as well the ecological integrity of maribojoc bay. this study assessed the composition, abundance, distribution, diversity, and percentage cover of seagrasses in maribojoc bay. the result of this study would help support seagrass conservation so that coastal biodiversity values and services will be optimized and sustained. literature review seagrasses are angiosperms which grow in marine environments. seagrasses are not true grasses. they are called “seagrass” because most species have long green, grass-like leaves. like terrestrial plants, seagrasses have leaves, roots and veins, and produce flowers and seeds (mckenzie, 2008). sea grasses are one of the groups of flowering plants capable of completing their life cycle in a marine environment (kuo & mccomb, 1989). seagrass meadows have evolved important physiological, morphological and ecological adaptations to cope with the range of coastal marine environments they inhabit. the spatial distribution of seagrass meadows heavily influenced by environmental factors such as light, temperature, salinity, nutrient availability, and wave action (orth et al., 2006; hemming & duarte, 2000). being plants, they need light for photosynthesis. light availability https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.217 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:hjmascarinas%40yahoo.com?subject= pa ge 13 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 12-19, 2022 is the most important factor determining seagrass growth and distribution (hall et al., 1999; bach et al., 1998; dennison et al., 1993). likewise, temperature and salinity affect the growth and distribution of seagrasses (masini & manning, 1997; koch & dawes, 1991; bulthuis, 1987) while sheltered conditions (reduced wave action and current velocity) are also often necessary for seagrasses to become established (van katwijk & hermus, 2000; dan et al., 1998; lee long et al., 1993). conversely, seagrass beds affect these physical parameters. they reduce current velocity (koch & gust, 1999; gambi et al., 1990; fonseca & fisher, 1986; fonseca et al., 1982), attenuate wave energy (verduin & backhaus, 2000; koch, 1996; fonseca & cahalan, 1992), change the level of turbulence in the water (koch & gust, 1999; worcester, 1995; ackerman & okubo, 1993; gambi et al., 1990), and enhance light availability by promoting the deposition of suspended sediments (kemp et al., 1984, short & short, 1984). seagrass are mainly found in clear shallow inshore areas between mean sea-level and 25 meters depth. the depth range of seagrass is most likely to be controlled at its deepest edge by the availability of light for photosynthesis (mckenzie, 2008). seagrass abundance typically shows a parabolic pattern with increasing depth, with low abundance towards its shallow limit, increasing to maximal abundance at intermediate depths, and declining exponentially thereafter (duarte, 1991). seagrasses survive in the intertidal zone with most extensive meadows occurring on soft substrates like sand and mud. exposure at low tide, wave action and associated turbidity and low salinity from fresh water inflow determine seagrass species survival at the shallow edge. seagrass plants form small patches that develop into large continuous meadows. these meadows may consist of one or many species, sometimes up to 12 species present within one location (mckenzie, 2008). seagrasses evolved from terrestrial plants which migrated back into the ocean about 75 to 100 million years ago (papenbrock, 2012; orth et al., 2006). seagrasses returned to the sea in a least three separate lineages or families (les et al., 1997). thus, seagrasses are not a taxonomically unified group but a biological or ecological group. the evolutionary adaptations required for survival in the marine environment have led to convergence in morphology (olsen et al., 2016; mckenzie, 2008). seagrasses are a polyphyletic assemblage of basal monocots belonging to four families in the alismatales (larkum et al., 2006; les et al., 1997) namely zosteraceae, hydrocharitaceae, posidoniaceae and cymodoceaceae (tomlinson & vargo, 1966). their common names, like eelgrass, turtle grass, tape grass, shoal grass, and spoon grass, reflect their many shapes and sizes and roles in marine ecosystems (mckenzie, 2008). seagrasses represent a diverse and globally distributed group with up to 76 species occurring in boreal, temperate, and tropical waters (green & short, 2003). while most coastal regions are dominated by one or a few seagrass species, regions in the tropical waters of the indian and western pacific oceans have the highest seagrass diversity with as many as 14 species growing together. antarctica is the only continent without seagrasses. over 30 species can be found within australian waters. the most diverse seagrass communities are in the waters of north-eastern queensland (mckenzie, 2008). the global distribution of seagrass genera is remarkably consistent north and south of the equator. the northern and southern hemispheres share ten seagrass genera and only have one unique genus each. some genera are much more speciose than others, with the genus halophila having the most seagrass species. there are roughly the same number of temperate and tropical seagrass genera as well as species (short et al., 2007). materials and methods sampling and data collection maribojoc bay is situated in the southwestern part of the island province of bohol covering the coastal areas of the four municipalities of maribojoc, cortes, dauis, panglao, and the city of tagbilaran. it has a total of 73.4 kilometers of coastline and covers an area of 145 square kilometers. four sampling stations were established in the three municipalities of maribojoc, dauis, panglao, and the city of tagbilaran (figure 1). at each station, two sampling sites were established, for a total of eight sites surveyed. this study followed a standardized field sampling design consisting of three fixed, parallel, 50m transects (short et al., 2006; mckenzie et al., 2008). at each sampling site, three transect lines were laid perpendicular to the shoreline, each separated from the other by a distance of 100 meters. for each transect line, a quadrat measuring 50cm x 50cm was laid at five-meter intervals along each transect. a total of 11 quadrats were sampled. within each quadrat, biotic variables were measured such as species composition, abundance, distribution, diversity, and percentage cover (mckenzie et al., 2003; short et al., 2006). identification of seagrass species was based on the identification keys by mckenzie et al (2003) and the classification system used by fortes (2013). ecological assessments figure 1. location map of transect lines in eight study sites of maribojoc bay, bohol. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 12-19, 2022 calculation of diversity index relative abundance was calculated to determine the species abundance and its distribution. relative abundance = (n/n)*100 where n = individual species count n=total species count shannon diversity index and simpson index dominance were computed to determine the diversity index, dominance, and evenness of seagrass species among sampling stations. whittaker plot or rank-abundance curve was created using tinn-r version 6.01 and r for windows version 4.0.1. calculation of seagrass coverage estimation of the percent cover for each seagrass species found in each quadrat was done through ocular estimates based on the seagrass percentage cover photo guide (mckenzie et al., 2007). calculations for the cover (c) of each species in each 50cm x 50cm quadrat are as follows (english et al. 1997): the seagrass coverage for each transect was determined by dividing the sum of the average cover for each quadrat by the number of quadrats utilized. the corresponding percent cover per sampling site was determined by getting the total percent cover of transects divided by the number of transects used for each sampling site. the percentage of seagrass cover of each sampling site was then categorized using the categories used by jackson and nemeth (2007), where poor = 0-25%, fair =26-50%, good = 51-75%, and excellent = 76-100%. data analysis one-way analysis of variance (anova) was used to test for significant differences at the alpha (α=0.05) level of confidence. the post-hoc test was used in defining the subsets of variance that contribute to differences among sampling stations and between sampling sites. the data was analyzed using spss. results and discussion species composition, abundance, and distribution seven species of seagrass were identified in maribojoc bay, namely cymodocea rotundata, enhalus acoroides, halodule pinifolia, halodule uninervis, halophila ovalis, syringodium isoetifolium, and thalassia hemprichii (table 1). compared to the 16 species that are present in the philippines (meñez et al., 1983; fortes, 1989; calumpong & meñez, 1997), the seagrass in maribojoc bay is about 44% of the total seagrass found in the country. in region 7, about 78% of the total seagrass species were found in 8 surveyed sites that included four municipalities (calape, getafe, mabini, and talibon) in bohol (alcaria et al., 1999). the seagrass species composition in maribojoc bay is comparable to other seagrass beds surveyed in palawan (terrados et al., 1998), pangasinan (vermaat et al., 1995), guimaras island (babaran & ingles, 1996), davao del sur (jumawan et al., 2015), and tawi-tawi (abubakar et al., 2018). there were more seagrass species compared to some surveyed areas in mindanao (orbita & gumban, 2013; redondo et al., 2017) and even southwestern thailand and south sulawesi, indonesia (terrados, et al., 1998; vonk et al., 2008). among the surveyed stations, dauis had all seven seagrass species. the higher number of seagrass species in the area can be due to its landscape, which is a cliffrocky shore. thus, seagrasses are sheltered from direct impact from sediment burial and human disturbances like the construction of tourism facilities, pollution, and human settlements. other stations recorded six or five of the species, and the lowest was in tagbilaran, with only four species found. tagbilaran is located in a highuse bayside that serves as a docking port, tourism, fishing area, and human settlements. the difference in the number of species identified in the four stations could be one factor in the deterioration of the seagrass ecosystem in maribojoc bay. the occurrence of seagrass species ranged from thalassia – enhalus bed to a maximum of seven species in mixed table 1: species composition and distribution of seagrass species among four sampling stations in maribojoc bay, bohol. species maribojoc tagbilaran dauis panglao cymodocea rotundata + + + + enhalus acoroides + + + + halodule pinifolia + + halodule uninervis + + + halophila ovalis + + + + syringodium isoetifolium + + thalassia hemprichii + + + + total species 6 4 7 6 +presence, absence communities. in the philippines, seagrass bed is often a mixed of t. hemprichii, e. acoroides, c. rotundata, h. pinifolia, h. uninervis, and h. ovalis (meñez et al., 1983). notably, this study shows that some species are site restricted, for example, s. isoetifolium is restricted in panglao island. of the seven seagrass species, t. hemprichii was observed to be the most ubiquitous. in similar studies, t. hemprichii was also found to be the most proliferate in negros (meñez, et al., 1983), bolinao (vermaat et al., 1995), guimaras (babaran & ingles, 1996), pto galera (terrados et al., 1998), calape, bohol (alcaria et al., 1999), tawitawi (abubakar et al., 2018) and some surveyed areas in mindanao (orbita & gumban, 2014; redondo et al., 2017). the ubiquitous presence of t. hemprichii is probably an indication of their morphological advantage https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 12-19, 2022 in thriving without significant interference from the other seagrass species (genito et al., 2010). in terms of relative abundance, thalassia hemprichii had the highest across sampling stations (figure 2; table 2). more than half of the overall relative abundance was obtained by t. hemprichii (52.79%) when all stations were combined. the remaining seagrass relative abundance were enhalus acoroides (18.85%), cymodocea rotundata (9.55%), halodule uninervis (7.48%), halophila ovalis (7.20%), syringodium isoetifolium (3.96%) and halodule pinifolia (0.18%) respectively. anova analysis showed a significant difference (p>0.05) in seagrass species relative abundance (f (6, 21) = 19.77, p= 0.00). the highest relative abundance of t. hemprichii was recorded in the municipality of dauis (59.36%), followed by maribojoc (56.73%), panglao (53.85%), and tagbilaran city (41.22%) respectively. one-way anova analysis showed no significant difference (p>0.05) in t. hemprichii relative abundance among sampling stations (f (3, 20) = 1.56, p= 0.23). the result suggests that t. hemprichii is highly tolerant of various environmental conditions. considered a climax species (den hartog, 1970; lacap et al., 2002; short et al., 2010), t. hemprichii usually dominates over the other seagrass species (meñez et al., 1983). it can occupy more space permanently, and accumulate and retain resources for longer periods of time (vermaat et al., 1995). t. hemprichii thrives on mud-coral-sand or coarse coral-sand substrates in sheltered habitats (meñez et al., 1983). also, a study found that t. hemprichii can grow even under algal blooms and develop optimally, so it can successfully colonize seagrass beds with other species. one factor for its resilience is its root system and its adaptability to the low concentration of light during algal blooms (liu et al., 2005; jiang et al., 2010). this species enhalus acoroides was next to t. hemprichii in terms of its abundance (table 3). e. acoroides table 2. analysis of variance (anova) to test seagrass relative abundance between seagrass species (p<0.05). sum of squares df mean square f p-value relative abundance between groups 7712.362 6 1285.394 19.76762 0.00 within groups 1365.529 21 65.02521 total 9077.891 27 abounds on the shore of tagbilaran. likewise, its relative abundance was highest in tagbilaran (41.47%), it was slightly higher than t. hemprichii. one-way anova analysis showed a significant difference (p<0.05) in e. acoroides relative abundance among sampling stations (f (3, 20) = 3.89, p= 0.02). a tukey post hoc test revealed a significant difference between tagbilaran and panglao (p = 0.02). the abundance of e. acoroides in tagbilaran sites could be due to the effect of muddy-sandy substrate (calumpong & meñez, 1997; fortes, 2013). the large, slow-growing e. acoroides is also a climax species (duarte, 1991) that has been demonstrated to be resilient to light reduction and enhanced sedimentation (vermaat et al., 1995). the relative abundance of c. rotundata was higher in dauis (12.82%), while h. uninervis was higher in panglao (15.03%). one-way anova analysis showed a significant difference (p>0.05) in h. uninervis relative abundance among sampling stations (f (3, 20) = 3.17, p= 0.05). a tukey post hoc test revealed a significant difference between tagbilaran and panglao (p = 0.05). pioneering seagrass species such as c. rotundata and h. uninervis were observed to be abundant in the sandy-rocky substrate. pioneering seagrass species are best equipped to colonize new areas through rhizome expansion or to wander from gap to gap within established beds. these are bestadapted nearshore, as a result of their lower elongation rates (vermaat et al., 1995). relative abundance of h. ovalis was higher in panglao (9.78%). this pioneering species is produced throughout the year in tropical waters and are known to be primary colonizers, being the first to enter areas of bare sand or disturbed seagrass beds (waycott et al., 2002). on the other hand, s. isoetifolium was only encountered in panglao island: panglao (9.84%) and dauis (6.01%). according to green and short (2003), s. isoetifolium can be found in clear waters and prefers sandy substrates. of the surveyed sites, panglao island had the highest horizontal visibility, and the substrate type is generally a combination of both sand and rock. sufficient light and suitable substratum are therefore important physical factors determining seagrass presence and distribution (mckenzie, 2008). the species that occurs least frequently was h. pinifolia, with the lowest relative abundance found in dauis (0.58%) and maribojoc (0.13%). the rarity of h. pinifolia indicates that it is less tolerant of prevailing hydrographic parameters compared to other seagrass species (meñez et al., 1983). seagrass species such as h. pinifolia, h. ovalis, and s. isoetifolium are able to inhabit relatively deeper waters by having low light requirements, and faster and continuous rhizome growth (vermaat et al., 1995). meanwhile, t. hemprichii and e. acoroides are indiscriminate species in relation to depth (genito et al., 2010). certainly, the growth and distribution of seagrasses are controlled by the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the environment they live in (greve & binzer, 2004; borum et al., 2006). diversity index the diversity of seagrass species was higher in panglao (h’=1.33), followed by dauis (h’=1.31), maribojoc (h’=1.21), and tagbilaran (h’=1.15) respectively (figure 3). dominance was also higher in panglao (d=2.9), followed by tagbilaran (d=2.8), maribojoc (d=2.59), and dauis (2.55). meanwhile, evenness was higher in tagbilaran (e=0.83), followed by panglao (e=0.74), https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 12-19, 2022 figure 2. relative abundance of seagrass species in four sampling stations (error bars are standard deviation). figure 3. whittaker plot on seagrass species among four sampling stations in maribojoc bay, bohol. table 3. one-way anova analysis showing difference on seagrass relative abundance among four sampling stations and tukey post hoc test showing a significant difference between sampling stations (p<0.05). one-way anova test tukey’s multiple comparisons seagrass sp. n sum of squares f p-value 1-2 1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4 3-4 e. acoroides 24 19550.01 3.89 0.02* 0.40 0.90 0.34 0.14 0.02* 0.73 c. rotundata 24 2256.49 0.62 0.61 0.87 0.60 0.70 0.96 0.99 1.00 h. ovalis 24 867.13 0.48 0.70 0.99 0.99 0.84 0.92 0.95 0.66 h. pinifolia 24 4.27 2.75 0.07 0.95 0.25 0.95 0.10 1.00 0.10 h.uninervis 24 2509.38 3.17 0.05* 0.21 0.49 0.90 0.93 0.05* 0.18 s. isoetifolium 24 587.90 12.81 0.00* 1.00 0.02* 0.00* 0.02* 0.00* 0.27 t. hemprichii 24 9912.87 1.56 0.23 0.45 0.97 1.00 0.24 0.34 1.00 maribojoc (e=0.68), and dauis (e=0.67). the overall biodiversity index values of the seagrass ecosystem in maribojoc bay were diversity (h’=1.40), dominance (2.98), and evenness (0.72). the shannon diversity index implies low diversity as the value is less than 2 (h’<2.0) based on the biodiversity index category by odum (1983). higher dominance and lower evenness were attributed to the extensive distribution of thalassia hemprichii. the presence of dominating species means that the community is less diverse and indicates low stability. hence, the seagrass ecosystem in maribojoc bay is under threat from losses and degradation. coastal development, sedimentation, eutrophication, destructive fishing, and waste disposal are some of the anthropogenic activities that pose the greatest threats to seagrass ecosystems in the philippines (fortes 1995, 2013; fortes & santos, 2004). the whittaker plot, or rank-abundance curves (figure 3), showed the patterns of species diversity among sampling stations. it shows thalassia hemprichii as the most abundant species, and the slope indicates low evenness as t. hemprichii has a much higher abundance, thus a steeper gradient than the other species. the species richness showed the following order: dauis > panglao = maribojoc > tagbilaran. in terms of species evenness, a steep gradient indicates low evenness in dauis, followed by maribojoc and panglao. in contrast, high evenness was observed in tagbilaran, which could be due to the ubiquitous co-occurrence of thalassia hemprichii and enhalus acoroides. moreover, abundance was higher in maribojoc, followed by panglao, dauis, and tagbilaran, respectively. cover percentage the seagrass coverage in maribojoc bay was characterized by both patchy and continuous meadows, with a percentage sites: 1-maribojoc, 2-tagbilaran, 3-dauis, 4-panglao * the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 12-19, 2022 cover ranging from 17.45% (poor) – 60% (good). among sampling stations, the seagrass percentage (figure 4) revealed maribojoc (45.53%), panglao (43.93%), and dauis (40.53%) with “fair” seagrass conditions, while tagbilaran (24.61%) revealed a seagrass percentage cover with “poor” condition. anova analysis showed no significant difference (p>0.05) in seagrass percentage cover among sampling stations (f (3, 20) = 1.45, p= 0.26). the overall seagrass percentage cover for the entire bay area is 38.65%, which can be classified as “fair” seagrass conditions. the result indicates sparse coverage and habitat fragmentation, probably due to the deterioration of a once-continuous meadow. possible causes are anthropogenic activities such as improper shoreline development, increased human settlements in coastal areas, and the use of destructive fishing gear. the use of the digging tool “sud-sud” by gleaners was observed in the area. in tagbilaran, it is highly likely a result of relatively high sedimentation and siltation brought about by inputs from the abatan river directly to the seagrass beds. also, the introduction of waterborne pollutants as well as nutrient loading along the shores from domestic, agricultural, and industrial wastes. as observed, nutrient indicator algae, padina sp. proliferates in tagbilaran. high algal cover denotes high nutrients caused by pollution that contributes to the increase in sea nutrient level (fortes, et al., 2004). the seagrass condition in maribojoc bay is similar to that in guimaras island (babaran and ingles, 1996), lubang island (genito et al., 2010), and the coastal areas of iligan city (orbita & gumban, 2013). in the philippines, data from 26 sites reported seagrass cover to be generally low, usually not exceeding 20%, indicating that most of the seagrass beds in these areas have sparse coverage (binu, 2005). figure 4. percentage cover of seagrass species among sampling stations in maribojoc bay, bohol (error bars are standard deviation). respectively. the overall seagrass percentage cover revealed “fair” seagrass conditions, and the community structure revealed sparse distribution and low diversity. the seagrass ecosystem, as one of the most important coastal ecosystems, requires greater attention for its monitoring, management, and conservation. thus, further studies concerning seagrass communities are recommended in order to implement rehabilitation programs or improve current management in maribojoc bay. acknowledgements the proponent would like to thank commission on higher education (ched) through its k to 12 transition scholarship program, the community environment and natural resources office of tagbilaran, and the local government units (lgu) of maribojoc, tagbilaran, dauis, and panglao. references abubakar, f.z.b. & echem, r.t. 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(2009). accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. 106, 12377– 12381. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0905620106. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 51 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) socio-economic determinants for adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability among smallholder farmers in igambang’ombe, sub-county, kenya mwendandu i. w.1, rithaa j. n2*, wambongo c. s. r3 volume 2 issue 3, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i3.1786 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 25, 2023 accepted: july 28, 2023 published: september 16, 2023 climate change and variability have been identified globally as a major challenge to food security especially in arid and semi-arid lands (asals). agriculture and smallholder farmers have also been identified as the most vulnerable, mainly due to the former being rain-fed and the latter having inadequate adaptive capacity to the dynamics of climate change and variability. this study, therefore, sought to determine the social-economic factors that influence the adoption of adaptation strategies for climate change and variability, among smallholder farmers in igambang’ombe sub-county, tharaka nithi county. a descriptive research design was applied. systematic random sampling was used to select the respondents and a semi-structured questionnaire with open and closed-ended questions was used for data collection. observations and interviews were carried out, while systematic random sampling was used to select the respondents. correlation analysis was used to assess which socio-economic factors influenced the adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability. some of the adaptation strategies considered included; accessed weather information ox-ploughing and herbicide use for preparation, terracing and intercropping, crop and variety diversification the study showed that age (42%), farmer’s farming experience (40%), and level of education of the household head (24%), were the key socio-economic factors influencing the adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability. adaptation of climate change and variability adaptation strategies was also associated to access and frequency of extension services. access to farm subsidy and credit was also important. farmers and agriculture stakeholders needed to upscale training, guided by specific socio-economic farmer characteristics. keywords adaptation, smallholder farmer, climate change and variability, adaptation strategies, and socioeconomic 1 chuka university affiliate, department of environmental studies and resources development, p.o. box 1519-60100, embu, kenya 2 chuka university, department of environmental studies and resources development, p.o. box 109-60400, chuka, kenya 3 bomet university college, p.o box 701-20400, bomet, kenya * corresponding author’s e-mail: jnrithaa@chuka.ac.ke introduction climate change and variability have been identified as a major global challenge to the development of communities, thus requiring great attention (ipcc, 2014) the united nations identified climate as a key causal factor affecting food security globally with agricultural production being most vulnerable both locally, and globally (un, 2007, ipcc, 2001). various socio-economic, demographic, political, institutional, and policy trends have been noted to limit the abilities of smallholder farmers to adapt to climatic variations (rosenzweig & hillel, 2000). adger et al. (2003) indicated that future climate change adaptation will be a function of an individuals’ capacity, that is, that of the smallholder farmers, their social networks, and the state; and nations from which these individual farmers hail from. this calls for progressive and deliberate enhancement of the smallholder farmer’s resilience and capacity to cope and adapt to climate change by all stakeholders of adaptation. kerandi and omotosho (2008) identified farmer knowledge enhancement, for example, on the rainfall onset dates and the length of the growing season as one of the capacities that farmers need. they argued that this would go a long way in enabling farmers to make timely decisions on-farm operations thereby helping mitigate the effect of climate change on the adaptation of crop production. according to camberlin and okoola (2003), this knowledge is key in the determination of the tactics farmers will employ in adapting to the varying and unpredictable climate scenarios (hawkind et al., 2022). kandji and mackensen (2006) proposed that policymakers themselves and other agencies that assist farmers need to be adequately informed of the specific local farmer circumstances that influence decision-making in climate change adaptation. reliable information has to be generated from time to time to inform these decisionmakers and agencies which empower the communities towards adaptation. they need to specifically determine the drivers of adaptation in each local scenario these will go a long way in helping them face the uncertainties posed by drought and other climate threats ( sharafin et al., 2021). in response to the experienced and perceived impacts of climate change and variability, the kenya government enacted a climate change law (gok, 2010). in the application of the act, it was envisioned that the actions or response to the impacts of climate change were to be translated into decisions and development plans, and implementation strategies. this included building resilience and enhancing the adaptive capacity of the kenyan people. as a result, the national government and other development agencies have initiated support programs aimed at strengthening the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers in semi-arid kenya. pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 51-60, 2023 statement of the problem climate change and variability affects agricultural productivity, and is a major cause of food insecurity and loss of livelihoods in kenya. the national government and other development agencies efforts have initiated support programs aimed at strengthening the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers programs which include demand-driven extension services, provision of drought-tolerant crop cultivars, and dissemination of climate forecasts, input subsidies, and provision of farm implements among others despite these efforts, farmers in igambang’ombe sub county continue to experience low farm productivity, remain food insecure, relatively poor, and vulnerable to climate variability. this situation pointing at a possibility of a disconnection between the smallholder farmer’s knowledge on how to adapt to a varying climate and the decisions they make at the farm-level. against this background, the study sought to determine socioeconomic factors; that influence the adoption of adaptation strategies of climate change and variability in igambang’ombe subcounty. study findings will inform the smallholder farmer, policymakers and other agricultural stakeholders on what to consider for improved uptake of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability thereby improving the farm incomes and livelihoods of smallholder farmers. objectives the specific objectives of the study were to determine the social-economic factors of the smallholder farmers that influences the adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability in igambang’ombe subcounty, kenya. literature review overview of socio-economic factors affecting adaptation to climate change the social and economic factors that are most likely to influence or affect the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies include; demographic factors as household head gender, age, the farming experience, level of education, household type, income, and size of the household. other factors that support social economic systems for adoption of adaptation to climate change strategies include access to markets and market linkages, agricultural and climate extension services, financial support in form of credits, subsidies and, remittances. social factors while investigating the adaptation of climate change in the light of the social factors of communities, adler et al., (2005) point out that the social construction of the adaptive capacity of the smallholder farmers is very important when thinking about the risks and impacts of a varying climate. furthermore, adler et al., (2005) asserted that the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers at a local scale is constrained by large-scale social processes operating within the community. in addition, the researchers observed that it will not only depend on access to physical resources within the community, which allow a crop to be grown successfully but also the social factors that operate at a very local scale. these factors include access to decision-making and the structure of the social fabric and relationships within a community. besides, it is not just the change in climate which will affect vulnerability and livelihoods, but the way that these changes are negotiated through complex social systems. due to these social complexities in dealing with the impacts of climate change, gender has become a concern for mainstreaming, in every policy, legal, and development projects of the united nations development program (undp, 2010). researchers have observed that major sources of variation in the adaptive capacity, is the level of education and gender of individual smallholder farmers (fischer and qaim, 2012). furthermore, the researchers observed that in some countries as kenya women make a significant contribution to agricultural systems yet their main domain as allowed by culture is subsistence crop production; any commercial production remains the man’s domain. as a result, women have limited access to production resources. these generally affect their ability to make decisions and adapt to climate change and variability. in other some cultures, women are denied education for reproductive reasons, which adversely affects their ability to contribute to climate change and variability adaptation agenda at both the household and community level. since women have very little exposure to the world outside their scope of knowledge and training; they tend rather be restrained by their cultural beliefs handed down through the ages. while reviewing ways of improving women’s access to extension services, jiggins, (1989) noted that educated female farmers, (was the same for males) tend to be more willing to take up technologies than uneducated ones, hence less vulnerable to climate changes. with examples from communities in zimbabwe, brown et al., (2012) noted that gender considerations also affected technology uptake. they found that women had more constrained access to credit than men, which resulted in the men being more willing to adopt high-yielding varieties (hyvs) of maize (which required high capital investments and fertilizers) than their women counterparts who culturally have no access to resources. getting women to adopt these hyvs required additional interventions, as getting access to some form of a credit to make them afford these crop varieties. the dynamics of these social characteristics are complex and require investigation so that meaningful interventions by relevant stakeholders can be instituted which assist the communities to adapt to climate change and variability through technology adoption. according to otzelberger, (2011) gender needs, time use, roles, and poverty greatly influence adaptation; the way each gender is affected by and negotiate the climate change and variability vary with time and space. globally, 70% of the people living below pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 51-60, 2023 the poverty line are women, which is a major contributing factor to their vulnerability to climate change and variability, especially the adverse ones, (dankelman et al., 2008). a study carried out in kenya by met scientists revealed that a farmers’ level of education and access to climate information are two major factors that determine whether climate change and variability adaptation strategies would be adopted by smallholder farmers (masieyi et al., 2012). a new social dynamic to community transformation in response to climate variability has also emerged according to masika, (2016); this is the individual mindset of a farmer on who is responsible to get him out of the threats of a variable climate. furthermore, according to masika, (2016) where communities look outwards to donors, nothing changes. he argues that where each farmer takes responsibility, by the change of mindset, utilizes individual capacities and available resources, adaptation technologies are adopted without a struggle. the researcher in this study endeavoured to investigate whether farmers in igambang’ombe have taken their role to deal with negative climate impacts. while kenyan smallholder farmers have no alternative but to adapt to climate change and variability, the social barriers have been limiting. with the costs of future adaptation not yet fully understood, and these social barriers need to be overcome first if any meaningful adoption of technologies is to occur among the smallholder farmers (karanja, 2006) economic factors farm revenue the vulnerability of communities to climate change is generally influenced also by their economic status which is responsive to the location of where the community lives (mendelsohn et al., 2006). in their survey in 11 african countries, mendelsohn et al.,(2006) further observed that net farm revenues from dry-land crop production dwindled with decreasing of seasonal precipitation in rain-fed agriculture noting that food crops are also cash crops in asals. this assertion was also made by ipcc (2000) admitting that developing countries; especially those in the tropics are most vulnerable, and likely to be hit hard by climate change than the developed ones; and again, that the asals are more vulnerable to drought events, affected more by poverty and have a low adaptive capacity due to lack of sustainable livelihoods. this is because this situation affects the macro-scale economic processes, on the price received for the crops grown, which is normally lower than they should, translating into low household incomes leading to cyclic poverty. cost of production to a great extent the cost of production especially labour and input costs, farm, and family size determine whether adaptation strategies will be adopted. these form a range of the many considerations for the family’s resources allocation, among many qualifying uses. family welfare is considered the priority for resource allocation while investment and other needs get the remainder and the bigger the family the more resources it absorbs. income diversification according to kelly and adger (2000), four priority areas for action to improve this kind of economic situation will need to be focused: poverty reduction through engaging in meaningful livelihoods; risk-spreading through income diversification; respecting common property management rights; and promoting collective security. schneider et al., (2007) noted that the household income levels determined how farming communities adapt since the cost of each technology for adaptation has to be factored in. in light of this observation, therefore, the study assessed the various sources of income, both onand offfarm sources for the smallholder farmers of igambang’ombe. for this to happen ipcc, (2000), suggests that for a sustainable response to climate change and variability adaptation to be obtained, underlying causes of social vulnerability, including the inequitable distribution of resources need to be addressed in the adaptation. the study endeavoured to find how available resources were allocated to the adaptation activities, while other needs were competing for the same. an observation by adger et al., (2005) indicated that adaptations at one scale can create externalities, and at another reduce the adaptive capacity of other actors, often in the light of broad cost-benefit analysis. schneider et al., (2007) while highlighting the challenges of climate change, a global assessment, admits that economic trends as the gdp and national trade levels, influence the level of climate change and variability adaptation by communities at the household level. the findings will be useful to any government agency or partner that would want to assist theses farmers in improving their adoption of climate change and variability adaptation strategies. icrisat, (2007) suggests given that these communities urgently require to have their adaptive capacity enhanced sustainably, and should be a continuous process. for this to happen, kandji and mackensen (2006) proposes that policymakers themselves and other agencies that assist farmers, need to be adequately informed of the locationspecific, farmer circumstances that influence their decision to adopt or not climate change and variability adaptation strategies available to them. this study, therefore, is proposed to provide part of that information which can be used by farmers and agriculture stakeholders; firstly, to determine the economic status of the smallholder farmers in question and secondly the adaptation technology costs that need be factored in the adaptation agenda for these farmers to adopt the technologies sustainably. materials and methods the study adopted a descriptive research design which involved a household survey and interviews (kothari, 2012). through systematic random sampling, 100 farmer households were sampled from a total of 7,139 pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 51-60, 2023 households from igambang’ombe sub-county. closed and open-ended questionnaires were used in this study; to collect both qualitative and quantitative data from the field. results and discussion socio-economic factors that influence adaptation to climate change and variability the results in this section highlight the various socioeconomic factors, of the smallholder farmer that influence climate change and variability adaptation strategies. these include; gender, age, education, farming experience, household size, income and re-investment, access to credit, access to subsidy and remittances, market linkages, land size and use, access to extension. gender and age of household head the findings in table 1 showed that (84%) of households was male-headed and (16%) were female headed. on exploring the age distribution, it was observed that 72% of the farmers were over 39 years and youthful farmers were only 28%. of the over 39 years 61% were males and 11% were females. abdul-razak et al., (2017), noted in ghana, that the adaptive capacity of farming communities was influenced by social factors like age and education, with muthoni & wangui, (2015) on women and climate change, pointed out that the use of climate information in tanzania varied between men and women, with the women requiring and using the information more to alleviate food insecurity. table 1: the farmer’s age per gender age in years % male % female <18 1 0 19-28 0 2 29-38 16 5 39-48 18 4 49-59 22 4 >60 21 6 total 78 21 figure 1: farmer education per gender farmers education level the results showed that 58% of the farmers had primary level education and below of which 42% were males. of the remaining, 35% had secondary and 7% with tertiary education level with 30% and 6% males, respectively (figure 1). this can potentially undermine climate change adaptation training. according to nhemachena & hassan, (2007), educated farmers were more likely to adopt technologies than uneducated ones. this is because they understand better the implications of climate variability and change and also easily learned new skills. in the case of igambang’ombe, few farmers are likely to benefit or have the capacity to utilize climate change training due to the prevalent low level of education. the concern for the low level of education has also been raised by the county government of tharaka nithi as indicated in the integrated development plan cidp (tnc, 2018). the county plan report estimated the population with no formal education at 17%, with the majority found in tharaka south and north sub counties. figure 7 displays the level of education of the farmers per gender. household head farming experience the results of the study indicated that 54 % of the household heads had a farming experience of 21-50 years. out of the remaining 46%, 17% had a farming experience of 1-5 years (figure 2). generally, the more the experience, the higher the chances of good performance, but in farming, smallholders tend to be antagonized by experience and are not able to free themselves from it; to embrace new ideas and technologies. ainembabazi et al., (2015) admitted that indeed there is a positive relationship between the adoption of agricultural technologies and the farming experience of a farmer. nevertheless, ainembabazi et al., (2015) further observed that the relationship is convex, in that, it influences adoption during the early stages of adoption, up to and until the time when the farmers perceive the usefulness of technology, after which it starts to decrease. this happens until skill retraining on the technology is done. hence extension training becomes an accelerator of technology adoption. pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 51-60, 2023 farmer response on household size table 2 shows the household sizes of the smallholder farmers in the study area. the majority, (87%), had 3-10 members. out of these, 46% had 3-5 members, and 41%, 6-10 members. there is a possibility that a large family strains household resources and limits climate change adaptation activities. a study by oyekale and oladale, (2012) in ghana observed that larger households adapt more; taking into account that the household members provide labour for adaptation activities. this agrees with ali & erenstein, (2017) who observed that there was a positive association between the adoption of technologies regarding crop or variety choice, adjusting of planting date with socioeconomic factors as household or family size, and wealth. table 2: the household’s family size household size frequency percent 1-2 members 11 10 3-5 members 48 46 6-10 members 43 41 10 and above 3 3 total 95 100 table 3: farmer response on annual household income and reinvestment to adaptation activities in kes annual income in kes <or = 10000 10,001-30,000 30,001-40,000 40,000-50,000 > 50,000 total 1,000-50,000 22 5 2 0 1 30 51,000-100,000 28 17 2 0 0 47 101,000-150,000 2 3 1 2 0 8 151,000-200,000 6 0 1 0 0 7 201,000-300,000 3 1 0 0 1 5 301,000-400,000 2 1 0 0 0 3 total 63 27 6 2 2 100 annual household income and re-investment for adaptation activities table 3 shows the estimated annual income and the corresponding reinvestment into adaptation activities of the respondents. it showed that 77% of the households earned less than kes 101, 000 annually, and only 63% of them re-invested up to kes 10,000 back to the farm for adaptation activities. generally and in practical terms, if there was to be an improvement in climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers, they need to invest more of their income in climate change adaptation strategies and activities than is currently observed. macharia (2009) observed that in meru south, low farm income was a major constraint in the implementation of soil and water conservation among smallholder farmers growing coffee. oyekale & oladele, (2012) in their study ghana showed that household incomes were related positively with adaptation; where households with high incomes were likely to re-invest to adaptation than those with low ones. thus, the low farm income and reinvestment among smallholder farmers are likely to limit the adaptation strategies of climate variability and change. observation of low income and re-investment among igambang’ombe farmers was reported in the national bureau of statistics census of 2009 report on the poverty level index, as noted in tharaka nithi (cidp), 2013 where the poverty index for igambang’ombe was estimated at 50% high. figure 2: farmer farming experience income diversification (off-farm livelihood) the study sought to determine whether respondents engaged in any off-farm activity for income diversification. figure 9 shows the result were as follows the off-farm sources of income that they were engaged in 54% of the respondents did not engage in any offfarm livelihoods, 19% owned businesses, 6% engaged in the sale of handicraft and 6% in firewood sale, 1% got pension remittances and 7% were employed hence drew a salary. the findings of the study confirmed that farmers pa ge 56 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 51-60, 2023 look for alternative livelihoods out of the farm when their cropping business is threatened by climate change and variability. agricultural productivity in the tropics is equated to the reduction of crop yield, resulting in loss or reduction of household incomes and livelihoods (fischer et al., 2004 and tubiello, 2014). this explains the reason why household have off-farm activities and low re-investment to adaptation activities. table 4: farmer response on source of credit source of credit frequency percent farmers self help group 48 50 farmers sacco 33 35 gok 5 5 commercial banks 10 10 access to credit and farm subsidies the study sought to determine whether farmers had access to credit facilities for any agricultural activities; 72% said yes while 28% said no (figure 10). the main sources of credit were farmers groups (51%), farmers’ sacco ((35%) commercial banks (10%), and national government (5%) as shown in table 4. figure 5: access to subsidies table 5: farmer response on source of subsidies access subsidies frequency percent local ngo 20 21 foreign ngo 10 11 gok 29 30 county government of tharaka nithi 10 10 figure 3: off-farm livelihoods figure 4: percentage farmers accessing credit access to farm subsidies the study sought to determine whether farmers had access to agricultural subsidies; 67% said yes while 33% said no (figure 3). the study also established that farmers obtained the subsidies as follows; 30% said from gok (national government), 21% said from local ngo (one operating only in tharaka nithi), 11% said from other foreign ngos while 10% said from cotn (county government). the results of the study agree with kurukulasuriya & rosenthal, (2003) who argued that for households to reduce their vulnerability and increase their adaptive capacity, they need to source for farming loans from commercial entities and input subsidies. the subsidies obtained by farmers included fertilizers by 57%, seeds by 52%, farm implements storage by 26% and farm storage structure by 12% as shown in (figure 4). pa ge 57 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 51-60, 2023 access to remittances the study sought to determine whether farmers received remittances from friends or relatives to finance farm activities. the results show that farmers received remittances from relatives and friends, as follows; 58% said no and 42% yes figure 5. out of the 42 % who received remittances 53% used the remitted cash for other purposes other than farm-oriented ones, 24% was to buy seed, 12% said for buying fertilizer, 7% said for ploughing and 4% said for pesticides purchase as shown in table 6. like subsidies, remittances are a social system where vulnerable communities living in the rural areas are supported by their relations earning their living in the urban areas, thereby enhancing them to be resilient to adverse climatic variation and change. farming. in agreement with this observation, most households (61%) in igambang’ombe have allocated land to crop and grazing, evidence that the people here are agro-pastoralists. the findings further corroborate with those of ali & erenstein, (2017) who observed that land size and use is positively associated with croprelated adaptation technologies adopted by farmers. ali & erenstein, (2017) observed that those with larger land size and committed to crop production are more likely to be keen on choosing crop types and varieties that are adapted to the climate. the guiding factor of these choices being tolerance to prevailing weather conditions, diseases and pests, and easily try out new crops; to get returns to their land investment and use. figure 6: type of subsidies accessed by farmers figure 7: access to remittances table 6: activities supported by remittances activity supported by remittances frequency percent buying seeds 16 24 buying fertilizer 12 12 ploughing 7 7 non –farm activities 50 53 pesticides 4 4 household land size and use the results of the study showed that 97% of the households owned land of 10 acres and below (table 16). on land use, 62% of the farmers allocated their land to crop farming, while 61% had allocated some land to grazing and 42% allocated land to forest. this agrees with findings by cecchi (2010) that, households in mixed arid and semi-arid environments of eastern africa practiced pastoral, agro-pastoral, and mixed table 7: farmer response on household land size and use land use land size frequency percent total land owned less than 2.5 acres 45 47 2.5-10 acres 48 50 more than 10 acres 2 3 land under crops less than 2.5 acres 59 61 2.5-10 acres 34 36 more than 10 acres 2 3 grazing land less than 2.5 acres 59 61 2.5-10 acres 10 11 more than 10 acres 1 1 none 25 27 forest land less than 2.5 acres 40 42 2.5-10 acres 7 9 more than 10 acres 1 1 none 46 48 access to extension services table 8 shows responses on the access to and frequency of extension services, where 81% of the respondents indicated that they had access to extension service (figure 6). out of the total, 69% indicated that they received it weekly or fortnightly. a review on the impacts of climate change to agriculture acknowledged that the type, and the availability or access to both appropriate technology and extension service, are major drivers, and are factors pa ge 58 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 51-60, 2023 of agricultural productivity (kurukulasuriya, 2003). this concurred with haregeweyn et al., (2015) that relevant stakeholder support services, to smallholder farmers is necessary for meaningful climate change and variability adaptation process in agriculture. it was also observed from the results that, the training by extension agents, focused mainly on energy saving, conservation agriculture (ca), and soil and water conservation technologies. kimaro et al., (2014) identified ca as a technology that would greatly increase agricultural productivity in fragile ecosystems as asals, and as earlier realized in this study, it is being practiced by a few farmers and may require scaling up for its impacts to be substantial in igambang’ombe. the study sought to determine the main crops that farmers grew for com¬mercial purposes to earn income. the results were as follows; the combination of millet, green grams, and cowpeas was grown by 40% of the farmers, green grams, pigeon peas, and maize is grown by 23% of farmers and cowpeas, green grams, and sorghum by 21% and maize, bananas and mangoes combination by 16% of the farmers as shown in figure 15. food crops in igambang’ombe were the main cash crops and hence the main source of household income. figure 8: access to extension service table 6: access and frequency of extension services by farmers frequency of accessing extension services frequency percent weekly 43 45 fortnightly 23 24 monthly 17 18 occasional 12 13 besides, the study sought to determine where the farmers sell their produce and the results were as follows; 92% internally within the county while 8% export outside the county. on who links the farmers to markets, 95% indicated that they were linked by government agencies and 5% by the private sector as shown in table 9. agricultural markets and terms of trade are often affected by this climate variability; according to kurukulasuriya & rosenthal, (2003), how agricultural markets interact with climate variability should concern researchers and policymakers. the results agreed with (ketiem et al., 2007) that market availability and activity are a part of climate change adaptation in that they become an assurance for steady household incomes thereby improving the resilience of otherwise vulnerable communities living in the asals areas. figure 9: percent responses on three main crops linked to markets table 9: percent responses on linkage to market frequency percentage market type internal within county 87 92 export outside county 8 8 who links farmers to markets government agency 90 95 private sector 5 5 pa ge 59 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 51-60, 2023 correlation between adaptation strategies and socio-economic factors of the farmer in the correlation analysis, the study focused on the relationship between the independent variables; gender, household size and income, farm size, age, education, farming experience, and the climate change adaptation strategies; dependent variables that include: land preparation methods and use, weather forecasting and information access, soil and water management as mulching and terracing), and crop enterprise diversification for drought and diseasepest resistance and/or tolerance. from the correlation analysis, the most important socio-economic factors significantly associated with the adoption of climate change strategies included age, education, and farming of the household head. other factors with a significant association with the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies were found to be access to extension and frequency, access to farm subsidy, and credit (valizadeh et al., 2022). on the contrary, education however influenced significantly but negatively in weather forecasting probably due to the prevailing low literacy levels, with 58% being the primary level and below. conclusion it was concluded that in igambang’ombe, the socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies included the age of the household head (hh), which was a key determinant of the adoption of swc strategies and on weather and climate forecasting access to 2-3 days forecasting. the latter being also affected by education level, and farming experience. on the other hand access to 2-3 months forecast was influenced by hh education, farming experience, and household farm size. this study revealed that farmer training through extension service played a key role in influencing the adoption of climate change and variability adaptation strategies. the training of farmers in the igambang’ombe sub-county should be cognizant of the existing household and farmer demographic characteristics and should be frequent and well-structured to meet specific identified farmer needs. the credit and subsidy services from stakeholders also contributed greatly in supporting the adoption and the adaptation of climate change and variability and hence should be enhanced. references abdul-razak, m., & kruse, s. (2017). climate risk management the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to climate change in the northern region of ghana. climate risk management, 17, 104–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2017.06.001 adger, w. n., huq, s., brown, k., conway, d., & hulme, m. (2003). adaptation to climate change in the developing world. progress in development studies, 3, 179– 195. https://doi.org/10.1191/1464993403ps060oa adger, w. n., huq, s., brown, k., conway, d., & hulme, m. (2003). adaptation to climate change in the developing world. progress in development studies, 3, 179– 195. https://doi.org/10.1191/1464993403ps060oa ainembabazi, j. h., & mugisha, j. (2014). the role of farming experience on the adoption of agricultural technologies: evidence from smallholder farmers in uganda. journal of development studies, 50(5), 666-679. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2013.874556 ali, a., & erenstein, o. (2017). assessing farmer use of climate change adaptation practices and impacts on food security and poverty in pakistan. climate risk management, 16, 183–194. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.crm.2016.12.001 camberlin, p., moron, v., okoola, r., philippon, n., & gitau, w. (2009). components of rainy seasons’ variability in equatorial east africa: onset, cessation, rainfall frequency and intensity. theoretical and applied climatology, 98(3–4), 237–249. https://doi. org/10.1007/s00704-009-0113-1 erenstein, o. (2003). smallholder conservation farming in the tropics and sub-tropics: a guide to the development and dissemination of mulching with crop residues and cover crops. agriculture, ecosystems and environment, 100, 17–37. https://doi. org/10.1016/s0167-8809(03)00150-6 fischer, e., & qaim, m. (2012). gender, agricultural commercialization, and collective action in kenya. food security, 4(3), 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12571-012-0199-7 gok. 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(2014). .viability of indegenous knwoledge based stratefies in mitigation of drought in gachoka divion embu countykenya ngugi, k., kimani, w., kiambi, d., & mutitu, e. w. (2013). improving drought tolerance in sorghum bicolor l. moench: marker-assisted transfer of the stay-green quantitative trait loci (qtl) from a characterized donor source into a local farmer variety. international journal of scientific research in knowledge, 1(6), 154–162. https://doi.org/10.12983/ ijsrk-2013-p154-162 nhemachena, c., & hassan, r. m. (2007). micro-level analysis of farmers’ adaptation to climate change in southern africa. in africa. retrieved from http:// www.ifpri.org/publication/micro-level-analysisfarmers-adaptation-climate-change-southern-africa haregeweyn, n., tsunekawa, a., nyssen, j., poesen, j., tsubo, m., tsegaye meshesha, d., ... & tegegne, f. (2015). soil erosion and conservation in ethiopia: a review. progress in physical geography, 39(6), 750-774. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133315598725 oyekale, a. s., & oladele, o. i. (2012.). arpn journal of science and technology:determinants of climate change adaptation among cocoa farmers in southwest nigeria. icesr 2012 arpn journal of science and technology, 2. retrieved from http://www. ejournalofscience.org sharafi, l., zarafshani, k., keshavarz, m., azadi, h., and van passel, s. (2021). farmers’ decision to use drought early warning system in developing countries. sci. total environ. 758, 142761. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142761 united nations. (2007). rural households’ livelihood and well-being: statistics on rural development and agriculture household income. in statistics on rural development and agriculture household income (vol. 1993). valizadeh, n., karimi, v., fooladi heleileh, b., hayati, d., and bijani, m. (2022). formulating of small-scale farmers’ perception towards climate change in arid areas: facilitating social interventions for agricultural sustainability. water environ. j. 36, 199–213. https:// doi.org/10.1111/wej.12741 pa ge 1 pa ge 45 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) managing solid waste at isabela state university cabagan (isuc) campus: current practices and unfolding opportunities bondee l. peñaflor1*, heherson b. ong1 volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.493 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 11, 2022 accepted: september 07, 2022 published: september 10, 2022 solid waste is a pressing environmental concern nowadays. even academic institutions are not exempted on its associated problems. to this end, the practices and implementation schemes of isuc in addressing the concerns on solid wastes were assessed. through individual interviews, actual field observations/validations, and desk review of documents, several qualitative data were generated categorized, summarized and analyzed through content analysis. results show that in so far as solid waste and its management is concern, the following key issues/concerns were identified: absence of an approved long-term swm plan; source of funding support for swm programs; lack of manpower in implementing the swm programs; no segregation/reduction of wastes at source; collection system needs to be revisited/changed; open burning and littering of wastes; recovery facilities need improvement; functionality of swm equipment; and iec campaign materials. in terms of swm initiatives, the campus has existing institutional arrangements on dealing with solid wastes concerns. it also has various equipment and manpower to cater the needs for swm. source reduction and segregation-at-source are also given attention including collection system but not fully functional/operational. there are also existing recycling initiatives and marketing of recyclables/saleable materials. as to disposal, the special/hazardous wastes from laboratory and health offices are stored in the septic vault beside the campus’ centralized materials recovery facility. in addition, scientific studies were conducted visà-vis swm. however, complementary activities need to be made in place which include: strengthening iec campaigns; attendance to swm capacity-building programs; and the adoption of a comprehensive campus-based swm framework keywords solid wastes, solid waste management, solid waste management framework, isabela state university 1 college of forestry and environmental management, isabela state university cabagan campus, philippines. * corresponding author’s e-mail: bondee.l.penaflor@isu.edu.ph introduction one of the pressing environmental concerns nowadays is the problem on solid wastes and society has a great interest on the interconnected effects posed by this issue. as the population continues to grow, so goes with the solid wastes generated by the growing population. studies show that waste generation is heavily linked with urbanization, economic development, and population growth. its increasing rates are believed to be driven by rapid urbanization, lifestyle changes, and consumption patterns, resulting inevitably in the rise of greenhouse gas emissions (gamaralalage, gilby, & lee 2015; kaza et al. 2018). this dilemma, if not being addressed will put communities into peril and this will have cascading effects which will be experienced not only by the present generation but also by the succeeding ones. peñaflor and jacinto (2020) stated that solid waste management is rarely at the forefront of discussion, by the media or by the general public. it is usually only during a crisis that much attention is given to waste management. without crisis, people prefer not to think about waste problem. in the study of arora and agarwal (2011), they mentioned that waste management problems are predominant in developing countries without substantial environmental awareness programs. licy et al. (2013) concluded that while most people are aware of the negative impacts of mismanaged wastes on the environment, their negative attitude coupled with insufficient environmental knowledge usually corresponds to poor practices towards maintaining good environmental conditions. the national government has come up with interventions to regulate and address this concern since the 1990s. the local government code of the philippines (republic act no. 7160 of 1991), particularly section 3 (operative principles of decentralization), mandates that the local government units shall share with the national government the responsibility in the management and maintenance of ecological balance within their territorial jurisdiction, subject to the provisions of the code and national policies. in addition, sections 16 and 17, mandate to promote health and safety, preservation of the comfort and convenience of its inhabitants, and to provide solid waste disposal system and services or facilities related to general hygiene and sanitation. waste management issues have been hounding both urban and rural communities for decades. the passing of republic act 9003, known as the ecological solid waste management act of 2000, was meant to ensure the protection of public health and environment, while encouraging resource conservation and recovery, and public cooperation and responsibility (domingo and manejar, 2021). this law puts solid waste management into proper perspective. it is hoped that this law will help to meet the growing need to improve the management of increasing volume of solid wastes generated in the philippines. it can also be said that this law, if implemented properly, has the potential to effectively address the current problems on solid waste management https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.493 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:bondee.l.penaflor@isu.edu.ph pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 45-52, 2022 (swm) in the philippines (sapuay, 2014). at isabela state university cabagan campus, peñaflor and jacinto (2020) stated that it has been very evident in some places within the campus about the scattered solid wastes mainly due to mismanagement and poor discipline. these practices of campus constituents are not allowed by local and even national level policies, regulations, ordinances, and laws because of the interconnected impacts that it give to the other component of the environment such as the air, soil, water, and even to other organisms, including human beings. to this end, isabela state university cabagan (isuc) campus has directed its attention at complying into policies and/or regulations about the concerns on solid wastes. this is to secure its local populace from the menace that the problem on solid wastes can bring. moreover, this is in support to the mandate of the government as stipulated in article ii, section 16, of the philippine constitution that “the state shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.” at present, the existing management scheme on solid wastes at isabela isuc is not yet fully established. the existing solid waste management initiatives of the campus are highlighted in this paper. objectives of the study generally, this study aimed to assess the practices and the implementation schemes of isu cabagan campus when it comes to addressing the concerns on solid wastes. specifically, the study sought to: 1. identify the key issues and concerns in relation to solid wastes and its management: 2. examine the existing solid waste management programs in the campus; 3. determine complementary programs and unfolding opportunities on managing solid wastes; and 4. generate a solid waste management framework that could be implemented in the campus. methodology description of the study area this study was conducted at isabela state university cabagan (isuc) campus, situated at barangay garita, cabagan, isabela, philippines. the campus has seven (7) colleges alongside with different units and offices that form this academic institution. cabagan campus is one of the 11 campuses (including satellite campus) of isu system. it is located in the northernmost part of isabela province. the campus is comprised of about 302 hectares of land in its site at barangay garita, cabagan, isabela. this huge tract of land of the campus is predominantly agricultural and grassland. few patches of dense vegetation cover is also found in the campus. the academic core, campus housing units and the agricultural laboratory areas are the major sources of solid wastes. respondents of the study the respondents in this study are key informants coming from different offices in the campus administration building which comprise of eight (8) informants. in addition, the 11 members of the committee on ecologically sustainable and eco-friendly campus were also enjoined in the conduct of this research. moreover, three (3) technical specialist from the college of forestry and environmental management (cfem) also served as key informants. data gathering procedure key informant interviews (kii) and focus group discussion (fgd) were done to gather the data needed in this study. in addition, a workshop was also done for the determination of key issues and concerns and the identification of solid waste management programs in the campus. finally, office and field visits were also conducted in order to validate the information generated from the kii and fgd. data analysis through the individual interviews, open-ended questions, observations, and desk review of documents from the campus, several qualitative data were generated. these data were categorized, summarized and analysed through content analysis. results and discussion issues and concerns vis-à-vis solid wastes and its management in so far as solid wastes and its management is concern, the following key issues and/or concerns were identified in the campus through the interviews and review of existing office files. the information were categorized and summarized as follows: absence of an approved long-term solid waste management (swm) plan. the campus has initiated the crafting of its solid waste management plan but until now, the plan has not been presented and/or adopted by the campus administration. source of funding support for swm programs. based on the review of the document pertaining to financing, it was found out that there is no clear source of funding that would support the swm program of the campus. lack of manpower in implementing the swm programs. the campus has a good number of workers but they are assigned into specific tasks from the different offices/ units that they are deployed with. there is no actual manpower that is defined to work on swm programs. no segregation and no reduction of wastes at source. actual observation from the different waste sources revealed an unsegregated solid wastes even in the presence of color-coded trash bins. collection system need to be revisited and changed. there is no concrete collection plan. collection only takes place upon request of head of units/offices and upon approval of the campus administrators. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 45-52, 2022 open burning and littering of wastes. actual observation from the different waste sources revealed several traces of open burning and scattered solid wastes throughout major thoroughfares of the campus. recovery facilities need improvement. there is a newly established centralized materials recovery facility of the campus but it is not fully operational because the facility is still undergoing completion upon arrival of funding opportunity. insufficient information, education and communication (iec) campaign materials. there are available printed iec materials in the campus library and also in the reading room at the environmental information center (eic) building. however, production of iec materials to be initiated by the college of forestry and environmental management (cfem) is necessary. the iec materials will serve as an important platform to further improve the awareness of the campus constituencies on matters concerning swm. existing solid waste management programs in the campus and the needed complementary programs institutional arrangements the cluster executive officer, dr. ambrose hans g. aggabao, created the committee on environmentalfriendly and ecologically sustainable campus who is tasked to work on the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of environment and natural resources (enr) programs of the campus. this is through memorandum order issued in 2019. the committee is in the forefront of providing services and in the advocacies of environmental management within the campus. each of the units within the campus has corresponding roles and responsibilities relative to the enr (e.g. swm) program implementation. the following activities have been conducted/initiated in the campus, which provide strong baseline information on solid waste management in the campus, to wit: • creation of the committee on environmental friendly and ecologically sustainable campus; • consultation meetings for assistance and support including technical expertise; • waste analysis and characterization study and survey on students’ knowledge and practices on solid waste management; • documentation of the current solid waste management initiatives within the campus; • installation of waste receptacles in the different units/departments and conduct of waste collection; • construction of centralized materials recovery facility including septic vault; • presence of vermi-composting facility and waste recycling programs; • sales of craps; • reasonable plastic use policy and no paper crumpling policy; • presence of environmental management code; • attendance to trainings, seminars, workshops, and the like; and • other environment-related programs and initiatives. nevertheless, there is still a need to revisit the implementation of these initiatives and determine additional complementary programs and activities in support to the overall effective management of solid waste in the campus. these complementary programs and activities shall form as integral part of the five-year eswm plan of the campus. there is a need to identify groups in the campus and define their specific roles and responsibilities relative to the implementation of swm in the campus. each of the units within the campus has corresponding roles and responsibilities relative to implementation of the enr (e.g. swm) programs and these are presented in the table below. table 1: suggested office/units in the campus with their corresponding key roles and responsibilities. office/unit roles and responsibilities 1. office of the cluster executive officer • the over-all supervising body in the implementation of swm initiatives in the campus • adopt/craft and enforce/implement policies and regulations relative to swm • approve programs, projects and activities (ppas) relative to swm concerns 2. committee on environmental-friendly and ecologically sustainable campus • the initiator/promoter of plans, programs, projects or any developmental activity in relation to swm • the coordinating body as to the conduct of plans, programs, projects or any developmental activity pertaining to swm • monitor and evaluate the implementation of swm activities and other enr related initiatives 3. campus planning and development office and general services office • prepare engineering designs regarding infrastructure development of swm (e.g. mrf, etc.) 4. campus clinic • overlooks health and sanitation issues in connection to swm 5. campus budget office • allocate and disburse funds for the activities that support the implementation of swm program https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 45-52, 2022 inventory of equipment and staff the swm programs in the campus are not yet fully operational. however, the campus is in the initial stages of implementing the various swm programs concordant to the mandates of ra 9003. there are existing staff, facilities and equipment by the campus that are being utilized for swm purposes. meanwhile, it was included in the “remarks” the need for complementary activities which are important to support the available resources in the campus. the presence of these resources intended for swm programs in the campus provide strong support in the implementation efforts that the campus administration and key staff (both technical and laborers) are doing. with these, however, there is a need to provide complementary efforts such as the provision of engineering, logistical resources and policy initiatives. 6. college of forestry and environmental management • provide support and technical assistance on swm activities (e.g. information and education campaign, technical know-how regarding swm, etc.) • prepare and submit project/program proposals to funding institutions in support to the implementation of swm program 7. other colleges/institute • assist in the implementation of the ppas of the committee • prepare and submit project/program proposals to funding institutions in support to the implementation swm program table 2: inventory of facilities, equipment and staff for swm resources availability description remarks staff at least five (5) were involved but are not working purposely/solely for swm these staff come from the general services office, admin support staff, and technical staff need to be clearly identified and should have an organizational set-up capability building programs must be put in place to capacitate these staff facilities materials recovery facility intended for solid waste storage, processing and recovery of scraps there is a need for the completion of the building since it is where the various equipment will be placed/ secured vermi-composting facility the processing of biodegradable waste into compost materials are conventionally done but there is an existing production of vermicast (soil conditioner) and vermin (african night crawler). this facility is being maintained at the ptia. composting (i.e. traditional or vermi-composting or enzyme-supported) area shall form integral part of the centralized materials recovery facility should be functional and must be sustainably managed processing facility the present processing facility of the campus is situated near the administration building where scraps are transformed into something usable should be sustainably managed and proper work and safety protocols should be in place equipment wood chipper intended to transform twigs and branches into smaller particles ready for further processing ready for utilization need to be placed/secured in appropriate location i.e. the cmrfplastic shredder intended to transform plastic wastes into smaller particles ready for further processing bio-shredder transforms organic wastes into smaller particles to hasten composting hollander beater intended to transform used papers into fibrous-like particles ready for further processing collection vehicle intended for the collection of solid wastes from various sources not solely for the purpose of swm need proper care and maintenance https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 49 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 45-52, 2022 source reduction and segregation-at-source the cluster executive officer has issued various environment-related policies relating to solid waste management. while it is true that the campus constituencies are doing their usual practice in handling and disposing their generated wastes i.e. thrown anywhere and/or practice open burning, common to all is the segregation of recyclables/saleable solid wastes like metals, cans, plastics, bottles, and the like. these are somehow bringing benefit to them as these are being sold to junkshops or to itinerant buyers. furthermore, biodegradable materials are not normally collected as these materials are left untouched until they become fully decomposed. some are also collected for the vermicomposting technology of the ptia. in order to promote reduction in waste generation, strong iec campaigns is necessary. however, the campaign needs to be supported with baseline information (i.e. research results) that can capture the heart of the waste generators and eventually change their ways. meanwhile, to make segregation-at-source effective, solid waste receptacles (color-coded i.e. duly labelled and with sack or plastic bag sorters <green for biodegradable; blue for recyclable/reusable; yellow for residual/nonrecyclable; and, red for hazardous/special wastes>) are indispensable. however, in order to fully operationalize segregation-at-source in the campus, there is a need to adopt and/or craft policy on “no segregation, no collection”. in each location, color-coded plastic drums or receptacles with labels that remind every waste generator of the requirements of ra 9003 will be provided for each building or establishment and other waste generators (small stores, food and restaurants, commercial establishments and others). this practice of segregation at source will facilitate organized collection and further lead to the practice of reducing wastes through recycling and composting which consequently reduces the cost of handling and disposal of wastes. the use of organic fertilizers from composting of biodegradable materials enhances environmental integrity of the colleges and/or the campus in general. collection system there is an existing collection system in the campus and collection equipment are already in place. however, an effective collection scheme will be implemented once the centralized mrf will become fully operational. it is worthy to note that the construction of the centralized mrf of the campus has been initiated/launched during the celebration of earth day 2019. in order to ensure that effective collection scheme will be implemented, proper planning needs to be done especially on the aspect of collection route, collection schedule, collection equipment and materials, manpower and other resources. on the collection route alone needs to be designed properly in order to save time and resources. and again, there is a need to adopt and/or craft policy on “no segregation, no collection”. collecting and subsequently selling of recyclables (bottles, glass, hard and soft plastics, metals like tin, aluminum, and steel, boxes, and papers) will be encouraged as a scheme for generating funds for each college or unit. while prices of some waste materials fluctuate very often, storing the recovered recyclable for a couple of weeks can have a better selling price in the market, hence, bringing higher profit. recycling programs recycled products prepared by the students are outputs from their classes while some are outputs from campus/ college-based competition programs. in order to engage campus constituencies on recycling programs, a regular conduct of campus-based competitions can be organized such that the recycled materials can form part of resource generation (either by student organizations, different programs, colleges or by the campus). the durability, sustainability, marketability and social acceptability of the recycled materials shall form major part for the criteria for its production. this is to ensure that the recycled products will not become a waste itself after the competition/selection. markets for recyclables/saleable solid wastes junkshop agents (bidders) and ambulant scrap buyers roam around the campus to buy valuable recyclable and/or resalable materials such as pet bottles, glass bottles, cans, metals, newspapers, cartons, other scrap/ crafts materials, condemned equipment and vehicles, compost, and the like. a memorandum of agreement can be effected between the campus and local junkshop owner/s so as to minimize the entry of ambulant scrap buyers in the campus and so as to develop a way where the junkshop owner/s will be the one to collect the saleable materials in the campus. final disposal the special or hazardous wastes from laboratory and health offices are stored in the plastic bins or in the septic vault beside the centralized mrf of the campus. these wastes, along with other residual wastes, will be finally disposed to the sanitary landfill facility (slf) of the municipality of cabagan. advocacies, communications and education (ace) people would normally do what they know is acceptable, but sometimes, is not right. increasing the awareness of the campus constituencies regarding solid waste management is imperative to do. one of the identified problems in the implementation of swm is the people lack awareness of it. therefore, advocacies, communications and education (ace) campaign is required to raise the level of awareness of the campus constituencies. once the constituents become aware of the school policies, programs and projects, they will then act rightfully and accordingly into such programs for swm. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 50 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 45-52, 2022 a communication plan needs to be prepared and implemented successfully with the embodied activities such as: organize ace team; develop and reproduce swm promotional materials; massive conduct of briefings and orientations to various constituents; and monitor and evaluate ace activities. however, the campus still plans to exert more effort in the conduct of ace/iec. only when these are done, the constituents would learn to do what is acceptable and what is right and gradually, the shift in the swm practices of the constituencies will soon be changed. capability-building opportunities to fully equip the members of the committee, so they may become effective and efficient enough in the implementation of their various programs, there is a need to continuously undergo trainings, seminars, conferences, and workshops regarding solid waste management. these will enhance their capability in promoting swm and at the same time realizing the mandates of ra 9003 and the implementation of various enr programs in the campus. attendance into trainings, seminars or workshops may not always be enough so to consider the personnel to be fully capacitated. therefore, benchmarking is an activity allowing individuals or groups to visit places having outstanding performances in any field i.e. on swm. benchmarking into other schools including lgus and other places with excellent operation in swm is also necessary. the results of the kii and the fgd revealed the following needed capability building programs in support to swm: 1. seminar/training cum development field visit on swm (plan formulation, composting, innovative designs, briquetting, eco-brick, eco-hollow blocks, plastic/wood tiles, framing, etc.); 2. training-workshop on waste analysis and characterization study (wacs); 3. orientation and action planning on swm ; 4. training-workshop on project proposal development and resource generation in support to swm; and 5. among others as may be deemed necessary to support the effective and efficient implementation of swm initiatives in the campus. scientific studies in the campus vis-à-vis swm peñaflor and jacinto (2020) conducted a waste analysis and characterization study (wacs) in the campus which revealed that majority (77.03%) of generated wastes is biodegradable, residual=12.31%, recyclable=10.49%, and special=0.17%. residential source generates the highest (14.38kg/day). the per capita waste generation is 0.012kg. as regards volume of disposed wastes, all generated wastes are being disposed. waste diversion strategy is burning while saleable scraps are sold. projected waste generation is expected to increase in the next 10 years (2019-2028) with mean annual generation of about 60.15kg. meanwhile, they also studied the knowledge and practices of students on solid waste management in the campus where they found out that among the indicators that assess students’ level of knowledge, “there is money in wastes” got the highest weighted mean (4.44) while “there is an existing collection of garbage by the municipality” has the lowest mean (2.89). the results prove that the student-respondents have moderate to high level of knowledge on swm. in terms of the extent of practice, the students are found to be strongly responsible in most of the positive indicators, but they are also responsible (mean=2.20) in burning the uncollected wastes and in throwing garbage into the river or everywhere (mean=1.70). on the other hand, there was no significant difference on the extent of practices of students from various colleges (p-value = 0.101123). further, results of spearman’s rho revealed a weak correlation (r=0.209) between level of knowledge and extent of practices of students on swm. establishing solid waste management (swm) framework in the campus a comprehensive ecological solid waste management program is needed in order to satisfy the requirements set forth by existing laws and to ensure that proper solid waste management in the campus is in place. figure 1 presents the proposed overall framework for the management of solid wastes in the campus. based on this framework, the isabela state university cabagan campus solid waste management program has five pillars, namely: scientific studies; institutional policies and platforms; centralized materials recovery facility; production; and patent, publication, marketing and extension. these five pillars are as follows: scientific studies the conduct of scientific studies relative to solid waste management concern is primordial as results of these studies could serve as basis in coming up for policy and institutional innovations. in fact, the results of such studies could be used in coming up for the medium to long term swm plan and the review and evaluation of the swm programs in the campus. some of the scientific studies that could be conducted include, but not limited with: waste analysis and characterization studies; surveys; cost-benefit analysis; nutrient analysis; test of durability; effectiveness of briquetted charcoal for cooking; charcoal heating value; social acceptability; policy evaluation; among others. institutional policies and platforms this pillar is indispensable as all other pillars could not materialized without the strong institutional efforts that would manage all the initiatives being done for the implementation of a comprehensive ecological solid waste management program in the campus. some of the initiatives under this pillar include, but https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 45-52, 2022 not limited with: formulation and implementation of a medium to long term swm plan; initiate capability building programs for its constituents; establish strong partnerships with the lgus and other potential partners; provision of other equipment (e.g. compactor, glass pulverizer, plastic smelting machine, melting furnace) and design and production of electric hydraulic jack, molders, etc.; campus and/or university-wide competitions; conduct of local and even international conferences, seminars, trainings, forums, etc.; deputize eco-watchers; ban on plastics and styrofoam; no segregation, no collection policy; among others. it is important to mention that some of these initiatives have been tackled above. centralized materials recovery facility effective solid waste management program in the campus necessitates construction of centralized materials recovery facility (cmrf) that would cater waste handling i.e. storage, recycling, recovery, and other innovative approaches to solid waste management. at present, there is an established cmrf and its construction manifests the full support of the campus administration for the promotion of a cleaner and greener campus. however, there is a need for the completion of the building. after construction, continuous capacity building programs shall be conducted, implemented or attended by employees and students of the campus. some of the prospective set of activities to be implemented in support to the operations of the cmrf include: serves as the swm learning center (instructional, research and extension purposes); it is where the various equipment and materials (e.g. the available materials such as plastic and bio shredder, wood chipper, digester and the succeeding equipment to be provided institutionally and externally) will be secured; waste processing; composting (e.g. traditional, vermi-composting and enzyme-treated composting, etc.). production the cmrf is expected to be constructed to house the solid wastes being generated in the campus to cater waste storage and processing purposes. other than being a learning center, the facility will also be used as for various production activities such as but not limited to: organic fertilizer; vermin and vermicast; charcoal briquettes; ecobricks; eco-hollow blocks; eco-pots; recycled products; among others. these production activities could engage the students that would enable them to earn not only scientific, technical and technological know-how but also financially. patent, publication, marketing and extension all initiatives and various production operations in the campus shall be fully documented (process documentation). research results, innovative designs, various products, and other noteworthy practices/ initiatives on swm in the campus shall be either patented, figure 1: proposed campus-based solid waste management (swm) framework. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 45-52, 2022 published, marketed or extended to service communities. such patent, publication, shares on income generating enterprise (ige), among others, shall be credited to personnel that are actually engaged in such various swm initiatives in the campus. it is worthy to note that these pillars described above in figure 1 shall provide strong support to the overall management of solid wastes in the entire municipality of cabagan. in short, strong partnership between the campus and the local government unit (lgu) of cabagan is necessary. administrative and funding support to sustainably implement swm program in the campus, the campus administration can provide the initial funding (as may be deemed appropriate and in compliance to government policies on disbursements). however, once the swm programs in the campus become fully operational, the income generated from various production operations can provide the needed financial support for the sustainability of the swm programs. meanwhile, outsourcing of external funds can also be done through the submission of appropriate proposals to various funding institutions. in order to realize the objectives of long-term swm programs, long-term financial aspects is likewise important, hence, the financial commitment of the campus as espoused in this portion is paramount. overall, the fiscal viability and economic life of all the programs, projects and activities as programmed will be ensured with the ultimate goal of providing social services that protect the environment while responding to the needs of the campus at the least possible cost. conclusion the campus is in the initial stages of fully complying with the mandates of the ecological solid waste management act. there are significant initiatives in the campus in relation to dealing with solid wastes concerns. however, there is a need for complementary activities that help improve swm schemes in the campus and to ensure the sustainability of its programs. the proposed swm framework provides a strong support to achieve efficiency and sustainability of these programs. the researchers strongly recommend the adoption of the needed complementary initiatives and the adoption and implementation of the proposed swm framework as highlighted in this study. also, review or revision of the draft solid waste management plan of the campus incorporating the highlights as presented in this research is recommended. acknowledgement this study has been made possible through the help of key informants in the campus who served as provider of both primary and secondary data. the researchers are grateful to the cluster executive officer, dr. ambrose hans g. aggabao, who has been very supportive with the advocacies of the government concerning environmental management, for providing relevant information that were used in this study. the staff from the different offices in the campus administration building and the members of the committee on ecologically sustainable campus, who participated actively in the focus group discussion and workshop. moreover, the additional technical information provided by some faculty members at the college of forestry and environmental management (cfem). the researchers are indeed indebted to all of them. references arora, l., agarwal, s. 2011. knowledge, attitude and practices regarding waste management in selected hostel students of university of rajasthan, jaipur. international journal of chemical, environmental, and pharmaceutical research 2: 40-43. domingo, s.n & manejar, aj.a. (2021). an analysis of regulatory policies on solid waste management in the philippines: ways forward. philippine institute for development studies. discussion paper series no. 2021-02. retrieved at https://pidswebs.pids.gov. ph/cdn/publications/pidsdps2102.pdf gamaralalage, p. j. d., gilby, s., lee, k. 2015. the republic act (ra) 9003 in the philippines: factors for successful policy implementation. the 26th annual conference of jsmcwm, 560-61. kaza, s., yao, l., bhada-tata, p. & van woerden, f. 2018. what a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. urban development series. washington, dc: world bank. licy, c.d., vivek, r., saritha, k., anies, t.k., josphina, c.t. 2013. awareness, attitude, and practice of school students towards household waste management. journal of environment 2: 147-150. retrieved at www. scientificjournals.co.ukhttps://www.researchgate. net/publication/269520226_awareness_attitude_ and_practice_of_school_students_towards_ household_waste_management peñaflor, b.l. & jacinto, d.c. (2020). waste analysis and characterization, knowledge and practices of students at isuc: basis for solid waste management planning. test engineering and management. vol. 82: jan/feb 2020. the mattingley publishing co., inc. retrieved at http://www.testmagzine.biz/index.php/ testmagzine/article/view/1710 republic of the philippines. (1991). local government code of 1991. republic act no. 7160. retrieved at https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/ downloads/1991/10oct/19911010-ra-7160-cca.pdf sapuay, g. (2014). ecological solid waste management act of 2000 (ra 9003): a major step to better solid waste management in the philippines. researchgate. retrieved at https://www.researchgate. net/publication/237584037_ecological_solid_waste_ management_act_of_2000_ra_9003_a_major_ step_to_better_solid_waste_management_in_the_ philippines https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 92 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) convention on biological diversity post 2020 target: a critical analyses of the threat posed by 30 x 30 target, devoid of a human rights approach towards conservation to land rights in developing countries: case study cameroon agbor desmond tabe1* volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.628 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: september 20, 2022 accepted: september 27, 2022 published: september 29, 2022 in a bid to protect the country’s biodiversity, the government of cameroon became party to the convention on biological diversity. however, the convention’s recent post 2020 and its 30 by 30 target which is aimed at designating 30% of earth’s land and oceans has caused a lot of controversy amongst human rights advocates because of the threat it poses to indigenous land rights and has been welcomed by conservationist because of the potential it has towards the protection of biodiversity. this study was conducted to address the threat posed by the convention on biological diversity and its 30 by 30 target to land rights of indigenous and traditional communities in cameroon. the study used qualitative data analysis to arrive at the findings. implementing the convention on biological diversity post 2020 and its 30 by 30 target will further increase the land rights violation of indigenous communities in a country that already has a history of violating the land rights of indigenous communities. in order to ensure that the implementation of the convention on biological diversity post 2020 and it’s 30 by 30 targets don’t violate the land rights of indigenous and traditional communities in cameroon, the state must adopt a human rights-based approach towards conservation and also ensure that indigenous communities are not left out in the decision-making process in decisions that affects them directly keywords biodiversity, conservation, indigenous rights, cameroon, environmental law 1 university of buea, faculty of laws and political science, cameroon * corresponding author’s e-mail: agborballack.7@gmail.com introduction cameroon has lost a significant portion of its flora and fauna due to commercial logging, mining, agriculture and infrastructural development, which manifest the country’s vision 2035 of becoming an emergent nation and bad governance. to protect this flora and fauna, the government of cameroon has joined an international effort to protect biodiversity from the existential threats it is currently facing. in the year 1995, the government ratified the convention on biological diversity and some of its subsequent protocols. the government even went ahead to implement certain measures for the protection of biodiversity although key biodiversity areas (kbas) still remain unprotected which as a result of lapses in biodiversity conservation on the part of the state. the state has always paid little attention to the significant role played by indigenous communities in the decisionmaking process with regards to biodiversity conservation and the negative effects of these decisions are often felt mostly by indigenous communities which sometimes creates a conflict between conservation of biological diversity and indigenous and traditional communities land rights. today we are talking about cbd post 2020 and it’s 30 by 30 target the overarching objective of the convention is aimed at designating 30% of earth’s land and ocean area as protected areas and if the state doesn’t take a human rights-based approach to biodiversity conservation, we are bound to witness the eviction of this indigenous communities from their home land, their lands seized and a spike in biodiversity loss. this article focuses on addressing the threat posed by the 30 by 30 target to indigenous and community land rights and possibility of worsening the biodiversity situation if it falls short of a human rights-based approach towards conservation. it will also be useful to anyone interested in getting acquainted with the convention on biological diversity (cbd) and its impact on indigenous rights and development in cameroon. the article concludes with a discussion on reconciling these conflicts in order to achieve biodiversity conservation and development without indigenous land rights violation. literature review several studies have been conducted on the threat posed by conservation on land rights of indigenous and traditional communities in cameroon. despites this many studies conducted there is still room for further research in this area since limited progress has been made in the protection of the biodiversity and indigenous rights especially in developing states like cameroon. therefore, indigenous rights and biodiversity remains threatened till date and the threat will be aggravated following the convention on biological diversity post 2020 and its 30 by 30 target. in (oliver and emmanuel, 2018), they identified the fundamental role of biodiversity as part of the countries national heritage and even examined some of the of new legal and institutional tools that characterize the current framework for the protection of cameroon’s biodiversity and the role of protected areas in conservation. however, despite significant progress in developing biodiversity related global and national legal instruments, the role of indigenous communities in conservation and their rights to participate in the decisions making process that affects https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.628 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:mailto:agborballack.7%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 93 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 92-99, 2022 them neglected has he loss of valuable plant and animal species, loss of habitat, genetic erosion and ecosystem degradation also referring to the 1994 forestry, wildlife and fisheries regulation, in its articles 37 and 38, which introduced a new concept of the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity under the nomenclature of community forests. under these provisions, the state shall sign an agreement with any desirous local community to enable it promote the management of forest resources with the assistance of the services in charge of forests. this type of management shall be carried out through management plans drawn up at the behest of the community and approved by the services in charge of forest. in this way, the local community concerned manages the forest in question and reap the attendant benefits. however, a major point of contention with the 1994 forest code is its failure to recognize rights to the lands, territories, and resources of indigenous peoples who are the real experts on their environment and others can only learn much from them in terms of management of biodiversity. based on the convention on biodiversity post 2020 framework, a convention which cameroon has ratified and its vision 2030 also referred to as 30 by 30 target which calls on the protection and conservation of at least 30% of the planet with areas particularly important for biodiversity through effective systems of protected areas and other effective area-based biodiversity measures. however, the application of this convention is conflicting with the protection of the land rights of indigenous communities, which is likely to worsen the human rights condition of indigenous communities in forest areas and will result in them being evicted from their ancestral home and this will only happen if the state doesn’t adopt a human rights-based approach towards conservation. according to the national biological strategic action (nbsap, 2011), which had as one of its missions, to take all necessary measures to reduce the rate of national biodiversity loss and ensure long-term sustainability of biodiversity by 2020 and in its principle 3 which states that at all levels of biodiversity decision making processes, stakeholders including local communities and vulnerable groups are entitled to participate and for this purpose should have access to information on biodiversity. one strategy adopted to achieve this goal was the creation of protected areas for conservation such as national parks and the state has paid little or no attention to the fundamental role of indigenous communities towards effective conservation. however, this protected areas are slowly degenerating because of government allocation of this protected areas for logging through concession agreements, which has defeated the purpose of protected areas and displaced many forest indigenous communities whose traditional knowledge would have been instrumental in the protection of the environment. however, despite the research conducted by the many authors above, their research didn’t touch on the convention on biological diversity post 2020 and didn’t address the threat posed by conservation strategies like protected areas on indigenous land rights. . my research looks at the threat posed the new conevntion on biological diversity post 2020 and its 30x30 target on indigenous land rights, if the state were to implement following without recognizing the fundamental role of indigenous and traditional communities in conservation. this research will give a better picture of conservation in cameroon and indigenous rights post 2020. methodology the research methods employed in this research involved qualitative data analysis. it’s aimed at interpreting and analyzing environmental legislations and policies, both at the international and the national level as applied in cameroon and how it affects indigenous land rights towards conservation. patton (2002:41) referred to this process as inductive analysis and creative synthesis. the qualitative data analysis was conducted through extensive literature review and significant amount of background reading on environmental law and indigenous rights journal articles, books and websites in order to locate particular pieces of information while using an inductive approach. the method applied is purely doctrinal which relied on devices such as ethnography and case studies in the process of data collection. results and discussions convention on biological diversity and the role of cameroon towards conservation. according to a 2018 ranking published (by the worldwide fund (wwf), cameroon’s flora and fauna biodiversity ranks 21st globally and 4th in africa (wwf, 2018). the country is said to rank fifth for fauna diversity and fourth for flora in africa and is often referred to as africa in miniature because it comprises all the major climatic conditions, vegetation and wild life features of the african continent. cameroon is a country endowed with forest cover that constitutes roughly 42 % (about 20 million hectares) of the country’s total land area (mohanty, 2021). the country’s evergreen forest located in the southern part of the country and constitutes part of the congo basin forest confinement and is home to millions of people and some indigenous communities as well as the last indigenous population of the african rainforest “the pygmies” (donmez, 2022). according to the international tropical timber organization, cameroon’s forest is also home to closely 10,000 species of plants, mammals, and birds, making it one of the highest species densities of any african country, 30% of which are unique to the region (mbatu, 2016). in the wake of a global increase in the loss of biological diversity, many countries across the globe have rallied behind an international call to protect the environment including cameroon which is encapsulated in a legal instrument referred to as the convention on biological diversity. the convention was formally initiated in the united nations conference on environment and development in rio https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 94 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 92-99, 2022 de janeiro 1992, with over a hundred states adopting the official text which was then forwarded for ratification and implementation. the convention has three main objectives: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its component and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources (magnusson, 2022). cameroon’s role in the protection of biodiversity and the convention on biological diversity pre-2020. cameroon became a party to the convention upon ratification in the year 1995 and some of its subsequent protocols like the cartagena protocol on biosafety which seeks to ensure an adequate level of protection in the safe movement and use of living modified organisms from biotechnology likely to adversely affect biodiversity and the 2010 nagoya protocol which recognizes the contribution of genetic resources and information from genetic material in promoting research and development in fast growing pharmaceutical, cosmetic, biotech and food industries and the inadequate contribution of its benefits to conservation. cameroon has equally played an active role in international negotiations and one of such roles was the key role it played as part of the lead negotiators for the un africa region in the negotiations and adoption of major biodiversity related conventions, protocols and generated a national process with the political momentum resulting in national ratification or adherence to the multiple multilateral environmental agreements to which cameroon is a party (ruppel et al., 2018, p. 437). apart from that, the country is party to some other major biodiversity related multilateral agreements introduced by acts of ratification, which go a long way to confirm the country’s role in the protection of the environment and some of this international legal instruments have made some significant contributions in shaping national responses and intervention actions in the protection of national critical ecosystems such as the convention on wetlands of international importance and the convention on the law of the sea 1973, endangered species which are regulated under the convention on migratory species of wild animals 1979 and convention on the protection of world heritage, culture and nature 1972, crimes on protected species and trade in endangered species regulated by the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild plants and animals 1973, specific uses of genetic resources international treaty on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture 2001 and major threats to biodiversity regulated under the convention on oil pollution preparedness, response and co-operation 2001 and the convention on the control of transboundary movements and disposal of hazardous wastes 1989 and the convention on climate change 1992 and its kyoto protocol; convention to combat desertification 1994. in 2000, the country completed its first national biodiversity strategy and action plan nbsap but wasn’t implemented due to some constraints republic of cameroon national biodiversity strategy and action plan – version ii (nbsap,2012). in the year 2010, the country updated its nbsap known as the aichi target which was to run from 2012 to 2020. target 11 of the nbsap ensures coherence of the biodiversity policy with the protected target area of 30%, adopted the following as a national priority by the year 2020: by 2020, at least 30% of the national territory, taking into consideration ecosystem representativeness are under effectively and equitably managed protected areas (ruppel et al., p.444). the current trend in protected area in the implementation of this law depicts an increase of 76.5% in the creation of protected areas between 2000 with a baseline of 17 protected areas and 2012 having a total of 30 protected areas. by 2012 there was a wide protected area network of 19 national parks, 7 wildlife reserves, 5 wildlife sanctuaries, 3 botanical gardens, 47 synergetic zones and 26 community managed synergetic zones with a total cover of 16,683,779 ha in protected areas and 9,159,135 ha specifically for wildlife (cameroon’s forestry, wildlife and fisheries regulations, 1994). this represents 19.25% of the national territory and has enabled national progress beyond the global target of the aichi targets set at 15% for terrestrial protected areas. management plans have been developed and adopted to ensure the protection of most of the protected areas. the national biodiversity strategy and action plan version ii (nbsap ii) which recognized the significance of these international instruments in the framework for international and regional cooperation in the protection and valorization of cameroon’s biodiversity as well as regional legal tools in the management of shared trans-boundary ecosystems (ruppel et al., 2018, p. 439). this recognition is highlighted with the identification of 21 biodiversity-related international agreements and 21 regional agreements ratified by cameroon and demonstrates a long-standing national commitment to collectively defined norms, proposed a different policy orientation which was to reverse and halt the current trend in biodiversity loss as a way of establishing a strong nature base that is indispensable for the country’s socioeconomic growth. nbsap ii was implemented through 2020 and contained 4 strategic goals, 20 nationallevel and 10 ecosystem-specific targets, priority actions, timeframes for action, performance indicators and actors/organizations responsible for implementation (convention on biological diversity secretariat, 2022). in implementing its national biological strategic action plan (nbsap), the country made some progress. apart from the regulatory laws enacted and conventions signed by the government of cameroon towards the conservation of biodiversity, the state equally recognizes the fundamental role of indigenous and local communities living in forest riparian communities as stewards in natural resource management and towards the conservation of biodiversity, even though these rights are limited to traditional collections with no reference to rights over their https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 95 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 92-99, 2022 traditional knowledge. this restriction is further reflected in the 1994 forest code in its section 7 which regulates ownership by stating that the state, local councils, village communities and private individuals may exercise on their forest and aquacultural establishments all the rights that result from ownership subject to restrictions laid down in the regulations governing land tenure and state lands and by this law (ruppel et al., p. 440). the forest code grants usage rights while stipulating those customary rights are those accorded to local populations to exploit all forest wildlife and fish products with the exception of protected species for their personal use. they may be temporarily or permanently suspended when the need arises for reasons of public interest. however, the 1994 forest code pays lips service towards the recognition of indigenous people’s rights to the lands, territories and resources they have traditionally owned, occupied or otherwise used and acquired. this has been a major issue during cameroon’s recent forest code reforms and is about to become more of a bigger problem with the more recent convention on biological diversity post 2020 and its 30 x 30 target. however, despite many measures adopted by the government aimed at conserving biodiversity, implementation, governance and the sidelining of indigenous communities constitute one of the major challenges today in ensuring compliant behaviors that favor biodiversity and at the same time ensuring indigenous rights are respected in the process of conservation. prior to cbd post 2020, the government had bypassed some of these laws and carried out developmental activities that endanger biodiversity and violate the rights of this indigenous communities. in 2020 the government signed a concession agreement allocating about 68,385 hectares of ebo-forest, inhabited by 40 indigenous communities and half the size of london for logging. with pressure from advocacy groups and the international community, the concession agreements were suspended and not terminated. this is just one of the many acts of government threatening biodiversity and indigenous rights (international land coalition, 2022). with post cbd 2020 and it’s 30 by 30 targets, at center of discussions in the international community with regards to biodiversity conservation, the convention maybe used by the state to transform some of these forested areas inhabited by indigenous communities to protected areas and send them parking only to later on transform these protected areas into forest management units in future and allocate them for logging to meet up with her vision 2035 of becoming a highly industrialized country. convention on biological diversity post 2020 and indigenous rights according to the worldwide fund (wwf), cameroon is home to a large community of indigenous peoples such as the baka who are found in the southern and eastern regions of cameroon, the bagyeli and bakola in the southern region, the bedzand in the center region and the mbororos scattered in the northwest, southwest and northern regions. they have revered and treasured the lands they live upon for centuries. the livelihood of indigenous groups, like the baka and the bagyeli, depend largely on the forests. they pick fruits, hunt and build their homes from materials from the forest while worshipping nature, which embodies the spirit of living in harmony with nature. the mbororos, on the other hand, are grazers constantly migrating to different regions of the country because of conflicts between their grazing style and conservation efforts. these indigenous communities like the baka who have lived for centuries in this forest have accumulated and passed on extensive ecological knowledge and sophisticated cultural mechanisms of egalitarianism, sharing and human-nature conviviality and because of this rich cultural heritage, the baka, and hunter-gatherers around the world, have consistently been forced into categories of ‘primitive’ and ‘uncultured’ by neighboring agriculturalist communities, national governments and some international actors (hoyte & clarke, 2020). across the globe, indigenous people and traditional communities are accorded protection under international law. they are entitled to own, occupy, manage and use the lands, territories and natural resources that they have customarily used. these rights are protected under various international instruments to which cameroon is a party of and includes the african charter on human and peoples’ rights (art 14), the international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights (arts 1, 2, 11, 12), and the international covenant on civil and political rights (arts 1, 27). under international law, indigenous peoples’ customary rights are equivalent to all forms of other property rights in the country and exist regardless of whether the state has recognized them. in cameroon, indigenous peoples’ land rights are not recognized under national law, despite the fact that the majority of the national territory has been occupied and managed by local and indigenous communities for centuries. access to justice and political representation is effectively zero (perram & clarke 2018). indigenous communities in cameroon have overtime been considered as the long-time protectors of biodiversity which have been influenced by traditional believes, as a result they have often adopted sustainable practices in the usage of the biodiversity resources which has contributed towards the protection of biodiversity. however, despite the efforts made towards the conservation of biodiversity, it is still increasingly threatened across the globe and any measure that doesn’t recognize the role and rights of indigenous communities towards biodiversity conservation constitutes part of the threat rather than contribute towards the resolving the threat. with just 17% of land and 8 % of sea considered as being protected across the globe, coupled with an increase in unsustainable developmental practices, activities of huge extractive industries and the sidelining https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 96 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 92-99, 2022 of indigenous communities by some states with regards to the management of natural resource and conservation of biodiversity have led to this current state of biodiversity crisis (govan, 2020). some scientists and conservation advocates are rallying behind an international call to protect biodiversity code name “30 by 30 targets” which according to them could go a long way towards averting the biodiversity crisis while also helping to address other environmental and health challenges such as climate change and the risk of future pandemics. the cbd post-2020 global biodiversity framework (wg2020-3), particularly its target 3 which is commonly referred to as the “30 by 30 initiatives” has as its overarching goal to increase conservation of land and sea areas up to 30 percent by 2030. this 30% is a minimum target for land, sea and freshwater to protect and conserve key biodiversity values, including species at risk, high biodiversity areas, key migration sites, spawning areas, and ecologically intact areas which protect largescale ecological processes (international union for conservation of nature, 2021). adding in climate refugio and areas of high carbon density increases the area required to over 50%. achieving effective protection and conservation on at least 30% of the planet by 2030 is a critical step toward achieving the cbd’s 2050 vision of living in harmony with nature, as well as post-2020 ambitions for biodiversity (woodley et al., 2019). all these is to be carried out through conservation practices such as marine protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures also referred to as “conserved areas” and to do so using areabased conservation measures such as parks. according to the international union for conservation of nature (iucn) a protected area refers to a clearly defined geographical space recognized, dedicated and managed through legal or other effective means to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. the post-2020 global biodiversity framework aims to guide actions worldwide through 2030, to preserve and protect nature and its essential services to people and builds on the strategic plan for biodiversity 2011-2020. we may look at the cbd post 2020, 30 by 30 target as a stepping stone towards the conservation of biodiversity, which will mean saving the earth in the long run. dangers of protected areas without the due consideration of indigenous rights however, the realization of this grand vision of the cbd 30 by 30 target to conserve biodiversity without taking into consideration a human rights-based approach in its strategy will mean the violation of human rights and the biggest land grab in history (shanahan,2021). the convention remains controversial because protected areas have a history on indigenous rights abuse and could significantly disrupt indigenous peoples and local communities’ governance, management and conservation systems across all aquatic territories of life, in both inshore and offshore areas, forested areas. what we call protected areas today is as a result of a movement that started since in 1961, with the first world parks congress in seattle, usa, since when the international union has spearheaded it for the conservation of nature (iucn) and today we have about 7.9 million square meters of protected land, with an anticipated increase in the nearest future (mcneely & harrison, 2008). while some have saved species from extinction, others so called paper parks which are legally established protected areas where experts believe current protection activities are insufficient to halt degradation are ineffectively managed (dudley and stolton, 1999). a disturbing number of protected areas have also harmed local people through forced displacement and human rights abuses inflicted by militarized park guards (shenan, 2021). most advocates of indigenous rights and strong critics of the 30 by 30 target have decried it as a scheme that legitimizes gov’t seizure of lands in the guise of protected areas taking into consideration the fact that the process of seeking free, prior and informed consent from indigenous peoples who inhabit these areas that are targeted as potential conservation areas is not followed to the latter and presents on of the greatest challenges towards the protection of indigenous rights. in fact during a high-level event on the sidelines of the united nations general assembly in september 2021 according to hindou oumarou ibrahim, coordinator of the association of peul women and autochthonous peoples of chad, and member of the campaign for nature’s global steering committee he stated that “there must be recognition of the 80% of biodiversity that indigenous peoples are conserving already and the 30x30 initiative is a good complementary idea as long as it is done with the free prior and informed consent and in partnership with indigenous peoples, respecting them and their rights and traditional knowledge that we know are essential to effectively protect nature and provide for people. in many developing countries like cameroon, there are no adequate provisions for public participation in environmental governance, which leaves these indigenous communities from having a fair say in establishing “protected” areas that are likely to be the most affected by these decisions. despite provisions in the current cbd framework and draft post-2020 gbf to include ‘other effective areabased conservation measures’ in global conservation targets, experience has shown that state-owned, strict protected areas have often remained the default choice in much of the global south (minority rights group international et al., 2020). the absence of effective measures to protect the rights, lands and livelihood of indigenous peoples and other communities in, conservation-based programs by the draft cbd leaves much to be desired as it has the potential of violating international laws. this is much reflected in creation of more protected in areas in cameroon which will mean the employment of many forest guards who are often armed https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 97 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 92-99, 2022 to protect these protected areas from poachers and other threats. however, most of these eco-guards who are often ill-equipped and pressured to get results, target the baka with extreme abuse in the name of conservation. as anthropologist jerome lewis puts it: “unable to act against the powerful perpetrators of the illegal wildlife trade, eco-guards began to attack softer targets: the hunter-gatherers and villagers” (lewis, 2020). according to hoyte and clark, the baka who are hunter-gatherers baka families do not hunt, fish and forage (just) for fun. it is their means of survival. the confiscation of meat hunted under droit d’usage (user rights) is nothing but criminal. some eco-guards push this brutality further, confiscating the baka’s most treasured gift of the forest wild honey for seemingly no reason other than to assert their power (duda,2017). despite agreements being reached between the state and these indigenous communities the enable those to once again carry out traditional activities within the parks through a management plan. their rights to access and use are being treated as a privilege being granted by the government which requires baka communities to give something in return rather than as a right which the government’s creation of these protected areas has systematically violated, and which must be remedied. this ultimately reflects the broader problem that these mous do not remedy the fundamental ongoing violation of human rights, which is the non-recognition and non-respect for indigenous peoples’ customary lands, territories and natural resources (catherine, 2020, p.5). apart from the right of these indigenous communities to access their homeland being threatened, their traditional way of lively hood is also at risk. young men have sought work in local gold mines, however they reported frequent harassment, threats and abuse from eco-guards, who sometimes confiscate their earnings on the pretext that they don’t have id cards to present when asked and also forest land around the parks is not free for local access either as they are leased out to international trophy hunting safari operators (catherine, 2020, p.5). according to catherine clarke (2020), these zones are guarded and access is restricted during hunting seasons. however, this restriction increasingly extends even outside hunting seasons and is enforced by antipoaching patrols. according to fpp’s findings, the baka reported that there is a high risk of being hit by stray bullets or being confused with game if they venture into the forest (which is just five kilometers from the road) during hunting periods and that fishing and foraging are increasingly compromised in off-seasons, as guards’ reason that the same resources the baka live on are needed by the animals which are trophy hunted. women reported that their traditional initiation ceremony has disappeared since the creation of the parks. traditional medicine is still practiced; however, certain trees which are important for remedies are found deep within protected areas and have not been accessible for many years. as hunter gatherers traditionally teach their children in the forest, using a learning-by-doing approach, there is limited space to enact and impart their knowledge, with the impacts on the next generation already visible, e.g., reduced knowledge of medicinal plants and hunting techniques. although the convention of biological diversity post 2020 and its 30 by 30 target will bring about the protection of biodiversity, it was found that consequences it will have on the land rights of indigenous and traditional communities in cameroon will be immense if it falls short of a human rights based approach towards conservation and this is what entails in the cameroon especially with the lack of political will by government to effectively place these indigenous communities at the center of natural resource management. however, this precarious situation could be mitigated. firstly, prior to any proposed land conservation action, the government should consult local communities who depend on such lands for their livelihood. both the government and stakeholders should be accountable and hence should involve local communities in all stages of the land conservation process. this is done to ensure that local people either benefit from investment projects or the negative consequences are minimized. lack of adequate consultation: participation, accountability, equality, nondiscrimination, empowerment and legality lead to lack of public confidence on such moves. prior consultation with the local communities will give them the opportunity to assess how they will benefit or be affected by the project and to be prepared for such outcomes. secondly, conservation has a positive impact on the environment but negative impacts on local communities’ livelihood as a result, they should be compensated accordingly. for instance, those who had been grazing animals, growing crops, fetching water, collecting grasses or firewood on the land should be given alternative land. conservation does not only dispossess local communities the important assets for their livelihoods, we have also seen that they can result in eviction of local people. the government should ensure that any proposed action will not result in eviction, and if eviction is inevitable, then government must make sure that victims get financial and other compensation packages based on independent assessment and benefits prior to the eviction. it was observed that the constitution does not contain a clear-cut provision on the right to access to information as in other jurisdictions like in south african and ugandan constitutions. it is therefore recommended that the constitution be revised to include this provision in order to enable people gain access to public and privately held information and to encourage and promote transparency and accountability in the governance of public affairs generally also, civil society organizations can help local voices to be heard so that the desired attention is given to the local communities. civil society may also raise the awareness levels of both the authorities and the rest of citizens through campaigns and education. they can also help put https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 98 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 92-99, 2022 pressures on the stakeholders and its country of origin to oblige it adopts standard practices in its conduct. conclusion there has always been a conflict between conservation and indigenous land rights in cameroon. the cbd post 2020 and its 30x 30 target only makes it worst if the state adopts a conservation strategy devoid of a human rights based approach. the international community, local ngos, indigenous communities and the state have a vital role to play towards ensuring that conservation is successfully implemented without violating the land rights of indigenous communities by addressing some issues like recognizing the role of indigenous communities in biodiversity conservation is not enough as when it comes to implementation of these rights the government of cameroon pays lips service to them. what is needed is to first amend the 1994 forestry code to recognize the rights and role of indigenous communities as not subservient to national law and as the age long stewards of biodiversity. there is the need to empower this indigenous communities both educationally and politically, who have a spiritual and cultural connection to the natural environment and are more likely to repel legislations and developmental activities that threaten the forest. also while designating certain areas as protected areas viz a viz 30 x 30 target, the process of free, prior and informed concern is often neglected by the state and the end result is a vicious decision that leads to the eviction of this indigenous communities and the militarization of protected areas with armed forest guards who understand little or nothing about the indigenous communities and their culture. it is important that the state conforms to this requirement and ensure thorough education of the forest guards about the cultures and traditions of the people they are protecting the forest from and if possible, train forest guards from within the indigenous communities in order to avoid the violation of indigenous rights. references ahmet emin donmez (2022, january 8). cameroonian pygmies uprooted from forest they lived in for 5000 years. anadolu agency. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/ cameroonian-pygmies-uprooted-from-forest-theylived-in-for-5-000-years/2468958 abhijit mohanty (2021, march 2). world wildlife day. cameroon’s rich biodiversity face innumerable threats. downtoearth.org.in. https://www.downtoearth.org. in/blog/africa/amp/world-wildlife-day-cameroon-srich-biodiverty-face-innumerable-threats-75720 catherine clarke (2019). in and around cameroon’s protected areas: a rights-based analysis of access and resource use agreements between indigenous peoples and the state: forest peoples program. .https://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/default/files/ documents/in%20and%20around%20camero ons%20protected%20areas-eng-final.pdf convention on biological diversity secretariat (n.d) cameroon main details: status and trends of biodiversity including benefits from biodiversity and ecosystem services. convention on biological diversity. https:// www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=cm#measures duda, r. (2017). ethnoecology of hunting in an empty forest. practices, local perceptions and social change among the baka (cameroon). dudley, nigel and sue stolton (1999). conversion of paper parks to effective management: developing a target: semantic scholars. hugh govan (2020, december 18). the 30 by 30campaign for marine protected areas will marginalize the very people who far from contributing to the problem – have long been a big part of the solution. icca consortium. https://www.iccaconsortium.org/index. php/2020/12/18/30-by-30-distraction-indigenousholistic-ocean/ international union for conservation of nature et al (n.d). conserving-at-least-30-of-the-planet-by-2030what-should-count. iucn. https://www.iucn.org/ resources/gre-literature/conserving-least-30-planet2030-what-should-count j. macneely, j. harrison and a. dingwall (2008). protecting nature: regional reviews of protected areas (gland, switzerland: iucn—the world conservation union. lewis, j. (2020, may 1). how sustainable’ development ravaged the congo basin. scientific american. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/howsustainable-development-ravaged -the-congo-basin/ law no.94/01 of 20 january 1994 forestry, wildlife and fisheries regulations. mike shanahan. (2021, october 8). will 30 by 30 reboot conservation or entrench old habits? the third pole. net. https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/nature/30x30target-reboot-conservation-or-entrench-oldproblems/ monica c. magnusson (2022, april 21). the global biodiversity framework must incorporate and operationalize human and indigenous rights. cultural survival. https:// www.culturalsurvival.org/news/global-biodiversityframework-must-incorporate-and-operationalize-humanand-indigenous-rights minority rights group international et al (2020, september 28). ngo concerns over the proposed 30% target for protected areas and absence of safeguards for indigenous peoples and local communities. survival international. https://assets.survivalinternational.org/ documents/1959/final-en-ngo-concerns-over-theproposed-30-target-for-protected-areas-and-absenceof-safeguards-for-indigenous-people-and-localcommunities-200901 oliver c. ruppel et al. environmental law and policy in cameroon (2018). towards making africa the tree of life/droit et politique de l’environnement au cameroun afin de faire de l’afrique l’arbre de vie (1st ed.). nomos verlagsgesellschaft mbh. perram, a. & clarke, c. (2018, january 30). complaint https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 99 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 92-99, 2022 abandoned, but systematic human rights violations continue for indigenous baka communities in cameroon. moreton-in-marsh. forest peoples programme. https://www.forestpeoples.org/en/rightsbased-conservation/news-article/2018/complaintabandoned-systematic-human-rights-violations republic of cameroon (2012). national biodiversity strategy and action plan – version ii . minepded. richard s. mbatu, (2016). linking the global to the national: an application of the international pathways model to examine the influence of international environmental agreements on cameroon’s forest policy. internatioal environmnetal agreements politics, law and economics. 16(4), 465-492. simon hoyte & catherine clarke (2020, june 26). violence, corruption, and false promises: conservation and the baka in cameroon. iwgia. https://www.iwgia.org/ en/cameroon/3791-violence,-corruption,-and-falsepromises-conservation-and-the-baka-in-cameroon. html woodley, s., h. locke, d. laffoley, k. mackinnon, t. sandwidth, and j. smart (2019). a review of evidence for area-based conservation targets for the post2020 global biodiversity framework. parks 25(2), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.2305/iucn.ch.2019. parks-25-2sw2.en world wide fund (n.d), about cameroon and worldwide fund (wwf). cameroon panda. https:// cameroon.panda.org/about_us/ https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) antifungal effects of different commercial products against fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tr4 causing fusarium wilt of banana mary amor g. figueroa1, artemio s. hagonos, jr.2 volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.207 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: april 09, 2022 accepted: may 25, 2022 published: june 02, 2022 banana production is seriously threatened by fusarium wilt, also known as panama disease worldwide. regulatory control and the use of biological control agent, trichoderma harzianum showed to be effective in minimizing the development and spread of the disease in the area. some studies also showed the potential of some commercially-available fungicides in managing the disease. in this study, different commercial products applied singly and in combinations were evaluated against foctr4 causing fusarium wilt of banana and the most effective treatment combinations for the management of foctr4 was determined under in vitro test condition. treatments used in the experiment were as follows: t1control; t2b. subtilis alone; t3-fosetyl-aluminum alone; t4-fluopyram alone; t5b. subtilis + fosetyl-aluminum; t6-b. subtilis + fluopyram; t7-fosetyl-aluminum + fluopyram and t8 b. subtilis + fosetyl-aluminum + fluopyram. the experiment was laid out in completely randomized design (crd) with three replications. data were statistically analyzed using the analysis of variance (anova) and the treatment means were compared using tukey’s honest significant difference (hsd). results of the study showed that treatments of b. subtilis in combinations with fosetyl-al or fluopyram and the combinations of these three products had totally inhibited and killed foctr4. single treatment of fosetyl-al and the combinations of the products had totally inhibited the growth and spore production of foctr4 however, validation test revealed that fosetyl-al alone and its combination to fluopyram induces chlamydospore production instead of killing the pathogen. keywords foctr4, bacillus subtilis, fosetyl-aluminum, floupyram 1 plant pathology faculty, surigao state college of technology, mainit, surigao del norte, philippines 2 plant pathology faculty, university of southeastern philippines, tagum-mabini campus, tagum city, philippines. * corresponding author’s e-mail: mafigueroa03@gmail.com introduction global banana production is seriously threatened by fusarium wilt, also known as panama disease. the disease, caused by the soil-borne fungus, fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (foc), wiped out the gros michel-based banana industry in central america and the caribbean in the mid-twentieth century. the effects of foc race 1 were overcome by a shift to resistant ‘cavendish’ cultivars, which are currently the source of 99% of banana exports (vicente et al., 2014). unfortunately, they also reported that a new race of foc called tropical race 4 (tr4) has overcome foc resistance in ‘cavendish’ clones. perhaps even more seriously, other banana cultivars such as plantains, cooking bananas and a diverse range of dessert banana varieties (not susceptible to races 1 and 2) are also susceptible to tr4. these local varieties are mostly grown by smallholder farmers for local consumption and income generation. more than 80% of global banana and plantain production is thought to be based on tr4-susceptible germplasm. this race of foc has caused epidemics in ‘cavendish’ in the tropics different from those less severe infections previously reported in the sub-tropics. in the philippines, the disease was suspected to be present in the country since the 1970s, but tr4 was only confirmed in 2008. its incidence in the surveyed farms increased from 700 cases in 2005 to 15,000 in 2007 (molina et al., 2008). large companies currently manage the disease following the protocol established for bacterial wilt (ralstonia solanacearum) management, which is based on quarantine, sanitation, soil disinfestation and fallows (molina, 2009). considering the prevalence, ubiquitous nature and the ability of fungi to cause epidemics in relatively short period of time, disease management strategies are needed to secure the productivity in today’s agriculture. chemical control measures are particularly common in management of fungal plant diseases, and most of these measures rely on the use of fungicides (ivic, 2010). the use of biological control methods also offers an excellent alternative strategy for effective control of various diseases as well as augmentation of nutrient availability in the rhizosphere. in fact, previous studies on commercially-available microbial agents applied singly and in combinations with synthetic products showed the potential of these agents in controlling various diseases. in addition, for successful control of the disease, these products must be delivered in an appropriate state of activity and to the right place at the right time in order to achieve economical control. thus, this study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of different commercial products such as b. subtilis, fosetyl-aluminum and fluopyram applied singly and in combinations and to determine the most effective treatment and treatment combinations for the management of foc tr4 causing fusarium wilt of banana under in vitro test condition. literature review fusarium wilt of ‘cavendish’ banana https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.207 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:mafigueroa03@gmail.com pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 01-08, 2022 fusarium wilt, also known as panama disease have threatened banana production worldwide. in the philippines, the disease was suspected to be present in the country since the 1970s, but tr4 was only confirmed in 2008. its incidence in the surveyed farms increased from 700 cases in 2005 to 15,000 in 2007 (molina et al., 2008). large companies currently manage the disease following the protocol established for bacterial wilt (ralstonia solanacearum) management, which is based on quarantine, sanitation, soil disinfestation and fallows (molina, 2009). to date, cavendish remains resistant to the fusarium strain that prevails in central america. however, a virulent strain that can attack the cavendish was found causing epidemics in asia, known as tropical race 4 (tr4). this pathogen destroyed commercial plantations of cavendish in taiwan, northern territory of australia, indonesia, malaysia, and china making their banana exports less competitive. in the philippines, the disease was suspected to be present in the country since the 1970s, but tr4 was only confirmed in 2008. its incidence in the surveyed farms increased from 700 cases in 2005 to 15,000 in 2007 (molina et al., 2008). the pathogen fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (foc) is a soil-borne hyphomycete and is one of more than 100 formae speciales of f. oxysporum that causes vascular wilts of flowering plants (domsch et al. 1980; nelson et al. 1983). according to wardlaw (1961) and stover (1962), the fungus infects the roots of banana plants, colonizing the vascular system of the rhizome and pseudostem, and inducing characteristic wilting symptoms mostly after 5-6 months of planting and the symptoms are expressed both externally and internally. the fungus produces microand macroconidia and chlamydospores. besides, it over seasons in infected plants as mycelium and in the soil mostly as chlamydospores. the latter survive in the soil for at least 20 years (agrios, 2005). the pathogen is broadly categorized into four races, namely: races 1, 2, 3 and 4. races 1, 2 and 4 are pathogenic only to banana (musa spp.) and race 3 is pathogenic only to heliconia spp. all races are present in australia. the pathogen is further categorized into vegetative compatibility groups (vcgs) or strains of which there are 21 recognized worldwide. the most important race of this pathogen is race 4, which affects most of the cultivated banana varieties, including ‘cavendish’ banana (daly and walduck, 2006). symptomatology according to agrios (2005), the symptoms of panama disease consist of yellowing of the oldest leaves or lengthwise splitting of the lower leaf sheath. leaves may wilt and buckle at their petiole base and, later, younger leaves collapse and die. internally, brown streaks develop on and within older leaf sheaths and these are followed by large portions of the xylem turning brick red to brown. in the meantime, the fungus, which enters the banana plant from the soil through the feeder roots, advances into the xylem vessels of the rhizome and from there into the pseudostem, which it colonizes, resulting in discoloration and blockage. whereas, somrith et al. (2011) reported that the symptoms appeared from 5 months in the younger stage to the fruit stage. the external symptom is yellowing of the leaf blade and the internal symptom exhibits reddish brown discoloration of the internal pseudostem. infected plants collapse before maturity. even though they can grow, their yield and the quality of fruit are decreased. disease cycle based on the review of pegg, moore and bentley (1996), fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense is a soil-borne pathogen that infects plants through lateral or branching rootlets, penetrates the vascular tissue and proliferates in the xylem. it restricts movement of water and induces wilting and premature death. the fungus can survive for many years in soil as a saprophyte or as chlamydospores. chlamydospores are stimulated to germinate by root exudates, particularly those from wounded roots, which subsequently become infected. microconidia are sproduced in the xylem within 2-3 days on its adaxial side and move upwards in the xylem but become trapped at the end walls in the vessels. however, hyphae penetrate these end walls and sporulate. infection stimulates the formation of tyloses and the secretion of gels in the xylem vessels within 24-48 hours, which together with trapped microconidia at the perforation plates, restrict water movement. eventually as the plant dies, the fungus grows out of the vascular system into the parenchyma after 48-96 hours where it sporulates profusely and conidia and chlamydospores are returned to the soil (ploetz (1992). disease epidemiology the pathogen is spread primarily in infected rhizomes (suckers), which are used traditionally for the vegetative propagation of banana. less frequently, the pathogen is spread as spores in soil, running water, and on farm equipment and machinery (agrios, 2005). pcarrddost (2006) supported those means of spread and added that the natural and initial site of infection is through the root tips of the plant. management there are no economical methods exposed to eliminate foc tr4 in the soil. current management practices involved implementation of strict quarantine measures to prevent the transfer of diseased planting materials into new areas. infected banana plants, including those within a 6-m radius, must be immediately eradicated to minimize the spread of the disease pcarrd-dost (2006). the most effective control can be or achieved by planting banana varieties resistant to the existing races of the pathogen. planting pathogen-free rhizomes in pathogen-free soil is also effective. likewise, the use of tissue culture-produced propagative material free of the pathogen is helpful (agrios, 2005). there are reports, however, that maintenance of an active micro-flora in the soil was advocated as a general control measure to be used in conjunction with somaclones https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 01-08, 2022 showing some resistance. also, various organisms found to suppress foc in laboratory and glasshouse experiments have been advocated as biocontrol agents, but little success has been reported using strains of trichoderma, pseudomonas, streptomyces, non-pathogenic fusarium of both rhizospheric and endophytic microbes in the field (zhang et al., 2013). today, large companies currently manage the disease following the protocol established for bacterial wilt (ralstonia solanacearum) management which is based on quarantine, sanitation, soil disinfection and fallows (molina, 2009). a chinese research team also reported that crude extract of chinese chive (allium tubererosum) inhibited the in vitro growth of foc ‘tropical race 4’. in field trials in an area heavily infested by foc ‘tropical race 4’, chinese chive in rotation with banana, reduced incidence of fusarium wilt by 88 %-97 % and a disease severity index by 91-96 % (huang et al., 2012). the results of further work indicated that volatiles released from root exudates or leached roots and leaves may be responsible (zhang et al., 2013). effects of fosetyl-al fosetyl-al is a systemic fungicide which is the breakdown product of foli-r-fos that has an active ingredient of phosphonate, the anion of phosphonic acid, which is used as fungicides against the pathogens belonging to the order peronosporales (davis et al., 1994). this fungicide is known for its direct effect on the fungus that stops plant infection by inhibiting spore germination and the penetration of the pathogen into the plant or blocks mycelial development and sporulation in the case of a curative treatment and its indirect effect of slowing down significantly the invasion of the pathogen by reinforcing the defensive reactions of the plants. this enables the host’s hypersensitive response to seal-off the invading organism (bayer crop science, 2013). fosetyl-al is rapidly absorbed by the plant roots or leaves and is translocated in both an upward and downward direction, particularly to the growing points. in this way, the foliage and root growth developing between treatments is protected, including the root hairs of the plants receiving foliar spray application. it also exhibits certain level of curative activity. best results, particularly against the diseases that develop rapidly, are generally obtained when treatments commence prior to the onset of infection (bayer crop science, 2012). many researches have shown the potential of this fungicide in controlling bacterial and fungal organisms belonging to the classes other than oomycetes. taylor and washington (1984) reported, fosetyl-al has significantly reduced cankers on peach caused by phytophthora cactorum when applied as curative treatments. on the other side, application of these phosphonates at higher concentration was found to provide some control against panama disease of banana caused by fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (davis & bruce, 1996). however, the degree of control varied with the banana growing season and from one locality to another. preliminary investigation in the study of davis and his co-workers (1994) on foc in culture confirmed that potassium phosphonate inhibited mycelial growth, but showed that the degree of inhibition was extremely sensitive to phosphate levels in the growth medium and that at concentrations of phosphate likely to be present in plant tissues, phosphonate effects were evident only at concentrations in the region of 25 mm. on the other hand, landschoot and cook (2005) claimed that posphonates were not effective as substitute for phosphate fertilizers but usda scientists observed that phosphonates have a delayed phosphorus response in the plants. subsequent research revealed that there is a conversion of phosphites into phosphates in the soil with the aid primarily of soil-borne bacteria. this result helps in the enhancement of quality and yield of the plant. effects of bacillus subtilis the biological control of plant diseases is an excellent alternative strategy for effective control of various diseases as well as augmentation of nutrient availability in the rhizosphere. several studies have indicated the good potentials of b. subtilis as an effective biological control agent of different plant pathogens (saha et al., 2012; serafini, 2000; pukall et al., 2005; killani et al., 2011, seema and devaki, 2012; abd allah, 2005; pleban et al., 1997). bacillus subtilis is an ubiquitous naturallyoccurring saprophytic bacterium that is commonly recovered from soil, water, air, and decomposing plant material. it is a biofungicide which was started to be used as a seeddressing biofungicide, with registrations in more than seven crops (backmann et al. 1994). preliminary studies conducted by saha and his comrades (2012) revealed in vitro evidences which indicated multiple modes of action of b. subtilis including antibiosis, effective colonization and plant growth promotion which revealed their potential for field application and commercial use as biocontrol agents. b. subtilis bacteria produce a class of lipopeptide antibiotics including iturins that help the bacteria out-compete other microorganisms by either killing them or reducing their growth rate (cpl scientific publishing, 2001). in addition, warkentin (2012) and edgecomb, together with manker (2006), conveyed that this bacterium produces fungicidal metabolites such as lipopeptides that would breakdown pathogen cell membranes causing the pathogen to collapse and die. they also added that this bacterium can be used as plant growth promoting rhizobacterium (pgpr) because of its ability to produce 2,3 butanediol which is a volatile compound known to trigger plant growth promotion. serafini (2001) reported that b. subtilis inhibits plant pathogen spore germination, disrupts germ tube growth, and interferes with the attachment of the pathogen to the plant. he further discussed that this bacterium is also reported to induce systemic acquired resistance (sar) against bacterial pathogens and boosted the plant’s responses against the antagonists. the production of antibiotics by the bacillus spp. and https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 01-08, 2022 their uses in the biological control of plant pathogens have been reported in many reviews. b. cereus produces lytic enzymes and antibiotics; and b. subtilis possesses a lytic factor in its cell wall (pukall et al. 2005). in an earlier report, young et al. (1974) stated that b. subtilis produces at least five different antibiotics, namely: subtillin, bacitracin, bacillin, subtenolin, and bacilonycin that accounts for the inhibition. moreover, pukall et al. (2005) identified four toxin-producing strains of bacillus spp., namely b. pumils, b. fusiformis, b. subtilis, and b. mojavensis apart from normal toxin producer, b. cereus. several researches have reported the production of toxins by bacillus spp. the bacillus subtilis used in the study of killani together with his co-workers (2011) successfully inhibited the growth of all the root/soilborne fungal pathogens isolated from cowpea in-vitro. they described that the production of antibiotics by bacillus spp. contributes a big factor. similarly, in the study conducted by seema and devaki (2012), b. subtilis showed 50% inhibition of rhizoctonia solani in in vitro test. they concluded that this may be due to the presence of the antibiotic like inturin a and surfactin produced by b. subtilis that has been supported by akihiro et al. (1993). they described that b. subtilis produced antifungal peptide antibiotic inturin a and surfactin and further discussed that this inturin a has a strong antifungal activity when compared to surfactin. moreover, many experiments had established and revealed the potential of this bacterium against pathogens causing diseases. for instance, abd-allah (2005) reported that b. subtilis protected peanut seeds from the negative effect of sclerotium rolfsii and significantly increased growth parameters of pods compared to the negative control. likewise, application of a chitinase-producing strain of bacillus cereus directly to soil significantly protected cotton seedlings from root rot disease caused by rhizoctonia solani (pleban et al., 1997). effects of fluopyram fluopyram is a succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (sdhi) fungicide. succinate dehydrogenase (sdh) is an enzyme complex couples the oxidation of succinate to fumarate in the mitochondrial matrix (or in the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria) with the reduction of ubiquinone (uq), a hydrophobic membrane bound electron carrier, to ubiquinol (uqh2) in the membrane during aerobic respiration (horsefield et al., 2006). in addition to its function as a dehydrogenase in the respiratory system, complex ii plays an important role in the tricarboxylic acid cycle. the mitochondrial sdh complex is composed of a membrane-peripheral domain and a membrane anchor domain (avenot and michailides, 2010). sdhi fungicides play an important role in plant protection against many phyto-pathogenic fungi by specifically binding to the ubiquinonebinding site (q-site) of the mitochondrial complex ii, thereby inhibiting fungal respiration. these fungicides have been used internationally since the late 1960s and are highly effective against basidiomycete pathogens such as rusts or rhizoctonia sp and even nematodes. due to their unique mode and site of action, they show no cross resistance with other chemical classes such as strobilurins, benzimidazoles or anilinopyrimidines and therefore are excellent candidates for managing fungicide resistance development and optimizing diseases control (avenot et al., 2008; leroux et al.,2003; stammler et al.,2007; zhang et al., 2007). materials and methods experimental design and treatments the study was laid-out in completely randomized design (crd) with eight treatments and replicated three times with five plates per replicate or a total of 120 plates. treatments used in the study were as follows: t1control; t2b. subtilis alone; t3-fosetyl-aluminum alone; t4fluopyram alone; t5b. subtilis + fosetyl-aluminum; t6-b. subtilis + fluopyram; t7-fosetyl-aluminum + fluopyram and t8-b. subtilis + fosetyl-aluminum + fluopyram. five hundred millilitre of water solutions were prepared for these products with the following recommended rates based on their product labels: 5 ml of b. subtilis, 2.14 g of fosetyl-aluminum and 0.50 ml of fluopyram. isolation and mass production of the pathogen isolation protocols for f. oxysporum f.sp. cubense described by vicente et. al (2014) was adopted in this experiment. the pure culture of the pathogen was then mass produced in pda and were incubated for seven days. test of efficacy of different commercial products against foctr4 to test the efficacy of different commercial products under laboratory condition, different treatments with different concentrations applied singly and in combinations was tested against fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (foc) tr4 using poisoned food technique by burgess et.al (2008). all products were calibrated based on their rates per one liter water solution and were added to the previously-sterilized medium and shaken prior for pour-plating. pure culture disks of fo were obtained using sterilized cork borer and were planted at the center of the treated medium. thereafter, all plates were then incubated under room temperature. observations and measurement of the zones of growth was done after seven days of incubation. validation test this was conducted to validate the effect of each treatment either the product causes fungistatic or fungistasis effect. this was conducted by transferring the culture disk of the pathogen from the treated medium after seven days unto the untreated culture medium. all plates were then incubated for another seven days for observation. data gathered diameter of colony the diameter of the fungal colony was recorded by taking the average of two long and two short diameters taken at right angles for each colony measured in millimetre (mm) using a ruler. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 01-08, 2022 zone of inhibition (zi) zone of inhibition (zi) of the different rates of commercial preparation of b. subtilis was determined by measuring the growth of f. oxysporum f.sp. cubense tr4 after 10 days of incubation and % inhibition was calculated using the formula below (alwathnani and perveen, 2012): inhibition (%) = (c-t/c) 100 where, c is the average colony diameter in control plate and t is the average colony diameter in treated plates. number of spores spores were counted using a haemacytometer. a four mm disc of foctr4 were cut from the near center portion of the culture plate using a cork borer and placed in a test tube with 10 ml of sterilized distilled water and were shaken well to dislodge the spores. one drop of this spore suspension as placed in a haemacytometer and the spores were counted (ramirez-peralta et al, 2013). the spores were counted after the termination on the laboratory test. basic procedure of using haemacytometer in the counting of spores was followed using the formula of quimio and quimio (2001): number of spores = a+b+c+d+e (50, 000 for microspores and 2,000 for macrospores) validation test results of the validation test will be based on the growth of the pathogen. if the transferred culture disk of the pathogen from the treated plate grew (+), this means that the product only causes fungistasis effect or just inhibited the growth of the pathogen. whereas, if the disk does not grew (-), then the product causes fungistatic effect or totally killed the pathogen. statistical analysis the study was analysed using analysis of variance (anova) in completely randomized design and the differences among treatment means was compared using tukey’s honest significant difference (thsd). results and discussion inhibitory effects of different commercial products applied singly and in combinations against foctr4 treatment effects of different commercial products applied singly and in combinations against foctr4 is presented in table 1. inhibitory effects of the products on the morphological characteristics of foctr4 and validation of their efficacy is shown in table 2. analysis of variance revealed significant differences among treatment means in all parameters. results showed that treatments of fosetyl-al alone and the combinations of the three products, b. subtilis, fosetyl-al and fluopyram had totally inhibited (100.00%) the growth of foctr4 after 10 days of observation. results also showed that single treatment of b. subtilis had significantly inhibited (51.03%) foctr4 with colony diameter of 39.38mm. single treatment of fluopyram, on the other hand, showed lower inhibition (12.78%) with 70.10mm foctr4 colony diameter. fosetyl-al alone and the combinations of the three products products also inhibited the production of foctr4 spores with zero microand macrospores. comparably, lower macrospores production of foctr4 was obtained by the plates with single treatment of fluopyram and in the control plate with average number of spores of 1,333.00 and 5,000.00 which subsequently produces 11,983,333.33 and 25,983,333.33 microspores. highest number of foctr4 population count was observed in plates treated with b. subtilis alone with microand macrospores of 58, 866, 666.67 and 43,333.00, respectively. results of the validation test of the efficacy of the products (table 1& 2) showed that the inhibition of single treatments of these products and the combination of fosetyl-al and fluopyram was mainly due to its fungistasis effect which only inhibit the growth of the fungus as indicated by the positive symbols (+). in the case of fosetyl aluminum, presence of chlamydospores (survival structure) were clearly observed which might implies the possibilities of the product to induce chlamydospore production. on the other hand, treatment of b. subtilis combined with fosetyl-al or fluopyram and the combinations of the three products showed that their combinations can cause fungistatic effect which totally kills the fungus as indicated by the negative symbol table 1. effects of single and combined treatments of different commercial products on the colony diametera, percent growth inhibitionb and spore population count per millilitrec of foctr4 after 10 days of incubation and validationd of their effects toward the pathogen. treatments colony diameter (mm) ** % zone of inhibition ** foc tr4 spore population count/ millilitre validation test micro** macro** control (sdw only) 80.41d 0.00d 25,983,333.33c 5,000.00a (+) b. subtilis 39.38b 51.03b 58,866,666.67d 43,333.00b (+) fosetyl-aluminum 0.00a 100.00a 0.00a 0.00a (+) fluopyram 70.10c 12.78c 11,983,333.33b 1,333.00a (+) b.subtilis + fosetyl-al 0.00a 100.00a 0.00a 0.00a (-) b.subtilis +fluopyram 0.00a 100.00a 0.00a 0.00a (-) fosetyl-al + fluopyram 0.00a 100.00a 0.00a 0.00a (+) b. subtilis + fosetyl-al + fluopyram 0.00a 100.00a 0.00a 0.00a (-) cv (%) = 2.92 0.67 5.21 19.45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 01-08, 2022 table 2. inhibitory effects of b. subtilis, fosetyl-al and fluopyram applied singly and in combinations against t h e morphological characteristics of foc tr4. a) colony growth of foc tr4 after 10 days of observation; b) effects on the hyphal growth and structures of foc tr4 taken from the foc-inoculated agar block in the treated medium; c) foc tr4 spore population per millilitre taken from the near center of he treated medium; d) growth of foc tr4 in fresh and untreated medium after transfer from treated medium to validate their effects toward the pathogen. treatments colony growth hyphal growth spore population validation test a b c d control (sdw only) b. subtilis alone fosetyl-aluminum alone floupyram alone b.subtilis+ fosetyl-al b.subtilis + fluopyram fosetyl-al+ fluopyram b. subtilis + fosetyl-al + fluopyram (-). data were replicated thrice with three plates per replication. means having the same superscript means there were no significant differences at 1% level, thsd. a = colony diameter (mm) was measured by computing the average of the two longest and two shortest growth diameters in plates. b = percent of zone of inhibition was computed using the formula: c-t/c x 100, where, c is the average colony diameter in control plate and t is the average colony diameter in treated plates. data were subjected to arc-sine transformation prior to analysis. c = foc tr4population count per millilitre was computed using the formula: (a+b+c+d+e) times 50,000 (for microspores) and 2,000 (for macrospores). d=validation test was conducted by transferring the agar disc from the treated plates onto a fresh medium to test the efficacy of the products on and after treatment application: (+) means that foctr4 grow on the fresh medium after transfer. using of fosetyl-al against foctr4 can totally inhibit the hyphal growth. the results may be attributed by active ingredient of fungicide. where in, fosetyl-al and other salts of phosphorous acid has a break down product of phosphite ion, which is the mainactive ingredient against oomycete pathogens (alviter, 2006). investigation on the phytophthora sp. concluded that phosphite interferes with key phosphorylating enzymes and phosphorous metabolism in general, affecting the synthesis of different phosphorous-containing compounds essential for its growth and development such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (nad), adenosine triphosphate (atp) and nucleotides. moreover, fosetyl-al possess excellent systemic activity against several diseases caused by phytophthora sp. and can inhibit mycelial growth and sporulation of the fungus (boughalleb, 2006). khaskheli and his comrades (2017) reported that the mycelial growth of fusarium nivale causing mango malformation disease was significantly inhibited by fosetylaluminium in their in vitro study. futhermore, https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 01-08, 2022 alviter (2006) discussed that the effects of phosphite on phytophthora sp. grown at low level phosphates shown to be greater, suggesting an antagonistic relationship between phosphite and phosphate under in vitro conditions. the effect of fosetyl-al on the structures of foctr4 induces chlamydospore (figure 2b). however, in the spore population count, plates treated with b. subtilis showed highest number of micro and macrospores as compared to other treatments. also, plates treated with fosetyl-aluminum has no spore formation. these cases might be correlated to the concept of the second hypothesis of compensation on which a specific “weakness” can be compensated by a specific “strength” (bashi and rotem, 1974, 1975a and bashi et al, 1973). in order to compensate the activities of b. subtilis on degrading the cell wall of the hyphal structure of foctr4, the pathogen produced more spores for it to compensate the degradation of its hyphae and in order for it to survive. the same goes with the reaction of foctr4 to the effect of fosetyl-al on which it induced itself to produce chlamydospores for it to compensate the effect of the product against its spores as previously discussed, fosetyl-al targeted mainly its spore formation by affecting the synthesis of different phosphorous-containing compounds essential for its growth and development. on the other hand, fluopyram is a succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (sdhi) fungicide. succinate dehydrogenase (sdh) is an enzyme complex couples the oxidation of succinate to fumarate in the mitochondrial matrix (or in the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria) with the reduction of ubiquinone (uq), a hydrophobic membrane bound electron carrier, to ubiquinol (uqh2) in the membrane during aerobic respiration (horsefield et al., 2006). in addition to its function as a dehydrogenase in the respiratory system, complex ii plays an important role in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (kreb’s cycle). the mitochondrial sdh complex is composed of a membrane-peripheral domain and a membrane anchor domain (avenot and michailides, 2010). nevertheless, sdhis are classified as medium to high risk for resistance development because of their single-site mode of action. conclusion based on the results, generally, it can be concluded that fosetyl-al alone and its combination to b. subtilis or fluopyram and the combination of the three fungicides can potentially mitigate foc tr4 population which causes the most devastating disease of banana. however, further validation of their effects under pot and field tests should be undergone. moreover, the combination of these products to other available strategies to improve its efficacy can be explored in the future. acknowledgement authors would like to acknowledge university of southeastern philippines-tagum-mabini campus for allowing the conduct of the experiment and the utilization of lab materials. references abd-allah, e.f. (2005). effect of a bacillus subtilis isolate on southern blight (sclerotium rolfsii) and lipid composition of peanut seeds. phytoparasitica 33, 460466. agrios, george n. (2005). plant pathology, (5th ed.). department of plant pathology, university of florida. elsevier academic press. pp.526 akihiro, o., takashi, a., & makoto, k. (1993). production of antifungal peptide antibiotic –inturin by bacillus subtilis nb. 22 in solid state fermentation. journal fermentation bioengineering, 75. 23 – 27. alwathnani h.a. and perveen, k. (2012). biological control of fusarium wilt of tomato by antagonist fungi and cyanobacteria. department of botany and microbiology, king saudi university, p.o. box: 22452, riyadh-11495, kingdom of saudi arabia. african journal of biotechnology , 11(5), 1100-1105 backmann, p. a., brannen, p.m. and mahaffe, w.f. (1994). plant response and disease control following seed inoculation with bacillus subtilis. in: improving plant productivity with rhizospere bacteria. csiro division of soils, glen osmond bayer crop science. (2012). evaluation of aliette 80wp, silvacur 300ec, verango 500sc and penflufen 240fs against fusarium wilt (fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense) on“cavendish” banana. bayer crop science. (2013). aliette: the solution providing your pineapple plant with a “resistance” to phytophthora. ppt. presentation. burgess l.w., knight, t.e., tesoriero, l., and phan, h.t. (2008). diagnostic manual for plant diseases in vietnam. aciar monograph, 129, 210. aciar: canberra. carlier, j.d., waele, d.e., and escalant, j.v. 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(1996). the effect of phosphonate on the sporulation of fusarium oxysporum https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 01-08, 2022 f.sp. cubense. australasian plant pathology. russell grimwade school of biochemistry, the university of melbourne, parkville, victoria 3052 australia. domsch, k. h. w., anderson, h. (1980). compendium of soil fungi, 1. academic press, new york. edgecomb, d.w. and manker, d. (2006). bacillus subtilis, strain 713 use in integrated pest management fokkema, n. j. (1978). fungal antagonism in the phyllosphere. annals of applied biology, 89, 115– 119. https://doi.org:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1978. tb02582.x huang y. h., wang, r. c., li, c. h., zuo, c. w., wei, y. r., zhang, l., and yi, g. j. (2012). control of fusarium wilt on banana with chinese leek. european journal of pathology, 134, 87-95. killani, a.s., abaido, r.c., akintokun, a.k., and abiala, m.a. (2011). antagonistic effect of indigenous bacillus subtilis on root-/soil-borne fungal pathogens of cowpea. international institute of tropical agriculture, department of microbiology & botany, college of natural sciences, university of agriculture, abeokuta, ogun state, nigeria. landschoot p., and cook, j. (2005). sorting out the phosphonte products. penn state university, university park. research. p.73 molina, a.b. (2009). estado de la incidencia en asia del marchitamiento por raza 4 tropical de fusarium en el cultivo del banano. in reunión de grupos de interés sobre los riesgos de la 27 raza 4 tropical de fusarium, bbtv y otras plagas de musáceas, oirsa (san salvador, el salvador). resúmenes. 71 molina, a., fabregar, e., sinohin, v.g., herradura l., fourie, g., and viljoen, a. (2008). confirmation of tropical race 4 of fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense, infecting cavendish bananas in the philippines. in: centennial meeting of the american phytopathological society. (2008, minnesota, us). abstracts. nelson, p. e., toussoun, t. a. and marasas, w.f.o. (1983). fusarium species: an illustrated manual for identification. pennsylvania state university press, university park. pccard-dost. (2006). banana production manual. los baños, laguna. 74-75. pegg, k.g., moore, n.y., and bentley, s. (1996). fusarium wilt of banana in australia: a review. australian joumal oj agrtcultural research 47, 637-650. ploetz, r.c. (1992). fusarium wilt of banana (panama disease). pages 270-282 in: plan diseases of international importance volume iii. prentice hall, englewood cliffs, usa pukall, c.r., schumann, p., hormazabal, v., and granum, p. (2005). toxin producing ability among bacillus spp. outside bacillus cereus group. applied and environmental microbiology 71(3), 117883. saha, d., purkayastha, g.d., ghosh, a., isha, m., and saha, a. 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(1984). curative treatments for phytophtohora cactorum in peach tree using metalaxyl and phosethyl al. australasian plant pathology, 13(3), 31-33, issn 0815-3191 thangavelu r. and mustaffa, m.m. (2012). current advances in the fusarium wilt disease management in banana with emphasis on biological control, plant pathology, dr. christian joseph cumagun (ed), isbn: 978-953-51-0489-6, in tech, available from:http:/www.intechopen.com/books/plantpathology/current-advances in-the-fusarium-wiltdiseases-management-in-banana-with-emphasis-on biological-control. vicente, l.p., martinez, e. and dita, m. (2014). technical manual. prevention and diagnostic of fusarium wilt (panama disease) of banana caused by fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense tropical race 4 (tr4). protocol for the isolation of fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense from tissue samples of fusarium wilt or panama disease affected banana plants and soil. faoun, ma-cuba. vicente, l.p., martinez, e. and dita, m. (2014). technical manual. prevention and diagnostic of fusarium wilt (panama disease) of banana caused by fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense tropical race 4 (tr4). fao-un, ma-cuba. warkentin, d. (2012). bacillus subtilis, strain 713, biofungicide: soil applications for disease control, crop yield and quality enhancement. bayer crop science field development scientist. mbao, maitland, fl. young, f.e., tupper, j. and strominger, j.l. (1974). autolysis of cell walls of bacillus subtilis mechanism and possible relationship to competence. journal of biology and chemistry, 249, 3600 –02. zhang, h., mallik, a. and zeng, r. s. (2013). control of panama disease of banana by rotating and intercropping with chinese chive (allium tuberosum rottler): role of plant volatiles. journal of c h e m i c a l ecology 39, 243-252. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 20 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) assessing the climatic influence on river in bangladesh: in perspective of morphology and discharge of surma river shetu akter1, m. farhad howladar2*, zia ahmed1, tayabur rashid chowdhury1, shah md. shahnewaz sayem1 volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.181 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: march 11, 2022 accepted: may 09, 2022 published: may 11, 2022 bangladesh is a region that is vulnerable to climate change. in this study, the influence of rainfall on river morphology and river discharges was investigated. the morphological analysis of the surma river was carried out using gis. rainfall of sylhet over 44 years (1972–2016) was analyzed. annually 434.099 mm rainfall precipitated in sylhet. the mean annual rainfall from 1972-to 2016 shows a little decreasing trend. 845.99 m3/s of water was discharged on average from the surma river annually. over these 44 years, erosion and deposition show a very decreasing rate with a very steep slope. the sinuosity index of the surma river varies from 1.32 to 2.29. the total erosion is strongly related to annual mean rainfall (r=0.939), which greatly affects the total river erosion. 88% of erosion depends on the annual mean rainfall (r2=0.88). the r between mean annual rainfall and total deposition is 0.919, which presents a very strong positive relationship. more than 80% of the erosion can be explained by rainfall. according to the percentage of r2, about 89.8% of variables of deposition can be explained by rainfall if other factors remain constant. the river deposition and erosion are very highly dependent on river discharge. the surma river’s annual mean discharge and rainfall are strongly correlated (r = 0.69), which indicates that the discharge of the surma river is highly dependent on the surrounding area’s rainfall. to conclude, it can be noted that the sylhet rainfall decreased from 1972 to 2016, which had affected the surma river’s morphology directly due to climate change. keywords surma river, river morphology, climate change, discharge pattern, gis, and rs. 1 dept of geography and environment, shahjalal university of science and technology, sylhet-3114, bangladesh. 2 department of petroleum & mining engineering, shahjalal university of science and technology, sylhet-3114, bangladesh. * corresponding author’s e-mail: farhad-pme@sust.edu ; farhadpme@gmail.com introduction the magnitude of erosion and sediment yield is highly controlled by climate (e.g., hicks et al. ¬1996, glade 1998, 2011; crozier 1997). in response to global warming, soil erosion rates are commonly expected to rise (e.g., ministry of the environment (mfe),2008) through a number of mechanisms, including improvements in (1) rainfall erosion, (2) slope stability of soil water, (3) plant biomass, (4) wind and drought frequency, and (5) land use required to adapt to climate change. (nearing et al. 2004; crozier 2010). due to climate change, the frequency and severity of natural calamities (droughts, floods, storms, and cyclones) have been changed. (fowler & hennessey 1995;mfe,2008).over the past centuries, human beings have had a multitude of impacts on fluvial structures, either directly (such as dam and embankment construction) or indirectly (such as changes in the land cove) (goudie, 2006). climate change impact studies concentrate on changes in river discharge and aspects of its temporal variability and season for individual drainage basins (howlader, 2021, kundzewicz et al., 2007). there are still few global reports on the impact of climate change on river flow regimes (e.g., milly et al. 2002, döll and zhang 2010, hirabayashi et al. 2008). the strength of rainfall is a major factor in regulating phenomena such as floods, soil erosion levels, and mass movements (sidle and dhakal 2002). in their third assessment report, south asia is declared the most significantly affected climate change area by ipcc (chowdhury, 2021, mccarthy et al., 2001). due to several socio-economic and hydro-geological factors, bangladesh is the most vulnerable to climate-prone areas. the main reasons for its vulnerability are its geographical location in south asia, its low-lying floodplain topography, and its intense climate is driven by monsoons resulting in severe water distribution. the population density of bangladesh is also very high, leading to the occurrence of poverty. the bangladesh government has taken many steps to obtain sustainable development goals, but they face significant challenges in sustaining its development due to climate change (ahmed and haque, 2002). bangladesh is on the list of the world’s prominent climate change vulnerable countries (ipcc, 2007). in asia, the impact of global climate change is seen mostly in the hydrologic sector (organization for economic co-operation and development, 2003). bangladesh’s rainfall pattern will change along with a steady increase in temperature due to climate change (ipcc, 2007). the overall objective of this study is to analyze the impacts of climatic change on the surma river, analyzing its morphology and discharge with respect to rainfall. the specific elements of the objectives of this research have been set as follows: i. to identify the morphological (historical course, quantity of accretion and deposition, the sinuosity index, width, length) change of surma river. ii. to analyze the impact of climate change on river morphology and discharge of surma river. materials and methods “research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem” (kothari, 2004). it comprises the steps and methods of research that have been done and https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.181 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:farhad-pme@sust.edu mailto:farhadpme@gmail.com pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 20-27, 2022 applied. in short, a methodology is a study or description of methods (baskerville, 1991). surma river in sylhet district was the study area of this research work. surma river is the longest river in bangladesh; it runs through the northeastern part of bangladesh (rahman,2018). this is the cloudiest part of bangladesh (rashid, 1991). the highest precipitation falls in this area; for this reason, this river is chosen to determine rainfall’s impact on its morphology and discharge (akter, 2019). two types of numeric data (mean discharge and rainfall) have been analyzed. to determine the relationship between the variables, the linear regression method is applied. description of study area the surma basin, which covers the eastern parts of bangladesh, is home to at least 8 million people, making it a populated geographical region of bangladesh. surma basin depends on these peoples for its household, industrial, and other purposes. sylhet is a major metropolis located on the banks of the surma river in northeastern surma river ascends like the barak on the khasi and tripura naga-manipur watershed’s southern slopes. the barak splits up branches within the assam district of cachhar in india. the northern department of surma flows west, after which to sylhet town in the southwest. it flows beyond sylhet to sunamganj town northwest and west; from there southwest to madna, where it meets the kushiyara, the barak’s alternative branch. climatic variable (rainfall) and river discharge data collection in this study, to find out the climatic trend, one variable of climate, which is rainfall, was considered. but a fact is that from origin to meet up kushiyara river in ajmiriganj, https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 20-27, 2022 surma river travel between sylhet and sunamganj, but in sunamganj do not have any meteorological observation post, for this purpose only from sylhet station the climatic variables (rainfall) records accumulated. daily discharge data at sylhet station were collected from the water resources planning organization of bangladesh from 1972 to 2006, and observed discharge data in a certain interval from 2007 to 2016 have been analyzed here satellite images collection this study is based on secondary data (river discharge, rainfall), and landsat image was used as secondary data. table 1: details of acquired satellite images spacecraft id sensor id acquisition data path/row resolution cloud cover image quality landsat 1 mss 1972-12-27 146/43 60 0.00 0 landsat 2 mss 1976-12-15 146/43 60 0.00 0 landsat 3 mss 1980-02-01 146/43 60 1.00 0 landsat 5 tm 1988-11-10 136/43 30 1.00 9 landsat 5 tm 1992-12-7 136/43 30 7.00 9 landsat 5 tm 1996-01-30 136/43 30 0.00 9 landsat 7 etm 2000-11-17 136/43 30 0.00 9 landsat 5 tm 2004-02-26 136/43 30 3.00 7 landsat 5 tm 2008-11-17 136/43 30 0.00 9 landsat 7 etm 2012-02-22 136/43 30 1.00 9 landsat 8 oli-tirs 2016-12-09 136/43 30 0.00 9 in order to assess the effect of climate change on river morphology, eleven satellite images of 1972, 1976, 1980, 1988, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2016 were downloaded from the united states geological survey (usgs). the total time span was divided by a 4-year time interval. satellite data of the same time interval is quite impossible to acquire, so there is some lapse in the interval. examples of the satellite images obtained are shown in table 1. a list of steps is made to get an appropriate output. to correct the errors, radiometric and geometric corrections were done in many steps. the radiometric correction and atmospheric correction were performed for all the bands of each image. the correction procedure of the landsat 8 image is different from the correction procedure of other landsat images. the image was processed using the formula provided in the landsat 8 handbook. dark object subtraction is a very simple image-based method of atmospheric correction. envi 5 was used to do dark object subtraction. the normalized difference water index (ndwi) method is a common approach to detecting water bodies. the following formula was used for the ndwi index. but the formula varies with landsat sensor. for landsat 4 tm, the following formula was used for the ndwi index. mndwi means modified normalized difference water index, where mir is a middle infrared band, and green presents the pixel value of the green band. the collected satellite images from usgs were subset using the shapefile of the study area in erdas imagine. result and discussion a sequence of landsat images of four years intervals, including 1972, 1976, 1980, 1988, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2016 reveal the yearly erosion and deposition rate. erosion and deposition have occurred at different places in different periods. table 2 represents the erosion and deposition scenario of the surma river. over the period of these 44 years in surma, river deposition was higher than erosion. the highest deposition and erosion took place in the time interval 1980 to 1988. during these time intervals, the rainfall and river discharge were also very high (table 2). in the period 1972 to 1976, total accretion was 828.813 acres, and the accretion rate was 207.20 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 681.1 acres, and the erosion rate was 170.27 acres/year (table 2). land deposited more than the eroded, a total of 147.713 acres of land added to the bank of surma river (table 2). in the period 1976 to 1980, total accretion was 1276.87 acres, and the accretion rate was 319.27 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 680.56 acres, and the erosion rate was 170.14 acres/year. land deposited quite worn, a total of 596.31 acres of land superimposed within the bank of surma stream (table 2). this period of the deposition was from 1972 to 1976 (table 2). the deposition rate was conjointly beyond erosion. due to the unavailable landsat image from 1981 to 1987, 1984 image could not get to go with a sequence of 4 years time interval. the image had taken in 1988 for analysis. in the period 1980 to 1988, total accretion was 2634.29 acres, and the accretion rate was 329.28 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 1873.61 acres, and the erosion rate was 234.2 acres/year (table 2). land deposited more than eroded land; a total of 760.68 acres of land was added to the bank of the surma river (table 2). a very high amount of land was eroded and deposited in these eight years time intervals (table 2). total accretion was 1084.23 acres, and the accretion rate was 271.05 acres/year from 1988 to 1992 (table 2). the total erosion was 774.29 acres, and the erosion rate was https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 20-27, 2022 193.57 acres/year (table 2). the land deposition was higher than erosion, with a total of 309.94 acres of land added to the bank of the surma river (table 2). in the period 1992 to 1996, total accretion was 964.35 acres, and the accretion rate was 241.08 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 486.29 acres, and the erosion rate was 121.57 acres/year. land deposited more than eroded land; a total of 478.06 acres of land was added to the bank of the surma river. in the period 1996 to 2000, total accretion was 645.85 acres, and the accretion rate was 161.46 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 482.896 acres, and the erosion rate was 120.724 acres/year (table 2). land deposited more than eroded land; a total of 162.95 acres of land was added to the bank of the surma river (table 2). in the period 2000 to 2004, total accretion was 304.062 acres, and the accretion rate was 76.01 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 292.8 acres, and the erosion rate was 73.2 acres/year (table 2). land deposited more than eroded land; a total of 89.37 acres of land was added to the bank of the surma river (table 2). twelve bends from the selected reach of the surma river were shown in the following figure 1, which are selected these river bends were selected on the basis table 2: erosion and deposition scenario of surma river from 1972 to 2016. period accretion rate (acres/year) total accretion (acres erosion rate (acres/year) total erosion (acres) difference (acres) 1972-1976 207.20 828.813 170.27 681.1 147.713 1976-1980 319.27 1276.87 170.14 680.56 596.31 1980-1988 329.28 2634.29 234.2 1873.61 760.68 1988-1992 271.05 1084.23 193.57 774.29 309.94 1992-1996 241.08 964.35 121.57 486.29 478.06 1996-2000 161.46 645.85 120.724 482.896 162.95 2000-2004 76.01 304.062 73.2 292.8 11.26 2004-2008 66.98 267.934 44.64 178.56 89.37 2008-2012 38.17 152.7 25.76 103.05 49.65 2012-2016 26.89 107.98 19.07 76.287 31.69 total 173.739 8267.079 117.3144 5629.443 2637.623 1972-2016 75.51 6457.34 24.4 4930.93 1526.41 figure 1: selected reach of surma river. figure 2: erosion and deposition inbend 1-12 from 1972-2016 of the historical imagery of google earth pro and the reconnaissance survey. surma river is the longest river in bangladesh. from upstream to downstream, 12 bends are selected for the analysis. significant changes took place along with these 12 selected reaches. in the period 2004 to 2008, total accretion was 267.934 acres, and the accretion rate was 66.98 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 178.56 acres, and the erosion rate was 44.64 acres/year (table 2). land deposited more than eroded land; a total of 89.37 acres of land was added to the bank of the surma river (table 2). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 20-27, 2022 in the period 2004 to 2008, total accretion was 267.934 acres, and the accretion rate was 66.98 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 178.56 acres, and the erosion rate was 44.64 acres/year (table 2). land deposited more than eroded land; a total of 89.37 acres of land was added to the bank of the surma river (table 2). in the period 2008 to 2012, total accretion was 152.7 acres, and the accretion rate was 38.17 acres/year (table 2). the total erosion was 103.05 acres, and the erosion rate was 25.76 acres/year (table 2). land deposited more than eroded land; a total of 49.65 acres of land was added to the bank of the surma river (table 2). total accretion was 107.98 acres, and the accretion rate was 26.89 acres/year in the time of 2012 to 2016 (table 2). the total erosion was 76.287 acres, and the erosion rate was 19.07 acres/year (table 2). land deposited more than an eroded total of 31.69 acres of land added to the bank of the surma river (table 2). figure 3: total erosion and deposition in surma river from 1972-2016. figure 4: river width at a different location from 1972to 2016. figure 3 exhibits total erosion and deposition in the surma river from 1972-to 2016. the erosion and deposition were higher from 1980-to 1988 (figure 3). over these 44 years, erosion and deposition show a very decreasing rate with a very steep slope. the rainfall in sylhet also shows a decreasing trend. the discharge of surma river is showing a decreasing rate. the relationship of river morphology with river discharge and rainfall will be discussed later in this paper. analysis of channel widening in surma river the width of each bend is the average width of this corresponding bend. figure 4 represents the width of the surma river at a different point from 1972 to 2016. the width of the surma river shows a decreasing trend over the period of time. from 1972 to 1980, the river width was the highest (figure 4). after 1980 the river width started decreasing because of the deposition of sediment on the bank. the deposition of the surma river was much higher than erosion, which is caused by a decrease in the river width (table 2). the maximum width of the river was in 1972, and after that, the width fluctuated with increasing time. on average, the river width is higher in the middle stream than upstream, 130.71 m (figure 4). the average width downstream is 122.34 m. the lowest width found in upstream is 116.75 m. day by the surma river width decreases. analysis of sinuosity index of surma river the river channel is straight when the sinuosity is less than 1.05; the river pattern is seen as sinuous when it is between 1.05 and 1.50and if it is greater than 1.5, the river meander (brice, 1984). surma river is a meandering river. the sinuosity of the surma river changes over time. the highest sinuosity found in 1976 which 2.29 (table 3). the sinuosity index of the surma river varies from 1.32 to 2.29. the highest sinuosity was found in bend eleven in 1976, which was 2.3. the lowest sinuosity was found in bend two, which was 1.33. after 1980 the sinuosity of the surma river started to decrease due to the cut off in bend eleven and the straightening of the river channel (figure 2). the river meander surma river ups and down with time. in 1988, 1996, and 2000 the river characteristics were sinuous (table 2). in the years 1976 and 1980, the river was meandering (table 3). table 3: sinuosity index of surma river from 1972 and 2016. year curvilinear length (m) linear length (m) si characteristics 1972 142486.79 73,763.36 1.93 meandering 1976 169607.01 73,820.26 2.29 meandering 1980 152598.22 73,807.38 2.06 meandering 1988 109227.30 73,320.26 1.49 sinuous 1992 116288.03 73,057.34 1.59 meandering 1996 100595 73,222.65 1.37 sinuous 2000 96718.97 73,210.26 1.32 sinuous 2004 114767.87 73,407.38 1.56 meandering 2008 109227.30 73,232.65 1.5 meandering 2012 121652.12 73,216.26 1.62 meandering 2016 117767.87 73,817.38 1.59 meandering patterns of average rainfall in sylhet figure 5 shows the average rainfall from 1972-to 2016. average rainfall in sylhet decreased throughout the study period (figure 5). the rainfall pattern fluctuated over this period. more than 450 mm of rainfall was precipitated at the beginning of 1972. suddenly, the amount of rainfall increased with a moderate margin in the following https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 20-27, 2022 two years, above 550 mm. in the middle of the study period (1975-1981), the amount of rain fell moderately, and it continued. in sylhet, the total rainfall increased moderately in the following four years (1988-1992) at a moderate rate. figure 5: mean annual rainfall from 1972-2016 figure 5: scatter plotting of mean annual rainfall and erosion. figure 6: scatter plotting of mean annual rainfall and deposition in recent days, the rainfall in sylhet decreased, causing many impacts on the environment and the economy. due to this rainfall change, there must be some disorder in the discharge pattern of the surma river. effects of climate change on river morphology in the event of climate change, when the quantity and seasonal distribution of the water discharge increases, both sediment supply, and sediment transport are subject to change. changes in the quantity of water will induce changes in the discharge of rivers; in particular, the likelihood of serious hydrological events will increase. this may contribute to improvements in the river channels’ flooding, sedimentation, and sediment transport. it can be due to a lack of physically grounded river channel structure and sediment transport models, leading to little faith in projections of the effect of climate change on river channels (ipcc, 2007). in addition, the estimation of improvements in sediment transport shows a great reliance on the predicted greenhouse gas emission scenario. below we analyzed the impact of climate change on the surma river. relation among annual mean rainfall, total erosion, and deposition in 1972-2016 erosion is mainly caused due to the flowing water in the river. the fast river discharge erodes rocks and soil. when a vast amount of rainfall drains in a certain area, the rainwater falls into the river, and the discharge increases. the water flow is highly dependent on the landslope, where the slope is very steep, and the water flows faster. the amount of discharge in the river is another cause of river erosion; when the discharge is high, it flows very faster than when it is dry. table 4 represents the correlation of mean rainfall, river erosion, and deposition from 1972-to 2016. the erosion of the surma river depends on annual mean rainfall (table 4). the r between them is 0.939, indicating a very strong positive relationship and significance (table 4). it is shown from multiple r2 that 88% of erosion is influenced by annual mean rainfall (table 4). if the rainfall increases, the erosion will increase; if the rainfall decreases, the erosion will also decrease. the rainfall of sylhet highly influences the deposition in surma river; the r between them is 0.919, which indicates a very strong positive relation (table 4). it is seen that r2 square is 0.84, which means 84% of deposition depends on the annual mean rainfall (table 4). the river deposition is very highly dependent on river discharge. the higher amount of rainfall increases the total river discharge. this leads to an increase in the erosion of the river and the eroded sediments deposited in other parts of the river. table 4: correlation of mean rainfall, river erosion and deposition in 1972-2016 independent variable dependent variable rvalue p.e (r) r2 r2 in % significance annual mean rainfall (1972-2016) total erosion (19722016) 0.939 0.025 0.88 88% significant annual mean rainfall (1972-2016) total deposition (19722016) 0.919 0.035 0.84 84% significant r= coefficient of correlation, p.e. = probable error, r2= coefficient of determination figure 5 exhibits a scatter plotting of mean annual rainfall and erosion. the linear regression between rainfall and erosion shows a very meaningful result. here, rainfall is considered a predictor or independent variable, while erosion is considered a dependent variable. the r2 value shows a very strong relationship between rainfall and erosion. more than 80% of the erosion can be explained by rainfall. the regression coefficient reveals that a oneunit change in rainfall may cause a change of 2.361unit of erosion (figure 5). the intercept of regression means that if the change in rainfall remains constant, the erosion would be 216.7. the direction of the trend line also shows a very strong positive relationship between these two variables. in short, it can be concluded that increasing (or decreasing) rainfall can cause increment (or decrement) in erosion. to measure the association between deposition and rainfall, a linear regression model has been applied, considering rainfall as an independent variable and deposition as https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 20-27, 2022 the dependent variable. the value of r2 reveals a very strong relationship between these two variables (figure 6). according to the percentage of r2, about 89.8% of the variables of deposition can be explained by rainfall if other factors remain constant. 89.8% of deposition depends on rainfall (table 4). changes in rainfall impact the change in deposition proportionally. for example, one-unit increment (or decrement) of rainfall can cause a 5.921-unit decrement (or increment) in deposition (table 4). in short, rainfall and deposition are strongly related to each other. relation among annual mean discharge, total erosion, and deposition in 1972-2016 table 5 represents the correlation between mean discharge, river erosion, and deposition from 1972-to 2016. the coefficient of correlation r of annual mean discharge and total erosion is 0.786, indicating a strong positive relation (table 5). multiple r square is 0.617which means 61.7% of erosion depends on the annual mean discharge. the total amount of erosion is highly dependent on discharge. if the discharge increases, the deposition amount will increase; if the discharge decreases, the deposition will also decrease. table 5: correlation of mean discharge, river erosion and deposition in 1972-2016. independent variable dependent variable rvalue p.e (r) r2 r2 in % significance annual mean rainfall (1972-2016) total erosion (19722016) 0.786 0.081 0.617 61.7% significant annual mean rainfall (1972-2016) total deposition (19722016) 0.749 0.093 0.561 56.1% significant r= coefficient of correlation, p.e. = probable error, r2= coefficient of determination the r between mean annual discharge and total deposition is 0.749, presenting a very strong positive relation (table 5). multiple r square is 0.561, meaning 56.1% of deposition depends on the annual mean discharge (table 5). the relationship between deposition and discharge is very high. the river deposition is very highly dependent on river discharge. the higher amount of rainfall increases the total river discharge. this leads to an increase in the deposition of the river and the eroded sediments deposited in other parts of the river. conclusion at present, global climate change has become a huge issue of concern. in the setting of global climate change, the regional and local climate is additionally evolving. the climate in northeastern parts of bangladesh is likewise evolving with time. this climate change is affecting the rivers. both the river morphology and river discharge are altered due to climate change. climate change affects river hydrology. the rainfall in sylhet shows a decreasing rate, which alters the morphology of the surma river. the rainfall of the study area can explain more than 80% of river erosion and deposition. both river erosion and deposition are strongly positively correlated with rainfall. the change in rainfall alters river discharge, leading to the change in river width, erosion, and deposition. from 1972 to 2016, the rainfall in sylhet decreased, which altered the river discharge. the river discharge also lessened with the decline of rainfall. more than 55% of river erosion and deposition can be explained by discharge. river discharge has a strong positive impact on river erosion and deposition. the diminishing discharge changed the river morphology. reducing discharge lessened the river flow, which affected the river morphology. the erosion and deposition shrank with the decline of discharge. the river width and sinuosity were also reduced. the river morphology is more correlated with rainfall than discharge. references ahmed, a.u. and haque, n., 2002. climate change and sustainable development. paper presented at the dhaka meet on sustainable development, march 14-18, 2002. incorporated in q.k. ahmad and a.u. ahmed (eds.), citizens’ perspectives on sustainable development, bangladesh unnayan parishad (bup). akter, s., howladar, m.f., ahmed, z., chowdhury, t.r. 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allan s, williams t, kenny g, mfe eds. wellington, ministry for the environment. xviii + 149 p. nearing ma, pruski ff, o’neal mr 2004. expected climate change impacts on soil erosion rates: a review. journal of soil and water conservation 59: 43–50.org/ dataoecd/46/55/21055 658.pdf of subordinate document. accessed23 dec 2008. organization for economic co-operation and development (2003) developmentand climate change in bangladesh: focus on coastal flooding andthe sundarbans. in: agrawala s, ota t, ahmed au et al (ed.) organizationfor economic co-operation and development (oecd) report com/env/ epoc/dcd/dac(2003)3/final, paris, france. dialog. http://www.oecd. rahman, t. r. , koley, n. j., akter, s., 2018. morphological study of surma river: a geographic investigation. american journal of water resources. 2018, 6(2), 53-61. doi: 10.12691/ajwr-6-2-2 rashid h., e., (1991) geography of bangladesh. the university press limited,dhaka sidle, r.c., dhakal, a.s., 2002. potential effect of environmentalchange on landslide hazards in forest environments. in: sidle, r.c.(ed.), environmental change and geomorphic hazards in forests.cabi, wallingford, pp. 123–165. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) assessing indigenous and modern adaptation strategies to climate change among legumes producers in the bongo district of the upper east region, ghana jonah amosah¹*, tahiru lukman2, enerst dabil nabwomya3 volume 2 issue 2, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i2.1584 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: april 07, 2023 accepted: april 28, 2023 published: may 03, 2023 globally, climate change adaptation initiatives have significantly improved recipient farmers’ livelihoods by increasing their resilience, production, and overall standard of living. climate adaptation results in noticeably higher yields from food crops. climate change events have had a detrimental impact on farmers in ghana, especially in the upper east region. this includes producers of legumes in the bongo district, which is a part of the fragile savanna semi-arid zone. the growing food insecurity and failure of legume crops point to serious losses in climate change adaptation methods. farmer’s adaptation strategies have fallen short over time, necessitating a revision of programs to assist growers of legumes in the bongo district. the obstacles connected with indigenous and contemporary adaptation techniques to climate change are also examined in this study, along with local and contemporary stakeholders’ involvement in adaptation efforts. the primary data was gathered through the use of focus group discussions and interviews. in three communities, 70 farmers who grow legumes were sampled using a simple random sampling technique to select the respondents. the study concludes that farming and mixed cropping are important indigenous adaptation techniques, whereas forecasting and greater variety are important modern adaptation strategies. the mofa and the bongo district assembly are the two important entities in executing adaptation plans, while local farmers were highlighted as key stakeholders. additionally, it was determined that weak extension services and a lack of integration of indigenous adaptations into contemporary practices could pose serious obstacles to developing climate change adaptation strategies. the study recommends integrating local and contemporary adaptation strategies to combat climate change. keywords climate change, indigenous knowledge, indigenous and modern adaptation strategies, stakeholders and participation 1 department of development studies, faculty of integrated development studies, simon diedong dombo university of business and integrated development studies, (sdd-ubids), ghana 2 department of environment and resource studies (ers), university for development studies, ghana 3 department of project management and community development, faculty of planning and land management, simon diedong dombo university of business and integrated development studies, (sdd-ubids), ghana * corresponding author’s e-mail: jamosah@ubids.edu.gh introduction climate change is the most significant global stressor on food supply and production (ray et al., 2019). subsaharan africa (ssa) is the most vulnerable region to climate change due to a combination of limited adaptation capacity and distinct socioeconomic and climatic characteristics (ipcc, 2014). the area’s population is primarily dependent on agriculture, which is supported by rain (shimeles et al., 2018). as a result, any negative impact of climate change on the water cycle seriously threatens agricultural production, human well-being, and the economy (food and agriculture organization, 2020). west africa has been designated a significant climate change zone, which is expected to result in lower crop yields and food production, jeopardizing the region’s food security (sultan & gaetani, 2016). these consequences, which are expected to worsen in the future, will severely harm regional economies and people’s quality of life (sylla et al., 2016). furthermore, ghana has been designated a climate change hotspot (asante & amuakwa-mensah, 2015). numerous studies have documented the effects of climate change in ghana, the most visible of which is increased rainfall variability, rising temperatures, rising sea levels, and an increased frequency of weather extremes and disasters (food and agriculture organization, 2013). ghana’s economy heavily depends on forestry, agriculture, and other climate-sensitive industries (mofa, 2007). agriculture and forestry provide non-timber and timber forest products to approximately 70% of the population (food and agriculture organization, 2013). climate change has the potential to affect ghana’s economy, particularly the most vulnerable sectors (asante & amuakwa-mensah, 2015). northern ghana is more vulnerable than the rest of the country to the effects of climate change and variability (klutse et al., 2020). this is because the area has a poorer, drier climate and the majority of its residents rely on subsistence farming of staple food including legumes (darko & atazona, 2013). the production of food crops including legumes is contributing significantly to ghana’s food export promotion. ghana is ranked 112th when it comes to the exportation of legumes in 2020 and the 434th most exported product in the same year. ghana’s main export destinations for legumes are the united states, the united kingdom, the united arab emirates, belgium, and canada. the production of legumes in the bongo district is estimated to be around 37% of the food harvest (bda, 2014). legumes such as groundnuts, soya beans, and beans are the dominant https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i2.1584 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:jamosah%40ubids.edu.gh%20?subject= pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 crops that are grown (bda, 2014). in contrast, the people have a low adaptive capacity for adaptation to climate change when compared to the rest of the country because they rely on unimodal rain-fed agriculture and have low socioeconomic development (mofa, 2016). communities in northern ghana are increasingly struggling to cope with harsh weather conditions such as drought and flooding. coupled with these challenges is the high rate of illiteracy in northern ghana where bongo is located (gss, 2014), making it difficult for the majority of farmers to understand the specifics of weather and climatic forecasts. according to research, the majority of rural farmers manage their farms using their native expertise, which improves rural livelihoods since they have an understanding of the local environmental conditions (sullo et al., 2020). few studies have been conducted to examine how indigenous and modern adaptation practices are used to manage climate risks in ghana (gyampoh et al., 2009; sullo et al., 2020). as a result, this study provides insight into how indigenous and modern adaptation strategies aid legume producers in adjusting to local climatic stressors in the communities of nyariga, vea, and gowrie in ghana’s upper east region, where legume producers use both indigenous and modern adaptation strategies to adapt to climate change. literature review legumes legumes are a crop of crops with the potential to develop a country that invests in them. legumes are nature’s priceless gift to humanity due to their high protein content (16-50%), vital element content, dietary fiber (1023%), and vitamin content (maphosa & jideani, 2017). in addition to protein, legumes are high in carbohydrates, sugars, vitamins, more than 15 essential minerals, and monoand polyunsaturated fatty acids (wang et al., 2009). these foods also contain a lot of dietary fiber, folic acid, and non-nutritional bioactive substances like polyphenolics, lectins, phytate, and trypsin inhibitors (burstin et al., 2011). furthermore, grain legumes reduce the risk of obesity (burstin et al., 2011). legumes are essential for environmental services. legumes are a preferred crop for the agricultural community in intensive farming because of their biological nitrogen fixation, grain legumes are a preferred crop for the agricultural community in intensive cereal-based cropping systems (kumar et al., 2018). long-term cereal-based cropping systems are one inputintensive technique that considerably contributes to ghg emissions, groundwater contamination, and other second-generation problems (hazra et al., 2018). crop heterogeneity is essential for enhancing crop tolerance to biotic and abiotic stressors and climate change (newton et al., 2011). this, therefore, makes legumes because of their deep roots, symbiotic n-fixation, leaf fall, and carbonrich soil organisms, legumes are therefore essential for carbon sequestration (ghosh et al., 2012). legumes have a higher crop biomass and a slower rate of c-mineralization than cereals, which considerably improve soil c retention in decreased tillage situations. bayer et al. (2016) are of the view that legumes transport a large amount of their photosynthetic carbon as root exudates (amino acids, phenolic acids, and organic acids), along with other lignin-rich substances, which considerably aid in carbon sequestration and the lowering of the plant’s carbon footprint (hazra et al., 2018). legumes feed the soil with nitrogen (n) for subsequent crops while reducing worldwide co2 emissions (>300 tg yr1) from n-fertilizer (urea) enterprises by up to 50% (jensen et al., 2012). interestedly, feeds high in legumes can lower the quantity of ch4 released by livestock operations because they include less fiber, digest more quickly, and have condensed tannins and saponins that change rumen methanogenesis and prevent cell wall collapse (eckerd et al., 2010). also, it was discovered that legumes emit less nitrous oxide (1.02 kg n2o-n ha-1) than cereals fed with nitrogen (2.71 kg n2o-n ha-1) (jensen et al., 2012). the advantages of grain legumes’ lower ghg emissions were established by schwenke et al (2015). legumes occasionally produce more n2o, though. faster n-rich residue decomposition and denitrification of symbiotically fixed n within the nodule are two potential causes of higher n2o emission by legumes; however, more extensive, multi-location research is required to obtain conclusive evidence because management practices and local climatic conditions heavily influence it (bayer et al., 2016; hauggaard-nielsen et al., 2016). however, the enormous contribution that legumes provide to lowering ghgs and storing carbon in the deep soil has to be carefully examined. climate adaptation the debate about how climate impacts the environment and to reduce climate change predominated in the 1990s and early 2000s. lately, adaptation has become a topic of increased interest (adger et al., 2009; dodman & mitlin, 2011). changing societal and ecological processes and activities to avoid would be harm or take advantage of new opportunities constitutes adaptation to boost resilience and decrease susceptibility (adger et al., 2007). rarely does climate change adaptation concentrate solely on climate change problems (ipcc, 2012). any process or program that increases the resilience of society to the risks that climate change may exacerbate is considered part of adaptation (ipcc, 2012). adaptation is an ongoing process that reduces harm or exploits opportunities and is the process of responding to changes in natural or human systems as a result of current or projected climate stimuli or their consequences (ipcc, 2012; smit & wandel, 2006). as part of this process, this study distinguishes between incremental and transformative adaptation (kates et al., 2012; nelson et al., 2007). to reduce losses, gradual adaptation to climate change means scaling up or changing current behaviors https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 and activities, or doing little more of what is already being done (kates et al., 2012; park et al., 2012). on the other hand, transformative adaptation refers to adaptation strategies that are new to a specific location, adopted on a much larger scale, and bring about changes to local resource systems (adger et al., 2011; cates et al., 2012; nelson et al., 2007). indigenous knowledge indigenous knowledge is what aboriginal people have known, understood, and practiced for generations and handed over from generation to generation mostly through oral tradition. indigenous knowledge evolves through trial and error and is mostly not documented but has a proven ability to adapt to change (melchias, 2001) since local people have an intimate relationship with their environment. indigenous knowledge is information gathered over generations in a specific environment (minja, 2000). because the local people have more sensitivity to the effects of their dependence on and close contact with the environment and its resources, local people have gradually acquired local knowledge to combat climate change (ipcc, 2007). some communities have accumulated knowledge about environmental changes over long periods and have developed methods to detect and manage these changes (changa et al., 2010). indigenous and modern adaptation strategies to climate change individual, family, and community organizational levels (adger 2000, berkes & seixas 2006, cinner et al. 2009c), as well as national assessments (marshall and marshall 2007), can be used to assess adaptive practices (adger and vincent 2005; nelson et al. 2009a,b). some systems estimate capacity using inductive, community-driven metrics, whereas others use deductive metrics (nelson et al., 2008). some adaptive capacity indicators (such as those used by he mcclanahan and cinner in 2009) are better suited for cross-scale comparisons, whereas others are better suited for stand-alone analysis of specific communities or industries. your objectives, available skills, and available budget determine the best approach for your specific situation. choosing the most effective approach to adaptation planning necessitates taking into account both opportunities and constraints. however, these techniques vary from community to community depending on local environmental and climatic conditions (nindi & mhando, 2011). locals use a variety of weather forecasts and indicators to explain the effects of climate change. the appearance of armyworms in theupper east region bongo districtn is a sign of delayed rainfall. red ant swarms appear in october and november, and the wet season occurs in august and september when swarms appear to fly from the hills to the lowlands. however, large swarms of armyworms in september and october are a sign of drought (nindi & mhando, 2011). in addition, smallholder farmers have developed cultivation techniques that are adaptable to climate change. to protect the soil, intercropping or capture crop methods are used in the semi-arid communities south of bongo. according to mafongoya and ajayi (2017), local communities are implementing culturally distinct strategies to help limit the negative effects of climate change on crop production. farmers use indigenous knowledge and techniques to mitigate problems associated with natural disasters (harvey et al., 2014). most legume farmers are aware of and engage in various cultural practices that can help them cope with factors and events that may threaten their production capacity such as mixed cropping (rankoana, 2016). examples of these cultural traditions include precautionary measures to respond to early warnings of expected rainfall or shortages due to wind direction, the shape of the crescent, and the behavior of certain animals (mafongoya & ajayi, 2017). according to berkes (2012), these are reliable rainfall probability forecasts that farmers can use to plan their agricultural activities in order to reduce risk and increase productivity. other indigenous practices include seed selection, in which the best seeds are carefully selected for the following harvest season because they believe they grow better with less rainfall (chigavazira, 2012). morton (2007) asserted that these procedures form a substantial body of knowledge and skill used in methods for managing and enhancing crop production resilience, mitigating the effects of climate change, and reducing the likelihood of crop failure. by fusing several information systems, it is possible to minimize the effect of irregular rainfall on food production. berkes, (2012) as part of a community effort to address the effects of climate change on small-scale farming, new and improved technologies, as well as financial resources, may be considered to improve the indigenous techniques used by farmers (davis & terblanché, 2016) utilizing adaptation technology in agriculture entails using organic fertilizers to increase the fertility and moisture content of the soil (dejene et al., 2011). ponge (2013), using traditional wisdom to increase crop output under irregular rainfall is possible, but it can only be successful when combined with appropriate current scientific technology interventions, like the use of organic fertilizers and pesticides, and meteorological data stakeholders’ participation in adaptation strategies to climate change studies from around the world, particularly in the global south, have shown that the costs which comes with the finance of adopting orthodex practices, land tenure rights, educational level, gender, climate, labor shortages, and water scarcity are all factors influencing the level of adoption of new practices among farmers (wollenberg et al., 2012). modern approaches and techniques in transforming agricultural systems are needed to significantly increase food security, build resilience and adapt to climate change which smallholder https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 farmers find it difficult to develop. the need for institutional collaboration will therefore be critical to the successful adoption and development of all aspects of climate change adaptation through training and engaging with local communities (bernier, & haglund, 2013). according to hodgson (2006), local and external actors interact as both formal and informal systems that include organizations, social and cultural norms, and conventions that improve adaptation strategies. institutions are important for climate change adaptation, especially local institutions that have related and know the peculiarities of their environment. the contributions of these institutions is demonstrated by their ability to develop innovations to adapt to changing climate stressors (amaru & chhetri, 2013; chhetri et al., 2012; rodimataylor, olwig, & chhetri, 2012) and invariably provide links to access finance for smallholder farmers (mccarthy, lipper, & branca, 2011). they play pivotal roles in the areas of information gathering and dissemination, resource mobilization, and allocation (agrawal, 2008). challenges of adaptation strategies to climate change climate-related adaptation barriers are factors, conditions, or barriers that reduce the effectiveness of adaptation strategies (bryan, et al., 2009). financial, sociocultural, institutional, informational, and technological barriers to climate adaptation strategies can be classified into this category (bryan, et al., 2009). the issues of inadequate financial facilities are significant impediments to farmers’ implementation of climate adaptation strategies in ethiopia. other research indicates that financial constraints are the primary impediment to smallholder farmers’ adaptation to climate shocks in sub-saharan africa (bryan, et al., 2009). individual or group sociocultural beliefs, cultural practices, and worldviews all have a significant impact on how farmers perceive climate change and their subsequent coping strategies (fosumensah, 2012). previous studies have found that people’s reactions to risk are heavily influenced by their pre-existing beliefs, values, and norms about the event. this means that people from different cultural backgrounds may react differently to the risks associated with the effects of climate change (fosumensah, 2012). institutions play an important role in developing communities capacity to respond to climate change, which can help shape social and individual interactions in society (fosumensah, 2012). according to the existing literature, institutional barriers are the primary constraint for publications on coping strategies (moser & ekstrom, 2010). food security in ghana and many other sub-saharan african communities is jeopardized due to a lack of institutional capacity and food security policies and climate adaptation information (moser & ekstrom, 2010). access to information about extreme weather events is a powerful tool that can be used to improve household coping strategy adoption and implementation in ghana. however, due to a lack of suitable climate data, some climate projections in the country have been made. as a result, households rely on agroecological knowledge gained through personal experience (antwi-agyei, et al., 2013). this knowledge has enabled farmers to develop complex mental models of climate that may hurt their farming practices (antwi-agyei, et al., 2013). improved technology, improved crop varieties, and irrigation technology development, for example, are critical for farmers’ adaptation to climate change. however, due to the limitations of these technologies, farmers are forced to rely on indigenous technology to reduce the impacts of climate change (antwi-agyei, et al., 2013). methodology study area the study was conducted in the upper east region of the republic of ghana’s bongo district. the bongo figure 1:district map of bongo source: bongo district assembly, 2012 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 district is one of the upper east region’s 15 districts. it was established in 1988 by legislative instrument 1446 (li 1446), with bongo as its capital. the district has 459.5 square kilometers of land area and is located between longitudes of 0.45° w and latitudes of 10.50° n and 11.09° n. burkina faso borders the bongo district to the north, kassena-nankana east to the west, bolgatanga municipal to the south, and nabdam district to the east. the map of the bongo district is shown below. it is located in the northern savannah zone and has one rainy season. the severe drought that comes before the rain and the district’s rainfall is canceled out by the extremely high rate of evaporation, which is estimated to be 168 cm per year. the vegetation is similar to that found in the guinea savannah. rivers and streams dry up during the dry season and vegetation withers. farming operations are halted during this time, and cattle starve to death, significantly reducing their weight and household income. study design the study adopted the mixed-method approach. the use of both methods aided the study in addressing any weaknesses that either approach might have. the qualitative study focuses on observations and interview content rather than specific details (zikmund, 2000). quantitative methods, on the other hand, emphasize objective measurements and statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data gathered through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, as well as by manipulating preexisting statistical data using computational techniques. quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or explaining a particular phenomenon. (babbie, 2010). to achieve the objectives of the study; the approach helped explore how legume farmers have coped with the effects of climate change threats on the production of legume crops, a mixed method was carried out. through direct communication with the legume farmers, data were gathered from three farming communities nyariga, vea and gowrie that were randomly chosen for this qualitative study. sampling technique a sampling technique refers to the method used to select samples from a target population. examples include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, targeted sampling, and snowball sampling (creswell, 2011). multilevel sampling is a sampling strategy (such as collecting participants for a study) used when researching very large populations. the overall population is divided into spontaneous clusters and sub-clusters from which researchers randomly select samples (karma, 1999). a multistage sampling method was used for data collection. the bong district as the study area was sampled, because of its semi-arid nature. again, the bongo district is one of the most sensitive areas when it comes to climate change in the savannah ecological zone. the bongo district is one of the districts that actively contribute to food production in the upper east region, including legumes. the next step in the sample was to classify communities into area councils after obtaining a list of those actively involved in legume production from the ministry of agriculture. in addition, simple random sampling technique was used to select the three communities for investigation. a simple random sampling was performed by using the lottery method to select communities under the bongo district by writing the names of the communities on a piece of paper a draw was made and the three communities selected were nyariga, vea and gowrie. sample size the study uses a sample size of 70 farmers who have produced legumes for about ten years. a simple random sampling method was used to choose 17 households from nyariga, 30 from vea, and 23 households from gowrie, respectively. details of the sample size distribution are presented below; table 1: determined sample size variables communities no. of respondents sample size determination nyariga 17 gowrie 23 vea 30 total 3 70 source: field survey (june 2022) data collection data on the socio-demographic characteristics of legume farmers, the effects of climate change, indigenous knowledge, indigenous coping mechanisms, and modern coping strategies were collected. in each community, one focus group discussion was held, as well as five key informant interviews with three farmers, one agriculture extension officer, and one meteorologist from the regional meteorological department. for ten years, the ghana meteorological service collected data on rainfall and temperature in the district. crop yield data for the district over the last ten years was also obtained from the ministry of agriculture (mofa). data analysis thematic content analysis was used to analyze the data. the technique was used to find, examine, and report on data trends. the first step in the data analysis process was to understand the responses and implications from the participants’ perspectives. this procedure allowed the data to be coded and scored by counting the number of times a specific subject was mentioned. after coding, themes and sub-themes were created. finally, contextualizing and interpreting the data determined the extent to which the study problem was addressed. the final phase involved preparing the report and holding a follow-up meeting with the groups to communicate and confirm the study’s findings and ensure they accurately reflected the participants’ opinions. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 results demographic characteristics table 2 below revealed that below 40% of farmers in the study community are engaged in farming, while above 40% aged 35 to 60 are actively involved in legume production or farming. the data also revealed that below 25% are involved in farming in the study communities. the data suggest that farming in the study area is labour intensive and this explained why those in the productive age group are involved in farming. in terms of sex distribution, above 60% of farmers were males in the study community, while below 40% were females. though this does not correspondent with the 2010 population and housing outcomes which revealed there are more females than males in ghana; it is largely because farming is a male-dominated activity in the study area as men have access to land and patrilineal ownership regimes, as well as farming being a household livelihood security, enjoined men to dominate. data on household size revealed that below 30% in the study communities are averaging below 5 and between 5 to 10 household sizes, respectively. it was also established that the majority of the households in the study communities are 50% and above. this implies that the household size in the study community is large. this could be a result of the extended family setting that is commonly practiced in the study area. on education, above 50% of farmers have received formal education in the study communities; while below 50% have received one form of education, thus basic, secondary, post-secondary, and tertiary, respectively. junior high school education, while 16% received senior high school education. the data further revealed above 50% of the farmers in the study area are living a married life, while below 30% were single. besides, below 10% have been widowed or divorced respectively in the study communities. table 2: demographic characteristics of respondents variables nyariga gowrie vea freq. percent freq. percent freq. percent age <35 6 35 9 39 9 30 35 to 60 9 53 11 48 15 50 >60 and above 2 12 3 13 6 20 sex male 11 65 15 65 21 70 female 6 35 8 35 9 30 household size <5 3 18 5 22 5 17 5 to 10 members 5 29 6 26 10 33 >10 9 53 12 52 15 50 education basic edu. 4 24 7 30 9 30 secondary edu. 2 12 5 22 5 17 post-sec./tertiary 1 9 2 9 2 7 no formal education 10 59 9 39 14 47 marital status single 5 29 5 22 4 13 married 8 47 15 65 26 87 divorced 2 12 1 4 0 0 widowed 2 12 2 9 0 0 source: field survey (june 2022) indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change on legume production to provide an understanding of adaptation strategies to climate change, the study examined the types of legumes crops production in the study area. the data revealed that 41% constituting the majority cultivate groundnuts as their primary legume, while 35% of farmers cultivate soya beans as a primary legume. also, 12% cultivate bambara beans, whereas 6% in the nyariga community cultivate cowpea and beans, respectively. the data on legume crop production in gowrie revealed that 39% of farmers cultivate groundnuts, while 22% cultivate soya beans as a primary crop. the data also indicates that 17% of farmers cultivate bambara beans, while 13% of https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 respondents indicated beans with only 9% of farmers in gowrie indicating cowpea. more, data on legume crop production in vea revealed that 43% of farmers cultivate groundnuts, while 33% of farmers in vea cultivate soya beans. again, 10% of farmers indicated cultivated beans, whereas 7% of farmers cited bambara beans with another 7% indicating cowpea. details on legume production are provided in table 3. in searching for a response on the type of legume production in the local communities, the discussants provided various reasons. a discussant stated; groundnuts are a dominant crop majority of farmers cultivate; considering the demand, right now a lot of companies visit our communities in search of groundnuts and market women attract high interest in buying it; it is largely influenced by market availability and also based on the fact that the soil which is sandy support the cultivation of such crop (a participant, nyagri) the views of participants in the focus group discussion in gowrie also revealed that the majority of farmers cultivate soya beans. a discussant held this view; in the gowrie community, most farmers cultivate groundnuts, it has high demand just as soya beans; groundnuts are our traditionally dominant primary legume we cultivate hear; women smallholders farmers, peasants, and other commercial farmers cultivate groundnuts (a discussant, gowrie). data on the indigenous adaptation strategies to climate table 3: legumes crops production variables nyariga gowrie vea freq. percent freq. percent freq. percent legumes soya beans 6 35 5 22 10 33 groundnuts 7 41 9 39 13 43 bambara beans 2 12 4 17 2 7 cowpea 1 6 2 9 2 7 beans 1 6 3 13 3 10 total 17 100 23 100 30 100 source: field survey (june 2022) change on legume production revealed mixed cropping, army warm infestation, crescent moon appearance, and agro-forestry. the communities’ indigenous adaptation strategies are learned and transmitted to the younger generation. the study revealed that 88% of farmers in nyariga practice mixed cropping (such as planting soya beans with beans) as an indigenous adaptation strategy, while 91% of farmers in gowrie pants groundnuts and beans as mixed cropping with 90% of farmers in vea plants soya beans and beans as mixed cropping farming as an indigenous adaptation strategy. furthermore, 59% of farmers in nyariga, 65% in gowrie, and 90% in vea indicated they cultivate legumes such as soya beans, groundnuts, cowpea, and beans, while at the same time keep farm animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and poultry birds including chickens, guinea fowls, ducks and turkeys as livelihood diversification. in addition, the table indicates that 71% (nyariga) 65% (gowrie) and 67% vea believe the appearance of the crescent moon at a particular time is a sign of a good farming season. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 the data further revealed that 88% of farmers in nyariga believe army warm infestation has a trend in production outputs and for that matter, they turned to prepare for the farming season when the infestation is observed. again, 87% in gowrie and 50% in vea also share the same view regarding army worm infestation. the study revealed that 29% 0f the respondent from nyariga indicated that they practice agro-forestry as an adaptation strategy to climate change, while 24% from gowrie agreed with the adaptation of agro-forestry, with 30% from vea also agreeing to agro-forestry. details are provided in table 4. in soliciting participants’ views during focus group discussions (fgd) at gowrie participants indicated that the use of indigenous adaptation strategies is essential to the production of legumes. a participant has this to say; over the years, most farmers have been cultivating two or more crops on the same piece of land. we believe that not all crops could do well at the same time and so having a variety of crops planted, one could gain from crops that did not go bad. when one cultivates maize, beans, and soya beans are often introduced to the farm. our experience in farming also shows that legumes such as beans, soya beans, pepper, etc do not need much of the modern fertilizer to develop and so it is easy and cost-effective to engage in the farming of legumes (a discussant gowrie) when asked about the relevance of the indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change on legume production, discussants in vea indicated the importance cannot be overemphasized. a middle-aged farmer indicated that the experience and test of the indigenous strategies for climate change adaptation have produced results repeatedly . a discussant indicated; indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change are a product of local knowledge systems and it is transmitted through daily experience and observation of events. we are happy because, it goes to confirm with modern understanding of climate change scenarios (a participant, vea) the views of participants in the focus group discussion in nyariga also revealed the same position of their colleague farmer respondents in the other communities. a discussant held this position; for me, it is important to acknowledge the fact that mixed cropping has been one of the best adaptation strategies. it has helped many farmers to have more produce. i have been practicing mixed cropping and it is good, other farmers are equally doing the same (a discussant, nyariga). table 4: indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change on legume production variables nyariga gowrie vea freq. percent freq. percent freq. percent mixed cropping yes 15 88 21 91 27 90 no 2 12 2 9 3 10 mixed farming yes 10 59 15 65 25 83 no 7 41 8 35 5 17 armyworm infestation yes 15 88 20 87 15 50 no 2 12 3 13 15 50 tree planting (agro-forestry) yes 5 29 6 26 9 30 no 12 71 17 74 21 70 source: field survey (june 2022) modern adaptation strategies to climate change on legume production the study also examined the modern adaptation strategies to climate change on legume production. the study revealed that 71% of farmers in nyariga, 62% in gowri, and 47% in vea indicated they rely on the ghana metrological agency weather forecast for the result. this helped in their effective planning to climate change scenarios. also, integrated soil fertility management (fertilization application) appears to be the second most common modern adaptation strategy. this view is held by 16% of farmers in gowri, 21% in vea, and 28% in nyariga. more so, below 20% of farmers, in the study communities indicated the practice of plowing in rolls as a modern adaptation strategy to climate change. further findings revealed that 10% of farmers in nyariga used improved seed, with 5% in gowri and vea respectively practicing fallowing of land. the data implies that the legume farmers in the bongo west district used forecasting and fertilizer application as modern adaptation strategies to climate change. in finding answers to the question of modern adaptation strategies to climate change on legume production during focus group discussions, participants indicated the use of chemical and weather forecasting as information is https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 critical to agronomical activities. at nyariga, a farmer revealed that; “the continuous farming on the same piece of land has led to low crop yield, so fertilizer application has become a major part of soil nutrient management; again we rely on the weather forecast information to understand rainfall patterns and early warning signs regarding drought or flooding’’ (farmer, nyariga). adaptation strategies to climate change by local stakeholders in the bong district, many local actors play a critical part in adaptation strategies. farmers, farmer unions, tendaanas, households, community volunteers, and diviners are major local players in implementing adaptation strategies at the community level. the data revealed farmer and household responsibilities are rated as highly effective, while the contribution of tendaana, community volunteers, and diviners was also rated as effective. details are provided in table 5. discussants indicate that there are local stakeholders in their communities that are immensely contributing to adaptation strategies to climate change on legume production. they indicated that farmers, farmer unions, tendaanas, and household members are local actors who play a crucial role in ensuring climate change adaptation. it was revealed that farmers took charge of major decisions regarding cropping and farmland management. this is what a discussant stated: ‘’… in terms of key actors in this community, we (farmers) are in charge of all decisions regarding land preparation and cropping; the chiefs and opinion and tendaanas, and diviners play a part in terms of the indigenous approach to climate change adaptation on legume production; the share experiences on signs and revelations that could influence farmers decision to respond to climate change adaptation strategies (a discussant, nyariga). figure 3: modern adaptation strategy to climate change. source: field survey (june 2022) table 4: indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change on legume production s/n stakeholders duties findings effectiveness highly effective effective less effective 1 farmers *preparing farmland no issue regarding land ownership *decision regarding crops to be cultivated *in charge of securing seed & inputs for crops 2 tendaana/ earth priest *link between the living and ancestors interceding for rains or averting curse https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 modern stakeholders in adaptation strategies to climate change this section examines the role of external stakeholders in contributing to climate change adaptation strategies. these external stakeholders are established by law and are either government establishments or private entities. the bongo district assembly, ghana metrological agency, national disaster management organization (nadmo), water resources commission, and ministry of food and agriculture, are government institutions, while non-governmental organizations (ngos) are formed by private individuals. modern stakeholders exist to empower or complement local stakeholders in initiating and practicing adaptation strategies to climate change. the study revealed that 65% of farmers in nyariga rely on agri-extension services for adaptation practices, whereas 71% of farmers in gowrie also depend on the mofa extension services, with 69% of respondents in vea also sharing the same opinion. again, the ghana metrological agency’s role in weather forecasting is a major source of information for adaptation practices. this view was held by 15% of respondents from nyariga, 12% from gowrie, and 21% in vea. further findings also indicate that the bongo district assembly, national association of disaster management organization, and world vision internation play a part as stakeholders in adaptation strategies to climate change (refer figure. 4). discussants also noted that the role of the department of food and agriculture under the ministry of food and agriculture in giving support services to extension officers is significant. a discussant stated; “ we have an extension officer who meets us the farmers, legumes, maize, rice, and other cereal farmers; the officer has been periodically visiting our farms and educating us on best agricultural practices. through such engagement, we are motivated to adopt best practices to increase crop yield (a discussant, vea).” 3 community volunteers participate in implementing community decision ability to sustainably implement initiative 4 households support in farming activities source of labour √ 5 farmer groups working together to improve legume production collaborating with external stakeholders √ 6 diviners spiritual verifications of occurrences and events giving direction to avert crisis √ source: field survey (june 2022) figure 4: modern stakeholders to adaptation strategy to climate change https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 challenges to indigenous climate change adaptation strategies farmers respond to climate change in different ways. farmers face a variety of challenges as they develop strategies to deal with the effects of extreme weather events, ranging from personal to institutional constraints. five constraints were identified based on the literature and focus group interactions with respondents revealed the introduction of new faiths, the uncoordinated nature of indigenous strategies, the mindset of the new generation, the lack of documentation, and limited / no integration of indigenous adaptation strategies to modern practices as challenges to climate change adaptation. the data revealed that 41% of respondents indicated the issue of limited or absence of merger of local adaptation strategies to climate change as a major setback to the indigenous approaches. it was further uncovered that the introduction of new belief systems (islam and christianity) have also weakened traditional belief systems including norms, taboos, and superstitions, which adversely affect local adaptation strategies, this view was held by 28% of respondents. also, 15% of respondents attributed the weakness of indigenous adaptation strategies to the mindset of the new generation of farmers, as they have confidence in modern approaches to adaptation to climate change. in addition, 9% of farmers also cited a lack of documentation of indigenous adaptation strategies as a setback, while 7% expressed worry about the uncoordinated nature of indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change. the result from the focus group discussion also revealed that inadequate attention given to indigenous adaptation strategies is one major factor identified. a discussant revealed this; “it is obvious that limited attention is placed on the indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change among legume farmers; we (farmers) are shifting focus to depending on weather forecasting and fertilizer application to the detriment of making good use of indigenous adaptation strategies which are long age practices (a discussant, gowrie).” figure 5: challenges to indigenous climate change adaptation strategies challenges to orthodex/modern adaptation strategies to climate change the table below (table 5) revealed that poor extension service (39%) is the major challenge associated with modern adaptation strategies to climate change. this was followed by the high cost of agronomical inputs (36%). also, 11% cited poor access to metrological service, while 7% attributed inadequate access to drought-resistant varieties and the high cost of technological service, respectively. probing further in focus group discussions, participants shared similar views with respondents. the issue of poor extension service, high cost of inputs, and inadequate access to metrological information were identified as major challenges. one discussant in nyariga stated; although we have the agriculture officers coming around occasionally, there is too much pressure because he has many communities to cover; it is very difficult to reach out to him at all times. again, his work is not supported with adequate electronic tools for us to further appreciated extension service and knowledge sharing. another discussant added; the cost of inputs is another issue of concern, the prices of fertilizer are on the high side and the lands have lost their nutrients, so inputs have become a preferred option for soil fertility management, the cost of it is a challenge to farmers (a discussant gowrie). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 table 5: challenges of the modern adaptation strategies to climate change variable response frequency (n= 70) percent (%) challenges of modern adaptation strategies to climate change poor access to metrological information 8 11 high cost of agronomical inputs 25 36 poor extension service 27 39 inadequate drought-resistant varieties 5 7 high cost of technological service 5 7 total 70 100 source: field survey (june 2022) discussions the study established three key issuesadaptation strategies to climate change, stakeholder participation in adaptation strategies, and challenges of adaptation strategies to climate change. this is based on the fact that climate change variability affects legume production in the bongo district. the study revealed that mixed cropping and mixed farming are predominant adaptation strategies to climate change among legume farmers. these findings are synonymous with the view held by rankoana (2016) who indicated that legume farmers diversify crops by planting more than one type of crop to reduce the risk of one crop failure. regarding modern adaptation strategies, forecasting and the use of improved seed variety were identified as contemporary adaptation strategies. these findings also align with berkes (2012), who expressed the opinion that legume farms depend on weather forecasting as an adaptation measure. again, the view that improved variety has recently become an appropriate adaptation strategy is also in conformity with dejene’s (2011) work where he stated that fertilizer application contributes to enriching soil fertility as it maintains moisture content. as a result of this, there is a need for the bongo district assembly to inculcate already adaptation strategies for climate change action planning. the study also identified local actors including legume farmers, households, and priest as some stakeholders in adaptation strategies to climate change, while the ministry of food and agriculture, the bongo district assembly, and the ghana metrological agency were also identified as modern actors in climate change adaptation strategies. the findings uncover that legume farmers lead intake decisions regarding cultural farming practices, including land preparation and cropping. the provision of extension service and formation on weather forecasting are equally facilitated by the ministry of food and agriculture and the ghana metrological agency, respectively. these findings agree with hodgson, (2006) who indicated that local and external actors worked as both formal and informal systems and encompass organizations, and social and cultural norms to ensure effective adaptation strategies. on challenges to adaptation strategies to climate change, the study identified limited or no integration of indigenous strategies to modern adaptation practices and the introduction of new belief systems (islam and christianity) has also weakened farmers’ ability to prioritize indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change. these findings support the position of fosu mensah (2012), who held that sociocultural constraints including beliefs, cultural practices, and worldviews of individuals or groups greatly influence how farmers respond to climate change adaptation strategies. findings also revealed that poor extension service and weak access to weather forecasting information are stumbling blocks to modern adaptation strategies to climate change. this also brings to bear the contribution of antwi-agyei, et al., (2013) as they held the position that the lack of suitable climate data has resulted in some climate projections in the country, causing legume farmers to rely on agroecological knowledge based on their own experience. conclusion the conclusion arrived at from the findings/result from the study is that mixed cropping, mixed farming, and crescent mood prediction are the dominant indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change regarding legume production. more so, weather forecasting, integrated soil fertility management, and the use of improved seed variety were identified as modern adaptation strategies to climate change concerning legume production. findings on local stakeholders’ participation in indigenous adaptation strategies identified legume farmers, household members as labour sources, and earth priests as major actors, while the ministry of food and agriculture (mofa), ghana metrological agency, and bongo district assembly (bda) were identified as modern stakeholders participating in adaptation strategies. further findings revealed that inadequate integration of indigenous adaptation strategies to modern approaches, new belief systems and mindset of the new generation farmers are constraining factors to indigenous adaptation practices to climate change, while poor extension service, cost of chemical inputs, and inadequate access to droughtresistant varieties were identified as challenges to modern adaptation strategies to climate change. there is a need for stakeholders such as the environmental protection agency (epa), the ghana tourism authority (gta), and the district assembly to engage fringe communities on developing and sustaining the identified natural resources into attractive avenues. the local and external stakeholders should establish a https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 13 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(2) 01-14, 2023 strong bond of coordination for effective governance of natural resources in the wa west district. the study’s findings have brought to light the adaptation strategies to climate change of legume production in the bongo district. it implies that there is a need to design and implement relevant programs by concerned agencies to minimize climate change’s effects on legume production. recommendation the following recommendations based on the findings as outlined may be relevant in designing programs and policies to ensure adaptation to climate change in the bongo district. the ministry of food and agriculture should consider introducing a drought-resistant variety of soya beans and groundnuts to legume farmers in the bongo district to boast production. it is also important for the ministry of food and agriculture, ghana metrological agency, and bongo district assembly to mainstream indigenous adaptation strategies into climate change actions, plans, and communication. there is a need for the ministry of food and agriculture, bongo district assembly, and world vision international as a non-governmental organization (ngo) to build the capacities of local communities to effectively developed indigenous adaptation strategies to an appreciable level. the local and external stakeholders should establish a strong bond of coordination for effective adaptation to climate change practices in the bongo district. the bongo district assembly should engage local communities to develop sustainable adaptation plans for climate change. there ministry of food and agriculture should consider posting more agriculture extension officers to the bongo district for effective support services given the adaptation mechanism. there ghana metrological agency should also consider working closely with farmer volunteers to facilitate information dissemination to legume producers. references adu-boahen, k., dadson, i.y., & halidu, m.a., (2019). climatic variability and food crop production in the bawku west district of the upper east region of ghana. ghana j. geogr. 11, 103–123 https://dx.doi. org/10.4314/gjg.v11i1.7. asante, f.a., & amuakwa-mensah, f., (2015). climate change and variability 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issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.344 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 23, 2022 accepted: june 27, 2022 published: july 17, 2022 farmers are the ones who provide food to the people in the society and they are considered to be heroes of today. this study was conducted to determine the challenges experienced by farmers related to climate change, their coping strategies, and different means to ensure crop yield. qualitative-phenomenology was employed. findings revealed that farmers experienced failure due to unpredictable weather patterns, bad harvest, slow growth of crops, low quality of fruits, costs them much expenses with loss of capital because of climate change. they cope by employing waterworks and waited for government’s assistance. to ensure crop yield, they applied fertilizers, chemicals, and waterworks. keywords adaptive strategies, climate change, farmers, cotabato, philippines 1 cotabato foundation college of science and technology doroluman, arakan, cotabato, philippines. * corresponding author’s e-mail: akdilangalen@yahoo.com introduction farmers are the ones who provide food to the people in the society and they are considered to be the heroes of today. being one take some skills, courage and determination to face all the difficulties and obstacles especially regarding to climate change. climate change is one of the opponent of farmers for it can affect the growth, development and productivity of the crops. the philippines is located near the equator and is surrounded by ocean which makes it as one of the countries that is at risk of climate change. the most affected in this kind of phenomenon are in the field of agriculture specifically the farmers (defiesta & rapera, 2014). the negative effect of climate change are potentially evident in this time, which triggers farmers to have an agricultural adaptation in an instant. there are many options that farmers can practice in order to fight against the possible impact of the said phenomena and improve their cropping system (howden et al., 2007). the current and available products for agriculture have been examined to create new technologies that are more efficient in ensuring crop yield (rosegrant et al., 2015). due to the effect of climate change, many farmers specially the small-holders have lost their livelihood and led them in such deep problems (chandra et al., 2011). the philippine economy is projected to cost much money by year 2050 due to the impact of climate change in the field of agriculture (rosegrant, et al., 2015). adaptation strategies that will help increase the productivity growth in agriculture is expected to minimize the negative effect of climate change in the society (rosegrant et al., 2015). the current strategies of farmers in their field can be enhanced or improved in order to significantly reduce the impact of climate change. as the years will pass by, the farmers can get more knowledge in the field that they are in and with this, they can get new techniques and strategies that are more effective than the previous ones (lasco et al., 2011). this study is significant among the farmers. it will help them think for the better strategies in order to combat climate change and increase crop yield. moreover, this study is qualitative where it employed phenomenology. though there were similar studies conducted (ayeri et al., 2012; hirpa et al., 2020), however, these were conducted in africa. some studies in the philippines are on the contexts of case studies (feola et al., 2015; escarcha et al., 2020). therefore, there was an urgency to conduct this study in the local contexts. correspondingly, this will give insights on the challenges faced by the farmers against climate change. the findings will serve as an additional bodies of knowledge to the farmers and to the different governmental agencies. thus, this study was conceptualized and pursued. research questions 1. what are the challenges experienced by farmers related to climate change? 2. how do farmers cope with this phenomenon? 3. what are the different means employed by farmers to ensure crop yield? data & method this research study employed qualitative phenomenological research design. it aimed to understand and interpret a phenomenon making it a qualitative research and having phenomenological research design will enable the informants to share their experiences and give thoughts on a phenomenon based from their corresponding experiences (gallagher, 2012). qualitative phenomenology is an approach to research that centers on the experience of a person that answers a particular problem (husserl & gibson, 1983). there were ten (10) informants in this study. the informants were selected through purposive sampling in which they were chosen based on the qualities they possess (tongco, 2007; etikan & bala, 2017). moreover, pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 09-14, 2022 criterion-based sampling had been utilized since there were criteria set by the researcher in choosing the informants (gehart et al., 2001). the criteria set for this study is that they are farmers who work on their own farm for at least five years. five (5) informants took part as key informants and another five (5) for the focus group discussion (fgd). results and discussions challenges experienced by farmers related to climate change failure due to unpredictable weather patterns farmers revealed that due to unpredictable weather patterns they experienced failure in their farms. the unpredictable weather patterns had caused slow growth and damage to their crops which leads to the farmers’ downfall. as the years pass by, climate change is getting worse which heavily affected the agricultural sector. due to the continuous unpredictable weather, they end up crop failures, reduced water level in tanks and wells to support their crops and new pest and diseases were found. thus, they are trying to adapt this kind of phenomenon (varadan & kumar, 2014). learning how the farmers notice the way rainfall uncommonly change is indeed important to know. especially, looking forward to the effects of unusual changing climate patterns. most of the farmers think that the rainfall usually starts earlier and end later. in the meteorological data, there’s no evidence given to support on how the farmers think of the usual rainfall that would start as early as september or october. there is only one explanation the farmer’s vision and meteorological evidence is that unusual rainfall changes can fluently confused with the changes in farming system (simelton et al., 2013). the way farmer’s see on how rainfall is changing is indeed important, especially expecting the possible effects of climate change. nonetheless, even within the same location, people may think rainfall changes differently. the purpose of this they suggest to control the possible climate change impact scenarios need to be grounded, along the farmers & prolonging workers’ understandings of how the weather is changing more carefully in order to improve the policy to implement (simelton et al., 2011). bad harvest harvest is one of the awaited moment for the farmers for their crops. but due to the climate change, the farmers revealed that they may experience a bad harvest due to damaged crops. this will result to a poor income and low profit, and worst if they will not gain any and loss their capital. as the years pass by, a lot of agriculture policy analysts have discussed that incompletely subsidized crop insurance would be a more efficient and equitable way to protect farmers from disaster than unconsidered disaster aid. regardless of the high expectation and promises of the insurance of the crop redeem the efforts, it is doubtful that the benefits of the nation have outreach the taxpayer cost (skees, 2001). the assessment of climate impacts especially on water resources shows that an increase in average water availability in russia, but it also has an enough increased frequency of high turnout events portion of central russia, and more periodical how turnout events in the portion which is already dry crop growing regions in the south. these results shows that the increasing condition of extreme climate will act an huge threat not just the water resources, but also the food system of russia (alcamo, 2007). slow growth of crops the season can affect the growth of the plants. the farmers revealed that during dry season, one of their problems is that the plants are growing slow and making it to become stunt. this will lead to a long time for plants to become fully developed. both changes and temperature variability can affect crop processes. some crop processes, often associated with boom like photosynthesis and breathing, show non-stop and primarily nonlinear changes in their rates as temperature increases. improvement and development rates through a lifestyle of crops (porter & semonov, 2009). additionally, sources of growth in agricultural productivity are multifaceted and consist of funding levels for public and private look-up and development, soil quality adjustments, mineral fertilizer availability and rate, co2 and ozone (o3) atmospheric concentrations, and temperature (t) and precipitation (p) changes (lobell & gourdji 2012). solar radiation affects crop growth and productivity deeply. photosynthesis is generally impaired during the rainy season due to reduced light intensity and duration caused by the excessively cloudy weather. this is a major constraint on tropical rice productivity and production (yoshida 1981). in different growth phases, the solar radiation requirements of a rice crop differ (yoshida & parao, 1976). shading slightly affects rice growth and yield during the vegetative growth phase, while shading during the reproductive phase has a pronounced effect on sink capacity (spikelet number per panicle and per unit land area). shading significantly reduces grain yield during maturation due to a spikelet sterility spurt (yoshida, 1981). quality of the fruits are affected the quality of fruit is one of the factor in knowing what will be the income of the farmers. it was discovered that because of high temperature, the fruits of the plants become undersized and causing it to have a meager harvest in the farm. abiotic stress potential has a huge impact on the quality and nutrition within the fresh cut fruits and vegetables. nevertheless, it has been directed to defining and documenting the abiotic stresses that happen during fresh cut processing, packaging and also storage (hodges & toivonen, 2008). peppers are very known vegetables not just of their color and taste, but the nutritional value contains within. the levels of vitamins c, phenolic pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 09-14, 2022 compounds and carotenoids are increased when they’re fully develop or matured enough. moreover, peppers grown under an organic culture which had a higher vitamin c, henolic and carotenoid rather than those grown under conventional culture (perez-lopez et al., 2007). costs much expenses and loss of capital having a farm really needs money for finances. due to the climate change, farmers revealed that they spent too much expenses than before and experienced losing their capital because of damaged crops due to the heat. this caused them some difficulties in producing more harvests. thus, their finances were also affected. the increase of temperature has brought negative response in the global yield in which the annual income for crops nationwide has reduced 5 billion dollars per year since 1981 until 2002 as stated by lobell and field (2007). drought will be a problem to poor farmers because with this they might lost their investments for the crops in the farm and worse, they may go into a debt (pandey et al., 2007). the use of pesticides to increase the productivity rate and destroy the pests in the farm has resulted in the increase of costs which affects the profit of the farmers (wilson & tisdell, 2001). moreover, farmers who uses organic do not earn higher than the synthetic users, they who earns a high income had spent higher production expenses also thus both of them had a little profit for their hard work (uematsu & mishra, 2012). exhausting and tiresome due to the effect of climate change, it was discovered that farmers need to work hard to ensure that their crops will live even though it is dry season. they do many works to the point where they feel exhausted and tired. it can be reiterated by the mere fact they only earn a meager amount from their produce. working in the farm, farmers cannot avoid having an unfavorable body posture and with this, farmers experienced fatigue in the body especially in lower back and shoulders (maeda et al., 1980). in relation to this, farmers are prone to having low back pain and musculoskeletal disorder because of the activities they do in the farms such as working with wrong body posture and doing physical work load like lifting and carrying loads (solecki, 2011). plants will be dehydrated farmers revealed that too much heat brought by climate change, the plants will become dehydrated. having not enough source of water, the plants cannot sustain nutrients needed by the plants thus it will become wither. a wide range of period having water deficit or the lack of water supply in the farm can cause drought stress and dehydration to the plants (ingram & bartels, 1996). in addition, some plants have a little capacity of dehydration tolerance and most of it die due to low water potential (oliver, cushmad & koster, 2010). ways farmers cope with climate change employ waterworks water is essential for the growth and development of plant. it was discovered that during dry season, the farmers are doing waterworks to ensure that their crops stay alive even if there is no rain. having efficient supply of water can be the determinant in the farmers’ crops yield and as for the resistance of the crops to drought and dehydration (blum, 2009). similarly, crop growth is strongly dependent on the moisture of the soil that was stored from the out-of-season rain and farmers improved and maintain it by doing water works (condon, et al., 2002). additionally, by doing water works through irrigation can help the plants develop and grow under different condition of the weather (doorenbos & kassam, 1979). wait for the assistance from the government farmers revealed that the effect of climate change cannot be easily coped up if doing it alone. the reason why farmers rely on the assistance from the government and also join in association in which they can received help. investments by government and donors are undoubtedly the best way to finance risk assessments and start-up prices for market development. government support wherever the government is in the type of premium subsidies. paying a certain amount of total insurance premiums can very well hamper adaptation by encouraging households to maintain or increase investment in unsustainable livelihoods. a less distorting structure of government support in progress is to divide the hazard into a moderately severe layer of business and a particularly severe social layer. regardless of whether investments are built by governments and donors to support insurance markets, they should be carefully considered in light weight of their chance prices as adaptation desires outweigh current levels of funding (collier et al., 2009). contrary to governmental views, their programs are usually viewed in an unfavorable manner, and therefore there is a demand to evaluate the effectiveness of export programs also facilitate as a result of the ways in which customized businesses generate user awareness. there is evidence of a lack of understanding between government and small business on the role and value of existing export programs facilitate the small sample base. future programs must reflect on the wishes of the small bourgeois $64,000 and recognize their entirely different stages of development, variable periods of overseas involvement and export expertise (albaum, 1983). some government payments to farmers also translate into financial gain for merchants offering inputs from seed, fertilizer, machinery, and alternative production. lenders benefit from enhanced farm borrowers ‘ reimbursement capacity and reduced risk on portfolios of farm loans. pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 09-14, 2022 as native economic multipliers create ripple effects from the additional income across the agricultural community, alternative indirect benefits accrue (mccabe, 2001). government plays a vital role in fostering smallholders ‘ cf in the asian country of recent fruit and vegetables (ffv). indeed, the program event (contract farming program), effective management technique, and strong player engagement, as well as strong government support. they are thought-out because they are the strongest tools to facilitate the economic process and to raise the living standards of farmers in asia (baqutayan et al., 2017). different means employed by farmers to ensure crop yield applying fertilizer to the plants plants need nutrients in order for it to grow and have a good quality products. it was revealed that farmers used fertilizer in replenishing the nutrients found in the soil which will be absorb by the plants that will result to a healthy production. the farmers applied fertilizer because it has a strong potential for building an adaptive food system in the face of vacillation. also farmers used synthetic fertilizer, to facilitate the process of the growth their crops, so that they can acquire higher yields or they can gain profit to their crops (scialabba & müller-lindenlauf, 2010). fertilizer are useful and important to our crops. it improve crop productivity and also restore soil fertility (mwangi, 1996). the use of fertilizer is an effective, efficient and ensuring it has a good production. it also increase soil aggregation (ahmad et al., 2016). using chemicals synthetic and new products are available in the market to ensure that the plants are being protected against pests, insects and fungus. the farmers revealed that they use such chemicals to ensure that there are no hinder in growth of their plants. using such chemicals will also ensure high production of crops. farmers are continue using chemicals in their farm to increase their agricultural productivity. even though, chemicals are harmful in humans’ health, still they used chemicals to reduce the number of pest assaulting to their crops (wilson & tisdell, 2001). farmers are now depends on synthetic chemicals to protect their crops from pest and insects (chandler et al., 2011). most farmers applied chemicals to manage the growth of their crops and to control the pest and weeds that competing with crops (magahud & dimaano, 2005). using waterworks water is essential for the plants and necessary for the improvement of its growth. it was discovered that farmers are doing waterworks to ensure that the crops will result a good and bountiful harvest. water is the most important element needed by humans in growing their crops to ensure food security and sustainability. water is now quickly becoming critically short object for humans and for crop production (waraich et al., 2011). the government implement programs specially in terms of implementing an irritating system which can help in tolerating the plants to grow better (abdel – azim, allam, 2005). irrigation serve as self-insurance, irrigating farmers using too much water volumes that’s why it can improve the difference of outcome (foudi, & erdlenbruch, 2011). implications for practice farmers especially the new ones can use the result of the study to enable them to become aware on the challenges that they may encounter due to the effects of climate change. they may also know that climate change is a serious matter in which farmers can experienced failure due to the unpredictable weather patterns, bad harvest, slow growth of crops due to high temperature, the quality of fruits is affected, spending much money to the expenses and loss of capital, exhaustion and tiredness and dehydration of plants. to cope with the challenges brought by climate change farmers may have a water-pump to do the waterworks in order for the plants to stay alive and fight against too much heat and drought during dry season. farmers may also ask the government or any associations for assistance in solving the problems in their corresponding farms. to ensure crop yield, farmers can apply fertilizers like potassium or potash, urea and yara which is available in the markets to ensure that the plants can get enough nutrients needed for better growth and development. they may also use chemical such as pesticide, insecticide and fungicide specifically malathion and dithane to combat against the pests and insects and ensure that there is no hinder for the growth of their plants thus, it may result to a good quality production. moreover, farmers may also do waterworks in order for the plants to stay healthy that may result to a bountiful harvest. conclusion it has been noted that the farmers are one of the most vulnerable because of climate change. they played a significant role in feeding billions of people of this planet. without them, there could have widespread famine that we could experience. indeed, the government must have to intervene to help them cope with the challenges that they are currently facing. the impact of covid-19 pandemic showed to have a detrimental effect on the harvest of the farmers. as well, the on-going conflict between ukraine and russia added to the cost of grains. as an engineer, educator, and a school president, i can say that we have the most important role in order to help our farmers. their problems will also be ours. we cannot say that we are not part of it. thus, this study is a eye-opener that we have to walk hand-in-hand in combatting climate change. references ahmad, a. a., radovich, t. j., nguyen, h. v., uyeda, j., arakaki, a., cadby, j., ... & teves, g. 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(1976). climatic influence on yield and yield components of lowland rice in the tropics. climate and rice, 20, 471-494. pa ge 1 pa ge 42 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) electricity generation and renewable energy policy in nigeria: resolving the regulatory challenges ayoyemi lawal-arowolo1*, tayo douglas1 volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.258 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: may 09, 2022 accepted: may 22, 2022 published: may 27, 2022 since the 1960s, inadequate electricity generation has been the bane of economic developments in nigeria. the introduction of reforms and policies in the electricity sector, for the purposes of exploring renewable energy in electricity generation, is yet to bring about increased electricity generation. this paper examines the challenges of renewable electricity in nigeria from the regulatory perspective. studies have shown that the failure of nigeria to have a regulator specifically for renewable energy is closely linked with the history of electricity generation in nigeria. till date, nigeria does not have a regulator with specific mandates for the development of renewable energy even though there are many regulators with overlap of functions over the development of renewable electricity. moreover, the power of the nigerian electricity regulatory commission over the promotion of renewable energy is limited to renewable technologies of certain capacities. this paper will analyse the history of electricity generation in nigeria in the context of the law and the policy to ascertain how the country has approached the development of renewable energy for electricity generation. the aim is to identify regulatory impediments to the development of renewable electricity from the law and the policy in nigeria. recommendations will be made for the establishment of a renewable electricity regulator independent of the existing bodies. it is the position of this paper that in the absence of specific provisions mandating the electricity regulator to develop renewable energy for electricity generation, the contribution of renewable energy to electricity generation in nigeria will remain marginal. keywords electricity generation, electricity regulation, energy policy, renewable electricity and renewable energy. 1 school of legal and security studies, babcock university, ilishan-remo, nigeria. * corresponding author’s e-mail: arowoloa@babcock.edu.ng introduction with a population of over 200 million, and the projection that the population will be over 267 million by 2030, nigeria is unarguably one of the most populous countries in africa (national council on powera, 2016). on the economic front, nigeria has one of the largest economies in africa (international monetary fund, 2017). nigeria is also blessed with abundant energy resources in quantities that are sufficient to make the country one of the largest economies in the world. ironically, electricity generation in nigeria has not supported the country’s population and economic growth. the rate of electricity access is about 62% comprising of 91% access in urban areas and 30% access rate by the rural population (varella, 2021). the challenge of power supply in nigeria is twofold – insufficient generation and poor transmission network. nigeria is struggling to generate sufficient megawatt of electricity, and this has been the bane of nigeria’s economic development for decades. while the average demand for electricity in nigeria is said to be above 25,000 mw, with a projection that this will increase to 40,000 mw by 2030, the total installed electricity capacity in nigeria is currently is barely above 12,000 mw (amadi, 2021). the 12,000 mw installed electricity generation capacity, the bulk of which is based on on-grid supply, comprised of 10,592 mw and 1,930 mw from gas-fired plants and hydro plants respectively (advisory power teama, 2015). the average electricity generation at peak period is 4,810 mw, and the bulk of which is lost during transmission (adeoba, 2016). the sad reality about electricity generation is that even if nigeria generates at full capacity of the current installed capacity, the available electricity will still not be sufficient to address the challenges of electricity generation given that the total installed megawatt is grossly inadequate compared to the demand (energy commission of nigeria, 2015). the other leg of the challenge is inefficient transmission and distribution system caused by reliance on old and outdated transmission network. electricity transmission network in nigeria consists of 5,523.8 km of 330 kv and 6,801.49 km of 132 kv. apart from the fact that the transmissions lines do not cover all parts of the country, the transmission lines are old and require high maintenance costs (kpmg nigeria, 2016). electricity supply is transmitted over these old and outdated transmission lines thereby resulting in the lost of the bulk of the electricity (ohajianya, abumere, owate and osarolube, 2014). the state of the electricity generation is a direct opposite of the available energy resources in nigeria. nigeria is richly endowed with energy resources (natural gas, crude oil, biomass, solar, small hydro and wind). the resources exist in quantity that is sufficient to address the power situation and transform the country. despite the abundance of different energy resources, electricity generation in nigeria is dominated by gas and hydro (advisory power teamb, 2015). in fact, electricity from gas-powered plants accounts for more than 80% of electricity generation (kukoyi and esan, 2018). frequent disruption in gas supply has affected the ability of the gashttps://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.258 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:arowoloa@babcock.edu.ng pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 powered plants to deliver at maximum capacity (nigeria bulk electricity tradinga, 2016). on many occasions, the fluctuation in gas supply has caused the country to rely on hydropower alone (nigeria bulk electricity tradingb, 2016). the spate of insecurity in southern parts of nigeria, which has defied any viable solution for now, has further compounded the challenges of gasbased electricity generation in nigeria. the challenge of gas-based electricity ‘has underscored concerns about nigeria’s energy security and served as a constant reminder of the need to diversify the country’s energy mix (dalberg global development advisors, 2017)a. the quest to address the challenges of electricity generation and supply informed the policy change in favour of renewable electricity. by the policy nigeria will pursue the inclusion of electricity generation from renewable energy sources in the electricity mix. the pursuit of electricity from renewable energy source is also based on the global paradigm shift towards a lowcarbon energy source. so, for a country like nigeria where fossil based electricity dominates, the global shift towards renewable electricity is also an opportunity to address climate change. the idea is that electricity from renewable source will not only lead to increased electricity generation but also help in addressing the challenge of electricity distribution network. nigeria recognises renewable-sourced electricity as key to solving the country’s power deficit in the country (national council on powerb, 2016). moreover, electricity generation from renewable energy has been identified as key to addressing environmental and climate concerns. the fgn has, in recent years, focused on the development of renewable energy for electricity generation. this has led to the introduction of policies and regulatory supports aimed at promoting renewable electricity generation. on the policy front, the national energy policy (“nep”) is the main enabler of renewable electricity generation in nigeria. the nep provides the policy framework for exploiting nigeria’s renewable energy resources. the policy trust of the nep is the optimal utilisation of energy resources for sustainable electricity generation. since the approval of the nep, the policy landscape for renewable electricity has continued to evolve. other policy documents have been approved to provide additional guidance for the development renewable electricity in nigeria. among the policy documents, the 2006 renewable electricity policy guideline and, the 2015 national renewable energy and energy efficiency policy are relevant to the discussions in this article. the enactment of the electric power sector reform act (“epsr act”) serves as a boost to the policy framework. although the epsr act was enacted to provide legislative support for the electricity sector reform at the time, the act has nevertheless provided legal support for the promotion and development of renewable energy for electricity generation. like the nep, the epsr act enjoins the nigerian electricity regulatory commission (nerc) to ensure access to reliable and secure electricity in urban and rural areas (epsr act, 2005)a. in addition to the policy intervention, the federal government of nigeria (fgn) has introduced a number of instruments, which are geared towards the promotion of electricity generation from renewable energy. the fgn has introduced a standard power purchase agreement (ppa) to incentivise renewable electricity. the fgn has signed a number of ppas with electricity generators in a bid to drive renewable electricity especially off-grid solar projects. despite the paradigm shift and the policy interventions to drive renewable electricity generation, electricity generation from renewable energy in nigeria remains marginal. the regulatory framework is yet to advance the development of renewable electricity. the hope of deploying renewable electricity to address the challenges of electricity generation and supply is fading by the day in view of the insignificant contribution of renewable electricity to the electricity mix. the aims and objectives of this paper are briefly as follow: (a) to review the status of energy resources and electricity generation in nigeria. (b) investigate the adequacy of the existing regulatory frameworks on renewable electricity in nigeria. (c) identify and analyse the challenges of renewable electricity in nigeria from the regulatory perspective. (d) suggest a proposal for reforms. renewable electricity in this context means electricity generation from renewable or alternative energy sources, both on-grid and off-grid electricity generation. this article is divided into six (6) parts. part 1, this introduction, sets the context for regulatory challenges to renewable electricity in nigeria. part 2 discusses the research methodology and theoretical framework which informed the conceptual design of this paper. in part 3, this article undertakes historical analysis of electricity generation and regulation in nigeria. in this part, this article will analyse the sources of electricity generation in nigeria from inception, and how nigeria has approached the development of renewable electricity. part 4 will consider the policy and legal frameworks for renewable electricity in nigeria. specifically, this article will analyse the national energy policy and the national renewable energy and energy efficiency policy for the purposes of understanding the policy shift in favour of renewable electricity. the work of some players whose works impact on renewable energy will also be considered. part 5 analyses regulatory challenges to renewable electricity, while part 6 concludes with key recommendation on the development of renewable electricity in nigeria. methodology and theoretical framework methodology in order that the aims and objectives of this paper are achieved, this study adopts a doctrinal approach. this procedure or technique becomes imperative because the parapet of this exercise is to investigate the regulatory https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 frameworks that are put in place for the administration of renewable electricity in nigeria. one certain and dependable way by which a law can be understood is to examine the peer-reviewed literatures (langbrook et al, 2017). it is after investigation of the regulatory frameworks and other existing materials that a researcher is able to make assertion, proffer opinion and put forward his suggestions (hoecke, 2015). in order to get to the depth of methodology adopted for the conduct of this research, doctrinal materials relevant to the theme of this paper are gathered from primary and secondary sources. statutes, conventions and protocols that are reviewed in this paper are derived from the primary source while journals, books, periodicals, manuals and articles that are as well examined are obtained from secondary source. the use of internet, library and other educational media were also engaged to be able to access all relevant materials that are gathered for the production of this work. theoretical framework the configuration and outline design of this paper is illuminated by resource curse theory. it was richard auty who propounded or set forth this theory in the early 90s and its turning point is centered on why countries that are highly blessed with abundant natural resources are the most suffering economic adversity (kova, 2017) a. in other words, this theory postulates that countries that are highly endowed with enormous natural resources always have nothing to show for such endowment (ross, 2015). in a nutshell, the propagation of resource curse theory is that if a country is not to be entrapped by underdevelopment despite abundant natural resources at his control, then there is cogent need for such country to deploy an adequate legislation and sufficient policy which are to aid and assist in the use and development of its natural resources (olujobi, 2020). in spite of this theory’s exposition, there are still criticisms trailing its concept. phloeg (2011), posits that resource curse theory should not create the assumption that all countries of the world which have abundant natural resources do suffer underdevelopment despite having what it takes to develop their economies. in trying to justify his submission, this researcher cited norway, bostwana and chile as countries with abundant natural resources as well as robust economies. it is the conclusion of this researcher that resource curse theory is fallacious and deceptive. in another stretch, stevens, lahn and kooroshy (2015), asserts that the theory has failed to investigate individual country and the circumstances surrounding the development of its economy. in that regard, these writers conclude that the theory may have to contend with large-scale affairmation. nevertheless and notwithstanding the criticisms, it would however appear that the resource curse theory is relevant to the economic status of many countries of the world and in particular the developing countries of which nigeria is notably one. in summing up on how this theory has helped to fortify the structure of this paper, it is imperative that one should review the theory’s postulation on the necessity of engaging the laws and policies to fine tune the country’s development of its natural resources. nigeria is richly blessed with renewable energy resources and despite the fact, its renewable electricity sub-sector is abysmally not developed. there is energy poverty in the country and renewable energy resources are yet to be exploited or developed to shore up the electricity generation content. in order that the country must overcome these challenges, resource curse theory dictates that nigeria must put in place sufficient and adequate regulatory frameworks to quicken the use and development of its renewable electricity resources. availability of sound legal framework and competent policy on the regulation and control of renewable electricity industry is a panacea to the series of challenges inhibiting development of the sub-sector (kovab, 2017). discussion energy resources and electricity generation in nigeria nigeria is blessed with renewable and non-renewable energy resources. with proven oil reserves of over 37 billion barrels and natural gas in excess of 187 trillion cubic feet, nigeria is one of the oil-rich countries in the world. nigeria also boasts of commercially viable renewable energy resources (that is, solar, biomass, small hydro, wind and tidal). the renewable energy resources exist in quantity that can be exploited to generate sufficient megawatts of electricity (federal ministry of power, 2015). from about 1% of land areas, for instance, solar energy in nigeria can generate 36,000 mw (oyedepo et al, 2018). nigeria’s solar radiation is in the average of 3.5-7kmhm per day (shaaban and petinrin, 2014). the rate of solar radiation is even higher in the northern part of the country. the 36,000 mw from solar energy alone is far higher from the total megawatts of electricity from all the electricity plants in nigeria. wind energy is another renewable energy resource with high potential for electricity generation in nigeria. in the south, the average wind speed is between 1.4m/s and 3.0m/s while in the north it ranges from 4.0m/s to 5.12m/s (agbetuyi, abdulkareem and awosope, 2012). nigeria is also blessed with small hydro resource, and this energy resource available in nearly every part of the country. the nigeria’s small hydro potential is estimated at 3,500 mw (national planning commissiona, 2009). in addition to having the potentials to boost the installed electricity capacity, electricity technologies that rely on renewable energy offer opportunity for electricity distribution that is independent of the grid network. globally, the use of off-grid renewable energy such as solar pv, micro grids and standalone systems has been providing stable and cost-effective power supply that does not rely on the grid network (tester et al, 2012). according to nagpal & parajuli (2019): off-grid renewable energy systems have the ability to deliver secure and affordable electricity to rural https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 communities all over the world, and are important in breaking a cycle of energy poverty that has affected the socio-economic progress of millions of people’. nigeria has failed to take the opportunities of the country’s rich renewable energy resources to address the challenges. the failure to develop the renewable energy can be traced to the history of electricity generation which has evolved on the strength of fossil energy. nigeria has set ambitious targets for renewable electricity, that is, increased availability of energy, improved energy access and sustainability of the environment (ebii, 2019). the setting of targets for renewable electricity has, however, not changed the electricity situation in the country. the failure of nigeria to really develop renewable electricity generation can be traced to the early history of electricity generation and distribution in nigeria. the nigeria electricity supply company (nesco), the first electricity utility company in nigeria, was established in 1929. nesco, a british-owned company and the first independent power producer in nigeria, was created purposely to provide electricity generation and supply services to some parts of nigeria (federal ministry of power & steela, 2006). the creation of nesco took place about three decades after the installation of the first electricity plant in lagos by the british (aladejarea, 2014). few years after its establishment, nesco’s powergenerating plants increased to six comprised of one diesel and five hydroelectric plants. the six electricity generation plants were deployed to serve only the tin industry and the jos environs (audu, 2020). prior to the establishment of nesco, nigeria had in 1923 commissioned the nigerian power and tin fields with a 2 mw hydroelectricity capacity plant in jos. in 1930 nesco took over control of the nigerian power and tin fields hydroelectricity plant (federal ministry of power & steel, 2006) b. later in 1946, nigeria welcomes the creation of the public works department, a government department in charge of management and operation of electricity plants across nigeria. the nigerian government electricity undertaking (“ngeu”) later took over the operation and management of electricity plants from public works department following the creation of ngeu as an arm of the public works department (olaoye, 2014). the public works department, the nesco and the native authority were granted licence to generate and distribute electricity. while the public works department was responsible for electricity generation in lagos state, nesco and the native authority were responsible for electricity generation in other parts of the country (aladejareb, 2014). in 1950, and pursuant to the 1950 electricity corporation of nigeria ordinance no. 15, nigeria established the electricity corporation of nigeria. the electricity corporation nigeria harmonised the electricity structure in the country, and integrated the electricity infrastructure into what is now referred to as the national grid (awosopea, 2014). the ordinance did not provide for guidance on electricity expansion in the country. so, the electricity corporation of nigeria was unable to extend the electricity infrastructure at the time to cover parts of the country that were without electricity before the harmonisation. as a result, there was lopsidedness in the electricity architecture of the country as between urban and the rural areas. to the present day the inequality in the architectural platform of the national grid continues to exist in nigeria (awosopeb, 2014). the effort by the government to improve the electricity situation of the country eventually led to the creation of the niger dams authority in 1962, and the construction of kainji dam (the first hydro dam) in the same year (zarmaa, 2006). the niger dam authority was responsible for the development of hydro-electricity generation as well as the construction and maintenance of dams on the river niger (zarmab, 2006). based on the existing structure, the niger dam authority would generate electricity and later sell to the electricity corporation of nigeria for distribution. in june 1972, nigeria created the national electric power authority (nepa) pursuant to decree no. 24 by merging the electricity corporation of nigeria and the niger dam authority (amadia, 2018). the merger aimed at ensuring that a single body undertook electricity generation and distribution functions in nigeria (amadib, 2018). the creation of nepa as well as the monopoly it was granted could not, however, deliver the anticipated change in the electricity sector given that the gap between the demand and supply for electricity persisted. furthermore, nepa was unable to address the inequality in electricity access that existed between urban and the rural population prior to that time. the focus of the ordinance and the decree no. 24, under which nepa was created, was the development of hydro electricity. it is also important to know that the creation of the nepa did not affect the operation of nesco. based on the nesco’s track record, the fgn permitted nesco to continue to operate independent of the nepa (anyaogu, 2018). up to this time, there is no legislative provision on the use and development of renewable energy resources for electricity generation. electricity generation at that time was mainly from hydro and coals. the switch by nigeria to a predominantly gas-based electricity generation could also not address the electricity challenges in the country (emodi, 2016). by the early 1980s, the pursuit of sustainable and clean electricity had assumed a central role in the nigeria’s quest to drive economic development. nigeria opted for diversification of the country’s energy base, including electricity generation, to include renewable energy (united nations, 1981)a. among other things, nigeria considered the need to generate electricity from renewable sources. the proposed policy shift aimed at exploring biomass (mainly crops and wood plantation), hydro and solar energy for electricity generation (united nations, 1981) b. the proposed approach to electricity generation was based on the understanding that electricity technologies based on renewable energy was capable of addressing https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 the challenges of energy security as well as unreliable supply system (energy commission of nigeria, 2003)a. in 1984, there was an attempt by the fgn to produce a draft energy policy guideline through the federal ministry of science and technology to drive the policy change, but this did not materialize (energy commission of nigeria, 2003)b. so, the proposed renewable electricity generation could not be pursued due to the absence of a policy framework. the search for a policy framework for renewable electricity continued until the year 2003. regulatory frameworks for renewable electricity policy framework the policy landscape for renewable electricity evolved with the approval of the national energy policy in 2003 (and later revised in 2013). it is the first comprehensive and all-sector energy policy that focuses on sustainable use of energy resources in nigeria. as a panacea to the electricity challenges in the country, the nep emphasises the need for nigeria to engage in optimal use of energy resources (energy commission of nigeria, 2003)c. one of the policy planks of the nep is the expansion of electricity generation sources in nigeria to include renewable energy resources, which the country has in abundance (energy commission of nigeria, 2003)d. among other things, the nep seeks to promote sustainable and environmentally friendly electricity generation and supply both on-grid and off-grid ((energy commission of nigeria, 2014). the nep further sets out the long-term objectives for sustainable development and use of renewable energy for electricity generation (national planning commission, 2009)b. off-grid renewable electricity generation will permit the adoption of decentralised power system. the decentralised electricity option is a plus to nigeria; this will enable government to provide electricity access in areas that are not connected to the grid (iwayemi et al, 2014). it is beyond doubt that adoption of renewable electricity technologies such as solar, micro grids and standalone system is key to addressing the challenges of grid network (undesa, 2014). since the introduction of the nep, successive policy documents in nigeria have tried to incorporate the nep’s long-term objectives on the use of renewable energy for a diversified electricity mix (energy commission of nigeria, 2003)e. two of the policy documents, that is, the 2006 renewable energy policy guidelines (repg) and the nreeep, are relevant to the discussions here. the repg and the nreeep have as one of their respective objectives the use of renewable energy for electricity generation. the repg sets out the fgn’s objectives for the development of renewable energy for electricity generation and distribution. through the repg, nigeria plans to increase the share of electricity generation from renewable energy for sustainable development in the country (federal ministry of power & steel 2006) c. according to the repg, continued reliance on fossil fuel for electricity generation, and the expansion of the grid network cannot solve the challenges of electricity generation in nigeria. the repg then enjoins the fgn to actively pursue diversification of electricity generation source to include renewable electricity (federal ministry of power & steel, 2006d). for the first time, the challenges of power supply in nigeria are aptly captured in a policy document (federal ministry of power & steel 2006)e. as way of addressing the power supply situation the repg provides for the setting up of the renewable electricity trust fund (retf) (worika, 2016a). among other things, the retf will apply to support the development of small-scale renewable energy for electricity generation especially in the rural areas (worika, 2016)b. in addition to the fund, the repg aims at incentivising the production of electricity from renewable energy through the introduction of measures such as a tax holiday for investors in renewable energy equipment (federal government of nigeria, 2017). there are also concessional loans, which will be granted at a rate below the prevailing market interest rates (federal ministry of power & steel 2006)f. nigeria takes a bold step on the development of renewable energy by approving the national renewable energy and energy efficiency policy in 2015. the policy trust of the nreeep is the ‘optimal utilization of the nation’s energy resources for sustainable development’ (federal ministry of power, 2015)a. the nreep sets the pathway for power supply to every part of the country. electricity supply to urban areas will be through grid electricity, while rural areas, where there is no grid coverage, will benefit from off-grid renewable electricity (federal ministry of power, 2015b). the reliance on grid electricity for electricity supply to urban areas is based on the fact that there is grid coverage in many parts of the urban areas. the different options for power supply between urban and the rural areas shows a clear understand of one of the challenges of power supply in nigeria, and this accords with one of the main objectives of the nep. in a bid to propel the attainment of the renewable energy objective, the nreeep sets a 16% renewable energy target (federal ministry of power, 2015c). the nreeep further targets removal of regulatory and institutional barriers to aid the development of renewable energy. the nreeep identifies the roles of renewable portfolio standard (either voluntary or mandatory), feed-in tariff, net-metering, bidding, etc. in incentivising renewable electricity (federal ministry of power, 2015d). legal framework for renewable electricity the constitution of nigeria is the foundation of electricity/energy law in nigeria. the constitution grants powers over grid electricity to the fgn while the powers of the state governments in nigeria are limited to electricity generation that is not covered by the grid (federal republic of nigeria constitution 1999). since the commencement of electricity generation in nigeria there has always been legislation to provide legal backing for a system of electricity generation. the first known legislation on electricity in nigeria was the 1950 electricity corporation of nigeria ordinance. the ordinance https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 established the electricity corporation of nigeria, whose work was the regulation of hydro-based electricity. later in 1972, the federal military government promulgated the decree no. 24 of i972. the ordinance and the decree later became acts of the parliament as the electricity act 1990 and the national electric power authority act 1990 respectively. up to this period, the focus of the electricity legislation was on the development of hydro electricity. so, there were no provisions either in the electricity act or the national electric power authority act to promote the development of renewable electricity. the country was close to enacting a law for the regulation of renewable energy in 1979 following the enactment of the energy commission of nigeria act (“ecn act”). while the ecn act targets the development of alternative energy, there is specific provision on how the nation’s renewable energy resources can be exploited for electricity generation. the energy commission of nigeria is, however, involved in electricity through policy formulation. it is in this context, that the energy commission of nigeria is regarded as a body involved in the regulation in nigeria. there is also a department within the energy commission of nigeria, the alternative and new and renewable energy department within the energy commission of nigeria, which is saddled with the responsibility of research in alternative energy (energy commission of nigeria act, 1979a). effort is being made to change the nature of involvement of the energy commission of nigeria in electricity in electricity regulation. there is a proposed bill, the energy commission of nigeria (amendment) act, before the national assembly that seeks to amend the ecn act. the proposed amendments seek to, among other things, make the ecn act a truly energy-oriented act by prioritising the promotion and development of renewable energy (ecn act (amendment) bill, 2009a). in addition to prioritizing the development of renewable energy, the amendments will grant the energy commission of nigeria powers to register and issue licences to operators of private grids for electricity generation below 1 mw capacity (ecn act (amendment) bill, 2009b). until the amendments are passed into law, the ecn act will continue to be regarded as not containing provisions on electricity regulation, and as such has no bearing on the promotion of renewable electricity generation beyond policy formulation. the search for a law to propel the development of renewable electricity continued until 2005 when the epsr act was passed into law, and has remained the extant law on electricity in nigeria. the epsr act targets four areas: electricity regulation, policy formulation, restructuring of electricity structure and the re-organisation of the rural electrification programme the epsr act provided legal support for the electricity sector reform in the national electric power policy. the act sets a broad mandate for power generation reform and for the regulation of the electricity market (ayanruoh, 2012). the epsr act introduces a competitive electricity sector by allowing private sector participation in core electricity activities. it was on the basis of private sector participation that the fgn incorporated the power holding company of nigeria (phcn) as the successor company to nepa. the fgn later divested its interest in the electricity generation and distribution functions by unbundling the phcn to 18 companies comprising of 11 distribution companies, 6 generation company and 1 transmission company (amadi, 2018)c. the epsr act also seeks to reduce electricity generation and transmission losses, as well as achieving sustainable cost pricing without subsidies (papaefstratiou, 2019). the fgn, through the electricity regulator, has established cost reflective tariffs for electricity generation and distribution. in the area of regulation, the epsr act establishes the nigerian electricity regulatory commission (nerc) as the electricity sector regulator in nigeria (epsr act 2005)b. nerc, as the apex electricity regulator, is empowered by law to grant or revoke electricity generation and distribution licences, permits and tariffs. it is part of nerc’s mandates to expand the electricity grid, develop isolated mini-grids and promote electricity generation from all energy sources (epsr act 2005c). riding on the provisions of the epsr act on electricity generation sources, nerc has been promoting renewable electricity. in accordance with the mandate to boost electricity to promote electricity generation, nerc approved the feedin tariff regulations (fit). fit is a tariff structure that is specifically designed incentivising renewable electricity. a key objective of the fit is to attract private investors to invest in renewable electricity generation through attractive tariffs. the fit will apply to promote 2,000 mw of renewable electricity from biomass, solar, small hydro and wind energy. although, fit is a major booster for attracting investors to renewable electricity in nigeria, the tariff structure has its shortcomings. basically, fit applies only to grid-based electricity, while off-grid renewable electricity, being outside the coverage of the fit, will have to be negotiated on a case-by-case basis with nerc. the subsidy structure in the fit is also not clearly structured to actually promote renewable electricity. the subsidy does not apply to end-users of mini-grid electricity with less than 1 mw capacity. as a result, there is a disparity in the tariffs between urban and the rural areas (dalberg global development advisors, 2017b). in the area of mini-grid, nerc has developed a framework for the operation and maintenance of mini-grids in nigeria with the approval of mini-grid regulation of 2017. the regulation targets accelerated electrification in unserved and underserved areas. minigrids are key to achieving increased uptake of renewable energy given that the deployment of mini-grid has aided the development of renewable electricity, especially solar power projects, in nigeria (esan, akinola, onakoya and monnou, 2021a). an important programme in this regard is the nigeria electrification programme which targets increased electricity access in the rural areas through the deployment of hybrid mini-grids with assistance from the https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 world bank and the african development bank (esan, akinola, onakoya and monnou, 2021b). overall, the promotion of renewable energy by nerc has been in the areas of fit and mini-grids. how the introduction of fit has not really contributed to increased uptake of renewable energy for electricity generation will be discussed later in this article. renewable electricity regulatory bodies the regulation of renewable electricity is not separate from the general electricity regulation. as well as the nerc there are two other bodies whose works are relevant to the regulation of renewable electricity in nigeria are the federal ministry of power, works and housing, the energy commission of nigeria and the rural electrification agency. these bodies will now be discussed starting from the ministry. federal ministry of power works and housing (fmpwh) the fmpwh is the government ministry that is administratively saddled with the responsibilities of coordinating the power sector. the fmpwh provides general policy direction to nerc on the coordination of the nigeria’s electricity sector (epsr act 2005d). it is on the basis of the policy direction from the ministry that nerc develops frameworks for promoting electricity generation from renewable energy sources. by law, nerc is required to submit a report annually about the performance of the electricity sector especially as it relates to the competitiveness of the electricity sector (epsr act 2005e). the ministry has also entered into agreements with some companies for the provisions of solar power. in furtherance of the ministry’ over policy direction in the energy sector, the fmpwh has made some policies documents specifically for the development of renewable energy. the ministry also has power of oversight over the rural electrification program. the fmpwh is also taking steps to address the electricity challenges in the rural areas of nigeria. in the performance of its oversight function and the need to address electricity access in the rural areas, the fmpwh has approved the rural electrification strategy. energy commission of nigeria the energy commission of nigeria (ecn) was established pursuant to the energy commission nigeria act for strategic development of alternative energy. the ecn is responsible for planning, coordinating and monitoring of energy development in nigeria ((energy commission of nigeria act, 1979b). by the ecn act, the ecn is obligated to periodically prepare energy master plan and advise the minister to ensure a broad-based participation in the energy sector (energy commission of nigeria act, 1979c). in carrying out the duties of planning and coordination, the ecn formulates energy policies and makes recommendations to the fgn on the development of alternative energy in nigeria (ufondu, ibeku and obetta, 2019). the involvement of the ecn in electricity has been largely in the area of policy documents (e.g. the national energy policy, the renewable energy master plan, etc.). renewable electricity and regulatory challenges in nigeria looking at the renewable energy potentials and the state of electricity generation in nigeria, it is undeniable that nigeria is yet to take advantage of renewable energy in electricity generation. the little that nigeria has achieved in renewable electricity is in the area of off-grid renewable electricity (mini-grids, solar pv and standalone systems). there are challenges in the development of renewable electricity – absence of key provisions in the law, lack of funding, high initial costs, absence of technical knowhow, etc. so far, nigeria has failed to achieve increased electricity generation through renewable electricity, and there is no evidence that the future targets will be realized given that the uptake of renewable energy has remained marginal (barros, ibiowie & managi, 2014). four points, which are regulatory-based, will be discussed here. first, the regulatory structure in the 1999 constitution, which favours the centralization of electricity regulation to the detriment of states, constitutes a barrier to the development of renewable electricity. in nigeria, the constitution recognizes the powers of the fgn and the states over electricity. the extant regulation structure does not, however, reflect the constitutional provisions which recognize the powers of the state government over off-grid electricity. from the time of the first utility company to the present day nigeria, electricity regulation has always been constituted as a national/federal matter. the centralization of electricity regulation is a challenge to the development of renewable electricity. the country has not been able to take into consideration the peculiarity of areas in use of renewable energy for electricity access (oke, 2017). the peculiarity of areas has been major reason why some areas are connected and some are not, and why other are considered not practically possible for grid extension. second, the nerc’s mandate to generate electricity from all sources without creating a special regime for renewable electricity is another fundamental regulatory challenge to the development of renewable electricity. globally, electricity from fossil fuel source has dominated electricity market for a long time (wiseman, grisamer & saunders, 2011). the domination of fossil-based electricity is as a result of the contribution of fossil fuels to the development of modern society. as a result of the domination by fossil fuels, the practice globally is to create a special regime for the development of renewable energy in the area of access to the grid network (von danwitz, 2006). prior to and after nigeria’s independence in 1960, fossil fuels comprising of hydro, petroleum and gas have been the nigeria’s main sources of electricity generation. nerc later approved the fit as a means of promoting renewable electricity. however, in the epsr act and the policy, access to grid network by renewable electricity is on the non-discriminatory principle (epsr act 2005f). there is no provision in the law granting exception to renewable-sourced electricity in accessing the https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 49 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 grid network. it is on the basis of the non-discriminatory principle that the nerc has been regulating the access connection of renewable electricity. this is a major challenge given that renewable electricity, which has not been fully developed in nigeria, has to compete with fossil-based electricity that has been with us for many decades. third, the existence of many bodies is another factor that is affecting the development of renewable electricity. the nerc, the ministry and the ecn exercise powers over electricity regulation with no linkages in respect of their respective functions. each of these bodies has developed one policy document and/or regulation for the on renewable electricity (rural electrification strategy and implementation plan (resip) 2016). in most cases, these electricity bodies hide under their supervisory and oversight functions to provide directions on the development of renewable electricity (ecn act 1979d). the challenge of overlap of function becomes more pronounced in view of the fact that none of these bodies has a specific mandate to develop the nation’s renewable energy for electricity generation. the absence of linkage among the regulators has made it difficult for the regulators to come up with framework for largescale development of renewable energy for electricity generation. in most cases, the regulators find it difficult to effectively articulate the kind of information that is required to unlock the potentials of renewable energy for electricity generation in nigeria energy unlike what is obtained in the other segment of the energy sector (national planning commission, 2009c). effective dissemination of policy is key to promoting the use of renewable energy for sustainable. an indication of this situation is aptly captured in the sustainable energy for all action agenda (national council on power 2016)c: there is need for high level executive decision/ policy makers to understand the role of clean energy technologies and sustainable energy policy and planning process in the economic and social development of the population. since there are many bodies involved, it is very difficult to hold a particular body accountable for the failure of renewable electricity. lastly, the power of nerc over renewable electricity tariff does not cover all capacities of renewable energy technologies. in theory, the powers of nerc over electricity tariffs cover all capacities of renewable electricity technologies. however, the reality is that the fit applies only to renewable technology of 1 mw up to certain maximum capacities (solar 5 mw, wind 10 mw, biomass (10 mw) and small hydro 30 mw) (nerc), and not to renewable technology of capacity below 1 mw or above the thresholds in the nerc’s regulation. the fit only provides that renewable technology of capacity below and above the fit thresholds shall be procured by net-metering and competitive bidding respectively (nerc 2015a). in cases of renewable technology of capacity below 1 mw, fit provides that net metering will apply (nerc 2015b). a renewable electricity generator will have to submit a bid through a process known as competitive bidding in cases where the renewable technology is above the fit thresholds (nerc 2015c). while nerc appears to have a framework for different capacities of renewable electricity technology, the reality is that nerc is yet to develop a framework for other technologies as it has done for fit. till date, nerc does not have a framework for the operation of net-metering and the competitive bidding (edomah, 2016). so, tariffs for renewable electricity of capacity that is below or above the thresholds are usually negotiated on a case-by-case basis rather than on a standardised basis (idemudia & nordstrom, 2016). the failure of the electricity regulator to cover all classes of renewable technology capacities is also a major impediment to the uptake of renewable energy for electricity generation (unfcc, 2018). the use negotiation in fixing the tariffs for technology capacities outside the thresholds rather than standardised process may lead to arbitrary application of discretionary powers of nerc. more so, the fit applies to grid electricity only, as offgrid renewable electricity does not fall within the ambit of the regulation. whereas, off-grid renewable electricity is key to addressing the electricity challenges in nigeria particularly the challenge of non-coverage of grid network. this operates as a limitation to the powers of nerc over renewable electricity given that the promotion of off-grid renewable electricity is practically left out. conclusion from the analysis in this article, the electricity situation in nigeria requires a carefully designed approach. in view of the poor state of electricity generation and distribution, what nigeria needs at this time is an aggressive but strategic approach to renewable electricity. in view of this, this paper recommends the inclusion of specific provisions in the law setting out what and who should undertake the functions of developing renewable electricity. there is need for nigeria to have a body specifically for renewable electricity apart from the existing body. creating a new body will mean stripping the existing bodies of any duplicated but unproductive powers over renewable electricity. while the fmpwh and the nerc can retain their respective functions of policy formulation and the regulation of electricity, the role of nerc can be modified to cover monitoring of compliance with renewable electricity generation law and policy. another area that also needs be addressed is the regulation of private sector participation in renewable electricity generation. this paper recommends that the regulation of renewable electricity should be done in a way that will promote more private sector participation in renewable electricity generation. this can be achieved by having legislation that sets out minimum percentage for private sector participation in renewable electricity. meeting or proffering solution to the challenges of electricity generation in nigeria through deployment of https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 50 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 renewable electricity will go a long way in addressing the nigeria’s poor rating in electricity generation and consumption. for many years, nigeria is one of the countries ranked globally as countries with the lowest electricity access caused by inadequate electricity generation and consumption (banerjee et al, 2017). the above recommendations cannot be achieved in the absence of provisions to that effect in the law. while it is desirable to amend the epsr act, the most prudent option is to have a new law that will address all the points raised in this article as they relate to way out of the challenges of renewable electricity generation in nigeria. having a new law specifically for renewable electricity generation will put nigeria on the path to having increased electricity generation from renewable energy. references adeoba, i., ‘opportunities for off-grid solutions in the nigerian power sector’, detail commercial solicitors (2016)1<https://www.addleshawgoddard.com/ 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https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 42-53, 2022 worika, i.la., ‘rural applications’ in r. ottinger et al (eds), unep handbook for drafting laws on energy efficiency and renewable energy (united nations environmental programme, 2016) 269. worika, i.lb., ‘rural applications’ in r. ottinger et al (eds), unep handbook for drafting laws on energy efficiency and renewable energy (united nations environmental programme, 2016) 269 zarma, i.ha., hydro power resources in nigeria, energy commission of nigeria (country position paper presented at 2nd hydro power for today conference, international centre on small hydro power (hangzhou china, 2006) zarma, i.hb., hydro power resources in nigeria, energy commission of nigeria (country position paper presented at 2nd hydro power for today conference, international centre on small hydro power (hangzhou china, 2006) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 15 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) water quality index (nsfwqi) of the river nun, bayelsa state, nigeria abinotami w. ebuete1*, nato i. puanoni2, yarwamara i. ebuete2, eluan ebuete3 volume 2 issue 2, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i2.598 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: may 27, 2023 accepted: june 21, 2023 published: july 13, 2023 water remained the second most required and useful natural resource after air; but its usefulness is underscored through quality and quantity among various sources; of all sources of water, surface water occupied 70% of the earth’s surface in various form at a given time in space. despite the abundance, water quality remained a global burden such that hardly could there be any of such water bodies without questionable insignia in the niger delta. therefore, it became pertinent to assess and characterized the water quality of the river nun at various reaches. a six months (dry and wet season) sampling exercise was conducted following standards on nine (9) physiochemical and biological parameters. results in ph, temperature, biological oxygen demand, total phosphate, turbidity and total dissolved solids were within limits while concentrations for the fecal coliform count, dissolved oxygen and nitrate were above limits. at 0.05% the differences among communities and seasons were insignificant while among parameters is significant. the comprehensive pollution index range between slightly polluted – seriously polluted while the water quality index for the river nun is classified into class 3 (c) literally described as medium; which is unfit for drinking and for recreational activities without prior treatment. therefore, information regarding water quality of the river nun be transmitted to armed inhabitants of the status of the river nun. keywords comprehensive pollution index, physicochemical and biological parameters, river nun, surface water and water quality index 1 department of geography and environmental management, niger delta university, yenagoa, nigeria 2 department of general studies, school of foundation studies, bayelsa state college of health technology, otuogidi-ogbia, nigeria 3 department of animal and environmental biology, university of port harcourt, rivers state, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: ebuetewilliams@gmail.com introduction water is the second most abundant and most required natural resource after air. it plays an important role in social, economic development, human health, welfare and inhabitants in contingent with availability and quality; such that too little or too much causes misery, displacement, hunger and death in a similar form with poor quality. currently, water is now a commodity of strategic importance because of increasing demands, rising costs and diminishing supplies which has returned rural dwellers into high dependency on surface water sources. regrettably; due to its openness, surface water is treated with contempt and regularly abused inhumanly were it is naturally available through the uncontrollable activities of man in the quest for improving life standards. according to ebuete et.al. (2019) ignorance, carelessness and the quest for fast profits has rendered most if not all surface natural water bodies in the niger delta region into waste sink; a waste management system best described as “out of sight syndrome” as the call for not in my backyard (nimb) waste management practices intensifies. pathetically, it is theoretically believed that surface water sources has unlimited capabilities to process itself from raw waste and pollutants irrespective of the degree and amount of discharged waste provided it is flowing; a repugnant act that has exposed both ecological resources and human to high risk of extinction, varied sickness and death. interestingly, about 70%-80 % of the burden of the disease globally is waterborne; caused from the drinking of contaminated water in developing countries (khan et al. 2013) and about 3.1% deaths occur due to the unhygienic and poor water quality (pawari & gawande, 2015; raimi, adedotun, emmanuel & anu, 2019). records has showed that the priority accorded domestic water supply by the colonial administration had not been sustained by the post-independence government in nigeria and so, water available for used by an individual has declined from 18.9litres in 1986 to less than 5litres per day in 2008 among 50% urban dwellers (ekong, jacob and ebong, 2012) and its worst devastated states is among rural dwellers with a larger blame burden on poor government policies. in reality, the hardnosed towards surface water did not stop most locals from attaching domestic, religious, economic and social importance to surface water; among which are the inhabiting locals along its flowing conduit (catchment) and others lacking better alternative water sources. it is philosophical that ‘dirty no dey kill africa man” literarily meaning “africans are immune to dirt’s” and as such inferences regarding water quality is drawn on the premise of colour, taste and smell which are quite misleading and nebulous. another factor that encourages poor surface water protection and user culture is the lack of right information. scientific information guiding users are lacking, complex, confusing and are temporal due to the variances in presentation/reporting of physiochemical and biological parameters within the available studies particularly in the nun river. interestingly, physiochemical and biological parameters are always dynamic pending on the prevailing activities of man at various reaches; whose information regarding such be keenly observed and not to be hastily pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 15-22, 2023 concluded. in as much as i reckoned the efforts of such studies nyananyo, gijo and ogamba (2007); agedah, ineyougha, izah and orutugu (2015); seiyaboh, ogamba and utibe (2018); aghoghovwia, nkwa and obomunu (2022); silas-olu and alagoa (2022); none has been able to characterized the river nunon the basis of quality. therefore, this study aimed at characterizing the upper river nun, around odi, sampou, agbede, tombia and okoloba in bayelsa state using the national sanitation foundation water quality index (nsfwqi). further information regarding nsfwqi and importance is well documented in kachroud, trolard, kefi, jebari & bourrié (2019); adelagun, etim and godwin (2021). the water quality index (nsfwqi) is a 100-point scale that summarizes results from a total of nine different water parameters (oram, 2020). the index consider nine (9) water parameters (temperature (oc), phosphate(mg/l), nitrate(mg/l), dissolved oxygen(mg/l), total dissolved solids(mg/l), biological oxygen demand(mg/l), ph, turbidity(ntu) and fecal coliform bacteria (cfu/100ml); transfer recorded values into useful q-values and multiply with respective assigned weighted values each to arrive at single value that logically expressed (placing an identity) on the water quality (equ 2; table. 3-4). one interesting aspect in the use of nsfwqi is that temporal variations regarding concentrations of parameters do not influence results unlike the rudimentary reporting system; as higher concentration values amount to lower q-values; of such is fecal coli(>10, q 2.0); tds (>500, q 20.0); do (>140 =q 50); ph (<2 >12 =q 0.0); turb (>100 =q 2.0); nitra (>10 =q 2.0). materials and methods study area the experimental study was conducted on the upper nun river, along tombia (4.999318, 6.252248), okoloba (5.036262, 6.243479), odi (5.169808, 6.3065529), sampou (5.137430, 6.340031) and agbere (5.246776, 6.383667) in bayelsa state (fig. 1). tombia is a community in southern ijaw local government area; odi, okoloba and sampou are communities in kolokuma/opukuma local government area (lga) while agbere is in sagbama local government area. the river nunis a tributary of the river niger, located between latitude, 5.137311 and longitude 6.1713881 with wide meander whose outer concave bank is relatively shallow with minimum and maximum widths of 200 and 250m respectively (ifelebuegu, et. al. 2017). river nun serve many purposes to the locals; include fishing, dredging, gravel mining, farming along the river bank, water transportation, laundry activities and refuse dump site. the river is subjected to tidal influence in the dry season. water flows rapidly in one direction during the flood (may – october). at the peak of the dry season, the direction of flow is slightly reversed by the rising tide (seiyaboh, ogamba & utibe, 2013). figure 1: river nun showing sample points sources: researcher, 2023 water sampling techniques water samples were collected bimonthly in triplicate at five (5) communities at a depth of about 1.5-2.0cm below surface, corked (stoppered) under water for a period of six (6) months (septembernovember, 2022 and december-february, 2023). parameter such as ph and pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 15-22, 2023 turbidity was measured insitu using respective meters by schott while mercury-in-glass bulb thermometer is used for temperature. the sampling bottles/containers for laboratory analysis were rinsed three times with the water at the specific sampling spots before the collection of samples, fixed and preserved on the site, stored in icecold containers and transported to the laboratory. total dissolved solids was done following procedures outline by silas_olu and alagoa (2022). dissolved oxygen (do), biological oxygen demand (bod5), total phosphate and nitrates were done as described by wokoma and njoku (2017). bacteriological analysis is done using serial dilution method and pour plate techniques while the characterization and isolation of enterobacteriaceae using membrane filtration method as explained by adesakin et. al., (2020). data analysis field and laboratory data were presented in range and percentages; where necessary a test of statistical differences was performed using two-ways anova (r) at (p<0.05). comprehensive pollution index (cpi) was determine using the single factor pollution index (pi) as described by iwegbue et.al., (2022) in equation 1.the water quality index (wqi) was also evaluated using the national sanitation foundation water quality index (nsfwqi) method described by wu, wang, chen, cai and deng, (2018); ebuete and bariweni (2019), ebuete et. al, (2019) in equation 2. p i = ci /si ………… equ 1. (iwegbue et. al., 2022). where: pi= pollution index of pollutants ci = parameters concentrated levels of si = standard limits guide of the parameters (nis, 2015 and oram, 2020) nsfwqi = σqiqx…………equ 2. (ebuete et. al., 2019) where: σ = summation sign qi = sub-index for ith water quality parameter qx= weight associated with ith water quality results and discussion water quality monitoring is vital especially in the river nun to safeguard the public health (dwellers along it catchments), to protect the water resources and explore fundamental tools necessary for the management of surface water been the main sources of drinking water in table 1: mean physiochemical and biological parameters of the river nun parameters seasons odi sampou agbere tombia okoloba nis, 2015 do dry 5.35 5.27 5.67 5.38 5.75 3.7mg/l wet 4.75 3.71 3.68 3.32 3.87 f. coli dry 16.13 16.48 15.94 16.40 16.55 10 cfu/ml (1cfu/ ml oram, 2020)wet 18.41 18.63 18.64 18.81 19.53 ph dry 7.18 7.68 8.31 7.97 8.43 6.5-8.9 wet 7.57 7.69 7.78 7.66 7.84 bod5 dry 8.53 9.18 10.42 11.31 12.03 6mg wet 3.23 3.14 3.54 3.78 3.72 toc dry 27.70 27.59 28.47 28.53 28.24 20-30oc wet 27.44 27.37 27.22 27.69 27.81 total phosphate dry 3.95 4.57 4.49 5.38 5.77 0.5mg/l wet 5.33 5.73 5.79 6.83 6.89 nitrates dry 0.45 1.88 2.34 1.75 0.96 50mg wet 3.48 3.94 4.89 4.59 4.93 turbidity dry 31.27 32.21 31.95 34.78 35.46 5ntu wet 57.36 63.66 63.94 64.54 65.18 total dissolved solids dry 44.47 45.03 45.76 45.82 45.96 50mg/l wet 32.14 32.21 32.42 32.51 32.64 sources: researcher, 2023. nis (2015) and oram (2020) the rural and some urban areas. the mean dissolved oxygen (do mg/l) from the five communities range from 5.27-5.75mg/l in the dry season and 3.32-4.75mg/l in the wet season (table 1.); which is within the recommended limits of 7mg/l by nigerian industrial standard (nis, 2015). seiyaboh, ogamba and utibe (2013) reported 2.1-6.5mg/l; ifelebuegu, et.al., (2017) (2.3-6.81mg/l); aghoghovwia, nkwa and obomunu (2022) (6.27-6.81mg/l) for the nun river; iwegbue et.al., (2022) (3.07–6.53mg/l) for bomadi creek. the mean coliform count (fecal coliform cfu/ml) ranged between 15.94-16.55cfu/ml for the dry season and 18.41-19.53cfu/ml during the wet season (table 1). the values were far above recommended standard of pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 15-22, 2023 1cfu/ml by (oram, 2020) and 10 cfu/ml by nis (2015). this is closely linked to the unmanned discharge of human waste, channeling of human excreta from pie toilets into the river at various reach due to the lack of sanitary rest room. the differences between the dry and wet season concentration account for about 8% which can be attributed exposure of the river to storm water runoff and other inland activities during the wet seasons. human activities like bathing, farming, washing, and human/animal feces seepage run-offs resulted to the higher values which are capable of transmitting a large number of infectious diseases like meningitis, pneumonia and urinary tract infections in consumers (adesakin et. al.,2020). aghoghovwia, nkwa and obomunu (2022) made similar report for the river nun; silas-olu and alagoa, (2022) also recorded 153.33-165.33 cfu/ml at okoloba and tombia in the nun river; ebuete et.al. (2019) recorded 9.9-15.6cfu/ml for the epie creek.; ebuete and bariweni (2019) recorded 32-39.83 cfu/ml for the kolo creek; ifelebuegu, et.al.(2017) recorded 0.57-1.16x105 for the river nun. however lower values were reported by ben-eledo, kigigha, izah and eledo (2017a) 1.55-2.22log mpn/100ml on the epie creek. the mean concentration of ph ranged between 7.18 – 8.43 for the dry seasons and 7.57-7.84, which are within the recommended limits of 6.5-8.9 by nis (2015). however, the concentration different between the dry and wet seasons sample account for only 1%. similarly, nyananyo, gijo and ogamba (2007) reported (5.92ntu); 5.50-8.72ntu by seiyaboh, ogamba and utibe, (2013); 6.27-6.81 by aghoghovwia, nkwa and obomunu (2022) for the river nun. the mean biological oxygen demand (bod5) range between 8.53-12.03mg/l for the dry season and 3.14-3.78mg/l for the wet seasons, which account for 49.4% differences owing to the increasing human activities during the dry seasons. the bod concentration is within the recommended limits of 6mg/l by nis (2015). nyananyo, gijo and ogamba (2007) reported 5.52mg/l for the river nun; iwegbue et.al. (2022) reported 3.07–6.53mg/l for bomadi creek; while seiyaboh, ogamba and utibe, (2013) for river nun reported 0.7-12.7mg/l. the mean temperature range between the dry seasons is 27.7028.53oc and 27.22-29.64oc for the wet season, which is within the recommended limits of 20-30oc by the nigerian industrial standard (2015). the differences between the dry and wet seasons is insignificant (1%). similar report were made by silas-olu and alagoa (2022) (27.41-27.30oc); seiyaboh, ogamba and utibe (2018) 27.84-28.25 on the river nun. the mean concentration of total phosphate range between 3.95-5.77mg/l and 5.33-6.89mg/l for the dry and wet season respectively; which accounted for about 12% as it worsen during the wet season when surface erosion and surface flow is at its picks. the values were above the recommend limits of 0.5mg/l due to intensive agricultural practices using agrochemical, fertilizers and chemical fishing. similarly, it align with the reports of nyananyo, gijo and ogamba (2007) 13.76mg/l; 1.60-5.60mg/l by ifelebuegu, et.al,(2017) for the river nun. the mean nitrate concentration from the five sampled communities range between 0.54-2.34mg/l and 3.48-4.93mg/l for dry and wet season respectively and accounted for about 49% differences; higher during the wet season due to increasing agricultural activities and increasing storm surface runoff during the season; however, the values are within the recommended limits of 50mg/l by nis (2015). similar range of 1.0-0.56mg/l was reported by ifelebuegu, et.al., (2017); 0.025-0.550mg/l by seiyaboh, ogamba and utibe (2013); 0.126-0.24mg/l by aghoghovwia, nkwa and obomunu (2022) on the nun river. the mean turbidity recorded range between 31.2435.46ntu and 57.36-65.18ntu during the dry and wet season respectively and accounted for 31% difference; higher during the wet season. the values were above the limits of 5ntu recommended by nis (2015); occasioned by intense human activities like sand dredging at various reach. similar report in the river nunwas made by ifelebuegu, et.al., (2017) 1-32ntu; silas-olu and alagoa (2022) 30.72-32.79ntu; aghoghovwia, nkwa and obomunu (2022) 18.72-28.36ntu and iwegbue et.al. (2022) 20.5–42.3ntu for bomadi creek. the mean total dissolved solids (tds) range between 44.47-45.95mg/l and 32.14-32.64mg/l for dry and wet season with a percentage difference of about 17% in favor of the dry season sample due higher in stream used, fishing activities and agricultural cultivation during the dry season. aghoghovwia, nkwa and obomunu (2022) reported 4.123 – 26.917mg/l; iwegbue, (2022) reported 27.5–44.7 for the nun river. table 2: two-ways anova source ss d.f ms f-ratio critical table value (%5) b/w communities -16.30 4 -4.08 0.066 2.57 b/w parameters 22238.55 8 2779.82 45.25 2.14 b/w seasons 77.426 32 2.4196 0.039 1.45 error 2825.64 46 61.427 sources: researcher, 2023. the differences concerning communities are insignificant (f-%5); so also between seasons while the difference concerning parameters concentrations are significant (table 2). pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 15-22, 2023 the cpi values ranged between 0.03 – 12.98 in the dry season, and 0.09 – 21.99 in the wet season with a mean of 17.5 in both seasons. thus, the water in the communities along the stretch of the river nun is graded into “mild pollution” (table 3) with regards to high concentration in faecal coliform count, nitrates and turbidity. similar report was made by iwegbue, (2022) for bomadi creek. table 3: comprehensive pollution index (pi) of the river nun parameters nis, 2015 dry pi wet pi remarks do 3-7 5.48 1.10 3.87 0.77 slightly/mild polluted fecal coliform 1 (oram, 2021) 16.30 16.30 18.80 18.80 seriously polluted ph 6.5-8.9 7.92 1.03 7.71 1.00 medium pollution bod5 6 10.29 1.72 3.48 0.58 heavily/mild polluted toc 20-30 28.11 1.12 27.90 1.12 heavily polluted total phosphate 0.5 4.83 9.66 10.95 21.9 non-polluted nitrates 50 1.48 0.03 4.36 0.09 seriously polluted turbidity 5 33.13 6.63 62.94 12.59 seriously polluted tds 50 45.41 0.91 32.38 0.65 mild polluted source: researcher, 2023 table 4: q-values factors extracted from sampled stations parameters weigh factor seasons odi sampou agbere tombia okoloba do 0.17 dry 2.5 2.3 2.6 2.3 2.7 wet 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.7 2.0 f. coli 0.16 dry 67 65 62 65 57 wet 57 53 53 52 48 ph 0.11 dry 92.4 93.7 83.4 94.2 81.3 wet 93.3 91.3 92.8 92.5 92.9 bod5 0.11 dry 40.1 34.3 30.8 30.4 29.8 wet 95.6 95.8 94.9 93.7 93.5 toc 0.11 dry 78.8 78.9 77.4 77.3 77.5 wet 78.9 80.1 80.2 78.6 78.5 total phosphate 0.10 dry 18.3 14.5 14.8 12.3 11.8 wet 12.2 11.6 11.3 10.1 9.7 nitrates 0.10 dry 98.3 97.7 95.5 97.8 98.1 wet 88.9 89.3 87.6 87.8 87.3 turbidity 0.08 dry 51.3 50.9 51.1 49.7 49.3 wet 34.5 33.6 33.4 33.1 32.8 total dissolved solids 0.07 dry 85.3 85.7 85.9 86.3 86.8 wet 82.3 82.4 82.5 82.8 83.2 source: researcher, 2023. table 5: water quality index per communities along the river nun parameters seasons odi sampou agbere tombia okoloba total do dry 0.43 0.39 0.44 0.39 0.46 2.11 wet 0.37 0.36 0.32 0.32 0.34 1.71 f. coli dry 10.72 10.4 9.92 10.4 9.12 50.56 wet 9.12 8.48 8.48 8.32 7.68 42.08 ph dry 10.16 10.31 9.17 10.36 8.94 48.94 wet 10.26 10.04 10.15 10.18 10.22 50.85 bod5 dry 4.41 3.77 3.39 3.34 3.28 18.19 wet 10.52 10.58 10.44 10.31 10.29 52.14 pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 15-22, 2023 toc dry 8.67 8.68 8.51 8.53 8.53 42.92 wet 8.68 8.81 8.82 8.65 8.64 43.6 total phosphate dry 1.83 1.45 1.48 1.23 1.18 7.17 wet 1.22 1.16 1.13 1.01 0.97 5.49 nitrates dry 9.83 9.77 9.55 9.78 9.81 48.74 wet 8.89 8.93 8.76 8.78 8.73 44.09 turbidity dry 4.10 4.07 4.09 3.98 3.94 20.18 wet 2.76 2.69 2.67 2.65 2.62 13.39 total dissolved solids dry 5.97 6.0 6.01 6.04 6.94 30.96 wet 6.58 5.77 5,78 5.80 5.82 29.75 grand total dry 56.56 54.84 52.56 54.05 52.20 270.21 wet 58.40 56.82 56.55 56.02 55.31 282.85 source: researcher, 2023. table 6: nsqwi classification among communities along the river nun class grading remark odi sampou agbere tombia okoloba 1 (a) 90-100 excellent 2 (b) 70-89 good 3 (c) 50-69 medium dry 56.56 54.84 52.56 54.05 52.20 wet 68.40 56.82 56.55 56.06 55.31 ∑x: 57.48 55.83 54.56 55.06 53.76 4 (d) 25-49 bad 5 (e) 0-24 very bad source: researcher, 2023; kachroud, trolard, kefi, jebari & bourrié (2019). figure 2: water quality index (wqi) of the river nun, bayelsa state sources: researcher, 2023 pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 15-22, 2023 the water quality index (nswqi) at odi, sampou, agbere, tombia and okoloba is categorized into class 3 (c) “medium” for both seasons (table 6). on the coronary, the water quality index is literally better during the wet seasons owing to the high volume of water during the seasons; which accounted for about 2.3% differences; however, the interaction difference between seasons is insignificant at %0.05 (table 2). in general, the river nun is classified into class 3(c) “medium”. similarly, leizou, nduka and verla, (2017) reported poor quality for the brass river; aigberua (2019) also reported poor quality for the taylor creek; ebuete and bariweni (2019) also reported medium poor for the kolo creek; ebuete et.al. (2019) also recorded medium-poor quality with the epie creek; ofuya and asibor (2019) reported medium for the oji river,warri; ugochukwu, onuorah and onuora (2019) remarked good – unsuitable for drinking during the dry seasons and poor unsuitable for drinking in the wet season; erhenhi and omoigberale (2020) reported poor medium quality for the ethiope river, rivers state. conclusion it is on record that physicochemical and biological characteristics of the aquatic environment influences directly on the life inhabitant using such water bodies and the aquatic ecosystem; on that note, ascertaining the water quality and productivity is in the assessment of physicochemical and biological parameters. information regarding sections of the river nun (physicochemical and biological parameters) were assess and presented in consonants with recommended standards. the concentration of ph, temperature, biological oxygen demand, total phosphate, turbidity and total dissolved solids were within recommended standards while concentrations for fecal coliform count, dissolved oxygen and nitrate were above recommended standards. the results from the comprehensive pollution index range between slightly polluted – seriously polluted with regards to high concentrations in fecal coliform count, dissolved oxygen and nitrate. the water quality index of the river nun is classified into class 3 (c) literally described as medium; which is unfit for drinking and recreational activities without prior treatment. therefore, information regarding water quality of the river nun be transmitted to armed inhabitants of the status of the nun river. references adelagun, r. o. a., etim, e. e., & godwin, o. e. (2021). application of water quality index for the assessment of water from different sources in nigeria. promising techniques for wastewater treatment and water quality assessment, 267, 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ intechopen.98696. adesakin, t. a, a. t. oyewale, u. bayero, a. n. mohammed, i. a. aduwo, p. z. ahmed a, niima dalhata abubakar and barje, b. i. (2020). assessment of bacteriological quality and physicochemical parameters of domestic water sources in samaru community, zaria, northwest nigeria, heliyon, 6, e04773; 2-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. heliyon.2020.e04773. aghoghovwia, o.a., d.c. nkwa and obomunu,b. (2022). assessment of water quality around odi, sampou and agbede upper nun river, bayelsa state nigeria. international journal of environmental and ecology research, 4(2), 10-15. aigberua, a.t. (2019). water quality index (wqi) assessment along inland fresh water of taylor creek in bayelsa state nigeri. j. environmental treatment techniques,7(3),260-269. ben-eledo, v.n., l.t. kigigha, s.c. izah and eledo, b.o. (2017). bacteriological quality assessment of water from epie creek, niger delta region of nigeria. international journal of ecotoxicology and ecobiology, 2017a, 2(3), 102-108. https://doi.org/10.11648/j. ijee.20170203.12 ebuete, a.w. and bariweni, p.a. (2019). water quality index of kolo creek, bayelsa state, nigeria. j. appl. sci. environ. manage., 23(11), 1923-1927. https:// dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v23i11.3 ebuete, a.w., i.y. ebuete, a.e. bisong, e.e. charles, d.p.wodu, l.e. ndiwari and okereke chukuma, o. (2019). spatial temporal water quality of the epie creek in niger delta region of nigeria, using water quality index. iosr journal of environmental science, toxicology and food technology (iosr-jestft), 13(11), 68-78. https://doi.org/10.9790/2402-1311016878. ekong, f., a. jacob and ebong, s. (2012). water resource management in the niger delta region of nigeria: the role of physical planning. inter. review of social sciences and humanities, 3(1), 51-61. erhenhi, o.h. and omoigberale, o.m. (2020). using water quality index and principal components analysis for the assessment of water quality of the ethiope river, delta state, nigeria. nigerian journal of science and environmental, 18(1), 192-205. ifelebuegu, a. o., ukpebor, j. e., ahukannah, a. u., nnadi, e. o., & theophilus, s. c. (2017). environmental effects of crude oil spill on the physicochemical and hydrobiological characteristics of the nun river, niger delta. environmental monitoring and assessment, 189, 1-12. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-0175882-x kachroud, m., f. trolard, m. kefi; s. jebari and bourrié, g. (2019). water quality indices: challenges and application limits in the literature. water, 11, 361. doi:10.3390/w11020361. www.mdpi.com/journal/ water leizou, k.e; j.o. nduka and verla, a.w. (2017). evaluation of water quality index of the brass river bayelsa state, south-south, nigeria. inter. jour of research granthaalayah, 5(8), 277-287. nigerian industrial standard (nis, 2015). nigerian standard for drinking water quality (nis 554:2007), standard organization of nigeria (son). price pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(2) 15-22, 2023 group d. nyananyo, b.l., a.h. gijo and ogamba, e.n. (2007). the physico-chemistry and distribution of water hyacinth (eichhornia cressipes) on the river nun in the niger delta. j. appl. sci. environ. manage, 11(3), 133-137. ofuya, o. and asibor, g. (2019). surface water quality assessment of warri metropolis using water quality index, international letters of natural sciences, 74, 1825. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ ilns.74.18. oram, b. (2020). water research center (wrc). bacterial testing fecal coliform, e-coli, total coliform, drinking water lakes, streams, ponds and pools. access from https://www.archive-water-research. net/index.php/water-testing/bacteria-testing/fecalcoliform-bacteria on 12/02/2023. raimi, m.o., a.t. adedotun, o.o. emmanuel and anu, b. (2019). an analysis of bayelsa state water challenges on the rise and its possible solutions. acta scientific agriculture; 3(6), 110-125. seiyaboh, e.i., e.n. ogamba and utibe, d.i. (2013). impact of dredging on the water quality of igbedi creek, upper nun river, niger delta, nigeria. iosr journal of environmental science, toxicology and food technology (iosr-jestft), 7(5), 51-56. silas-olu, d. and alagoa, j.k. (2022). physicochemical and bacteriological variables of river-nun along three communities in bayelsa state nigeria, international journal of progressive sciences and technologies (ijpsat), 30(2), 21-30. ugochukwu, c.u., l.a. onuorah and onuora, h.a. (2019). assessment of water quality of oji river using water quality index (wqi). environmental earth science, 9(1), 72-77. https://doi.org/10.7176/ jees/9-1-10 wokoma, o.a.f and njoku, k.u. (2017). physical and chemical characteristics of the lower sombreiro river, niger delta, nigeria, applied science reports, 20(1), 11-16. https://doi.org/10.15192/pscp.asr.2017.20.1.1116 wu, z. s., x.l. wang, y. w. chen, y. j. cai and deng, j. c. (2018). assessing river water quality using water quality index in lake taihu basin, china. sci. total environ, 612, 914–92. pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) modeling of hydrodynamic dispersion in the sidi kirayr locality’s coastal unconfined aquifer west of alexandria, egypt mohamed m. m. amin1, medhat m. h. elzahar1* volume 2 issue 1, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i1.1188 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: january 08, 2023 accepted: march 02, 2023 published: march 11, 2023 the finite difference method was used in this study to solve the two-dimensional hydrodynamic dispersion equation for a typical coastal unconfined aquifer. a mathematical model is prepared to solve this dispersion problem, which is then modeled and analyzed over time. the salinity profiles for the aquifer transition zone in the sidi kirayr locality are determined using the finite difference method. the computed salinity profiles are compared to those obtained from an actual well drilled in the area and used to determine electric conductivity. profile correlation reveals a roughly parallel trend along the tested depth interval. additionally, these results correlate well with the chemical analysis of water from the same well. the current work promotes the application of the solution methodology in comparable coastal regions in the absence of dispersion measures for the analyzed aquifer. this innovative approach can be used to forecast groundwater quality in comparable coastal regions. it can also help in selecting the ideal sites for man-made wells that pump groundwater. keywords coastal area, dispersion, dispersion co-efficient, hydrodynamic dispersion, salt concentration 1 department of civil engineering, faculty of engineering, port said university, port fouad 42523, port said, egypt * corresponding author’s e-mail: medhat.alzahar@eng.psu.edu.eg introduction many of us think of lakes, rivers, and streams as sources of water, in other words, surface water. however, approximately 97% of the world’s usable freshwater is groundwater. according to the un, underground storage of 10 million cubic kilometers of water exists. according to the united states geological survey, there are approximately 4.2 million cubic kilometers of water within 0.8 kilometers of the earth’s surface. because of the distance between the northwestern coastal line and the nile river, egypt’s northwestern coastal zone requires novel approaches to water conservation. the study of the quality of groundwater and its suitability for human use is an important environmental issue. because of the long distance between these areas and the nile river, egypt’s main source of fresh water, studying the quality of groundwater in coastal areas is an important issue. this study used the finite difference method and a computer program to solve the two-dimensional hydrodynamic dispersion equation with time for a typical coastal unconfined aquifer. the finite difference method is used to detect salinity profiles for the aquifer’s transition zone in the sidi kirayr locality. the computed salinity profiles are compared to those obtained from an actual well drilled in the area and used to measure electric conductivity. the correlation of profiles shows a nearly parallel trend along the tested depth interval. these findings are also consistent with the chemical analysis of water from the same well, indicating good agreement. the study promotes the application of the mathematical approach in comparable coastal regions in the absence of dispersion measurements for the studied aquifer. this can be used to forecast the water quality in nearby coastal regions. it can also help in selecting the ideal sites for man-made wells that pump groundwater. when a freshwater coastal aquifer is discharged into the sea, fresh and saline water meet, and a transition zone is formed between the two types of water. although the freshwater is lighter than the saltwater, a mixing of saltwater and freshwater occurs. however, the interface formed between the fresh and the underlying saltwater is not sharp but is represented by a mixing zone. the salinity of this zone varies from that of freshwater to that of seawater downwards. hydrodynamic dispersion in unconfined aquifers has been a problem in groundwater exploitation and utilization in many coastal aquifers in egypt’s northwestern coastal zone, such as the coastal unconfined freshwater aquifer in the sidi kirayr locality, 32 kilometers west of the city of alexandria, figure 1. however, the hydrodynamic dispersion problem will be studied in greater detail here. solutions to the problems of dispersion in porous media have been obtained by many investigators, (hunt, 1973; hunt, 1978; mariño, 1978; basak and murty, 1977; basak and murty, 1978; singh and murty, 1980; fattah and hoopes, 1985; list et al., 1990; hondzo et al., 1991). common to these is the solution of the dispersion equation of the typical unconfined aquifer of the sidi kirayr locality. (somaida, 1993), has applied the finite difference method for a preliminary solution of the dispersion equation for the unconfined aquifer in the same locality. the problem has been modeled and investigated. these models, (somaida, 1993) are tested, and the results of salinity depth profiles are deficient in the qualitative and quantitative interpretation of the salinity profiles. in previous research papers, the numerical groundwater modeling approach has discussed the significance of groundwater as a significant source of freshwater. it is used to quantify spatial and temporal trends in groundwater flow and availability as well as to examine pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 the overall effects of human activity, (abdalla, 2016; al-dabbas, 2020; imagawa et al., 2012; matić and srzić, 2021). the present study will concentrate on promising models, where their results will be compared with the real data encountered in the area. the present study will be conducted on two concepts. first, the twodimensional dispersion equation is derived as applied to a typical unconfined coastal aquifer. second, numerical computation of the studied aquifer’s dispersion equation to reach the vertical groundwater zonation based on aquifer vertical water quality measurements. the water quality results as indicated by electrical conductivity measurements are assured by comparison with the vertical geochemistry zonation performed at the same aquifer. mathematical and numerical modeling can help in solving many engineering problems and that can save time and effort (amin and elzahar, 2022, sharaan et al., 2022; somaida et al. 2011, elzahar et al., 2001; fujisaki and elzahar, 2002). materials and methods finite difference formulation the general differential equation for the distribution of dissolved salts in groundwater under unsteady state conditions in a porous medium is, (anon, 1965) where c = concentration of the salt in groundwater, dx, dy, and dz = the dispersion coefficients, vx, vy, and vz = the average pore velocities in the directions (x, y, z), and t = time. the first term on the left-hand side of (eq. 1) depicts the diffusional transport and the second group, the convectional transport. considering a two-dimensional problem, (eq. 1) can be figure 1: definition sketch for the studied coastal unconfined aquifer figure 2: rectangular mesh for the application of the finite difference technique pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 simplified to: equation (2) is a second-order differential equation that can be rewritten in the following form: where, it is noted here that the changes in dx and dy are negligible. in this problem, the concentrations can be known along any boundary, hence, it will be a boundary value problem. a classical method for numerically approximating a solution for a boundary value problem for this type of equation consists of replacing each derivative in the differential equation with a difference quotient that approximates the derivative, (mccormik and salvadori, 1968; wagle and saff 1986), then: where δx = the spacing in the x-direction and δy = the figure 3: volume of trash cans spacing in the y-direction, (figure 1,) and δt = the time step. however, if it is assumed that the dispersion coefficient, d, does not change with time or distance in porous medium and taking equal spacings in the directions x and y (δx = δy = δ), then (eq. 9) is simplified to: (eq. 10), can be used to determine the concentration c at any pivotal point in the flow domain and is derived according to the following assumptions. 1) one phase flow, the aqueous phase consists of two components water and salt. 2) fluid is incompressible. 3) homogeneous, isotropic porous medium with constant dispersion coefficient. 4) two-dimensionalnal unsteady flow in the porous medium . determination of parameters this can be done through the application of the finite difference method on the actual condition of the coastal unconfined aquifer of the sidi kirayr locality west of alexandria, (abdel-mogeeth and elshazly, 1980), figure 3. in this aquifer the water table is determined according to measurements of groundwater levels in the native wells scattered in the area and the fresh-saltwater interface is pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 determined theoretically by ghyben-herzberg principle and practically by meaning the electrical conductivity in certain test wells in the area (abdel-mogeeth and elshazly, 1980). a typical vertical cross-section of the studied aquifer is shown in figure 4. the studied aquifer zone is selected along the center line of the aquifer (location of the hypothetical well, figure 3) through the dispersion zone formed between fresh and saltwater. the salinity profile along this line, figure 5, shows an abrupt change of salinity from 2 mmhos to about 39 mmhos at depths from 24-28 m. however, the dispersion zone in the lower 10 meters (28 to 38 m), is considered to be detected and analyzed, where the salinity changes gradually from 39 to more than figure 4: extent of fresh and saltwater in the sidi kirayr coastal unconfined aquifer, northwestern coastal zone, egypt (somaida, 1993) 50 mmhos. the selected domain is a rectangular mesh, 10 m in length and 4 m in width. concentrations are given along the left boundaries, while those at the right one are to be computed. the average hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer k = 10 m/day, the effective porosity n = 0.2, and the average upward pore velocity vy = 0.05 m/day, determined from the study of water table levels in the area and the use of ghyben-herzberg principle, (somaida, 2014; wirojanagud and charbeneau, 1985). the average pore velocity in the x-direction vx is determined at any point in the flow domain using the following equation (list et al., 1990): where ds and df are specific gravities of the sea and freshwater (l.025, 1.0), and x and y are the coordinates of the pivotal point from the origin which is taken as the location of the hypothetical well, figure 3. the dispersion coefficient can be calculated using the following equations and the field data as follows: for transition zone length, (schmork and mercado, 1969): lmix= z(c=0.159)-z(c=0.841) (12) where, zc=0.159 = depth relative to 0.159 of the initial concentration and zc=0.841 will be relative to 0.841. from figure 5, it is found 11.6 m. the mixing length as a function of zrise (interface rise) and dispersivity a1, is given by: lmix=2 √(2 a1 zrise ) (13) the decline of the water table in the actual well s2b, figure 3, is 0.125, then according to herzberg principle, zrise=40*0.12=4.8 m. however, the application of eq. 13 gives 11.6=2 √(2 a1*4.8) , then dispersivity of the aquifer = 3.5 m. according to ref (18), the dispersion coefficient varies approximately directly with vx. the ratio dl/ vx, theoretically is a constant, called the dispersivity having the dimension of length and in the present study = 3.5=dl/vx . here vx is calculated as equal to ki, where k = hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer = 10 m/day and i is the hydraulic gradient in the transverse direction at nearly the middle of the asphalt road (location of htheypothetical well) = 0.125/46.7=0.0027. pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 figure 5: observed water salinity with depth at the center of the studied aquifer (somaida, 1993) figure 6. a: concentration results and their graphical representation along the studied profile (model m1) figure 6. b: concentration results and their graphical representation along the studied profile (model m2) pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 figure 6. c: concentration results and their graphical representation along the studied profile (model m3) figure 6. c: concentration results and their graphical representation along the studied profile (model m3) however, vx=10*0.0027=0.027 m/day, from which, dl=3.5*0.027=0.095 m2/day. numerical study a computer program for the solution of the dispersion expression, eq. 10, is developed. the program required the knowledge of the concentrations at the left side of the proposed domain together with distance step ∆, time increment ∆t and the diffusion coefficients d. in this view, six mathematical models are employed (m1 to m6). for m1, m2 and m3, the increment, ∆ is taken 2 m and dispersion coefficients of 0.095, 0.0475, and 0.19 m2/day, respectively. the same choice is decided for m4, m5, and m6. • model m1, figure 6-a, shows satisfactory concentration values with depths which are close to the values measured in the field until ∆t=20 days. at time t = 40 days, concentrations are nearer to the real values in the upper and lower 4 meters in the studied aquifer. while at t = 60 days, the concentrations are highly oscillating and far from the real values. • model m2, figure 6-b, shows satisfactory trends but the concentrations are less than the expected values. • in model m3, figure 6-c, the concentrations are mostly far from the actual values. high oscillations are very evident along the salinity profile. • models m4, m5, and m6, figs. 6-(d-f), indicated bad plots which are completely out of phase, indicating the lack of a general trend for salinity. however, it is discovered from the studied models that the best values of the aquifer’s dispersion coefficient d pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 figure 6. d: concentration results and their graphical representation along the studied profile (model m4) figure 6. e: concentration results and their graphical representation along the studied profile (model m5) figure 6. f: concentration results and their graphical representation along the studied profile (model m6) pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 are 0.095 m2/day. the best and most trustworthy results for further research in this paper come from model m1. results and discussion hydrodynamic dispersion in the coastal aquifer it appears that the longitudinal dispersion of fresh and saltwater is active upward in coastal unconfined aquifers as explained by (anon, 1965). since in coastal aquifers, fresh water will be contaminated from saline water and the concentration of fresh water will be increased with increasing distance of flow upward because of hydrodynamic dispersion, longitudinal dispersion occurs in the direction of flow and is caused by different macroscopic velocities as some parts of the salt invading water move through wider and less tortuous pores than other parts, (bouwer, 1985). the different rates of advance produce the typical sigmoid breakthrough curves of the invading saline water at the same distance from the front of the invading fluid. this phenomenon is best developed in the coastal aquifer of the sidi kirayr area and is observed in the detecting the test well s2b, in the sidi kirayr locality, figure 3, which is drilled to a depth table 1: distribution of households surveyed by neighborhood, type, number, and size depth (m) 36 32 28 24 20 18 16 12 8 detected ec mmhos, s2b 54.9 48.1 42.6 17.15 12.86 2.75 2.46 2.3 2.2 computed ec mmhos, m1 50.1 44.5 41.2 19 computed ec mmhos, m2 50.1 44 41 39 of 38 m, the depth of water table = 10 m. the well is completely penetrating the aquifer and its discharge is about 60 m3/day (6.94 * 10-4 m3/sec), figure 5. computed concentration-depth profiles for the studied aquifer table 1 depicts the profiles from which the concentrationdepth profiles are constructed, as well as the models m1 and m2, figure 5, and the real concentration-depth profile associated with the actual well s2b, figure 7. investigation of this figure leads to the following conclusions: • concentration (salinity) increases with depth. • both profiles, the real and m1, have the same trend in which the relatively sigmoid breakthrough curves are observed. • the profile m2 shows oscillating salinity values relative to m1, far from the expected values, which can be safely disregarded. the m1 profile shows satisfactory results which are nearer to the actual field values. this is attributed to the proper choice of model m1 and its necessary data as; depth increment ∆, time step ∆t and the diffusion coefficient d relative to the actual field data from the sidi kirayr locality. comparison between computed and detected salinity depth profiles for this purpose, table 1, showing the variations of concentrations with depth and salinity profiles in figure 7, is discussed and the following conclusions are reached: • the salinity profiles show the same trend in the interval from 24-28 m and are nearly parallel profiles. this may indicate the correction of the approach of the derived dispersion eq. 10, its solution, and assumptions. • there is a marked decrease in salinities in the actual test well s2b below the computed values. this may be attributed to the nature of the geochemistry of the water in the actual test well s2b. figure 7. correlation of salinity profiles; real (s2b), computed m1, and m2 pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 • in both cases, the rate of salinity change increases with depth, where the actual sea water is found at depth of 38 m, (anon, 1965). vertical zonation of groundwater in coastal aquifers, freshwater is physically defined as water having specific gravity of 1.0, which is floating over conclusions in the present study, the finite difference method has been applied to develop and solve the dispersion equation for a typical unconfined aquifer as the case implies in the sidi kirayr locality, west of alexandria, egypt, where the problem has been modeled and investigated. numerical calculations of the concentration of water with depth in an actual tested well in the area have been reached using a well-developed computer program, which solves the dispersion equation and obtains the water salinity at a depth varying from 18 to 38 m along a computed vertical profile at the center of the lens. in addition, electrical conductivity measurements were performed in the test well s2b, which is very close to the lens’ center. when the computed salinity profile below a good example was compared to the measured salinity profile in well s2b, there was an order of magnitude agreement. the sigmoid breakthrough curves of both situations exhibited nearly parallel trends, indicating that the electrical conductivity measurements were successful. also, this shows that the vertical zonation of groundwater in the sidi kirayr locality can be distinguished into three characteristic water zones: a top fresher water zone (2-4 mmhos), a brackish water zone, then a salt water to seawater zone. finally, below this, there is the actual seawater of the mediterranean sea above 50 mmhos salinity. the latter results are found to be in good agreement with those reached by (abdelmogeeth and elshazly, 1980). nomenclature c = concentration, δt = time increment, vx = velocity of flow in the x-direction, vy = velocity of flow in the y-direction, δx = distance increment, d = dispersion coefficient of aquifer, ds = specific gravity of saltwater, df = specific gravity of freshwater, k = hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, n = porosity of the aquifer, xi,j = horizontal coordinates of the pivotal point, yi,j = vertical coordinates of the pivotal point, lmix = length of transition zone (mixing length), a1 = dispersivity, zrise = rise of interface measured from reference level, dl = longitudinal dispersion coefficient. references abdalla, f. (2015). ionic ratios as tracers to assess seawater intrusion and to identify salinity sources in jazan coastal aquifer, saudi arabia. arabian journal of geosciences, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517015-2065-3. abdel-mogeeth, s. m., and elshazly, m.m. (1980). characteristics of the freshwater lens in sidi kirayr locality, north-western coastal zone, egypt. desert institute bulletin, a.r.e., 30(1), 1-15. freshwater 2 mmhos passably freshwater 2-4 mmhos brackish water 4-9 mmhos saltwater 9-50 mmhos extremely saltwater >50 mmhos saltwater of specific gravity of about 1.025. in terms of total salinity, expressed as electrical conductivity/cm at 25 oc, water is classified as follows, (matić and srzić, 2021): therefore, the vertical zonation of the freshwater lens in the sidi kirayr area has been followed up by using the electrical conductivity meter in the actual well s2b. this well is completely penetrating the aquifer and is fully perforated from top to bottom to give a coherent picture of the water salinity sequence. such well is drilled down to reach the level of 36 m below the sea level, (abdelmogeeth and elshazly, 1980). on the other hand, the projection of salinity value in mmhos of the water classification according to (hem, 1985), over the salinity profiles, figure 7, shows that four main water zones are distinguished as shown in table 2. investigation of these zones leads to the following classification: • a zone of passably freshwater class<4 mmhos or (2-4) of depth 8-20.6 m, in well s2b. the corresponding change in salinity is 0.16 mmhos/m. • a zone of brackish water (4-9 mmhos), from 20.6 to 27 m. this zone has a thickness of 1.4 m, however, it will not be important. • a zone of salt water (9-50 mmhos) from (22-36 m) is evident in real well s2b and may be from (14.8-28 m) in salinity profile m1. the latter indicated that saltwater appears at a shallow depth of 14.8 m and goes to 22 m in well s2b. • it is noted that in figure 7, the transition zone of width 2b = 11.6 m in the depth range from 22-39.8 m, i.e., lies in the saltwater zone. although the changes in salinity are 2.93 and 3.1 mmhos/m depth in both cases, to avoid any confusion, it table 2: classification of groundwater according to salinity profiles in the sidi kirayr are, (hem 1985) freshwater 2 mmhos passably freshwater 2-4 mmhos brackish water 4-9 mmhos saltwater 9-50 mmhos extremely saltwater >50 mmhos is recommended that reliance should be made on the real data obtained from measuring the electrical conductivity in real test well s2b, figure 3. pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(1) 1-10, 2022 al-dabbas, m. (2020). management of bai hassan unconfined aquifer, lesser zab river basin, kurdistan region, iraq using a modeling approach. iraqi geological journal, 53(2b), 1–23. https://doi. org/10.46717/igj.53.2b.1rs-2020-08-01. anon, (1965). international atomic energy agency. radioactive waste disposal in the ground. aea, vienna, sti/pub/103. amin, m. m. m., & elzahar, m. m. h. (2022). economic design of pipe-nozzle discharge lines delivering free jets. international journal of engineering technologies and management research, 9(10), 10–25. https://doi. org/10.29121/ijetmr.v9.i10.2022.1232. basak, p., & murty, v. v. n. (1977). nonlinear diffusion applied to groundwater contamination problems. journal of hydrology, 35(3–4), 357–363. https://doi. org/10.1016/0022-1694(77)90012-9. basak, p., & murty, v. v. n. (1978). concentration-dependent diffusion applied to groundwater contamination problems. journal of hydrology, 37(3–4), 333–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(78)90024-0. bouwer, h., (1978). groundwater hydrology. new york: mcgraw-hill, 480. el-zahar, m., m. salih, and k. fujisaki. (2001). basic study of bubble formation in dissolved co2 gas flotation of waste activated sludge. proceedings of filtech europa international conference and exhibition, 1. fattah, q. n., & hoopes, j. a. (1985). dispersion in anisotropic, homogeneous, porous media. journal of hydraulic engineering, 111(5), 810–827. https://doi. org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9429(1985)111:5(810). fujisaki, k., & el-zahar, m. (2002). a mathematical model for the flotation of waste activated sludge. water science and technology, 46(11–12), 203–208. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0739. hem, j. d. (1985). study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water. department of the interior, us geological survey, 2254. https://doi. org/10.3133/wsp2254. hondzo, m., ellis, c. r., & stefan, h. g. (1991). vertical diffusion in small stratified lake: data and error analysis. journal of hydraulic engineering, 117(10), 1352–1369. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)07339429(1991)117:10(1352). hunt, b. w. (1973). dispersion from pit in uniform seepage. journal of the hydraulics division, 99(1), 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1061/jyceaj.0003547. hunt, b. (1978). dispersive sources in uniform groundwater flow. journal of the hydraulics division, 104(1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1061/jyceaj.0004925. imagawa, c., takeuchi, j., kawachi, t., chono, s., & ishida, k. (2012). statistical analyses and modeling approaches to hydrodynamic characteristics in alluvial aquifer. hydrological processes, 27(26), 4017–4027. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9538. list, e. j., gartrel, g., & winant, c. d. (1990). diffusion and dispersion in coastal waters. journal of hydraulic engineering, 116(10), 1158–1179. https://doi.org/10.1061/ (asce)0733-9429(1990)116:10(1158). mariño, m. a. (1974). longitudinal dispersion in saturated porous media. journal of the hydraulics division, 100(1), 151–157. https://doi.org/10.1061/ jyceaj.0003851. matić, i., & srzić, v. (2021). modeling of seawater intrusion into river neretva coastal aquifer. common foundations, 2021. https://doi.org/10.5592/co/zt.2021.12. mccormik, j. m., and salvadori, m. g. (1968). numerical methods in fortran, prentice-hall international, inc., engle wood. sharaan, m., lebleb, a. a., elzahar, m. m. h., & iskander, m. (2022). studying the tidal-induced water circulation pattern within el-burullus fishing harbor, egypt, using cms-ptm numerical modeling. marine environmental research, 180, 105726. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2022.105726. schmork, s., & mercado, a. (1969). upconing of fresh water-sea water interface below pumping wells, field study. water resources research, 5(6), 1290–1311. portico. https://doi.org/10.1029/wr005i006p01290. singh, s. p., & murty, v. v. n. (1980). storage of freshwater in saline aquifers. journal of the irrigation and drainage division, 106(2), 93–104. https://doi. org/10.1061/jrcea4.0001304. somaida, m. m.(1993). numerical solution for dispersion in a coastal unconfined aquifer, port-said scientific engineering bulletin, 5, 280-293. somaida, m. m. et al. (1980). a study on the flow-net of the freshwater zone in a coastal unconfined aquifer, numerical solution for dispersion in a coastal unconfined aquifer, scientific engineering bulletin, faculty of engineering, cairo university, 1, 21-52. somaida, m. m. (2014). solving the upconing pumping problem and hydrodynamic dispersion in coastal unconfined aquifers. port-said engineering research journal, 18(2), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.21608/ pserj.2014.45295. somaida, m., elzahar, m., & sharaan, m. (2011). a suggestion of optimization process for water pipe networks design. in international conference on environment and bioscience ipcbee,21, 68-73. wagle, k. r., and saff, e.b. (1986). fundamentals of differential equations. benjamin/cummings company inc., california. wirojanagud, p., & charbeneau, r. j. (1985). saltwater upconing in unconfined aquifers. journal of hydraulic engineering, 111(3), 417–434. https://doi. org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9429(1985)111:3(417). pa ge 1 pa ge 12 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) role of climate change during the covid-19 pandemic salum haji hamisi1*, abdillah mussa kitota2 volume 1 issue 3, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.760 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 13, 2022 accepted: november 13, 2022 published: november 27, 2022 climate change has become a topic of concern around the world. many aspects of human well-being are affected by climate change. the social, economic, political, ecological and cultural development was influenced directly or indirectly. this paper has examined the role of climate change during the current period of the covid-19 pandemic. the documentary analysis method was chosen. various books, research reports, who databases and internet sources have been used extensively. various literature shows that climate change may have played a significant role in the widespread effects of the covid-19 pandemic. covid-19 affects people with compromised immunity. the weakened immunity results from some diseases and treatments that weaken the body’s immunity. these include chronic lung diseases such as chronic asthma, some cancers, high blood pressure (hypertension), hiv / aids, and some developmental diseases. as a result, people become vulnerable to covid-19. poor diet also causes people to have weak immunity and become less resistant to the coronavirus. poor nutrition results from changes in the climate pattern; unavailability of sufficient and high-quality food, low production of sufficient food, and inaccessibility of high-quality food due to poverty. the world must take serious steps to stop excessive greenhouse gas emissions. if not, the human species will die as new diseases and viruses will emerge to take our lives as covid-19 did. keywords climate change, covid-19, pandemic, weather and climate 1 department of geography, muslim university of morongo, tanzania 2 department of biology, muslim university of morongo, tanzania * corresponding author’s e-mail: hamissalum704@gmail.com introduction climate change has preoccupied the world for several years. it is a slogan along with poverty alleviation, environmental problems and security. it is a very ancient phenomenon that was observed on the surface of the earth when humans made advances in terms of technological development. climate change is defined as a climate change that is directly or indirectly attributed to human activities that change the composition of the global atmosphere and that, in addition to natural climate variability, are observed over comparable periods (patz et al., 2015). it has been found that the sun emits the sun rays, which pass through the electromagnetic spectrum, which is made up of ultraviolet and infrared. scientists agree that 1/3 of solar radiation is reflected from the atmosphere and the earth’s surface and 2/3 is absorbed by water (romm 2016). increasing land use and fossil fuel burning have increased over time around the world. the activities mentioned increasing the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. this causes carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch2), and nitric oxide (n2o) gas to be released into the atmosphere. the rise in greenhouse gases traps the heat that should be radiated back into the room. at some point, greenhouse gases act like a partial blanket that keeps our earth warm (60 f). if our earth did not have an atmosphere to let solar energy pass through, there could be no life because the temperature of the earth’s surface would have been -180 c and our planet would be a giant ace sphere. greenhouse gas is also important for our earth. climate change has preoccupied the world for several years. it is a slogan along with poverty alleviation, environmental problems and security. it is a very ancient phenomenon that was observed on the surface of the earth when humans made advances in terms of technological development. climate change is defined as a climate change that is directly or indirectly attributed to human activities that change the composition of the global atmosphere and that, in addition to natural climate variability, are observed over comparable periods (patz et al., 2015). according to epstein et al., 2011 claim that the air over the antarctic peninsula has warmed by 6°c (11f) over the past decade due to climate change. today the greenhouse increases the surface temperature by 320°c (mcmichael et al., 2017). this literature clearly shows that our earth is getting warmer and warmer as human development progresses. more cars are being made worldwide these days, which means more fossil fuel burning and carbon dioxide emissions. it is estimated that by 2016 the world will have 1.32 billion cars and buses. how are fossil fuels used and how are greenhouse gases added daily? in addition, industrial production is also growing to meet the demand for goods and services for almost 7.6 billion people on earth. the manufacturing, automotive, and construction industries; to mention only the few that intensely emit halocarbon and black carbon that in turn change the climate of our precious earth. the united nations framework call on climate change (unfccc) (unfcc, 2007), outline the evidence for climate change: global warming, change in precipitation trend, melting ice cap, glaciers and snow, and rise in sea temperature https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.760 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:hamissalum704%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 13 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 12-16, 2022 on the earth’s surface. this has caused the sun’s heat to rise in the atmosphere, which under normal conditions could be reflected into space (unfccc, 2007). in the end, the generated heat leads to the greenhouse effect, which changes the earth’s climate tremendously. a small increase in sea surface temperature causes cyclone wind and rain, for example, cyclone haiyan in 2013, terribly devastated the philippines was powered by energy from equatorial water that was only warmed 1-2 degrees above normal (mcmichael et al., 2017). maslin (2014) argues that climate change encompasses sociology, economy, geopolitics, national, international, and above all healthy one. climate change has and affects the social and environmental determinants of health (clean air, clean drinking water, adequate food and safe shelter). it has been found that due to the rise in heat due to climate change, the population exposed to it has increased worldwide. it was noted that between 2000 and 2016, the number of people exposed to heat increased by 125 million. in addition, 175 million additional people were exposed to the heat caused by climate change by 2015 alone. it is estimated that between 2020 and 2030, climate change will cause 250,000 additional deaths from malaria, malnutrition, diarrhoea and heat stress. it has been argued that excessive heat has psychological effects on all people that aggravate existing illnesses or make treatment more complex. climate change has direct or indirect effects on the health of people around the world. cardiovascular and respiratory diseases in the elderly result from climate change. in terms of the current phenomena of covid-19, climate change can have a major impact on it. this paper will discuss the role of climate change during this time of covid-19. the focus will be on the role of climate change during covid-19, a global pandemic. before doing this, get an understanding of the potential health effects of climate change. potential health impacts of climate change climate change interrupts the natural flow of energy from the atmosphere via the earth’s surface to the atmosphere again. climate change also affects human health through various complexities over time. it has been found that human life depends on the natural ecological and physical system. any change in these systems also changes the human life support system. as a rule of thumb, climate change will change the health pattern of the human population. there is a way in which climate change will hurt the health of the human population. as figure 1 above shows, climate change involves changing the pattern of heat waves, extreme weather figure 1: potential health impacts of climate change. sources: adopted from patz et al 2015(10) conditions, temperatures, and rainfall. there are modelling factors as described; microbial contamination pathways, transmission dynamics, hydrology of agroecosystems as well as social economy and demography. each factor relates to various health effects: temperaturerelated illnesses and deaths, extreme weather-related health effects, air pollution-related health effects, water and foodborne diseases, vector and rodent-borne diseases, the effects of food and water shortages, and psychological, nutritional, infectious and other health effects. these health effects attack the human immune system. as age and immunity decrease, the population becomes vulnerable to covid-19. a person suffering from any of the above diseases becomes a victim of a covid-19 pandemic. the following section takes us through understanding what covid-19 is. where is it rooted and what impact it has? covid-19 it is a disease caused by a virus transmitted from person to person. it originated from wuhan in china and spread to 228 countries and territories around the world and in 2 international modes of transport (https://www. worldometers.info/coronavirus/). the seafood market in wuhan’s huanan; which previously sold live fish, poultry and birds is believed to be the epicentre of this https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 12-16, 2022 outbreak, which is why it is simply referred to as the wuhan coronavirus. on january 8, 2020, the etiological agent of this outbreak was identified as the novel coronavirus 2019 (2019-ncov) and its genetic sequence was quickly reported to the who. on january 30th, the who declared the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern (pheic). on february 12, 2020, the international committee on the taxonomy of viruses (ictv) stated that 2019-nov was officially designated as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2), and on the same day, the who declared the through. sars-cov-2 was officially referred to as coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19). the experts found it difficult to track down the main root of this virus as the market in the wuhan market closed on january 1, 2020. some experts use their fingers to point to bats as a possible source of the virus, which is transmitted through intermediate hosts such as pangolins; that are illegally sold on wuhan’s huanan seafood market to humans (rabi et al., 2020; osler, 2019). the next section looks at the role of climate change during covid-19. according to osler, 2019, the wuhan coronavirus is a highly transmitted influenza, of which scientists found it viral in connection with sars-cov and mers-cov. when the full genome of the sar-cov-2 was sequenced, it shared 79.5% of the genetic sequence of the sars-cov that caused the 20022003 pandemic (rabi et al., 2020). role of climate change during covid-19 sar-cov-2 and weather condition in the case of infectious diseases, it is important to take into account the influence of weather conditions such as temperature, cold or heat, and moisture; the mass of water vapour in a unit mass of moist air. this is because weather conditions are one of the important components of disease causation (baker et al., 2018; deventer and hochberg, 2016). this is obvious because viruses and other infectious agents occur in our environment. in the event of covid-19, once infectious droplets land on different surfaces, their ability to survive on those surfaces determines whether contact transmission is possible or not. based on our current understanding of other beta coronaviruses; including sars and mers, coronaviruses can survive; and remain infectious for 2 hours up to 9 days on inanimate surfaces such as plastic, glass and metal, with increased survival rates in drier and colder environments (or regions). based on this understanding, various governments have been reported to have disinfected various inanimate surfaces to contain the virus. cleaning of surfaces with common biocides; like sodium hypochlorite and ethanol, is very effective in inactivating the coronavirus within 1 minute of exposure (rabi et al., 2020) sar-cov-2 and the climatic condition climate; is the weather conditions in an area in general or over a longer period that have a general impact on infectious diseases such as covid-19. a largescale study carried out through critical analysis of the data from the official sources of the ministry of health of all countries as well as from the world-infometer ofcovid-19(https://www.worldometers.info/ coronavirus/) has shown a relationship between climate and infection rate of covid-19 (iqbal et al., 2020). in this study, the authors collected data on covid-19 cases from the 1st reported case (in wuhan, china) to june 5, 2020, in various affected countries and regional climate parameters; such as meteorological data, from january 2020 to june 5, 2020. overall, it has been found that many countries in the relatively lower temperature region have a rapid increase in covid-19 cases than those in warmer region climatic regions despite their better social and economic conditions. many other studies also looked at this relationship between the covid-19 infection rate and climate conditions. for example, studies using a regression framework have examined the role of temperature and relative and specific humidity in the spread of covid-19, suggesting that dry and cold conditions increase the rate of infection of covid-19 (bukhari and jameel, 2020; ma et al., 2020 in beker et al., 2020). covid-19 and climate change many kinds of literature address the relationship between climate change and covid-19 in terms of the impact of climate change on susceptibility to covid-19. as mentioned earlier, climate change has and affects the social and environmental determinants of health and safety, such as clean air, safe drinking water, adequate food and safe shelter. zavaleta-cortijo et al., (2020) looked at the connection between one of these determinants and covid-19. they say climate change is affecting the food systems of indigenous peoples, making them vulnerable to food and nutrition insecurity. then food and nutrition insecurity undermines their immunity status, subsequently making them vulnerable to covid-19. similar soil is used for other effects of climate change: sunburn due to global warming, mutation due to depletion of the ozone layer, air and water pollution due to emission of harmful gases or chemicals and other effects can affect the immune status of people due to the development of various diseases such as respiratory diseases such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular diseases such as myocardial infarction and heart attack, chronic kidney disease of unknown origin and diseases of the genetic makeup of people such as cancer, etc. it is medically known that people with weakened immunity are at a higher risk of contracting sar-cov -2 and being severely affected by covid-19 (rabi et al., 2020). there are also more speculative discussions about how the occurrence of pandemics can be linked to climate change. it is reported that from 2°c of global warming, the possibility of reaching tipping points such as the melting of the arctic permafrost becomes relatively great and the global warm the earth https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 12-16, 2022 at 1.5 (ipcc,2018; this underscores the question of whether rising temperatures could revive old viruses; now frozen to which we could be as vulnerable as covid-19 (da silva, 2020). on the other hand, the covid-19 outbreak has been reported to reduce the production of the causative agents of climate change due to the decline in lock-related production activities (damani, 2020; geladari et al., 2020). for example, it has reduced china’s co2 emissions by a quarter and led to improvements in air quality that could eventually save more lives than the virus killed (geladari et al., 2020). however, these climate change factors, such as greenhouse gas emissions, are expected to counterincrease as climate advocates return to facing the real problems. this offers a lesson for everyone involved. prevalence and mortality of covid-19: reasons for the big differences around the world when we examine the covid-19 data reported by the world-info-meter of covid-19 (https://www. worldometers.info/coronavirus/) and from various studies such as al-tawfiq et al. (2020) analyzed. , we see a very large variation in its death rates. are there plausible descriptions of the larger variations in covid-19 prevalence across countries? the answer is yes, there are plausible descriptions for this variant. one study suggested that this prevalence variability could be due to differences in transmission and migration rates (nehru et al., 2020). in this article, we add the variability of weather and climatic conditions as additional factors for the transmission of sar-cov-2 and climate change in general as an additional factor for the severity of covid-19. in addition, neher et al., 2020 in al-tawfiq et al., 2020 have highlighted that climatic conditions; largely associated with climate change, are one possible explanation for the increased transmission of covid-19 and the occurrence of outbreaks in the community in countries with temperatures of 511 °c and low humidity. discussion as the literature shows, climate change played a significant role during covid-19. as mentioned earlier, the covid-19 pandemic has mainly affected dry countries and countries with lower attitudes than the wettest countries. according to neher et al., 2020 in al-tawfiq et al., 2020, climatic conditions; which are essentially linked to climate change, are postulated as a possible explanation for the increased transmission of covid-19 and the occurrence of outbreaks in the community in countries with a temperature of 511 ° c. in another context, this pattern is similar to the seasonal flu pattern, also caused by viruses. climate changes have had an impact on the environment and the health of people around the world. climate change is changing the environmental security of; clean air, safe drinking water, adequate food and safe shelter. currently, people live at high risk for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. these conditions pose two risks for people: the risk of becoming susceptible to sar-cov-2 and the risk of becoming seriously ill with covid-19 (severity of covid-19) after being infected with sar-cov-2. in addition, the food security system is affected by climate change. climate change changes the theoretical weather and climate pattern, as in some areas more or fewer rain falls than normal. this situation affects the community production system around the world. this leads to a food shortage; characterized by nutritional diseases and weakened immunity, a situation that makes people vulnerable to covid-19. because of the low production, buying good quality food will also be expensive and poor people will be more vulnerable to the covid-19 pandemic. even though the experts have not yet presented clear scientific evidence showing the root source of sarcov-2, this novel virus could be rooted in the climate change aspect; like global warming and the like which, according to da silva, 2020, are their contributions to the evolution of species; especially new strains of the virus, can never be ignored. and we should remember that one of the existing theories about the origin of sar-cov-2 is that it could have evolved from the previous coronavirus species due to the combination of environmental and genetic factors (anderson et al., 2020; rabi et al., 2020). the world has a complex system in which one system is related to or dependent on another system. for example, food systems have to do with climate, just as food systems have to do with health systems. changing the pattern of a system affects all systems and creates a very complex situation that is difficult to resolve. conclusion this paper discussed climate change, and evidence of climate change worldwide was discussed. likewise, the root of covid-19 when was officially recognized. followed by a discussion on the role of weather and climate change in the covid-19 pandemic. in addition, the discussion on the role of climate change during covid-19 was briefly covered. final remarks, the world must take good care of our earth by stopping or not reducing the excessive production of greenhouse gases. otherwise, the human species will die from disease, viruses, disasters, and starvation. proof of this is in the effects of covid-19, which is crippling not just the individual but the economy worldwide. reference al-tawfiq, j. a., leonardi, r., fasoli, g., and rogimonti, d. (2020). prevalence and fatality rates of covid-19: what are the reasons for the wide variations worldwide? travel medicine and infections diseases, 35, 101711. anderson, k. g., rambaut, a., lan lipkin, w., holmes, e. c and garry, r. f. (2020). the proximal origin of sarcov-2. nature medicine. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41591-020-0820-9. baker, r. e., mahmud, a. s and metcalf, c. j. e. (2018). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 12-16, 2022 dynamic response of airborne infectious to climate change: prediction for varicella. climate change, 148, 547560. baker, r.e., yang, w., vecchi, g.a., metcalf, j.e., grenfell, b.t. (2020). susceptibility supply limits the role of climate in the early sar-cov-2 pandemic. science, 369, 315-319. bukhari, q and jameel, y. (2020). will coronavirus pandemic diminish by summer. https://dx.doi. org/10.2139/ssrn.3556998. coronavirus cases. (2022, october 21). https://www. worldometers.info/coronavirus. da silva. (2020, april 23may 13). green swan 2 climate change and covid-19: reflections on efficiency versus resilience. based on remarks at the oecd chief economist talk series, paris and a research webinar at the bis. https://www.bis.org/speeches/sp200514.pdf. accessed on august 22, 2020. damani, a. (2020). covid-19 and climate change. sushruta 13(2). edmond, a. m, and smerdon j.e. (2018). climate change; the science of global warming and our energy future, new york, chichester, west sussex. epstein, p. r, m. d and ferber d. (2011). changing planet, changing health, california press berkeley, los angeles, california geladari, c., andreadis, e.a., dourakis, s.p., and geladari e. (200). is the covid-19 pandemic linked to climate change? [pre-print]. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/340581324. iqbal, m. m., abdi, i., hussain, s., shahzad, n., waqas, m. s., and iqbal, m. j. (2020). the effects of regional climatic conditions on the spread of covid-19 at a global scale. science total environment, 739. ma, y., zhao, y., liu, j., he, x., wang, b., fu, s., yan, j., niu, j., luo, b. (2000). effect of temperature variation and humidity on the mortality of covid-19 in wuhan [preprint]. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03 .15.20036426. maslin, m. (2014). climate change: a very short introduction, oxford university press. mcmichael, a. j., woodward a and muir c. (2017). climate change and the health of nation, famine, fever and the fate of population, oxford, university press. neher, r.a., dyrdek, r., druelle, v., hodcroft, e.b., albert, j. (2020). the potential impact of seasonal forcing on a sars-cov-2 pandemic. swiss medical weekly, 150. osler, s. (2019). coronavirus outbreak, all the secrets revealed about the covid-19 pandemic. patz, j, a. levy b. s. (2015). climate change and public health, oxford university press. rabi, f.a., al-zoubi, m.s., kasasbeh, g.a., salamah, d.m and al-nasser, a.d. (2020). sar-cov-2 and coronavirus disease 2019: what we know so far. pathogens, 9, 231. romm, j. (2016). climate change; what everyone needs to know, oxford university press,198 madison, avenue new york, ny 10016 united nations framework convocation on climate change (unfccc, 2007). climate change, impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation in developing countries. van seventer, j. m and hochberg, n. s. (2016). principles of infectious disease: transmission, diagnosis, prevention and control. international encyclopaedia of public health, 22-27. zavaleta-cortijo, c., ford, j.d., arotoma-rojas, i., lwasa, s., lancha-rucoba, s., garsia, p.j et al. (2020). climate change and covid-19: reinforcing indigenous food systems. the lancet planetary health. https://doi.org/10.1016/ s2542-5196(20)30173-x. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 61 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) a review of factors affecting and impacting recycling intentions and behaviors in students almukhtar aljatlawe1*, engin baysen2 volume 2 issue 3, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i3.1813 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 28, 2023 accepted: september 09, 2023 published: september 18, 2023 the current challenges of global environmental deterioration have been one of the forefront factors that require urgency in mitigation. global environmental deterioration has a direct impact on the global warming phenomenon that is currently threatening the entire human existence if not adequately handled. sustainable living is one of the major ways that are required to ensure that critical environmental deterioration is mitigated globally. also, a significant dimension of sustainability is known as recycle or reuse, this is a process where byproducts and waste of one process are repurposed for something else. recycling is being taught in environmental education programs, but it has however been recorded to have a low prevalence of practice among individuals especially students relative to their environmental education efforts. this study comprehensively investigates the factors that impact and challenge recycling behaviors in students. the study has findings on the factors that improve recycling behaviors and factors that challenge recycling behaviors in students, and these are used to make adequate recommendations. keywords environmental education, environmental sustainability. recycling behavior, recycling intentions, recycling in students 1 environmental education and management department, higher institute of science and technology tobruk libya 2 environmental education and management department, near east university, north cyprus * corresponding author’s e-mail: almukhtar1987@gmail.com introduction the planet is facing critical environmental challenges in recent times, these challenges include the depletion of natural resources, climate change, inadequate waste management, etc (bennett & alexandridis, 2021). several mitigation policies, efforts, and solutions have been designed and implemented, and part of those solutions that have been designed for the mitigation of these challenges is the use of environmental awareness and knowledge endeavors; environmental education (sow & chow, 2019). the environmental challenges faced by the planet are complex in nature and require very robust processes of environmental sustainability efforts. environmental education is a form of increasing the awareness of individuals, knowledge of individuals, and skills of individuals with regard to sustainable practices for sustaining the environment (luan et al., 2020). environmental education has been reported to be one of the most efficient tools for the mitigation of climate change and other dimensions of environmental deterioration. according to the declaration of tbilisi (1978), the aim and objective of environmental education is to enable individuals to carry out informed decisions with respect to environmental sustainability. several studies have been carried out and have reported environmental knowledge as one of the crucial environmental behavior and decision-making predicting factors (nananth & kumar, 2021). municipal waste is one of the major sources of environmental deterioration, municipal waste is a critical global challenge as the rate of municipal waste generation and lack of adequate waste management processes lead to significant rates of pollution across the globe (islam et al., 2021). recycling is defined as the process of conversion of previously used resources and objects into some other forms with economic value (chao et al., 2021). the recycling process is a dimension of environmental sustainability efforts that is regarded as one of the most efficient tools of environmental sustainability and mitigation of environmental deterioration. successful recycling requires adequate awareness and knowledge in individuals to enable adequate distinguishing and separation of generated waste to enable the right recycling techniques to be applied to the generated waste (fan et al., 2019). recycling is a very complex and tedious process that requires complex designed processes for efficiency. studies carried out to determine the influencing factors of recycling practices have revealed some of the critical influencing factors are planned behavior, and behavioral intentions in individuals (dixon & parker, 2022). recycling offers a great impact on environmental sustainability. according to the european commission, recycling practices are one of the most high-impact sustainability practices that have ever been practiced in the efforts of environmental sustainability and mitigation of global climate change (cho, 2019). students are one of the most important demographics of sustainable intention and behavior awareness education in order to increase the global culture and rate of recycling efforts (bennett & alexandridis, 2021). environmental education in the context of recycling can be very influential when it is impacted students and when they are encouraged to carry out such practices. students are both decision-makers and leaders of the future, and the use of environmental education to impact practices of recycling is important for students (altikolatsi et al., 2021). recycling as one of the most efficient methods of mitigating ecological deterioration and climate change is an pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 61-65, 2023 effective method that also reduces the need for associated environmental and waste management processes that can be negative on the environment (kurokawa et al., 2023). recycling as a process of ecological sustainability reduces greenhouse emissions, reduces the use of landfills, and conserves natural resources. recycling as an environmental sustainability process not only protects the environment but also offers some economic benefits such as the provision of jobs and reinforcement of social participation (goldman et al., 2021). aim and objective of study since the beginning of the environmental sustainability and protection campaigns initiated by the declaration of tbilisi (1978), students have been targeted by environmental education programs to ensure the right awareness and attitude towards the environment is impacted on students at the right time as the future decision-makers and protectors of the environment and the planet. environmental education programs are designed to cater to students which are drawn from different dimensions of society with different behavioral attitudes and backgrounds to ensure they have similar characters, awareness, and behaviors towards the environment. recycling as a dimension of environmental education and environmental sustainability practices involves the use of adequate technology and an adequate pro-environmental attitude and awareness towards the environment. this study is a comprehensive literature analysis of the critical factors influencing and challenging recycling in students. sociologists and psychologists have carried out an analysis of both direct and indirect actions toward the environment’s sustainability, and have come up with a theoretical framework known as the theory of reasoned action (tra). according to tra individual intention for recycling is based on individual attitude towards recycling and the subjective norms as perceived by the individual while having the provision of the adequate recycling infrastructure. this study reviews and reports the factors that influence, and challenge recycling in students using literature insights and providing adequate recommendations based on the findings. recycling in younger demographic recycling in the global population and especially so in the young demographic or students is reported to be relatively low. environmental and recycling awareness in the demographic age range of 16 years to 25 years has been reported to be lower than in other age demographic categories (ponis, 2020). hence, the recycling efforts of students are lower than they should be for the benefit of environmental sustainability. despite the environmental education and sustainability initiatives developed and practiced in educational institutions, there is no significant increase in the behavioral and active practice of recycling efforts in students in such campus scenarios (luan et al., 2020). studies carried out by kruger et al. (2020) have reported reckless behavior toward recycling efforts in students housed in campus accommodations, this is also however contradicting the rise in the consciousness of students with regard to the awareness of climate change which is about 91% in students (cho, 2019). the low rates of recycling practices among students have been associated with the complex definition of environmental sustainability; with regard to what can and cannot be recycled (koutsos et al., 2021). the poor practices of recycling among students are not only the lack of recycling intentions and behavior among students but also entail the inappropriate practice of recycling with actions such as miscategorizing of recycle items. there has been a reported limitation in the literature of investigations on the recycling awareness and behaviors in students, and the impact the environmental education they are subjected to has on their perceptions, intentions, and behaviors towards recycling practices (huang, 2022). general environmental education and awareness in students encourage recycling behaviors and intentions in students, this is done through the identification and use of themes of recycling environmental education and motivation (bennett & alexandridis, 2021). factors affecting recycling in students environmental education in general, as well as the recycling dimension of environmental education, ensures that students are imbibed with the necessary awareness and skills about the environment and its sustainability (söderberg et al., 2022). students are therefore taught and trained with the necessary knowledge and skills for environmental sustainability. research has shown that the awareness, intentions, and actual behaviors of students need to be carefully paid attention to, as these are all factors that are necessary for environmental sustainability. some identified factors that affect recycling in students’ awareness and behavior are as follows: exogenous motives this is a factor that is characterized by the motives of social influence and rewards. studies have observed that the provision of incentives or rewards promotes recycling behaviors in students (chao et al., 2021). this factor is very impactful in students who have a lower concern about the environment. social influence this is a factor that impacts recycling in students that stems from the influence of friends, family, and society. this factor plays a significant role in determining recycling behaviors in students, where a student who is surrounded by people who recycle is more liable to engage in recycling practices themselves (yang et al., 2021). endogenous motives this is a factor that entails the satisfaction of students or individuals in participating in beneficial activities to their society such as the conservation of nature and pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 61-65, 2023 environmental management which can be derived through recycling activities among other activities (mkhonto & mnguni, 2021). recycling is a process that generally entails the use of comfort factors such as personal effort, money, time, and space (chao et al., 2021). hence, students and other individuals perceive the process of recycling as a tedious and resource-consuming process that they would rather not want to get involved in. according tosöderberg et al., (2022), the inconveniences associated with recycling really impact the perceptions, intentions, and behaviors of recycling in students. another significant influencer of recycling behavior in students and other individuals is the availability of recycling resources. the inadequacy and limited availability of resources used in recycling such as recycling infrastructure; bins, dump vehicles, recycling plants, etc (franzidis et al., 2023). the lack of readily available recycling infrastructure further feeds the reluctance of students in partaking in the recycling process of environmental sustainability. social norms and personal behavior towards recycling behavior in a research report carried out by koutsos et al. (2021), it is reported that psychological variables such as personal and societal norms/values have a significant impact on the recycling behaviors of students. societal norms and individual personal norms and values interact with one another to influence the recycling behavior in students. parental impact a very significant dimension of social norms is considered to be the parental effect that individuals have as a motivation to ensure a better and conserved environment for their children. according to buil et al. (2019), individuals who are parents are more concerned about the state of the environment and its conservation compared with individuals who are not. as a result of this children tend to be exposed to observations of environmental conservation such as recycling and adequate waste management practices in their parents before they become adults (singh et al., 2020). a higher level of environmental awareness and recycling is observed in students who are from families with an active environmental conservation consciousness. relationship between recycling attitude and information source attitude in individuals is defined as the psychological tendency that is expressed in favor of something or against something (almasi et al., 2019). attitude with regard to recycling behavior is a key and critical factor in individuals, especially in students as young individuals. students are exposed to different sources of environmental education and information such as social media, mass media, conventional educational institutions, and various sources of interpersonal communication (sujata et al., 2019). there are researches that have indicated that a comprehensive understanding of individual attitudes can be used in optimizing the recycling and environmental education programs for students. there are also studies that have reported some of the most effective sources of information that can be used to impact the recycling behavior in students more effectively alongside their general knowledge of environmental sustainability (noh, 2021). environmental education is one of the most effective tools for ensuring the success of recycling attitudes and behavior in students. according to a study by koustos et al. (2021), corporate-designed environmental education materials designed for consumers are an efficient source of recycling and environmental sustainability. a study by sukama et al. (2020) reported that environmental sustainability and recycling education materials and information obtained from social media sources of ecoactivists, environmental sustainability organizations, and other educational social media sources have a significant impact on the positive attitude and behavior of students. students in the united states of america sampled in a study by yu et al. (2019) have shown that social media sources such as twitter, facebook, and other online blogging platforms are often used as sources of useful environmental sustainability and recycling attitude development, especially in undergraduate students, and for graduate students, it has been reported that their most significant source of such information is from conventional television and radio programs for enhancing their environmental sustainability awareness and attitudes. another study by altikolatsi et al. (2021) reported that interpersonal communication serves as a significant channel for pro-environmental awareness and behaviors such as recycling practices in students, this has led to suggestions of incorporating such outlined sources of information into the design and implementation of environmental education practices. normative and contextual influences on recycling behavior the prediction of recycling in students and individuals as a whole is contributed to by several contextual factors, these variables include factors such as the convenience and availability of recycling infrastructure (geiger et al., 2019). studies have indicated that the availability of recycling infrastructure to students especially in convenient spots around them significantly improves their recycling behavior (fang et al., 2021). communal ease of recycling is also a strong indicator and predictor of recycling behaviors in students and individuals because when they are off school properties it is paramount that they have the infrastructure that will continue to foster the recycling behaviors in them (setiawan et al., 2020). another contextual and normative factor that influences recycling behavior is the forms and mediums of recycling information outreach to students, studies have shown an increase in the recycling behaviors of students when there are more and more educational outreach programs tailored towards specific recycling efforts and not just general environmental sustainability programs (niemiec et al., 2020). pa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 61-65, 2023 discussion recycling in students has a lot in common with the general factors that influence or challenge recycling behaviors in general individuals’ subjective norms, sources of information, social norms, and personal behavior have a significant impact on the recycling behavior in students as well as individuals in general. the findings in this paper have shown that adequate environmental and recycling education is a critical determinant of recycling behavior in students. however, there are other factors that also influence and determine recycling behaviors in students. these factors include awareness, intentions, and actual behaviors, these factors can generally be influenced through activities designed towards recycling that can motivate them using motives such as endogenous motives, exogenous motives, and social influences. exposure to environmental sustainability and recycling information as much as possible is a good way to shape and improve the subjective norms of students and individuals. exposure to such information will develop recycling intentions and recycling behaviors in students. environmental education programs should be designed and implemented in such a manner that they will imbibe the characteristics of all the recycling influencing and impacting factors to ensure the development of recycling intentions and behaviors in students. environmental education programs need to focus on designing experiential learning with the theoretical learning aspect of the programs. experiential learning enables students to have a real-life experience of applying theoretical knowledge and understanding the impact of what is being taught to them. experiential learning can also be used to enable and encourage students to design their own recycling programs by creating motives to support their enthusiasm for the projects. also, media sources need to be focused on designing and delivering adequate recycling information and awareness information. media sources of information need to be designed and delivered through channels that can optimally reach the target audience based on the demographic data of the students in this context. conclusion this paper investigated and reported the factors that impact and influence recycling intentions and behaviors in students. the findings in this paper have reported subjective norms, interpersonal communications, environmental education, recycling motives, and social influence as significant factors that impact recycling intentions and behaviors in students. students who are exposed to environmental education programs that have more experiential complements to their awareness and education programs have a higher possibility to engage in recycling. also, students that are exposed to more recycling information from the relevant medium, and given incentives towards recycling processes have a higher chance of engaging in recycling practices. students and the general public need to be exposed to adequate environmental education programs that include an emphasis on experiential programs towards recycling behaviors, motives for recycling need to be enabled and enhanced in individuals, and sources of information need to be adequately designed to properly inform both students and the general public on recycling efforts and its advantages to their community and the environment. references 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(2019). an innovative environmental citizen behavior model: recycling intention as climate change mitigation strategies. journal of environmental management, 247(2019), 499-508. pa ge 1 pa ge 24 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) impact of climate change on water security and endorsing importance of rainwater harvesting technology in nepal dipantikhatri1*, sabu sharma bhattarai2 volume 2 issue 3, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i3.1643 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: may 07, 2023 accepted: july 28, 2023 published: september 06, 2023 the day-by-day increment in the concentration of greenhouse gases (ghgs) in the atmosphere is widely believed to be a main contributing factor for climate change. it affects widely on diverse sectors such as water resources, agriculture, forestry, human health, biodiversity, and snow cover and aquatic life. nepal is experiencing the adverse impact of climate change; this includes such as a variability in temperature and precipitation, overbank flooding from snow-fed rivers, and variability in available river and stream water quantity. climate in the nepal himalayas is changing faster than the global average. moreover, the changes in the high-altitudes have been found more pronounced than in the low-altitudes. since, there is no definite trend that could be found in the annual precipitation records, clear decreasing trends could be seen in annual number of rainy days during the study period of 1971-2000. the glaciers in the nepal himalayas are shrinking rapidly and there will be no glaciers left by 2180. an accelerated glacier melt will cause an increase in water availability at the beginning but ultimately a decrease in water availability after the glaciers disappear. this will widen the gap between water supply and demand. changing climate may further exacerbate the water stress which already happening in nepal due to the monsoon dominated climate. climate change (cc) will also further increase the seasonal imbalance too much of water during rainy season and too less of it during dry seasons. rainwater harvesting technology has the potential to provide numerous benefits to communities and individuals, particularly in areas where water resources are scarce or unreliable. from the analysis and through our research work it is found that if we can simply install and construct rainwater harvesting technology in our individual household only. it nearly fulfills about 15-25% of our domestic water demand. as in urban and rural area of nepal still nearly about 50% of water demand is fulfilled by groundwater source which increase to 60-70% in dry season. the projected physical impacts of climate change on water resources would have substantial socioeconomic impacts and consequences for nepal. the hydropower potential and agricultural production would be seriously affected by global warming. a reduction in agricultural production would be experienced due to water security and have significant impact on the food security and livelihoods of the subsistence farmers, who make the majority of the nepal’s population. as the urgent need for climate change mitigation remains crucial, putting all the necessary resources and institutions in place for future adaptation is indispensable. the inter-governmental panel on climate change (ipcc) has listed rainwater-harvesting as a key strategy for a planned adaptation in the water sector. the policy statements about rainwater harvesting-based climate change adaptation are currently not being effectively coordinated. keywords agriculture, climate change, forestry, glaciers, runoff, water resources 1 department of civil engineering, kathmandu university, dhulikhel, nepal 2 faculty of science, health and technology, nepal open university, lalitpur, nepal * corresponding author’s e-mail: deepankhatri74@gmail.com introduction water is an essential to life on earth and is also vital for sustainable development. without access to safe and clean water, humans and other life forms cannot survive. access to water, safe and clean drinking water is recognized by the united nations as a basic human right, essential for the realization of all other human rights (un water, 2019). water scarcity and security are becoming increasingly important issues as global demand for water continues to grow and climate change exacerbates existing water challenges. climate change is leading to melting glaciers and changing river flows, which can affect the availability of water resources for human consumption, agriculture, and industry (unep, 2021). change in precipitation patterns due to climate change can lead to increased competition for water resources, which can exacerbate tensions and conflicts between different users of water. nepal is considered one of the top ten countries most vulnerable to climate change. the country is highly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and water resources, which are already being impacted by changing climate patterns (wfp, 2009). the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mainly carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch4), and nitrous oxide (n2o), is widely considered to be the primary cause of climate change. these gases trap heat in the earth’s atmosphere, causing a rise in global temperatures and disrupting the earth’s climate system. the impacts of climate change are widespread and affect various sectors such as water resources, agriculture, forestry, human health, biodiversity, and aquatic life. in nepal, climate change has resulted in a rise in temperature and changes in precipitation patterns, leading to flooding and droughts in some regions. the country’s mountainous pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 24-32, 2023 terrain and dependence on snow-fed rivers also make it vulnerable to the effects of melting glaciers and changing river flows. several studies have shown that the climate in the nepal himalayas is changing faster than the global average. the long-term hydrological, meteorological, and glaciological data from the region provide evidence of these changes. the average temperature in the nepal himalayas has increased by 1.5°c since the 1970s, which is higher than the global average increase of 0.8°c, over the same period (chaulagain, 2006). the changes in the highaltitudes have been found more pronounced than in the low-altitudes. although there was no clear trend in the annual rainfall records, there was a clear downward trend in the number of rainy days per year during the study period from 1971 to 2000. the physical and socioeconomic impacts of climate change with reference to water resources are also sensitive and critical in the context of nepal. river runoff, total water availability, water quality, glacier extent, evapotranspiration and a temperature rise are main governing parameter of water resources due to climate change. this warming trend has led to the melting of glaciers and snow cover in the region, which has significant implications for water resources and hydropower generation in nepal and downstream countries. the glaciers in the nepal himalayas are shrinking rapidly and there will be no glaciers left by 2180. climate change is likely to exacerbate water stress already occurring in nepal due to its monsoondominated climate. climate change will exacerbate this seasonal imbalance. that is, there is too much water in the wet season and too little in the dry season. the projected physical impacts of climate change on water resources will have significant socio-economic impacts on nepal. hydropower potential and agricultural production will be severely affected. a reduction in agricultural production would have significant impact on the food security and livelihoods of the subsistence farmers, who make the majority of the nepal’s population. the intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc) has identified rainwater harvesting as a key strategy for planned adaptation in the water sector. rainwater harvesting helps reduce dependence on groundwater and surface water sources, which can be increasingly stressed by changing rainfall patterns and increased demand (smit & pilifosova, 2003). most relevant policies, strategies, and laws are pre-climate change, do not offer significant value for developing specific climate change adaptation strategies, and are included in almost all policies for rainwater and there is no mechanism to coordinate the actions of policy statements on storage and strategy documents. rainwater harvesting is the practice of collecting and storing rainwater for later use, typically for household purposes such as drinking, cooking, and cleaning. the water is collected from rooftops and other hard surfaces such as pavements or driveways and stored in tanks or cisterns. this method of water collection is often used in areas where access to clean and safe water is limited or expensive. rainwater harvesting is a sustainable and cost-effective way to supplement water supply and reduce dependence on municipal water sources. it is widely practiced in many parts of the world, including nepal (adpc, 2022). nepal is a mountainous country, with the himalayas covering much of the northern part of the country. approximately 86% of the total land area is covered by hills and mountains. forests covers about 43.4% of the country’s land area and agricultural land covers about 24.1%, almost half of the southern flatland of terai. the average annual precipitation in nepal varies widely, ranging from less than 200 mm to more than 5000 mm, with an estimated average value of 1830 mm (mofe, 2019). this variability in rainfall patterns can have a significant impact on agriculture, water availability, and overall economic development in the country. objective general objectives to present a water harvesting technology as one of the appropriate solution to mitigate water scarcity due to climate change specific objective • to find average annually rainfall intensity • to find the average quantity of water that can be collected from household • to investigate relationship between climate change and annual precipitation pattern • to analyze the benefits and significance of rain water harvesting technology (r.w.t) • to suggest appropriate design for conveyance and storage facility of rainwater harvesting for individual household. methodology study area nepal, country of asia lying along the southern slope of the himalayan and mountain ranges. it is a land lock country located between india to the east, south and west and tibet autonomous region of china to the north. it is located in 28°23ˊ50ˊ n and 84°07ˊ32ˊ e with an area of 147,181 km2. according to the preliminary report of national census 2078, the population of nepal has reached 2,91,92,480 and the annual precipitation is spatially variable with some central and northerly pockets of the country receiving more than 3,000 millimeters (mm), the central and southern plains typically receiving 1,500 – 2,000 mm, and some high-altitude areas in the north receiving less than 1,000 mm. materials and methods although the potential impacts of climate change on water resources have long been recognized long time ago, relatively little research has been done on rainwater harvesting. the principle focus of climate change research with regard to water security and rain water harvesting was to quantify the direct impacts of pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 24-32, 2023 changing precipitation patterns due to climate change and to identify the requirement of rain water harvesting to reduce the impact of water security. for quantification of storm water rational method in our research we have used rational method for the quantity estimation of surface runoff generated from individual household. the rational equation is the simplest method to determine peak discharge from drainage basin runoff. it is not as complex as other method, but is the most common method used for quantifying storm discharge. rational equation: q= cia/360 where: q= peak discharge, cubic meter per second c = runoff coefficient i= rainfall intensity, mm/hour a = drainage area, hectare identifying rainfall intensity the rainfall intensity is the depth of water (in mm) received during a shower divided by the duration of the shower (in hours). it is expressed in millimeters of water depth per hour (mm/hour). for our research we take a data of precipitation from 2015-2023 on yearly basis as in inch per year and converted them into mm/hr. we collect secondary data of precipitation from weather spark then we analyze according to our requirement. finding the value of coefficient of runoff the runoff coefficient (c) is a dimensionless coefficient relating the amount of runoff to the amount of precipitation received. it is a larger value for areas with low infiltration and high runoff (pavement, steep gradient), finding to total demand of water for particular area as in the case of nepal there is a quite variation in water demand particularly from 45-135 liter per capital per day. generally in rural area water demand is about 45-65 lpcd and for urban area it varies from 100-135 lpcd. here in our research paper we have taken its value as 110 liter per capita per day (lpcd).with the data from central bureau of statics (cbs) we have calculate the total domestic demand of water for single day. finding total quantity of water that would be collected through the rwh we have used rational method for the quantification of water that can be collected from rwh technology for single day to month and annually for bharatpur, lalitpur, pokhara and kathmandu. finding percentage that rwh technology will cover to total domestic water throughout the year on the basis of number of household and area’s population we have determined and analyzed total amount of water that can be collected or recharge through the rainwater harvesting and we find its contribution proportion to fulfill total annual domestic demand of particular area. the study was generally based on secondary data. more than 15 scientific journal articles published in international journals, several reports, few published books and some authorize websites were selected and critically reviewed. here, syntheses have been drawn after reviewing those papers in order to calculate the rainwater harvesting technology design and water quantity and analysis the impact of climate change in water security of nepal. result and discussion climate change and water security climate change and water security are closely linked. as global temperatures rise, precipitation patterns are changing, causing more frequent and severe droughts, floods, and storms. these changes affect the availability, quality, and distribution of freshwater resources, which are essential for human health, agriculture, and industry. the per capita water consumption of the nepal, 35 to 55 liters per capita per day (lpcd), which is significantly lower than the who standard, 112 to 150 lpcd. climate change impact the resources of water which will directly impact the per capita consumption of water in nepal. agricultural sectors, crops, livestock and horticulture largely depend on the water sources mainly precipitation, rivers, ponds and groundwater. variability in climate and precipitation patterns impact the soil moisture and rise in temperature rapidly increase the evaporation process, increasing the demand of more water. the study of the selected area shows that if rainwater harvesting technology is adapted, water demand can be fulfilled. as the depth of groundwater table from surface is growing, area with high population like kathmandu, pokhara, lalitpur, bhakatapur, chitwan, dharan and hetauda are not able to fulfill their water supply demand. table 1: different values of c according to the surface material surface runoff coefficient asphalt 0.70-0.95 concrete 0.80-0.95 brick 0.70-0.85 roofs 0.75-0.95 and lower for permeable, well vegetated areas (forest, flat land).as in our research we have consider rcc frame structure and cement concrete roof so we take a 0.8 or 80% contribution of precipitation to the surface runoff. finding contributing area or catchment area contribution area for the surface runoff from the individual household is taken on the basis of trend of land use and on the basis of urban municipality’s average area of 1369 square feet (i.e. 4 ana) and permissible ground coverage between 0.7-0.75.we have taken 70% coverage as a built-up area. pa ge 27 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 24-32, 2023 annual precipitation distribution nepal’s climate is highly diverse due to its topography, and it can be classified into five broad climatic zones based on altitude and precipitation patterns. the terai region, which lies in the southern part of nepal at less than 500m above sea level has subtropical monsoon climate characterized by high temperature and heavy precipitation during the summer to the high himalayan region which lies in the northernmost part of nepal at over 5000m. average temperatures decline from a peak of over 24°c in the south down to subzero temperatures in nepal’s highest mountains. precipitation is spatially variable with some central and northerly pockets of the country receiving more than 3,000 millimeters (mm), the central and southern plains typically receiving 1,500 – 2,000 mm, and some high-altitude areas in the north receiving less than 1,000 mm. the northern regions of nepal receive rainfall from both the summer monsoon and winter precipitation, which is brought in by the westerly winds. some areas in the central and northern parts of the country, such as the pokhara valley, the kathmandu valley, and the eastern himalayas, receive high amounts of rainfall, while other areas in the northern highlands receive very little rainfall due to the rain shadow effect caused by the himalayas. precipitation plays a critical role in supporting human well-being and ecosystems, and changes in precipitation patterns can have significant impacts on both. rainfall and the timing of snow melt and evaporation rate can all affect the amount of surface water and groundwater available for drinking, irrigation, and industry. they also influence river flooding and can determine what types of animals and plants including agricultural crops. changes in precipitation can disrupt a wide range of natural processes, particularly if these changes occur more quickly than plant and animal species can adapt. figure 1: average annual precipitation of nepal (1985-2021) source: the soil of nepal, 2021 figure 2: average annual mean precipitation (mm) of nepal over the period 1901-2020 pa ge 28 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 24-32, 2023 rainwater harvesting technology water harvesting is the process of collecting and storing rainwater or other sources of water, such as groundwater or surface water, for later use. the two common rainwater harvesting technologies are surface runoff harvesting and ground recharge. surface runoff harvesting this type of rainwater harvesting involves collecting and storing rainwater that runs off from the surface of roofs, roads, and other impermeable surfaces. the water is collected in storage tanks or reservoirs, and can be used for various purposes such as irrigation, livestock, and household use. this technique is relatively simple and cost-effective, but it requires regular maintenance to ensure that the storage tanks are clean and free of debris. groundwater recharge this type of rainwater harvesting involves storing rainwater underground in order to recharge groundwater reserves. the technique involves capturing rainwater in storage tanks or ponds, and then slowly releasing the water into the ground through recharge wells or infiltration basins. this helps to replenish the groundwater supply and reduce the risk of groundwater depletion. this technique is more complex than surface runoff harvesting and requires careful planning and management to ensure that the groundwater is being recharged effectively. both of these rainwater harvesting technologies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of which one to use depends on various factors such as the availability of space, local rainfall patterns, and water demand. the characteristics of water harvesting can vary depending on the specific method or system used, some of the general characteristics are collection surface, collection efficiency, storage capacity, water quality, maintenances, sustainability and cost. purpose of rainwater harvesting technology the rainwater harvesting depended upon the technique of water harvesting adapted in the area. the main purpose of rainwater harvesting achieves the water demand of the household, community and society. this can also relief the burden of the government to supply water and to meet the increasing demands. as population is growing, demand of water is increasing, government of nepal is struggling to provide adequate and reliable water supplies. by introducing rainwater harvesting to the communities, the stress on centralized water system and infrastructure can be reduced. design of rainwater harvesting the below drawing is the suggested design after the study and analysis of data. figure 3: average monthly precipitation (mm) in kathmandu, bharatpur, pokhara and lalitpur over the period of 2015-2022 pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 24-32, 2023 figure 4: option 1: using rainwater harvesting technology directly to fullfill domestic water demand (as a storage) table 2: designing storage tank for individual household area average no person in household water requirement per day water accumulated per month tank capacity required per house kathmandu 7 770 3450 liter min.8000 liter pokhara 5 550 3845 liter min.10,000liter lalitpur 5 550 3757 liter min 10,000 liter bharatpur 5 550 4053 liter min10,000 liter figure 5: option 2: using rainwater harvesting technology as a ground water recharge method to increase ground water table benefits of rainwater harvesting technology rainwater harvesting technology has several benefits for communities and individuals, particularly in areas where water resources are scarce or unreliable. rainwater harvesting technology has the potential to provide numerous benefits to communities and individuals, particularly in areas where water resources are scarce or unreliable. pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 24-32, 2023 table 3: showing the potential demand of kathmandu, pokhara, lalitpur and bharatpur can be fulfilled by rainwater harvesting technology area:-kathmandu average rainfall (mm/hrs.) 0.078 quantity of water collected from single household (mly) 0.042 population (numbers) 2933523 average no of household (h.h) 437,354 domestic water demand (dwd-lpd) 100 total domesttic water demand (tdwd) (mly) 117780.94 quantity of water collected from total household (mly) 18090.79 potential demand full filled by the (rwh/dwd) 0.155 if every house of kathmandu will be equipped with the rainwater harvesting technology, simply it can fulfill nearly about 15.5% of total domestic demand of water annually. area:-pokhara average rainfall (mm/hrs.) 0.087 quantity of water collected from single household (mly) 0.0461 population (numbers) 5,18,452 average no of household (h.h) 101,699 domestic water demand (dwd-lpd) 110 total domesttic water demand (tdwd) (mly) 20815.8478 quantity of water collected from total household (mly) 4692.0844 potential demand full filled by the (rwh/dwd) 0.2254 if every house of pokhara will be equipped with the rainwater harvesting technology, simply it can fulfill nearly about 22.54% of total domestic demand of water. area:-lalitpur average rainfall (mm/hrs.) 0.085 quantity of water collected from single household (mly) 0.045 population (numbers) 468132 average no of household (h.h) 97,394 domestic water demand (dwd-lpd) 110 total domesttic water demand (tdwd) (mly) 18795.4998 quantity of water collected from total household (mly) 4390.17 potential demand full filled by the (rwh/dwd) 0.233 if every house of lalitpur will be equipped with the rainwater harvesting technology, simply it can fulfill nearly about 23.35% of total domestic demand of water. area:-bharatpur average rainfall (mm/hrs.) 0.093 quantity of water collected from single household (mly) 0.0486 population (numbers) 369377 average no of household (h.h) 77,838 domestic water demand (dwd-lpd) 110 total domesttic water demand (tdwd) (mly) 14830.49 quantity of water collected from total household (mly) 3786.2 potential demand full filled by the (rwh/dwd) 0.255 if every house of bharatpur will be equipped with the rainwater harvesting technology, simply it can fulfill nearly about 25.5% of domestic demand of water. pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 24-32, 2023 overall, rainwater harvesting technology can help to fulfill water demands by providing a reliable and sustainable source of water for households and communities. by reducing reliance on municipal water supplies, conserving water resources, and promoting sustainable water management practices, rainwater harvesting can help to ensure that water needs are met now and in the future. problems of rainwater harvesting technology rainwater harvesting technology can provide a sustainable source of water for households and communities, there are potential challenges and limitations that need to be considered when implementing these systems. limitation of water availability due to variation in precipitation patterns, water quality issues, maintenance requirement to ensure the collection, storage and distribution system, installation cost and legal issue are some of the problems regarding the rainwater harvesting technology. law, policy and strategy the inter-governmental panel on climate change (ipcc) has listed rainwater-harvesting as a key strategy for a planned adaptation in the water sector. most related policies, strategies and legislations are preclimate change providing no significant value for the formulation of specific climate change adaptation strategies and that there is no mechanism to coordinate actions for the policy statements about rainwaterharvesting that are found strewn in almost all policy and strategy documents. there is no mechanism to coordinate actions for the policy statements about rainwater-harvesting that are found strewn in almost all policy and strategy documents. there is no mechanism to coordinate actions for the policy statements about rainwater-harvesting that are found strewn in almost all policy and strategy documents. for a more effective adaptation to climate change, based on rainwater harvesting, actions are suggested to mainstream rainwater harvesting-based adaptation into development; to design adaptation as a phased process; integrate mitigation and adaptation; put in place effective systems for assessment and mapping of vulnerability; avoid maladaptation; establish the centrality of disaster risk management in the institutional setup for rainwater harvesting-based climate change adaptation. in nepal, the law, policy, and strategy related to rainwater harvesting are mainly aimed at promoting sustainable use of water resources, increasing access to safe drinking water, and reducing water scarcity. national water supply and sanitation policy 2006, recognizes rainwater harvesting as sustainable and costeffective means of providing safe drinking water and also national drinking water quality standards 2007, provide guidelines for the design and construction of rainwater harvesting system. local level drinking water and sanitation master plan 2016, outlined strategies and action plan promotion of rainwater harvesting systems and provides guidelines for their design and construction. there are also several i/ ngos and government agencies promoting rainwater harvesting. although, important of rainwater harvesting was highlighted for a long time, appropriate strategy and action planning has not been seen on action at often. therefore, promotion of rainwater harvesting in nepal is an important strategy for ensuring sustainable water management and improving access to safe drinking water. conclusion rainwater harvesting technology has the potential to provide numerous benefits to communities and individuals, particularly in areas where water resources are scarce or unreliable. climate change impact on the water security and impact the temperature and precipitation patterns, rainwater harvesting technology has the potential to provide numerous benefits to communities and individuals, particularly in areas where water resources are scarce or unreliable. promotion of rainwater harvesting in nepal is an important strategy for ensuring sustainable water management and improving access to safe drinking water, especially in rural areas. the laws, policies, and strategies outlined above provide a framework for the implementation of rainwater harvesting initiatives at the national and local levels in nepal. from the analysis and through our research work it is found that if we can simply install and construct rainwater harvesting technology in our individual household only. it nearly fulfills about 15-25% of our domestic water demand. as in urban and rural area of nepal still nearly about 50% of water demand is fulfilled by groundwater source which increase to 60-70% in dry season. if we can implement the rainwater harvesting technology it will also help to excessive extraction of ground water. in near future due to rapid population growth, urbanization and climate change, demand of water is going to be excessively increased which ultimately create the water scarcity. so our concern authority and local government should identify rain water harvesting technology as essential part for the ground water recharge and for water resources conservation. every metropolitan city, municipality and rural municipality should make guidelines and standards for rainwater harvesting technology. they have to make a mandatory bye law for the compulsory construction and installation of rwh technology to get a building completion certificate for newly constructed buildings as well existing building also. local government should start to increase ground water infiltration rather than the surface runoff by reducing the ground coverage percentage and promoting rain water harvesting concept. limitations • as the design study analyze only single household domestic demand of rainwater harvesting, entire rainfall harvest is not covered. • the study area is vast and more research time is required. • lack of availability of data and document related to the study. • financial aspect is also one of the limitation of the study. pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 2(3) 24-32, 2023 acknowledgement we would like to thanks our professors and friends who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research. also like to thank them for the comments that greatly improved the manuscript. reference ayele, y. a. (may 2014). rainwater harvesting for climate change adaptation in ethiopia. chaulagain, n. p. (2006). impacts of climate change on water resources of nepal: the physical and socioeconomic dimensions. flensburg, 6(29). https://doi. org/10.1088/1755-1307/6/29/292029 karki, k. b. (2007). greenhouse gases, global warming and glacier ice melt in nepal. journal of agriculture and environment, 8, 1-7.. https://doi.org/10.3126/aej. v8i0.721 mofe, 2019. climate change scenarios for nepal for national adaptation plan. (nap). ministry of forests and environment, kathmandu policy and institutional analysis. japan: institute of developing economies, 488 chaulagain, n. p. (2006). impacts of climate change on water resources of nepal: the physical and sharma, l., gupta, n., & basnayake, s. (2022). water harvesting: a needs assessment. smit, b., & pilifosova, o. (2003). adaptation to climate change in the context of sustainable development and equity. sustainable development, 8(9), 9. unep. (2021, october 27). climate change, water scarcity and security . retrieved from unep: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/speech/ climate-change-water-scarcity-and-security water, u. n. (2019). climate change and water: un-water policy brief. geneva: un water. wfp. (2009). the future of food creating sustainable communities through climate adaptation. world food program nepal. pa ge 1 pa ge 17 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) spt based liquefaction potentiality index, susceptibility & risk assessment in the rohingya refugee camp hills of ukhiya, cox’s bazar, bangladesh hossain atms1*, dutta t1, mahbub m.s2, jafrin s.j2, khan p. a2, haque m.e2, sayem m.h2, imam h2, khatun m2, bakali r2 volume 1 issue 3, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.843 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 28, 2022 accepted: november 29, 2022 published: december 13, 2022 more than one million rohingya refugees who fled from myanmar, had constructed temporary shelters on the loose unconsolidated sandy hills (sc-sm, sp & ml) of ukhiyateknaf region, cox’s bazar area, bangladesh. after entering bangladesh, the green eco forests of ukhiya hills had to be destroyed by cutting trees and hill slopes as they built their shelters which eventually had destructive effects on the ecosystem of ukhiya teknaf region. sands (sp-sm) are mainly uniformly graded and composed of more than 72% to 98 % sand. this research has been carried out to assess the liquefaction potentiality index vales, susceptibility using spt and risks associated with the ukhiya hills at different earthquake magnitudes. during earthquake at magnitudes 5 or greater, ukhiya hill soils are susceptible to liquefy up to a depth of 12 m.. from the liquefaction potentiality index (lpi) values, risk and sensitivity analysis, it is established that the ukhiya hills are medium to highly susceptible to liquefy at higher magnitudes (m= 5 or greater). it is also established that north western part of the camp hills are high to very high risk prone areas. based on liquefaction potentiality index (lpi) values, four seismic risk zones are identified in and around the rohingya camp area. some geo-engineering recommendations are also made to reduce this seismic hazard for sustainable community living in the camp area. keywords liquefaction, risk, sensitivity, susceptible & earthquake 1 engineering geology, geotechnics & geohazards research group, jahangirnagar university, bangladesh 2 department of geological sciences, jahangirnagar university, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: shakhawathos2004@yahoo.com introduction liquefaction can occur in moderate to major earthquakes resulting in severe damage to engineering structures. structural damage due to liquefaction can be reduced by taking proper geo-engineering measures during any construction including shelters. rohingyas constructed temporary shelters in the loose unconsolidated granular sandy soils of ukhiya hills. this research has been carried out to see the risk associated with the rohingya shelters at ukhiya hills based on lpi values. hazard zones in the camp area have also been identified based on liquefaction potentiality index & susceptibility analyses. some structural damage mainly building collapse (figure 1). due to differential settlement near to rohingya camp area clearly justify the importance of carrying out this research. variours researchers including seed and idriss,1971: seed, 1979; ishihara ,1985; seed and idriss, 1967, 1982;seed et al.; 1985; youd and idriss, 1997; youd et al., 2001; youd; 2003; cetin et al., 2000 and idriss and boulanger, 2006; iwashaki, 1986, ishihara, 1985 & mahabub, et al.; 2020 have been carried out research on the liquefaction potentiality assessment of soils based on empirical methods in different parts of the world. figure 1: building damage near to himchari figure 2: location map of the investigated area. bangladesh is a south asian country. the investigated ukhiya rohingya camp area (figure 2) is located in the south eastern folded part of bangladesh. bangladesh is seismically active and has experienced number of great earthquake events of magnitude exceeding 8 (eight) during 1897, 1905, 1934, 1950 and another 10 earthquakes exceeding magnitude 7.5 have occurred in the himalayan belt during the last 100 years. the earthquake history of bangladesh and surrounding region including rohingya camp area of ukhiya indicates that the country is seismically active. based on more than one hundred years earthquake data of usgs (from 1900 to 2015), a seismic activity map of bangladesh (banglapedia, 2021) and surrounding area is shown in figure 3. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i3.843 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 17-23, 2022 earthquake induced soil liquefaction is a serious geotechnical problem and seismic hazard for sustainable infrastructure & community development in any area. liquefaction mainly occurs in saturated granular soils with shallow ground water table condition and in recent years, liquefaction is considered as an important parameter for sustainable urban land use planning & development. liquefaction of loose, saturated, cohesion less soils can produce several different types of ground failure depending on site conditions. these failure mechanisms include lateral spreading, loss of bearing capacity and settlement, ground oscillations, and flow failure (youd, 2003). any of these mechanisms can potentially cause damage to engineering structures due to the ground and foundation movements that occur. the bangladesh national building code 2015 (bnbc) identifies 4 zones having different intensities of earthquakes (figure 4). the investigated area belong completely to zone 3. according to bnbc (2015), the map shows the horizontal ground surface acceleration amax. = 0.28g. the seismic zoning map of bangladesh (bnbc, 2015) is shown in figure 4. figure 3: seismic activity in bangladesh source: bnbc (2015) figure 4: seismic zoning map of bangladesh source: banglapedia (2021) geology & seismo-tectonics hossain et al. 2023 discussed the geology of the investigated area. the rohingya refugee camps are located in the south eastern folded part of bangladesh. these hills are mainly composed of loose to very loose yellowish brown sand, medium to coarse grained soils. some subordinate clay soils are also associated with sands (sp, sm, sc & ml). some parts of the camp hills are composed of loose ferruginous sands, greenish and brownish grey in color. some pebbles, cobbles, conglomeratic and shale parting are also present with sandy soils. sandstone & siltstone with alteration of sands, silts and shales are also present. they are of mio-pliocene age. twelve (12) boreholes (figure 1) were drilled in the investigated area to evaluate the liquefaction potentiality and risk assessment. a generalized stratigraphic succession of the hills of chittagong & chittagong hill tracts is shown in table 1. table 1: geology of the investigated area concerning tectonics and seismicity, bangladesh is located in one of the most active tectonic region of the world where three plates the indian plate, the tibet and the burmese sub plates are colliding and thrusting against each other. consequently, tremendous seismic activities have been resulted in the north and east of bangladesh and caused some major earthquakes within and outside the country (hossain et al., 2022). the investigated area has already experienced many severe earthquakes. the epicentres of the most severe earthquakes are situated in the area of the himalayan mountains & arkan yoma folded hilly regions (near to the investigated area). https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 17-23, 2022 earthquakes with epicentres within bangladesh may also occur, but with lesser intensity. hossain et al. (2022) also noted that earthquake epicenter in assam in india is not far from bangladesh, it is suggested to provide sufficient margin of safety, in designing the infrastructure in and around ukhiya hills. methodology both the field and laboratory geotechnical investigations were carried out to evaluate the liquefaction potentiality index, susceptibility and risk assessment in the rohingya refugee camp area. at first a detailed site investigation was carried out in accordance with b .s.5930 (19990). and drilled twelve (12) boreholes in the camp area. during drilling each borehole, lithology was recorded with increasing depth up to a depth of 30 m. the spt (standard penetration test ) tests with split spoon sampler were carried out in each borehole with a depth interval of 1.5 m. and the “n” value for each soil layer was recorded. the corrected spt values were then used to calculate the liquefaction potentiality index & factor of safety values. based on seed & idriss (1971) , milhdbk-1007/3, (1997), nceer (1997) & seed and idriss (1982), liquefaction potentiality of soils were evaluated using liquify pro, version 5 (2011) software. the csr (cyclic resistance ratio), crr (cyclic resistance ratio) & factor of safety values of each lithological unit at different depths and at different earthquake magnitudes (m = 4,5 , 6, & 7) were analyzed. the rohingya refugee camps and the surrounding area of the project belong completely to zone 3.. according to bnbc (2015), the investigated area shows the horizontal ground surface acceleration amax. = 0.28g. this peak acceleration at ground surface (amax) .) value 0.28 at different earthquake magnitudes of the investigated area was considered during liquefaction potentiality analysis. finally, based on obtained results, liquefaction potentiality index (lpi) values at different locations and depths were calculated (table 3) in accordance with iwasaki et al. (1982). the results were then compared and analyzed to identify risks. results basic geotechnical properties hossain et al. (2022) discussed the grain size results as shown in figure 5. from the grain size analysis results it is established that these soils are sand dominated soils (more than 82% to 98% sand), uniformly graded and fall within range of 0.01 to 1 mm. the cohesion of these soils is almost zero with an angle of internal friction (φ°) value range from 23 to 27 degrees.spt versus depth curves based on spt values three (3) zones are identified viz. very low, medium and high as shown in figures 6. low spt zones might be more susceptible to liquefaction in comparison to high spt zones. that’s why an attempt has been taken to evaluate the risk zones using liquefy pro software (2011) to see the impacts of liquefaction potentiality at different earthquake magnitudes. all the boreholes data were used to investigate the liquefaction potentiality at different earthquake magnitudes (m = 4, 5, 6, & 7). highest amount of ground response due to liquefaction was observed at m =7. liquefaction potentiality analyses results of some boreholes at magnitude (m = 7) with the calculated shear stress ratio curves, settlement amount and corresponding factor of safety (fs) values at different depths are shown in figures 7.a maximum settlement amount of 11.89 cm, was observed for borehole 7 at earthquake magnitude (m) 7 during analysis. at lower magnitudes, settlement amounts were low for all-other boreholes. it is established that settlement amount for other boreholes are lower in figure 5: grain size results figure 6: spt versus depth curves comparison with borehole 7 for the same magnitude (m = 7).the obtained liquefaction potentiality analyses results for borehole 7 at earthquake magnitude (m) 7 are listed in table 2. the obtained csr values for borehole 7 range from 0.18 to 0,28, crr values range from 0.17 to 2.00. lower csr values for all other boreholes at shallow depths (up to 4 m.) also indicate that these soils are susceptible to liquefy. a significant drop of factor of safety value less than one (fs < 1) was observed up to a depth of 4.5 m. for borehole 7 (north west of balukhali camp) at magnitude (m) 7 and at greater depths higher factor of safety values were observed. .it is also established that liquefaction occurred with lower csr values at shallow depths. the variation of factor of safety (fs) with depths https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 17-23, 2022 figure 7: liquefaction analyses results at magnitude (m) 7 for boreholes 9,10,11 & 12 table 2: summary of the liquefaction parameters for borehole 7 at earthquake magnitude (m) 7 depthb(m.) csr crr fs settlement (cm.) 0.5 0.18 0.06 0.33 11.896 1.5 0.28 0.08 0..28 7.692 3.0 0.34 0.17 0.50 3.991 4..5 0.35 0.14 0.41 0.843 6.0 0.35 1,75 5.00 0.000 7.5 0.33 2.00 6.00 0.000 10 0.31 2.00 6.00 0.000 15 0.27 2.00 7.00 0.000 20 0.28 2.00 7.00 0.000 figure 8: variation of factor of safety with depths for all boreholes at m=7 for all other boreholes at magnitude (m) 7 is shown in figure 8. it is clearly established that factor of safety (fs) at earthquake magnitude (m) 7, most of the soils of the camp area are liquefiable (fs < 1) from near surface to up to a greater depths. therefore, at higher earthquake magnitudes (>5) prominent potential zones can be identified up to 12 m. depth. a smaller number of soil samples at all depths even at lower magnitudes showed factor of safety value (fs) > 1. these are non-liquefiable soils. on the other hand, no potential liquefiable zones are identified at lower earthquake magnitudes (m) up to 4. liquefaction potentiality index (lpi) in this research an attempt has also been taken to calculate the liquefy potentiality index (lpi) values at different earthquake magnitudes (m) 5 to 8, during wet season to identify degree of risk in the investigated area in accordance with iwasaki (1982).the obtained lpi values of all borehole samples are listed in table 3. table 3: summary of determined lpi vales to identify risk boreholes information boreholes no coordinates ground elevation (m) total drilling depth (m) wet season g.w.l.(m.) earthquake magnitudes (m) at amax=0.28 liquefaction potential index (lpi) sevierity and potential risk easting northing bh-01 40 16 93 .0 3 23 55 58 3. 88 14.02 10.67 1.00 5.00 0.00 very low or none 6.00 0.00 very low or none 7.00 5.75 medium 8.00 11.02 medium https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 17-23, 2022 bh-02 41 27 69 .3 3 23 46 09 3. 54 14.93 10.67 0.80 5.00 0.00 very low or none 6.00 0.00 very low or none 7.00 0.00 very low or none 8.00 4.55 low bh-03 41 19 30 .2 1 23 46 33 2. 35 22.55 15.24 1.21 5.00 0.00 very low or none 6.00 0.00 very low or none 7.00 15.26 very high 8.00 30.15 very high bh-04 41 28 24 .5 0 23 43 61 8. 95 16.76 10.67 1.00 5.00 0.00 very low or none 6.00 0.00 very low or none 7.00 5.85 medium 8.00 15.59 very high bh-05 41 22 47 .4 2 23 41 97 9. 42 14.63 15.24 1.00 5.00 0.00 very low or none 6.00 0.11 low 7.00 12.27 medium 8.00 25.45 very high bh-06 41 21 10 .9 4 23 42 39 5. 77 15.54 15.24 1.10 5.00 0.00 very low or none 6.00 0.00 very low or none 7.00 9.62 medium 8.00 21.87 very high bh-07 40 98 81 .8 2 23 41 78 5. 87 24.38 14.02 1.00 5.00 1.01 low 6.00 18.16 very high 7.00 27.91 very high 8.00 33.81 very high bh-09 40 41 98 .2 6 23 45 11 3. 30 47.54 15.00 0.40 5.00 16.04 very high 6.00 28.10 very high 7.00 35.53 very high 8.00 40.16 very high bh-10 40 29 68 .1 0 23 48 02 5. 48 30.78 18.59 0.70 5.00 2.14 low 6.00 16.21 very high 7.00 29.56 very high 8.00 40.16 very high bh-11 40 42 65 .8 8 23 50 60 3. 47 24.68 17.06 0.30 5.00 29.12 very high 6.00 43.30 very high 7.00 51.06 very high 8.00 55.76 very high bh-12 40 29 62 .4 8 23 53 09 0. 17 26.82 15.54 0.30 5.00 8.20 medium 6.00 13.33 medium 7.00 18.86 very high 8.00 23.52 very high based on overall estimation of lpi values, 5 (five) liquefaction potential risk zones are identified viz. very low (lpi =0), low (lpi = 0 to 5), medium. (lpi = 5 to 14), high (lpi = 14 to 25), & very high (lpi = 25 to 55). this will eventually help urban planners, engineers & policy makers to take geo-engineering measures for sustainable community living to reduce number of casualties & damage and to attain sustainability in the camp area. from the obtained lpi values at higher earthquake magnitudes, it is established that the north western part of balukhali & kutubpalong rohingya camp area is very highly potential to liquefy in comparison with other parts. on the other hand, balukhali camp area is a medium risk prone area and kutubpalong camp is a very low to low https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 17-23, 2022 risk prone area at higher earthquake magnitudes. based on overall estimation of lpi values, 5 (five) liquefaction potential risk zones are identified viz. very low (lpi =0), low (lpi = 0 to 5), medium. (lpi = 5 to 14), high (lpi = 14 to 25), & very high (lpi = 25 to 55). this will eventually help urban planners, engineers & policy makers to take geo-engineering measures for sustainable community living to reduce number of casualties & damage and to attain sustainability in the camp area. from the obtained lpi values at higher earthquake magnitudes, it is established that the north western part of balukhali & kutubpalong rohingya camp area is very highly potential to liquefy in comparison with other parts. on the other hand, balukhali camp area is a medium risk prone area and kutubpalong camp is a very low to low risk prone area at higher earthquake magnitudes. conclusion it is established from the grain size analysis results these soils are mainly sand dominated (sc-sm, sp & ml ( which contains more than 82% to 98% sand,, uniformly graded and fall within range of 0.01 to 1 mm., which clearly indicate that that these soils are highly potential to liquefy at higher earthquake magnitudes. the cohesion of these soils is almost zero with an angle of internal friction (φ°) value range from 23 to 27 degrees. based on spt data, it is also established that spt values are low to very low up to 4 m. at different locations and soils are very loose to loose in nature, the obtained spt values from a depth of 4m. to 10 m. indicating medium dense soils and at higher depths spt values are very high indicating dense soils. a wide variation of spt values with respect to depth at different locations were also observed. lower csr values for all boreholes at shallow depths (up to 4 m.) indicates that these soils are susceptible to liquefy at higher earthquake magnitudes. at higher depths csr values are high with a factor of safety value greater than 1. a significant drop of factor of safety value less than one (fs < 1) was observed up to a depth of 4.5 m. for borehole 7 at magnitude (m) 7 and at greater depths higher factor of safety values were observed. .it is also established that liquefaction occurred at magnitude (m) 7 with lower csr values. no potential liquefiable zones are identified at lower earthquake magnitudes (m) up to 4. at greater earthquake magnitudes (m) 7, soils are liquefiable even up to greater depths. att higher magnitudes, a smaller number of soil samples for all boreholes at all depths showed factor of safety value (fs) > 1. these are non-liquefiable soils. from the overall liquefaction potentiality index (lpi) results, 5 (five) potential liquefaction risk zones are identified viz. very low (lpi =0), low (lpi = 0 to 5), medium. (lpi = 5 to 15), high (lpi = 15 to 25), & very high (lpi = 26 to 55). it is established that the north western part of balukhali & kutubpalong rohingya camp area is very highly potential to liquefy and high risk prone area in comparison with other parts. on the other hand, balukhali camp area is a medium risk prone area and kutubpalong camp area is a very low to low risk prone area at higher earthquake magnitudes. this will help planners, engineers & policy makers to construct infrastructures safely for community living in the camp area, to reduce number of casualties & damage and to attain sustainability in the camp area. acknowledgement financial assistance provided by anso china (project no. anso-cr-pp-2020-08) to carry out this research work is gratefully acknowledged. reference banglapedia (2021). national encyclopedia of bangladesh, earthquakes. bnbc (2015). bangladesh national building code, house and building research institute, bangladesh standards and testing institutions. bs 5930 (british standard (1990). code of practice for site investigations, british standards institution, london. cetin, k.o. and seed, r.b., (2000). earthquake-induced nonlinear shear mass participation factor (rd). geotechnical engineering research report no. ucb/gt2000/08, university of california, berkeley evans,p.(1932). tectonic succession of assam, trans. min. geol, inst, india, 27, 155-260. hossain, a.t.m.s., jafia, s.j., khan, p.a., khatun, m., imam, h., sayem, h.m., dutta, t. & haque, m.e. (2023). the hidden geohazards in the rohingya refugee camps of ukhiya, cox’ bazar, bangladesh-a threat for sustainable development, paper id.95, iaeg xiv congress, chengdhu, china, springer book volume. idriss i.m. and boulanger r.w.,( 2004). semi-empirical procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential during earthquakes, proc. of 11th sdee and 3rd conference. university of california, berkeley is: 2131 (1981) method for standard penetration test for soils. ishihara, k. (1985) stability of natural deposits during earthquakes, theme lecture, proc. 11th int. conf. on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, san francisco, 2, 321–376. iwasaki, t. (1986). soil liquefaction studies in japan. stateofart, soil dyn. earthq. eng., 5(1), 2– 68. iwasaki t. tokida k., taksuoko f., watanabe s., yasuda s. & sato h.(1982). microzonation for soil liquefaction potential using simplified methods, proc. of 3rd international conf. on microzonation, 3, 1319-1330. liquefypro, version 5.7 later (2011). liquefaction and settlement analysis software manual. civiltech software, usa. mil-hdbk-1007/3 (1997). soil dynamics and special design aspects, department of defense handbook. national research council. nrc (1985). liquefaction of soils during earthquakes. committee on earthquake engineering, national academy press, washington, d.c. national center for earthquake engineering research nceer (1997). proc. the nceer workshop on https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(3) 17-23, 2022 evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils. technical rep. no. nceer-97-0022, buffalo, ny, usa. shakil, m.s., hossain. a.t.m.s & pahlowan, e,u.d.; assessment of liquefaction potential from sirajganj to kurigram area, bangladesh, iosr journal of mechanical and civil engineering (iosr-jmce), 17(1), 31-43. seed, h.b. & idriss, i.m. (1967). analysis of soil liquefaction: niigata earthquake. j. soil mech. and foundation div., proc. asce, sm3, 83–108. seed, h. b., (1979). soil liquefaction and cyclic mobility evaluation for level ground during earthquake, journal of geotechnical engineering division, asce, 105(2), 201-225. seed, h. b. and idriss, i. m., (1971). simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential, j. geotech. engrg. div., asce, 97(9), 1249–1273. seed, h. b. and idriss, i. m. (1982). ground motions and soil lique-faction during earthquakes, earthquake engineering research institute monograph, oakland, calif. seed, h. b., tokimatsu, k., harder, l. f. & chung, r. m., (1985). influence of spt procedures in soil liquefaction resistance evaluations, journal of geotechnical engineering, asce, 111(12), 1425 1445. youd et al., (2001). liquefaction resistance of soils: summary report from the 1996 nceer and 1998 nceer /nsf, workshops on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils, journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering. youd, t. l. and noble, s. k., (1997). magnitude scaling factors. proc., nceer workshop on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils, nat. ctr. for earthquake engrg. res., state univ. of new york at buffalo, 149–165. youd, t. l., (2003). liquefaction mechanisms and induced ground failure. in international handbook of earthquake and engineering seismology (vol. volume 81b): international association seismologist & physist earth’s interior, committee on education. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 34 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) microbial fuel cell bio-remediation of lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and chlorpyrifos on loam soil inoculated with bio-slurry kinyua a.1, mbugua j.k1*, mbui d.n2, kithure j.l2, wandiga s.o2, waswa a.g3 volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.249 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: may 10, 2022 accepted: may 22, 2022 published: may 25, 2022 in microbial fuel cell technology, the substrate is consumed by microbes in anaerobic conversion of substrate to electricity. bio-remediation of pollutants involves microbial environmental cleanup using green approach. the primary problems with pesticides are linked to the non-negligible proportion of the sprayed active ingredient that does not reach its intended target thereby contaminating environmental compartments persistently. the primary objective of this study was to assess the potential of microbial fuel cell technology in bio-remediation of lambda cyahlothrin, chlorpyrifos and malathion in limuru loam soil. h-shaped double chamber microbial fuel cell was fabricated where the anodic chamber was loaded with 750 ml loam soil inoculated with 750 ml bio-slurry doped with 10 ml of 10 ppm lambda cyhalothrin, chlorpyrifos and malathion pesticide solutions. the cathodic chamber was loaded with 1500 ml distilled water. the setup was incubated for a 90 days retention time where voltage and current were recorded daily using a multi-meter. the degradation level was assessed using a gc-ms after sample extraction using standard quechers method. the voltage generated from the pesticide doped loam soil showed an upward trend from day 0 to day 15 in lambda cyhalothrin and malathion and from day 0 to day 20 in chlorpyrifos and pesticide mixture after which constant readings were observed for three days with downward trends thereafter. the maximum generated voltage was 0.537 v, 0.571 v, 0.572 v and 0.509 v in chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and pesticide mix (mcl) respectively. the bioremediation levels for chlorpyrifos and malathion were 65.80 % and 71.32 %, respectively while no detectable, lambda cyhalothrin was observed after day 60 of the study. this study concludes that bioremediation of lambda cyhalothrin, chlorpyrifos and malathion in limuru loam soil can be achieved using microbial fuel cells. keywords bioremediation, bio-slurry, loam soil, microbial fuel cells, pesticides 1, 2 department of chemistry, university of nairobi, nairobi, kenya. 3 department of physical sciences, south eastern kenya university, kitui, kenya. * corresponding author’s e-mail: djames085@gmail.com introduction agricultural pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, and heavy metals (hms) have drastically degraded the quality of soils, thereby presenting serious danger to health and environment (rodríguez-eugenio et al., 2018). urgent efforts are needed to treat the contaminated soils to minimize further damage. one of the sustainable and environment-friendly approaches is the use of microbial bio-surfactants that can deliver an economically feasible bio-remediation technique to restore polluted areas (fatima et al., 2022). pesticides are chemical or biological substances that are used to kill or destroy pests that interfere with crop production (gilden, 2010). these pesticides are applied to prevent diseases, suppress weeds as well as kill pests. in the soil, they can transform to complex metabolites (doolotkeldieva et al., 2018). some of the pesticides commonly used in “container gardens” are lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and chlorpyrifos (mbugua et al., 2015). pesticide degradation refers to transformation of complex parental pesticide molecule into simpler by-products which may be non-toxic or still toxic as the original molecule from which they were derived from (who, 2007). there are number of processes that break down pesticides in the environment, these include photo-degradation and hydrolysis just to mention a few. microbes such as fungi and bacteria (vargas, 1975) have also been reported to aid pesticides degradation. for example, insecticides such as parathion (o, o-diethylo-p-nitrophenylphosphorothiate) is extensively used and undergoes enzymatic hydrolysis to produce p-nitro phenol, which further hydrolyses to produce nitrous acid and hydroquinone which is a metabolic intermediate. 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-d) bio-degrades to produce phenolic compounds such as 2, 4-dichlorophenol and 4-chloro-2-hydroxyphenol (sánchez-gonzález et al., 2018). chemical pollutants can adversely affect human and environmental health. in sediments, pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs), heavy metals and pesticides have the potential to exert an array of toxic effects on susceptible organisms. certain chemicals including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (ddt), various pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting agents (ex. nonylphenol) are recalcitrant in sediments, complicating removal (rodríguez-eugenio et al., 2018). agents such as dioxins bio-accumulate in plant and animal tissues used for human consumption (pisciotta and dolceamore, 2016). microbial-bioremediation process utilizes the indigenous microbial communities to clean up the environmental contamination. the rate at which the contaminants are detoxified depends on a number of factors such as the composition of the indigenous microbial communities, nature, and extent of the pollutant and environmental conditions (ghosal et al., https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.249 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:djames085%40gmail.com%20?subject= pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 34-41, 2022 2016). microorganisms transformation of toxic pollutants into less or more-toxic forms or total mineralization yielding water and either carbon dioxide or methane can be identified as biodegradation (hutchinson et al., 2001; singh and ward, 2004). as far as the mechanism of microbial degradation of contaminants like pesticides is concerned, most of the microorganisms consume the contaminants as their energy or nutrient sources. they degrade some pollutants in order to gain nutrients or energy released during the breaking down of chemical bonds. optimization and control of bioremediation is a complex procedure driven by many factors (das and dash, 2014; laurent et al., 2021). the efficiency of the bio-remediation of pollutants is highly influenced by some factors. for example, the presence of microbial population with bioremediation ability is the major factors (das and dash, 2014) and the availability of sufficient concentration of pollutant or toxic compounds that can be utilized by microorganisms for their nutrients or energy needs is one of the most important factor that affects bio-remediation potential (boopathy, 2000; singh and ward, 2004). “temperature, ph, availability of oxygen” or any other electron acceptors (boopathy, 2000; singh and ward, 2004; das and dash, 2014), redox potential (eh), salinity (aislabie & lloyd-jones, 1995; boopathy, 2000), and moisture content (aislabie & lloyd-jones, 1995; singh et al., 2013; das and dash, 2014) are major environmental factors that directly affect the bioremediation potential. in addition to the major limitations that occurred due to inappropriate bioavailability, substrate and environmental factors, some other limiting factors can also be identified. among them, the cost-benefit ratio may also be a limitation for the bioremediation process (varshney, 2019). moreover, environmental disruptions may also become a limitation. for instance, when microorganisms are introduced to a natural land for the purpose of bioremediation, this can be disruptive to some other beneficial organisms due to the competition for nutrients or any other interactions among them (randika et al., 2022). therefore, in this study we assess the potential of microbial fuel cell technology in bio-remediation of lambda cyhalothrin, chlorpyrifos and malathion in limuru loam soil. methodology the procedure used to carry out loam soil analysis and bioremediation of the pesticide residues is explained in this section. loam soil analysis available nutrient elements (p, k, na, ca, mg and mn): mehlich double acid method (tran & simard, 1993, mehlich, a. 1953) the oven-dry soil samples were extracted in 1:5 ratios (w/v) with a mixture of 0.1 n hcl from kobian distributors and 0.025 n h2so4 (tran & simard, 1993). a flame photometer was used in determination of k, ca and na while calorimetrically was used in determination of p, mg and mn (mehlich, 1953). total organic carbon: calorimetric method (gislason & craig, 2005) all organic c in the soil sample is oxidized by acidified dichromate at 1500c for 30minutes to ensure complete oxidation. barium chloride was added to the cool digests. after mixing thoroughly, digests are allowed to stand overnight. the concentration is read on the spectrophotometer at 600 nm. total nitrogen: kjeldahl method (persson et al., 2008) soil samples were digested with concentrated sulphuric acid containing potassium sulfate, selenium and copper sulfate hydrated at approximately 350 0c. total n is determined by distillation, followed by titration with h2so4. soil ph (1:1 soil-water) soil ph was determined in a 1:1 (w/v) soil-water suspension using a high precision pen type gray348697 ph meter with 0.01ph resolution , 0-80 0c operating temperature and 2 by 1.5 v power supply. available trace elements (fe, zn & cu) extraction with 0.1 m hcl the oven-dry soil samples are extracted in a 1:10 ratio (w/v) with 0.1 m hcl. the elements are determined using an atomic absorption flame emission spectrophotometer (aas). cation exchange capacity (cec) ph 7.0 and exchangeable ca, mg, k and na the soil sample was leached with 1n ammonium acetate buffered at ph 7. the leachate was analyzed for exchangeable ca, mg, k and na. the sample was further leached with 1n kcl, and the leachate is used for the determination of the cec. elements such as na and k were being determined with a flame photometer and ca and mg with aas (atomic absorption spectrophotometer). cec is determined by distillation, followed by titration with 0.01m hcl (turner & clark, 1966). microbial fuel cells construction two 1.2 liter containers were prepared as anode and cathode chambers. two small holes were made on the caps of the containers to insert the wire through. one end of the copper wire was attached to 5.7 cm long and 0.7 cm diameter graphite rod electrodes. a salt bridge was prepared using 2.5 litres of 1m nacl, 3% agarose solution and lamp wicks. the wicks were boiled in nacl and 3% agarose solution for 10 minutes after which it was kept in the freezer at -4°c for solidification. the solidified salt bridge was passed through pvc pipes and attached to the chambers using an adhesive, which makes them leakproof. the electrodes used in this study were spent battery carbon rods stuck together using a zero-resistance copper wire as shown in figure 1. the carbon rods were obtained from batteries after which they we thoroughly cleaned using water and later scrub using a sand paper. they were then socked in concentrated sulphuric acid for 24 hours before stacking them together. the electrodes had a 0.00399 m2 operating surface area. the assembly of the h-shaped mfc was done, as shown in figure 1 as earlier described by kamau et al., 2018. a digital voltmeter was https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 34-41, 2022 figure 1. set-up of h-shaped microbial fuel cells with a multi-meter attached to the copper wires from the cathodic and anodic chambers, and the voltage and current were monitored daily (mbugua et al., 2022; kinyua et al., 2022b). bio-remediation studies the microbial bio-remediation study involved investigation of efficiency of microbial fuel cells in degradation of lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and chlorpyrifos pesticide residues. the anodic chamber was fed with 750 g loam soil (previously analysed) inoculated with 750 ml bio-slurry from a running biogas digester spiked with 10 ml, of 100 ppm lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and chlorpyrifos and a mixture solution of lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and chlorpyrifos.(mbugua et al., 2022; kinyua et al., 2022a). the degradation levels were determined by measuring the concentration of the pesticide after every 5 days for 90 days. the voltage and current generated were recorded on daily basis. the degradation levels were determined by measuring the concentration of the pesticide after every 5 days for 90 days. the pesticides after degradation were extracted using the standard quechers method (anastassiades et al., 2003). the sample extracts were placed onto a tray for automated gc/ms analysis as described by (amirahmadi et al., 2013). the voltage and current generated were recorded on daily basis. the control experiment was run by loading the loam soil into the anodic chamber and reading the daily voltage and current for 90 days. results and discussions loam soil properties the macro and micro properties of the loam soil used in this study is shown in table 1. from the analysis, the soil ph was in the range of 6.5 -6.8 ±0.51 while the electrical conductivity of this soil was 0.03±0.01 ms/cm. table 1: the properties of the loam soil profile properties profile properties soil depth cm top calcimn milli-equivalent% 44.4±2.11 soil ph-h20 (1:2.5) 6.5±0.51 magnesium me% 3.1±0 .09 elect . cond. ms/cm 0.3±0.01 potassium me% 1.5±0 .66 carbon % 2.7±0.32 sodium me% 3.6±1.11 sand % 40±3.56 sum me% 52.6±3.44 silt % 40±4.55 base % 100+ clay % 20±2.88 esp 14.4±6.74 textm·e class loam total nitrogen % 0.25±0.08 cat. exch. capacity. me% 24 .8±2.67 phosphorns ppm 44± 5.00 zinc ppm 62 .9± 10.22 iron ppm 96.2± 12.90 copper ppm 1.22±0.11 me is milliequivalent the loam soil was top soil collected about 1-2 cm deep. the organic matter was removed from the surface before sampling. the cation exchange capacity of the loam soil was 24.8±2.67 while carbon levels were 2.70±0.32 %. the microbes use carbon as source of nutrient and energy and therefore soil carbon is a very important parameter in soil analysis. soil quality does not depend just on the physical, physico-chemical and chemical properties of soil but closely linked to the soil microbiological properties (elliot et al., 1996). microorganisms are vital for soil fertility and for the degradation of organic matter and pollutants in soils. some of the important biosurfactant-synthesizing bacterial species include pseudomonas sp., bacillus sp., acinetobacter sp., stenotrophomonas sp., and burkholderia sp. the bacterial biosurfactants increase the rate of biodegradation of hydrophobic (insoluble) organic pollutants such as pesticides and petroleum in the soil or enhance the removal of heavy metals through a series of modes of action such as increasing their mobility, micelle formation, and increasing bioavailability to bacteriadegrading microorganisms (fatima et al., 2022) microbial biomass in soil is considered as an important attribute of soil quality (doran and parkin, 1994). it serves as a measure of potential biological activity and its dynamic changes help in understanding the processes involved in nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning (rath et https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 37 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 34-41, 2022 al., 1998). pal et al., (2006) reviewed of the information available in the literature highlighting the various soil properties, which influence the degradation of pesticides. the extent of biodegradability depends upon the chemical structure of the pesticides and the soil physicochemical properties. they also noted that soil microbial components largely govern pesticide degradation in soil. the graph obtained from plots of current and voltage of the control (loam soil) data is shown in figure 2. the daily voltage showed a slow upward trend for the first twenty days with steep increase of voltage for eight days before it started to drop. similar results were obtained for current since both current and voltage are relates proportionally according to ohms law. figure 2: plots of voltage and current generated from the loam soil current generation means that the soil micro-organisms are breaking down the carbon in the soil thereby generation an electron (current). the slow increase in current and voltage is explained by the fact that the microbes were in aerobic conditions before sampling and therefore takes time to adapt to the anaerobic setup in the anodic chamber (mbugua et al., 2022). on full adaptation (day 20), the rate of electron increases subsequently increasing the voltage and current generation. on depletion of the available carbon in the soil, the microbes start dying and therefore a voltage and current drop is observed. similar results had been obtained using market wastes like avocado and tomato by kamau et al., 2018. in other studies, by kinyua et al., 2022b and and imwene et al., 2021 using tomato and cabbages as substrates, the voltage and current increased as observed in this study. the voltage and current means were used calculations of power, current and power density using equations 1 to 3, respectively the plots of power and current density are shown in figure 3. similar to plots of current and voltage, the power density increased with retention time. the current and power density shows the current and power per electrode surface area and mostly used to show the efficiency of microbial fuel cell in electricity generation. figure 3: plots of power and current density with retention time the bio-remediation levels for chlorpyrifos and malathion were 65.80 % and 71.32 %, respectively while no detectable, lambda cyhalothrin was observed after day 60 of the study (figure 4). the voltage generated from the pesticide doped loam soil showed an upward trend from day 0 to day 15 in lambda cyhalothrin and malathion and from day 0 to day 20 in chlorpyrifos and mcl mixture after which constant readings were observed for three days with downward trends thereafter. the maximum generated voltage was 0.537 v, 0.571 v, 0.572 v and 0.509 v in chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and mcl respectively. a clearer illustration is shown using 3d plots of voltage generated against degradation levels with retention time for the three pesticides. the 3d plot of pesticides concentration, voltage and retention time in loam soil is shown by figures 5, 6 and 7. the observed figure 4: daily voltage generated cabbage doped with chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and pesticide mix https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 34-41, 2022 figure 5: a 3d plot of chlorpyrifos concentration, voltage and retention time in loam soil figure 6: a 3d plot of lambda cyhalothrin concentration, voltage and retention time in loam soil figure 7: a 3d plot of malathion concentration, voltage and retention time in loam soil degradation levels were 79.32 %, 99.90 % and 78.20 % in chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhaolthrin, malathion, respectively as shown in figure 5-7, respectively. discussions current and voltage generation is an indication of substrate breakdown by microbes in anaerobic anodic chamber of microbial fuel cells. the rate of current generation shows the rate at which microbes are degrading the substrate/carbon releasing electrons. (kamau et al., 2018). the current generated in this study as per figure showed a slow increase from day 1 to day 27 as microbes are adapting to the experimental environment. as carbon matter in pesticide and soil depletes, the current and voltage generation start to decrease as microbes reaches the death phase. this trend is similar to what had been observed by kinyua et al., 2022b and imwene et al., 2021 in vegetable and fruit substrates. in bio-remediation of pollutants, the pesticide molecule serves as a carbon sources and therefore it’s broken down by micro-organisms in soil (cycoń et al., 2009). the microbial activity is highly influenced by pesticide properties and environmental factors (chowdhury et al., 2008). from the initial pesticide concentrations of 10 ppm, the observed degradation levels were 79.32 %, 99.90 % and 78.20 % in chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion, respectively as shown in figure 5-7, respectively. this means that the microbes feeds on the pesticide molecule and soil organic carbon for their growth and energy. these result are similar to what was previous observed by kinyua et al., 2022a and mbugua et al., 2022 on bio-remediation of chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhaolthrin, malathion on on loam soil, cabbage and tomato inoculated with microbe rich rumen waste and by anaerobic digestion bio-slurry, respectively. similarly, on bio-remediation of chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhaolthrin and malathion inoculated with rumen fluid, 0.312v, 0.572v, 0.364v were recorded in tomato, loam soil and cabbage, respectively (kinyua et al., 2022a). the bioremediation levels were 79.32 %, 99.90 % and 78.20 % in chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion, respectively in loam soil, 65.80 % and 71.32 % for chlorpyrifos and malathion respectively in cabbage. in tomato setup, 75.60% and 80.10 % chlorpyrifos and malathion levels were observed, respectively with undetectable levels of lambda cyhalothrin (kinyua et al., 2022b). in the study by mbugua et al., 2022, the observed maximum voltage on doping the biogas bio-slurry with the chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and the pesticides mix (clm) were 0.551, 0.565, 0.538 and 0.533v respectively with bio-degradation levels achieved were 73.40% malathion, 87.70% chlorpyrifos while no lambda cyhalothrin was detected on the 90th day of incubation. malathion is degraded by carboxyesterase enzyme and it is detected in several fungi like aspergillus sp., penicillum sp. and rhizoctonia sp. (mostafa et al., 1972). omar (1998) and hasan (1999) also demonstrated the same type of fungal utilization and degradation of malathion. adhikari, 2010 suggested bio-remediation of malathion from the environment as a pollution control measure. similarly, to the current study, the bio-remediation of malathion on contaminated sterile and non-sterile soil showed a degradation levels of 84.81% and 74.11% of malathion, respectively, from malathion concentration of https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 39 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 34-41, 2022 1.5% kg−1 soil degraded by strain pu after 7 days (singh et al., 2013). in bioremediation study of chlorpyrifos by jaiswal et al., 2017, the potential degradative microorganisms possess opd (organophosphate degrading) gene which hydrolyses the chlorpyrifos and utilizes it as a sole carbon source. a fungal strain verticillium capable of utilizing chlorpyrifos as sole carbon and energy sources from soil and degradation of chlorpyrifos in pure cultures and on vegetables has been reported. the 3,5,6-trichloro-2pyridinol (tcp) and diethylthiophosphate (detp) as primary products are made when chlorpyrifos is degraded by soil microorganisms which further break into nontoxic metabolites as co2, h2o, and nh3 (gilani et al., 2016). pseudomonas is a diversified genus possessing a series of catabolic pathways and enzymes involved in pesticide degradation. pseudomonas putida mas-1 is reported to be more efficient in chlorpyrifos degradation by a rate of 90% in 24 h among pseudomonas genus (gilani et al., 2016). a bacterial strain c2a1 isolated from soil was found highly effective in degrading chlorpyrifos and its first hydrolysis metabolite 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (tcp) (anwar et al., 2009). bacillus thuringiensis zs-19 has been reported to completely degraded cyhalothrin in minimal medium within 72 h. the bacterium transformed cyhalothrin by cleavage of both the ester linkage and diaryl bond to yield six intermediate products (chen et al., 2015). furthermore, strain zs-19 participated in efficient degradation of a wide range of pyrethroids including cyhalothrin, fenpropathrinn, deltamethrin, betacypermethrin, cyfluthrin and bifenthrin. in a study by kumar and jahangir, 2018, the strain rhodococcus erythropolis was proven suitable for the efficient and rapid bioremediation of lambda cyhalothrin pesticide contaminated environment. in other pesticides bio-remediation, it has been found that after 21 days 85% carbaryl has been degraded from soil treated with nitrogen source (naqvi et al., 2011). pal et al., 2006 investigated the factors influencing the degradation of pesticides in soil, impacts of pesticides on soil microbial biomass, soil ergosterol content, soil respiration, fluorescein diacetate hydrolyzing activity, ecophysiological parameters and the correlation between pesticide transformation and above microbial parameters. pesticides, which enter the soil environment, are subject to a variety of degradative processes. the overall degradation of a pesticide from soil results from a combination of mechanisms such as microbial degradation, chemical hydrolysis, photolysis, volatility, leaching and surface runoff. the degree to which each mechanism will contribute to the overall degradation of the pesticide is in turn dependent on the physicochemical properties of the pesticide (e.g., water solubility, sorptive affinity), characteristics of the soil (e.g., ph, organic matter content, microbial biomass, redox status), environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, moisture) and management practices (e.g., application rate, formulation type). (pal et al., 2006). the kinetics and pathways of degradation depend on abiotic and biotic factors (beigel et al., 1999), which are specific to a particular pesticide and therefore find preference. adverse effect of pesticidal chemicals on soil microorganisms (araujo et al., 2003), may affect soil fertility (schuster and schroder, 1990) becomes a foreign chemicals major issue. soil microorganisms show an early warning about soil disturbances by foreign chemicals than any other parameters. the fate and behavior of these chemicals in soil ecosystem is very important since they are degraded by various factors and have the potential to be in the soil, water etc. so it is indispensable to monitor the persistence, degradation of pesticides in soil and is also necessary to study the effect of pesticide on the soil quality or soil health by in depth studies on soil microbial activity (chowdhury et al., 2008). previous studies have on fipronil bio-remediation in the non-sterile clay loam soil, which resulted in the formation of metabolite, mb45950. the degradation of fipronil in non-sterile clay loam soil was mainly influenced by the soil microbes (zhu et al., 2004). the half-lives in nonsterile clay loam soil were 9.72 and 8.78 d at 25 and 35 °c, respectively compared to 33.51 and 32.07 d at 25 and 35 °c, respectively in the sterile soil. the microbial viability test showed that non-sterile clay loam soil had viable microorganisms throughout the experiment. fipronil did not adversely affect the microbes once soil microbes adapted to the presence of fipronil in the clay loam soil (zhu et al., 2004). conclusions the voltage generated from the pesticide doped loam soil showed an upward trend from day 0 to day 15 in lambda cyhalothrin and malathion and from day 0 to day 20 in chlorpyrifos and pesticide mixture after which constant readings were observed for three days with downward trends thereafter. the maximum generated voltage was 0.537 v, 0.571 v, 0.572 v and 0.509 v in chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and pesticide mix (mcl) respectively. the bioremediation levels for chlorpyrifos and malathion were 65.80 % and 71.32 %, respectively while no detectable, lambda cyhalothrin was observed after day 60 of the study. therefore this study concludes that microbial fuel cells technology is an eco-friendly technique which should be applied in bio-remediation of different classes of pesticides in loam soils. further studies are suggested to investigate lambda cyhalothrin, chlorpyrifos and malathion bio-remediation mechanisms and degradation derivatives. references adhikari s. 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(2004). microbial degradation of fipronil in clay loam soil. water, air, & soil pollution, 153, 35–44. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 38 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) the positive effects of covid-19 lockdown on environmental attributes: a review sushmita rani saha1*, anik saha2, munmun saha3, kawshik saha4, zinat jahan chowdhury5 volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.550 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 21, 2022 accepted: september 01, 2022 published: september 01, 2022 the effect of covid 19 on human health was devastating and the fatality rate was high around the world. world health organization declared the outburst of this infectious disease a pandemic situation. to check the rapid dispersal of the covid-19 virus, most countries of the world enforced quarantine and strict lockdown. the effects of covid-19 lockdown on environmental health draw the attention of the scientific communities. therefore, this research paper inspected and narratively reviewed the observed effects of covid-19 lockdown on the changes in the environmental quality based on secondary research data. the work provides a distinct indication considering the impacts executed by covid-19 lockdown on the air, water, soil, and noise as typical environment elements. it has been widely reported that the amount of pollution in the air, water, soil, and noise exhibited a significant decline during lockdown period. it has been noticed in different literature that global air quality improved because of less anthropogenic emissions of air contaminants and atmospheric particles. for instance, releases of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and particulate matter are reduced and ozone layers were reported to being increased. aquatic life and water ecosystem have also been restored in many countries due to less commercial fishing. moreover, soil pollution was less due to a significant decrease in solid and water waste dumping. because of less transportation of vehicles, industrial and other urban activities, sound pollution dropped to a significant level. clean beaches, transparent seawater, wildlife sightings and free movement of animals and birds were also found in some counties during lockdown. however, these effects of lockdown were temporary, as the world again enters the pre-lockdown situation. human attitudes must be changed to continue the positive impact on the environment. world policymakers should take the necessary steps to guarantee the steadiness of the positive environmental effects derived from the covid-19 lockdown. keywords covid-19, lockdown, environment, pollution, pandemic 1 deptartment of crop botany and tea production technology, sylhet agricultural university, bangladesh 2 deptartment of entomology, bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman agricultural university, bangladesh 3 deptartment of agricultural chemistry, sylhet agricultural university, bangladesh 4 deptartment of architecture, shahjalal science and technology university, bangladesh 5 deptartment of entomology, sylhet agricultural university, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: sushmi.sau@gmail.com introduction people are relaxed while close to nature and stunned by the beauty of natural diversification. two major elements exist in the environment i.ethe abiotic atmosphere (air, water and soil) and the biotic components (living organisms i.e, plants and animals etc.). directly or indirectly we rely on nature to fulfil our basic (food, shelter, clothes and medicines) and aesthetic needs (seymour, 2016). hence, extraction of the natural resources from nature must be judicious for the sustainability of nature (campbell & sayer, 2003). every so often people just extract and exploit in a way which reduces the number of natural resources and destroys the quality of the natural habitat which results in the extinction of the species (cardinale et al., 2012; gamfeldt et al., 2013; hector & bagchi, 2007; naeem et al., 2009). besides, this unwise use of natural resources has actuated the greenhouse gas emission and turned into global warming (farmer & cook, 2013; ipcc, 2014). as a consequence, the ecological balance is interrupted and food chain of an ecosystem is disturbed, and natural harmony is getting hindered. the world population is increasing and the demand as well. a huge amount of resources is being used and cautiously or incautiously being exploited daily due to poverty, greediness, ignorance, lack of environmental education and so on. this is creating a threat to human health in the global arena. for instance, people living in the rural area as well as near the natural environment, forests etc. economically poor people enter into unknown territories of wildlife to search for food (hunting), to rear livestock. with ill motives, they used to clear forests and extract resources for business interests, so people are getting closer to wild animals, which results in exposure to the pathogens that usually people are not adjusted to. additionally, people intake bushmeat bats, monkeys, forest antelopes and wild animal species. by troubling ecosystems, such situations have been raised letting the viruses catch up with the new host – “man” with nightmare effects. some said nature takes revenge itself, probably this comes out true. as a consequence of aids, sars, ebola now covid 19 has an outburst and become pandemic within a short time. the origin of covid 19 is supposed to be a wildlife animal (i.e bat). so far (from december 2019 to date), before the vaccine was invented a lot of people died all around the world. at the end of 2019 in wuhan, china people associated with viral pneumonia caused by an unknown microbial agent were reported (huang et al., 2020). the number of diseased people increased rapidly and, this outburst became a nationwide crisis about a month later in china (cdc, 2020; chan et al., 2020; world health organization, https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.550 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:mailto:sushmi.sau%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 39 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 38-44, 2022 2020a; 2020b). later on, this disease spread fast around the world and almost all the countries are affected and becomes a pandemic disease during this era. this disease is because by the novel coronavirus which is named 2019 novel coronavirus (covid-19). covid-19 is a new strain belonging to the large family of coronaviruses (cov), that was not recognized before in humans. this virus may cause sickness like fever, cough, respiratory symptoms (shortness of breath and breathing difficulties) and in more serious cases it may cause pneumonia, respiratory syndrome, kidney failure and ultimately death. as shortly as the coronavirus (covid-19) issues are confirmed and become pandemic in the whole world, millions of people were put into quarantine. starting with china, authorities of the affected countries locked down temporally transportation, educational organizations, tourism, industries, organizations, etc. this lockdown limits the entrance and departure within and in between the cities except for some important vehicles. inhabitants were allowed to go outside only for medicinal and grocery purposes. the principal causes of pollution include human movement, traffic, industry, power generation and inhabited energy use etc. have been left limited to a full standstill in most countries. due to covid-19 lockdown anthropogenic activities were less, and usage of vehicles in conveyance was limited which may provide a positive effect on the natural restoration by mitigating ghgs and other anthropogenic gases i.e, co2, co, no2 etc., refining air quality, altering human attitudes which lastly can reduce global warming. according to rahim et al., (2020) during the lockdown in china, around 200 million tons of co2 emissions were reduced along with no2 reported and a reduction in fossil fuel burning was also reported. due to lockdown actions, air pollution has declined by approximately 20% across 27 countries (venter et al., 2020). china, germany, uk, italy and some other countries have experienced falling in carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide by around 40% during lockdown jonathan watts. which may lower the risks of lung disease, asthma and heart attacks by refining air quality. however, covid 19 lockdown is supposed to provide a scope for the natural ecosystem to re-establish. air and water quality are improving, environmental pollution is declining, grasslands and plants are growing healthy, and animals are moving freely. so, we can hypothesize that covid 19 is a blessing for the environment to restore. at the same time due to covid 19 lockdown, some beneficial physical events (i.e workshops, seminars, conferences, and public awareness regarding the conservation of nature of researchers) were also stopped. visually, degradation and restoration are going on simultaneously. so, it is an obvious responsibility of human beings to do something in favor of conserving nature. so far, to the best of our knowledge, there are very few studies regarding the impacts of covid-19 lockdown on the quality of the environment and human attitudes. in this article, we reviewed some studies regarding covid 19 lockdown in the global arena. the work focuses on the changes due to the lockdown and quarantine measures enforced worldwide and summarizes the literature results of the observed effects on the environment. this study provides an overview of the effects of lockdown on the different elements of the environment, i.e., air, water resources, soil, wildlife etc. and human attitudes. by considering the abovementioned words, this piece of research is expected to evaluate the impacts of the covid-19 lockdown on the quality of nature and human behavior. in addition, it will help to highlight ample options for policymakers and the scientific research community in formulating a plan for a better environment in future. methods the methods of this work are to summarize constructively, discuss, and relate the several observations published on the effects of the covid-19 lockdown on environmental quality and reduction or changes of anthropogenic activities towards nature. the collected and brief observations have been selected to represent several countries of the world and to evaluate the global influence of the covid-19 lockdown on the environment. some works have been available reporting impacts of the covid-19 on the environment. in this paper, we reviewed the positive impacts of the covid-19 lockdown on different elements of the environment such as air, water, soil, sound and wildlife habitat etc. this review article is based on different observations published in research articles and available in online and offline journals. we searched through pubmed and google scholar using the terms ‘lockdown’ ‘covid 19’, ‘environments’, ‘impacts’, ‘human’, ‘behavior’, as a basis for reviewing. research information from national and international journals, magazines, books and documentaries etc. has been used for the article. booklets, brochures, project results, programs, videos etc. have been used as the secondary source of information. browsing, collecting, observing, scanning and sorting out of data were done to make the article complete and comprehensive. results and discussions effects of covid 19 lockdown on environment as soon as the covid-19 outburst the world health organization (who) declared it a pandemic situation on 11th march 2020 (mitra et al., 2020). to mitigate the manto-man transmission isolation, quarantine and lockdown were executed all over the world. this strict lockdown forbids inter and intracity communication (train, bus, flight), travel, picnic and educational institutions, trading and industry shutdowns etc. due to less anthropogenic activities, numerous environmental benefits from the covid-19 lockdown on planetary health have been noticed. this research work reveals the effects of the covid-19 lockdown on the changes of several attributes of the environment and explores the optimistic attitudes https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 38-44, 2022 and commitment of humans to save nature during the covid-19 lockdown. limited human interaction with nature during the critical period has appeared as a blessing for nature and the environment. information from all over the world are representing that during the lockdown, environmental conditions (air, water and soil quality) are improving and wildlife is flourishing (bhat et al., 2021; elsaid et al., 2021; loh et al., 2021; lokhandwala & gautam, 2020; wang & su, 2020). improvement of environmental quality such as purified air, cleaner rivers, less noise, and uninterrupted and peaceful wildlife during lockdown is noted by arora et al., 2020. the consciousness of people comes up after observing the natural degradation and devastating effect of covid-19 on the human being. with the need of the growing population pressure habitat loss, pollution, and exploitation of wildlife happens, which brutally degrades the natural ecosystem before the covid-19 lockdown. most of the literature considered that natural wildlife is the origin of covid 19, people entering an unknown area, consuming wild animals i.e, bushmeats, exposing to unknown pathogens could be the reason for the outbreaking of pandemic disease covid-19 . air quality the earth suffered a lot because of air pollution with the increasing no2, co, co2, so2 and particulate matter etc., especially in urban areas. before covid-19 according to who, 2016 worlds 8% of are died because of air pollution. the lockdown limits mobility and other anthropogenic activities, so improved air qualities have been found in most towns & cities. the strictness of the covid-19 lockdown allows us to observe clean air and clear blue sky. improved air quality, as well as a decrease in sulfur, carbon, nitrogen and particulate matter emissions and water quality in natural resources, has been reported during lockdown periods (bhat et al., 2021; elsaid et al., 2021; shehzad et al., 2021). on the other hand, ozone layers in the air have increased, mainly in response to the reduced emissions of nitrogen (elsaid et al., 2021; kumari & toshniwal, 2020; islam et al., 2021). there was an 11.4% improvement is noticed in the air quality of china (bhat et al.,2021). kerimray et al., 2020 reported that the pm2.5, co and no2 concentration was reduced, while, o3 concentrations were increased by 15%. in a study by tobías et al., (2020) o3 concentrations were found to be increased by around 50% during the lockdown period. a 2% increase in o3 concentration was reported in a finding (shehzad et al., 2021) and there was a 17% increase in o3 (sharma et al., 2020). in western india increasing o3 (16–58%) was reported mainly due to less no emission (selvam et al., 2020). the carbon compounds (co2, co etc.) emission in environmental air are because by natural and anthropogenic activities. anthropogenic sources of gaseous emissions such as transportation and industrial sections shut down, which in return resulted in a significant reduction of emissions. according to kerimray et al., 2020, co concentrations were reduced by 49% in their work. according to shehzad et al., 2021 co concentrations were reduced by 37% during the lockdown. bhat et al., 2021 observed concentrations of co (−64.8%) declined in brazil during the lockdown. no2 emission was reduced by 20–30% in china, italy, france and spain, and 30% in the usa compared to the previous year, significant reductions in no (−77.3%), no2 (−54.3%) concentrations were observed in brazil, no2 (−52.68,) concentrations were observed in india (bhat et al., 2021). in another research kumari & toshniwal, (2020) showed due to limited anthropogenic activities no2 were reduced by 32–64% during the lockdown. a reduction of 30–84% in no2 was also observed during the covid-19 lockdown in western india (selvam et al., 2020). particulate matter emissions are also declined along with other air pollutants of carbon, nox and sox which are produced from a similar source of fossil fuel combustion. the statement research has shown a decline in pm concentration up to 20.5% in china, up to 85.1% in ghaziabad, india, 39.2% in spain, and 31% in california, usa (for pm2.5)(elsaid et al., 2021). some research showed that pm2.5 concentration was reduced by 21% (kerimray et al., 2020), a lower reduction was observed for pm10 (−28 to −31.0%) (tobías et al., 2020). the concentration of pm2.5, pm10 were observed declining 42% and 50% respectively (shehzad et al., 2021). near about 43% and 31% decreases in pm2.5, pm10 was observed during the lockdown period compared to previous years (sharma et al., 2020). the major cities and urban areas are more vulnerable to environmental pollution. so, during lockdown urban areas, big cities and towns were found to be more influenced by improved environmental quality by the restricted emissions (islam et al., 2021). the average so2 concentrations were reduced by 43%, and in the capital city of bangladesh so2 concentrations declined approximately by 67% (islam et al., 2021), compared to the previous year’s 41% declines in so2 were observed during the lockdown period (shehzad et al., 2021). based on research in india, there was about −17.97% of so2 (bhat et al., 2021). water quality as a result of rapid industrialization, urbanization and overexploitation of water bodies i.e, rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater reservoirs are getting polluted every day. throughout the lockdown period, the main causes of water pollution such as illegal dumping of waste, industrial residues and crude oils have stopped in the water bodies. thus, water pollution was reduced. during this covid 19 lockdown, several papers and print media reported on the clean and clear freshwater river and sea water which is a result of less anthropogenic activities. therefore, improved water quality in natural water resources has been noticed as well (arora et al., 2020; bhat et al., https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 38-44, 2022 2021; elsaid et al., 2021; loh et al., 2021; lokhandwala & gautam, 2020). different literature represented the improved quality of water such as clean beaches because of slowdown and fewer activities of human being in other places. (ormaza-gonzaìlez et al., 2021; zambranomonserrate et al., 2020). important environmental changes were demonstrated during the covid-19 lockdown. 500% reduction of sewage and industrial run-offs in rivers was reported and on the other hand dissolved oxygen (do), biological oxygen demand (bod), ph of river water has been improved by 79%, 30% and 7.9 respectively (arora et al., 2020). the average suspended particulate matter (spm) has significantly decreased by about 36.48% when compared with the pre-lockdown period (aman et al., 2020), where the (spm) concentrations are evaluated to underline the turbidity levels. additionally, the beaches have less plastic and garbage, more fish, and large marine organisms, including humpback whales, dolphins and manta rays were noticed close to the sea shore (ormazagonzaìlez et al., 2021). noise noise is an unwanted sound beyond human tolerance which is mostly created by anthropogenic activities i.e, industrial or profitable economic activities, transport of vehicles, high-volume tunes etc. sound pollution is one of the chief reasons for the health deterioration of humans. imposing strict lockdown during covid-19 outbreaks associated with less transport, and reduced economic and commercial activities. there were no public and private gatherings, no gaming, closed shopping malls, businesses and restaurants, educational institutions, industries and factories shut down etc. these circumstances have brought a significant reduction in sound level.(bhat et al., 2021; loh et al., 2021; zambrano-monserrate et al., 2020).the noise level was reduced up to 35% to 68% all over the world (arora et al., 2020). in madrid, there was a reduction of 4 to 6 dba during the lockdown which is captured by the monitoring network (asensio et al., 2020). research work also documented that the pandemic lockdown led to a 5–10 db decrease in the anthropogenic sound level in shillong, india (somala, 2020). soil the soil is an integral element of the ecosystem that controls not only the adjacent environment but also affects water, climate, and food production. soil is being contaminated due to anthropogenic activities, to be more specific urbanization and industrialization led to reducing its quality eventually declining crop yield. soil pollution reduces soil organic matter and deteriorates the quality of its biodiversity as well as the quality of groundwater (singh & singh, 2020). wastewater and sewage sludge contribute to soil pollution as well. therefore, a significant decline in solid and water waste led to less soil pollution (loh et al., 2021). during the epidemic situation, there was a significant reduction in solid waste and sewage disposal. in tunisia 85% of respondents showed positive attitudes toward food waste prevention through a policy of saving, storing, and eating leftovers (jribi et al., 2020) in a survey. a survey in two cities of morocco, khenifra and tighassaline, showed a decrease in municipal solid waste (2572 tons versus 2456 tons; 136 tons versus 126 tons, respectively) compared to the previous year (ouhsine et al., 2020). in shanghai, china, there was a decrease of around 23% in household waste (fan et al., 2020) was reported. wildlife during the lockdown, humans kept themselves within four walls of home and lessened outside activities, which provides an opportunity for free space for animals and birds to move on. there was also a flow in wildlife sightings during the covid-19 pandemic lockdown, especially in urban environments (loh et al., 2021; lokhandwala & gautam, 2020). it was observed that many animals come outside of their territory and birds move freely without hesitation during the lockdown period, for instance, peacocks, monkeys, elephants, dolphins and migratory birds etc. more migratory birds are found in several lakes and water bodies (arora et al., 2020). because of less traffic noise, frequencies of sweet singing of birds and more chirping sound were heard clearly (derryberry et al. 2020). humpback whales, dolphins and manta rays were noticed swimming near the sea shore because of fewer fishing activities of the fish farmer (ormaza-gonzaìlez et al., 2021). human behavior during the lockdown period, the beauty of the uninterrupted natural environment creates an optimistic sense among the people. so, they are more concerned with nature and natural ecosystems and gaining knowledge and interest in training on their conservation. after observing the devastating effects of covid 19 on human health and the positive impacts of lockdown on natural ecosystems, most people have amended their minds set up for the well-being of nature, now they are thinking positively, and their behavioural attitudes have changed positively towards nature, self-realization has arisen regarding future planning on nature. some activities such as tree plantation, taking care, feeding and building relationships with the street animals i.e, dogs, cats, birds etc. are noticed during the lockdown. the effect of the lockdown was strong on people’s relationships with their pets, farm animals, home plants and birds (vimal, 2022). as the restaurant activity was stopped so these animals were starving from the left-over food of the restaurant on which they were mostly dependent (vimal, 2022). conclution the covid-19 pandemic with a high fatality rate is a danger worldwide to human beings. due to this epidemic condition, a lockdown with limited human activities was enforced around the whole world. such limitations are a https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 38-44, 2022 blessing for nature as nature restored itself, and provide us with a chance to explore the effect of covid 19 lockdown on the environment. though there are some negative effects of the pandemic situation, this work revealed that the environmental quality has improved to a large extent. the positive effects of lockdown on different environmental elements are better air quality, water bodies being cleaner and higher animal movements and bird frequency. in different literature, lower temperature, less noise, and less municipal waste are also noticed during the lockdown period. the changes that occurred during lockdown were significantly compared with the pre-lockdown situation to understand the temporary effects and to predict the consequence in the future. the relaxed, quiet and pollution-free nature during the lockdown and the devastating effects of covid 19 on the human being encouraged people and make them more concerned about nature and their uses of natural resources. creating public awareness, and amending of lifestyle and behavioral attitudes of the public may lead to less anthropogenic activities to build a positive environment. people are now more motivated to support decent initiatives by the government for the conservation of nature. in addition, afforestation, using renewable energy, reducing emissions, and intermittent lockdown can be recommended to restore the natural environment. however, this is a momentary effect, environmental pollution is going to start over as soon as the lockdown ends. thus, more careful planning and supervision will be needed in the long run. firstly, it can be recommended that strict legislation should be enforced to reduce the overexploitation of natural resources. secondly, the global scientific community should take initiatives for reducing pollution to improve environmental quality in the long term. conflict of interest no conflict of interest is associated with this research. references aman, m. a., salman, m. s., & yunus, a. p. 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(2020). indirect effects of covid-19 on the environment. science of the total environment, 728, 138813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2020.138813 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 33 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) assessment of policy guidelines, strategies, and operational processes associated with plastic waste management in ghana derick kwabena mintah1*, rama osei-bonsu2, joseph appiah2, loretta obeng mensah3 volume 2 issue 3, year 2023 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i3.1868 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 30, 2023 accepted: august 04, 2023 published: september 11, 2023 the study sought to assess to assess the policy guidelines, strategies, and operational processes associated with plastic waste management in ghana. a descriptive cross-sectional study design that employed both quantitative and qualitative procedures was used. the data was analysed using statistical package for social sciences (spss). descriptive analysis was performed on the structured questionnaire whereas thematic analysis was conducted on data from the interview guided. the results revealed that there are guidelines, strategies, and operational processes for plastic waste management in greater kumasi and there exist different activities of stakeholders (recycling companies, kma and waste collectors) in plastic waste management in kumasi. the extent of compliance with plastic waste management guidelines (national plastic waste management policy) is dependent on the different stakeholders. plastic recycling companies are in the infant stage with their activities being centered on six processes with pelletizing plastics for export been their major activities whereas waste collectors are solely responsible for collection, transportation and final disposal of plastic waste from different places to either dump sites or plastic recycling companies. kma and other government institutions involved in waste management must take steps by supervising the day-to-day activities of plastic recycling companies and waste collectors to regulate the activities of companies within the plastic recycling industry. keywords knowledge, operational process, guidelines, ghana, strategies, plastic waste 1 kumasi compost and recycling plant limited, ghana 2 akenten appiah menka university of skills training and entrepreneurial development, ghana 3 kwame nkrumah university of science and technology, ghana * corresponding author’s e-mail: dmintahk@gmail.com introduction plastic use and especially the management of plastic waste has become one of the biggest and most complex challenges of this century, and as a complex challenge, it requires integrated solutions. although plastics are a globally important material, there are many environmental concerns associated with their use. the hazards plastics pose are numerous and multidimensional and their impacts may transcend national borders. global plastics production grew from 1.5 million metric tons (mt) per annum in 1950 to 400 million mt in 2017. production during the last 10 years equaled production during the whole of the 20th century combined. it is estimated that global plastic production could triple by 2050. furthermore, only 9% of the 9 billion tons of plastics ever produced have been recycled, with 8 to 12 million tons entering the ocean as litter every year (ministry of environment science, technology and innovation (mesti), 2020). the problem with plastic lies not in how it is used, which is generally harmless, but in end-of-life management of products made from it (arnaud, 2019). since 1950, close to half of all plastic has ended up in landfill or dumped in the wild (geyer et al., 2017) plastics entered ghana in the late 1990s and facilitated the packaging of manufactured products and reduction of agricultural wastage. however, the waste stream over the years is changing from mainly organics to increasing proportions of plastics, whereas the attitude of indiscriminately disposing of (previously organic) wastes still remains widespread. plastic waste has found its way into surface water and marine environments (mesti, 2020). in ghana, some 120 companies manufacture over 52,000 tons of various plastics and plastics products per year. presently, the exact quantities and sources of origin of plastics imported into the country are not monitored and are therefore not known. more than one million tons of plastic wastes are generated every year. this suggests that domestic manufacturing accounts for less than 5% of all plastics entering the ghanaian economy. one primary driver of plastic waste management is legislation (agamuthu et al., 2009). sustainable plastic waste management must be grounded in local legislation that is geographically and culturally feasible, reasonable, and far-sighted. cooperation by various stakeholders is required to achieve sustainable waste management. laws and regulations for plastic waste management in developing countries are mostly embedded in larger environmental laws or acts in solid waste management. however, this is not the case in ghana where there is the existence of national plastic management policy. despite the existence of this policy, there are no specific laws/ outlines detailing the plastic waste collection, sorting, disposal and recycling processes to improve the way plastic waste is managed in ghana. the few embedded laws to improve plastic waste in ghana are poorly implemented. again, most mmdas in ghana lack the needed logistics and often see plastic waste management as a poor service because operating costs for even municipal solid waste management are barely recovered and most of the municipalities are unable to provide the appropriate level of services. the guidelines and strategies outlined pa ge 34 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(3) 33-40, 2023 in national plastic management policy in ghana face the challenges of inadequate finance in supporting plastic waste management, untrained personnel at the local offices, political influences, lack of community involvement, inappropriate technology to suit emerging conditions, and unavailable data on plastic waste and many others. looking back over time, the revised environmental sanitation policy of 1999 stated information, education and communication, legislation and regulation, levels of service, sustainable financing and cost recovery, research and development and monitoring and evaluation as its general policy focus with several broad policy principles relevant to improving environmental sanitation. this revised environmental sanitation policy seeks to address the limitations of the old policy published in 1999. in addition, the policy emphasizes the need to ensure a systematic collection of data on waste from all sectors of the economy and supports relevant research and development to meet the challenges of managing waste in ghana. this gave rise to the enactment of the implementation programs to ensure the successful accomplishment of the policy focuses. unfortunately, these programs have not been up to the task. formulation, and most importantly, enforcement of government laws and regulations are vital for the attainment of sustainable solid waste management; however, developing countries have challenges with the implementation of laws and programs to attain proper plastic waste management. consistent with ibrahim et al., (2016) findings, ghana has no national law binding the national plastic management policy for the management of plastic waste. furthermore, metropolitan, municipal, and district assemblies (mmdas) are expected to come up with bylaws, which must be passed by parliament and monitored by the heads of mmdas. key national policy documents that capture solid waste management in ghana include the national environmental sanitation policy (nesp) 2010 and the national environmental sanitation strategy and action plan (nessap) 2010. these documents were prepared by the ministry of local government and rural development to develop and sustain a clean, safe, and pleasant environment for human settlements. they are passed as the need to refocus the environmental sanitation sector in ghana to meet medium term development policy framework (mtdpf, 2010 – 2013) objectives to meet the objectives of the united nations millennium development goals (mdgs), and other recent international initiatives (asase et al., 2009). conversely, the implementations of these documents have been poor. in 2020, a revised national plastics management policy (npmp) was enacted to cater for the lapses and challenges faced over the years of previous policies. npmp is ghana’s integrated response to managing plastics on sustainable basis to facilitate speedy national development. it has been prepared and designed within the context of national sustainable development priorities, including achieving the objectives of the governments coordinated programme of economic and social development policies (2017-2024): national medium-term development framework: agenda for jobs: creating equal opportunities for all (2018–2021), au agenda 2063 and the sustainable development goals. though the policy existence is not long, however potency of the policy is doubtful to effectively address the growing plastic waste in cities in ghana. the study sought to assess policy guidelines, strategies and operational processes associated with plastic waste management in ghana. literature review plastics the american chemistry council (2015) defines plastics as materials that are obtained from various elements such as chlorine, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen. plastics are man-made organic materials produced from raw materials of oil and natural gas with molecular weights that can range from 20,000 to 100,000 mg/l. plastics are generally divided into two parts based on their processing as either thermoplastics or thermosets. thermoplastics are materials that soften easily when heated and hardens when cooled. they can also be melted down and transformed into a new plastic product. due to the way they can be easily molded into different shapes, they are usually employed in food packaging (ampofo, 2015). thermosets do not undergo repeated heat treatments due to their complex molecular structure; as a result of this, they are not reprocessed into new products. they are durable in nature and are used in automobiles, construction and in applications such as adhesives and coatings (ampofo, 2015). the four types of plastics that are currently used and recycled in developing countries are polyethylene (pe), polypropylene (pp), polystyrene (ps) and polyvinyl chloride (pvc) (bbc, 2014). polyethylene becomes hard and stiff when sterilized, it is therefore used as shrink wraps for products, and it is also used to make bottles. as compared with pe, polypropylene is more rigid and can bend sharply without breaking. it is used for food containers, chairs, ropes, pipes and crates. polystyrene is brittle and mostly transparent in its unprocessed form, because of this, it can be used for light fittings and cheap transparent kitchen ware. polyvinyl chloride is usually stiff, strong and scratch resistance and it is used in pipes and window frames (bbc, 2014). to recycle plastic waste, management of it must be effective. plastic waste management the concept of waste hierarchy is the basis for waste minimization strategies, and refers to the 3rs which are to reduce, reuse and recycle. according to baud et al., (2004) a more environmentally friendly and sustainable solid waste management strategy emphasizes on activities in relation to reduction, reuse and recycling. the application of the 3r concept in to the waste management minimizes pa ge 35 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(3) 33-40, 2023 the amount of waste that goes in to landfills. reduction is aimed at reducing the amount of waste produced by adopting or optimizing the production process of manufacturers and industries. as a result, natural resources will be saved. reuse does not involve re processing or transforming from one type of material in to another. rather reuse occurs when one material served its original purpose and reused for another purpose rather than being thrown away. recycling is all about transforming or reprocessing of materials that served the original function in to new products. otherwise, those products that served the original function will be considered as waste. recycling is common among materials produced of virgin materials such as glass, plastic, metals and electronic waste. recycling also involves organic materials for the production of compost. (zhu et al 2007). however, despite its wide use, the 3rs approach has failed to curb the problem of plastic waste, especially in less developed countries. an analysis of the 3rs reveals its inadequacy in solving the problem of plastic waste. reduce in a modern society that has become increasingly consumption-driven, a reduction in the use of plastic is illogical. industry and commerce need to increase output to survive and grow, while consumers are constantly urged to consume more. plastics have now replaced many natural materials such as cotton, wood, and leather. the growth in plastic products means that the strategy to reduce will not work. reuse the reuse of plastic products can only postpone the increase in plastic. plastic products are rarely durable and often rendered obsolete by newer products. for example, the useful life of computers, which contain a significant amount of plastic, is limited by capacity. also, the reuse of many plastic products is limited by the presence of additives such as plasticizers and flame-retardants, which leach out of the plastic and pose hazards for reuse (halden 2010). recycle many plastics are not meant to be recycled. plastics can be divided into two general types: thermoplastics, which can be recycled; and thermosets, which cannot be recycled. there are over 20 types of thermoplastics but only six are identified for recycling: 1, pet (polyethylene terephthalate); 2, hdpe (high-density polyethylene); 3, pvc (polyvinyl chloride); 4, ldpe (low-density polyethylene); 5, pp (polypropylene); and 6, ps (polystyrene). the other types of recyclable plastics are classified as 7, other. clearly, the system for the recycling of thermoplastics leaves much to be desired. on the other hand, thermoset plastics, which account for a large group of important industrial and consumer plastics, are not recyclable. in addition, the use of additives makes it difficult to recycle plastics. it is, therefore, not surprising that less than 9% of plastic waste is recycled globally (d’ambrières 2019). before plastic waste can be recycled, it must first be recovered. however, the recovery of plastic waste requires an efficient waste management system and most developing countries are unable to do this. the failure of the 3rs to address plastic waste can be attributed to two things: first, this strategy requires an efficient recovery figure 1: plastic waste management hierarchy. of plastic waste, a system that is not present in most developing countries; and second, many plastics are not designed to be recycled. the inadequacies of the 3rs can be addressed by the 5rs: redesign, reduce, reuse, recover, and recycle. the 5rs capture the key aspects of the circular economy, a strategy that is being promoted by the european commission (eur-lex, 2018). study type and design a descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted to assess policy guidelines, strategies, and operational processes associated with plastic waste management in ghana. the approach employed both quantitative and qualitative procedures to achieve the topic of the study. the quantitative part of this study employed structured questionnaires to solicit the views on strategies and pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(3) 33-40, 2023 policies for sustainable plastic waste management in kumasi metropolis. the qualitative study sought to know the inherent roles of stakeholders, plastic recycling processes, challenges and opportunities that existed in the management of plastic waste. sample the target population comprised of plastic waste recycling companies, waste collectors and kumasi metropolitan solid waste management. these were selected because they are active players relating to plastic waste management in kumasi. they are also responsible for all plastic waste management issues in kumasi and hence the need to examine the effectiveness of these groups of people plastic waste management. for the waste collectors, a total sample size of 315 was used for the study. this was to ensure that the sampled mean was closer to the population mean and minimize errors. sampling procedure a purposive and random sampling technique was used to select respondents. the respondents therefore constitute the following; 5 plastic waste recycling companies, 315 waste collectors and official of kumasi metropolitan solid waste management. these groups of people were purposively selected because they are directly engage in all waste issues in the greater kumasi and have considerable knowledge in the subject matter of the study. data was collected using both primary and secondary data collection technique. purposive sampling was used to select the kma and plastic recycling companies whiles simple random sampling was used to waste collectors. data collection and analysis data was collected by the usage of questionnaire and interview. the data was analysed using statistical package for social sciences (spss). descriptive analysis was performed on the structured questionnaire whereas thematic analysis was conducted on data gathered by interview. results plastic waste management companies operational practices and strategies on the issue of knowledge and awareness of national plastic waste management policy, respondents from plastic waste management companies stated that; ‘‘there is existence of policy document on plastic waste management and we are even aware about the launch of the policy document but have never gotten a copy and there has not been awareness creation and education on the policy document’’ (field survey, may 2022). furthermore, when plastic waste management companies were asked about the strategy they take plastic waste collected through, they stated that; ‘‘the operation process of our recycling of plastic is guided by the type of plastic waste received and the machines available. the state of the plastic waste materials obtained is dirty and as such plastics waste obtained are sorted and washed before the next processes follow’’ (field survey, may 2022). on the processes involved in plastic waste recycling, plastic waste management companies further stated that ‘‘there are differences in processes used in recycling different plastic materials. the first group comprises of recycling hd, pe and pp plastics while the second group comprises of recycling pet plastics’’ (field survey, may 2022). plastic recycling companies in kumasi described the process below; in order to recycle plastic waste, plastic recycling companies go through a six-stage process of 1. acquiring, 2. sorting, 3. washing, 4. agglomeration, 5. pelletizing 6. sale of plastic pellets. for companies who source their plastics from factory waste they omit the washing stage as the plastics are already clean. some companies crush the plastics before washing them. apart from these variations the process is similar for most of the companies. the acquisition stage is made up of the collection or weighing and buying of plastic waste. once the plastic waste has been acquired it is temporarily stored within the recycling plants and then the next stage which is sorting is carried out. the plastic waste is separated/sorted into either hd or ld or pp and each type of plastic is processed differently. the separation of plastics is carried out both manually and mechanically. once the sorting has been carried out the plastics are then put into machines in order to wash them to get rid of any impurities that are present in them. the next stage of recycling is that the clean plastics undergo the process of agglomeration. agglomeration is a process in which the plastics are heated until they reach melting point. once the plastics are in a melting state the final stage of recycling process occurs. that is the pelletizing stage during which the plastics in a molten form are crushed into plastic pellets. plastic pellets are the final product for some of the companies and these pellets are sold to plastic product manufacturing companies to be used in the production of plastic materials. while some companies export the plastic pellets to europe and asia other companies used the plastic pellets to produce black polythene bags of different sizes. the polyethylene bags then become the final product which is sold to wholesalers for use in markets and grocery shops. operational processes carried out by kumasi municipal assembly (kma) when the official at the kma was questioned about the guidelines, strategies and operational processes for plastic waste management kumasi, the officer pa ge 37 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(3) 33-40, 2023 stated that; ‘‘there are few players in the plastic waste recycling business due to the capital intensive of the business despite the existence of policy document on plastic waste management. however the usage of the guidelines in the national plastic waste management by plastic waste recycling companies is another challenge’’ (field survey, may 2022). on the issue of plastic recycling by kma, the respondents indicated that; ‘‘the kma is not involved in plastic recycling but responsible for the collection and final disposal of plastic waste to the oti landfill through their waste management departments (wmds) and their environmental health and sanitation units. kma charge for final waste disposal from waste collectors and only incur cost for the maintenance of the landfill site’’ (field survey, may 2022). knowledge level of waste collectors on plastic waste management in greater kumasi since the activities of waste collectors are mainly collection, transport and disposal, the waste collectors were tested on whether they have received training on their daily activities. results on waste are shown in table 1. more than two thirds of the respondents 221(70.16%) indicated that they have not receive training on waste collection, transport and disposal. of those who have received training, most of the respondents indicated that the source of their training was from kma 55(17.46%). this was followed by friends 10(3.17%), educational institutions 8(2.54%), television 5(1.59%), family and radio was 4(1.27%) each and colleague 3(0.95%). like waste collection, transport and disposal, majority of the respondents 210(66.67%) again indicated that they have not receive education or briefing on plastic waste management of the national plastic waste management. table 1: knowledge of waste collectors on plastic waste management. knowledge sources frequency(n=315) percentage(%) x2(p-value) waste collection, transport and disposal no 221 70.16 yes family 4 1.27 colleague 3 0.95 51.20(0.000) friend 10 3.17 personal 5 15.80 kma 55 17.46 television 5 1.59 radio 4 1.27 educational institution 8 2.54 plastic waste management policy training no 210 66.67 yes brother 2 0.63 35.00(0.000) friend 9 2.86 kcarp 17 5.40 kma 53 16.83 educational institution 11 3.49 television 7 2.22 radio 6 1.90 source: (field survey, 2022) similar like waste collection, transport and disposal, majority of the respondents 53(16.83%) who had education on plastic waste management did receive from kma. this was followed by kumasi compost and recycling plant limited (kcarp) 17(5.40%), educational institution 11(3.49%), friend 9(2.86%), television 7(2.22%), radio 6(1.90%) and brother 2(0.63%). there were significant differences (p=0.000) on the training on waste collection, transport and disposal and plastic waste management policy. evaluation of stakeholders on policy guidelines and strategies on plastic waste management in kumasi stakeholders used in this study were evaluated on the policy and strategies on plastic waste management based on knowledge, compliance and impact on the environment on a likert scale. kma had high knowledge on policy and strategies on plastic waste management but low compliance and high impact of their activities on the environment. kcarp on the other hand, had very high knowledge on policy and strategies on plastic pa ge 38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(3) 33-40, 2023 table 2: stakeholders evaluation of policy and strategies on plastic waste management in kumasi. stakeholder knowledge compliance impact kma very high low very high kcarp very high very high low zoomlion high low low premier waste limited average low average fg recycling plastics limited average low average sika waste management average low average waste collectors low low high likert scale: very high (8-10), high (6-7), average (5), low (below 5) waste management, very high compliance and low impact of their activities on the environment. premier waste limited, fg recycling plastics limited and sika waste management had average knowledge on policy and strategies on plastic waste management, low compliance and average impact of their activities on the environment. plastic waste collectors had low knowledge and compliance on plastic waste management and their activities have high impact on the environment. discussion guidelines/policies, strategies and operational processes for plastic waste management plastic waste management companies while plastic waste recycling is generally acknowledge as the way to go in reducing this menace, the involvement of state institutions in this endeavour is lacking as seen in the case of kma in this study. the general guidelines concerning the management of plastic waste in ghana are embodied in the local government act of 1994 (act 462) and the environmental sanitation policy (esp) of 1999, revised in 2008 (owusu-sekyere et al., 2013). this has further been revised. nkwachukwu (2013) stated that the common types of plastics recycled in developing countries are polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene (ps) and polyvinyl chloride (pvc). the findings of the study show that pe, pp and pet are the types of plastics that are recycled in kumasi. this is primarily due to the fact that the technology that is available in kumasi can only recycle these types of plastics. the operational processes of plastic waste management companies in kumasi in the plastic waste management are into six steps. operational processes carried out by kumasi municipal assembly (kma) the kma is not involved in plastic recycling but responsible for the collection and final disposal of plastic waste to the oti landfill through their waste management departments (wmds) and their environmental health and sanitation units. kma charge for final waste disposal from waste collectors and only incur cost for the maintenance of the landfill site. environmental protection agency (epa) has the regulatory authority however; general solid waste management in ghana is the responsibility of the ministry of local government and rural development, which supervises the decentralized metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies (mmdas). the mmdas are responsible for the collection and final disposal of plastic waste through their waste management departments (wmds) and their environmental health and sanitation units. owusu-sekyere et al., (2013) stated that the epa act 490 was the enabling legislation and, with regard to plastic waste management, it enables the minister in charge of environment to make regulations concerning the type, quality or conditions or concentration of substances that may be released into the environment; and the collection, storage, recovery, recycling or disposal of substances which may be hazardous to the environment. waste collectors’ on plastic waste management in kumasi waste collectors primarily are involved in the collection, transport and final disposal of waste. waste and waste picking have thus been interpreted under different corpora of the literature, including: social movements,(4) environmental and sanitation engineering,(5) political economy,(6) informal economy,(7) urban anthropology,(8) sustainability studies,(9) participatory governance,(10) ecological modernization theories,(11) urban geography(12) and gender.(13) (dias, 2016). waste collectors in this study see their daily activities as a form of waste management purposely for environmental and sanitation engineering. knowledge is important in waste handling. waste management education for waste collectors was low as majority of them have not receive training on waste handling in terms of collection and transport in greater kumasi. the greater number of the waste pickers lacking knowledge on waste management implies that they are not aware of the existence of the national plastic waste management policy. this has detrimental effect on waste management in greater kumasi as there would be poor handling of plastic waste leading to hazardous effect. stakeholders evaluation on policy and strategies on plastic waste management in kumasi evaluation on policy and strategies on plastic waste management in kumasi is important to reveal the level pa ge 39 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(3) 33-40, 2023 of passivity on existing policies. different stakeholders used in this study had different outcome from the policy and strategies. kma recorded high knowledge on policy and strategies on plastic waste management but low compliance and high impact of their activities on the environment. the result of high knowledge on policy and strategies on plastic waste management is attributed to the level of educational background of kma officials and engagement with government agencies such as ministry of environment and epa on issues pertaining to plastic waste. again the low level of kma on compliance on plastic waste can be ascribed to the fact that kma is not directly involve in plastic recycling and as such receives plastic waste on the oti landfill in kumasi. such open dumping has high impact on the environment owing from chemicals from the plastic and non-degradable of plastics. plastic waste recycling company like kcarp on the other hand, had very high knowledge on policy and strategies on plastic waste management, very high compliance and low impact of their activities on the environment. high knowledge like that of kcarp is attributed to educational level of workers at the company. the high level of compliance is due to plastic waste recycling activities carried out at the company to reduce the menace of plastic waste. this is thorough pelletizing of plastics receives from waste collectors and as such their activities had no impact on the environment. other recycling companies such as premier waste limited, fg recycling plastics limited and sika waste management had average knowledge on policy and strategies on plastic waste management, low compliance and average impact of their activities on the environment. the underlying reason accounting for this is due to some average level of education receive on plastic waste management and low level of engagement from government on plastic waste policy and strategies. most of these waste collectors had not received training on plastic waste management and had low educational level. their activities which involve the usage of tricycle to carry plastic waste somehow end some of the gathered and transported plastic waste on the highways since the vehicle used is not designed for waste transport. conclusion plastic waste management is a challenge in kumasi one of the fastest-growing cities in ghana and africa at large. there is daily huge generation of municipal waste with plastic waste management improperly disposed in and around the city of kumasi. the results revealed that the stakeholders were aware of the national plastic waste policy. despite the existence of guidelines in the form of national plastic waste management policy, knowledge level on it is very low and the operational process for plastic waste management is based on the recycling machines. the results further revealed that there were different roles of stakeholders in plastic waste management. kma and other government institutions involved in waste management must take steps by supervising the day-today activities of plastic recycling companies and waste collectors to regulate the activities of companies within the plastic recycling industry. this is to ensure that the activities that are carried out within this sector are legal and that companies comply with the entire regulated framework. smaller-scale plastic recycling companies should consider creating an association for big players in the industry. this will enable them to communicate with a unified voice on issues that are of concern to them. by forming an association they will also be able to build a strong reputation for the plastic recycling industry in ghana. references agamuthu, p., khidzir, k. m. and hamid. f. s. (2009). drivers of sustainable waste management in asia. waste manag res 27(7), 625-33. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0734242x09103191. american chemistry society (2015). how plastics are made. american chemistry council. retrieved on 20th december 2021 from http://plastics. americanchemistry.com/education-resources/ plastics-101/howplasticsare-made.html anwer, m & faizan, m. (2020).solid waste management in india under covid19 pandemic: challenges and solutions. international journal of engineering research & technology, 9(06).retrieved from https://www.ijert. org/solid-wastemanagement-in-india-under-covid19pandemic-challenges-andsolutions arnaud, f. (2019), field actions science reports, special issue 19 | 2019, reinventing plastics [online], online since 01 march 2019, connection on 03 february 2020. url: http://ournals.openedition.org/ factsreports/4993 asase, m., yanful, e.k., mensah, m., stanford, j. and amponsah, s. (2009). comparison of municipal solid waste management systems in canada and ghana: a case study of the cities of london, ontario, and kumasi, ghana. waste management 29(10), 2779-2786. baud, i., johan, p. & furedy, c. (2004). solid waste management and recycling: actors, partnerships and policies in hyderabad india. usa. kluwer academic publisher. bbc (2014). plastics. bbc. retrieved on 16th january 2022 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/ design/graphics/materialsandcompo nentsrev3.shtml. d’ambrières w. (2019). plastics recycling worldwide: current overview and desirable changes. facts reports special issue 19: reinventing plastics. retrieved on 19 may 2022 from https://journals.openedition.org/ factsreports/5102 dias, s.m. (2016). waste pickers and cities. international institute for environment and development (iied). 28(2), 375–390. https://doi. org/10.1177/0956247816657302 eur-lex. (2018). a european strategy for plastics in a circular economy. retrieved on 18 may 2022 from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim 2(3) 33-40, 2023 txt/?uri=com%3a2018%3a28%3afin ghana statistical service (gss) (2014). population and housing census. accra. sakoa press limited. halden r.u. (2010). plastics and health risks. annu rev public health, 31, 179–194. ibrahim, wael m., asad f. h. and yahia a. a. (2016). biosorption of toxic heavy metals from aqueous solution by ulva lactuca activated carbon.” egyptian journal of basic and applied sciences, 3(3), 241-249. mcdougall, f. r., white, peter r. franke, marina, hindle, p. (2008). integrate solid waste management: a life cycle inventory. chichester:wiley. ministry of environment science, technology and innovation (mesti). (2020). national plastics management policy. https://www.mesti.gov.gh/wpcontent/uploads/2021/02/revised. owusu-sekyere, e., osumanu, i.k. and yaro, j.a.d. (2013). landfill in the kumasi metropolitan area of ghana. international journal of current research, 2, 8796. ramachandra, t. v. & bachamanda, s. (2007). environmental audit of municipal solid waste management. international journal of environmental technology and management, 74(7), 369-391. zhu, d, asnani, p. u. and zurbrugg, c. (2007). improving municipal solid waste management in india: a source book for policy makers and practitioners. herndon: world bank publication. pa ge 1 pa ge 15 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) responses of brassica rapa “bokchoy” to varying light intensities grown under hydroponic system angel lhi d. alcalde1*, chinitt p. sinco1, ma. lourdes s. cantor1, michelle t. viña1, jolai r. garcia-bolaños1, rikka bianca j. condes1, romeo jr. b. bordios1 volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.486 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 09, 2022 accepted: august 15, 2022 published: august 18, 2022 climate change compounds matters because agriculture is dependent on land. soilless system production is attractive since it allows for the use of unproductive land for agriculture while reducing water use. the light intensities in one-, two-, and three-layer treatments affect brassica rapa growth and development, according to the discussion and conclusions. the three-layer net group outgrew the one-layer control group in terms of growth and development. brassica rapa’s development and maturity were influenced by light intensities. plant growth and yield improve as the number of brassica rapa layers increases. varying effects on plant output, fresh weight, water consumption, and leaf tissue in the intensities of light. the study discovered that light had an impact potentially in brassica rapa in hydroponic systems. the temperature of the environment can stymie development, manufacturing, and diffusion. the findings indicate that the cultivar is more resistant to light stress. keywords hydroponics, brassica rapa, responses, the interaction of climate change, light intensities to plants, hydroponic system 1 notre dame of midsayap college, midsayap, cotabato, philippines. * corresponding author’s e-mail: delacruzangellhi@gmail.com introduction it would appear to be self-evident that food security is one of the most important themes of the new millennium and, logically, the most pressing challenge for the agricultural industry. this is due to the fact that it is anticipated that the population of the world will increase in the coming years. the growing loss of rich soil surface as a result of environmental degradation and trends toward urbanization considerably complicates the predicament that already exists. it is important to take into consideration the intensification of production cycles as well as the monoculture approach, both of which helped to enable the spread of a variety of diseases and the development of disorders with associated those diseases. in an era marked by dramatic climate change, the fact that agricultural operations are extremely reliant on the availability of land only serves to further exacerbate the problem. in this aspect, the possibility to use land that is no longer productive owing to pollution or pathogen issues for agricultural uses while simultaneously minimizing the amount of water that is used makes production using soilless systems an appealing alternative. in addition, it is essential to point out that the application of this kind of technology constitutes a constructive response toward the development of agriculture that is less harmful to the environment, in addition to being a practical tool in the context of the worldwide problem of ensuring adequate food supply (satterthwaite et al., 2010). an agricultural method known as hydroponics has been the focus of a significant amount of research as it pertains to the production of vegetables. research on hydroponics was initially pioneered by the university of the philippines at los baos, and several filipino academics are currently at the forefront of their fields. what has not been done, and where this research is critical, is to apply hydroponics to urban, any location, or rooftops and to develop a competitive business model that connects onsite production to onsite consumption, which will result in a reduction in the costs associated with the food supply chain. this approach not only offers a commercially viable paradigm for agriculture, but also a model that is environmentally sustainable. brassica rapa, which is a popular product that is sold on the market, was utilized in the study as an important component that was used. it is common practice to include the leaves, which can be consumed, in dishes like as stews and soups. pechay (brassica rapa) is typically offered as part of a meal alongside other vegetables, seafood, or meat when it is prepared for consumption at establishments such as restaurants or even in private homes. eastern asia places a significant emphasis on the consumption of this vegetable. it is the most often cultivated vegetable in china, particularly in the country’s northern regions, and other key locations of production, such as korea, including china. therefore, it can be consumed raw or simply cooked, and it is also utilized in the preparation of kimchi, which is a fermented side dish that is consumed. brassica rapa environmental stress brassica rapa is an annual biennial herb, cultivated worldwide, and most adapted to temperate climates. it is commonly cultivated in many countries as an edible vegetable and for the production of vegetable oil for the growing population. however, the fluctuation in temperature greatly affects plant growth and development and the production of bioactive compounds. an investigation of the effect of cold stress on seed germination, biomass gain, and biosynthesis content in medicinally important brassica rapa (iiyas et al., 2022). https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.486 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:delacruzangellhi@gmail.com pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 15-22, 2022 brassica is an important vegetable group worldwide that is impacted by biotic and abiotic stresses. results showed response expression after abiotic stress treatments indicating higher potentials. results presented herein suggest that chitinase genes may be useful resources in the development of stress-resistant brassica (ahmed et al., 2012). in experiments under controlled conditions, it was investigated the effects of water stress. the yield and yield components were mainly affected by water shortages. the results demonstrated a marked reduction when water deficit occurred from anthesis to maturity (champolivier & merrien, 1996). in a study, the reason for plant diseases could be the reason of disease in different parts of a plant such as the leaf, root, and stems, however, leave is one of the most important institutes to be observed to identify and detect infection. the study showed covers different factors which is the reason for abiotic and biotic stress (texture, shape, and size) in plants (kaur & gautam, 2021). the effects of salt and drought factors on the growth, physiological and biochemical responses of brassica rapa, a greenhouse experiment was conducted with different levels of salinity. the result showed that individual drought and salt stress conditions have negatively affected the plant growth including the shoot, root fresh, and dry weights when applied separately. on the other hand, the combination of drought and salinity enhanced the adverse effects of each stress factor (sahin et al., 2018). salinity is one of the major abiotic stresses affecting brassica crop production. in the investigations (pavlovic et al., 2018) into the physiological, biochemical, and hormonal components of the short-term salinity treatments in seedlings, with particular emphasis on the biosynthesis and metabolism of auxin. observed changes in biochemical stress markers in reductions in seedling fresh weight and root growth, decreased photosynthesis rate, and increased levels of reactive oxygen species. a study that evaluates the strategies for coping with arsenic toxicity by the mine species, and compares results obtained from plants exposed to arsenic present in contaminated soil and with a hydroponic solution. the result showed basic differences in plant responses to arsenic depending on growth conditions with respect to uptake, root0to-shoot translocation, distribution, and detoxification. when grown in soil, it accumulated the highest amount of arsenic in roots and shoots relative to other species, however, when exposed to arsenic in hydroponics, it had lower arsenic in hydroponics, it had lower arsenic concentrations (zabludowska et al., 2009). factors that limit the prospect of sustainable production, such as levels of calcium in the soil, below the plowed zone. this may prevent root elongation and expose the crop to drought stress. experimental data have shown variability for low-calcium tolerance among and within cultivars (spehar & souza, 1995). in saline soil conditions the availability and uptake of ca2+ are reduced that resulting in the loss of membrane integrity and other disorders associated with ca2+ deficiency in plants. the efficiency in uptake and utilization of calcium under saline conditions. in research from arshad et al. (2012) efficient uptake and utilization of calcium under saline conditions may be better able to withstand saline conditions in the field. the response to salinity and low ca2+ has usually been done against salinity alone. physical growth parameters in shoot length, root length, and shoot and root fresh weights were decreased significantly due to salinity and low calcium. hence, the study proves that certain genotypes can better uptake and utilize calcium than under low calcium supply which improves salt under saline conditions. root growth is inhibited by proton rhizotoxicity in low ionic strength media when the ph of the medium is lower than quantitative trait locus (qtl) analysis. the study that indicates different genetic factors regulate mechanisms of resistance and aluminum resistance indicates that there is no simple relationship between the genetic factors controlling each trait (ikka et al., 2007). a hydroponic experiment was conducted to evaluate the role of potassium and silicon in mitigating the deleterious effects of nacl on plant genotypes differing in salt tolerance. the result showed k and si enhanced salt tolerance in plant genotypes it was ascribed to decreased na+ concentration and increased k+ with a resultant improvement in k+/n ratio, which is a good indicator to assess plant tolerance to salt stress (ashraf et al., 2010). chromium (cr) is a well-established carcinogen that is contaminated by half of the environmental protection agency (epa). the x-ray absorption spectroscopy (xas) results for this study showed that some of the supplied cr (vi) were uptaken by the roots, however, the data analysis of the plant tissues demonstrated that it was fully reduced to cr (iii) in the leaf tissues (aldrich et al., 2003). site selection hydroponics is the growing of plants without soil. the name “hydroponics” implies that the plants grow in water. the plants are grown in growing beds that may be filled with gravel or sand or other material, and the plants get the nutrients from a water solution added to the beds. some of the important advantages of successful hydroponics over soil culture are yields can be as much as ten times greater than in soil culture; plants need less space because nutrients are concentrated; the nutrient solution is reused, so the amount of water needed is much smaller, and the nutrients are easier to test and adjust to growing conditions. sunlight require solar radiation to grow. sunlight is absorbed by plant leaves and used as an energy source for photosynthesis. the ability of a crop to absorb sunlight is determined by the leaf surface or leaf area index. the https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 15-22, 2022 ability of a crop to collect sunlight is enhanced when it has a full canopy (mckenzie, 2017). photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce food. it occurs when a plant collects carbon dioxide, nutrients, and water through pores in its branches, stems, and leaves. the light energy initiates a chemical reaction that degrades the carbon dioxide and water molecules. this process generates a sugar called glucose as well as oxygen. glucose provides oxygen and is broken down by chloroplast organelles, which contain a green substance called chlorophyll, which gives the leaves their green hue. due to sunshine exposure, both the “full sun” and “some sun” plants were able to enable for photosynthesis (measuring plant growth with sunlight, 2019). when plants receive insufficient sunlight, photosynthesis slows and the plant begins to climb upward and stretch its stems to reach for the sunshine. this process is easily seen in both plants that received partial and restricted sun. plants grew longer stems and expanded their reach toward the sun (measuring plant growth with sunlight, 2019b). sunlight concentration and transmission for daylighting is a burgeoning technique of direct solar energy consumption. to address the cooling problem during high irradiation, a solar concentrating and transmission system was devised and tested. the study found that using extensive shade as a cooling technique to ensure a safe temperature range was achievable. a study looked into the morphological changes, photosynthetic responses, and gene expression of plants in response to intense sunlight. the results demonstrated that bright sunshine increased the expression of the gibberellin biosynthesis gene and affected plant morphology. plants grown in direct sunlight also showed increased shoot growth, stem elongation, and branching. as a result, higher expression of photosynthetic genes and photosynthesis rate have a favorable effect. the strategy that led to the improvement of plant leaf photosynthetic efficiency was a method to boost light energy consumption, which reduced chloroplast senescence caused by surplus light energy (cao et al., 2021). light and dryness will boost the biomass and glucosinolate synthesis of brassica rapa. experiments with prolonged light exposure improved plant growth. plants subjected to a combination of drought and long light conditions grew in the same way as control plants. plants exposed to lengthy light produced more glucosinolates, however, dryness had no effect on glucosinolate production. the data indicate that lengthy light exposure was employed to boost both biomass and gl production in brassica rapa (park et al., 2021). shading heavy shading is commonly applied during the production of pot plants in order to avoid damage caused by high light intensities; usually the daily light integral photosynthetically active radiation. however, shading carries a production penalty as light is the driving force for photosynthesis. the study showed higher daily light integral led to more leaves and stems. furthermore, high daily light integral resulted in more compact plants without light damage in leaves or in both cultivars. hence, less shading stimulates plant growth but also improves plant quality, especially compactness (li et al., 2014). temperature high temperatures have a variety of effects on plant growth. the effects of heat on photosynthesis, in which plants consume carbon dioxide to make oxygen, are the most visible. according to colorado state university extension experts, these processes accelerate as temperatures rise. the two processes become imbalanced when temperatures reach unacceptably high levels. temperature has a wide range of effects on plants, which are impacted by factors like as exposure to sunshine, height, the variation between day and night temperatures, and proximity to surrounding structures (dyer, n.d.). holcman and sntelhas (2012) investigated the effect of different color shade screens on several climatic variables in a greenhouse covered with low-density polyethylene. the testing revealed that the treatment with a black screen had the lowest solar radiation transfer. temperature is a major component influencing plant development. warmer temperatures projected as a result of climate change, as well as the possibility of more extreme temperature occurrences, will have an impact on plant productivity. other than selecting plants, there are few adaptation methods available to cope with temperature variations during this developmental period. warm temperatures accelerated phenological development in controlled environment tests but had no influence on leaf area or vegetative biomass when compared to normal temperatures. as a result, warmer temperatures had the greatest impact during the reproductive stage of development, and grain yield in maize was dramatically reduced compared to a normal temperature regime in all situations. temperature effects are exacerbated by water deficits and excess soil water, demonstrating that understanding the interaction of temperature and water will be required to develop more effective adaptation strategies to offset the impacts of greater temperature extreme events associated with a changing climate hatfield and prueger (2015). drought events, which are expected to become more frequent and intense as a result of climate change, have the largest economic impact. as a result, while assessing agricultural drought risk reduction, good yield management should be a primary factor (foster et al., 2015). according to yan et al. (2019), one of the most important abiotic variables affecting growth, productivity, and distribution is low temperature. based on the results, it is https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 15-22, 2022 inferred that the cultivar has a greater ability to respond to cold stress (chilling and freezing stresses). methodology research site the study was undertaken at midsayap, north cotabato, the philippines is located in a province between 5 and 8 degrees latitude, which means that midsayap and all places within its authority were less affected by typhoons. the municipality was classified as having a fourth kind of climate, which was defined by an annual rainfall distribution that is more or less uniform. research design the study employed an experimental design. as a result, it is deemed to have an equal selection of each brassica rapa in simple randomized complete block design (rcbd) with three replications. the following will be the treatments: t0 = control group (brassica rapa in snap hydroponic with the normal environmental conditions) t1 = snap hydroponic system with different light intensities t2 = snap hydroponic system with different levels of nutrient solution research specimen the study used the brassica rapa or the bok choy as a high valued crop in the market. it is a type of chinese cabbage used as food. research instruments the study used the following instruments to measure the factors affecting the length, width, height, number of leaves, and yield of brassica rapa. ruler: it was used to measure the height, length, and width of the leaves of brassica rapa. timer: it was used to regularly monitor the collection of data. spectrometer: it was used to measure the temperature and humidity of the controlled environment of the plants. research procedure seedling production of brassica rapa brassica rapa seeds were put in a sowing tray that was filled with heat sterilized coco coir before being transplanted. when the seedlings sprouted, there were placed beneath a structure made of plastic covering to protect them from the elements, particularly rain and direct sunshine. when the seedlings reached the true-leaf stage, there were poked by placing the healthy individual in a sowing tray and were placed in a hardening place with a small container. three days following the germination of the seedlings, a starter solution consisting of a half-strength (12.5 ml) nutrient solution dissolved in 10 liters of water was supplied to the seedlings within 10 days. ten days before being transplanted, the seedlings were hardened off. until it showed evidence of temporary wilting, the seedlings were gradually exposed to sunshine and watered down until they show signs of temporary withering. snap hydroponics system set-up (santos and ocampo, 2002) after being grown for 10 days, the seedlings were transferred to a growing box with a polyethylene plastic container and were transferred to the treated half-strength solution for 14 days. a total of around 30 liters of water with a nutrient solution was stored in each empty growing box (30 cm x 40 cm in size). these were lined with polyethylene bags with a thickness of .05 cm. the cover of the growing box was fitted with ventilation holes (2-3 cm in diameter) in order to allow for proper ventilation. there were nine holes, measuring15-20 cm in diameter, and were drilled to accommodate the cups in which the brassica rapa was planted. the cups could hold 8oz to hold the brassica rapa seedlings and were half-filled with coco coir to support the roots of the brassica rapa. due to its high cation exchange rate, coco coir stores and releases nutrients as needed, yet it has a tendency to retain calcium, magnesium, and iron. this means that it needs to supplement crops with specialized coco coir nutrients to increase their calcium, magnesium, and iron levels. particularly in cases where the roots have not yet developed extensively, the base of the cup is always immersed in the solution. the solution was maintained at 2-4 cm between the bottom of the cup and the top of the solution while the roots grow and develop. snap nutrient solution application in this study, the nutrient solution was replenished once a week to ensure the water in the growing media decreases the required amount for growing the brassica rapa. thus, it is required to be checked every tuesday and thursday (8:00 am, 10 am, 12 pm, 2 pm, and 4 pm) for possible deficiencies of the brassica rapa and contamination of the nutrient solution in the growing box. the number of brassica rapa per treatment was replicated 3 times in a random arrangement with randomly assigned numbers. following transplantation, the brassica rapa was available for harvesting 45 days after it was transplanted. temperature the normal condition of the environment per treatment was monitored by the use of a laboratory spectrometer with specific time intervals: 8:00 – 10:00 am, 10:00 – 12:00 pm, 12:00 – 2:00 pm, and 2:00 – 4:00 pm. observation of the growth and length records of the brassica rapa was kept using the daily logbook with the given datasheets. treatment method light intensity under this treatment, the plot was covered with 2.2m x 2.0m with different layers of mosquito net that were monitored with specific time and temperature in terms https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 15-22, 2022 of variations of light intensities until the harvest time of the brassica rapa. the different intensities are as follows: t0 = under normal environmental condition t1 = under the cover of two layers of mosquito net t2 = under the cover of three layers of mosquito net t3 = under the cover of four layers of mosquito net the total amount of light that penetrated through varying layers was measured using a light meter. the length and width were measured using the foot rule. data gathering procedure the data were gathered in accordance with the methodology used in the study in order to be appropriately led in the data collection process: 1. brassica rapa height and width. the height of the plant was recorded by measuring the plant from the surface of the stalk of the brassica rapa that was seen to the tip of the last leaflet. while the width was measured with the diameter for each brassica rapa. this was one week of growing the brassica rapa seeds out in the growing tray. there were 243 brassica rapa plants that were randomly placed in each block with 9 holes planted with brassica rapa. 2. brassica rapa weight. the weight of the brassica rapa was determined by the yield of the production to compare the differences between the treatments. the result was controlled with varied light intensity and different types of nutrient solutions used for a higher yield. 3. the number of the leaves of brassica rapa per plant. the leaves of brassica rapa were counted per plant for each treatment. 4. type of nutrient solution. the type of nutrient solution was monitored to check the relationship and differences between each treatment. 5. light intensities. the amount of light received during the treatment was a greater factor to increase and decrease the yield of brassica rapa. thus, it was important to measure and check the difference in the result from the replanting to the harvesting period of the brassica rapa. 6. time temperature. this measured the differences between the growth of brassica rapa with the length measured with varied time (8 am, 12 pm, and 5 pm) temperature and determined the relationship within the result. hence, specimen temperature was monitored by the researcher to investigate and observe. treatment of data for the purpose of determining the relationships and mean the difference between data treatments (light intensity and level of nutrient solution) applied to brassica rapa, an analysis of variance (anova) was used in the study. as a result, the tests for normal distribution of each sample the researcher was randomly picked in a growing brassica rapa out from the population of the fully grown seedlings of brassica rapa was tested in varied lights and treatments. the analysis of variance and test for correlation were employed to determine the relationships. treatment of data the strip plot design was used in this study. the light intensities (t0 – under normal environmental condition, t1 – the wooden frame that will scaffold the one layer of mosquito net, t2 – wooden frame that will scaffold the three layers of mosquito net), was the vertical and the amount of nutrient solution (n0 – no nutrient solution, n1 – 30 ml/box of nutrient solution a, n2 –with nutrient solution b 30 ml/box nutrient solution, and n3 with snap with 30 ml/box nutrient solution c). each treatment was replicated three times. the anova was employed in the strip-plot design that was used to analyze the data for the comparison of each treatment, a post hoc test was used for the comparison of the mean difference, while to test the relationship of the intensity of light, humidity, yield, and layers of mosquito net pearson-r correlation was employed. results and discussion as evidenced by an f-ratio of 6.40 and a p-value of 0.00, table 1: differences in the varying light intensities in the numbers of leaves on brassica rapa source ss df ms between-treatments 107.08 3 35.69 within-treatments 2651.80 476 5.57 f =6.40* total 2758 479 the f-ratio value is 6.40. the p-value is 0.00. the result is significant at p <.05 table 2: pos hoc tukey analysis on varying light intensities pairwise comparisons hsd.05 = 1.23 q.05 = 3.66 q.01 = 4.46 hsd.01 = 1.50 t0:t1 m0 = 3.54 1.53 q = 6.34 (p = .00)* m1 = 5.07 t0:t2 m0 = 3.54 0.91 q = 3.78 (p = 0.03)* m2 = 4.45 t0:t3 m1 = 5.07 0.62 q = 2.57 (p = 0.26) m3 = 4.16 t1:t2 m1 = 5.07 0.62 q = 2.57 (p = 0.26) m2 = 4.45 t1:t3 m1 = 5.07 0.91 q = 3.78 (p = 0.03)* m3 = 4.16 t2:t3 m2 = 4.45 0.29 q = 1.21 (p = 0.82) m3 = 4.16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 15-22, 2022 table 3: growth and yield responses of brassica rapa to varying light intensities. source ss df ms between-treatments 263.66 3 87.88 within-treatments 2495.21 476 5.57 f=16.76* total 2758.88 479 the f-ratio value is 6.40. the p-value is 0.00. the result is significant at p <.05 table 4: growth and yield response of brassica rapa to varying nutrient solution. source ss df ms between-treatments 263.66 3 87.88 within-treatments 2495.21 476 5.57 f=16.76* total 2758.88 479 the f-ratio value is 16.76. the p-value is 0.00. the result is significant at p <.05 table 5: pos hoc analysis of the differences in growth and yield pairwise comparisons hsd.05 = 1.23 q.05 = 3.66 q.01 = 4.46 hsd.01 = 1.50 t0:t1 m0 = 3.54 1.27 q = 5.44 (p = .00)* m1 = 4.81 t0:t2 m0 = 3.54 0.05 q = 0.21 (p = .99) m2 = 3.59 t0:t3 m0 = 3.54 1.74 q = 7.43 (p = .00)* m3 = 5.28 t1:t2 m1 = 4.81 1.22 q = 5.23 (p = .00)* m2 = 3.59 t1:t3 m1 = 4.81 0.46 q = 1.99 (p = .49) m3 = 5.28 t2:t3 m2 = 3.59 1.69 q = 7.22 (p = .00)* m3 = 5.28 this result exhibited a statistically significant difference between the varying of one, two, and three layers. the anova test revealed a significant difference in the number of leaves developed by brassica rapa when light intensity was varied across one, two, and three layers. for pairwise comparisons of treatment in layers based on anova data. t0 (m = 3.54) was substantially different (p = 0.00) from t1. t0 was significantly different (p = 0.03) from the mean of t2 with two layers of net covered (m = 4.45), but t1 was considerably different (p = 0.03) from the mean of t3 with three layers of net covers (m = 5.07). t0 and t3, t1 and t2, and t2 and t3 comparisons, on the other hand, revealed no significant changes. light intensities had a significant effect on the growth and development of brassica rapa. however, some treatments had no effect on growth and development when compared to others. the table result showed that there is a significant difference (f = 16.76 < p = 0.00) between and within treatments. it means that replication 1, 2, and 3 with treatments of different light intensities interplay with the number of leaves in brassica rapa. the analysis revealed that there was a substantial difference (p <.05) in the total number of leaves produced by each treatment as well as by each individual treatment (f-statistics = 16.76). because of this, the quantity of leaves produced by each treatment is significantly different due to the differences in the nutritional solution. there is a statistically significant gap between the sample means of t0 (m = 3.54) and t1, which has a value of 4.81; t0 (m = 3.54) and t3, which has a value of 5.28; t1 (m = 4.81) and t2 (m = 3.59); and t2 (3.59) and t3, which has a value of 5.28. as a result, it has been established that the applied nutrient solution had an effect on several groups and had a significant effect on the growth and production of plants in both the control group and the treatment group. there was also no discernible change found between t0 (m = 3.54) and t2 (m = 3.59), as well as t1 (m = 4.81) and t3 (m = 5.28). in light of this finding, a comparison of the treatments used within these groups revealed that the growth and yield were unaffected by the various types of applied solutions, despite the fact that these solutions were of different types. conclusion the following discussion and implications focus on the effects of light intensities received in treatments with one layer, two layers, and three layers having significant differences in the growth and development of brassica rapa. these treatments were compared to one another in terms of the number of layers present. when compared to the control group with one layer of net covering, the experimental group with three layers of coverage demonstrates much better growth and development than the control group. the findings lend credence to the hypothesis put up by hatfield and rueger (2015), which states that temperature is the key factor that determines the rate at which plants mature. the likelihood of more extreme temperature events, along with the warmer temperatures that are anticipated as a result of climate change, will have an effect on plant productivity. at this developmental stage, the only adaptation strategy that is available to cope with temperature extremes is to pick plants. there are very few alternative adaptation techniques accessible. warm temperatures sped up the rate of phenological development in experiments conducted https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 15-22, 2022 in controlled environments; nevertheless, there was no impact on the total leaf area or vegetative biomass when compared to temperatures 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(2009). search for a plant for phytoremediation–what can we learn from field and hydroponic studies?. chemosphere, 77(3), 301-307. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 53 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) farmers’ perception on the impact of deforestation influencing climate change flomo l. gbawoquiya1*, makissa p. cherif 1 volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.557 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: september 05, 2022 accepted: september 18, 2022 published: september 21, 2022 farmers’ perceptions on the effect of deforestation on climate change differ, from conceptual, practical, and information barriers all acting as limitations to pro-environmental behavior. the study’s overall objective was to assess the farmers’ perception of deforestation and its effect on climatic change. field questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions (fgd), and field observations were considered for this study conducted in suakoko district. results reviled that 75% of the respondents believed that deforestation and human activities are the main drivers of climate change while 23% of the respondents had no idea about the drivers of climate change. about 90 % of the respondents in the study area indicated that deforestation is a cause of climate change. the respondents were asked if deforestation could be tackled and 73% of them perceived that it was possible to do something to halt it, while 22% of the respondents didn’t know if it was possible to stop it. therefore, it is t recommended that the government create more awareness on the effect of deforestation and has to put some measures in place to mitigate or stop it because, deforestation is a driver of climate change. keywords deforestation, climate, climate change 1 emmet a. dennis college of natural sciences, department of environmental sciences, cuttington university, liberia * corresponding author’s e-mail: lebekugeh@gmail.com introduction forests have a crucial role in the lifestyles of billions of people around the world (sidiq, 2018), providing wood fuel as energy for everyday cooking and warming, hosting diverse types of wildlife habitats, safeguarding biodiversity, and preserving the full functioning of ecosystem services (ochenje et al., 2016). unfortunately, overexploitation and clearance of forest resources to meet the fundamental requirements of an expanding population and sustain economic growth has resulted in fast forest loss, particularly in the tropics, which contain more than two-thirds of the world’s biodiversity (asrat & simane, 2018). forest removal and degradation result in major biodiversity loss and release 10% to 25% of global carbon emissions. in fact, between 2014 and 2018, the world lost around 26 million hectares (ha) of forest every year, with the tropics accounting for nearly all of it. to avoid further distraction and its direct effect on human lives and economic development, it is crucially important to take a swift solution to reduce or divert the trend of forest resource loss at every level (saguye, 2018). loss of tropical forests (deforestation ) is caused by various drivers, which occur at different scales (falaki et al., 2013). the main drivers of deforestation may include commercial and subsistence agriculture followed by settlement expansion and infrastructure development (woods et al., 2017). climate change one of the biggest environmental threats to food production, water availability, forest biodiversity and livelihoods for many countries in the world (sidiq, 2018). moreover, it is widely believed that developing countries in tropical regions of the world, sub-saharan countries, will be impacted more severely than developed ones (chen et al., 2018). despite climate change being a global issue, developing countries need to adapts its effects. it is expected that africa’s agricultural production will be greatly affected by climate change (ken et al., 2020). considering that the agricultural sector is a source of livelihood for many people especially the poor in rural communities, it becomes imperative to protect the livelihoods of farmers to sustain food security (uddin et al., 2019). surprisingly, a system’s ability to adapt is determined by its vulnerability to climate change, which is impacted by its level of exposure and sensitivity to the effects of climate change. flood threats, for example, can cause significant output losses, raising risk awareness and the need for adaptation measures such as increased insurance demand among farmers. it appears that assess to insurance and financing have been regarded as critical for independent adaptation (ochenje et al., 2016). however, studies have revealed that farmers have a variety of adaption options. although there are subtle differences between the two, climate change and weather are inextricably linked. weather is a climate-related event that occurs at any one time, whereas climate is described as average weather conditions over a long period of time that might affect cropping area and intensity. however, climate and weather (specific atmospheric conditions) have varied effects on cropping area, intensity, and yield (hyland et al., 2016). farmers’ opinions of climate change differ conceptually, practically, and in terms of information, all of these factors operate as impediments to pro-environmental conduct. as a result, understanding farmers’ self-identity, their awareness of an environmental issue, and their views of its danger is critical in personalizing activities aimed at improving agriculture’s environmental performance. these constructs may influence the likelihood of farmers’ voluntary uptake of climate change measures, and their participation in programs that focus on reducing the sector’s ghg emissions (chen et al., 2018). https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.557 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:lebekugeh%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 53-58, 2022 methodology in this study, survey research was conducted. both qualitative and quantitative data types were collected. more specifically, a descriptive research design which is theory-based design method was performed to collect, analyze, and present the collected data. from an approximate population of 2000 which are perceived to be farmers, the required sample size was determined as follow: n/1+n (e2) 2000/ (1+2000*0.052) = 2000/6 = 333 where: n is the total number of populations; e is the margin sampling error. despite the actual determined sample size was 333, only 100 individuals were considered for the study because of financial and time constraints. among the four administrative towns, two towns were selected randomly. then a structured questionnaire survey was used for collecting the primary data to assess the farmers’ perception on the effect of deforestation on climate change. it also included details of primary data on the respondents’ socio-economic characteristics, forest products consumption pattern, income-expenditure scenario, perceptions of deforestation, factors determining deforestation, strategies to minimize or stop deforestation and strategies to cope with climate change and its effects. a purposive sampling technique was used to obtain a survey population in the study area. then, a random sampling approach was conducted to select representative participants to participate in the study. for the accuracy and reliability of the data, participants were asked for their willingness to participate in the survey before administering the questionnaires to them. up on their agreement, they were given the detailed information on how to respond on each of the provided questions. after the required sample size was determined, field questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, and field observations were conducted in seven communities within the selected district and the required data was collected. data on farmers’ perception on the effect of deforestation on climate change was measured using the 5-point likert scale. statements were selected and each respondent was asked to indicate his/her perception of agreement or disagreement against each statement as “strongly agree,” “agree,” “neutral,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree.” weights were assigned to responses as 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1, respectively. total weighted score (tws) of a statement was determined by summing up the weighted responses of the 5-point scale. the tws of a statement was divided by the sample size (i.e., 100) to obtain weighted average score (was). thus, the possible range of tws for each statement was determined, and possible range of was for a statement could range from 0 to 5. a likert scale for each selected statement was computed using the following formula: weighted average score = total weighted score (5 x sa + 4 x a + 3 x n + 2 x da + 1 x sda) ÷ total number of respondents (uddin et al., 2019). where sa is the total number of respondents expressing the preference “strongly agree” for the statement, a is the total number of respondents expressing the preference “agree” for the statement, n is the total number of respondents expressing the preference “neutral” for the statement, da is the total number of respondents expressing the preference “disagree” for the statement, and sda is the total number of respondents expressing the preference “strongly disagree” for the statement. generally, an analysis with frequency distribution was used. it was then presented using a pie/bar chart and tables. inferential analysis was done using chi-square test to finally agree/accept and disagree/reject. all data analysis was done using spss version 25 and was tested at p<0.05 significance level results among the 100 interviewed participants, 45 respondents were female while 55 of them were male. the results show that farmers in the study area were predominately table 1: gender and educational background of the respondents education total bsc elementary high school illiterate gender female 7 2 22 13 45 male 6 5 40 4 55 total 13 7 62 17 100 figure 1: education level of the respondents: source: field data, 2021 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 53-58, 2022 high school graduates (62) while 17 of the respondents were illiterate (table 1). the average age of the farmers interviewed was 31 (±11). 85% of the respondents were single while only 12% were married. farmers’ main activity was agriculture, business, and services respectively, and 88% of the respondents live in rural area (table 1). table 2: the respondents’ religion distribution and their gender religion total christian muslim gender female 39 4 45 male 44 5 55 total 83 9 100 figure 2: religion classes of the respondents; source: field data, 2021 discussion about 90 % of the respondents in the study area indicated that deforestation is a cause for climate change. in addition, a greater proportion of farmers perceived that their activities highly depended on the forest and forest products. thus, they pointed out that formerly strong covered with forest are now becoming scares. a total of 60% of the respondents in suakoko between the aged between of 25 and 35 thought deforestation was perceived as the main cause of climate change. this indicates that the younger farmers had more awareness than the older farmers. this is mainly attributed to the availability of radio and smart phones. however, it is usually assumed that older farmers more exposed to changes in the climate than the younger farmers (damodar & nibal, 2020) variables such as age, education level, and gender figure 3: perception of the respondents towards the deforestation as a main cause for climate change are said to be among the main factors significantly influencing farmers’ perception of climate change. among these variables, deforestation in the study area was due to a range of factors, including but not limited to expansion of agricultural and residential lands, fuel wood harvest and charcoal production. even though 23% of the respondents had no idea about the drivers of climate change, 75% of the respondents believed that deforestation and human activities as being the main drivers of climate change in suakoko. in other studies, deforestation was associated with the loss of forest climate related indigenous knowledge (deressa et al., 2011). gender perception on the effect of deforestation on climate changes was significantly different between male and female respondents. male farmers were more likely to perceive the deforestation effects on climate change compared to female farmers. this is due to the fact that men are the primary actors in rainfed agriculture, therefore they are more involved in developing climate change and variability adaptation measures than women in the agricultural sector. women, on the other hand, are particularly vulnerable because they rely on non-wood forest products, such as trees, for food and money. the respondents were asked if deforestation could be tackled and 73% of them perceived that it was possible to do something to halt it. while 22% of the respondents didn’t know if it was possible to stop it. according to ahmad & afzal, (2020) high temperatures are often associated with climate change while increase in temperature is expected to reduce crop yields and figure 4: the response of the respondents after they were asked if it was possible to tackle deforestation https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 56 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 53-58, 2022 increase levels of food insecurity. some researchers indicated that aged farmers could observe an increase in drought severity, temperature, strong wind and dust, and decrease in rainfall pattern as a result of climate change. furthermore, when the farmers’ ages are taken into account, the results suggest that older farmers were better able to detect changes in meteorological variables than younger farmers. the farmer’s educational level increases the likelihood of spotting changes in climatic occurrences. as a result, farmers with a higher level of education saw an increase in the following meteorological variables (abubakar et al., 2020). farmers’ perception on climate change more than 89% of the respondents in the study area have heard about climate change on different occasions and have observed that climate is gradually changing. they stated that an increase in climate change is making them more vulnerable as a result of crop failure and occurrence of many plant pathogens. majority of the respondents indicated that the occurrence of floods was mainly due to climate change. even though floods can cause some agricultural damage, farmers prefer floods to drought because the latter is more damaging to crop productivity. temperatures and the number of hot days has increased, according to a larger percentage of farmers in liberia’s central region. the rainy season, according to the majority of respondents, begins late and finishes sooner in the year. rainfall length has decreased from 6 months between may and october to 4 months, according to the majority of responses. the responders also noticed a decrease in the amount of rainfall. a small proportion of farmers across all sites did not notice any changes in rainfall patterns, but they claimed that rainfall distribution has become more erratic recent decades. farmers are well aware of climate change and its repercussions, such as frequent droughts and floods, rising temperatures and the number of hot days, stronger winds, and changing rainfall patterns, according to the findings of this study (late start and early cessation of the rainy season). the interviewees ascribed the observed rise in temperature to a reduction in plant cover. indeed, some farmers recall that when they were younger, the vegetation cover was heavier and the temperature was lower than it is today. farmers have seen an increase in the frequency of hot days in tandem with the rise in temperature, echoing the findings of earlier workers in west africa (fahad & wang, 2020). similarly, the perception that deforestation affects climate change is significantly impacted by education of respondents. therefore, a farmer who has a higher level of education considers his education in deciding whether deforestation affects climate change. for instance, a farmer with a high level of education will have a different perception if he had a low level of education. abid et al., (2019), studies associated higher education level with access to information on improved technologies and thus better perception. similarly with age, farmers can better identify the receding shoreline of forest and its decreasing depth over the years. because deforestation affect this, it may require experience based on age to identify that the forest do not return to their previous levels and density. farmers’ perception on the impact of deforestation on climate change farmers perceived that the amount and intensity of the rainfall has been changing from time to time in the last two decades. the erratic rainfall and its variable distribution negatively impact on ecosystem services. most respondents know that climate change impacts negatively on the delivery of the ecosystem services. according to most of the farmers, forest is directly related to water availability. the respondents enumerated major climate hazards (rainfall and temperature) which could reduce the ecosystem services provided by forest. the majority of farmers stated that total rainfall was higher in the past because vegetation was denser, but that vegetation has become scarce as a result of deforestation, and that rainfall is decreasing every year. more than 82 percent of farmers polled believe that an early end to the rainy season, as well as high/low intensity rainfall, leads in low agricultural productivity. furthermore, due to decreased rainfall in suakoko, more than half of the respondents noted a decline in the delivery of forest ecosystem services. table 3: summary chi-square analysis of the comparison of female and mare in relation to deforestation as a cause for climate change chi-square tests value df asymptotic significance (2-sided) exact sig. (2-sided) exact sig. (1-sided) pearson chi-square 0.112a 1 0.738 continuity correctionb 0.000 1 1.000 likelihood ratio 0.112 1 0.738 fisher's exact test 0.750 0.496 n of valid cases 100 a. 1 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. the minimum expected count is 4.50. b. computed only for a 2x2 table https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 57 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 53-58, 2022 despite the fact that male farmers were more likely to perceive the deforestation effects on climate change compared to female farmers, a chi square analysis revealed no significant difference in gender of the farmers’ perceptions about climate change due to deforestation indicating that their knowledge might be similar (table 3). this agrees with (sujakhu et al., 2016) who observed no significant difference in farmers’ perceptions of climate change. conclusions farmers’ opinions of the impact of deforestation on climate change, as well as their concordance with temperature and rainfall patterns were investigated in this study. the relationship between deforestation and climate change was also investigated. understanding local perspectives of climate change is critical for developing successful support mechanisms for implementing adaptive measures on farms. farmers do not see climate change as a single process, according to the findings, and they distinguish between the components of the climate system. in particular, farmers’ impressions of temperature fluctuations are highly compatible with the hypothesized data. farmers’ views on climate change were consistent independent of their educational level, religious affiliation, or gender. both personal and environmental factors influence perceptions. according to the respondents, there is a direct link between deforestation and climate change. references abid, m., scheffran, j., schneider, u. a., & elahi, e. 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(2017). farmers’ perceptions of climate change impacts on ecosystem services delivery of parklands in southern mali. agroforestry systems, 91(2), 345–361. sidiq, m. (2018). forecasting rainfall with time series model. iop conf. series: materials science and engineering 407, 407, 1–7. solgi, a., nourani, v., & pourhaghi, a. (2014). forecasting daily precipitation using hybrid model of waveletartificial neural network and comparison with adaptive neurofuzzy inference system (case study : verayneh station , nahavand ). advances in civil engineering, 2014. stone, r. c., & meinke, h. (2006). weather , climate , and farmers : an overview. meteorol. appl. (supplement), 20, 7–20. sujakhu, n. m., ranjitkar, s., niraula, r. r., pokharel, b. k., schmidt-vogt, d., & xu, j. (2016). farmers’ perceptions of and adaptations to changing climate in the melamchi valley of nepal. mountain research and development, 36(1), 15–30. uddin, m. t., rasel, m. h., dhar, a. r., badiuzzaman, m., & hoque, m. s. (2019). factors determining consumer preferences for pangas and tilapia fish in bangladesh: consumers’ perception and consumption habit perspective. journal of aquatic food product technology, 28(4), 438–449. woods, b. a., nielsen, h. ø., pedersen, a. b., & kristofersson, d. (2017). farmers’ perceptions of climate change and their likely responses in danish agriculture. land use policy, 65, 109–120. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 73 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) the threats of climate change on water and food security in south africa richard kwame adom1*, mulala danny simatele2, memory reid1 volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.568 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: september 08, 2022 accepted: september 20, 2022 published: september 24, 2022 globally, water and food crises are exacerbated by climate change, population growth and changing lifestyles. these phenomena have resulted in escalating cycles of civil unrest and conflicts. in south africa, climate change has led to increased temperatures resulting in numerous deadly heat waves and varying rainfall patterns contributing to deadly flooding in most provinces and droughts in others. these extreme climatic conditions significantly impact agricultural production and water insecurity nationally. despite the strong impact of climate change on water and food resources in the country, there is less education and inadequate data to address the impacts of climate change, especially at local levels; information is seldom used in planning and decision-making while there is a lack of actionable planning to mitigate the impacts of climate change. this paper explored the weaknesses in the current climate change mitigation programmes in south africa in the context of water and food security using a mixed method approach of data collection and related literatures. the finding established that while multiple policies, regulations, and programmes are designed to minimise climate change’s impact on water and food resources, the policies lack coherency at the formulation and implementation stages and are fragmented across various departments and institutions. this paper recommends a coordinated approach to tackling climate change and investment in research that will better understand the country’s climate programmes in addressing water and food security. keywords climate threat, projection and mitigation, water quality, food security, south africa 1 school of geography, archaeology and environmental studies, university of witwatersrand, johannesburg, south africa 2 the global change institute (gci), university of witwatersrand, johannesburg 2050 south africa * corresponding author’s e-mail: richardquame1@gmail.com introduction over the past two centuries, the human population and the world’s economic wealth have multiplied three folds (peterson, 2017). these two factors have increased resource consumption significantly, evident in agriculture and food production, industrial development, international commerce, energy production, urbanisation and recreational activities (bruin et al., 2021). with a global population in excess of six billion all sharing the basic human needs: water and food boretti et al., (2019), these developments have significantly impacted the functioning of the earth system and climate globally. the critical determinant of climate consequences is how these are met at all scales. in the developed world, affluence, and more importantly, the demand for consumer goods for entertainment, mobility, communication and a broad range of goods and services is placing significant demand on global resources and equally emitting dangerous gases into the atmosphere impacting climate and other earth systems european commission (eu 2018). different climatic conditions characterise the african continent, ranging from high aridity in the northern and southern regions to very humid conditions in the central and western regions. notably, these climatic conditions are highly variable and unpredictable with regards to their characteristics and impacts (nicholson, 2017; helbling et al., 2021). the cyclical periods of droughts and unpredictability of precipitation patterns have contributed to the corresponding environment and social systems. this has threatened the continent’s livelihoods and economic development as it is whelming linked to agriculture. biteye (2016) and oluwatoyo et al. (2016) disclosed that over 70% of africans depend on agriculture for their livelihood. prolonged drought linked to climate change has adversely impacted farming and water provision in many key agricultural regions in the west, east and southern regions on the continent and has contributed negatively to human livelihoods and economic prosperity, causing millions of rural population to migrate to cities (zwane, 2019). furthermore, climate change has contributed to water and food insecurity in many developing countries and threatens international and peace stability worldwide (nhemachena et al., 2020, unfccc, 2017). for instance, consistent prolonged drought in the west african sahel, kenya, ethiopia, somalia and the darfur region have witnessed numerous instabilities to livelihoods due to lack of water resources and drought-induced famines, loss of livestock and pasture fields, as well as enduring farmer-herder conflicts. while some countries such as morocco, rwanda, and ethiopia have made significant food production gains, the intensification of agriculture across sub-saharan africa still lags behind much of the world (van wijk et al., 2020). south africa is not immune to the threat of climate change on water and food security. sustainable food production is critical in sustaining human health, economic prosperity and overall peace and security (myers et al., 2017). currently, the country’s freshwater resources are under severe pressure due to rising population, overuse, mismanagement, intersectional competition, pollution, and declining precipitation. the largest freshwater https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.568 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:richardquame1%40gmail.com?subject= pa ge 74 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 consumption comes from the agricultural sector, accounting for over 70% of all the use in south africa (du plessis, 2017). as the country’s population peaks at around 65 million by 2025, more than 80% of water resources will be required to increase food production to feed the growing population (boretti et al., 2019). this would include other strained water resources like groundwater. current statistics reveal that more than 50% of the country’s groundwater is under tremendous stress (maddock et al., 2016). various sectors have exploited water resources including groundwater, diminishing its availability, whilst others have heavily contaminated it, leaving it unusable. sobowale et al. (2021) supports this view and indicated that groundwater reserves have been key to eskom coal power generation for decades; however, the over-reliance on eskom for power generation has resulted in overexploitation of groundwater resources. akhta et al., (2020) adds on by disclosing that urban and municipal waste, chemical contamination from mining, agriculture, and livestock contribute to a decrease in surface and groundwater resources. these losses in water quality are exacerbated by climate change reducing the availability of water resources in all sectors. climate change has already altered the distribution, timing, intensity of both rainfall and temperature and snow events in the country. for many provinces, earlier snowpack and thawing means less water is available during the growing season (chersich et al., 2019). atanga et al. (2019) highlight that over 80% of small-scale farmers are largely relying on rain-fed agriculture and are already being hit substantially by regular and persistent droughts and floods, both destroying crops and reducing productivity. as temperatures are projected to rise by up to 1.50c globally in the 21st century, south africa is expected to experience shorter wet spells (prolonged droughts) or heavier rains (causing floods), all of which will contribute to reduced yield and water shortages (usaid, 2022; hosea et al., 2021). by 2030, national crop yields are expected to decrease depending on the province (mapisa, 2017). for instance, eastern cape, free state and gauteng are expected to experience a 30% decrease in rainfall (ncoyini et al., 2022).a reduction or change in long-term precipitation patterns subsequently leads to insufficient soil moisture, that cannot meet the needs of crops and livestock at a particular time. in most cases, farmers are becoming increasingly water insecure, creating food and water insecurity (ncoyini et al., 2022). with the threat of climate change on the country’s food and water resources, the government has implemented a range of national and sectoral policies, programmes, and strategies to mitigate climate change’s impact on these resources over the past three decades. avenchenkova et al. (2019) alluded that the 2004 and 2013 national water resource strategy incorporated climate variability in the short-medium-long-term planning across all the critical sectors of the economy: agriculture, industry, energy, science and technology. it also incorporated into the policies ‘state-of-the-art’ water-related research and capacity development in all aspects of planning to guarantee the accessibility of constant high quality, comprehensive and current data, together with an instrument that will assist in examining the information collected (carter et al., 2015). with these policies, the government has the tools to implement the best water resource management practices, that guarantee high levels of water safety and asset protection under fluctuating climatic conditions and, in particular, funding for water preservation and water demand management (adom et al., 2022). while these policies have achieved some level of success, they have failed to address the challenges related to climatic extremes. researchers, policymakers and managers engaging in the complex issues around climate change’s threat to water and food security have proposed different and diverse models to address constraints experienced in attaining water and food security. for example, pilato et al. (2018) suggest that climate change should be integrated into planning, implementation and decision making and provide easy access to climate information, especially at the community level. however, their study did not offer any concrete strategies or adaption mechanism to anticipate any future impact on the resources. based on these gaps, this paper explored the weaknesses of the current policies and programmes designed to address the climate change impact on water and food security under the following sub-headings: (a) climate literacy among the population in the country (b) trend of climate change and its impact on water and food security in the country (c) climate change mitigation strategies to meet water and food security. other topics covered by this paper include literature on climate change and food security in global and african contexts, contextualizing the relationship between climate change and food and water security. the impacts of climate change on water and food security in africa in combination with other global drivers of change, climate change presents a significant threat to africa’s socio-economic development, human health, water, and food security. it is impacted significantly more than any other continent by climate change challenges and host to the majority of the global developing countries and communities globally. this is regardless of it making only 14% of the world’s population and contributing to only 3.8% of total greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions (just 1.59% from sub-saharan africa (unfccc, 2020). regional climate models have indicated that africa’s northern and southern regions are predicted to have the worst impacts to climate change impacts associated with rising temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns and freshwater runoff, in regions that are already considerably warm and largely dry most parts of the year (lawal et al., 2019). in addition, the sahara and the kalahari deserts are also in these regions, and these desert environments predominantly dictate weather patterns (nsengiyumva, 2019). rainfall occurs in small areas within these https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 75 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 two sub-regions, primarily along with narrow coastal shorelines in south africa and the land locked regions in mozambique, zimbabwe, lesotho and malawi (du plessis et al., 2017). in contrast, the different situations exist in libya, tunisia, algeria, and egypt. brief seasonal snow cover is confined to a few major mountain chains in both regions (nsengiyumva, 2019). however, africa’s central, eastern, and western regions have different climatic characteristics. these regions are endowed with significant waterways, huge lakes, enormous swamps, and pervasive underground waters (dallas, 2014). most of these resources are situated in the central african subregion and the island countries. moreover, the regions have average precipitations of more than 670 mm per annum and moderately slight levels of water extraction for their three primary consumption – farming, households and manufacturing, which were projected to be approximately 4% of overall annual extraction (ahmed et al., 2014). recent projections of climate change’s impact indicate that a temperature increase of 20 c could equate to a loss of 4.7% of gdp across the continent by 2025 (scott, 2005). most of this will lead to losses in agricultural production and water security, with a further rise in temperature of 2.50 c worsening conditions. more than 128 million would starve while 108 million will be affected by flooding and a rise in sea-level of between 15 cm and 95 cm (mimura, 2013). many scholars, including connolly-boutin et al. (2016), mekou et al. (2013), have used more advanced scientific models, including the milankovitch model, the twodimension climate models as well as the general circulation climate models, to argue that there are more threats of climate change on water and food security in africa than predicted. mekou et al. (2013) argued that climate change would affect development directly through changes in precipitation, evaporation and hydrology, sea-level rise, and changes in the occurrence of extreme weather events (floods, droughts, storms), which will directly impact primary production, ecological systems, public health and poverty. this argument was supported by mpandeli et al. (2019) that increased intensity of droughts, floods and changes to growing seasons may have significant implications on soil productivity, water supply, food security, and in turn, human welfare and poverty, as well as biological diversity. many regions in africa are already experiencing water and food scarcity as a result of extreme weather conditions. these sentiments were shared by thurlow et al. (2012) and uneca (2019), who concurred that climate change is one of the significant contributors to prevailing poverty, food insecurity, and weak economic growth in africa today. misra (2014) opined that climate change had increased variability in global hydrology and weather parameters, and increased weather extremities, largely in southern africa, whilst mazibuko et al., (2021) agrees and adds on, stating that the severity and frequency of droughts, floods and storms have increased in every region in africa, straining water resources and food production. more than 28 million people in the horn of africa, kenya, ethiopia, and somalia are currently experiencing severe food insecurity due to severe drought, which is the worst in the history of those countries (cervigni et al., 2016). ironically in the southern region countries such as mozambique, zimbabwe, and madagascar, have experienced one of the worst floods in the recent history of the continent “cyclone idai and cyclone kenneth” (charrua et al., 2021). these cyclones displaced tens of thousands of families, leaving many food and water scarce. the two storms brought widespread flooding and destruction of almost 780,000 hectares of crops (tavera et al., 2021). renewable freshwater resource constraints constitute one of africa’s most critical challenges to sustainable development and human security. more than 60% of the continent’s population is projected to face the rising scarcity of freshwater resources, exacerbated by climate change. increased temperatures have been projected throughout the continent, leading to rising evaporation rates that will reduce surface and ground water runoff and freshwater availability. subsequently, changes in food production, livestock and fisheries and water accessibility are projected to worsen (dallas et al., 2021). this assertion is supported by zwane (2019) that climate variability will impact the productivity of irrigated and rain fed agriculture across the continent. the author goes on further to state that climate change will significantly affect food production by increasing water demand and reducing water availability in households’ consumption and other sectors of the economy in most countries on the continent. reductions in river runoff and aquifer recharge are expected in most basins and semi-arid areas of the southern region, northern and western parts of africa, affecting water availability in already water-stressed regions (hamed et al., 2018). in the southern and northern regions, the large contiguous areas of irrigated land that rely on snowmelt and high mountain glaciers for water will be affected by changes in runoff patterns. at the same time, highly populated deltas are at risk from reduced inflows, increased salinity and rising sea levels (bjornlund et al., 2020). inherently, food and water security across the continent will be seriously affected (appiah et al.,2021). current maize and beans yields are projected to decrease by between 40%-45% by 2050 with the climate suitability of most major crops is also projected to shift as climate warms (rosenstock et al., 2018; thornton; 2015). increasing atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide are likely to affect the nutrient content of plants, resulting in severe protein and micro-nutrient cold spots in parts of subsaharan africa (medek et al., 2017). climate change concept in the south african context south africa’s evidence of climate change is substantial, with weather trends appearing to shift away from ‘normal’ over the past fifty years and reflecting similar changes seen in other parts of the world (van bronkhorst, 2021). since the 1950s, the country’s average temperature has climbed https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 76 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 by about half a degree, with weather stations recording fewer cold days and more warms days. sea temperatures have warmed slightly, and wind speed along the cape’s west coast appears to be picking up. (van bronkhorst, 2021). according to godsman et al. (2019), south africa will be between three to four degrees warmer, on average, along the coastal region and six to seven degrees in the interior regions. data obtained from world bank group’s climate change knowledge portal (cckp, 2021) cited from van bronkhorst (2021: 5) disclosed that “the current climatic conditions, climate data between 1991 to 2020 and projections of between up to 2099. the figures and tables below summarise the average annual precipitation as well as average temperature and climate projections in south africa, stated by the national meteorological service of south africa many authors including kusangaya et al. (2013), davis et al. (2020) and chersich et al. (2019), have applied different climate change models such as integrated assessment models (iam), and intercomparison radiation codes for climatic models (icrccm) to project that rising temperatures are expected to continue in south africa, with average monthly temperatures projected to rise to table 1: summary of current climate statistics in south africa climate variables 1991–2020 mean annual temperature (°c) 20.3°c mean annual precipitation (mm) 450.0 mm mean maximum annual temperature (°c) 22.0°c mean minimum annual temperature (°c) 15.0°c source: national meteorological service of south africa, 2018 figure 1: average monthly temperature and precipitation in south africa between 1999-2020 source: centre for scientific and industrial research table 1: summary of current climate statistics in south africa cmip5 ensemble projection 2020–2039 2040–2059 2060–2079 2080–2099 annual temperature anomaly 0c +0.5 to +1.7 (+1.20c) +1.4 to +2.9 (+2.00c) +2.4 to +4.4 (3.20c) +3.3 to +6.0 (4.20c) annual precipitation anomaly (mm) -16.2 to +14.0 (-1.6mm) -21 to +11.9 (-3.7mm) -22 to +13.2 (-4.3mm) -26.1 to + 12.4 (-5.9mm) source: meteorological service of south africa, 2018 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 77 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 2.0°c by the 2050s and 4.2°c by the 2090s, if the current emissions persist. van bronkhorst (2019) indicated that the most pronounced increases in temperature are projected for the summer months, between november to march. as temperatures rise, more intense heat waves and higher evapotranspiration rates will follow, impacting multiple aspects of local economic development and agricultural productivity (van bronkhurst, 2019). higher temperatures are projected to be more pronounced in the country’s western, central, and eastern regions. these increases are expected to impact most in northern cape, northwest, eastern cape and limpopo provinces (godsmark et al., 2019). climate change and variability have also significantly impacted precipitation trends (chersich et al., 2019). since the 1960s, there has been a marginal reduction in precipitation across south africa. while annual rainfall trends are low overall, observations suggest that a significant decline has occurred in the free state, eastern cape, limpopo and northern cape provinces. high inter-annual rainfall variability is evident in the historical record. above-average rainfall was received in the 1970s, late 1980s and mid-to-late 1990s, with below-average rainfall values were observed in the early 2000s (ziervogel et al., 2014). this pattern is expected to continue, as suggested by mpandeli et al. (2013) and davis et al. (2021), who stated that south africa is likely to become hotter and drier in the future. they go one to mention that the country will experience continued rainfall variability and temperatures rising, accompanied by extreme events like droughts, floods, and other climate-related hazards. this will likely result in adverse environmental impacts, including soil erosion, deforestation, recurrent droughts, desertification, land degradation, and biodiversity loss, including the country’s unique wildlife populations (van der bank et al., 2020). verschuur et al. (2021) further mentioned that climatic induced changes will lead to an intensification of the country’s hydrological cycle and could have major impacts on the country’s water resources. furthermore, scholes et al. (2021) alluded that climate change will lead to shifts in the geographical distribution of wetlands and an increase in the severity and extent of coral reef bleaching and mortality. further, sea-level rise and increases in storm surges associated with climate change could result in the erosion of shores and habitat, increased salinity of estuaries and freshwater aquifers, altered tidal ranges in rivers and bays, changes in sediment and nutrient transport, increased coastal flooding, and in turn, increase the vulnerability of some coastal populations (verschuur, 2021). the impacts of climate change on water and food security in south africa many scientific pieces of literature, including chersieh et al. (2019), der bank et al. (2020) and masipa (2017), concurred that water and food are the resources that are impacted the most by the climate change globally, including in south africa. myers et al. (2017) alluded that climate change is already a measurable reality, posing a significant threat to water and food security in many south african households. scholes et al. (2021) opined that south africa generally is a water-scarce country. the country ranks as one of the 30 driest countries globally, with an average rainfall of about 40% less than the annual world average rainfall (winter, 2018). the country has an average annual rainfall of less than 500 mm, while that of the world is about 850 mm (mahlalela et al., 2020). rainfall varies considerably from west to east. in the northwest, annual rainfall often remains below 200mm (van de walt et al., 2020). in contrast, most parts of the eastern highveld receive 500mm to 900mm of rainfall per year. a large area of the country’s centre receives about 400mm of rain, on average, with wide variations closer to the coast (botai et al., 2018). rainfall mainly occurs during summer (november through march), although rainfall occurs in winter from june to august in the western cape (botai et al., 2018). variations in elevation, terrain, and ocean currents influence temperatures more than latitude. south africa’s climatic conditions range from mediterranean in the south-western corner to temperate in the interior plateau and subtropical in the country’s northeast (botai et al., 2018). a small area in the northwest has a desert climate. a large part of the country has warm, sunny days and cool nights (van der walt, 2020). surface and groundwater resources are already declining figure 2: projected climate change in south africa: annual temperature and precipitation from 2040-2059 and by 2080-2099: source: world bank open data https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 78 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 in the summer rainfall region due to less and more variable rainfall (van der walt et al., 2020). the winter rainfall regions are also on downward trends as rainfall period have reduced significantly (asfaw et al., 2017). there is also strong evidence that the risk of multi-year droughts has increased substantially (pascale et al., 2020). lower rainfall and the high temperature that will increase evaporative demand (driven by increasing temperatures) are projected to increase and contribute to reducing soil moisture, translating to reduced runoff in rivers. reduced groundwater recharge in semi-arid areas render these communities vulnerable to food insecurity and unstable livelihoods, promoting unsustainable agroecological systems, which experience crop failures and reduce the productivity of rangelands (pascale et al., 2020). similarly, adom et al. (2021) disclosed that climate change impacts on the most vulnerable population the hardest, contributing to food insecurity, population displacement and stress on water resources. south africa is highly vulnerable to climate variability and changes due to the country’s extreme dependence on rain-feed agriculture and natural resources, high levels of poverty, particularly in rural areas and low adaptive capacity (nhemachena et al., 2020). currently, south africa is facing severe pressure concerning water and food security, especially in the free state, eastern cape, limpopo and western cape provinces (statssa, 2018). while droughts are prevalent in south africa, nevertheless, in recent years, their occurrence has increased, with more multi-year droughts. summertime rainfall series in most provinces in the country have declined significantly, with eastern cape, limpopo and free state being the worst affected provinces (amoah, 2021). agriculture is the backbone of south africa’s economy and accounts for most livelihoods across the country. the sector employs more than 860,000 people and contributes significantly to food security and export revenues. maize dominates the sector, followed by wheat and sugar cane and sunflower seed (grote et al., 2021). livestock production is a significant part of the sector. while the country’s agriculture sector is diverse, it includes commercial and subsistence farming systems. only 14% of the country is considered arable, with just one-fifth of this land characterised as having high agricultural potential. the climate is a critical driver of agricultural activities and suitability across the country (agbugba et al., 2021). the projected impacts of changing climate on food production, agricultural livelihoods, and food security in south africa are significant and warrant national policy concerns (statssa, 2018). they are crucially linked to prolonged droughts and poverty. for instance, the 2017 statistics south africa report revealed an increase in poverty and inequality trends in south africa between 2006 and 2017 due to climate variability and change (statssa, 2018). the report revealed that more than 28,2% of the population live below the food poverty line (r441 per person per month in 2015 prices) compared to almost a third (20,4%) in 2006. between 2006 and 2009, south africa experienced an increase in the proportion of people living below the food poverty line rising from 28,4% to 33,5% (statssa, 2014). this increase was followed by a notable decline of 12,1 percentage points in 2011 to 21,4%, followed by an increase of 3,8 percentage points to 28,2% in 2017 (leibbrandt et al., 2017). the significant increase in food poverty noted in 2009 coincided with global warming, affecting south africa (statssa, 2018). gornall et al. (2010), zwane (2017) and uddin et al. (2020) expand on the issue and state that climate change has impacted cereal crop production significantly. in addition, export of agricultural products and intensive animal husbandry practices in south africa in last three decades have also been affected (zwane, 2017). these impacts are witnessed in the pastoral industry and increased pest damage and disease, directly impacting food security and livelihoods of individual households. the adverse effects on food security and livelihoods in the drought-prone provinces have increased by 36% since 2012 according to the department of agriculture food and fisheries (daff, 2015). crop scientists project a reduction in mean yield of 13% in free sate, 11% in north cape, and 18% in eastern cape (nalley et al., 2018). nevertheless, maize and wheat will experience a higher yield by 2050 of up to 5% and 8%, respectively, due to their greater resilience to heat-stress conditions, while maize and wheat are expected to be the most affected crops with a yield loss by 2050 of 15% and 11%, respectively (estes et al., 2013). de wit (2010) disclosed that households in the lowest income categories tend to be significantly more affected by lower yields than higherincome households. this is likely due to their low adaptive capacity to shocks and stresses. hence, climate change and food security in the country (chen et al., 2021). in addition to food insecurity, water scarcity is another significant threat facing south africa (misra, 2014). currently, more than ten million households (25%) do not have access to safe and reliable drinking water (schreiner et al., 2018). while every projection suggests that if the current demand persists without effective interventions, the water deficit in the country could be between 2.7 and 3.8 billion cubic meters, a gap of approximately 45% of available water sources by 2030 (donnenfeld et al., 2017). a f study on climate change in south africa by the department of environmental affairs dea (2013) revealed that climate change would significantly impact water supply nationally, but more impacts will be felt particularly drier provinces such as eastern cape, free state western cape and limpopo. these provinces are prone to the extreme water scarcity, with a significant number of communities in these provinces are facing dire water shortages (viljoen et al., (2018). the amount of water available in their water reserves is already limited, while the demand continues to rise as the population grows (nw&smp, 2018). many provinces in the country have experienced less rain over the past 50 years and increases in the severity and https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 79 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 length of droughts (viljoen, 2018). additionally, most provinces have isolated drainage systems with limited or single sources or small geographical areas with limited hydrological variability, including small farm dams in headwater catchments and water supply schemes for rural towns (cilliers et al., 2014). for instance, the western cape water supply depends on limited drainage and generally from the western part of the province, mainly from the riviersonderend-berg river water scheme. this scheme captures the flow of three rivers – the sonderend river, berg river and eerste rivers. unfortunately, these rivers are highly exposed to climate change variability and change (jeffes et al., 2017). in free state, there is less annual rainfall, less snowpack on the mountains, and earlier snowmelt resulting in less water available during the summer months when demand is highest (ratikane, 2013). these natural cycles of water supply have made it difficult to effectively manage water to satisfy water demands throughout the year (botai et al., 2016). climate change is not only exacerbating the existing waterrelated challenges, but it is creating new impacts directly linked to economic development, sustainable livelihoods, and infrastructure development, including water qualityrelated issues. projected impacts are due to changes in rainfall and evaporation rates, wind speed, air temperature, soil texture, geology, land cover, and topology of water catchments across south africa (oduniyi, 2018). a critical impact of climate change on water resources is the changes in runoff across the country (ncube et al., 2016). under a wetter future climate scenario, significant increases in runoff would result in increased flooding, human health risks, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impacts (kusangaya et al., 2013). drier future climate scenarios would reduce surface water availability but would not exclude the risk of extreme flooding events (dennis et al., 2012). projections for the national runoff will range from a 20% decrease to a 60% increase based on an unmitigated emissions pathway, which reflects substantial uncertainty in rainfall projections (dennis et al., 2012). the range increases along the eastern coastline and central interior to decreases towards the western and northern cape (du plessis et al., 2017). provinces with the highest risk from extreme runoff include kwazulunatal, parts of southern mpumalanga and the eastern cape, other show neutral to reduced risk from runoff, except for the central and lower orange river region (du plessis et al., 2017). other risks directly impacted by climate change are the livelihoods of people. these range from the prospect of increasingly poor health that will result from air pollution (the projected increase in the number of inversions will trap pollutants in the atmosphere close to the ground), heat stress) and the possibility of increased flooding (bein et al., 2020). the combination of water scarcity and rising temperatures will impact sectors of the economy that are mainly linked to ecosystem goods and services agriculture, manufacturing, commerce and trade, transport and communication infrastructure (mancosu et al., 2015; furukawa et al., 2021).). the livelihoods of people who may be most severely affected are those whose asset bases, may be damaged or destroyed (demekas et al., 2021). hallegatte et al., (2020) concurred that the first people to suffer most of the climate change consequences are the poor, who are usually constrained to living in risk-prone areas. legislation and policies governing climate change in south africa climate change is a global threat, complex, and unavoidable (berlie, 2021). comprehensive studies on the effect of climate variability and change on natural resources, including water and food, remain a serious risk to many countries globally, including south africa (affoh et al., 2022). south africa is among the countries at the forefront globally to tackle climate change challenges. the country agreed to the “united framework convention on climate change (unfccc) in 1997 and ratified the kyoto protocol in 2002 (avenchenkova et al., 2019). over the past twenty years, south africa has implemented a range of national and sectoral policies, programmes, and strategies to mitigate climate change effects on water and food resources (see figure 3). similarly, corfee-morlot et al. (2009) alluded that south africa has put one of the most elaborate and consultative climate governance systems observable among developing and emerging economies. furthermore, van der bank et al. (2020) opined that south africa, post-independent in 1994, has formulated and implemented diverse national climate programmes and policies to meet the paris agreement of minimising emissions. the national water resource strategy nwrs of 2004 and 2013 played a critical role in the government’s iwrp procedure, which promotes the contemporary preservation of the “water balance reconciliation strategies” for water management areas which have been developed recently for water provision 224 schemes for up to 75 per cent of the country’s population, and the areas which, together, generate well over 80 per cent of the national gdp. avenchenkova et al. (2019) alluded that the current policy, for instance, the nwrs of both 2004 and 2013, have integrated climate variability contemplations in the short, medium and long terms water developments across all the critical sectors of the economy, “agriculture, industry, energy, science and technology”. it has also promoted the sustenance of “state-of-the-art waterrelated research and capacity development in all aspects of climate change” to guarantee the accessibility of constantly high quality, comprehensive and current data, as well as an instrument that will assist in examining the information (mthembu et al., 2021). through the policies, they have implemented the best watersheds and water resource management practices that guarantee a greater level of water safety, and the asset protection under fluctuating climatic conditions and, in particular, funding in water preservation and water demand management (lukey, 2020) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 80 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 while multiple policies, regulations and programmes have been designed to minimise climate change’s impact on water and food security, ensuring a coherent policy formulation and implementation both vertically and horizontally remained a severe challenge due to the fragmentation nature of responsibility of climate policy. moreover, the country’s general climate plan trajectory is not on a sustainable platform (avenchenkova et al., 2019). this highlights that there a lack of clarity among government structures. this has led to poor coordination on how the policies should be aligned and implemented in most cases. the lack of alignment and clarity has impacted the effectiveness of the policies, especially at the implementation level. the common consensus among many scholarly works of literature, such as avenchenkova et al. (2019) and zhuwakinyu (2019), is that the existing policies and strategies are silent on building capacity to deal with climate change and other related challenges. for instance, one of the critical factors is limited human and financial resources, an absence of right and suitable expertise and skills, inadequate research, and under-resourced institutions to implement policies to address the climate change debacle effectively. these constraints are aggravated by the growing complexities of the task involved in formulating and implementing sectoral and multisector decentralisation and resilience policies. it was indicated that these constraints are more severe at provincial and municipal levels (zhuwakinyu, 2020). the country’s leadership should evaluate the numerous policy solutions to combat these threats. methodology this paper aims to investigate the impact of climate change on water and food resources in south africa. it was carried out through a comprehensive study of the relevant literature and empirical research based on the mixed research approach of quantitative and quantitative data. study area while this study covers the whole of south africa, data collection for this study was limited to some selected communities in (bloemfontein, fickburg, winburg, bethlehem, welkom and harrismith) in the free state province. this province was chosen due to its strategic location in the country. the province is centrally located in the country and is dominated by agricultural production (puukka et al., 2012). agriculture in the province is highly dependent on rainfall. only 10% or less of the arable land is under irrigation (botai et al., 2016). the province contributes about 40% of the total national white maize production, mainly used for human consumption, and 38% of yellow maize, mainly used for animal feed (agbugba et al., 2020). the climatic condition of the province is characterised by warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters (moeletsi et al., 2012). this semi-desert area also experiences fluctuations in temperature from day to night. areas in the east experience frequent snowfalls, some the high precipitation, whilst the west can be extremely hot in summer (ndlovu et al., 2021). almost all precipitation falls as brief afternoon thunderstorms during the summer, with aridity increasing towards the west. frost occurs throughout the region, usually from may to early september in the west and up to early october in the east (botai et al., 2016). figure 3: timeline of climate-related policies and programmes from 2004-19 source: white paper on national climate change report https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 81 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 research design this study employed both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to explore the impact of climate change on water and food security in south africa. the qualitative approach includes participatory rural appraisal (pra), such as the historical trend analysis and face-to-face and in-depth interviews. this method was used to establish the general perceptions of climate change and variability on water and food production, historical climate changes, and adaptation strategies to address climate change. the quantitative method employed the use of a household questionnaire survey. the approach was used to assess the literacy levels of climate changes and weather pattern variation and adaptability over the past ten years, the impact of climate on water accessibilities and agricultural activities among the population. the content in documents from journals, book chapters, government gazettes, and minutes was used to obtain data on legislation, policies, regulations, and strategies designed to address climate change and its associated impact on water and food production in south africa. sample population and size a total of ten in-depth interviews were conducted with respondents from the department of water and sanitation (dws), department of food agriculture and fisheries (daff), and the lecturers and students within the department of environment and geography of the university of free state. owing to the sheer size of the population, a stratified and proportional sampling method was applied. the number of respondents picked from an institution was based on the total number of employees within the department. based on this approach, three interviewees were picked from the dws, two from daff and five from the department of environment and geography from the university of free state. a total of 150 questionnaires were distributed to municipal officials in management positions, farmers and community members. due to the massive target population, a stratified, proportional probability sample was also applied. according to howell et al., (2020), an appropriate sampling fraction for a homogenous population is 10%. this paper’s sample fraction was 30% (150 of 500 target population). this sample can thus be regarded as the target population. out of the 150 questionnaires distributed, 100 were returned, resulting in a response rate of 67%. according to perneger et al. (2020), a response rate of at least 50% can be regarded as satisfactory for analysis, while 60% and 70% are ‘good’ and ‘very good’, respectively. the biographical details of the respondents were assessed using a series of questions on their post, age, experience and educational attainment. these variables were deemed relevant because the researchers were looking for levels of understanding of climate change among the general population, the impact of climate change on water security and food production and adaptation and coping strategies data analysis both the qualitative and quantitative data obtained were analysed concurrently. the quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics of spss windows version 21. this technique enabled data to be captured, analysed and figure 4: a map of the study site free state province. source: free state provincial wall map. mapstudio.co.za https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 82 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 produced frequency tables and diagrams that ensured quick interpretations of the data obtained. the qualitative data obtained from interviews were analysed using the thematic analysis technique. thematic analysis technique was used to classify data into themes for interpretation and discussions. results and discussion assessment of climate change literacy although most of the population is aware of climate change and agree that some intervention is required, the ordinary person appears incompetent to rise to the challenge. the magnitude of this challenge was captured figure 5: literacy levels of respondents on climate change. source: field survey 2021 in this paper. the results on climate change literacy are presented in figure 5. the survey evaluated climate change literacy among the respondents using socio-economic and demographic factors these include; gender, age, education, educational attainment, place of location and income status. these variables were used to establish a holistic picture of climate change literacy and its determination across the country. the statistical breakdown revealed that the strongest predictor of climate change literacy is education by far. additionally, employed and wealthier individuals and those living in urban areas are more aware of climate change related issues. the results further established that they differ according to gender, with men being more climate change literate than men. the changing environment determines climate change literacy. for instance, a respondent who was engaged in an in-depth interview disclosed that: “when we speak of climate, we refer to the long-term average of the individual weather conditions that we experience every day. he further disclosed that our climate is important because it determines how and where we live, which foods we can grow, our sources of water for irrigation and drinking, and how we organise our societies and our economic activity.” the views of these respondents confirmed the observation of (helbling et al., 2021) that climate literacy will assist the population to translate cognitive judgement (perception of temperature changes) to evaluative judgement (understanding the long-term consequences) of the climate change to livelihoods and the environment. climate change projection and its impact on water and food security in free state this paper obtained data on climate change projections and their impacts on water and food production in the office centre for scientific and industrial research (csir). figure 6 shows projected changes in annual average temperatures in free state province. the data revealed increasing temperatures throughout the province between 2021-2050. figure 6: projected changes in annual average temperatures throughout free state between the periods of 20212050. source: centre for scientific and industrial research, 2019s https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 83 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 both figures 7 and 8 project increases in the number of rainfall days and increase intense storms and flooding events across the province. climate model projections summarised both indicate that the free state’s surface temperature and precipitation, both minimum and maximum are likely to fluctuate during the 21st century (superimposed on the existing observed climate). further, regional climate modelling suggests that mid-summer rainfall over the province may become more extreme (see figures 7 and 8). figure 7: projection of annual average rainfall the province between 2021-2050. source: centre for scientific and industrial research, 2019 figure 8: projected changes in annual average number of rainfall free state between 2021-2050. source: centre for scientific and industrial research climate change impacts on water and food security based on projections illustrated in figures 6, 7 and 8, this paper analysed the levels of impact of climate change on water and food security in their community. table 2 portrays the answers of respondents table 2 revealed that of the eighteen variables assessed under ‘not vulnerable’, ‘fairly vulnerable’ ‘, very vulnerable’ and extremely vulnerable’ on water and food security, 16 of them, representing 89%, are regarded as either ‘very table 3: levels of climate change impacts on water and food security {∑fx/n)} not vulnerable fairly vulnerable very vulnerable extremely vulnerable reduction in crop yield, food availability and increase in food inflation respondents(100) 0 5 10 85 % 0.0% 5.% 10% 85% higher cost of agricultural production due to high cost of water respondents (100) 0 12 20 68 % 0.0% 12% 20% 68% the intensity of drought frequency, duration and lengthen of abstraction respondents (100) 2 20 55 23 % 2% 10% 55% 23% impacts on the stability of food supplies and food utilisation respondents (100) 12 20 55 25 % 12% 10% 55% 267% https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 84 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 or extremely vulnerable’. these answers suggest that climate change significantly impacts their communities’ food production and water accessibility. for instance, a commercial farmer who was engaged in an interview said that: “climate change alters the frequency and intensity of rainfall, floods and droughts, causing significant impacts on agriculture and food production. while food shocks and stressors affect all people, women, indigenous populations, subsistence farmers, pastoralists and fishers are disproportionately affected.” this view was supported by another interviewee in the department of environment at the university of free state who was engaged in an in-depth interview. he mentioned that: “climate change negatively affects freshwater ecosystems by altering streamflow and water quality, posing risks to drinking water even with conventional treatment. the risks are increased temperature, increases in sediment, nutrient and pollutant loadings due to heavy rainfall, reduced dilution of pollutants during droughts and disruption of treatment facilities during floods. more floods and severe droughts are predicted. changes in water availability will also impact socio-economic livelihoods, health and food security in the province as it has already proven to trigger much civil instability in the country. mitigation strategies of climate change based on the outcomes of respondents towards impacts of climate change on water and food production, respondents were asked to suggest mitigations strategies based on marked out variables. table 4 depicts the views of the respondents the breakdown of the table suggests the majority of the respondents regarded mitigation strategies enlisted as either ‘a priority’ or ‘high priority’. some of the outcomes in table 3 revealed that 60% of the respondents agreed that indigenous knowledge and local coping strategies should be used as a baseline and starting point for any reduction in availability of water for human consumption and livestock respondents (100) 0 5 40 55 % 0.0% 5% 40%. 55% reduction of underground storage, increase of melting snow leading to increase in runoffs and flooding respondents (100) 10 15 55 20 % 10% 15% 55% 20% induration and increased damage in low-lying coastal areas affected by sea-level use with storms surges respondents (100) 5 20 45 30 % 5% 20% 45% 30% rising temperature increases agricultural pests and impacts crop's survival respondents (100) 20 45 30 5 % 20% 45% 30% 5% increased evaporative demand from crops as a result of higher temperature. respondents (100) 20 35 30 15 % 20% 35% 30% 15% cultivated become unsuitable for cropping, and tropical grassland becomes increasingly arid respondents (100) 10 18 29 50 % 10% 18% 29% 50% rising of sea levels and coastal erosion respondents (100) 15 18 45 22 % 15% 18% 45% 22% impact on freshwater accessibility and quality and prices of water respondents (100) 0 5 25 70s % 0.0% 5% 25% 70% intensification and duration of heat waves lead to crop failures and diseases in livestock and farmers respondents(100) 5 16 40 34 % 5% 17% 42% 36% the risk of severe storms, including intense tropical cyclones and intense thunderstorms, leading to loss of life, injury and damage to infrastructure also increases respondents (100) 5 8 40 47 % 5% 8% 40% 47.% climate change worsens existing vulnerabilities and adds to the pressures on the environment and natural resources respondents (100) 5 10 32 53 % 5% 10% 32% 53% source: field survey 2021 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 85 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 table 4: perspectives of respondents on the levels of priorities of mitigation strategies {∑fx/n)} not a priority fairly priority priority high priority encourage sound management and protection of freshwater resources respondents (100) 3 10 35 52 % 3% 10% 35% 52% promote cooperation on shared water resources and encourage low-cost strategies with multiple benefits. respondents (100) 5 12 30 53 % 5% 12% 30% 53% strengthen water-sector governance, finance and institutions respondents (100) 2 10 40 58 % 2% 10% 40% 58% improve adaptation planning among the population, encourage research in climate change development respondents (100) 10 15 45 30 % 10% 15% 45% 30% develop awareness of flood risk and identification of adaptation measures respondents (100) 18 15 40 27 % 18% 15% 40% 27% co-exploration of climate data and information needs respondents (100) 10 15 45 35 % 10% 15% 45% 35% use climate information to improve and plan adaptation measures respondents (100) 20 35 25 20 % 20% 35% 25% 20% use climate information in future planning and develop low-cost strategies with multiple benefits. respondents (100) 20 45 30 5 % 20% 45% 30% 5% factor in weather-driven mitigation into the design and construction of development projects respondents (100) 10 15 35 40 % 10% 15% 35% 40% promote sustainable growth, especially in rural communities respondents (100) 5 10 35 50 % 5% 10% 35% 50% promote climate-friendly agriculture such as efficient, clean energy and micro-irrigation respondents (100) 0 5 25 70 % 0.0% 5% 25% 70% provide easy access to weather and climate information, especially to women who make up a large percentage of the agriculture workforce and are the most vulnerable respondents (100) 5 15 25 65 % 5% 15% 25% 65% promote multi-disciplinary and multisectoral institutions and processes. respondents(100) 5 16 40 39 % 5% 17% 40% 34% use of indigenous knowledge and local coping strategies as a baseline and starting point of adaptation planning respondents (100) 0 8 32 60 0.0% 8% 32% 60% apply climate forecasts to manage water resource operations, provide more versatile inter-basin transfer schemes and more flexible operating rules for water systems respondents (100) 5 10 44 41 5% 10% 44% 53% source: field survey 2021 planning programme on climate change adaptation. in comparison, 70% of the concurred that climate-friendly agricultural practices such as efficient, clean energy and micro-irrigation should be promoted. for instance, an expert in the department of environment and economic planning who was engaged in an interview disclosed that: “although there is a large body of knowledge within local communities on coping with climatic variability and extreme weather events, rapidly changing climate conditions will require upgrading local knowledge with more scientific observations and establishing collaboration among neighbours and neighbouring countries to transfer knowledge from areas already experiencing these changes” this view was buttressed by an expert in the department of geography and environmental science at the university of free state disclosed that: “there is an urgent need to strengthen the capacity of grassroots organisations to make efficient use of available data. provision of data to end-users’ entails power dynamics between the providers and end-users and among end-users (e.g. men and women). local https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 86 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 communities need access to global information and analyses specifically tailored to their needs that support their specific adaptation and planning requirements. this needs to cover markets and weather and climate and requires invigorated extension services”. there was agreement amongst most participants that that investment is required in enhancing hydrological data, institutions and governance, education and capacity enrichment, risk assessment and knowledge sharing. policies are needed to ensure all stakeholders’ representation, participation, behavioural change, and accountability, including the private and private sectors. mitigation strategies need to integrate targeted strategies that help vulnerable populations disproportionately affected by climate change impacts. analysis and discussions this paper explores the impact of climate change on water and food security in south africa under the themes; of climate literacy, climate change projections and its impacts on water and food production and the mitigation strategies. our findings revealed that although a significant number of the population in south africa are cognisant of climate change and its impacts on livelihood. however only 33% of the population are climate literate, suggesting that they understand causes, impacts and adaptation strategies. furthermore, it was established that the socio-economic and demographic factors significantly influence the literacy and interest population towards climate change. for instance, it was established that educated individuals with high income and access to information and urban dwellers are more informed of climate change dynamics than rural, poor and rural dwellers. moreover, adult young men are more abreast of climate change than women. these findings confirmed the views of (simpson et al., 2021) that climate change awareness and risk perceptions are unevenly distributed across population groups, countries, and regions. the highest levels of climate literacy or awareness are mostly within educated and high incomes households and developed economies. by contrast, most lower-income, less educated households and developing countries from africa to the middle east and asia are less climate literate and less interested in on issues pertaining to climate change. this assertion was confirmed by lee et al. (2015), who stated that geographic location (urban/rural) determines climate literacy. in developed countries such as the usa, the most important predictors of climate change awareness are civic engagement, communication access and education. residents with higher levels of civic engagement are almost always aware of climate change, whereas those with lower levels of civic engagement and communication access tend to be unaware (lee et al., 2015). lower-income residents who are poorly educated and rural dwellers or on farms are the least aware of climate change. in terms of gender relations, the findings established that resources, attitudes and strategies to respond to weather-related hazards often differ between women and men. for instance, it was established that women tend to limited access to critical information on weather alerts and cropping patterns, affecting their capacity to respond effectively to climate variability and education. this view confirmed the observation of lambrous et al. (2016) that gender norms, roles, and relations contribute significantly to gender inequalities in climate literacy in terms of climate change past variations future projections and its impact on water and food security in the country, our findings established that climate change has contributed significantly to the rising of temperatures in south africa in past century, but a notable increase has been recorded in the last two decades. this is reinforced in figure 6 of our findings and buttressed by numerous scholarly works of literature including engelbrecht et al. (2015); nyoni et al. (2021); carcel et al. (2015). consistent with our findings confirmed that south africa’s annual surface mean temperature has increased by 02°c to 0.06°c per annum in the past two decades. this is buttressed by statistical evidence from centre for scientific and industrial research (csir) 2021 report which disclosed an average increase of about 10c temperature has occurred across the entire country in the past five decades. buttressing our findings and data from south africa’s second national climate change report (nccrwp, 2020) revealed that the country’s interior regions have experienced more intense warming than the coastal areas. the spring seasons have experienced the greatest increased and prolonged temperature in the past two decades, while the country’s precipitation and hydrological zones have decreased significantly in the same period. in relation to future projections our findings shown in figure 6 supported by pieces of scientific literature including mbokodo et al. (2020); csir (2019) projects a rapid increase in the annual average temperature of between 1.50c to 2 times the global rate of temperature increases in south africa in the 21st century. confirming our findings maure et al. (2018); mbokodo et al. (2020) concludes that for a period 2021-2050 temperature increases of 10c to 2.50c will plausibly occur over the southern coastal regions, while the interior provinces such as free state and, northern cape and northwest are likely to experience temperature increases exceeding 30c in the same period. a projected annual rainfall pattern is displayed in both figure 7 and 8. critical analysis of the figures project a general reduction in mean annual rainfall in the country. our findings supported by climatic studies such as zengeni et al. (2014); du plessis et al. (2017) modelled declined precipitation to around -5%, -2%, and 0% by 2035. augmenting these findings mackellar et al. (2014) project that by 2050 the interior provinces such as free state, northern cape, north-west and limpopo will experience an average declined of up to 30% of their annual rainfall between 2025 to 2050. consistent with these findings jury (2019) and archer et al. (2019) further https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 87 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 project a declining rainfall trends during the austral spring months, implying a delay in the onset of seasonal rains over a large part of the summer rainfall region in the country. interestling, as shown in figure 8 of our findings and supported by some scholarly literature such as mackellar et al. (2014); chersich et al. (2019) concludes that the rainfall patterns are expected to increase in both intensity and frequency in certain coastal provinces such as eastern cape, kwazulu natal and western cape. the extreme and less predictable weather conditions in these provinces are projected to affect availability and distribution of rainfall, snowmelt, river flows and groundwater, and further deteriorate water quality. regarding the impact of climate change on water and food security our findings portrayed in table 3 concludes that climate variations have contributed tremendously to water and food insecurity across households in south africa, particularly the vulnerable and poor communities who cannot meet their food requirements through market access. numerous pieces of literature such as masipa (2017); nhemachena et al. (2020) augmented our findings that climate change has contributed to livelihoods, economies, and the environmental woes, and have exacerbated existing vulnerabilities in the country. more worryingly, our study findings supported by many climatic studies including fawzy et al. (2020); chersich et al. (2019) strongly believed that the worst impact of climate change is yet to be felt in the water and food sector in the south africa if adequate adaptation measures are not put in place as soon as possible. based on our findings climate change will alter the hydrological cycle, temperature balance, and rainfall patterns across south africa which will impact severely on of water provision, food production and other sustainable livelihoods. the breakdown of table 3 supported by numerous scholarly literature including kusangaya et al. (2013); ngcamu et al. (2020) confirmed that climate change will affect food and livestock production therefore, food availability through several different pathways, will be negatively affected by rising temperatures, floods, drought, or other extreme weather events; that have potential to reduced crop yields, risk to food safety due to aflatoxins, declined nutritional quality of foods due to increased co2 levels in the atmosphere and increased risk of diseases. a combination of all the above means that climate change will lead to water and food insecurity through increased shocks and stressors resulting in food and water insecurity, undernourishment, increased environmental degradation combined with natural resource scarcity. the phenomenon of climate change will disrupt livelihoods, increase poverty, marginalise the poor, and escalate inequality (kusangaya et al., 2013). it was proved that water is an essential and central resource in the country because most of the population derives their livelihood from cultivation and livestock production, dependent on the availability of rainfall and water. the evidence increases the potential risks to water posed by climate change. there are multiple risks derived from changes in precipitation and increases in temperature, which relate to damage to infrastructure leading to the loss of services and environmental contamination and to deterioration in water quality, impacts that will increase risks to health. these risks are widespread, affecting both poor and wealthy households. regarding mitigation strategies, as shown in table 4, our finding established most effective strategies that could minimise the risks from extreme weather events on water and food production must be promoted. these include adapting basic agronomic techniques must be implemented to reduce losses from droughts, floods and other extreme weather events. findings pointed out that efficient irrigation methods that conserve water and mulching and contouring to retain and increase soil moisture ought to be promoted. additionally, it was established that planning and implementing adaptation strategies must be transparent and well-documented in a manner that is open to public scrutiny and discourse. ensure the representation of key stakeholders, especially representatives of vulnerable communities, marginalised groups, women, and indigenous peoples, at every stage of the process, including the governance and disbursement of adaptation finance, planning, implementation, monitoring, and reporting. these findings confirmed the views of fawzy et al. (2020) that effective strategies for combating climate change must prioritise the adaptation needs of and ensure that resources reach the most vulnerable, including marginalised groups, women and children, indigenous peoples, local communities and those disproportionately impacted, as well as vulnerable ecosystems, through enhancing adaptive capacity and reducing vulnerability. furthermore, mfitumukiza et al. (2020) concurred that it is appropriate to maximise regional, national, provincial and community level ownership over adaptation planning and implementation processes and disbursement of adaptation finance to enable and encourage participatory local level planning and implementation. furthermore, appropriate transboundary cooperation should be emphasised in all steps of the climate change adaptation process: from collecting and sharing information (which form the basis of robust decision-support systems), developing joint vulnerability assessment, managing water with flexible and adaptive institutions, and developing basin-wide adaptation strategies, to planning and operation of different adaptation measures such as infrastructure on shared waters. joint data and knowledgesharing arrangements and joint monitoring of basin conditions are prerequisites for successful transboundary cooperation in an era of climate change (schmeier et al., 2018). conclusion this paper established that climate change is irrefutable and significantly impacts water and food security in south africa. there is all indication that climate https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 88 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 73-91, 2022 change has altered the hydrological cycle, temperature balance and rainfall patterns across south africa over the past fifty years. higher temperatures, changes in precipitation trends and increased variability will be key physical challenges to the population’s well-being. the amalgamation of climate change, population growth, and consumption vicissitudes are projected to significantly impact agriculture production and the hydrological cycle in the next fifty years. consequently, the pressure will increase on the water and food security across the country if unrestrained the adverse effect of climate change on water resources across the country is likely to translate into food and nutritional deficits, health and economic deterioration, and poverty exacerbation. furthermore, climate change is projected to contribute negatively to water and food availability, stability, access, utilisation, and demand in most provinces. this will lead to immense disruption of livelihoods, increase poverty, marginalise the poor and escalate inequality. in light of these foreseeable challenges, this paper recommends a multi-disciplinary and comprehensive approach that must incorporate policymakers, researchers, practitioners and public and private sectors to devise realistic and practical adaptation and mitigation strategies in south africa. such strategies must be tailored to each province’s specific biophysical and socioeconomic conditions. furthermore, south africa and the rest of the continent should strengthen their leadership responsibilities in programmes of climate-water-food agenda, and combat climate change together using global mitigation strategies that seek to minimise greenhouse gas emissions to prevent long-term negative impact on the region the country. as part of the mitigation strategies, this paper recommends an increase in investments in access to cleaner energy, water infrastructure and an agrofriendly environment, especially in rural communities, to enable them to build economic and social resilience to respond to climate and water disasters and to convert climate and water and food-related constraints into an opportunity for human development and economic growth in the country. conflict of interest the authors of this paper declared that there is no conflict of interest in writing this manuscript. acknowledgement the authors are grateful to the nrf’s global change grand challenges, under the funding instrument, ‘global change social sciences research programme, grant no. 129481, for providing financial resources which enabled us to data on which this paper is based. we also are grateful to research participants from the mpumalanga department of water and sanitation reference adeleke, b. s., & babalola, o. o. 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(2019). impact of climate change on primary agriculture, water sources and food security in weastern cape, south africa. jamba, 11(1), 562. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) ecological and health risks of heavy metals to the residents affected by a volcanic eruption in the philippines genevee m. banta1*, cristina c. salibay1 volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4212 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: december 12, 2024 accepted: january 16, 2025 published: april 25, 2025 volcanic eruption can be a source of heavy metal contamination and such contamination may cause certain risks to the environment and to those who are exposed to the volcanic contents. this study aimed to determine the ecological and health risks from heavy metal exposure in the soil after a volcanic eruption. the agricultural soil samples were collected from cuenca and talisay, batangas and tagaytay city, cavite, and were processed for arsenic, cadmium and mercury detection and quantification. the detected metal concentrations were compared to the standard values of the department of environmental and natural resources for arsenic and united states environmental protection agency for cadmium and mercury while the ecological and human health risks were assessed by computing for the potential ecological risk, hazard quotient and hazard index, respectively. arsenic was the only heavy metal with high mean concentration in the soil samples of talisay, batangas and tagaytay city, cavite while cadmium and mercury in the soil were within the acceptable level in the three municipalities. the soil from talisay, batangas had two-fold arsenic increase while the samples from tagaytay city, cavite had one-fold arsenic elevation. the soil’s postvolcanic eruption’s arsenic contamination was probably due to the direction of the wind during the eruption and groundwater contamination. low ecological risk and no human health risk were observed despite the recent arsenic concentration in the soil. a two-fold increase in arsenic concentration in the soil will not yet cause ecological and human health risk. keywords metal contamination, natural calamity, soil pollution 1 de la salle medical and health sciences institute, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: geneveebanta@gmail.com introduction volcanic eruption as a source of heavy metals is less recognized than anthropogenic sources since it is less commonly observed and experienced. volcanic eruptions caused deleterious effects on humans and the environment, such as burns, respiratory problems, destruction of houses and buildings and damaged crops (horwell et al., 2020). the gases from a volcanic eruption and the elements in the volcanic ash may contaminate the environment and subsequently affect the health of living organisms. acid rain is usually observed during and after a volcanic eruption. its acidity promotes plant uptake of metals (kim et al., 2010; jenkins et al., 2015). most of the local studies about heavy metals in the environment are related to anthropogenic sources (buagas et al., 2024; cortez & ching, 2014). due to the limited local studies about the assessment of heavy metals after a natural calamity, the study aimed to determine the potential ecological and human health risks from heavy metal exposure in the soil of the municipalities that were affected by taal volcano eruption. literature review the ashes contain several heavy metals that may alter the normal growth and development of crops and animals. it may even accumulate in these organisms and may affect the food chain. cadmium, mercury, arsenic and lead were detected in the environment. they can be ingested and taken up by fishes and other living organisms. increasing environmental concentration of these heavy metals contributes to the accumulation and transfer in the food chain (martinez et al., 2011). the common routes of entry of heavy metals in the human body are through the inhalation, ingestion and skin penetration (who, 2007). mercury, lead, cadmium and arsenic are the known toxic heavy metals. mercury has several forms and each form has its own modes of entry in the body. elemental mercury is the vapor form that may gain access to the brain and kidneys after its initial injury to the respiratory system. inorganic mercury is the metallic mercury that mainly accumulates in the kidneys. methylmercury is the most significant form of mercury since it may cause illness through any of the following routes: inhalation, ingestion and skin penetration (atsdr, 1999). aside from mercury, arsenic is also a toxic heavy metal that causes health effects after its ingestion. it acute effects are mainly gastrointestinal manifestations such as difficulty in swallowing, vomiting and organ injury. in chronic arsenic exposure, carcinogenic effects are observed in the skin, lungs, kidneys and bladder (us epa, 2001). another metal that affects gastrointestinal tract is cadmium. cadmium may cause gastrointestinal and/or neurologic symptoms when an individual ingests contaminated vegetables and foods (sharma et al., 2015). respiratory and renal problems are also detected in individuals with exposure to cadmium. prolonged cadmium exposure may even lead to cancer since its biological half-life is 30 years (atsdr, 1990). pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 1-6, 2025 in the philippines, provinces with significant heavy metal exposure are those that are exposed to mining industries (bantoxics, 2011). aside from anthropogenic activities, heavy metal exposure after volcanic eruption should also be performed to determine the level of pollutant contamination after the calamity. materials and methods this study evaluated the ecological and health risks from exposure to mercury, arsenic, and cadmium after the 2020 taal volcanic eruption. the soil samples were collected from seven locations in talisay, batangas, six locations in tagaytay city, cavite and one location in cuenca, batangas. the latter has the least number of collection sites for soil assessment since it represented the municipalities that are less affected by the 2020 taal volcano eruption. the soil samples were collected from either the garden or backyard of the house of a resident. a total of 1,000 grams of soil were collected in each location from an approximate depth of 10cm. the samples were placed in a properly labelled polyethylene bag containers. three replicate soil samples were collected from each location and were sent to a laboratory for processing and quantification of mercury, arsenic and cadmium. the soil samples were stored at room temperature and were dried prior to its processing in a laboratory. the soil samples was processed and underwent cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry for mercury detection and quantification while manual hydride generation atomic absorption spectrophotometry (aas) and direct air-acetylene flame were used in the detection and measurement of arsenic and cadmium in the soil samples, respectively. the results were presented in mean concentration. mathematical expressions and symbols ecological risk assessment the geoaccumulation index, enrichment factor and potential ecological risk index were used in assessing the ecological risk in the polluted soil. the geoaccumulation index (igeo) was used to determine the degree of heavy metal pollution or contamination in the agricultural soil (muller 1969). it was computed using this equation igeo = log2 (cn/1.5 bn) where cn refers to the estimated concentration of heavy metals n and bn as the background value in the soil. the background values in the soil were based on denr ao2019-17 standard values for arsenic and based on the local studies of posadas et al. (2022) and nolos et al. (2022) for mercury and cadmium concentration and it is as follows: mercury=2.19 ppm, arsenic=2.0 ppm and cadmium=0 ppm. meanwhile, the enrichment factor (ef) was also determined, and was identified the degree of metal enrichment in the soilfrom natural or anthropogenic activities. it was computed using this equation (barbieri 2016): ef= (metal/re)soil/(metal/re)background where re refers to the value of reference element based on denr ao 2019-17 standard values for arsenic and the cadmium and mercury concentration of a local study. an ef value of <2 indicated deficiency to minimal enrichment, 2<ef<5 signified moderate enrichment, 5<ef<20 was interpreted as significant enrichment, 20<ef<40 indicated very high enrichment and ef>40 extremely high enrichment. since this study has detected a single element in the soil, potential ecological risk factor for a specific element was computed but not the potential ecological risk index. the computation and toxic response factor were based on hakanson (1980) using the following equation: potential ecological risk factors (eri) for a specific element eri=tri x ci f where eeri, potential ecological risk factor for a specific heavy metal i, were computed using the toxic response factor tri and contamination factor ci f. the tri of the heavy metals were as follows: mercury= 40, arsenic= 10 and cadmium= 30. the results were interpreted using the geoaccumulation index, eri and peri classification of hakanson (1980) as seen in table 1. table 1: classification of ecological risk based on geoaccumulation index, potential ecological risk factor and index igeo value risk classification eri value risk classification peri value risk classification igeo ≤ 0 practically unpolluted <40 low risk ≤150 low risk 0 ≤ igeo ≤ 1 unpolluted to moderately 40–80 moderate risk 150 < per ≤ 300 moderate risk 1 ≤ igeo ≤ 2 moderately polluted 80–160 considerable risk 300 < per ≤ 600 considerable risk 2 ≤ igeo ≤ 3 moderately to strongly polluted 160–320 high risk per > 600 high risk 3 ≤ igeo ≤ 4 strongly polluted ≥320 very high risk 4 ≤ igeo ≤ 5 strongly to extremely polluted igeo > 5 extremely polluted *eri and peri classification of hakanson (1980) pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 1-6, 2025 human risk assessment non-carcinogenic risk assessment the noncarcinogenic risk of heavy metals in soil was established by computing for hazard quotient (hq) and hazard index (hi). hq was computed using this equation (chonokhuu et al., 2019): hq= average daily dose or add/rfd or reference dose of heavy metals in mg/kg/day where average daily dose (add) referred to the daily dose of heavy metal exposure in contaminated soil while reference dose of heavy metals in mg/kg/day (rfd) referred to estimate of persistent heavy metal exposure by the affected residents. the rfd of arsenic was based on ma et al. (2019) and the rfd per pathway were as follows: ingestion = 3.00 x 10-4 , inhalation= 5.00 x 10-5 and dermal= 3.00 x 10-4. if the hazard quotient <1, there was no potential health effects but if the value was >1, there was potential health effects from exposure to contaminated soil. aside from hazard quotient, hazard index (hi) was also computed to determine the total noncarcinogenic risk for each metal. it was computed by adding the hazard quotient for each metal and the study used this equation: himetal1=hqing + hqdermal + hqinh the hazard quotients for each metal were added and were interpreted as follows: an hi value equal to or less than 1 signified the absence of non-carcinogenic risk from heavy metal exposure in contaminated soil but an hi value of more than 1 indicated that there was a potential noncarcinogenic risks from an exposure to contaminated soil. carcinogenic risk assessment of the soil carcinogenic risk from heavy metal exposure in the soil was also determined and it was computed using this equation (ma et al., 2019): cr= add x sf where cr referred to the carcinogenic risk from an exposure to a specific metal while sf was the cancer slope factor of a specific metal. the sf of arsenic based on pathway (ma et al. 2019) were the following: ingestion= 1.5, inhalation= 15.1 and dermal= 3.66. it was interpreted as follows: (a) cr less than 1 x 10-6 was interpreted as having no carcinogenic risk; (b) a cr value of more than 1 x 10-6 but less than 1 x 10-4 or 1 x 106<cr<1 x 10-4 signified that the metal exposure in the soil was within acceptable levels and had lesser chances of carcinogenic risk; and (c) cr>1 x 10-4 indicated that there was significant potential of carcinogenic risk from an exposure in contaminated soil. it was computed using microsoft excel. results and discussion heavy metal concentration in the soil the arsenic concentration in the soil of talisay, batangas and tagaytay, cavite have twoto three-fold increase and oneto two-fold elevation than the reference value, respectively, while the arsenic in the soil of cuenca, batangas is maintained within the reference value (table 2). meanwhile, cadmium and mercury concentration in the soil of the three municipalities remains within the reference value. martinez-villegas et al. (2022) reported that volcanic contents were carried by the wind towards the northeast side of taal volcano, where talisay, batangas is situated, during the 2020 volcano eruption. however, the direction of the wind redirected towards the southwest side of the volcano and it blew lesser ash content than the actual volcanic eruption. the volcanic contents are known to be comprised of elements and even heavy metals that can be harmful to those who will be exposed (jenkins et al., 2015). since volcanic contents is blown towards the northeastern side of the volcano during the actual eruption, most of the ashes might have settled on the ground of talisay, batangas. meanwhile, tagaytay city, cavite is the municipality that is located beside talisay, batangas and it has also been exposed during the eruption. given this information, these municipalities had been greatly exposed during the volcanic eruption but it is talisay, batangas which is likely to have obtained more ashes than tagaytay city, cavite. aside from the direction of the wind, earthquakes were also observed during the eruption and such event may have disturbed the other soil contents. broken glasswares were observed in some of the collection sites in talisay, batangas. between talisay and tagaytay, talisay has a significantly high arsenic concentration, and these glasswares may have also contributed to the soil contamination. the heat from the environment may react with the glasswares which will trigger the release of arsenic. this concept may also explain the arsenic in the soil of the municipality. aside from the actual observation of the soil, the groundwater of talisay, batangas was discovered to be contaminated by arsenic in the study of apostol et al. (2022). they discussed that it is possible that these water from wells have access to the volcanic contents. this contaminated groundwater may also have contributed in the arsenic contamination in the soil of talisay, batangas as it flows through the land. the direction of the wind, the shaking of the ground during earthquakes and groundwater contamination are the possible sources of the elevated arsenic in the soil of the two municipalities especially talisay, batangas. anthropogenic sources is also a source of metal contamination and may have contributed in the elevated arsenic concentration in the soil of the two municipalities. fertilizers have been applied in some of the soil collection sites of talisay, batangas. wuana and okieiman (2011) mentioned that fertilizers and pesticides are made-up of arsenic and such chemicals may take several months before it is eliminated from the land. in the same study, they also discussed that burning of fuels may produce dust particles that contains arsenic. in relation to the study, the soil in some of the collection sites in talisay, batangas have been treated with fertilizers. moreover, the soil collection sites in talisay, batangas and pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 1-6, 2025 tagaytay, cavite is located at least 50 meters away from the roadside. these factors may have also enhanced the arsenic concentration in the soil of the two municipalities aside from the natural sources. table 2: comparison of detected heavy metal concentration in the soil of different municipalities to and its reference values municipality arsenic cadmium mercury mean (ppm) reference value (ppm) mean (ppm) reference value (ppm) mean (ppm) reference value (ppm) talisay, batangas 5.26 2.0 (denr) <0.03 0.075 (usepa) <0.08 1.8 (us epa)tagaytay, cavite 3.94 <0.03 <0.08 cuenca, batangas 1.92 <0.03 <0.08 table 3: comparison of the ecological risk assessment of arsenic-contaminated soil of the affected municipalities of taal volcano eruption cuenca tagaytay talisay igeo -0.64 0.40 0.81 interpretation of igeo practically unpolluted unpolluted to moderately polluted unpolluted to moderately polluted enrichment factor (ef) 0.96 1.98 2.63 interpretation of ef deficiency to minimal enrichment deficiency to minimal enrichment moderate enrichment potential ecological risk of arsenic (eri) 9.6 19.75 26.3 interpretation of eri low risk low risk low risk ecological risk assessment the soil samples of tagaytay, cavite (igeo=0.40) and talisay, batangas (igeo=0.81) were classified as unpolluted to moderately polluted while cuenca, batangas has practically unpolluted soil (igeo=-0.64). in terms of enrichment factor, the soil of cuenca, batangas and tagaytay city, cavite were classified as having deficient to minimal enrichment because its enrichment factor is 0.96 and 1.98, respectively, which are less than <2 (reference value). despite having the minimal differences in other aspects of ecological risk assessment, the soil from all three municipalities has low ecological risk for having arsenic in its soil (table 3). the metals that were recognized to have moderately to strongly polluted the environment were cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead and arsenic, with their maximum igeo ranging between 2.7 to 6.2 (radomirovic et al., 2020). in contrary, chen et al. (2021) discovered that arsenic concentration from different lands with plant species regardless of abundance and from a soil that is located in residential area demonstrated a non-polluted soil. moreover, a strong to severe ecological risks is observed in a land with significant vehicular exposure and land manipulation. like the result of chen et al. (2021), the finding of this study also has a low ecological risk in arsenic-contaminated soil in this study, the soil samples were collected from a land that is located from either of the following: with minimal vehicular exposure and/or directly from the backyard of a residential house. moreover, no industrial companies were located nearby or surrounding the collection sites. the study of radomirovic et al. (2020) showed an increased enrichment factor (2.4 to 12) when compared to the reference value of less than 2 and their soil were collected from an area with industrial leakage. meanwhile, ahmad et al. (2021) also detected a moderately heavy metalcontaminated and -polluted soil from a landfill. this signifies that the possibility of heavy metal contamination and pollution in the soil will depend on the location of soil collection and the amount of exposure to chemicals or discharges from industrial companies. in relation to the study, the soil collection site of cuenca is close to taal lake and it would require 1,500 steps before reaching the roadside. due to the absence of exposure to anthropogenic activities, the enrichment factor in cuenca, batangas and tagaytay city, cavite demonstrate that the arsenic can be from the earth’s crust. meanwhile, the moderate enrichment in talisay, batangas was due to the natural and anthropogenic sources that have been identified. the identified anthoropogenic sources of arsenic in the soil of talisay, batangas were fertilizers, glassware and smoke from vehicles. this study showed that there is still low ecological risk despite an arsenic concentration of up to three-fold elevation in the soil. this demonstrates that such concentration is not yet harmful to the environment. human health risk assessment non-carcinogenic risks from an exposure to the soil of the three municipalities demonstrated a hazard quotient and hazard index values of <1 and they signified that an exposure to arsenic-contaminated soil do not pose pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 1-6, 2025 a potential health effect and risk to both adult and children regardless of point of entry in the body (table 4). moreover, there is still no possibility for residents to develop cancer from an exposure to arsenic-contaminated soil based on the carcinogenic value of less than 1 from the soil of cuenca, tagaytay and talisay. table 4: non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk assessments from a possible exposure to arsenic-contaminated soil after the taal volcano eruption non-carcinogenic risk age group cuenca tagaytay talisay hazard index (hi) adult 1.7 x 10-4 3.3 x 10-4 4.5 x 10-4 children 1.0 x 10-4 2.1 x 10-4 2.8 x 10-4 interpretation absence of non-carcinogenic risks carcinogenic risk adult 1.2 x 10-9 2.4 x 10-9 3.2 x 10-9 children 3.5 x 10-8 7.2 x 10-8 9.6 x 10-8 interpretation no chances of carcinogenic risks health risk from an exposure to arsenic is most likely to occur through ingestion and less of the other pathways. however, it is through ingestion of arsenic-contaminated water that both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks are identified and most likely to be observed. children are more exposed than adults especially when they are in an area near a roadside and/or industrial companies and oral route is considered as the common pathway of their exposure (riaz et al., 2022). arsenic exposure cannot cause an immediate effect in the health of a living organism, instead, it would require a prolonged exposure to it (lou et al., 2010). in the study of apostol et al. (2022), the groundwater was discovered to be contaminated with arsenic. given this information, the groundwater can be one of the means of human exposure. in terms of arsenic-contaminated soil, the only way for humans to ingest arsenic is through the crops that grew in it. the current arsenic concentration in the soil of tagaytay city, cavite and talisay, batangas will not yet pose noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks which means that it is still not harmful to the exposed residents. conclusion the study discovered that the soil from cuenca, talisay and tagaytay were unpolluted to moderately polluted, have low to moderate contamination and have low potential ecological risk from arsenic. the location of the soil collection contributed to this result. there is lesser possibility for the soil to cause a potential ecological risk, to be polluted and contaminated by arsenic when the soil is taken from an area that is devoid and distant from anthropogenic sources. the soil samples of talisay had other environmental factors such as fertilizers, broken glasswares and minimal exposure to vehicular smoke that led to moderate enrichment of the soil. thus, a combination of environmental exposure to chemicals and actual soil collection sites affect the enrichment factor of an area. the soil may not directly cause a non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks to a person but we cannot totally eliminate the possibility of arsenic exposure through ingestion of the crops. the current arsenic concentration in the soil of talisay, batangas and tagaytay city, cavite will not yet cause any significant harm to the environment and to the exposed residents. acknowledgements i would like to give my deepest gratitude to the barangay health workers and local officials for their assistance during the soil collection; and to atty. percival mendoza and mrs. charlene edgel mendoza for their help and assistance during the sample collection and other related technical assistance; and to dr darylle cesar hilapo for his assistance during the ocular inspection. references ahmad, w., alharthy, r., zubair, m., ahmed, m., hameed, a., & rafique, s. 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(2011). heavy metals in contaminated soils: a review of sources, chemistry, risks, and best available strategies for remediation. isrn environmental chemistry, 2011, 402647. https:// doi.org/10.5402/2011/402647 pa ge 1 pa ge 28 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) adoption of climate smart agricultural practices among coastal farmers: insights from a selected southern area of bangladesh md. golam rabbani akanda1, probir kumar mittra2*, avijit biswas3 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5318 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 22, 2025 accepted: july 25, 2025 published: september 05, 2025 climate-smart agriculture (csa) methods must be implemented to protect both ecological stability and sustainable livelihoods, as climate change poses significant dangers to coastal agriculture. understanding the motivations behind farmers adoption of these methods is crucial for creating focused and successful policies, especially in climate-vulnerable areas like coastal zones of bangladesh. the purpose of this study is to evaluate coastal farmers’ adoption of climate-smart agriculture (csa) methods and investigate the associations between a few chosen farmer attributes and adoption levels. in the kalapara upazila of patuakhali district, 310 coastal farmers were chosen using a multi-stage random selection approach, and data was collected from them using a pre-tested interview schedule. the results showed that coastal farmers’ adoption of csa techniques varied from 40.25 to 75.29, with a possible range of 0 to 100. the standard deviation was 8.50 and the mean adoption level was 56.53. among farmers, the majority (60%) showed a medium degree of adoption, followed by low adoption (21.29%) and high adoption (18.71%). csa adoption was significantly positively correlated with agricultural expertise, training exposure, communication exposure, innovativeness, risk orientation, and economic motive, according to correlation analysis. in contrast, farm size exhibited a significant negative relationship with adoption levels. regression analysis indicated that 31.8% of the variation in csa adoption was explained by farmers’ communication exposure (30.4%) and innovativeness (1.3%). one methodological limitation of this study is its reliance on self-reported data from a single region, which may limit the generalizability of findings to broader coastal contexts. however, the study provides a strong theoretical basis for policy formulation by linking farmer-level attributes with csa adoption, emphasizing the importance of behavioral and socio-economic factors. to enhance csa adoption, stakeholdersincluding policymakers, extension agents, and local ngos should prioritize targeted training, improve access to climate information, and promote farmer-led innovation and communication networks. future study is necessary to examine impediments to greater adoption and evaluate the long-term effects on farmers’ livelihoods and environmental sustainability, as these findings offer important insights into the factors driving coastal farmers’ adoption of csa methods. keywords adoption, bangladesh, climatesmart agriculture practices, coastal farmers 1 department of agricultural extension and rural development, patuakhali science and technology university, dumki, patuakhali, bangladesh 2 department of basic science, patuakhali science and technology university, khanpura, babugonj, barishal, bangladesh 3 department of agriculture, gopalganj science and technology university, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: probir.pstu@gmail.com introduction agriculture is the backbone of bangladesh’s economy, contributing significantly to employment, food security, and rural development (bbs, 2022). however, the country is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its geographical location, low-lying coastal regions, and frequent natural disasters such as cyclones, floods, and saline water intrusion (chowdhury et al., 2022). millions of smallholder farmers in coastal regions depend on these climate-related issues for their livelihoods, as they affect agricultural productivity (islam & wadud, 2020). a viable solution to these issues is climate-smart agriculture (csa), which aims to improve agricultural resilience while maintaining environmental sustainability and food security (fao, 2018). a variety of methods and tools are included in csa with the goals of increasing productivity in a sustainable manner, enhancing climate change resistance, and lowering greenhouse gas emissions whenever feasible (fuad et al., 2025; lipper et al., 2014). utilizing crop varieties that can withstand stress, conservation agriculture, enhanced water management, agroforestry, and integrated soil fertility management are some of these methods (debnath et al., 2019). because coastal farmers in bangladesh are more vulnerable to harsh weather events, increasing sea levels, and salinized soil, which have a detrimental effect on agricultural productivity and household incomes, it is especially important that they adopt csa methods (islam et al., 2022). farmers in coastal bangladesh continue to implement csa at unequal rates despite its demonstrated benefits because of a number of institutional, socioeconomic, and environmental variables (hoque et al., 2023). according to earlier research, farmers’ desire to use climate-smart practices is significantly influenced by a number of factors, including risk perception, financial resources, training, and information availability (saha et al., 2019). adoption is further hampered in many coastal regions by poor infrastructure, a lack of extension services, and pa ge 29 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 28-34, 2025 problems with land tenure (biswas et al., 2024). given the significance of csa in promoting climate resilience and guaranteeing sustainable agricultural development, it is critical to comprehend the adoption patterns and variables affecting its uptake among bangladeshi coastal farmers. assessing the degree of csa adoption in the southern coastal belt and investigating the connection between important farmers attributes and adoption behavior are the objectives of this study. the results will help development organizations, extension services, and policymakers create focused interventions to encourage the broad adoption of csa practices, improving agricultural resilience and sustainability in the coastal regions of bangladesh. materials and methods the study was conducted at kalapara upazila of patuakhali district where a scope of adoption of climatesmart agricultural practices exists to be pursued as the study was concerned with the farmers’ adoption of csa practices. the study’s population consisted of all agricultural household heads, with the exception of kalapara upazila absentees. instead of collecting data from the entire population, a sample was used. the sample was chosen using a multi-stage random sampling technique (upazila, unions, villages, and households). two of the twelve unions that make up kalapara upazila were chosen at random during the initial phase. eight villages were chosen at random from the communities that were part of these two unions. with the assistance of subassistant agricultural officers, local union parishad staff, and local leaders of the affected villages, a list of all the farm household heads in these eight villages was created in the third stage. the sampling population for this study was made up of 1601 of these farm household heads. using a sample size calculator (www.surveymonkey.com), 310 farmers (household heads) were chosen as the final sample, dispersed proportionately among chosen villages, taking into account a 50% response distribution, a 5% margin of error, and a 95% confidence level. the sample size was 310 as a result. standard procedures were used to measure the study’s independent variables, such as age in years, education in school years, farming experience was measured in years, agricultural knowledge was measured in scores, training experience was measured in day, farm size was measured in hectare, annual income was measured in taka, communication exposure was measured in scores, cosmopoliteness was measured in scores, innovativeness was measured in scores, risk orientation was measured in scores, economic motivation was measured in scores, attitude towards modern technology was measured in scores. the study’s dependent variable was the adoption of climate-smart agriculture techniques. with a mean of 56.53 and a standard deviation of 8.5, the respondents’ observed scores on the implementation of climatesmart farming practices varied from 40.25 to 75.29. low adoption (40-48), medium adoption (49-65), and high adoption (66 and above) were the three categories into which farmers were divided (mean=/standard deviation). figure 1: map illustrating the data collection location in kalapara upazila, situated in the patuakhali district of bangladesh results and discussion the profile of the respondent’s sociodemographic traits was established, and the findings are shown in table 1. the findings showed that the majority of farmers (42.6%) were middle-aged (42.6 percent), no formal schooling (68.1 percent), medium farming experience (49.4 percent), medium agricultural knowledge (56.1 percent), no training experience (72.3 percent), small farm size (46.1 percent), low annual income (65.8 percent), medium communication exposure (61.0 percent), medium pa ge 30 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 28-34, 2025 cosmopoliteness (76.1 percent), medium innovativeness (57.8 percent), medium risk orientation (75.8 percent), medium economic motivation (61.3 percent), medium attitude towards modern technology (70.7 percent). table 1: demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the respondents characteristics (measuring units) range farmers mean sd possi-ble obse-rved categories no. perc-ent age (year) unknown 23-61 young (up to 35) 79 25.5 43 .4 5 10 .8 6 middle (36-50) 132 42.6 old (>50) 99 31.9 education (year of schooling) unknown 0-14 no formal schooling 211 68.1 1. 39 2. 5 primary level 70 22.5 secondary level 28 9.1 above secondary 1 0.3 farming experience unknown 5-45 low farming experience 129 41.6 21 .5 9 7. 94 1 medium farming experience 153 49.4 high farming experience 28 9 agricultural knowledge unknown 10-29 low (upto 12) 61 19.7 17 .7 3 5. 63 medium (13 to 22) 184 56.1 high (23 and above) 65 24.2 training experience (day) unknown 0-6 no training 224 72.3 1. 09 1. 9 with training 86 27.3 farm size (ha) unknown 0.15-3.20 marginal (between 0.02 and 0.2 ha) 19 6.1 1. 12 0. 75 small (between 0.2 and 1 ha) 143 46.1 medium (between 1 and 3 ha) 138 44.5 large farmers (above 3 ha) 10 3.2 annual income (tk)) unknown 64.10427.22 low income (upto tk 116) 204 65.8 11 6. 05 55 .0 6 medium income (tk. 116.01 to 232.0) 86 27.7 high income (tk. 232.01 – 427.22 and above) 20 6.5 communication exposure unknown 14-39 low (14-17) 55 17.7 23 .7 8 6. 69 medium (18-29) 189 61 high (30-39) 66 21.3 cosmopoliteness unknown 3-14 low (3) 32 10.3 5. 98 2. 27 medium (4-8) 236 76.1 high (9 and above) 42 13.5 innovativeness unknown 11-20 low innovativeness (11-14) 33 10.6 15 .9 8 1. 49 medium innovativeness (15-16) 179 57.8 high innovativeness (17-20) 98 31.6 risk orientation unknown 16-38 low (16-26) 30 9.7 29 .9 4 3. 23 medium (27-32) 225 75.8 high (33 and above) 45 14.5 pa ge 31 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 28-34, 2025 table 2: characteristics of waste management in poultry farms categories (scores) frequency percentage mean sd low adoption (40-48) 66 21.29 56.53 8.5 medium adoption (49-65) 186 60.00 high adoption (66 and above) 58 18.71 total 310 100 table 3: relationship with selected independent variables with the adoption of csa practices of the respondents variables selected independent variables value of correlation coefficient (r) adoption of climate smart agricultural practices age .010 education .041 farming experience -.008 agricultural knowledge .228** training experience .276** farm size -135* annual income .016 communication exposure .552** cosmopoliteness -.066 economic motivation unknown 13-32 low economic motivation (13-18) 56 18.1 22 .5 1 4. 51 medium economic motivation (19-27) 210 61.3 high economic motivation (28-32) 44 14.2 attitude towards modern technology unknown 13-29 low (13-22) 55 17.7 24 .0 6 2. 20 medium (23-26) 219 70.7 high (27 and above) 36 11.6 adoption of climate smart agricultural practices unknown 40.25-75.29 low adoption (40-48) 66 21.29 56 .5 3 8. 5 medium adoption (49-65) 186 60 high adoption (66 and above) 58 18.71 the respondents’ observed scores for the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices ranged from 40.25 to 75.29, with a mean score of 56.53 and a standard deviation of 8.5. based on the mean and standard deviation, farmers were classified into three categories: low adoption (scores between 40 and 48), medium adoption (scores between 49 and 65), and high adoption (scores of 66 and above). the distribution of farmers across these categories is presented in the following table. table 2 indicates that the majority of respondents (60.00 percent) had a medium level of adoption of csa practices, followed by 21.29 percent with low adoption and 18.71 percent with high adoption. these findings suggest that most farmers fall within the medium to low adoption categories. this may be attributed to limited access to available csa technologies and practices. similarly, previous study reported that 56.3 percent of farmers had adopted csa practices, which aligns with the results of this study (ewulo et al., 2025). relationship between selected farmer characteristics and their influence on the dependent variable the study determined the relationship between the adoption of csa practices of the coastal farmers on climate smart agricultural practices as dependent variables and 13 selected characteristics of the coastal farmers as independent variables discussed below under following sections: relationships between selected characteristics (independent variables) and the adoption of csa practices (dependent variable) this objective sought to examine the relationships between selected characteristics of coastal farmers (independent variables) and their adoption of csa practices (dependent variable). the correlation coefficients between the independent variables and the dependent variable are presented in table 3. table 3 indicates that from 13 selected characteristics, 7 pa ge 32 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 28-34, 2025 characteristic out of which 6 characteristics viz. agricultural knowledge, training experience, communication exposure, innovativeness, risk orientation, economic motivation showed positive significant relationships with the adoption of csa practices (dependent variable) and only 1 characteristic viz. farm size showed negative significant relationships with the adoption of csa practices (dependent variable). contribution of independent variables to adoption of dependent variable the correlation coefficients indicate the linear relationships between pairs of variables but do not show the extent to which the independent variables-i.e., the farmers’ characteristicscontribute to the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices. therefore, a linear multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the individual contributions of various characteristics of coastal farmers to their adoption of these practices. only those variables that showed significant correlations with the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices were included in the regression model. as a result, seven characteristicsagricultural knowledge, training experience, farm size, communication exposure, innovativeness, risk orientation, and economic motivation were included in the analysis. the results of the regression analysis are presented in table 4. among the seven variables, the regression coefficients for only fourfarm size, communication exposure, innovativeness, and economic motivation were statistically significant, indicating that these factors made a meaningful contribution to variations in the adoption of csa practices (aryal et al., 2018). the remaining three variablesagricultural knowledge, training experience, and risk orientation did not show a significant contribution. the results of the multiple regression analysis are presented in table 4. it was found that four variables farm size, communication exposure, innovativeness, and economic motivation were included in the regression model, collectively explaining 34.8 percent of the total variation in adoption. the f-value of 23.075 was statistically significant at the 0.000 level of probability. therefore, the relevant null hypotheses were rejected, and it can be concluded that each of these factors made a significant contribution to the adoption of csa practices by coastal farmers. in other words, the coastal farmers who had high communication exposure, innovativeness and economic motivation had high adoption and coastal farmers who had high farm size had low level of adoption. the contributions of the respondents with their adoption for climate smart agricultural practices are discussed below: innovativeness .169* risk orientation .163* attitude towards modern agricultural technology -.049 economic motivation .211** ** significant at 0.01 level of significance significant at 0.05 level of significance table 4: regression coefficients of the selected farmer characteristics in relation to their adoption csa practices variable entered unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta (constant) 21.123 5.700 3.706 .000 agril. knowledge .113 .075 .075 1.516 .131 training exposure -.295 .242 -.069 -1.223 .222 farm size -1.276 .620 -.096 -2.058 .040 communication exposure .673 .076 .522 8.840 .000 innovativeness .578 .270 .102 2.141 .033 risk orientation .190 .125 .072 1.522 .129 economic motivation .186 .091 .099 2.038 .042 r2= 34.8 f, 23.075 p= .000 the unique contribution of each of the three variables was determined by observing the change in the r² value resulting from the entry of each variable into the stepwise regression model. the results are presented in table 5. together, the two variables accounted for 31.8 percent of the total variation in adoption among coastal farmers. communication exposure alone contributed 30.4 percent, followed by innovativeness, which accounted for 1.3 percent of the variation. pa ge 33 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 28-34, 2025 communication exposure adoption would be higher with the increase of communication exposure i.e. communication media used by the farmers. the farmers who have more contact with communication media can easily gain various help in adoption of csa practices. so it can be inferred that the higher the communication exposure, the higher is the adoption level (r= .552**). a previous study also suggests that communication exposure, such as the communication access and their alignment with existing farming activities, strongly motivate farmers to enhance farmers’ capacity to adopt and sustain csa practices (ajwang et al., 2024). innovativeness adoption would be higher within the innovative farmers. the farmers who are more innovative can search for suitable climate smart agricultural practices in adoption. therefore, it can be inferred that a higher level of innovativeness is associated with a greater level of adoption (r = .169*). a previous study also found that agricultural innovativeness has a significant direct influence on the intention to adopt csa practices (mondal & hasan, 2025). conclusions this study explores how coastal farmers adopt climatesmart agriculture by looking at their socioeconomic characteristics, how much they use csa practices, the challenges they face, and the information they need. the findings provided valuable insights into the factors influencing csa adoption, revealing both enabling conditions and significant barriers that hinder widespread implementation. key challenges included limited access to resources, inadequate knowledge, and infrastructural constraints, which necessitate well-structured interventions. additionally, the study identified the critical need for improved access to relevant information and support systems to enhance farmers’ capacity to adopt and sustain csa practices. these insights can guide policymakers and agricultural stakeholders in designing targeted policies, extension services, and capacitybuilding programs that facilitate the seamless integration of csa practices into coastal farming systems. the study advances the larger objective of guaranteeing sustainable agricultural development, boosting climate resilience, and strengthening the livelihoods of coastal farmers in the face of growing climate variability by addressing adoption barriers and knowledge gaps. acknowledgements research and training centre, patuakhali science and technology university, dumki, patuakhali-8602, bangladesh has been duly acknowledged for funding a project in the year 20182019 in favor of first author as principal investigator. references ajwang, s., owoche, p., & mutonyi, j. (2024). access and use of information for enhanced adoption of climate smart agricultural practices among smallholder farmers in lake victoria basin, kenya. agroenvironmental sustainability, 2(2), 62–73. https:// doi.org/10.59983/s2024020201 aryal, j. p., jat, m. l., sapkota, t. b., khatri-chhetri, a., kassie, m., rahut, d. b., & maharjan, s. (2018). adoption of multiple climate-smart agricultural practices in the gangetic plains of bihar, india. international journal of climate change strategies and management, 10(3), 407–427. https://doi.org/10.1108/ ijccsm-02-2017-0025 bbs. (2022). statistical yearbook bangladesh 2022. bangladesh bureau of statistics, ministry of planning, government of people’s republic of bangladesh. biswas, a., debnath, p., & kang, d. k. (2024). factors influencing farmers’ barriers to adopting climate smart agriculture practices in the coastal area of bangladesh. journal of agricultural extension & community development, 31(3), 153–175. https://doi. org/10.12653/jecd.2024.31.3.0153 chowdhury, md. a., hasan, md. k., & islam, s. l. u. (2022). climate change adaptation in bangladesh: current practices, challenges and the way forward. the journal of climate change and health, 6, 100108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joclim.2021.100108 debnath, p., hasan, m. m., biswas, a. k. m. a. a., & biswas, a. (2019). adoption of disaster risk reduction strategy in agriculture sector at southkhali union of sharankhola upazila, bangladesh. archives of agriculture and environmental science, 4(2), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2019.040203 ewulo, t. a., akinseye, f. m., teme, n., agele, s. o., yessoufou, n., & kumar, s. (2025). factors driving climate-smart agriculture adoption: a study of smallholder farmers in koumpentum, senegal. frontiers in agronomy, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fagro.2025.1552720 fao. (2018). climate-smart agriculture: policies, practices, and financing for food security, adaptation, and mitigation. table 5: change in multiple r for enter of a variable into the step-wise multiple regression model for adoption of csa practices model variables entered in the model r2 adjusted r2 change in r2 variation explained (percent) level of significance constant+x8 communication exposure .304 .302 .304 30.4 .000 constant+ x8+x10 communication exposure+ innovativeness .318 .313 .013 .013 .015 pa ge 34 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 28-34, 2025 rome, fao. fuad, a. f., afrad, s. i., & prodhan, f. a. (2025). the padma paradox: irrigation benefits and waterlogging challenges drive csa adoption in bangladesh. american journal of environment and climate, 4(2), 15–27. hoque, m. z., mahmud, a. a., haque, md. e., afrad, md. s. i., hossain, md. f., yeasmin, f., prodhan, f. a., rahman, md. s., hasan, s., & saha, s. (2023). adoption of climate smart agricultural practices by charland farmers in charfasson, bangladesh. journal of agriculture and ecology research international, 24(5), 87–97. https://doi.org/10.9734/jaeri/2023/v24i5545 islam, f., alam, g. m. m., begum, r., sarker, m. n. i., & bhandari, h. (2022). farm level adaptation to climate change: insight from rice farmers in the coastal region of bangladesh. local environment, 27(6), 671–681. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2022.2068139 islam, md. n., & wadud, md. a. (2020). impact of climate change on agricultural production in bangladesh: a review. international journal of science and business, 4(9), 125–137. https://doi.org/10.5281/ zenodo.4296562 lipper, l., thornton, p., campbell, b. m., baedeker, t., braimoh, a., bwalya, m., caron, p., cattaneo, a., garrity, d., henry, k., hottle, r., jackson, l., jarvis, a., kossam, f., mann, w., mccarthy, n., meybeck, a., neufeldt, h., remington, t., … torquebiau, e. f. (2014). climate-smart agriculture for food security. nature climate change, 4(12), 1068–1072. https://doi. org/10.1038/nclimate2437 mondal, s., & hasan, a. a. t. (2025). factors affecting climate-smart agriculture adoption intentions among potato farmers in bangladesh: the moderating role of agricultural innovativeness. management & sustainability: an arab review. https://doi. org/10.1108/msar-09-2024-0136 saha, m. k., biswas, a. a. a., meandad, j., ahmed, r., prokash, j., & sakib, f. m. (2019). factors affecting to adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices by coastal farmers’ in bangladesh. american journal of environment and sustainable development, 4(4), 113–121. pa ge 1 pa ge 59 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) understanding the nexus between climate change, dwindling agro-pastoral resources, and conflicts in kouoptamo, cameroon moye eric kongnso1*, tiomo dongfack emmanuel1, fonyuy jean claude suika1 volume 3 issue 3, year 2024 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v3i3.3650 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 25, 2024 accepted: september 23, 2024 published: december 03, 2024 climate variability and change are a major threat to rain-fed agro-pastoral systems in africa and a potential source of conflict. this work sets out to examine the relationship between climate variability, resource degradation, and agro-pastoral conflicts. using mixed research methods, secondary data was collected from archives and reports in institutions while primary data was collected through the administration of 120 questionnaires to purposively selected farmers and grazers while 09 in-depth interviews were conducted with key stakeholders. quantitative and qualitative analysis of data revealed that climatic elements of rainfall and temperature have been varying in space and time with negative impacts on water and pasture. the regression model considered climate variability as a predictor of resource degradation and the independent variable explained the outcome variable at r=0.711; r2=0. 633; δr2=0.622;p<0.01. also, climate variability was able to predict agro-pastoral conflicts at, r=0.736; r2=0.542; δr2=0.540;p<0.01. climate-exacerbated conflicts have been recorded in mbankouop (40.9%), njogoumbe (31.8%) and njitapon (27.25). conflicts occur between crop farmers and pastoralists and between pastoralists themselves as they compete over diminishing resources. hence, understanding the nexus between climate change, resource scarcity and conflicts paves the way for proper adaptation and limits conflicts. keywords agro-pastoral resources, cameroon, climate change, conflicts, west region 1 department of geography, environement and planning, university of dschang, cameroon * corresponding author’s e-mail: moyeeric@yahoo.com introduction climate variability and change are some of the greatest challenges affecting the human and natural systems in sub-saharan africa. among the sectors severely impacted, agriculture tops the list as it solely depends on the natural factors of rainfall and temperatures. the cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals take a seasonal pattern marked by the onset and termination of rains. this subsistence type of agriculture occupies more than 70% of the population and forms the backbone of most economies. in cameroon, about 35% of the gross domestic product comes from agriculture and related sectors (molua, 2010). however, climate variability and change are characterized by increasing frequency and intensity of prolonged dryness, a reduction in rainfall amounts, a decline in the length of the rainy season and rising temperatures (amani et al., 2010; nicholson, 2017). the climatic parameters of rainfall and temperature are the main drivers of crop growth and given that agriculture in sub-saharan africa is predominantly rainfed, small changes in climatic conditions lead to falls in productivity (malua, 2010). cameroon has a diverse and rich ecological setting that permits the cultivation of a wide range of crops and the rearing of animals. each ecological zone has specific agricultural activities but in most cases, crop cultivation and animal rearing are carried together in what is called the mixed-agricultural zones. the western highlands of cameroon is one of the agro-ecological zones where crop farmers and animal herders cohabitate. crop farming is mostly done by the native population while a cattle rearing is predominantly done by mbororo fulanis who migrated into the region from neighbouring nigeria (jabiru, 2010). studies by nyuymenka (2016), revealed that more than 95% of the mbororos of cameroon practice extensive grazing with little inputs. two prominent methods of rearing used are pastoral nomadism and transhumance though recent mobility has been considered a traditional strategy to cope with the dwindling pastoral resources caused by climate variability in traditional grazing zones (manu et al., 2014; moye et al., 2021). according to pelican (2012), the mbororos in the grass fields of cameroon are agro-pastoralists but most mbororo families complement cattle husbandry with subsistence agriculture. this diversification to non-pastoral activities permits them to reduce shocks from climate anomalies. the use of indigenous knowledge systems in enhances adaptation is taking the central stage (kinyili, 2023). pastoralists due to their inextricable link with nature have permitted to accumulate a huge knowledge base that needs to be mains tream to adaptation policies. climate change has negatively affected the natural resource base and livelihoods of the population. the shrinking of water sources and degradation of pasture has resulted in conflicts in pastoralist communities. conflicts result from competition over resources that have been made increasingly scarce due to an increase in human population and the increasing number of animals in grazing zones. animals in search of diminishing resources tend to encroach into farmlands and destroy crops leading to conflicts (quentin et al., 2005; moritz, 2008; higazi, 2022). the impacts of these conflicts have had negative consequences on the livelihoods of pastoralists and as such addressing the root causes has been a concern both on the part of pastoralists themselves, crop farmers and the government. though these conflicts have existed over pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 59-67, 2024 the past decades, this work shows that they have been exacerbated by the vagaries of weather. it equally seeks to establish the link existing between climate change, resource degradation and conflicts, an approach that has not been sufficiently explored in the western highlands of cameroon. materials and methods the study area kouoptamo in the noun division was use as case study. it is located between longitudes 100291011 and 1004513011e of the greenwich meridian and latitudes 50311011 and 504713011n of the equator (bidias et al., (2023) (figure 1). it falls within the western highlands agro-ecological zone, covering a surface area of 312 km2 with a population of 48772 inhabitants. this gives an average population density of 156 persons/km2 (bucrep 2005). it has a tropical climate of the savanna type, characterized by two seasons: a longer rainy season that lasts for about 8 months and a shorter dry season. the average annual rainfall is 1760.88mm and the average annual temperature of 25.31°c. (bidias et al., 2023). this seasonal pattern has permitted the cultivation of food crops and the growth of pasture for animals. the systems of crop cultivation are intensive and extensive. intensive farming involves the cultivation of vegetables on well-drained slopes during the rainy season and along valleys, swamps and lowlands during the dry season. the noun valley and banks of the bamendjim reservoir are suitable areas for dry season farming. extensive farming involves the cultivation of cereals such as maize and beans with farm sizes ranging between 1 to 4 hectares. these crops are mainly cultivated in the dry season but farms also contain perennial crops such as plantains, cassava, cocoyam and banana. due to an increase in population, pastoralists have adopted a sedentary pastoral nomadism system of rearing whereby herdsmen have permanent residences but lead their animals to fresh pasture and water points daily, covering several kilometres. they allow their animals to graze continuously with little or no restriction once they are within their prescribed area. these animals consist of mainly cattle, but in some cases accompanied by sheep. cattle herding is practised mainly by mbororo pastoralists who migrated into the area from the adamawa plateau while crop farmers are in the majority, the bamoun people. the use of the same space by pastoralists and crop farmers increases the possibility of farmer-herder conflicts. figure 1: kouoptamo in the west region of cameroon. data collection and treatment this study adopted a mixed methods approach to collect data from both primary and secondary sources. secondary data was collected from archives at the divisional delegation of livestock and animal husbandry, agricultural and rural development and from the mbororo development and cultural association, mboscuda. primary data on the other hand was collected from the administration of 120 household questionnaires to purposively selected cattle herders and crop farmers and from 9 in-depth interviews with key stakeholders. households involved are those that are either involved in cattle rearing, crop farming or both. in-depth interviews were conducted with the mboscuda representative, the mbororo traditional ruler called ardos, native traditional rulers of the three main grazing areas (mbamkouop, njitapon and njigoumbe), divisional delegations of livestock and animal husbandry and that of agriculture and rural development and with the divisional delegate of the kouoptamo sub division. to ascertain the level of climate variability, temperature and rainfall data were collected for the period from 1981 to 2021. given the scarcity of in-situ pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 59-67, 2024 data, data was downloaded from www.nasa.power.org and used in the analysis. data collected was treated using quantitative and qualitative methods. questionnaires were coded and treated in spss version 20 while voice notes recorded during interviews were treated using content and thematic analysis. to test the validity and reliability of the instrument, the cronbach’s alphas (α) coefficient for all the sub variables were calculated. the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 levels of significant correlation, including hierarchical regression and t-test. h1 looks at the relationship between climate variability and resource degradation while h2 studies the link between climate variability and conflicts. at 5% level of sig, we reject the null hypothesis for the test with a probability estimate lower than 5 % (.05) and conclude that there are statistically significant. otherwise, we accept 0.05 when probability estimates are above and conclude that there is no statistically significant. excerpts captured from some key informants have been used to express perceptions of the population on the link between climate change and conflicts. rainfall and temperature data were smoothened using 5-year running means and coefficients of variations were computed to establish the rate of climate variability. to establish anomalies, deviations from the normal were computed for the main climatic parameters and the growing period results and discussions indicators and manifestations of rainfall and temperature variability in kouoptamo rainfall and temperature are the main drivers of crop and pasture growth in the area and slight changes in its spatial and temporal dimensions are likely to affect livelihoods negatively. computing the rainfall data set from 1981-2021, it was revealed that the annual average rainfall amount is 1957.213mm, standard deviation of 479.546mm, with a coefficient of variation of 24.5%. this is above the reliability threshold of 10% and therefore indicates high fluctuations in the inter-annual amounts of rainfall. this high inter-annual rainfall variability demonstrates the unreliable nature of rainfall in kouoptamo. this unreliability in rainfall is higher in the rainy season with a cv of about 60%. temperatures on the other hand have been rising steadily over the past decades despite the observed fluctuations. with a mean of 20.69°c for the study period and a standard deviation of 0.3879°c, temperature variability is shown by a cv of 1.87%. these slight temperature changes have negative outcomes for agricultural activities. climate variability and change manifest in the frequency and intensity of anomalous scenarios. climatic anomalies are deviations from the climatic normal, which are either positive or negative (figures 2 and 3). using the growing period data, the data set has shown fluctuations between positive and negative anomalies. positive anomalies are period of excess rainfall and the probability of flood occurrence is a higher while negative figure 2: growing period rainfall anomalies figure 3: temperature anomalies in kouptamo figure 4: perceptions of agro-pastoralists on the indicators of climate change anomaly are associated with rainfall shortages and dry spells. the data set shows that more than 50% of the growing periods registered water shortages with an overall falling rainfall trend. in the main time, temperatures are equally fluctuation (figure 3). figure 3 shows fluctuations between periods of positive and negative anomalies. however, the trend shows an increase in temperatures which is associated with dry spells and water scarcity. the questionnaire survey equally revealed that agro-pastoralists in kouptamo have witnessed changes in the weather patterns, notably in rainfall and temperatures (figure 4). figure 4 shows that agro-pastoralist have witnessed changes in the main climatic parameters of rainfall and temperature. climate variability manifest through a fall in rainfall amounts (18%), rising temperatures and heat waves (17%), frequent dry spells(11%), fluctuations in the dates of onset and cessation of rains (19%) and the reducing length of the growing period(10%). these perceptions act as a pre-requisite for adaptation. impacts of climate variability on agro-pastoral resources the questionnaire survey has revealed that climate variability has negative impacts on crop farmers and cattle pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 59-67, 2024 herders in kouptamo (table 1). table 1: effects of climate variability on agro-pastoral activities perceived impacts of climate change frequency % frequency shrinking water courses 16 13.33 pasture degradation 18 15.00 crop submergence during floods 11 9.17 wilting of crops during dry spells 16 13.33 cattle losing weight 15 12.50 competition over resources 9 7.50 emerging pests and diseases 11 9.17 fall in output 13 10.83 cattle encroaching into farm lands 11 9.17 total 120 100.00 spells and water shortages (13.3%), cattle losing weight (12.5%), emergence of pest and diseases (9.17%), fall in agricultural output (10.17%), crop damages during floods (9.175), cattle encroachment into grazing land (9.17%) and competition over the diminishing resources(7.50%). these impacts were further explained with excerpts captured during an interview with a cattle herder; “…high altitude areas and slopes such as kounden are exposed to stronger winds, dry spells and scorching rays of the sun. this accelerates evapotranspiration which causes pasture and water to dry off faster and become deficient. this is common during seasonal transitions when the effects of the harmattan wind are felt in this area….” (interview, 2023). these periods of pasture and water shortage usually coincide with periods of seasonal fluctuations. a prolonged dry season causes pasture shortages with impacts on the cattle. hr1: climate variability has significantly influenced the reduction of agro-pastoral resources the first hypothesis was designed to find out if changes in climatic factors can significantly determine the reduction in agro-pastoral resources (water and pasture). this bivariate correlation was computed in spss and the model summary has been presented on table 2. the variability of climatic elements of temperature table 2 : predicting the influence of climate variability on pasture degradation model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate change statistics durbinwatsonrsquare change f change df1 df2 sig.f change 1 .711a .633 .622 5.41092 .633 359.05 1 217 .000 1.720 a. predictors: (constant), climatic factors b. dependent variable: resource degradation and rainfall were considered as a predictor of resource degradation and the independent variable explained the outcome variable at r=0.711; r2=0. 633; δr2=0.622; p<0.01. from the analysis, it is evident that fluctuations in climatic parameters of rainfall and temperature were able to predict 63.3% of the variation in the independent variable and consequently, the hypothesis was accepted. this implies that the changing climatic conditions characterized by frequent dry spells, fluctuations in date of onset and cessation of rains, reduction in rainfall amounts and rising temperatures have led to the pasture degradation and shrinking of water sources. to test whether the overall regression model is a good fit for the data set, the f-ratio in the anova statistics was used. table 3 shows that climate variability statistically predict the degradation of pastoral resources f (1.52) =77.764, p<0.0005.that is the regression model is a good fit of the data. the general form of the equation to predict resource degradation due to climate variability is gotten from the equation climate variability=31.302-(.504*resource degradation). the unstandardized coefficients indicate how much the degradation of agro-pastoral resources vary with climatic anomalies when all other variable are held table 3: anova statistical significance anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig 1 regression 2635.987 1 2635.987 77.7 64 .00 0b residual 17931.768 529 33.897 total 20567.755 530 a. dependent variable: resource degradation b. predictors: (constant): climate variability constant (table 4) table 3 shows that climate variability statistically predict the degradation of pastoral resources f (1.52) =77.764, p<0.0005.that is the regression model is a good fit of the data. the general form of the equation to predict resource degradation due to climate variability is gotten from the equation climate variability=31.302(.504*resource degradation). the unstandardized coefficients indicate how much the degradation of agropastoral resources vary with climatic anomalies when all other variable are held constant (table 4). as shown in table 4 above, the unstandardized coefficient, the impacts of climate variability and change include pasture degradation (15.0%), wilting of crops during dry pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 59-67, 2024 table 4: estimated model coefficients coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. 95.0% confidence interval for b b std. error beta lower bound upper bound 1 (constant) 31.302 1.306 23.976 .000 28.737 33.866 resource degradation .504 .057 .358 8.818 .000 .392 .616 a. dependent variable: climate variability b, for resource degradation is equal to 0.504. this means that for each given change in climatic conditions above or below the normal, there is an increase in the rate of agro-pastoral degradation of 0.504. this shows climate variability is an important factor that plays a central role in resource degradation. given this situation, attempts by cattle herders to feed their animals on farmlands and get other sources of water have led to competition between crop farmers and cattle herders leading to conflicts. climate driven resource based conflicts and manifestations findings revealed that conflicts have become frequent, occurring between crop farmers and pastoralists and between pastoralists themselves. severe conflicts have been frequent in the pastoral zones where animals are permanently present as is the case in the localities of mbankouop kounden, njigoumbe and njitapon. however, the cause may vary but climate remains the indirect cause of conflicts. hr 2: climate variability has a significant influence on agro-pastoral conflicts the second hypothesis was designed to examine if climate variability can determine the occurrence of agropastoral or resource-based conflicts and a summary of results has been presented on table 5. in spss, climate variability was entered to determine table 5: predicting conflict outbreak model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate change statistics durbinwatsonr square change f change df1 df2 sig. f change 1 .736a .542 .540 8.30461 .542 257.66 1 218 .000 2.001 a. predictors: (constant), climate variability b. dependent variable: conflict outbreak agro-pastoral conflicts and the independent variable was able to predict the dependent variable at,r=0.736; r2=0.542; δr2=0.540;p<0.01. it was observed that climatic aberrations are capable of predicting conflicts up to 54.2%. it is evident that the fluctuation in climatic parameters leads to resource degradation and therefore has a significant influence on the outbreak of conflicts. hence, the alternative hypothesis accepted. this further confirms the high relation, r=0.73 and confirming that the model is good fit in predicting conflict outbreak. these conflicts occur at different levels and have different manifestations. conflicts that result from the destruction of crops by animals this is the principal cause of climate-driven conflicts that occur between crop farmers and pastoralists. crop farmers argue that a plant has never travelled to meet the animals but rather, the animals are mobile and stray to crop farms where they cause enormous damage. this is the most frequent type of conflict and presents the highest magnitude in the pastoral zones of mbankouop, njigoumbe and njitapon. as revealed during interviews, 22 conflicts were recorded in 2023. out of this number, 40.9% were recorded in mbankouop, 31.8% in njogoumbe and 27.25 in njitapon. the principal cause is the shortage of pastoral resources generated by climate variability. this explains why they occur mainly during periods of acute pasture shortage. temporally, although they occur throughout the year, the peak periods are the later part of the dry season from late december to early march and the early part of the rainy season from late march to the end of april when pasture is insufficient for the animals. for instance, on the 20th of march 2022, the destruction of crops by cattle led to the burning of residences of the mbororo pastoralists in kounden. according to some interviewees, crop farmers usually have the impression that the mbororos are the ones who direct the animals to their farms and that is why their response is often violent. this has led to several court cases in the area despite measures to ensure a peaceful resolution of conflicts. conflicts over water points water is an important agro-pastoral resource as it is used to irrigate crops and for drinking by cattle. conflicts over water points occur between grazers and herders and between pastoralists themselves. it was revealed pa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 59-67, 2024 that when the dry season becomes prolonged, the volume of water becomes reduced and some rivers dry up completely. during such periods, crop farmers need water to irrigate their vegetable farms while pastoralists need to secure the water for their animals. some crop farmers dredge portions of streams and canalize them to their farms. each time animals pass around these facilities, they destroy them and conflicts arise. on the other side, pastoralists also dredge some spots of streams for their animals. when the crop farmers use water from these points to water their crop farms, conflict arises. such conflicts equally occur between pastoralists who compete over a water point. conflicts during transhumance transhumance is an adaptation strategy adopted by pastoralists to cope with pasture and water shortages in the highlands. this strategy consists of the movement of herdsmen with their animals from the uplands around kounden and the slopes of hills such as nkeugham to lowland pastoral zones of njingoumbe, njitapon, machoutnoun and into river noun valley. according to the agro-pastoral calendar, herdsmen leave from the kounden area on the 23rd of december when the harsh conditions of the dry season cause the pasture to dry off and they move to the lowlands and valleys where pasture is still available. the transhumance zones of njitapon and njigoumbe are found along the bamenjim reservoir. the waters of this reservoir moderate the effect of the dry season such that these areas can maintain much pasture throughout the year. upon arrival, herdsmen guide their animals to farms where maize has just been harvested so that they can eat the corn stalks. they equally deposit their droppings in the farm which adds to the fertility of the soil. the herdsmen construct temporal huts while some have permanent huts where they stay till the 15th of march which marks the end of their transhumance period. in february, the pasture lands are burnt in the area of origin so that with the coming of rains in march, the pasture regenerates. this strategy is repeated every year and remains one of the oldest strategies which have become the tradition of the mbororo pastoralists. however, conflicts occur along transhumance corridors and at destinations. conflicts along transhumance corridors the journey from uplands and mountain slopes to lowlands and river valleys in the middle of december and back to the hills in the middle of march has also been marked by conflicts. this movement called transhumance is a response to pasture scarcity up the slopes. the paths taken during this movement are called transhumance corridor. interviews revealed that as animals move along transhumance corridors, they trample on farms and destroy perennial crops such as cassava, bitter leaves and plantain. in some cases, they push down fences and give the impression that animals are left uncared for. this generates conflicts with the crop farmers. their main transhumance corridors include; mbankouop to njigoumbe, mbankouop to njitapon. mbankouop to machoutnoun and from mbankouop to the noun valley. these transhumance corridors lack basic facilities such as campsites, veterinary posts and water points. in some cases, pastoralists compensate for damages on the way before they finally get to their destination. conflicts in transhumance destinations the transhumance destinations are in the pastoral zones of njigoumbe, njitapon, machoutnoun and parts of kouoptamo, especially along the noun valley and the galim along the slope of mount bamboutos. climate variability is responsible for some of these conflicts because it disrupts the agro-pastoral calendar. the agropastoral code fixes the periods for transhumance, a period during which crops must have been harvested. however, it has been revealed that crops tend to mature late due to delays in rainfall as indicated in the following excerpt “…..in some years, yields of corn were not very good due to rainfall variability. rains started late and corn took a longer time to mature. consequences were enormous; pests and diseases attacked corn and animals arrived at transhumance destinations when parts of the corn were not yet ready for harvest. this led to conflicts as crop farmers resisted the arrival of pastoralists and their herds…” (interview, 2023) apart from seasonal crops, perennial crops remain at risk due to their permanent presence in the farms. these include; cassava, bitter leaf, plantains and sugarcane. sugarcane is mostly dotted in most farms of all the transhumance pastoral zones. in the dry season, sugarcane is the principal source of income for many crop farmers. dry-season vegetables such as huckleberry, garden eggs, tomatoes and other green spices are cultivated during the dry season in irrigated portions along the noun valley and adjacent to the bamenjim reservoir in the njigoumbe and the njitapon area. given that dry season farming is an important source of income for the population, they generally resist the herding of cattle in such areas. generally, these conflicts are not evenly distributed both spatially and temporally. they are concentrated in mixed farming zones, transhumance corridors and transhumance destinations. findings show that kounden, njigoumbe and njitapon where animals are present throughout the year are the high conflict zones. these conflicts have different intensities, depending on the extent of the damage and the actors involved. some conflicts pass unnoticed while some are very violent and even lead to damages which attract the attention of the entire subdivision and the administration. most conflicts within the mbororo pastoralists are mild and in most cases do not go beyond the mbororo community since they are settled by the ardos and the djoros. conflicts between the mbororo pastoralists and crop farmers are generally violent. these conflicts have had some consequences, especially on the mbororo pastoralists. the survey revealed that crop farmers tend to poison pa ge 65 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 59-67, 2024 animals (12%), attack cattle (32%), attack herdsmen (10%), destruction of mbororo huts (17%) and court cases (29%). interviews revealed that these violent reactions towards mbororo pastoralists lie in their inability to cooperate with crop farmers when damages occur. most crop farmers are not able to face the mbororo pastoralists in court cases due to corrupt officials who collect bribes from pastoralists. they also believe that serving a summons letter to the mbororo pastoralists will entail time and cost and might not yield any positive feedback due to administrative bottlenecks. these consequences prompted the ministry of livestock and animal husbandry to put in place an agropastoral commission in charge of settling conflicts. it is headed by the divisional officer, with members being the representative(s) from the ministry of land tenure, agriculture, livestock, the traditional chiefs and two notables, and the ardo to represent the mbororo pastoralists. despite the creation of this commission, mbororo pastoralists still suffer most from the effects of these conflicts. findings revealed that due to conflicts, they lose animals; pay heavy fines, and lose property and life at times. as such, mboscuda (mbororo social and cultural development association) came up with a peaceful conflict resolution platform. this platform plays a mediation role during conflicts within the mbororo themselves and between the pastoralists and crop farmers. many climate-driven conflicts have been settled peacefully through this platform as mboscuda has equally tackled the root cause of these conflicts. in response to climate change, they have put in place an alliance system of farming that permits crop farmers and pastoralists to use the same resources and gain mutual benefits. pastoralists and crop farmers have equally been sensitized and trained on smart agricultural practices such as planting of artificial pasture, water supply schemes in grazing land and the diversification of livelihoods. these options have significantly reduced vulnerabilities to climate change and conflicts. discussions: understanding the nexus this work has revealed that the link between climate variability, resource degradation and farmer-herder conflicts is are inextricable one. firstly climate variability has been ascertained to be one of the greatest challenges affecting the livelihoods of the population in sub-saharan africa but its manifestations may vary from one agroecological zone to the other. the western highlands of cameroon in general and noun division in particular have witnessed climatic variations for the last 4 decades indicated by coefficients of variations above 10%, which is the threshold of variability. climate variability and change are characterized by increasing temperatures, falling rainfall trends, fluctuations in the dates of onset and cessation of rains and a rise in the frequency of extreme weather events such as dry spells and floods. these findings corroborate the works of amani et al. (2010) indicating that since 1970, the length of the rainy season in the tropics has been experiencing a decline, with the number of rainy days of more than 10mm reducing and by frequent high temperatures. according to molua (2010), seasonal fluctuations have been acute because the meeting of southwest monsoon winds and the northeast trade winds creates a zone of instability called the intertropical convergence zone. it shifts northwards in the rainy season and southwards in the dry season depending on the intensity of the respective air masses and this has led to fluctuations in dates of onset and termination of rains. these climatic aberrations have affected the livelihoods of pastoralists and crop farmers negatively. the rate of pasture degradation along slopes and highlands has increased while water scarcity is registered. in relation to this, tikhatri and bhattarai (2023) examined the impacts of climate change on water scarcity and its consequences on the livelihoods of peasants. water is a very important resource for agro-pastoral activities but our findings have revealed that during the seasonal transitional periods, some water sources dry up completely while some shrink drastically. during this same period, food crops are wilting due to water shortages and irrigation becomes practically impossible. inter-seasonal variations and fluctuations in the date of onset and cessation of rains have disrupted the agro-pastoral calendar and the planning of agropastoral activities. on the other hand, lowlands and valleys become zones of attraction as they still contain water and fresh pasture. herders tend to embark on transhumance while crop farmers concentrate on the cultivation of vegetables and other market gardening crops. this is so because climate is the principal regulator of plant productivity and therefore leads to livestock and crop production dynamics within the tropics (ogutu et al., 2007). the influence of climate variability and change on agro-pastoral resources in sub-saharan africa has been examined and critiqued by many authors (mwakaje, 2013; koske, 2014; abugu & anoba, 2015; ntangti et al., 2019; moye et al., 2022) but establishing the nexus between these and agro-pastoral conflicts has been the pivot of this work. conflicts resulting from encroachments of cattle into crop farms and destruction of crops by cattle, competition over water sources, narrowing of transhumance corridors by crop farmers and challenges resulting from the sharing of a common space have led to conflicts. the effects of such conflicts in kouoptamo have gone by court cases, physical attacks to loss of property and life. although these conflicts have been occurring over the past years, their intensity and frequency have increased in recent times (ntangti et al., 2019; mbih, 2020; ehiane & moyo, 2021; moye et al., 2021). most works tackle the immediate conflicts but climate variability and change are the main cause of resource-based agro-pastoral conflicts in the western highlands of cameroon and conflict resolution strategies should integrate climate change adaptation and range governance. pa ge 66 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 59-67, 2024 conclusion the objective of this work was to establish the nexus between climate change, resource degradation and conflicts. using rainfall and temperature data from 19812021, variability was computed and analyzed using the coefficient of variations and the anomaly index. the indicators of climate change include rising temperatures, frequent dry spells, fluctuations in dates of onset and cessation of rains and falling rainfall amounts. their impacts on agro-pastoral resources in kouoptamo include but are not limited to; pasture degradation (15.0%), wilting of crops, water shortages (13.3%), cattle losing weight (12.5%), emergence of pests and diseases (9.17%), cattle encroachment into grazing land (9.17%) and competition over the diminishing resources(7.50%). these have negative consequences on the livelihoods of the population. their coping strategies are not appropriate and have led to the outbreak of conflicts. recent conflicts between crop farmers and pastoralists are said to be climate-driven conflict resolution strategies should be area-specific and climate-responsive. references: abugu, s., & onuba, c. 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(2023). impact of climate change on water security and endorsing importance of rainwater harvesting technology in nepal. american journal of environment and climate, 2(3), 2432. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i3.1643 pa ge 1 pa ge 11 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) environmental impact of poultry waste management practices in jhenaidah, bangladesh bristi devnath1, anwar hossain rana2, a.s.m. mohiuddin3, partha pratim ghosh4, kazi abdus sobur5*, deepanjana sarker1, md. muraduzzaman1, shayed mohaimen1, biplob kumar sarker6 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.3980 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: november 29, 2024 accepted: may 26, 2025 published: august 28, 2025 the poultry industry is one of the major agricultural sector which contributes to the economic development of bangladesh. improper poultry waste management practices causes environmental pollution and also public health hazards. our study assessed the biosecurity measure and poultry waste management practices of 35 poultry farms in jhenaidah sadar upazila, bangladesh. data were collected by the questionnaire from the poultry farmers. our focusing on farmers demographics, farm characteristics, sanitation, and waste disposal practices. the results revealed that most farms were run by middle-aged, educated males. around 77% of the owners lacked formal training on waste management. poultry waste was predominantly disposed of on roadsides (62.85%) or in pits (37.14%). waste was repurposed as manure (45.71%) or fish feed (22.85%) by some, but biosecurity measures remained inadequate. complaints of noise and odour pollution were commonly reported by neighbours. continued mismanagement led to practices of improper disposal, despite sporadic attempts at cleaning and disinfection through methods such as calcium oxide or potassium permanganate. poultry waste can be utilized for composting or for biogas production to support environmental protection and public health. keywords biosecurity, environmental pollution, public health, poultry waste, waste management 1 faculty of veterinary medicine, jashore university of science and technology, jessore-7408, bangladesh 2 department of microbiology, hajee mohammad danesh science and technology university, dinajpur-5200, bangladesh 3 department of pathology, faculty of veterinary animal & biomedical sciences, sylhet agricultural university, sylhet -3100, bangladesh 4 school of engineering technology and applied science (biotechnology), cenetennial college, 755 morningside ave, scarborough, canada 5 department of microbiology & hygiene, faculty of veterinary sciences, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh-2200, bangladesh. 6 department of livestock services (dls), bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: sobur.21110218@bau.edu.bd introduction bangladesh is a country based on agriculture. over half of the population in the country is directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture. those engagement on either through crop, fisheries or livestock farming. the poultry sector plays a vital role in the livestock farming system. it generates fresh animal protein as well as huge employment opportunities (masud et al., 2020; sen et al., 2021; islam et al., 2022). the livestock sub sector accounts for 12% of the total agricultural gdp and supports approximately 20% of rural employment (sobur et al., 2024; pal et al., 2024; islam et al., 2025). poultry sector helps to reduce poverty not only rural areas but also urban areas of bangladesh. meat and egg production meet 68% and 64% of the national demand respectively. poultry meat contributes 37% of the total meat production (rashid et al., 2023). the demand for meat, eggs, and related products has been rising rapidly. it is due to income growth in recent years, population expansion and changing dietary habits of people (hamid et al., 2017). large poultry production produces huge waste. poultry waste management is a big concern in bangladesh nowadays. poultry waste contains all essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, boron, cooper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc. those are widely recognized as an excellent fertilizer (musa et al., 2021; hileman, 1967; stephenson et al., 1990; simpson, 1991; edwards & daniel, 1992). broiler litter consists of manure, bedding material, wasted feed, feathers, and sometimes soil (jacob et al., 1997). globally around 90% of poultry waste is applied as fertilizer on farmland near poultry operations (seidavi et al., 2019). litter from caged layers includes the same components except bedding materials. both wastes effectively used in land for crop production. poultry litter repurposed as fish feed. waste from poultry farms are used as fuel in power generation through biogas production (bhatnagar et al., 2022). improper disposal of poultry waste is increasing the nutrient contaminations of surface waters and also polluting groundwater through infiltration (rashmi et al., 2020). poultry manure, litter, compost and wastewater are often applied to land on a large scale. they are typically not concentrated enough to be considered direct sources of nitrogen and phosphorus pollution (abdullah-al-amin et al., 2009). however, exceptions include areas where manure is stored. mass disposal of dead poultry in landfills following disease outbreaks. excessive nutrient levels from poultry litter in water bodies can lead to accelerated growth of algae or aquatic plants which increased water turbidity and degradation of water quality (weil et al., 1990; edwards & daniel, 1992). salmonellosis, colibacillosis, mycoplasmosis, fowl cholera, infectious bursal disease, and newcastle disease are caused by inadequate management of litter and biosecurity (abid, 2022; islam & dutta, 2021). bangladesh produced yearly around 1,560,000 metric tonnes of waste from poultry farms (miah et al., 2016; arefin et al., 2024). effective poultry waste management pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 11-18, 2025 is critical for protecting the environment. rapid growth of the poultry industry generate large volume of waste is a major challenge if not managed sustainably. addressing these issues requires urgent attention and the adoption of environmentally and economically viable solutions. this can be minimize the adverse impacts of poultry waste on the country’s ecosystems and public health (shamsuddoha, 2011; rahman et al., 2022). bangladesh lacks established protocols for poultry farm waste management and biosecurity. there is an lack of understanding of public health implications. while some studies have explored the effects of improper poultry waste management but none have focused on the region. this study aims to address this gap by assessing the waste management practices, biosecurity measures and associated public health concerns in poultry farms of jhenaidah. it seeks to evaluate available waste management facilities, examine biosecurity practices, and understand the environmental sustainability of these practices. literature review poultry farming in bangladesh poultry farming is a growing sector in bangladesh. it significantly contributing to food security, employment, and economic development (hennessey et al., 2021). poultry sector supports rural and urban livelihoods and addresses protein deficiencies through increased meat and egg production. however, the rapid expansion of poultry farming has amplified concerns over waste management and its impact on the environment and public health (masud et al., 2020; hamid et al., 2017). composition and potential uses of poultry waste poultry waste, including manure, litter, feathers, and wastewater, is a nutrient-rich resource containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (ahmed et al., 2023; sommers and sutton, 1980). it can serve as an organic fertilizer, fish feed or a biofuel for biogas production. studies have highlighted its use in sustainable crop production, making it an asset for agricultural development (jacob et al., 1997; dls, 2000). environmental impacts of improper waste management in bangladesh, untreated poultry waste disposal in open fields or water bodies is common. soil degradation, and water contamination are common impact of uncontrolled disposal. excessive nutrient loads in water bodies cause eutrophication which affecting aquatic ecosystems (arefin et al., 2024; weil et al., 1990). poor waste management results in the emission of greenhouse gases including ammonia and methane (edwards & daniel, 1992). public health concerns improper poultry waste management increases the risk of foodborne illnesses and zoonotic diseases to the exposed people especially farmers. pathogens such as salmonella spp. and escherichia coli can contaminate water sources. newcastle disease and avian influenza pose significant threats to both poultry and human health. limited biosecurity measures in bangladeshi poultry farms exacerbate these risks (al-gheethi et al., 2021; hamid et al., 2017). challenges in waste management small-scale farmers lack awareness, resources and access to technology for sustainable waste disposal. the absence of regulatory frameworks in bangladesh further complicates waste management efforts. unlike developed countries, where stringent guidelines exist, bangladesh lacks comprehensive policies for addressing agricultural waste management (simpson, 1991; magette et al., 1989). potential solutions and recommendations solutions include converting poultry waste into compost and organic fertilizers, and biogas. soil and nutrient testing can optimize the use of poultry waste as a fertilizer, reducing environmental risks. enhancing biosecurity through proper sanitation and training farmers in waste management. public awareness campaigns and government-led initiatives are essential for promoting sustainable practices (hileman, 1967; edwards & daniel, 1992). materials and methods study area this study was carried out in jhenaidah sadar upazila, jhenaidah, bangladesh from january to june 2024. figure 1: map of the study area pa ge 13 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 11-18, 2025 data collection a total of 35 farms, consisting of both layer and broiler operations, were visited. the combined poultry population was approximately 145250, with 36350 layers (25.02%) and 108900 broilers (74.97%). a structured questionnaire-based survey was conducted across 35 small-scale poultry farms through personal interviews with farm owners. data were categorized into demographics, farm characteristics, and water management practices. statistical analysis the collected data were entered into ms excel 2020. various descriptive statistical measures, such as percentage distribution, range, mean, and standard deviation, were calculated on this software. results and discussion this study examined the waste management practices and biosecurity measures of 35 poultry farms in jhenaidah sadar upazila, bangladesh, highlighting the environmental and public health implications. the findings reveal significant gaps in waste management practices and biosecurity protocols, posing risks to both the environment and surrounding communities. demographic characteristics of farm owners the majority of the farmers were male (85.72%, 95% ci: 70.8 94.4). only a small proportion were female (14.28%, 95% ci: 5.6 29.2). which indicating a gender imbalance in poultry farming and waste management participation. in terms of age distribution, most participants were middleaged (31-50 years, 62.86%, 95% ci: 45.5 78.5), followed by older individuals aged above 50 years (20.00%, 95% ci: 9.5 36.1), and younger individuals below 30 years (17.14%, 95% ci: 6.6 33.6) (table 1). regarding educational qualifications, 37.14% (95% ci: 22.2 54.5) of the respondents had secondary education, followed by 25.72% (95% ci: 13.6 42.0) with higher education, 20.00% (95% ci: 9.5 36.1) with primary education, and 17.14% (95% ci: 6.6 33.6) who were graduates (table 1). these findings suggest that many respondents had basic and intermediate level of formal education. on the other hand only small percentage had advanced qualifications. training on waste management was found to be inadequate with only 22.85% (95% ci: 11.3 39.7) of the respondents having received any form of training. while majority (77.15%, 95% ci: 60.3 88.7) had not undergone any formal training (table 1). in comparison, the national literacy rate in bangladesh stands at 77.90% (bbs, 2024). educated farmers are generally more likely to adopt proper waste management practices and demonstrate greater environmental awareness, as they can access information through various media, including books, bulletins, and leaflets. however, only 22.85% of the farmers in the study area had received training on waste management, while 77.15% had not. this highlights a need for expanded training programs. studies, such as akteruzzaman et al. (2009), have shown that trained farmers tend to achieve higher earnings and better outcomes compared to those without training. arefin et al. (2024) reported a similar trend. the study highlighted that a large proportion of poultry farmers lacked formal training in waste management and biosecurity, with only 9% receiving such training. additionally, most farmers lacked proper waste disposal systems, with 69% disposing of litter waste on agricultural land, which poses potential environmental hazards. the study also emphasized that a significant number of farmers (97%) were aware of the environmental and health risks associated with poultry waste, yet proper management practices were not widely implemented. table 1: farm owner’s demographic characteristics of jhenaidah sadar upazilla items category percentage (%) 95% ci gender male 85.72 70.8 94.4 female 14.28 5.6 29.2 age (years) young (<30) 17.14 6.6 33.6 middle (3150) 62.86 45.5 78.5 old (>50) 20.00 9.5 36.1 educational qualification primary 20.00 9.5 36.1 secondary 37.14 22.2 54.5 higher 25.72 13.6 42.0 graduate 17.14 6.6 33.6 waste management training yes 22.85 11.3 39.7 no 77.15 60.3 88.7 poultry farm characteristics the broiler farms were the most prevalent, accounting for 65.71% (95% ci: 48.52 81.90), while layer farms made up 34.28% (95% ci: 18.10 51.47). no breeder farms were recorded in the study. in terms of farm size, medium-sized farms (2-5 acres) were the most common, representing 54.28% (95% ci: 39.7 68.8), followed by small farms (<2 acres) at 37.14% (95% ci: 22.2 54.5). large farms (>5 acres) were the least frequent, comprising only 8.57% (95% ci: 1.5 17.7). regarding flock size, pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 11-18, 2025 farms with large flocks of more than 3,000 birds were the most dominant (45.71%, 95% ci: 31.6 60.8), followed by medium-sized farms with 2,000-3,000 birds (34.28%, 95% ci: 22.2 54.5), and small farms with fewer than 2,000 birds (20.00%, 95% ci: 7.0 33.6). the majority of farms practiced the floor rearing system (71.42%, 95% ci: 54.5 85.4), whereas cage rearing accounted for 22.85% (95% ci: 9.5 36.1), and the shelf system was the least utilized (5.71%, 95% ci: 0.6 18.5) (table 2). shah et al. (2006) noted that many small to medium-sized poultry farms have been losing interest in continuing their businesses, with many exiting the sector due to reliance on brokers and middlemen for operations. between 2011 and 2018, the number of poultry farms in bangladesh decreased from approximately 150,000 to 70,000, representing a significant decline (adam, 2021). simultaneously, the average size of poultry farms has increased, with farms now housing 50,000–100,000 chickens, compared to 5,000–10,000 chickens per farm previously. this shift is attributed primarily to higher interest rates on loans for small and medium-sized farmers compared to the more favourable loan conditions offered to larger farms. compared to arefin et al. (2024), both studies show a strong preference for broiler farming (65.71% vs. 71%) and widespread use of floor rearing (71.42% vs. 74%). medium-sized farms dominate in both, but this study has a higher proportion of large farms (45.71% with >3,000 birds vs. more small farms in arefin et al. (2024). waste management training remains inadequate (22.85% vs. 9%), and traditional disposal methods, like burial and land application, are common. both studies highlight the urgent need for better waste management practices and farmer education. table 2: selected characteristics of poultry farms items category number (n) percentage (%) 95% confidence interval (ci) type of farms broiler 23 65.71 48.52 81.90 layer 12 34.28 18.10 51.47 breeder 00 00.00 n/a farm size (acres) small (<2) 13 37.14 22.2 54.5 medium (2-5) 19 54.28 39.7 68.8 large (>5) 03 08.57 1.5 17.7 flock size small (<2000) 07 20.00 7.0 33.6 medium (2000-3000) 12 34.28 22.2 54.5 large (>3000) 16 45.71 31.6 60.8 rearing system case 08 22.85 9.5 36.1 shelf 02 05.71 0.6 18.5 floor 25 71.42 54.5 85.4 table 3: characteristics of waste management in poultry farms items category no. of farms percentage (%) 95% confidence interval (ci) wastes production/day (kg) <100 06 17.14 6.6 33.6 100 to 200 12 34.28 22.2 54.5 >200 17 48.57 34.2 63.9 time required/ time to clean wastes (min) <30 04 11.43 3.1 23.8 30 to 60 13 37.14 22.2 54.5 >60 18 51.42 35.1 67.7 waste management of poultry farms daily waste or waste in production showed considerable variation, with 17.14% of farms producing less than 100 kg, 34.28% producing between 100 kg and 200 kg, and 48.57% producing more than 200 kg (table 3). this variation in waste production may be influenced by differences in feed intake, water consumption, environmental factors, and the age of the birds. north and bell (1990) suggested that variations in wastes production can be attributed to differences in feed and water consumption, feed composition and form, as well as humidity and temperature. according to 37.14% of farm owners, the time required for cleaning wastes ranged from 30 to 60 minutes or more, while only 11.43% reported needing less than 30 minutes. this variation could be attributed to differences in farm size, flock size, the distance between the shed and disposal site, and labor efficiency. the cost of cleaning waste per day varied between 100 tk and 500 tk. the narrow range of costs might be due to the similarity in labor costs and efficiency in the area. additionally, 91.43% of farm owners reported that the distance between disposal pits and sheds was less than 1 km, while non-indicated that this distance was over 5 km. pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 11-18, 2025 according to table 4, most poultry farms (11.42%) collected waste every three days, while 40.00% collected it weekly or after each batch. a majority of farm owners recognized waste management as an important issue. in bangladesh, waste cleaning is often viewed as a low-prestige and unpleasant task. among the farmers, 62.85% reported dealing with odor problems during waste cleaning, while 37.14% experienced irritation from ammonia gas (nh₃). farms that removed manure more frequently reported fewer odor issues (bell & weaver, 2002). regarding disinfectant use, 8.57% of farmers used detergent, another 8.57% used phenol, 42.85% used potassium permanganate (ppm), 2.86% used a combination of ppm and savlon, 25.71% used bleaching powder, and 11.42% used other unspecified disinfectants. there was no clear preference or recommendation for disinfectants among the farmers. proper disposal of layer waste is critical for both effective management and environmental protection. improper disposal, such as roadside dumping (62.85%) or pit storage (37.14%), can lead to environmental pollution, nutrient loss, and the spread of diseases (hossain et al., 2009). none of the farms used biogas plants for waste disposal. manure storage in pits presents further risks, with 34.28% of pits located on high ground and 65.71% on low land. pits situated on low land are more susceptible to rainwater runoff, increasing the risk of environmental contamination (alam et al., 2005). improper management of these pits can lead to nitrate leaching into groundwater, phosphorus runoff into surface water, and pathogen release (hossain et al., 2009). regarding waste trade, 77.14% of farm owners sold their poultry waste, most commonly as manure, suggesting that some farmers view it as a simple and beneficial practice. alam et al. (2005) noted that poultry waste can be used for composting, as organic fertilizer, fish feed, or even as fuel. sarker et al. (2009) similarly reported that waste could be sold, used for fish feed, or contribute to crop production. the department of livestock services (dls, 2008) also recognizes poultry waste as a potential source of cattle feed and biofuel. among those purchasing the waste, 22.85% were involved in fish farming, 45.71% were crop farmers, and 31.42% engaged in both crop and fish farming. cost to clean wastes/day (tk.) <100 09 25.71 11.3 39.7 100 to 500 15 42.85 27.2 58.5 >500 11 31.42 17.3 46.5 distance between disposal pit and shed (km) <1 32 91.43 80.3 98.7 1 to 5 03 08.57 1.3 19.7 >5 00 00 table 4: characteristics of waste management in poultry farms (continued) items category number percentage (%) 95% confidence interval (ci) frequency of wastes collection 1-2 days interval 12 34.28 22.2 54.5 3 days interval 04 11.42 3.1 23.8 1 week interval 05 14.28 6.6 33.6 after the batch (broiler) 14 40.00 27.2 58.5 odor problem during cleaning yes 22 62.85 48.5 76.2 no 13 37.14 23.8 51.5 use of disinfectant detergent 03 08.57 0.6 18.5 potassium permanganate + water 15 42.85 27.2 58.5 permanganate + savlon 01 02.86 0.1 13.0 bleaching powder 09 25.71 13.6 42.0 phenol 03 08.57 0.6 18.5 others 04 11.42 3.3 22.5 site of disposal selective pit 13 37.14 22.2 54.5 roadside 22 62.85 45.5 78.5 biogas plant 00 00 site of pit high land 12 34.28 22.2 54.5 low land 23 65.71 50.4 80.9 use of wastes sale 27 77.14 60.3 88.7 not sale 08 22.85 11.3 39.7 pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 11-18, 2025 according to table 4, 40% of farmers disposed of dead birds in designated pits, while 60% disposed of them on the roadside, and surprisingly, none used governmentprovided dustbins for disposal. additionally, 08.71% of farmers stated that the disposal pit was located inside their farm. around 91.43% reported it being outside. moreover, 25.71% of farmers mentioned they had no complaints from neighbors regarding waste management. whereas the remaining 74.28% faced complaints. table 4 also shows that 31.43% of farmers believed that poultry wastes do not cause environmental pollution, while 68.57% considered them a pollutant. hossain et al. (2009) and griffiths (2004) highlighted that improper handling of waste can contribute to environmental pollution. poultry wastes represent the largest waste issue, with problems arising from disposal, odors, and pollution of soil, water, and air (sims and wolf, 1994; henuk, 2001; bell, 2002). proper disposal of dead birds is an essential component of structural biosecurity (aziz et al., 2009). in efforts to minimize environmental pollution, 37.14% of farmers regularly cleaned their farms, 17.14% spread cao (lime), and 45.71% took no action. proper poultry waste management is critical in protecting the environment from pollution (hossain et al., 2009). conclusions the findings of this study highlight significant gaps in poultry waste management and biosecurity practices in jhenaidah, bangladesh. improper waste disposal methods lead to contamination of water sources, soil degradation, and the spread of poultry diseases. the lack of awareness and training among farm owners, inadequate biosecurity measures exacerbates the risks associated with poultry farming. however, there are opportunities to improve waste management through the adoption of sustainable practices. the study underscores the need for government intervention, farmer education and the development of standardized waste management protocols. by improving waste disposal practices and promoting biosecurity measures, the poultry sector can mitigate its environmental impact, reduce public health risks and contribute to the sustainable development of bangladesh’s agricultural economy. author’s contribution conceptualization, data curation, investigation, and writing original draft: bristi devnath; data analysis and writing the manuscript: anwar hossain rana and a.s.m. mohiuddin; data collection and methodology: deepanjana sarker, md. muraduzzaman and shayed mohaimen; visualization and review: partha pratim ghosh; preparation of final manuscripts, formal analysis, review and editing: kazi abdus sobur; supervision of the study: biplob kumar sarker references abdullah-al-amin, m., rahman, m. s., howlider, m. a. r., & ahmmed, m. m. 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(1990). nutrient losses from land-applied poultry waste. journal of environmental quality, 19(1), 55-60. pa ge 1 pa ge 10 0 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) drinking water quality, usage practices, and waterborne disease incidence in barangay napsan, puerto princesa city, philippines princes eunice denosta1* volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.4723 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: march 12, 2025 accepted: april 17, 2025 published: november 10, 2025 this study investigates the quality of drinking water, water usage practices, and the incidence of waterborne diseases in barangay napsan, puerto princesa city, philippines, focusing on three representative sitios: labtay, manudoc, and sto. niño. microbiological analysis of water sources, including groundwater and spring water, revealed that all six water sources were non-compliant with the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw 2017). high concentrations of total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and escherichia coli (e. coli) were detected, indicating significant microbial contamination. water usage practices, particularly in agricultural, domestic, and sanitary activities, were found to heavily depend on untreated water sources, thus exacerbating the risk of contamination. in particular, agricultural practices contribute to water quality degradation through the runoff of fertilizers, pesticides, and organic waste, further increasing the potential for microbiological contamination. survey results also indicated a notable incidence of waterborne diseases, particularly gastrointestinal illnesses such as diarrhea, with a marked increase during the wet season. these findings emphasize the interconnectedness of poor water quality, inadequate sanitation infrastructure, and the incidence of waterborne diseases in rural communities. the study highlights the urgent need for comprehensive interventions, including community-based water safety education. such strategies are essential to mitigate the health risks associated with contaminated water sources and to promote improved public health outcomes in rural areas like barangay napsan. keywords drinking water quality, microbial contamination, rural public health, water usage practices, waterborne diseases 1 palawan state university graduate school, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: pedenosta@gmail.com introduction in recent years, many developing countries, including the philippines, have prioritized reducing waterborne diseases and improving access to safe drinking water as critical public health goals. although significant progress has been made, particularly in urban areas, rural and remote communities continue to face challenges in securing potable water. exposure to contaminated water remains a significant risk factor for waterborne diseases, particularly in underserved regions (who, 2024). access to safe drinking water is a fundamental human right and a crucial component of sustainable development. however, in many rural areas of the philippines, including barangay napsan, puerto princesa city, clean water remains scarce. barangay napsan consists of nine sitios: cabuyao, kabuldungan, labtay, maambeng, mabuhay, manudoc, pag-asa, pagkakaisa, and sto. niño. among these, only maambeng and pagkakaisa receive potable water from the puerto princesa city water district (ppcwd), leaving the rest of the community reliant on untreated water sources. the lack of potable water has resulted in serious public health concerns. in 2023, the puerto princesa city government recorded 308 cases of waterborne diseases primarily gastrointestinal illnesses in barangay napsan, marking a threeto fourfoldthree-to-fourfold increase from previous years. as of april 2024, an additional 68 cases had already been reported, with projections indicating further increases. this study aims to identify the drinking water sources commonly used in selected sitios and assess their microbiological quality. additionally, it evaluates community practices related to water use, sanitation, and agriculture to determine potential contributors to waterborne disease incidence. the study also investigates the incidence of waterborne diseases within the community, based on self-recorded data. the findings will provide insights to support water resource management strategies and inform potential interventions to enhance drinking water safety and reduce waterborne disease incidence in barangay napsan. literature review sustainable development goals the united nations adopted the 2030 agenda for sustainable development in 2015, establishing 17 sustainable development goals (sdgs) aimed at eliminating poverty, protecting the environment, and promoting inclusive economic growth (united nations, 2024). among these, sdg 6: clean water and sanitation focuses on ensuring access to safe water and sanitation. however, as of 2022, 2.2 billion people still lack safely managed drinking water, while 3.5 billion lack adequate sanitation, with climate change worsening water scarcity (united nations, 2024). global progress on sdg 6 remains slow. from 2015 to 2022, the proportion of people with access to safely managed drinking water rose from 69% to 73%, while pa ge 10 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 sanitation access increased from 49% to 57%. despite a 19% improvement in water-use efficiency (target 6.4), many regions still experience severe water stress. meanwhile, wastewater treatment (target 6.3) improved to 76%, yet pollution continues to degrade water quality. efforts in integrated water resource management (target 6.5) remain insufficient, with only 43 out of 153 countries having operational transboundary agreements (united nations, 2022). in the philippines, progress toward sdg 6 is notable but requires acceleration. access to basic drinking water (target 6.1) improved from 90.8% in 2017 to 96.3% in 2022, while sanitation access (target 6.2) increased from 73.7% to 84.0% (psa, 2023). water quality (target 6.3) improved, with monitored water bodies meeting biochemical oxygen demand (bod) standards rising from 37.0% to 70.0%. freshwater withdrawals (target 6.4) declined, while water-use efficiency increased. the implementation of integrated water resource management (target 6.5) advanced, with river basin master plans updated for 48.6% of major basins (psa, 2023). despite these gains, challenges persist, particularly in water-stressed regions and underserved communities, including rural barangays like napsan in puerto princesa. strengthening national policies, increasing investments, and enhancing local implementation efforts will be critical to achieving sdg 6 by 2030. water drinking sources water is essential for daily life, yet only 0.3% of global water resources are usable (kilic, 2020). it supports food production, ecosystems, and various human activities, with major consumption in agriculture, industry, and energy production (cdc, 2024). the philippines has abundant water resources, comprising 421 river basins, 72 lakes, and extensive groundwater reserves (fao, 2010). palawan, the country’s largest province, hosts numerous water bodies, including 15 lakes, 72 springs, and 165 creeks (palawan philippines, 2024). puerto princesa city, with 115,610 hectares of watershed areas, has five major river basins and six medium-sized ones. the irawan watershed, though covering only 3% of the total catchment area, serves as the city’s primary water source. barangay napsan, a remote coastal community, relies on surface water, deep wells, and rainwater harvesting for drinking and domestic use. however, seasonal changes, watershed integrity, and the absence of centralized water treatment pose risks to water safety. given these challenges, regular water quality assessments are essential to ensure the provision of safe and potable water. water quality and water quality standards water quality refers to the suitability of water for various uses, determined by physical, chemical, and biological characteristics (bartram & ballance, 2024). drinking water must meet strict limits on toxic substances, while water supporting aquatic life requires appropriate temperature and ph levels. natural factors such as geology, hydrology, and climate significantly influence water quality, particularly in regions where water resources are scarce (bartram & ballance, 2024). water quality standards establish guidelines to protect designated water uses. the world health organization (who, 2011) emphasizes that drinking water quality is crucial for preventing waterborne diseases. in the philippines, the department of health (doh) developed the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw), last updated in 2017, to ensure safe drinking water. the pnsdw categorizes water quality parameters into mandatory, primary, and secondary groups. the ten mandatory parameters, including e. coli, arsenic, lead, nitrate, and ph, must be tested nationwide. fifty-five primary parameters address site-specific risks, while eleven secondary parameters focus on aesthetic quality and operational aspects. the updated pnsdw also includes provisions for reporting, emergency drinkingwater parameters, and sustainable development goal (sdg) standards (lomboy et al., 2017). these updates enhance monitoring and ensure the continued safety of drinking water in the country. water analysis and public health understanding the factors influencing drinking water quality is essential for effective water management and public health protection. water quality is affected by the source of water, treatment processes, distribution systems, and storage materials (sheili et al., 2015). in rural areas, communities often rely on untreated wells, rivers, or lakes, increasing the risk of contamination. monitoring water quality is crucial to ensuring safety and preventing waterborne diseases. reliable water analysis methods are necessary for informed decision-making and sustainable management. several studies have assessed water quality and its relationship to health. cayabo et al. (2021) analyzed surface water samples in bacuit bay, revealing high coliform contamination in 2018, with nine out of 11 stations exceeding acceptable levels. pathogenic bacteria, including escherichia coli, klebsiella pneumoniae, and vibrio cholerae, were also detected. similarly, consad (2016) assessed water sources and home-based treatment in community-based sustainable tourism (cbst) sites in puerto princesa. water tests showed high total and fecal coliform levels, with contaminants exceeding philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw). while biosand filtration was practiced in some areas, many residents lacked effective water treatment, leading to health risks. for barangay napsan, preliminary studies have reported similar challenges, with households depending on untreated surface and groundwater sources. waterborne disease incidence, particularly cases of diarrhea and gastrointestinal infections, has been noted in community health records (puerto princesa city health office, pa ge 10 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 2024). strengthening community-based water treatment initiatives and infrastructure investment is critical to improving public health outcomes. the literature underscores the importance of safe drinking water in achieving sdg 6, maintaining public health, and supporting economic development. while significant progress has been made in the philippines, rural areas like barangay napsan still face challenges in water quality and accessibility. strengthening monitoring efforts, implementing localized treatment solutions, and considering economic valuation approaches will be vital in addressing these gaps and ensuring long-term water security in the community. community water usage practices and water quality water usage practices in communities play a vital role in determining the overall quality of drinking water, which can directly impact public health. in rural settings like barangay napsan, puerto princesa city, water is used for various purposes, including agricultural, sanitary, and domestic activities. each of these categories of water use has distinct implications for water quality, which in turn affects the incidence of waterborne diseases. agricultural practices are a major component of water use in rural communities. water used for irrigation and livestock often comes from surface water sources like rivers, lakes, and springs, which are susceptible to contamination from agricultural runoff. studies have shown that improper irrigation methods, such as flood irrigation, can contribute to the contamination of water by fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides (barrett et al., 2015). these contaminants, if not properly managed, can lead to the deterioration of water quality in nearby water sources. in barangay napsan, where agriculture is an important livelihood activity, runoff from agricultural fields may carry harmful chemicals and pathogens into local water bodies, potentially impacting the safety of drinking water. sanitation practices, including wastewater disposal and sewage systems, significantly affect water quality. in many rural areas, where centralized wastewater treatment systems are not available, improper sanitation practices—such as open defecation, inadequate septic systems, or unregulated waste disposal—can lead to direct contamination of surface and groundwater sources. according to fattal et al. (2017), contamination from fecal matter is a leading cause of waterborne diseases, including cholera and dysentery. in barangay napsan, communities that lack proper sanitation infrastructure may experience higher levels of fecal contamination in their water sources, which could increase the prevalence of waterborne diseases. furthermore, untreated wastewater can introduce harmful pathogens such as escherichia coli and salmonella into drinking water, posing significant health risks. domestic water use refers to the water consumed for daily household activities such as drinking, cooking, bathing, and cleaning. in many rural communities like barangay napsan, residents rely on untreated water from rivers, wells, and other natural sources. while these water sources are essential for survival, they are often vulnerable to contamination from surrounding activities, including agriculture and sanitation practices. the lack of access to treated water and reliable filtration systems means that waterborne diseases, including diarrhea and gastrointestinal infections, remain a persistent problem in these communities (zhang et al., 2019). in barangay napsan, the use of untreated water in households is a major concern for water quality and public health. research has shown that untreated water, particularly when stored improperly or exposed to contamination sources, may harbor harmful microorganisms and chemicals that pose health risks (he et al., 2020). in areas where water treatment methods are limited, the risk of contamination is heightened, and the community’s exposure to unsafe drinking water increases. in some cases, households use simple filtration methods like biosand filters, which can be effective in improving water quality, but these systems often require regular maintenance and may not eliminate all contaminants (consad, 2016). water usage practices in agricultural, sanitary, and domestic contexts significantly influence water quality in barangay napsan. agricultural runoff, inadequate sanitation systems, and reliance on untreated water sources all contribute to the degradation of water quality, leading to increased risks of waterborne diseases. addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach, including improved water treatment technologies, better sanitation infrastructure, and sustainable agricultural practices. understanding the relationship between water usage practices and water quality is crucial for developing effective water management strategies that can enhance public health and ensure access to safe drinking water in barangay napsan. materials and methods research area the study was conducted in barangay napsan, puerto princesa city, the largest city in the philippines by land area, covering 253,982 hectares in the mimaropa region. despite being a highly urbanized city, only 5.79% (14,716 ha) of its land is designated for urban barangays, while 94.21% (239,266 ha) consists of rural areas. the city comprises 66 barangays, with 35 classified as urban— including san jose, san pedro, and tiniguiban—and 31 as rural, such as bagong bayan, simpocan, and napsan. barangay napsan is located at approximately 9.7179°n, 118.4591°e, with an elevation of 28.3 meters (92.8 feet) above sea level. as of 2024, it had a population of 3,277 distributed across 927 households, according to the barangay napsan health worker census. along with bahile, bacungan, langogan, cabayugan, marufinas, and binduyan, napsan is among the largest flatland areas in puerto princesa, with a slope range of 0–3%. it is bordered by the barangays of bagong bayan and montible within puerto princesa and by aporawan and sagpangan in aborlan, palawan. pa ge 10 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 this study focused on three selected sitios in napsan: sitio labtay, sitio manudoc, and sitio sto. niño. these areas are not serviced by the puerto princesa city water district (ppcwd), leaving residents dependent on alternative water sources. the sitios are inhabited by both indigenous peoples (ip), particularly the tagbanua tribe, and non-indigenous groups. the study focused on three (3) selected sitios in barangay napsan, puerto princesa city, palawan, chosen for its limited access to water treatment facilities, high population, and site location. the target sites for water sampling stations were selected based on the following criteria: 1) presence of a local community; 2) serving as a source of drinking water and domestic use; 3) located within the community’s vicinity. a total of six (6) identified drinking water sources, with two sources per sitio subjected to microbiological assessment. sampling was conducted between 08:00 am and 12:00 pm. for microbiological analysis, a 350 ml water sample was collected in duplicate through direct scooping. the samples were obtained from a depth of approximately one foot below the water surface, transferred into sterilized bottles, and immediately stored in a cooler to maintain sample integrity. the samples were then transported to the department of science and technology–mindoro, marinduque, romblon, and palawan regional standards and testing laboratory (dost-mimaropa rstl) in puerto princesa city, with a holding time of 4 to 7 hours before analysis. microbiological assessment was performed using the multiple-tube fermentation technique to estimate the densities of fecal coliforms, escherichia coli (e. coli), and total coliforms, expressed in most probable number (mpn) per 100 ml. additionally, the pour plate method was employed to determine the heterotrophic plate count (hpc). the results were subsequently compared against the threshold values established by the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw) 2017 to evaluate compliance with national water quality standards. survey interviews the study used purposive sampling to select respondents based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. vulnerable groups, including pregnant women, persons with disabilities, minors, and the elderly, were excluded. indigenous peoples (ips) could participate voluntarily, with the assurance that their indigenous knowledge systems and practices (iksp) would not be involved or influenced by the study. a total of 105 household heads were interviewed, 35 each sitios. only household heads aged 18 and above, who had resided in the area for at least one year, and were primary consumers of local water sources, were included. the study utilized custom-designed questionnaires to gather data on water usage practices (agricultural, domestic, sanitary) and health-related issues associated with drinking water contamination. the instrument consisted of closedended questions to facilitate quantitative analysis and capture diverse respondent perspectives. the questionnaire prioritized clarity, fairness, and unbiased language, with pilot testing and expert validation to ensure the reliability and validity of the data. additionally, the researcher secured ethical clearance from the palawan state university research ethics committee prior to conducting the study. figure 1: base map of barangay napsan, puerto princesa city and nearby areas pa ge 10 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 statistical analysis data collected from water sampling and survey interviews were analyzed as follows. for the water sampling data, microbiological parameters such as fecal coliforms, escherichia coli (e. coli), total coliforms, and heterotrophic plate count (hpc) values were quantified using the most probable number (mpn) per 100 ml. descriptive statistics were applied to summarize the water quality levels for each parameter across different sites. the results were compared with the threshold values established by the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw 2017) to assess compliance with national water quality standards. for the survey interview data, descriptive statistics, including frequency distributions, percentages, and measures of central tendency (mean, median), were used to summarize water usage practices and health-related issues associated with drinking water contamination. results and discussion access to safe drinking water is a critical determinant of public health, especially in rural areas where waterborne diseases are prevalent due to inadequate sanitation and water treatment infrastructure. barangay napsan in puerto princesa city, palawan, is an underserved area that relies on local water sources such as groundwater and spring water, which are often contaminated. this study assessed the microbiological quality of drinking water in three selected sitios—labtay, manudoc, and sto. niño—and investigated the incidence of waterborne diseases in the community. by analyzing the water quality and its associated health risks, this research provides valuable insights into the current state of water resources and public health in barangay napsan, with the goal of informing water management strategies and improving health outcomes for its residents. the microbiological quality of drinking water sources in barangay napsan reveals concerning results regarding water safety. as presented in table 1., all six water sources, regardless of the type (groundwater or spring water), failed to meet the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw 2017), particularly concerning total coliforms, thermotolerant (fecal) coliforms, and e. coli levels. these indicators are essential for assessing the safety of drinking water and are directly linked to the potential for waterborne diseases. source a and source b, both located in sitio manudoc, table 1: microbiological quality status of drinking water sources in three (3) selected sitios of barangay napsan, puerto princesa city, philippines water sources heterotrophic plate count, cfu/ml total coliform, mpn/100 ml thermotolerant (fecal) coliform, mpn/100 ml e.coli mpn/100 ml overall status source a – ground water (sitio manudoc) 410 >8.0 >8.0 4.6 failed source b – spring water (sitio manudoc) 66 >8.0 >8.0 >8.0 failed source c – spring water (sitio labtay) 960 >8.0 >8.0 >8.0 failed source d – ground water (sitio labtay) 78 >8.0 8.0 <1.1 failed source e – ground water (sitio sto. niño) 32 >8.0 2.6 <1.1 failed source f – ground water (sitio sto. niño) 570 >8.0 <1.1 <1.1 failed standard value: philippine national standards for drinking water 2017 <500 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 passed pa ge 10 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 contamination of these water sources, likely originating from human or animal waste, highlighting a major public health concern. similarly, source c and source d in sitio labtay, and source e and source f in sitio sto. niño, all exhibited contamination levels above acceptable limits. for instance, source c had a heterotrophic plate count (hpc) as high as 960 cfu/ml, further emphasizing the severity of microbial contamination. these results underscore the lack of effective water treatment processes and proper sanitation systems in the studied sitios. the failure of these water sources to meet national water quality standards suggests that waterborne diseases, such as diarrhea and other gastrointestinal diseases, could be prevalent in these areas, especially during the rainy season when contamination risks are heightened. this is consistent with findings from similar studies, which have shown that water sources in rural and peri-urban areas in developing countries often exceed microbiological contamination limits due to inadequate sanitation practices and lack of access to potable water treatment. a systematic review by cronk and bartram (2018) titled fecal contamination of drinking-water in lowand middle-income countries: a systematic review and metaanalysis discusses the prevalence of fecal contamination in drinking water sources and its association with health risks in developing countries. additionally, a study by clasen et al. (2015) titled household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use examines how water quality declines after collection, highlighting the impact of sanitation practices on water safety. the widespread contamination across all the water sources in barangay napsan further highlights the need for urgent interventions to improve water quality, including the installation of proper filtration and disinfection systems, as well as the enforcement of sanitation policies. figure 2: main drinking water sources of households in selected sitio labtay the primary drinking water sources in sitio labtay are groundwater and spring water, both of which are frequently used by the households in the area (figure 2.). water quality testing for these sources revealed concerning results, with all tested sources exceeding the allowable limits for microbial contaminants as per the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw 2017). the heterotrophic plate count (hpc) values for water samples from both the groundwater and spring sources were found to be significantly high, particularly from source c (960 cfu/ml), indicating microbial contamination (table 1.). similarly, both total coliform and fecal coliforms exceeded the standard thresholds of <1.1 mpn/100 ml, marking the sources as unsafe for consumption. these findings align with those of aquino et al. (2020), who observed that rural water sources in the philippines often failed to meet the national drinking water standards, resulting in public health risks. table 2: household’s self-reported waterborne diseases in barangay napsan, puerto princesa city (n=30) waterborne diseases frequency of households reporting (n=30) percentage of total (%) frequency of occurrence (per year) seasonality (wet/ dry) diarrhea 11 93.33% 1-3 times wet season: 30.00%, dry season: 6.67% cholera 0 0.00% n/a n/a dysentery 0 0.00% n/a n/a typhoid fever 0 0.00% n/a n/a pa ge 10 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 in terms of health, households in sitio labtay reported a high incidence of waterborne diseases, with diarrhea being the most common illness (93.33% of affected households, table 2). this trend is consistent with studies by dela cruz et al. (2018), who found a significant correlation between microbial contamination in drinking water and the prevalence of gastrointestinal diseases in rural filipino communities. notably, diarrhea was more prevalent during the wet season, which may be linked to increased runoff and contamination of surface water sources (bautista et al., 2021). the data from sitio labtay illustrates the critical challenges faced by households in the area. groundwater and spring water, which serve as primary drinking sources, were found to exceed the microbiological limits set by the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw 2017). the high heterotrophic plate count (hpc) values and elevated levels of total coliform and fecal coliforms from these sources (table 1) confirm the unsafe water quality, which is consistent with aquino et al. (2020) and other studies on rural water contamination in the philippines. the widespread prevalence of diarrhea, particularly during the wet season (93.33% of affected households), further highlights the direct impact of poor water quality on public health. this seasonal variability in disease occurrence, likely linked to increased runoff during the wet season, mirrors findings from bautista et al. (2021), underscoring the seasonal exacerbation of waterborne diseases in rural communities. hepatitis a 0 0.00% n/a n/a others 0 0.00% n/a n/a total affected household 11 36.67 % figure 3: main drinking water sources of households in sitio manudoc in sitio manudoc, the primary drinking water sources are groundwater and spring water (figure 3). microbiological testing revealed high contamination levels, with source a (groundwater) showing a heterotrophic plate count (hpc) value of 410 cfu/ml and source b (spring water) exhibiting particularly alarming results of >8.0 mpn/100 ml for both total coliform and fecal coliforms (table 1). the presence of escherichia coli (e. coli) in both sources further indicates potential fecal contamination, rendering these water sources unsuitable for drinking. this finding aligns with research highlighting the risks associated with untreated water sources in the philippines. for instance, a study by onichandran et al. (2014) investigated waterborne parasites in various water sources across the philippines, detecting pathogens such as cryptosporidium spp., giardia spp., acanthamoeba spp., and naegleria spp. in samples from rivers, ponds, and other sources. the study emphasized the need for improved water quality monitoring and sanitation practices to mitigate health risks associated with waterborne pathogens. table 3: household’s self-reported waterborne diseases in barangay napsan, puerto princesa city (n=30) waterborne diseases frequency of households reporting (n=30) percentage of total (%) frequency of occurrence (per year) seasonality (wet/ dry) diarrhea 7 23.33% 1-3 times wet season: 16.67%, dry season: 6.67% cholera 0 0.00% n/a n/a pa ge 10 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 in sitio manudoc, 30% of households reported cases of diarrhea (table 3). similar to sitio labtay, the incidence of diarrhea increased during the wet season, likely due to heightened runoff and contamination of surface water sources. these observations align with studies highlighting seasonal variations in water quality and their impact on public health. for example, research on the gudlavalleru engineering college pond in andhra pradesh, india, examined the seasonal variations in physicochemical parameters and their effects on water quality. the study found significant differences in parameters such as temperature, ph, and dissolved oxygen between summer and winter seasons, which can influence the overall health of aquatic ecosystems. in sitio sto. niño, the primary drinking water sources figure 4: main drinking water sources of households in sitio sto. niño table 4: household’s self-reported waterborne diseases in barangay napsan, puerto princesa city (n=30) waterborne diseases frequency of households reporting (n=30) percentage of total (%) frequency of occurrence (per year) seasonality (wet/ dry) diarrhea 9 30.00% 1-3 times wet season: 30.00%, dry season: 0.00% cholera 0 0.00% n/a n/a dysentery 0 0.00% n/a n/a typhoid fever 0 0.00% n/a n/a hepatitis a 0 0.00% n/a n/a others 0 0.00% n/a n/a total affected household 30.00% dysentery 0 0.00% n/a n/a typhoid fever 0 0.00% n/a n/a hepatitis a 0 0.00% n/a n/a others 2 6.67% once wet season: 0.00%, dry season: 6.67% total affected household 9 30.00% are groundwater (sources e and f). microbiological testing revealed high contamination levels, with source e showing a heterotrophic plate count (hpc) value of 32 cfu/ml and source f exhibiting 570 cfu/ml (table 1). both sources failed to meet the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw) for total coliform and fecal coliforms, highlighting the widespread issue of microbial contamination in rural drinking water sources. the detection of escherichia coli (e. coli) in these sources further confirms fecal contamination, consistent with findings from previous studies in the philippines. health-wise, diarrhea was again the most commonly pa ge 10 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 reported waterborne disease in sitio sto. niño, with 30% of households affected (table 3.3). the seasonality of diarrhea in this sitio also followed a similar pattern to the other two sitios, with a notable increase in the wet season. this is consistent with the results of a study by diaz et al. (2022), which indicated that seasonal factors like rainfall significantly influence the contamination levels of water sources and, in turn, the prevalence of waterborne diseases. given the high reliance on these water sources for agricultural, domestic, and sanitary practices, as shown in table 2, the contamination issue becomes even more critical. in barangay napsan, the majority of households engage in agricultural activities, with sitio sto. niño having the highest participation at 96.67%. as water is integral to both farming and basic domestic needs, ensuring that water used for these activities is safe is essential not only for health but also for food security. however, as indicated in the table, the contamination risks posed by agricultural runoff, coupled with the failure of water sources to meet safety standards, exacerbate the already dire situation. table 5: percentage of households engaged in agricultural, domestic, and sanitary water practices by selected sitios in barangay napsan name of sitios agricultural practices (%) domestic practices (%) sanitary practices (%) sitio labtay 56.67 % 100.00 % 100.00 % sitio manudoc 86.67 % 100.00 % 100.00 % sitio sto. niño 96.67 % 100.00 % 100.00 % mean 80.00 100.00 % 100.00 % water-intensive activities, particularly agriculture, can significantly affect water quality through the runoff of fertilizers, pesticides, and waste products, further compounding the microbiological contamination of the water sources (liu et al., 2020). this is especially concerning in areas like barangay napsan, where the contamination of water sources for both drinking and agricultural use is widespread. the heavy reliance on potentially contaminated water in these regions increases the risk of waterborne diseases and compromises the health and well-being of the population. in light of the findings from the three sitios in barangay napsan, it becomes evident that a multifaceted approach—integrating both water quality improvement and community-level practices—is paramount to mitigating the public health risks associated with contaminated drinking water. the pervasive microbial contamination across all sites—labtay, manudoc, and sto. niño—necessitates urgent intervention to safeguard public health. as underscored by mertens and de vos (2019), enhancing the safety of water sources is fundamental for both domestic and agricultural purposes. strengthening water treatment infrastructure, coupled with the implementation of comprehensive sanitation measures, will be crucial in reducing contamination levels and mitigating the public health risks posed by waterborne diseases, particularly diarrheal diseases. the findings from all three sitios labtay, manudoc, and sto. niño clearly illustrate a failure to meet the microbiological criteria set forth by the philippine national standards for drinking water (pnsdw 2017). elevated levels of fecal coliforms, total coliforms, and e. coli across all water sources underscore the critical need for enhanced water treatment protocols. these results align with existing literature on rural water quality issues in the philippines, as documented by bautista et al. (2021) and cordova et al. (2018), which highlight the vulnerability of rural communities dependent on untreated natural water sources. this failure to meet water quality standards underscores the necessity for urgent infrastructural improvements to mitigate public health risks. furthermore, the strong correlation observed between poor water quality and the incidence of waterborne diseases, particularly diarrhea, is consistent with previous studies that have established a direct link between contaminated water and gastrointestinal illnesses in rural populations (santos et al., 2019). the seasonal variation in disease incidence further amplifies the role of environmental factors in shaping the epidemiology of waterborne diseases, as noted by dela cruz et al. (2018) and tan et al. (2020). this seasonal fluctuation highlights the need for dynamic, context-specific strategies to address the impacts of environmental variables on water safety and public health outcomes. to mitigate these risks, it is imperative to implement robust water treatment solutions, such as chlorination, filtration, and consistent water quality monitoring, alongside improving sanitation infrastructure. moreover, community engagement through educational initiatives on safe water handling and hygiene practices is essential to further reduce the transmission of waterborne pathogens. given the persistent and widespread nature of water contamination in rural communities, there is an urgent need for both governmental and non-governmental organizations to prioritize investments in rural water infrastructure and sanitation programs. such efforts are crucial in providing sustainable, long-term solutions to improve water quality and public health, particularly in areas like barangay napsan, where access to safe drinking water remains a critical challenge. this approach not only emphasizes the need for infrastructural upgrades but also advocates for a holistic, community-driven strategy to tackle the persistent water quality issues that continue to affect rural populations in the philippines. pa ge 10 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 100-110, 2025 conclusion this study highlights serious public health risks associated with unsafe drinking water in barangay napsan, puerto princesa city. all six water sources tested failed to meet the microbiological standards set by the pnsdw (2017), showing high levels of total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and e. coli. these contaminants likely stem from human and animal waste, particularly affecting groundwater and spring water sources used by households. the high incidence of diarrhea, especially during the wet season, aligns with microbial contamination levels, confirming a direct link between poor water quality and waterborne diseases. the findings underscore the urgent need for improved water treatment infrastructure, regular water quality monitoring, and better sanitation practices. community education on safe water handling and hygiene is also crucial in reducing health risks. addressing these concerns through coordinated infrastructural, policy, and community-driven actions is essential to protect public health and ensure access to safe drinking water in rural areas like barangay napsan. references aquino, m. c., reyes, a. g., & santos, f. r. (2023). the case of basco, batanes, philippines. science and engineering journal, 16(supplement), 49–57. https:// www.studocu.com/ph/document/jose-r izaluniversity/governance/sci-engg-j-2023-special-issue49-57-aquino-et-al/92691189 aquino, a. j., tan, a. r., & lopez, m. t. (2020). water quality and public health: a study of rural water sources in the philippines. asian journal of environmental sciences, 12(4), 56-64. https://doi. org/10.5678/ajes.2020.12.4.56 bartram, j., & ballance, r. (eds.). (2024). water quality monitoring: a practical guide to the design and implementation of freshwater quality studies and monitoring programmes. crc press. bautista, g. j., reyes, j. l., & torres, d. r. (2021). impact of seasonal variations on waterborne diseases in rural communities in the philippines. journal of rural health and hygiene, 15(3), 200-215. https://doi.org/10.1234/ jrhh2021.01503 cayabo, l. b., omar, m. a., & de jesus, r. c. 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(2011). guidelines for drinking-water quality (4th ed.). world health organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/ item/9789241548151 pa ge 1 pa ge 42 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) resource recovery potential of limuru municipality abattoir waste mbugua j. k1*, waswa a. g2, mbui d. n3 volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4386 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: january 09, 2025 accepted: february 13, 2025 published: may 10, 2025 municipalities are entrusted with solid waste management to avoid rapid fill-up of landfills, provide apt sustainable solid waste management solutions, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. slaughterhouses are major contributors to environmental degradation, water pollution and global warming. in the current study, the waste generated from animal slaughter houses in limuru was calculated, the potential of limuru municipality slaughterhouse waste to generate biogas and bio-electricity and organic bio-fertilizer investigated and the waste greenhouse gases emission potential was also computed. inadequate information on abattoir resource recovery and utilization formed the need for this cross-sectional study conducted from january to march 2024. four selected slaughter houses in limuru municipality, kenya, were selected; namely limuru, bahati, makutano and ngecha. aniebo mathematical computation models were used to determine the amount of slaughterhouse from the number of animals processed. the results exhibited that 1739.479 tonnes of abattoir waste is generated annually. anaerobic digestion produced 92.1924 m3 of biogas annually as per the rao model. this translated to electricity production potential of 49.3229 kwh p.a and heat production potential of 71.4484 kwh p.a as a form of resource recovery. there was 549.0512 m3 reduction of greenhouse gases using biogas technology which translated to positive impact on environmental safety, public health and ghg emission reduction. keywords abattoir, anaerobic digestions, biogas, bio-slurry, municipality 1 limuru municipality, kiambu county p.o. box 2344-00900, kiambu, kenya 2 department of physical science, south eastern kenya university, p.o. box 170-90200 kitui, kenya 3 department of chemistry, university of nairobi, p.o box 30197-00100 nairobi, kenya * corresponding author’s e-mail: domjamkam@gmail.com introduction waste from slaughterhouses includes a variety of contaminants, including animal feces, blood, bone, fat, animal trimmings, paunch content and urine from operations and in the form of solid, liquid and gases (adeyemo et al., 2002). if abattoir wastes are not properly managed and controlled, they may negatively impact the nation’s economy, public health, animal health, and environment. abattoirs, especially those based in developing countries, are always faced with setbacks in disposal, handling and treatment of their wastes efficiently (adesola et al., 2024). this has always resulted in contamination of soils, water, air threatening public health and greenhouse gases emissions (rojie et al., 2008). good production and hygiene procedures, together with appropriate waste disposal mechanisms are critical to reducing the adverse effects of slaughterhouse wastes. methods for safe disposal, treatment, and processing include burial, composting, rendering, incineration, anaerobic digestion, and blood processing can be harnessed and public health risks and environmental pollution mitigated (tamenech & tamirat, 2017). methane (ch4) is an important greenhouse gas because of its absorbs radiation from the sun based on its chemical structure. its components remain in the environment for hundreds or thousands of years, making it a short-lived climate pollutant (slcp) with a 12-year half-life. with a projected 0.3% rise in 2016 to a total of 9.2 gt co2 eq, ch4 is the second most potent anthropogenic ghg in terms of global warming potential (gwp) (olivier et al., 2017). methane is responsible for at least 25% of global warming because it is very good at trapping solar heat (climate and clean air coalition, 2012). as a result, it adversely affects ambient air quality and makes a substantial contribution to climate change. enteric fermentation in ruminant animals is responsible for over 70% of agricultural ch4 emissions (jackson et al., 2020). slaughterhouses generate vast amounts of biological waste, much of which is unused. (khan et al., 2023). utilizing plants to produce industrial byproducts such as fats and oils, such as lard and tallow (chakraborty et al., 2014), fertilizers made from organic compost (darch et al., 2019), biogas through the production of methane (ware & power, 2016), and animal feed as meat powder (ragályi & kádár, 2012) is the most common method of reusing livestock waste. therefore, this work was carried out to assess the tonnage of abattoir waste generated by slaughterhouses in limuru municipality, kenya, on a daily basis, assess its bio-energy and bio-fertilizer potential and estimate the green houses gases emissions, so as to develop policies on slaughterhouse waste sustainable management. materials and methods sampling cross-sectional study design was used with an approach of simple random sampling done at four slaughterhouses located in: limuru, bahati, ndeiya and ngecha wards within limuru municipality in kenya. the area of study is depicted in figure 1. pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 42-48, 2025 limuru is one of the municipalities in kiambu county. the population was about 159,314 people according to the 2019 census (kenya national bureau of statistics (knbs), 2020). this urban community is located roughly 30 kilometers northwest of nairobi at coordinates of 1°06’28.0″s and 36°38’34.0″e. data on number of animals slaughtered the quantity of animals slaughtered in the four slaughterhouses in limuru municipality was recorded daily for three months and the mean ± standard deviation reported. economics of slaughterhouse wastes for abattoir waste generation, a mathematical model by aniebo et al. (2009) was applied (equation 1). total waste = ∑ (blw+bnw+icw+tw)*n (1) where blw is the blood waste, bnw is the bone waste, icw is the intestinal content waste, and tw is the tissue waste, all measured in kg; n is the number of slaughtered livestock. estimation of biogas production from abattoir waste the rao et al. (2000) model was used to compute biogas generation. the model suggests that 1 kg of abattoir waste produce 0.053m3 of syngas. therefore, the volume of biogas produced (vbp) can be estimated using equation 2: vbp=awg*0.053m3 kg(-1) (2) where awg is the total waste generated. figure 1: a map of slaughterhouses in limuru municipality estimation of energy from biogas ngumah et al. (2013) state that the calorific value (high heating value) of the methane concentration in biogas determines its energy potential. according to rohstoffe (2012), biogas has an average calorific value of 21-23.5 mj/m3 (around 22.0 mj/m3). kilowatt hours (kwh) are commonly used to denote energy, and 3.6 mj is equivalent to 1 kwh. 1 m3 of biogas has an energy potential of 6.1 kwh if the 22.0 mj/m3 of biogas is converted to kwh. biogas’s energy (heat and electricity) potential was determined using the energy conversion techniques developed by banks (2009). these methods demonstrated that biogas has a 35% conversion efficiency to electricity, meaning that 1m3 of biogas has a potential for producing 2.14 kwh of electricity (i.e., its energy potential of 6.1kwh × 0.35). consequently, the formula in equation 3 can be used to determine the electricity production potential (epp), or kwh: epp=vbpm*2.14kwh (3) furthermore, according to banks (2009), biogas has a 50% conversion efficiency to heat energy, meaning that 1 m3 of biogas has a 3.1 kwh heat production potential (i.e., 6:1 kwh × 0.5 energy potential). equation 4 provides an estimate of the heat production potential (hpp), expressed in kwh: hpp=vbp*3.1kwh (4) greenhouse gas reduction through biogas technology according to mathematical calculations based on (b-sustain, 2013, ipcc, 2000, jgcri, 2018), the greenhouse gas emissions from disposal sites are summarized as follows: pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 42-48, 2025 ghgemission=[((qx×doc×docf×f1×1.336)-r) * (1-ox)]*25 (5) f1 is the methane fraction produced from carbon to methane; r is the recovered methane over the year, expressed in kg or tons; qx is the amount of slaughterhouse waste stated in tons/kg from waste records; doc is the degradable organic carbon represented as a proportion of abattoir waste (default value (dv) = 0:12); docf is the fraction of degradable organic carbon dissimilated for the abattoir waste (dv = 0:7); in order to convert the amount of methane released to co2eq from the amount of abattoir waste generated (equation 6), the oxidation factor (ox) is employed (dv = 0:1 for well-managed and dv = 0 for unmanaged); and the ch4 global warming potential is 25. ghgemissions(tco2eq)=qj×efj (6) where qj is the amount of trash by type j (only abattoir waste is considered here), efj is the biogas emission factor for waste type j (0.02 kg co2eq), t is the unit of waste, either in tons or kilograms, and co2eq is the co2 equivalent. the difference between equations 5 and 6 (equation 7) will be used to estimate the ghg emissions from the production of biogas. reductionoftheghgsusingbiogas= ∑equation5-∑ equation6 (7) equivalence of biogas in fossil fuels (equation 8) blottnitz (2010) and b-sustain (2013) energy estimation states that using 1 m3 of biogas is equivalent to using 0.45 kg of lpg, 0.6 kg of kerosene, 3.50 kg of charcoal or firewood, 0.4 kg of furnace oil, 0.7 kg of gasoline, and 0.5 kg of diesel for the same activities. equivalence=∑ cff*n (8) where cff is each of above coefficient factor; n is the volume of biogas produced (i.e., from equation (2)). cost estimate for biogas energy the amount of energy generated was calculated by comparing it to the ethiopian electric power corporation/eepc (2018) cost (equation 9); that is, the minimum cost (tariff) of 1kwh of heat or electricity is 0.021usd (2.71 kshs). cost=(equation5*2.71kshs)+(equation6*2.71kshs) (9) methods for estimating biofertilizer yield potential the percentage of organic waste’s dry mass (dm) that is not converted to biogas is the basis for the coefficients used to estimate biofertilizer yields (ngumah et al., 2013). the coefficient proportion of the dry mass (dm) and volatile solid (vs) components of slaughterhouse waste was used in this study to calculate the amount of biofertilizer. for slaughterhouse waste, the dm percentage of fresh organic wastes was set at 15%, and the theoretically dry mass (dm) of abattoir waste converted to gas (dry mass minus mineral content) is known as the volatile solid (vs), which was calculated by multiplying the dm of abattoir waste by 85%. dm and vs were determined for this study using the following formulas (equations 10 and 11): dm=awg*0.15(15”\%” ) (10) vs=dm*0.85(85”\%” ) (11) biofertilizer production from slaughterhouse waste was evaluated using the coefficient fraction model of the dry mass (dm) part developed by deublien and steinhauser (2008), and the biofertilizer yield (bfy) of abattoir waste was computed using dm and vs as inputs. however, according to burke (2000), 60% of vs is the actual proportion converted to biogas, with the remaining 40% factored into the bfy estimate. consequently, the potential of bfy was deduced as follows: bfy=(dm-vs)+(40”\%”*vs) (12) calculating the cost of producing biofertilizer as per the average retail prices in kenya, 50 kg of urea and dap fertilizers cost at about ksh 3500 to ksh.5500 respectively. in comparison, similar quantities of biofertilizers could have a cost multiplier factor of almost 30-40. costofbfy=50kgofbfy*us$28.6 ((ksh.4000))⁄kg (13) data analysis minitab, version 17/19, was used to enter the data for analysis. numerical data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, including frequency (f), range, mean (m), total, percentage, and standard deviation (sd). results and discussions this study in limuru municipality collected the number of slaughtered animals (cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep) figure 2: number of animal slaughtered daily in different abattoir pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 42-48, 2025 daily from january 1, 2024, to march 31, 2024, from the four registered abattoirs, as represented in figure 2. the number approximated 20,805 animals annually. only ngecha slaughterhouse slaughters pigs, while the other three slaughter bovine, ovine, and caprine animals. the specific and total waste generated from bovine, ovine and caprine and porcine is shown in table 1 as calculated using equation 1 as described by aniebo et al., 2009 mathematical model. the waste ranges from blood, rumen matter, bones among other form of waste as shown in figure 3. figure 3: slaughterhouse wastes from limuru abattoir on estimate, 12.6 kg of blood waste, 8.0 kilogram of intestinal content waste, 6.4 kg of tissue waste, and 11.8 kg of bone debris (a total of 38.8) might be produced by one cow. likewise, a single goat or sheep that has been killed may yield 0.72 kilogram of blood waste and 1.25 kg of digestive content waste. the study demonstrated that an annual total waste of 1739.479 ton was generated in limuru municipality. the proportions depended on the number and type of livestock slaughtered, whereby 76.8 % of the total waste originated from bovines, with bahati abattoir contributing the most. this would suggest that a significant amount of abattoir waste is produced throughout the public or privately run slaughterhouses in comparison to other towns. this necessitates the study of resource recovery from the enormous amounts of waste and environmental considerations at their disposal. table 1: animal wastes per slaughterhouse in limuru municipality name of slaughter house livestock slaughtered blood waste (ton) bone waste (ton) intestinal content (ton) tissue waste (ton) total waste (ton) b ov in e o vi ne / c ap rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne / c ap rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne / c ap rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne / c ap rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne / c ap rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne / c ap rin e po rc in e limuru 2. 92 5. 47 5 0. 00 36 .7 9 3. 94 2 0. 00 34 .4 6 11 .2 8 0. 00 23 .3 6 6. 84 0. 00 18 .6 9 4. 38 0. 00 11 3. 29 26 .4 4 0. 00 bahati 3. 65 1. 46 0. 00 45 .9 9 1. 05 12 0. 00 43 .0 7 3. 01 0. 00 29 .2 0 1. 83 0. 00 23 .3 6 1. 17 0. 00 14 1. 62 7. 05 0. 00 makutano 2. 19 0. 73 0. 00 27 .5 9 0. 52 56 0. 00 25 .8 4 1. 50 0. 00 17 .5 2 0. 91 0. 00 14 .0 2 0. 58 4 0. 00 84 .9 7 3. 53 0. 00 ngecha 0. 00 0. 00 12 .0 0 0. 00 0. 00 8. 64 0. 00 0. 00 31 .2 0. 00 0. 00 15 .0 0 0. 00 0. 00 9. 60 0. 00 0. 00 57 .9 6 according to montford and wotherspoon (2021), slaughterhouses produce billions of tons of biological waste each year, both liquid and solid. the quantity of animals slaughtered and the method used for treating them determine how much garbage is produced. the kikuyu municipality’s dagorretti slaughterhouse, for instance each of its around 15 slaughterhouses generate 4,000 l of wastewater and four tons of solid waste daily on average (odera et al., 2018). a unit that slaughtered 200 cows and 400 sheep daily on average produced 16,000 kg of solid waste and 40 m3 of wastewater, according to a study by kabeyi and olanrewaju (2022). the investigation found that the biogas digestor does not process 53,200 kg of the pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 42-48, 2025 slaughterhouse’s total solid and liquid waste, with only 2,800 kg being used in biogas generation. depending on the animal’s sex, load weight, collecting method, fat percentage, and living topographic area, the yield % of animal abattoir wastes might vary greatly (kupusovic et al., 2007). the waste from slaughterhouses can be handled in a number of ways. incineration (heat destruction technology), burial, and controlled landfilling (dumping byproducts into the landfill site) are the primary disposal methods that are still in use today (yagout, 2003, chen et al., 2008). hence, there is a greater need for studies on the resource recovery potential of abattoir wastes in the generation of biogas and biofertilizers. this is mainly so in reference to the management of the abattoir solid and liquid wastes. solid wastes account for 3% of worldwide ghg emissions (ilmasa et al., (2018). among these solid wastes, animal byproducts are wellknown ghg emitters. the life cycle assessment study also found that vegetarian meals had a 40% lower environmental effect than meat-containing meals in terms of indices such as carbon footprint, resource usage, water use, and health implications. (ernstoff et al., 2019). furthermore, because many slaughterhouses are located in city centers, traditional waste disposal methods such as application to agricultural land are no longer viable due to increased transit distances. direct discharge of contaminated degradable waste into the sewerage system before treatment is generally unacceptable owing to the resultant environmental and ecological issues and the possibility of clogging in wastewater pipe systems. water, waste treatment, and electricity expenditures account for approximately 20% to 30% of total slaughtering costs. resource recovery process from abattoir waste could also greatly contribute to greenhouse gas emission management. methane (ch4) emissions from manure, untreated organic waste, and wastewater, as well as fuel consumption for processing (such as drying and evaporation), are the two main sources of greenhouse gas emissions from slaughterhouses. anaerobic lagoons are a regularly used treatment system that reduces the nutritional content of waste while producing methane as a byproduct. existing abattoirs must have a strategy to decrease the emission of ozone-depleting gases. in addition to various treatment techniques, recycling and re-use strategies for organic waste and adequate storage capacity should be put in place to limit ch4 emissions brought on by the (uncontrolled) disposal of untreated waste (degate et al., 2001). ipcc and gwp coefficient factors were applied in estimation of global warming gases emitted from the dumping sites of these meat processing places (figure 2). an annual reduction of 549.0512 m3 greenhouse gas was determined, translating to a positive impact on the environment (table 2). in addition, the rao model established that 92.1924 m3 of annual biogas was generated from abattoirs in limuru municipality, translating to 49.3229 kwh and 71.4484 kwh of electricity production and heat production potential respectively, indicating that this could viably be scaled up across other municipalities within the country for complementary energy production from abattoir wastes (table 2). in terms of biofertilizer yield potential estimation, the residual abattoir wastes were viable for improving soil quality and optimizing crop yield. the microbes degrade complex organic matter into simpler form thereby enriching the soils (mbugua et al., 2022). annual yield of 110.8115 tons of biofertilizer was obtained with over 90 % originating from bovines. scaled production of this biofertilizer could eventually lead to competitive retail market costings in which the small-scale farmers can afford. cost benefit analysis regarding chemical fertilizer effects on the environment could also advantage the production of biofertilizer. table 2: biogas and energy production from limuru municipality abattoirs name of slaughter house total waste (ton) vbp (m3) epp (kwh) hpp (kwh) ghg emission (eq5) ghg emission (tc02eq) b ov in e o vi ne /c ao rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne /c ao rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne /c ao rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne /c ao rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne /c ao rin e po rc in e b ov in e o vi ne /c ao rin e po rc in e limuru 11 3. 29 26 .4 4 6. 00 5 1. 40 2 0. 00 12 .8 5 2. 99 9 0. 00 18 .6 1 4. 34 4 0. 00 14 3. 0 33 .3 9 0. 00 2. 27 0. 52 8 0. 00 bahati 14 1. 62 7. 05 2 7. 50 6 0. 37 4 0. 00 16 .0 6 0. 79 9 0. 00 23 .2 7 1. 15 8 0. 00 17 8. 8 8. 90 3 0. 00 2. 84 0. 14 1 0. 00 makutano 84 .9 7 3. 52 6 4. 50 3 0. 18 7 0. 00 9. 63 8 0. 39 9 0. 00 13 .9 6 0. 57 9 0. 00 10 7. 3 4. 45 2 0. 00 1. 70 0. 07 0 0. 00 ngecha 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 57 .9 6 0. 00 0. 00 3. 07 0. 00 0. 00 6. 57 3 0. 00 0. 00 9. 52 0. 00 0. 00 73 .1 7 pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 42-48, 2025 conclusion anaerobic digestion of organic matter leads to emission of ghg; carbon dioxide and methane (mitchie, 2022). the calculated ghg emissions from the slaughterhouses per slaughtered animal is shown in table 2. using equation 5, an average ghg emission of 143.03 and 15.311 from bovine and ovine/caprine was computed, respectively. further, the carbon dioxide equivalent from bovine and caprine was 2.27 and 0.692 tco2eq. according to the united nations framework convention on climate change (unfccc), a tonne of animal waste produces over 100 cubic metres of biogas has a concentration of 65 per cent methane (ch4) and 35 per cent carbon dioxide (co2), both of which are among the five notorious greenhouse gases contributing to global warming (unfccc, 2015). conclusion the study showed that the four selected abattoirs generated a significant amount of abattoir waste which could pose a challenge on disposal and effects on the environment. with the increasing number of abattoirs across other municipalities within the county, scale of abattoir wastes is expected to increase, leading the more ghg emissions, hence effective and efficient abattoir resource recovery and utilization as done through production of biogas and biofertilizer will be quite essential in managing the wastes and enhancing environmental safety and public health. the calculations showed that 1739.479 tonnes of abattoir waste is generated annually. anaerobic digestion produced 92.1924 m3 of biogas annually as per the rao model. this translated to electricity production potential of 49.3229 kwh p.a and heat production potential of 71.4484 kwh p.a as a form of resource recovery. there was 549.0512 m3 reduction of greenhouse gases using biogas technology which translates to ghg emissions reduction. references aniebo, a. o., wekhe, s. n., & okoli, i. c. (2009). abattoir blood waste generation in rivers state and its environmental implications in the niger delta. toxicological & environmental chemistry, 91(4), 619–625. banks, c. (2009). optimization of anaerobic digestion to provide energy output via conversion. forestry commission. retrieved from http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/.../ rrps_ad250309_optimising_anaerobic_digestion. pdf b-sustain. (2013). environmental and social benefits of biogas technology. b-sustain. retrieved from http://www. bsustain.in/faqs.html chakraborty, r., gupta, a. k., & chowdhury, r. (2014). conversion of slaughterhouse and poultry farm animal fats and wastes to biodiesel: parametric sensitivity and fuel quality assessment. renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 29, 120–134. darch, t., dunn, r. m., guy, a., hawkins, j. m. b., ash, m., frimpong, k. a., et al. (2019). fertilizer produced from abattoir waste can contribute to phosphorus sustainability, and biofortify crops with minerals. plos one, 14(9), e0221647. deublien, d., & steinhauser, a. (2008). biogas from waste and renewable resources. wiley-vch verlag gmbh & co. eepco/ethiopian electric power corporation. (2018). retrieved from http://www.ethio. energyconversionresource ipcc/intergovernmental panel on climate change. (2000). national greenhouse gas inventories and uncertainty management in national greenhouse gas inventories. ipcc national greenhouse gas inventory program. retrieved from http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/ public/gp/gpgaum.htm jgcri/joint global change research institute. (2018). gcam v4.4 documentation: global change assessment model (gcam). retrieved from http://jgcri.github. io/gcam-doc/ kabeyi, m., & olanrewaju, o. (2022). slaughterhouse waste to energy in the energy transition with performance analysis and design of slaughterhouse biodigester. journal of energy management and technology, 6(3), 188-208. khan, r. l., khraibi, a. a., dumée, l. f., & corridon, p. r. (2023). from waste to wealth: repurposing slaughterhouse waste for xenotransplantation. frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology, 11, 1091554. kupusovic, t., midzic, s., silajdzic, i., & bjelavac, j. (2007). cleaner production measures in small-scale slaughterhouse industry—case study in bosnia and herzegovina. journal of cleaner production, 15, 378–383. montford, k. j., & wotherspoon, t. (2021). the contagion of slow violence: the slaughterhouse and covid-19. animal studies journal, 10(1), 80–113. mitchie, r. (2022). entity-level greenhouse gas emission of university of science and technology of southern philippines-oroquieta. american journal of environment and climate, 1(3), 6–11. https://doi.org/10.54536/ ajec.v1i3.665 mbugua, j. k., kinyua, a. p., mbui, d. n., kithure, j. l., wandiga, s. o., & waswa, a. g. (2022). microbial fuel cell bio-remediation of lambda cyhalothrin, malathion, and chlorpyrifos on loam soil inoculated with bio-slurry. american journal of environment and climate, 1(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec. v1i1.249 ngumah, c., ogbulie, j. n., orji, j. c., & amadi, e. s. (2013). biogas potential of organic waste in nigeria. journal of urban and environmental engineering, 7(1), 110–116. odero, j., rao, k. c., & karanja, n. (2018). power from slaughterhouse waste (nyongara slaughter house, dagorretti, kenya). in k. c. rao & s. gebrezgabher (eds.), energy recovery from waste (ch. 5, pp. 248–256). taylor & francis. rao, m. s., singh, s. p., singh, a. k., & sodha, m. s. (2000). bioenergy conversion studies of the organic pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 42-48, 2025 fraction of msw: assessment of ultimate bioenergy production potential of municipal garbage. applied energy, 66(1), 75–87. ragályi, p., & kádár, i. (2012). effect of organic fertilizers made from slaughterhouse wastes on yield of crops. archives of agronomy and soil science, 58, s122–s126. rohstoffe, f. n. (2012). guide to biogas from production to use. federal ministry of food, agriculture and consumer protection; fachagentur nachwachsende rohstoffe e.v. (fnr). ware, a., & power, n. (2016). biogas from cattle slaughterhouse waste: energy recovery towards an energy self-sufficient industry in ireland. renewable energy, 97, 541–549. unfccc. (2015). biogas from animal waste: a key source of methane and carbon dioxide emissions. united nations framework convention on climate change. pa ge 1 pa ge 59 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) associations between daily pm2.5 exposure and respiratory symptoms in thai adolescents: evidence from nonthaburi province patsorn kiatsoongsong1*, patraporn ekvitayavetchanukul1 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5093 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 28, 2025 accepted: august 02, 2025 published: september 18, 2025 air pollution remains a critical public health concern, especially for adolescents in densely populated urban areas. this cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between daily pm2.5 exposure and self-reported respiratory symptoms among 132 high school students in nonthaburi province, thailand. over a two-month period (january–february 2025), daily pm2.5 data were retrieved from government monitoring stations, while students completed daily online symptom surveys. during the study period, the mean pm2.5 concentration was 36.2 µg/m³, more than double the world health organization’s recommended limit of 15 µg/m³. a notable increase in symptom prevalence, 27.6% higher on days exceeding 40 µg/m³ compared to days at or below 25 µg/m³, was observed. logistic regression analysis further revealed that each 10 µg/m³ increase in pm2.5 was associated with a 52% higher likelihood of respiratory symptoms (or = 1.52, 95% ci: 1.26–1.79, p < 0.001).these findings highlight the acute impact of short-term air pollution exposure on adolescent health and emphasize the need for school-based air quality monitoring, preventive education, and evidence-driven environmental policy to reduce exposure and safeguard student well-being in high-risk urban settings. keywords adolescent health, environmental health policy, pm2.5 exposure, respiratory symptoms, urban pollution 1 rittiyawannalai school, thailand * corresponding author’s e-mail: prof.dr.pongkit@gmail.com introduction background and rationale air pollution is a major public health problem, and fine particulate matter (pm2.5) particles less than 2.5 micrometers in size is especially dangerous because they can be inhaled into the lungs and bloodstream. exposure to such pollutants can lead to inflammation, exacerbate respiratory disorders, and reduce lung function. these hazards are more pronounced in the respiratory system of adolescents that is continuously developing. pm2.5 above the safe who limits. it has become a health hazard that students in this city suffer from bad health including cough, inflammation of the throat, shortness of breath, and high flu infection. although awareness of the health risks associated with pollution has increased, there is a request for more research that targets – specifically how daily variations in pm2.5 floors and adolescent respiratory health. the vast majority of the existing studies focus on either long-term exposure and/or clinical end points, and there is relatively little research evaluating real-time symptoms as a mechanism for health effects. knowledge gap and study significance despite increasing evidence of the health risks posed by pm2.5, few studies have examined the short-term, day-to-day effects of fluctuating pm2.5 levels on adolescent respiratory health, particularly in urban school environments. most existing research focuses on longterm exposure or relies on generalized regional data, which may not accurately reflect the real-time exposure experienced by students in specific school settings. this study helps to bridge that gap by analyzing daily variations in pm2.5 concentrations and their association with self-reported respiratory symptoms among high school students in nonthaburi province. by using 24hour real-time air quality data collected at the school level alongside daily symptom reports from students, the study provides valuable, context-specific evidence. these findings offer practical insights for developing school-based health interventions and public health policies aimed at reducing exposure and improving respiratory outcomes for adolescents in high-risk environments. research questions 1. how are daily pm2.5 concentrations associated with the frequency and severity of respiratory symptoms in high school students? 2. is there a specific pm2.5 threshold above which respiratory symptoms significantly increase? 3. to what extent do personal protective behaviors, such as mask-wearing and limiting outdoor activity, reduce symptom severity during high-pollution events? research objectives and hypotheses objectives this study aims to: • evaluate the relationship between daily pm2.5 exposure and respiratory symptoms in adolescents. • identify specific pm2.5 cut-points associated with above-average respiratory symptoms. • assess the effectiveness of protective behaviors to reduce the severity of respiratory symptoms. pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 59-68, 2025 hypotheses h1: increased daily pm2.5 concentrations are linked to increased prevalence of respiratory symptoms. h2: a clear pm2.5 there is a concentration level above which the incidence of respiratory symptoms escalates substantially. h3: participants that utilize protective behavior (e.g., mask-wearing, going outside less) will have fewer respiratory symptoms. structure of the paper the remainder of this paper is organized as follows: • section 2 outlines the study methodology, including participant selection criteria, data collection procedures, and statistical analysis methods. • section 3 presents the key findings, emphasizing the relationship between daily pm2.5 levels and the prevalence of self-reported respiratory symptoms. • section 4 discusses the broader public health implications of the results, offers practical policy recommendations, and addresses the study’s limitations. • section 5 concludes with a summary of the main findings and highlights their significance for future research and intervention planning. by focusing on short-term variations in air pollution and their immediate impact on adolescent health, this study provides actionable insights for educators, policymakers, and public health professionals seeking to develop targeted strategies in urban school settings. materials and methods study design this study employed a cross-sectional observational design to investigate the relationship between daily pm2.5 exposure and self-reported respiratory symptoms among high school students in nonthaburi province, thailand. data collection was conducted over a two-month period (january–february 2025), capturing short-term air pollution effects during the dry season, when pm2.5 levels are typically elevated. daily pm2.5 concentrations were obtained from official government air quality monitoring stations. simultaneously, participating students completed an online self-report survey each evening, documenting respiratory symptoms and protective behaviors such as mask usage and outdoor activity levels. this real-time data collection approach reduced the risk of recall bias and enabled a more accurate assessment of day-today symptom fluctuation in relation to pollution levels. the study adhered to the strobe (strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology) guidelines to ensure methodological transparency, scientific rigor, and reproducibility. study population and sampling strategy a total of 132 high school students, aged 13 to 18, were recruited from three schools in nonthaburi province. these schools were chosen due to their proximity to hightraffic, high-pollution zones, providing an ideal setting to study pm2.5 exposure effects in an urban context. sampling method a stratified random sampling technique was applied to ensure representation across key demographic and behavioral groups, including: • gender: male and female students • outdoor exposure: high vs. low levels of daily outdoor activity • residential environment: urban vs. suburban living areas inclusion criteria • students aged 13–18 years, enrolled in middle or high school • residing and attending school in nonthaburi province for at least one year • willingness to participate and complete daily symptom surveys exclusion criteria • students with a prior diagnosis of chronic respiratory illness (e.g., asthma, copd) before the study period • students with other serious pre-existing medical conditions • students who completed less than 80% of the daily surveys during the study period data collection procedures pm2.5 exposure data pm2.5 levels were obtained from thailand’s pollution control department (pcd) monitoring stations near participating schools. hourly pm2.5 readings were averaged into daily values (µg/m³). these daily averages were categorized according to thailand’s air quality index (aqi-thai) for analytical purposes: • 0–25 µg/m³: good (low risk) • 26–50 µg/m³: moderate (increased risk for sensitive groups) • above 50 µg/m³: high (general health risk, requiring protective measures) table 1: pm2.5 exposure data pm2.5 concentration (µg/m³) aqi-thai category health impact 0 – 25 good (green) no significant health effects; safe for all outdoor activities. 26 – 37 moderate (yellow) acceptable air quality; minor effects on sensitive individuals. 38 – 50 unhealthy for sensitive groups (orange) respiratory irritation possible in sensitive individuals; reduced outdoor activities recommended. pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 59-68, 2025 51 – 90 unhealthy (red) increased risk of respiratory issues for the general public; outdoor activities should be minimized. 91 – 120 very unhealthy (purple) severe respiratory effects possible; recommended to stay indoors. > 120 hazardous (maroon) health warning for all individuals; strong recommendation to avoid outdoor exposure. for analytical purposes, this study classifies daily pm2.5 exposure levels into three categories: table 2: pm2.5 exposure levels pm2.5 concentration (µg/m³) study classification exposure category ≤ 25 µg/m³ low exposure minimal health risk; no intervention needed. 26 – 50 µg/m³ moderate exposure increased risk for sensitive individuals; precautionary measures recommended. > 50 µg/m³ high exposure general population at risk; outdoor activities should be reduced, and protective measures should be enforced. self-reported health symptoms (google form surveys) the participants reported on their respiratory symptoms and preventive behavior every day on an online questionnaire (conducted via google forms). the self-report questionnaire came from their use of the american thoracic society’s (ats-dld-78; ferris, 1978) standardized respiratory health survey which reviewed the following factors. assessment of respiratory symptoms • cough (assessed as none, mild, moderate or severe) • having the symptoms of sore throat (yes/no) • dyspnea (rated on the likert scale from none to severe) • runny nose or stuffy nose (yes/no) behaviors for protection and exposure assessment • the type of mask worn (n95, surgical or no mask) • diary time spent outdoors on an average day (hours) • position of windows in the home and school (open/ closed). the questionnaires were completed once daily by students in the evening to ensure that the responses reflected daily experiences and to reduce recall bias. table 3: self-reported health symptoms variable type variable name measurement approach independent variable pm2.5 exposure daily µg/m³ (government air sensors) outdoor exposure self-reported hours spent outdoors mask-wearing frequency scale (always/sometimes/never) dependent variables respiratory symptoms likert scale (none/mild/moderate/severe) symptom severity score aggregated symptom index score symptom frequency number of days with symptoms per student variables and measurement statistical analysis all statistical analyses were performed using spss version 28 and r version 4.2 to ensure robust and accurate data analysis. the analytical methods included: descriptive statistics calculation of mean, standard deviation (sd), and frequency distributions for all collected variables. bivariate analysis pearson correlation analyses to examine relationships between daily pm2.5 concentrations and respiratory symptom severity. chi-square tests to compare the frequency of respiratory symptoms across different pm2.5 exposure levels. comparative analysis independent t-tests to evaluate differences in respiratory symptoms between groups experiencing high versus low exposure to pm2.5. anova tests to assess the variance in reported symptoms among different levels of pm2.5 exposure. multivariate regression analysis multiple linear regression analyses to predict respiratory symptom severity based on daily pm2.5 concentrations. adjustments were made for potential confounders such pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 59-68, 2025 as gender, socioeconomic status, and pre-existing health conditions. effect size interpretation • r ≥ 0.50 indicates a strong correlation. • r = 0.30–0.49 indicates a moderate correlation. • r = 0.10–0.29 indicates a weak correlation. ethical considerations this study was conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines set by the thai national health research ethics committee. the following ethical principles were strictly upheld: informed consent written informed consent was obtained from all participants, with parental consent required for minors under the age of 18. confidentiality to ensure anonymity, each participant was assigned a unique identification number. no personal names or identifiable information were collected or used in data analysis. voluntary participation participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time, without penalty or negative consequences. these ethical protocols were implemented to safeguard the rights, privacy, and well-being of all student participants throughout the research process. results and discussion overview of pm2.5 exposure levels daily pm2.5 levels in nonthaburi province were markedly different according to the seasonal air pollution patterns of the area. the official monitoring stations found an average pm2.5 during this time frame, with a mean concentration of 36.2 µg/m³ (sd = 7.8) that is higher than the recommended daily limit (15µg/m³) by the who. according to the aqi-thai classification, the study days can be classified in the following exposure classes: • low exposure (≤25 µg/m³): 18 days (30.0% of the study period) • moderate exposure (26–50 µg/m³): 29 days (48.3% of the study duration) • high exposure (>50 µg/m³): 13 days (21.7% of the experimental period) as can be seen from figure 1, in the five-year monitoring point in this study, the annual average concentration of pm2.5 levels spiked at the end of january and a second time in mid-february. these peaks were associated with meteorological conditions which prevented pollutants dispersion, such as temperature inversions and low wind speed. figure 1: daily pm2.5 concentrations in nonthaburi province (january–february 2025). prevalence of respiratory symptoms among students a total of 3,960 self-reported symptom surveys were collected over the study period (132 students × 30 days). the prevalence of common respiratory symptoms is summarized in table 4. symptom prevalence varied significantly between high and low-pm2.5 days, as shown in figure 2. • on high-exposure days (>50 µg/m³), the percentage of students reporting symptoms increased by 27.6% compared to low-exposure days (≤25 µg/m³). • coughing prevalence was highest on high-pm2.5 days (54.1%) and lowest on low-exposure days (22.8%). • shortness of breath and sore throat showed statistically significant increases (p < 0.01) on days with higher pollution levels. association between pm2.5 levels and symptom severity correlation analysis (pearson’s r) a pearson correlation analysis was conducted to determine the strength of association between daily pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 59-68, 2025 pm2.5 levels and self-reported symptom severity scores. these findings confirm that higher daily pm2.5 concentrations are significantly correlated with increased respiratory distress. table 4: frequency of reported symptoms by students (n = 132) symptom total reports exposure category (n = 3,960) average daily prevalence (%) minimal health risk; no intervention needed. coughing (mild-severe) 1,478 37.3% sore throat 1,132 28.6% shortness of breath 890 22.5% runny nose/nasal congestion 1,629 41.1% respiratory symptoms by pm2.5 exposure level figure 2: distribution of respiratory symptoms among students. figure 3: the correlation between pm2.5 levels and symptom severity scores table 5: findings comparison variable comparison pearson’s r p-value interpretation pm2.5 vs. coughing severity 0.62 <0.001 strong positive correlation pm2.5 vs. sore throat frequency 0.51 <0.001 moderate positive correlation pm2.5 vs. shortness of breath 0.57 <0.001 strong positive correlation pa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 59-68, 2025 comparative analysis: symptom rates on highvs. low-exposure days chi-square test for symptom frequency a chi-square test (χ²) was performed to compare symptom occurrence between lowand high-exposure days. findings • there is a statistically significant difference in symptom prevalence between lowand high-exposure days (p < 0.001 for all symptoms). • shortness of breath showed the largest increase (27.6% higher on high-pm2.5 days), suggesting it may be the most sensitive indicator of acute pollution exposure. table 6: chi-square test for symptom frequency symptom low exposure days (≤25 µg/m³) high exposure days (>50 µg/m³) chi-square (χ²) statistic p-value coughing 22.8% 54.1% 15.92 <0.001 sore throat 17.3% 42.7% 12.88 <0.001 shortness of breath 10.9% 38.5% 19.02 <0.001 figure 4: comparing the prevalence of respiratory symptoms on low (≤25 µg/m³) vs. high (>50 µg/m³) pm2.5 exposure days. regression analysis: predicting respiratory symptoms based on pm2.5 exposure a logistic regression model was applied to assess whether pm2.5 levels predict the likelihood of experiencing respiratory symptoms. model log (odds of symptom) = β0 + β1 (pm2.5 level) table 7: predicting respiratory symptoms based on pm2.5 exposure variable odds ratio (or) 95% confidence interval (ci) p-value pm2.5 (per 10 µg/m³ increase) 1.52 (1.26 – 1.79) <0.001 mask-wearing (always) 0.64 (0.48 – 0.79) 0.002 outdoor exposure (≥3 hrs/day) 1.38 (1.12 – 1.61) <0.001 key interpretations for every 10 µg/m³ increase in pm2.5, students were 1.52 times more likely to report respiratory symptoms (p < 0.001). students who consistently wore masks had a 36% lower risk of symptoms (p = 0.002). outdoor exposure of 3+ hours per day increased symptom likelihood by 38% (p < 0.001). summary of key findings pm2.5 and frequency of symptoms daily pm2.5 levels made a significant difference in the frequency of respiratory symptoms -during high pollution days (>50 µg/m³), rates of symptoms increased 27.6% compared with low pollution days (≤25 µg/m³). correlation analysis of symptom severity an obvious positive correlation was observed between pa ge 65 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 59-68, 2025 daily pm2.5 and severity of respiratory symptoms (r = 0.62, p < 0.001) in the nasopharyngeal aspirates, showing a dose-response relationship. low versus high exposure days as there were statistically significant differences between symptoms reported on low exposure days and high exposure days (chi-square test p < 0.001), symptoms reported are presented for both low and high exposure days. shortness of breath and sore throat, in particular, were far more prevalent on days with high pollution. predictive value of pm2.5 exposure a logistic regression model indicated that pm2.5 exposure is a strong predictor of symptom development. higher all cause and cardiovascular mortality was associated with a 10 µg/m³ increase in daily pm2.5 increased the risk 1.52 (95% ci: 1.26–1.79, p < 0.001). protective effects for mask wearing regular mask wearing was deemed a protective factor, associated with a 36% lower risk of respiratory symptoms (p = 0.002) on high-pollution days discussion key findings and interpretation this study presents a strong evidence that daily variation of pm2.5 exposure and respiratory condition in high school students residing in nonthaburi province. using self-reported symptom logs and official pm2.5 measurements in the period between january-february 2025, that higher pollution days has been associated with significantly more common symptoms. for instance, on pm2.5 µg/m³ that exceeded 50 µg/m³, symptom rates (cough, sore throat, dyspnea and runny nose) were 27.6% higher than on cleaner days (≤ 25 µg/m³). a strong positive association was also seen between daily pm2.5 levels and a symptom severity score of students (r = 0.62, p < 0.001), suggesting a dose response association in the sense that pollution concentration resulted in more health distress. these associations are also documented by statistical tests. chi-square analysis further confirmed that respiratory symptom rates were significantly elevated on high vs low-exposure days (p < 0.001), especially for more acute symptoms, such as shortness of breath and sore throat. this indicates that spikes in air pollution could cause short-term respiratory discomfort in adolescent. furthermore, we find that our logistic regression results suggest that even small levels of increases in pollution can result in much increased health risks for every 10 μg/m³ increase in daily pm2.5, the chance of having respiratory disease symptoms increased approximately 1.52-fold (95% ci: 1.26–1.79, p < 0.001). there is, however, encouraging news from the data as they also offer strong evidence of the importance of protective behaviors students who always wore face masks had a much reduced risk of symptoms (around a 36% reduction, p = 0.002), indicating that individual measures can at least ameliorate some of the negative impacts of air pollution. these results provide novel insight into the acute effect of daily air quality on adolescent physiological and emotive well-being and emphasize the urgency of developing mitigation strategies to protect students’ respiratory health in urban environments. comparison with existing literature our findings are potentially consistent with an expanding literature implicating pm2.5 exposure to paediatrictype respiratory outcomes as a young person. for instance, xu et al. (2021) found that daily pm2.5 levels was associated with increased occurrence of chronic cough and wheezing in schoolchildren, similar to the high symptom rates we found on high pollution days. similarly, liu et al. (2023) reported a linear dose-response association of particulate exposure with respiratory distress with every additional 10 µg/m³ pm2.5 led to an estimate of approximately 20–30% increase in symptom morbidity, a reasonable correspondence with our fnding of a 1.52 (≈ 52%) increase in odds of symptoms per 10 µg/m³. wu et al. (2023) also illustrate the benefit of behavioral interventions such as consistent mask-wearing and minimizing outdoor activity on high pollution days – thought to reduce severity of respiratory symptoms. this supports our interpretation that protective actions are able to reduce symptomatic days during pollution peaks. it is important to highlight that, as opposed to most previous studies that were based on clinical diagnoses or lung function tests, the data of our study were collected using daily self-reported symptoms as an estimate of health effects. it offers a near-term, practical overview of how pollution affects students on a daily basis in a highexposure urban environment, to supplement current literature, which tends to focus on long-term or clinically recorded results. by examining short-term variation of pollution, our study takes a novel approach to identify the immediate impact of daily pm2.5 heterogeneity, while the majority of current studies have focused on chronic exposure. implications for public health and policy school-based air pollution mitigation strategies considering the substantial contribution of high pm2.5 reported in this article impact on student health recorded in this study, schools should consider implementing evidence-based interventions to reduce their students’ exposure. school-level strategies that are crucial for such initiatives: air quality monitoring implement real-time pm2.5 sensors, and daily air quality alerts will be shared with the campus. this information can help in making decisions, such as relocating outdoor activities indoors when the level of pollution is high. air filtration systems install hepa air purifiers (i.e., high-efficiency particulate pa ge 66 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 59-68, 2025 air purifiers) in classrooms and indoor spaces, particularly during peak-pollution or wildfire seasons, to reduce indoor levels of particulates. tailored outdoor activity policies modify school schedules and policies so that outdoor athletics and physical education are restricted or rescheduled on days when pm2.5 exceeds unsafe levels (such as >50 µg/m³). this can reduce during peak times the exposure of students outdoors to pollution. community and government action wider community and policy-level interventions are also needed to address wider air quality problems, which can impact on schools. recommended measures include: strengthen pm2.5 regulations government agencies need to impose more stringent emissions standards on large sources of pollution (e.g., vehicle, industry, and agriculture burning) in order to lower ambient pm2.5 levels in urban areas. more stringent regulations, and regular monitoring, can limit the number of days with significant pollution. raise awareness for public health public health education at the community level is necessary to inform students, parents, and school personnel to understand the health effects of pm2.5. best practices during pollution episodes, such as correct mask wearing and symptom monitoring, that encourage proactive health protection should also be included in these programmes. enhance health service accessibility schools and local health departments may work together to offer respiratory health checks or medical examinations for students under heavy pollution situations. better access to healthcare and early intervention (for example, asthma inhalers, medical advice) can reduce the impact of pollution on symptoms of disease. promotion of individual protective measures at the individual level, activating students and their families to engage in protective behaviors can decrease the health effects on the most polluted days: mask-wearing recommend or require use of high-efficiency filtration face masks (e.g., n95 masks) by students on days with unhealthy air quality. our results indicate that sustained mask wearing could drive down reported symptom prevalence by approximately 0.3, a straightforward and effective measure. behavioral modifications recommend that students minimize time spent outside during periods of high pollution and discover clean indoor areas, ideally with air filtration, when air pollution is high. the sum of these individual reductions (which a nudging approach could attempt to balance and integrate) could, from nudge-analysis point of view, represent a reduction in the amount of pollution anyone is left to inhale, in the course of a day. ultimately, a combined strategy targeting all intervention levels – such as schoolbased projects, government policies, and personal protective measures – can help reduce the respiratory health impacts of air pollution among adolescents in nonthaburi and other urban locations. an integrated multilevel implementation strategy would maximize the shielding of students from harmful pm2. 5 exposure. study limitations and future research directions although providing important clues, the present study had several limitations that need to be taken into account: self-reported data bias the self-report of symptoms (daily google form) is the source of some risk of reporting bias or error. symptoms might be forgotten or reported inconstantly by students, potentially resulting in misclassification. future studies need to collect an objective health indicator, such as clinical lung function tests or clinical respiratory examination, concurrent with the self-report data to confirm such associations. confounding factors we did not extensively consider others possible confounders for respiratory symptoms. symptom reporting on some days may have been influenced by indoor air pollution and previous health (e.g. asthma) and concurrent seasonal respiratory infections (e.g. common colds or flu). these confounders might partially account for differences in health effects regardless of outdoor pm2.5. it would be necessary in future research to adjust for or stratify for such variables possibly by adopting longitudinal study or multivariate analysis to extract the impact of daily pm2.5 more clearly. short study duration this analysis focused on a rather narrow exposure window (the months of january–february 2025). this shortterm design may miss seasonality, or longer term health effects of prolonged pollution exposure. for example, pollution levels and their respiratory health effects may be different in other seasons (e.g., months of crop-burning or rainy season). longer term observation over several seasons or a year would lead to a better understanding of the relative influence of chronic and seasonal pm2.5 exposure affects respiratory health in adolescents. exposure data at the community level daily pm2.5 level were extrapolated from community monitoring stations near the schools and not from personal exposure monitors. this is useful as a general rule of thumb but the actual exposure for individual students can pa ge 67 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 59-68, 2025 sometimes differ by micro-environments (home, transit etc.). the lack of individual exposure data suggests the potential for measurement error if a student’s immediate area experienced different pollution levels than those reported by the nearest station. personal air quality sensors are essential, or wearable pm2.5 studies for quantifying individual exposure in a more precise way. nevertheless, despite these limitations, the present study presents an important first step toward investigating the acute impact of daily variation in air pollution on adolescent health. it highlights the importance of studying shortterm exposure effects, and offers preliminary data to guide larger, better-controlled future studies. conclusion this study confirms that daily pm2.5 fluctuations directly affect adolescent respiratory health. in our high school cohort, high-pollution days (>50 µg/m³) were associated with a 27.6% increase in respiratory symptom prevalence compared to cleaner days. we also found a significant correlation between rising pm2.5 levels and worsening respiratory distress (r = 0.62, p < 0.001), reinforcing evidence that air pollution poses a serious health risk for students. on a positive note, proactive behaviors like maskwearing proved effective – students who consistently wore masks had markedly lower odds of symptoms (about a 36% risk reduction, or = 0.64, p = 0.002), highlighting the value of personal preventive measures. overall, our findings illustrate the acute influence of air quality on youth health and signal that immediate action is needed. efforts to improve urban air quality – through stricter pollution control policies, school-based air quality management, and community education – are critical for protecting young people in nonthaburi and other polluted regions. by combining policy interventions with on-theground protective strategies, we can better safeguard adolescent health against the day-to-day challenges posed by pm2.5 air pollution. recommendations this study confirms that daily pm2.5 fluctuations significantly affect adolescent respiratory health. among 132 students in nonthaburi, symptom prevalence rose by 27.6% on days with pm2.5 >50 µg/m³ compared to lowexposure days (≤25 µg/m³). a strong positive correlation was found between pm2.5 levels and symptom severity (r = 0.62, p < 0.001). logistic regression revealed a 52% increase in symptom risk per 10 µg/m³ increase in pm2.5 (or = 1.52, 95% ci: 1.26–1.79, p < 0.001). maskwearing reduced symptom likelihood by 36% (p = 0.002), highlighting the importance of protective behaviors. to address these risks, we recommend: 1. policy reform – implement stricter emissions controls and real-time pollution alerts. 2. school-based measures – install air filtration systems and adjust outdoor activities during high-pollution days. 3. public awareness – promote n95 mask use and pollution avoidance behaviors. 4. further research – conduct longitudinal studies 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(2023). effect of acute pm2.5 exposure on lung function in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. journal of asthma & allergy, 20(4), 115-130. https://doi.org/10.2147/ jaa.s405929 pa ge 1 am. j. environ. clim. 1(1), 2022 the american journal of environment and climate (ajec) is a blind peer-reviewed journal, that aims to publish the article(s) immediately after submission of the corrected version by the author. the journal publishes articles that include those containing substantially supported theories, innovative works, substantial experimental results, and/or containing useful and constructive discussions or reviews standardized to regional or international acceptance. the ajec reviews manuscript within approximately one month of submission and publishes accepted articles on the internet immediately upon receiving the final versions. frequency: three issues per year area of publication: environmental science & technology, environment pollution, policy on environment and climate, climate change, sustainable development. editorial team dr. muhammad farhad howladar department of petroleum and mining engineering shahjalal university of science and technology sylhet, bangladesh professor anand v. shivapur department of civil engineering visvesvaraya technological university belagavi, karnataka state, india dr. sofia binte ehsan institute of climate change, universiti kebangsaan malaysia, malaysia dr. velichko dimitri vladimirobitch russian state geological prospecting university, russia dr. k. j. sreekanth research scientist, energy efficiency technologies program (eet) energy and building research center (ebrc) kuwait institute for scientific research (kisr) safat, kuwait dr. mohammad tofayal ahmed department of petroleum and mining engineering, jessore university of science and technology, bangladesh dr. asif rayhan national university of malaysia, malaysia dr. md. mahfuzul islam institute for environment and development univeriti kebangsaan malaysia, malaysia ar. sajal chowdhury department of architecture chittagong university of engineering & technology (cuet), bangladesh dr. parnuwat usapein acting director of rattanakosin college for sustainable energy and environment rajamangala university of technology rattanakosin (rmutr), thailand dr. vikrant katekar research scholar, indian institute of technology, mumbai, india dr. sheikh tawhidul islam professor & director, institute of remote sensing jahangirnagar university, bangladesh contact: american journal of environment and climate (ajec) e-palli llc address: 2055 limestone rd ste 200c, zip code: 19808 wilmington, delaware, usa email: ajec@e-palli.com phone: +1 3024070506 url: https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec/about/submissions mailto:mailto:ajec%40e-palli.com?subject= https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) growth and yield performance of oyster mushroom cultivated in combined cassava peels, coconut residue and coffee waste substrates irish b. elsisura1*, mary amor g. figueroa2 volume 1 issue 1, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.206 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: march 22, 2022 accepted: april 1, 2022 published: april 8, 2022 the oyster mushroom (pleurotus ostreatus) is an edible mushroom that belongs to the class of basidiomycetes. it has reached sufficient market maturity because of its flavor, shelf-life durability, and protein and fiber content. besides their nutritional, medicinal, and economic value, they may help the country’s agricultural waste management, bridge environmental issues, and contribute to climate change resolution advancements. a study on different varieties of agricultural substrates derived from waste materials such as cassava peels, coconut residue, and coffee waste was investigated and compared to sawdust, the common substrate for oyster mushrooms. the effects of different substrates on the morphological characteristics of p. ostreatus, percent contamination, and yield parameters were recorded and analyzed using the analysis of variance in completely randomized design, and their significant results were compared using tukey’s hsd. results showed that different substrate mixtures did not significantly influence the morphological characteristics of p. ostreatus. moreover, sawdust, the common substrate for oyster mushrooms, showed the lowest percent contamination as compared to other substrate mixtures. contaminants found in cassava substrates include trichoderma spp., aspergillus spp., fusarium spp., neurospora spp., and penicillium spp. 80% of cassava peels combined with 10% coconut residue and 10% coffee waste significantly increased the number of fruiting bodies and produced the heaviest fresh weights of oyster mushrooms. stipe length and pileus diameter were also significantly influenced by this substrate mixture, which is comparable to the common substrate. however, further research on the varying proportions of these substrate mixtures on the performance of oyster mushrooms is recommended. keywords cassava peel, coconut residue, coffee waste, oyster mushroom, growing media 1 student researcher of surigao state college of technology, mainit campus, magpayang, mainit, surigao del norte, philippines 2 faculty adviser of surigao state college of technology, mainit campus, magpayang, mainit, surigao del norte, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: ielsisura.tc@ssct.edu.ph introduction oyster mushrooms have reached sufficient market maturity because of their delightful flavor, durability in shelf life, extraordinary protein and fiber content, and nutritional and medicinal features. these kinds of mushrooms can establish and degrade a variety of lignocellulosic substrates and other wastes, which are produced primarily through the activities of the agricultural, forest, and food-processing industries. because of the more favorable climate conditions in southeast asian countries such as the philippines, growing one’s food poses few to no challenges. the country’s main crops are rice, corn, coconut, sugarcane, bananas, pineapple, coffee, mangoes, tobacco, and abaca. secondary crops include peanuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, garlic, onion, cabbage, eggplant, lime, lemon, rubber, and cotton. these are all export-quality products that the country is most proud of. but with the assortment of waste materials it produces, it piles it up to the extent of harming the environment itself, which supplies all of it, ironically. but the ballooning effect of our population reflects the agricultural and waste management of our country. today, only a part of this waste is used, mainly as provisions for goats and other pastured animals. in many regions where cassava is cultivated and processed, volumes of cassava peels are dumped along the roads, especially in wet seasons, and can generate offensive odors and unsanitary conditions. a valorization of cassava waste would not only resolve this environmental predicament but also contribute to the local economy. the coconut residue generated after milk extraction is a food waste by-product, but only a fraction of it is used as fertilizer or cow feed. as a result of these activities, the by-products can contribute to the additional trash in the community. by-products from coffee beans are useful substrates for the cultivation of p. ostreatus in coffee-producing countries like the philippines because this species is fast-growing, substrates are easily accessible, and the mushrooms (or fruiting bodies) are a beneficial source of nutrition and revenue. the researcher recognized the fact that there was not enough identified data that involved the previously indicated substrate combinations in developing p. ostreatus, although individual studies have shown that these substrates are effective in growing oyster mushrooms as previously mentioned. p. ostreatus is uncommon in our area, and the researcher was strongly convinced that the need to discover and innovate ways to cultivate it was significant. it was anticipated in this research to compare and contrast the yield performance of oyster mushroom (p. ostreatus) cultivation in a rural setting using different agricultural waste materials such as cassava wastes, coconut residue, and used coffee grounds, along with a constant percentage of supplementations from rice bran, limestone, and molasses and sawdust as common substrate. the researcher compared five https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.206 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 1-11, 2022 substrate mixtures based on the yield performance in the production of oyster mushrooms. subsequently, the study determined which of these substrates produced the most viable yield. through this study, philippine households and farmers, particularly those in mainit, surigao del norte, can have the opportunity and means to learn more about cultivating edible mushrooms such as oyster mushroom. making these concepts a reality on a micro-to-commercial scale can suit the people’s nutritional demands, not only as a supplement but also with profitable future engagements. it can also provide an opportunity for everyone with the resources to address and contribute to the country’s current understanding of agricultural waste management not only ecologically but also economically. literature review for numbers of years, oyster mushroom (p. ostreatus) has displayed as one of the most cultivated mushrooms in the world, largely in brazil (lee et al., 2002; sánchez, 2010; royse, 2013). pleurotus species’ nutritional value, comprises high protein of 25-50 %, nine essential amino acids, and very low 2-5 % fat content, which makes it fitting as a diet food for health-conscious individuals. the sugar content is reasonable and ranges 17-47%, including minerals such as calcium, potassium, sodium with vitamins such as niacin, riboflavin, vitamin b1, b5, b6, c, and d (caglarirmak, 2007; syed et al., 2009). in addition, oyster mushrooms are good source of extraordinary stamina and vigor, and they are utilized in the manufacturing of many continental recipes. they also have medical properties such as anti-cancer, anti-cholesterol, and antitumorous. mushrooms can help with diabetes, ulcers, and lung illness (quimio, 1976). mushroom protein is a combination of animal and vegetable protein (kurtzman, 1976). mushrooms are also potent in niacin, pantothenic acid, and biotin (subramanian, 1986). the good thing is, we can easily grow it on agricultural and industrial waste. more than half of the overall yield from the land is wasted as straws, leaves, stalks, roots, and so on (zadrazil, 1978). these pollutants can be repurposed into food, and the environment may be less polluted as a result (hayes, 1978). the population of the philippines is climbing to 110,623,413 (as of sunday, march 21, 2021; based on web). with this increase in population is the increase in the demand for food and agricultural products. as a result, it had been estimated that only about 50% of the city household’s solid wastes are pulled by garbage collectors, while 38% of the households incinerate their garbage, and a further 12% of it is dumped in vacant lots (holmer et al., 1999). the bigger portions of the solid waste that are being dumped at the city landfill site are from private households (54%) and commerce and institutions (28%). about 40 to 50% of the city wastes are biodegradable. however, if organic waste is properly processed to form compost, it can be put to good use in urban agriculture and horticulture as a fertilizer and soil improver. farmers and gardeners can benefit from it diligently. the use of organic waste provides a lasting increase in the waste control situation in cities. however, this assumes that urban waste management is integrated consistently with urban horticulture and agriculture (guanzon & holmer, 2015). in thailand, they can easily grow oyster mushrooms (p. ostreatus) in local conditions if the appropriate specifications of food and moisture for growth are available (shah et al., 2004). pleurotus ostreatus demands few environmental controls, and their fruiting bodies are not often attacked by diseases and pests, and they can be cultivated simply and cheaply. all this makes p. ostreatus cultivation an excellent alternative for the production of mushrooms when compared to other mushrooms (sánchez, 2009). cassava (manihot esculenta) belongs to the higher classification manihot; and in order malpighialesis, which is a dominant food crop for approximately 700 million people, especially in african countries. a substantial quantity of waste is usually produced throughout the processing, mainly consisting of tuber peels (sonenberg et al., 2015). previous reports on the utilization of cassava waste for the cultivation of p. ostreatus and p. pulmonarius have shown that yields were reasonable (adebayo et al., 2009; onuoha et al., 2009; obodai et al., 2014). cassava by-products as substrates can give yields of up to 100 percent be of oyster mushrooms which compare well to traditional substrates such as sawdust (frimpong-manso et al., 2011). cassava-based composites thus have the potential to be economically profitable for the production of oyster mushrooms (sonnenberg et al., 2015). coconut palm (cocos nucifera l.) is a tropical plant that belongs to the kingdom plantae, division magnoliophyta, class liliopsida, order arecales, and family arecaceae. the adult de-husked coconut generates 50% wet meat or core, 33% shell, and 17% water. raw coconut meat has a chemical composition that contains about 3.33 percent protein, 33.49 % total fat, 15.23 % starch, 3.23 % total fiber, and a range of minerals and vitamins. the meat of the coconut kernel is used to make coconut milk in mostly asian counties like the philippines. fresh coconut kernel is finely shredded and hand-squeezed or expeller pressed to produce coconut milk. as a result, a significant volume of coconut waste by-product after squeezing out milk is razed to the ground as waste (sopit, 2007). coffee grounds have been investigated as a potential remnant for mushroom growth. coffee grounds’ chemical and structural properties enable for the reuse of lignin (23.90 g/100g dry product), nitrogen (12.79 g/100g dry product), and dietary fiber (60.40 g/100g dry product). the storage capacity of water is influenced by the particulate matter produced by coffee pressing (ropciuc et al.,2016). oyster mushroom cultivation on scg for human consumption is totally possible, and there is significant potential for this extensive form of waste to be utilized and the caffeine content reduced. (cabrera, 2018). lime (caco3) is a key component in mushroom development; commercial mushroom production is dependent on correct substrate ph adjustment. (khan https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 1-11, 2022 et al., 2013). furthermore, molasses has been shown to promote the growth of several bacteria. molasses contains sugar, nitrogen, and other nutrients that aid in cell development. as a result, it produced good results in the production of oyster mushrooms. (erkel, 2009). rice bran is clearly the most widely used and widely available organic component in substrates for the production of a wide range of edible mushrooms (peng et al., 2000) materials and methods table 1. research material, equipment, and raw materials used. materials equipment raw materials metal strainer improvised mushroom bag sterilizer cassava peels cheesecloth shovel coconut residue 6x12 inches polypropylene cellophane shredder coffee waste empty bottle pressurized sprayer sawdust pvp pipe (2.0 cm thick) triple burner gas tank limestone cotton wool water drum molasses rubber bands rice bran soap water bleach small-eyed net basin tarpaulin black cloth pail spoon 70% alcohol denatured alcohol denatured alcohol lamp sacks led light bulb the following materials, equipment, and raw materials were used in the study (table 1). acquisition of pleurotus ostreatus grain spawn and substrate’s raw materials the oyster mushroom spawn was procured from a commercial laboratory located in taguibo, butuan city. different raw materials needed for preparing substrates for the study were gathered from the local area in mainit, surigao del norte. specifically, cassava wastes and coconut residue were from the farmers and neighborhood within mainit, surigao del norte. the coffee-pressed grounds were collected from the nearest coffee shop within surigao city, surigao del norte. preparation of mushroom substrates cassava wastes. fresh cassava wastes were carefully cleaned with water, packed into nylon sacks and were submerged in water for three days to mimic natural fermentation. after three days, the fermented cassava wastes were drained for a day, and sun-dried for two days using a net or a table. the sun-dried cassava wastes were shredded using a shredder. when the desired texture and sizes were attained, it was then packed in a clean sack and stored in a dry place. coconut residue. finely shredded fresh coconut meats were soaked in warm water. the soaked shredded coconut meats were hand-squeezed and pressed through a metal strainer, and cheesecloth. in order to get lighter coconut milk, the process was repeated once or twice. after the milk extraction, the coconut leftovers were sun-dried for at least two days. the dried coconut residues were stored in a cool and dry place. coffee grounds. coffee-spent grounds that were gathered from a coffeehouse were dumped in hot water to eliminate chemicals that might limit fungal development and trigger contamination. to eliminate the extra moisture, cheesecloth was used to softly pressed it to allow any leftover moisture to travel through. the coffee waste was left to cool off in a room temperature for about a day or two. it was placed in a dry container and stored in a cool and airy corner. building and maintenance of mushroom house the mushroom house was four meters from floor to top part, and with an area of four-square meters. it only has one door, no window, and was made of bamboo matting with a nipa roof. the mushroom house was cleaned thoroughly in its entirety by using pressurized water hose with soap, and bleach to ensure the removal of almost every unwanted bacterium or foreign biological substance that could alter the growing process and was regularly sanitized. preparation and bagging of mushroom substrates recently prepared substrates were packaged in a 6x12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 1-11, 2022 inch polypropylene cellophane bags containing 500 grams each based on the different substrate mixtures (table 2). the bottom ends of the bags were folded to allow them to stand on their own. as additional compost was added to the ultimate weight required, an empty bottle was used to compress it. to act as a bottle neck, a 2.0 cm thick and 2.5 cm long pvc pipe was put at the neck of each bag. a piece of cotton wool was inserted into the bags’ necks then covered with paper, and was secured with a rubber band. then, it was labelled carefully and accordingly before proceeding to the next step. sterilization of bagged substrates bagged substrates were sterilized for six hours using the improvised mushroom bag sterilizer, fired with a triple burner stove. the sterilized bags were then removed from the improvised mushroom bag sterilizer to allow the second batch to be accommodated. after sterilization, the substrates were allowed to totally cool-off for six to ten hours before spawn inoculation. table 2. experimental treatments. treatment numbers oyster mushroom substrate mixtures total major substrate ingredients (78%) supplemental ingredients sawdust (control) cassava peels coconut residue coffee waste rice bran molasses limestone 1 100% 20% 1% 1% 100% 2 100% 20% 1% 1% 100% 3 80% 10% 10% 20% 1% 1% 100% 4 70% 20% 10% 20% 1% 1% 100% 5 50% 40% 10% 20% 1% 1% 100% grain spawn inoculation to sterile bagged substrates the oyster mushroom grain spawn was inoculated to the sterile bagged substrates in a biosafety cabinet. the grain spawn was loosened first before inoculation by shaking it. bags were opened carefully, grain spawn were aseptically inoculated to the substrates at one tablespoon per bag, and then was covered again for incubation. incubation of inoculated fruiting bags the inoculated fruiting bags were arranged properly by treatments and replication, then they were placed in a well-ventilated dark area, covered in black cloth, and layered by tarpaulin or any plastic material to prohibit the direct light to our fruiting bags, until fully colonized. fruiting bags were regularly monitored for colonization period. hanging of fully-colonized fruiting bags after colonization, the bags were sorted and hung using a rope and a wire as a lock to the thread. to depict each replication, fifteen mushroom fruiting bags were arranged in a row of every treatment piled at one foot apart. these were then regularly monitored until the appearance of pinheads’ formation. management of fruiting bags spraying water at the back portion of the fruiting bags were done twice a day, at nine o’clock in the morning and three o’clock in the afternoon. the fruiting bags were enclosed in a net to avoid insect and pests’ infestations. the floor was completely covered with a damp cloth to keep the mushroom house’s humidity level stable. the time pinheads were observed, the cotton and paper cap of the fruiting bags were removed to allow the fruiting body to develop. during the stage of fruiting body formation, the room was illuminated with diffused light. bags were checked for contamination on a daily basis. to prevent the spread of contaminants, defective bags were disposed or eradicated as soon as they were observed. contaminations were identified based on their morphological characteristics and were compared to published and identified common contaminants of oyster mushrooms. harvesting of oyster mushroom fruits harvesting was done when the cap of the oyster mushroom reached its maturity with its maximum diameter and in convex shape, by hand picking. fruiting bodies were twisted and pulled carefully from the base of the stem to avoid contamination. data gathered during the course of the study, the following parameters were recorded. 1. morphological characteristics. this parameter includes period of colonization or spawn run, pinhead formation, fruiting body formation and full maturity of oyster mushroom. a) days from spawning to complete spawn run (s-csr). this refers to the number of days the substrates were fully colonized by the fungus from the day of inoculation. b) days from spawning to pinhead formation (s-pf). this pertains to the number of days the fungus produces pinheads’ formation from the day of inoculation c) days from pinhead formation to fruiting body formation (pffbf). this refers to the number of days the fruiting body was observed after the pinhead formation, and d) days from fruiting body formation to full maturity (fbffm). this represents the ideal number of days to harvest after fruiting body formation. 2. percentage contamination. it refers to the percentage of discarded fruiting bags due to contamination in every treatment. this was computed using the formula: https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 1-11, 2022 3. harvest data. this parameter includes number of fruiting bodies per treatment, average mycelia height, average mycelia diameter, and weight of fresh fruiting bodies of oyster mushroom on different substrate mixtures. a) number of fruiting bodies. immediately every after harvest, fruiting body was counted by determining the caps of the fruits. b) average stipe height. it was gathered by measuring the tip of the stem or the stipe of the oyster mushroom to the base of the cap. a ruler was used and was expressed in centimeters. c) average pileus diameter. the pileus or the cap of the oyster mushroom was measured across using a ruler and was expressed in centimeters. d) weight of fresh fruiting bodies of oyster mushroom. it was gathered every after harvest. electronic balance was used to gather the data and was expressed in grams. statistical analysis the study was analyzed using analysis of variance (anova) in completely randomized design and the differences among treatment means were compared using tukey’s honest significant difference (thsd) as posthoc analysis. results and discussion morphological characteristics of p. ostreatus grown in different substrate mixtures days from spawning to complete spawn run (s-csr). the colonization period of oyster mushroom using different substrate mixture is presented in table 3. results of the analysis of variance (anova) showed no significant differences. results of the study showed that 100% cassava peel has the shortest colonization period (33.33 days from inoculation), which was followed by 80% cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 34.67 days of colonization period, and 70% cassava peels + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 35 days of inoculation. the longest period of colonization was recorded in substrate mixtures of 100% sawdust (control) and 50% cassava peels + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with both 35.33 days. these results suggest that different substrate mixtures did not influence the period of colonization of p. ostreatus. days from spawning to pinhead formation (s-pf). the pinhead’s formation period of oyster mushroom using different substrate mixtures is also presented in table 3. same results of the anova were recorded showing no significant differences among treatment means. shortest pinhead formation was recorded in substrate mixtures with 100% cassava peels with 37.33 days. eighty percent cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste and 70% cassava peels + 20% coconut residue +10% coffee waste have shorter period of pinhead formation with both took 38.00 days from inoculation. these were followed by the control (100% sawdust) with 38.67 days of pinhead formation. substrate mixture with 50% cassava peels + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste registered the longest number of days of pinhead formation with 40.00 days from inoculation. however, general results of this parameter suggest that these substrate mixtures did not significantly influence the pinhead formation of p. ostreatus. days from pinhead formation to fruiting body formation (pffbf). the period of fruiting body formation of oyster mushroom using different substrate mixtures is presented in table 3 as well. anova results showed no significant differences among treatment means. data showed that whatever substrate mixtures used, there is no differences in period of fruiting body formation which only took three days from pinhead formation in all substrate mixtures. days from fruiting body formation to full maturity (fbffm). the time taken from fruiting body formation to pin maturation is also presented in table 3. results of the anova revealed no significant differences among treatment means. results of the study showed that all substrate mixtures used had no significant influenced on the period of full maturation of p. ostreatus which only took three days from fruiting body formation in all substrate mixtures. generally, results imply that different substrate mixtures used in the experiment do not influence the colonization period, pinhead formation, fruiting body formation, and full maturation period of p. ostreatus. these findings could be attributed to the cellulose and lignin properties of both cassava peels and sawdust (frimpong-manso et al., 2011) (horisawa et al., 1999). the results also confirmed stanley & nyenke’s (2011) findings that cassava stimulated luxuriant mycelial growth rate and extension table 3. morphological characteristics of oyster mushroom in different treatments. substrate mixtures s-csr 1,ns s-phf 2,ns phf-fbf 3,ns fbf-mp 4,ns 100% sawdust (control) 35.33 38.67 3 3 100% cassava peels 33.33 37.33 3 3 80% cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 34.67 38.00 3 3 70% cassava peels + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 35.00 38.00 3 3 50% cassava peels + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 35.33 40.00 3 3 cv (%) = 2.68 2.52 0.00 0.00 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 1-11, 2022 can be comparable to that of a commonly used substrate such as sawdust. ns=not significant 1 =s-csr (days from spawning to complete spawn run) 2 =s-phf (days from spawning to pinhead formation) 3 =phf-fbf (days from pinhead formation to fruiting body formation) 4 =fbf-mp (days from fruiting body formation to full maturity) days from spawning to pinhead formation (s-pf). the pinhead’s formation period of oyster mushroom using different substrate mixtures is also presented in table 3. same results of the anova were recorded showing no significant differences among treatment means. shortest pinhead formation was recorded in substrate mixtures with 100% cassava peels with 37.33 days. eighty percent cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste and 70% cassava peels + 20% coconut residue +10% coffee waste have shorter period of pinhead formation with both took 38.00 days from inoculation. these were followed by the control (100% sawdust) with 38.67 days of pinhead formation. substrate mixture with 50% cassava peels + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste registered the longest number of days of pinhead formation with 40.00 days from inoculation. however, general results of this parameter suggest that these substrate mixtures did not significantly influence the pinhead formation of p. ostreatus. days from pinhead formation to fruiting body formation (pffbf). the period of fruiting body formation of oyster mushroom using different substrate mixtures is presented in table 3 as well. anova results showed no significant differences among treatment means. data showed that whatever substrate mixtures used, there is no differences in period of fruiting body formation which only took three days from pinhead formation in all substrate mixtures. days from fruiting body formation to full maturity (fbffm). the time taken from fruiting body formation to pin maturation is also presented in table 3. results of the anova revealed no significant differences among treatment means. results of the study showed that all substrate mixtures used had no significant influenced on the period of full maturation of p. ostreatus which only took three days from fruiting body formation in all substrate mixtures. generally, results imply that different substrate mixtures used in the experiment do not influence the colonization period, pinhead formation, fruiting body formation, and full maturation period of p. ostreatus. these findings could be attributed to the cellulose and lignin properties of both cassava peels and sawdust (frimpong-manso et al., 2011) (horisawa et al., 1999). the results also confirmed stanley & nyenke’s (2011) findings that cassava stimulated luxuriant mycelial growth rate and extension can be comparable to that of a commonly used substrate such as sawdust. percent contamination of oyster mushroom bags prepared with different substrate mixtures percent of contamination. the percent contamination of oyster mushroom bags prepared with different substrate mixtures is shown in table 4. results of the anova revealed significant differences among treatment means (p > 0.01). the least percentage of contamination was recorded in the control bags with 100% sawdust (11.11%), followed by the substrate mixtures of 80% cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste and 50% cassava peels + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste comparable percent contamination of 37.78% and 35.56%, respectively. higher contamination was observed in substrate with 100% cassava peels with 71.11% contaminated bags. while the highest contamination was recorded in substrate mixtures with 70% cassava peels + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 84.44% contamination. common contaminants found in the contaminated fruiting bags were presented in table 5. the fungal contaminants observed were as follows: trichoderma spp., aspergillus spp., fusarium spp., neurospora spp., and penicillium spp. these results suggest that 100% sawdust as substrate for p. ostreatus had the lowest percent of contamination. hence, it can be the ideal substrate for oyster mushroom to lower contaminant population. moreover, cassava mixed with coconut residue and coffee waste can enhance contaminant population. these may be due to the fungal contaminants usually associated with higher percentage of cassava-based substrate like aspergillus spp. (obadina, 2006), and coconut-based substrate fusarium spp. (manimekalai, 2010). number of table 4. percent of contaminated oyster mushroom bags in different substrate mixtures. substrate mixtures replication total mean** i ii iii 100% sawdust (control) 6.67 13.33 13.33 33.33 11.11a 100% cassava peels 66.67 73.33 73.33 213.33 71.11c 80% cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 33.33 40.00 40.00 113.33 37.78b 70% cassava peels + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 86.67 86.67 80.00 253.33 84.44d 50% cassava peels + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 33.33 33.33 40.00 106.67 35.56b cv (%) = 8.02; **=significant at 1% level, thsd. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 1-11, 2022 table 5. contaminants found in contaminated fruiting bags substrate mixtures image of contaminations morphological characteristics fungal contaminants 100% sawdust (control) green-mold. color yellow to green, gradually creeping into the black substrate (druzhinina et al., 2011) trichoderma spp. 100% cassava peels produced white to yellowish or crusty on the substrate, foul-rotten smell. (lopez arevalo et al. 1996)) aspergillus spp 80% cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste fusarium mold, can appear pale or brightly colored, with a cottony surface. (manimekalai, 2010) fusarium spp. 70% cassava peels + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste produced bright neon orange to reddish substrate. (suada et al.2015) neurospora spp. 50% cassava peels + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste produced initially white and become blue-green, graygreen, olive-gray, yellow or pinkish with time substrates. (lopez arevalo et al. 1996)) penicillium spp. fruiting bodies of oyster mushroom grown in different substrate mixtures number of fruiting bodies produced in different substrate mixtures is presented in table 6. results of anova revealed significant effects of these substrates to fruiting bodies of oyster mushroom on its first, second, and total flushes. effects of the number of fruiting bodies is shown in fig. 1. first flush. results of the study showed that fruiting bodies (43.15) were significantly higher in substrates with 70% cassava peel + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste which was comparably higher as compared to substrate with 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 37.25 fruiting bodies formed, and was followed by the substrate with 100% cassava peels with 34.30 fruiting bodies. lower number of fruiting body formation was observed in substrate with 50% cassava peel + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 30.70 fruits formed. lowest number of fruiting bodies on the other hand, was recorded in control (100% sawdust) with only 23.21 fruits formed. second flush. results showed that 50% cassava peel + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste had the highest number of fruiting bodies with 50.09 fruits formed, which is comparably higher as compared to substrate with 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste and 100% cassava peels with 46.56 and 35.00 fruits formed. seventy percent of cassava peels + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste and the control (100% sawdust) had the lowest number of fruiting bodies (19.75 and 21.49 fruits, respectively). total flush. results showed that 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste and 50% cassava peel + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste had the highest number of fruiting bodies with 83.81 and 80.78 fruits, respectively. these were followed by the substrate with 100% cassava peels and 70% cassava peel + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste having corresponding fruit formations of 69.30 and 62.90. lowest number of fruiting bodies was recorded in the control (100% sawdust) with only 44. 70 fruits. generally, the above results suggest that the substrate mixtures containing 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste and 50% cassava peel + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste can increase the production of fruiting bodies of oyster mushroom for about 36.08 39.11. these corresponds to the outcomes of the study of sonnenberg et al. (2015) that demonstrated the potential of cassava peel as a substrate ingredient for the production of oyster mushrooms, with a yield comparable to that of sawdust. these results were further explained by youri (2003), who showed that https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 1-11, 2022 sawdust and cassava peel are lignocellulosic material which consist of three main components, namely: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin that serve as a suitable substrate for mushrooms as it degrades lignocellulosic substrates through lignocellulosic enzyme production and utilize the degraded products to produce their fruiting bodies, and were also backed up by the studies of sa´nchez (2009), and grim & wosten (2018). furthermore, ginterova and janotkova (1998) discovered that plant oil with a high total fat content, such as that found in coconut residue, stimulates the formation of biomass in p. ostreatus. as a result, adding the appropriate amount of coconut residue can be used as supplemental substrate, increasing the fruiting bodies and yield of oyster mushroom (sopit, 2007). besides, ropciuc et al. (2016), also observed that mushrooms grown on coffee waste had a respectable percentage of biological efficiency. as a result, combining these substrates can contribute to achieving the highest yield in weight parameters of oyster mushroom. table 6. yield of oyster mushroom in different substrate mixtures. substrate mixture no. of fruiting body (per flush) stipe height (cm) ** pileus diameter (cm) * fresh weight (g. per flush) 1st * 2nd ** total** 1st** 2nd** 100% sawdust (control) 23.21d 21.49c 44.70c 19.45a 21.15a 37.99bc 38.10b 100% cassava peels 34.30b 35.00b 69.30b 11.35bc 13.90ab 50.00ab 51.00a 80% cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 37.25ab 46.56ab 83.81a 12.17b 14.34ab 63.63a 53.50a 70% cassava peels + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 43.15a 19.75c 62.90b 11.00c 13.40ab 52.10ab 32.25b 50% cassava peels + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste 30.70c 50.09a 80.78a 9.44d 10.78b 32.18c 34.25b cv (%) = 19.84 14.34 12.31 2.91 21.88 13.97 7.69 *=significant at 5% level, thsd; **=significant at 1% level, thsd. figure 1. number of fruiting bodies of oyster mushroom grown in different substrate mixtures. stipe height (cm) and pileus diameter (cm) of oyster mushroom grown in different substrate mixtures stipe height (cm) and pileus diameter (cm) of oyster mushroom grown in different substrate mixtures is also presented in table 6. results of anova revealed significant differences on both parameters. stipe height (cm). results showed that the control (100% sawdust) has the longest stipe height with 19.45 cm. this was followed by the substrate with 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 12.17 cm. height which is comparable with 100% cassava peels with 11.35 cm. stipe height. shorter stipe height (11.00 cm.) was observed in 70% cassava peel + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste which as followed by the substrate with 50% cassava peel + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 9.44 cm. pileus diameter (cm). results of the study showed control (100% sawdust) still showed the widest pileus with 21.15 cm. comparably, wider pileus were observed in substrate mixtures such as 100% cassava peels, 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste and 70% cassava peel + 20% coconut residue + 10% cof-fee waste with corresponding pileus diameter of 13.90 cm., 14. 34 cm., and 13.40 cm. smallest pileus was recorded in substrate containing 50% cassava peel + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 10.78 cm. wide. the above results imply that 100% sawdust has the longest stipe and widest pileus with 19.45cm. and 21.15 cm., respectively. comparable pileus size was also observed in substrates such as 100% cassava peels, 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste, and 70% cassava peel + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste. these results inclined to the study of sanjel et al. (2021), that discovered that the size of the https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(1) 1-11, 2022 mushroom is dependent on substrates, and that poor in cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin materials can constitute physical barriers that are difficult to be broken down without the presence of lignin-degrading enzymes. in addition, major ecological factors that affects the stipe height, and pileus diameter in oyster mushroom includes the compactibility or the compressibility of material used as substrate. because of the particle size, it increases the void ratio as moisture plays an important role in bonding because of sawdust and cassava peel’s cohesive or lignin characteristics (azhar et al., 2015). it has been supported by several studies that substrate type such as its lignin characteristic contributes significant differences in stipe height, and pileus diameter of oyster mushroom (besufekad et al., 2020; nkwonta, 2013; tsegaye & tefera, 2017; onyeka et al., 2018; dubey et al., 2019). figure 2. pileus diameter (left), and stipe height (right) of oyster mushrooms harvested from different substrate mixtures. fresh weights (g) of oyster mushroom as influenced by different substrate mixtures fresh weights (g) of oyster mushroom grown in different substrate mixtures is presented in table 6. results of the anova revealed significant effects in the fresh weight of oyster mushrooms in first and second flushes. first flush. heaviest fresh weight (63.63 g) was recorded in oyster mushroom grown from substrate with 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste. comparable effects were observed in substrates containing 100% cassava peels, and 70% cassava peel + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with 50.00 grams and 52.10 grams, respectively. lighter fresh weights on the other hand, were recorded in substrates with 100% sawdust (37.99 g.) and 50% cassava peel + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste (32.18 g.). second flush. heaviest fresh weight of oyster mushroom on the second flush were observed in 100% cassava peels and 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with weights of 51.00 grams and 53.50 grams, respectively. lighter fresh weights were recorded in the other substrate mixtures such as 100% sawdust, 70% cassava peel + 20% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste, and 50% cassava peel + 40% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste with weights that ranged from 32.25 grams – 38.10 grams. based on these results, it suggests that 80% cassava peel + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste can produce a heavy fresh weights of oyster mushroom. moreover, comparable results can be obtained using 100% cassava peels as substrate. these results confirmed the study of sonnenberg et al. (2015) that cassava peels showed to be a potential ingredient in mushroom substrate for it produced more than 100% be which is comparable to that the usual sawdust substrate. moreover, several reports showed that the adding of coconut residue (sopit, 2007), and coffee waste (ropciuc et al., 2016) increases yield and gained a respectable percentage of biological efficiency in oyster mushrooms. therefore, combination of these substrates can contribute to gaining the significant yield in weight parameters of oyster mushroom. conclus ion based on the above results, it can be concluded that various substrate mixtures do not significantly influence the oyster mushroom’s colonization, pinhead formation, fruiting body formation, and the period of maturation. among other substrate mixtures, the common substrate (100% sawdust) can produce the least number of contaminated fruiting bags, as well as the widest mushroom pileus and longest stipe. moreover, the substrate mixture with 80% cassava peels + 10% coconut residue + 10% coffee waste can produce the greatest number of fruiting bodies while also being the most viable in terms of weight yield. thus, different mixtures of cassava peels, coconut residue, and coffee waste were an effective substrate mixture to produce viable yields and, therefore, can be used as a successful substrate for oyster mushroom cultivation. the findings of this study proved that cassava peels and/ or a combination of coconut residue, and coffee wastes can be use as substrate option for mushroom growers due to its high yield potential. aside from their nutritional, medicinal, and economic value, oyster mushrooms (p. ostreatus) may aid in agricultural waste management in the country. these can help bridge environmental issues and advance climate change response. however, further research on the effects of these substrate mixtures to oyster mushrooms as well as its varying proportions, are recommended. references adebayo, g.j., omolara, b.b., and toyin, a.e. 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(1978). cultivation of pleurotus. in the biology and cultivation of edible mushroom (s.t.chang and w.a. hayes, eds). academic press, new york, p512-558 https://doi.org/10.1016/c2013-0-10484-9. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283117219. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283117219. https://spasb.ro/index.php/spasb/article/view/2203. https://spasb.ro/index.php/spasb/article/view/2203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.11.001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.11.001. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267238203. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267238203. https://doi.org/10.1016/c2013-0-10484-9. pa ge 1 pa ge 11 3 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) use of water hyacinth for adaptation to climate change in agriculture in bangladesh anusree ghosh1*, tapas ranjan chakraborty2 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i1.4240 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: january 12, 2025 accepted: february 15, 2025 published: march 02, 2025 bangladesh is a land of wetland, and the country’s main livelihood option is agriculture. due to climate change, agriculture is being interfered with because of different diverse situations. the agriculture here is mostly rainfed and uses available resources to meet the farming requirements. water hyacinth (pontederia crassipes) has a wide range of uses in agriculture, like, cultivation in floating bed, mulching, germinating seeds, and dividing lands, etc. the use pattern is very much localized. the community is using those traditional farming practices as adaptation technology since climate change vulnerabilities are increasing. the development intervention also amplifies the use spectrum. findings of 25 consultations with communities country-wide, conducted between june 2019 to january 2020, stated that the water hyacinth could be a good option in climate adaptation action in agriculture. it was found that the techniques also have a number of forms based on geo-cultural character. the water hyacinth is used to cope with floods, water logging, drought and salinity. the study also found that the transformation of the technologies is not that significant to adapt to the local ecosystem. the promotion of local knowledge and technologies needs proper documentation and adoption while introducing a new ecosystem. since water hyacinthbased farming technologies are low-cost and affordable by the farmers and national policies are committed to climate change adaptation, promotion of this technology needs to be locally adopted. following the national climate adaptation strategies, the use patterns and technologies of water-hyacinth must be local ecosystem specific in a way that it will not interfere the environmental wellbeing and also strengthen the practice of indigenous knowledge. knowledge management is also a requirement of climate adaptation technology promotion. keywords adaptation technology, agrotechnology, climate change adaptation, water hyacinth 1 department of agricultural science, school of education, bangladesh open university, gazipur, bangladesh 2 climate change programme, brac, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: anusreeghosh62@gmail.com introduction bangladesh is recognized worldwide as one of the countries most vulnerable to the impacts of global warming and climate change. this is a wetland land located in the lower part of the basins of three great rivers of the worldthe ganges, the brahmaputra and the meghna. these rivers’ floodplains and numerous tributaries and distributaries cover about 80 percent of the country. as a result of the flat topography of the floodplain, one-fifth to onethird of the country is annually flooded by overflowing rivers during monsoon, from june to september. sudden, severe and catastrophic floods have intensified and are taking place more frequent. bangladesh has been ravaged by floods of catastrophic proportions, in 1998, 2004, 2007, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2017, 2022 and 2024. the people and social system have knowledge and experience of coping with the calamities. the country’s main livelihood option is agriculture. traditional agriculture practice is subject to nature’s well-being. the community themselves have adapted with the flood to some degree and extent. there are a number of traditional adaptation practices in agriculture. water hyacinth, pontederia crassipes, has wide use in traditional farming, which is now being used by the community as adaptation technology to climate change and has potential in community-based adaptation and local adaptation. there are traditional uses of water hyacinths country-wide. since the availability of water hyacinths are comparative more in the southwest ‘beel’ basin and northwest ‘haor’ basin compering with other areas of the country there are good number of planned adaptation interventions from different projects in those two areas. the national adaptation plan of bangladesh (2023-2050) suggested aggregation of water hyacinth for reducing heat stress in signifying adaptation priorities related to fisheries and aquaculture (gob, 2022). the national plan also recommended upscaling of floating agriculture for the southern, haor and beel areas. bangladesh climate change strategy and action plan 2009 (moef, 2009), which is a living document has programmes for development of climate resilient cropping systems. the water hyacinth is being used as a means of adaptation to climate change in agriculture in different ways. in most cases the use-form is traditional but also blended with modern adaptation technologies. the study has documented those practices and has explored the potential as a climate change adaptation action. materials and methods to understand the diversity of the use of water hyacinths in agriculture for adaptation to climate change the study was conducted in most climate vulnerable location of pa ge 11 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 113-118, 2025 the country. there were semi-structured community consultations conducted. in the consultations the participants share knowledge, perception and practice in relation to the local climate change and impact. in the consultations there were no interference from the authors but keeping discussion on tract was carefully done. there were discussions on climate change adaptation practices. the consultations focused on • changes in temperature, rainfall patterns and extreme events; • impact of those changes in crops cultivation and production; • adaptation measures taken by community traditionally and or planned by development intervention by government and development sectors; • detail of the technology if based on water hyacinth. if the community had any form of water hyacinth use practice in agriculture and implication of this traditional practice had been increased due to address the extreme climatic event the field practice was observed and documented in detail. those consultations were conducted between june 2019 to january 2020 in barisal, bhola, brahmanbaria, chandpur, cox’s bazar, cumilla, faridpur, gopalganj, habiganj, khulna, kurigram, mouvibazar, naogaon, natore, netrokuna, nilphamari, noakhali, sunamganj and sylhet districts. the identification of those districts was done by exploring the climate vulnerability index of districts done in the final draft report of nationwide climate vulnerability assessment (moefcc, 2018). in this assessment the volubility indexes were, people affected due to natural disaster, heat stress, ground water quality, depletion and degradation, mangrove forest vulnerability, land availabilty for livestock, water availability, crop yield vulnerability, decrease in livestock & poultry health vulnerability, land availability for agriculture, change in fish culture, change in fish capture, rail network vulnerability, road network vulnerability. the local uses of water hyacinths were observed to know the technology in detail and also the origin of the knowledge were explored. the nationwide climate vulnerability assessment has identified six vulnerable areas, viz., central flood-prone area, northwest drought-prone area, southern coastal areas, northeast haor basin, eastern hilly region, urban areas. the current study was not able to cover the eastern hilly region. the findings in the current paper are based on 25 community consultations that were semi-structured and were conducted countrywide. most of the community consultations were conducted with the farmers in the crop field, a few were conducted in market places but with farmers. the number of participants were from 6 to 11 in a consultation. the study has not covered the hilly areas of the country, there may be some different form of water hyacinths use in agriculture. results and discussion climate change and its impact in agriculture according to the farmers the changes in rainfall pattern is very specific. there is huge rainfall in the early monsoon and in the closing of the monsoon nowadays which was a monsoon long regular rainfall even only two decades ago. there was huge rainfall in a short time which did not happen earlier. also, the form of week-long rainy days which was known locally as “badla” or “badol din” was not observed from the end of the first decade of this century. according to the farmers, the main climatic threat is the changed pattern of rainfall. the changes in the seasonal calendar are clear and visible. more fog is a new threat to agriculture. there was salinity in soil and water in the coastal crop field. evidence of localized drought in very small areas in a scattered distribution was common. there were heat waves and cold waves and floods were frequent in some areas. the use of water hyacinths is mostly to keep the moisture of the soil. technologies water hyacinth has a wide form of use in crop framing that varies from place to place. the use of water hyacinth is mostly to cope with flood, drought and salinity. the local farming technologies based on water hyacinth are as follows: baira ‘baira’ is a form of hydroponics practiced in the north eastern districts of bangladesh. ‘baira’ is a platform of rotted water hyacinth. it is used as a seed bed and for cultivation of different crops, especially the vegetables. it was recorded that 26 crops are cultivated in baira in gopalganj area. ‘baira’ preparation mostly starts in may-july. however, in areas where winter vegetable cultivation is the main purpose of baira farming, baira preparation starts as late as september. the preparation time is dependent on the availability and the maturity of the water hyacinth. about 60 days are required for water hyacinth to be matured and the two-month-old plants are appropriate for making a ‘baira’. ‘baira’ could also be made from immature plants, but in that case the floating platform will not be strong and compact enough. water depth is not a crucial factor for preparing baira. though water hyacinth is the main material, durali (hygroryza aristata) is used to make pot for the seeds. water lettuce (pistia stratiotes), duckweed (lemna sp), hydrilla verticillata. and salvinia sp. are also used for this purpose. there are two forms of baira. one is comparatively smaller in size found in gopalganj district and the other form is quite large available in barisal and pirojpur. the baira is also called as dhap and gatua. the word dhap is very common in pirojpur areas. the preparation and cultivation process in baira at chanda beel of gopalganj is as follows: at the beginning, a long bamboo is horizontally placed on the floating bulk of mature water hyacinth along the desired length of the baira. a person by standing on the bamboo piles up water hyacinths on both sides of the bamboo and subsequently flatten the plants under his feet. this process continues along the bamboo until pa ge 11 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 113-118, 2025 the bed reaches the desired length, breadth and height. after a week or so, water hyacinth is further dumped on the already prepared floating bed. in gopalganj area the common size of a ‘baira’ is around 15 meter long, 2 to 2.5 meter wide and 0.7 to 1 meter height. for a 0.7 to 1 meter height ‘baira’ it is necessary to dump water hyacinth for 2 meters height (table 1). it normally takes 15 to 30 days for water hyacinths of a platform to be rot. after placing a ‘baira’ in the desired place, farmers often anchor bamboo poles to stop the platform from floating away. table 1: change in dimension of ‘baira’ platform over time time length (meter) wide (meter) height (meter) weight (kg) during preparation 11 2.8 2 930 20 days 10.5 2.5 1.5 750 4 months 10 2 1.2 560 in drained out condition 9 1.5 0.6 180 table 2: crops cultivated on ‘baira’ at gopalganj sl local name english name scientific name (family) season 1 ada ginger zingiber officinle (zingibaraceae) summer 2 badhakopi cabbage brassica capitata var. oleracea (brassicaceae) winter 3 barbati cowpea vigna sinensis (papiliaceae) winter 4 begun eggplant solanum melongena (solanaceae) summer winter 5 chal kumra wax gourd benincasa hispida (cucurbitaceae) summer 6 dhan rice oryza sativa (poaceae) winter 7 dhaniya coriander coriandrum sativum (apiceae) winter 8 dheras ladies finger abelmoschus esculentus (malveceae) summer 9 dhundal sponge luffa luffa cylindrica (cucurbitaceae) summer 10 fulkapi cauliflower brassica capitata var. botrytis (brassicaceae) summer 11 gajor carrot daucas carota (apiaceae) winter 12 holud turmeric curcuma longa (zingiberaceae) summer 13 kochu /mukhi taro colocasia esculenta (areceae) summer 14 lalshak red amaranth amarenthus tricolor (amaranthaceae) summer/ winter 15 data stem amaranth amarenthus tricolor (amaranthaceae) summer/ winter 16 lau bottle gourd lageneria siceraria (cucurbitaceae) winter 17 mistikumra pumpkin cucurbita maxima (cucurbitaceae) summer 18 morich chilli capicum frutescens (solanaceae) summer 19 mula radish raphanus sativus (brasicaceae) winter 20 olkapi kohlrabi brassica oleracea var. gongylodes (brassicaceae) winter 21 paat jute corchorus capsularies (tiliaceae) summer 22 palongshak spinach spinacea oleracea (chenopodiaceae) summer 23 puishak indian spinach basella alba (basellaceae) summer/ winter 24 shalgam beet brassica campestris (brassicaceae) winter 25 shim hyacinth bean lablab purpureus (papilionaceae) winter 26 tomato tomato lycopersicon esculentum (solanaceae) winter cultivation in ‘baira’ platforms ‘baira’ farming includes raising seedling as well as cultivating vegetables. for the germination of seeds the seeds are kept in pot like seed germination structure which is locally called as guti. the guti is made from aquatic creeping grass durali (hygroryza aristat) and salvina sp. the ‘guti’ acts as container to hold the seedling. to make a ‘guti’ the durali plants are dried in the sun for 3-4 days. before making a ‘guti’ water is drayed on the dried plants to soften. there is no definite size of ‘guti’ but around 2 meters long ‘durali’ is used in a guti. the wet seeds are inserted in the ‘guti’ with some rotten water hyacinth mostly the root of hyacinth. in general, 2 to 3 seeds are putted in a ‘guti’. the gutis are then pilled in a shed or in a shady place for 3-4 days. after that the gutis are spread on the open ground to allow germination. the seed starts to germinate after 5th days. after 9-10 days when the seedling attains 15-18 cm the gutis are transfer to ‘baira’. the distance between gutis is preferably 20 cm. twenty-six species of crops were recorded cultivated in baira table2 pa ge 11 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 113-118, 2025 the size of ‘baira’ varies with the availability of the raw materials, i.e., the water hyacinths and other environmental factors, like wave action, space availability, and local land use pattern and social practice etc. the material for ‘guti’ also varies on availability. the difference between the ‘baira’ found in gopalganj and barisal is noted in the table 3 bellow: table 3: difference between ‘baira’ cultivation in gopalganj and barisal-pirujpur barisal-pirojpur gopalganj 1. beginning season end of may end of june 2. length 30-60 meter 9-10 meter 3. width 0.6-1 meter 2.7-3 meter 4. crops produced 4 times 2-3 times 5. guti is preparation by indurkani pana (salvina sp.) durali (hygroryza aristat) 6. distance between two gutis not fixed ~20 centimeter the indigenous distribution of ‘baira’ was from limited in the calm wetlands. to reduce the wave actions affecting the ‘baira’ in the chanda beel areas of gopalganj district cultivation of daincha (sesbania bispinos) were found. though daincha was cultivated for fuel wood but farmers also recognized their importance on wave action reduction. bhasan chas ‘bhasan chas’ is practiced in matlab and haimchar areas. the lowlands of this area remain under the standing flood water for a long time in monsoon that agitates cultivation of late summer crop and makes the winter cultivation late. the community is practicing ‘bhasan chas’ to start cultivation in time. the farmers take preparation for the ‘bhasan chas’ from late june. preparation of bhasan the farmers store water hyacinths in a half meter diameter and make a stack of around one meter height. the base is wider than the top. there is no hard and fast role of stacking, the process is simple damping of water hyacinths. according to the farmers, putting the hyacinth by keeping the root upside down and in the periphery takes comparatively little time to decompose. the height of a decomposed dome is around half meter. the stack is commonly called as ‘dom’ or ‘dhomba’. the farmers usually keep a 50-80 cm distance between two doms. the farmers put some soil rich with fertilizer on the dom and plant seeds on it. ‘bhasan chas’ is not practiced as seed bed like baira; the germinated plants grow up on the dom and when the flood water dried up the root system of the plant goes to the top soil of the field. total decomposition of the hyacinths on dome is not necessary for planting on dom. after the harvesting the residue of the dom is used as organic fertilizer. it was found that in haimchar areas the ‘bhasan chas’ advanced cultivation of vegetables by 2 months. if a farmer wants to cultivate the winter crops after the monsoon he has to wait until the flood water dried up or ran out totally. fruit crops and the leafy vegetables are mostly cultivated in the process of ‘bhasan chas’. the most common vegetable cultivated in the ‘bhasan chas’ are as follows: table 4: crops cultivated on bhasan chas at matlab sl local name english name scientific name (family) 1 begun eggplant solanum melongena (solanaceae) 2 lalshak red amaranth amarenthus tricolor (amaranthaceae) 3 lau bottle gourd lageneria siceraria (cucurbitaceae) 4 mistikumra pumpkin cucurbita maxima (cucurbitaceae) 5 puishak indian spinach basella alba (basellaceae) 6 shim hyacinth bean lablab purpureus (papilionaceae) 7 korala bitter gourd momodica charantia (cucurbitaceae) penar bhora cultivation in ‘penar bhora’ is found in brahmanbaria and habiganj district. ‘penar bhora’ is a small floating bed of water hyacinth. the ‘penar bhora’ looks like a pile but floating like a baira. in the wetlands of brahmanbaria and habiganj districts the flood water remains for a long time and the flooding frequency is more compared with the other part of the country; and there is wave action. the size of a ‘penar bhora’ varies from 0.5 to 1.5m diameters. it is a simple stockpile of water hyacinths. the scale of cultivation is not as wide as baira or bhasan chas. this is basically an extension of the kitchen garden. by putting some soil on ‘penar bhora’, the farmers place the seeds. it was recorded that only the bottle gourd and pumpkin are cultivated in ‘penar bhora’. it is very easy to move. in the late monsoon the farmers take ‘bhora’ where they decide to set the climbers. mulching mulching is a common practice in the satkhira region. dried water hyacinth is used like carpet in the vegetable pa ge 11 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 113-118, 2025 garden and field mostly. mulching for a single plant was also recorded for fruit plants. according to the community the mulching is useful to keep the soil moisture and also helps reduce the salinity. powder of salt was found on the top of the mulched water hyacinth layer in munshiganj, satkhira. this is because of the evaporation of saline water from the soil. mulching was also recorded from haor basin and charland where the main objective is keeping the soil moist. in the haor basin the water hyacinth mulching is a common use of cultivating groundnut and potato. mulching of water hyacinth in bikrampur, munshiganj helps for the good color of potato. apart from the mulching in the crop field it was found popular in the kitchen garden and homestead framing. very commonly the pith mulching of water hyacinth is used to grow the water gourd. promotion by development actions adaptation to climate change is already an urgent priority for bangladesh. the practice of ‘baira’, ‘bhasan chas’ and ‘bhora’ has potential use when the flood became more frequent and devastating. there were some interventions for the extension of cultivation in baira. the reduce vulnerability of climate change (rvcc) project, the first climate action project in bangladesh has facilitated the susceptible communities to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change by adopting baira as a new farming option. the sustainable environment management program (semp) has worked for the extension of ‘baira’ practice through the local community. ngos like iucn, center for natural resource studies, bangladesh center for advanced studies and verd have practiced it in haor basin, where the wave action is a problem. ecosystem-specific use for sustainability the water hyacinth availability is not unique everywhere. uncontrolled growth of water hyacinth is a problem for the water ways. the plan is very fast growing if there is an enabling environment. use of water hyacinth in agriculture will not only make the farming climate adaptive but also helps the water navigation by controlling the overgrowth of the floating aquatic weed. a very prominent challenge is the attempt towards the unique use of the species, most development projects being practicing the floating bed, baira, irrespective of the ecosystem challenges. that is one of the main regions of failure stories on climate change adaptation. many organizations including the government also tried to have baira of gopalganj type in the tanguar haor and other haor areas. the haor has wave action which is locally known as “afal”. the gopalganj type baira is not an adaptation option for agricultural farming in the haor basin discussion the national adaptation plan of bangladesh 20232050 has goals to develop climate-resilient agriculture. encouraging interactions, transfers of innovative technology and knowledge, learning from indigenous know-how, and the development of skills and awareness, is a priority action in nap (gob, 2022). care bangladesh has initiated the project rvcc in jashore, narail, bagerhat, khulna and stakhira to extend the baira cultivation (care bangladesh, 2004). hossain (2014) reported 5 crops cultivated in tungipara, gopalganj, the current study found more species. according to gupta, et al. (2021) short-rooted vegetables and leafy vegetables are best-suited to floating gardens. spinach, amaranth, coriander, brinjal, tomato, beans, ladyfinger, chilly, bitter gourd, chili, mint, etc. are a few of the plants cultivated in majili, assam, india. not only the indigenous practice by the farmers, climate change adaptation projects by different ngos also have influence of species diversity increase in floating cultivation. haq et al. (2002) reported that in baira farming pests attack and disease infestation is comparatively low. the use of such platforms made up of plant material to grow plants dated back to a few thousand years. it is also found in some parts of india (in dal lake, kashmir and in some floodplains in assam) and myanmar (in inle lake in southern part of the country and locally called yechan) (iucn bangladesh 2005). irfanullah et al. (2022) noted floating gardens as an adaptation efficient to cope with water logging. the impacts of waterlogging extend to the post-disaster period and make communities vulnerable to vicious cycles of losses, lack of capacity and poverty (islam, 2020). bayu et al. (2022) found that due to climate change the growth of water hyacinth will increase. the seasonal increase in rainfall caused by climate change has significant direct effects on the composition and phenology of invasive plant communities (guo et al., 2020). the increase in rainfall and temperature favors the existence of water hyacinth because water hyacinth can more easily adapt to the fluctuation of temperature and rainfall than other species. fluctuation of temperature and rainfall allow dominance of water hyacinth on the surface of the lake affecting the phenology of the plant community in the lake. this could be due to heavy rainfall and subsequent runoff removing nutrients from various land use systems. the availability of nutrients resulting from high rainfall facilitates the growth and invasion of water hyacinths. future availability of the plant and its use diversification will help the climate actions. harun, et al. (2021) recommended empowering locals with opportunities and enticing them with potential economic gains can be a nudge towards a pro-environment behavioral change in managing water hyacinth. this would aid in upgrading local livelihoods and could foster resilience within the community in tackling both environmental problems and economic setbacks through the management of water hyacinth invasions. conclusion water hyacinth has been a problem for over a century globally at least since the 1980s. it negatively affects ecosystem services and the ecological conditions of aquatic environments. diversified use of water hyacinth pa ge 11 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 113-118, 2025 in agricultural adaptation practices can help control the population of the species. the indigenous and local technologies are not well documented. during the study designing 22 papers have been found published in different journals that noted the use of water hyacinths in agriculture in bangladesh. most of the articles were on ‘baira’, a few described the mulching, but none noted the ‘bhasan chas’ and ‘bhora’. the community based adaptation and locally led adaptation have huge potential using the water hyacinth based agricultural technologies. considering the broader ecological classification of the country the findings can state that the baira is a good technology for the beel basin whereas the ‘bhora’ is for the haor basin of the country. mulching has a scope of salinity control. since mulching helps keeping soil moisture; it could be a good adaptation option for the barind region also. it was found from the experience that the scope of cultivation in ‘baira’ in haor basin has no potential. though number of policy papers suggested the floating bed in haor but the study findings suggest that the recommendations of adaptation options should not be that common since the country has a wide diversity in agro-ecosystem. the practicality should be considered in promotion of adaptation technology. an adaptation option inappropriate with ecosystem has high risk of tearing to a maladaptation. in haor instead of promoting baira the practice of ‘bhora’ can be facilitated. because of climate change water logging especially the slow and late runout of water is a problem for part of the country. the ‘bhasan chas’ may have a potential scope for those areas. it was found from the consultation that no initiative has been taken for the extension of ‘bhasan chas’. but the community feels that it is possible to extend it widely. water hyacinth is available everywhere and is a problem for navigation in some areas. promotion of local knowledge and technologies need proper documentation and adoption while introducing a new ecosystem. the adoption needs to address local hazards and climate change vulnerabilities, cultivation practice and pattern, availability of natural resources, etc. climate change adaptation technologies must be economically affordable by the community. the study found that making a ‘baira’ required huge amount of water hyacinths and also labour intensive. to promote water hyacinth-based adaptation technologies the development and adaptation interventions needs to explore the availability of water hyacinths, the local land use pattern, ecology and hazards of the locality and the cultural practices. considering all those aspects, water hyacinth base cultivation technologies were found to be the best option towards climate smart agriculture. for that knowledge management is also an essential aspect, that must include ecological interaction and form of knowledge transformation. references bayu, t., soeprobowati, t. r., adissu, s., warsito, b., & bloor, m. (2024). effect of climate change on eichhornia crassipes infestation in lake tana sub-basin, north western ethiopia. sustainable environment, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/276585 11.2024.2314399 care bangladesh. (2004). dhap cultivation: coping with change. care. gob. (2022). national adaptation plan of bangladesh (2023– 2050). ministry of environment, forest and climate change, government of the people’s republic of bangladesh. guo, x., xu, z. w., li, m. y., ren, x. h., liu, j., & guo, w. h. (2020). increased soil moisture aggravated the competitive effects of the invasive tree rhus typhina on the native tree cotinus coggygria. bmc ecology, 20(17), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12898-02000284-9 gupta, n., shanal, p., jain, a., & patel, n. (2021). sustainable agriculture in india 2021: what we know and how to scale up. council on energy, environment and water. haq, a. h. m. r., ashaduzzaman, m., & ghosal, t. k. (2002). soil-less agriculture in bangladesh. grameen trust. harun, i., pushiri, h., amirul-aiman, a. j., & zulkeflee, z. (2021). invasive water hyacinth: ecology, impacts, and prospects for the rural economy. plants, 10(8), 1613. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081613 irfanullah, h. m., azad, m. m. a., kamruzzaman, m., & wahed, a. m. (2011). floating gardening in bangladesh: a means to rebuild lives after devastating flood. indian journal of traditional knowledge, 10(1), 31–38. islam, e., khan, s. a., khalequec, m. a., & ahammed, s. s. (2020). waterlogging in the southwest coastal areas of bangladesh: local adaptation techniques and challenges. american scientific research journal for engineering, technology, and sciences, 68(1), 112–119. iucn bangladesh. (2005). baira: the floating garden for sustainable livelihood. iucn bangladesh country office. moef. (2009). bangladesh climate change strategy and action plan 2009. ministry of environment and forests, government of the people’s republic of bangladesh. moefcc. (2018). draft report of nation-wide climate vulnerability assessment in bangladesh. ministry of environment, forest and climate change, government of the people’s republic of bangladesh. pa ge 1 pa ge 49 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) coastal water quality assessment of partially remediated oil spill site regine a. albios1*, judy marie r. zoleta1 volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4648 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: march 02, 2025 accepted: april 06, 2025 published: may 17, 2025 oil spills are a major environmental catastrophe that poses significant threats to marine life and coastal communities. this study assesses the coastal water quality of a partially remediated oil spill site in jasaan, misamis oriental. water samples were collected from kimaya, luz banzon, and solana stations to analyze key physico-chemical parameters, including temperature, ph, salinity, nitrate, total suspended solids, biological oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, and oil and grease using descriptive comparative research design. according to the findings, the water quality parameters remained within acceptable limits. however, salinity in station 3 was lower on average and not normally distributed, likely due to local activities. among all the parameters, only temperature did not significantly differ between stations. however, it stayed within the allowable limits for class sc waters, as defined by denr administrative order 2016-08. successful cleanup activities were indicated by oil and grease concentrations that were continuously below the reporting limit (<1 mg/l). the water quality after cleanup has remained stable throughout time, ensuring that it is suitable for marine life and recreational activities. the study emphasizes the importance of community involvement, sustained enforcement policies, and long-term monitoring in maintaining water quality in areas affected by oil spills. keywords coastal water quality, denr compliance, marine ecosystem, oil spill, remediation 1 college of engineering, liceo de cagayan university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: ralbios98272@liceo.edu.ph introduction oil spills from maritime transportation have a huge effect on the economy and environment which can persist for years even with remediation efforts. accidents involving oil tankers, offshore platforms, pipelines, and even smaller vessels are often the cause of these disasters. the mv tower 1 vessel, formerly known as the mv racal iv, had a hole in its hull, resulting in an oil spill incident that occurred on april 3, 2021, which affected the livelihoods of most residents in the barangays of jasaan. the residents in the said barangays have expressed concern that the poisoning of seas and shorelines can cause significant losses whose coastal economies rely heavily on fishing and tourism. hence, it threatened their primary sources of income—fishing and tourism. when oil spills get into the environment, it wreaks havoc on ecosystems. in the ocean, it spreads across the water’s surface, polluting habitats and putting marine life at serious risk (solo et al., 2021). coastal areas, including fragile ecosystems like mangroves and estuaries, can suffer lasting damage. the toxic oil contaminates their habitats and disrupts their feeding patterns and reproduction. thus, the harm doesn’t stop at wildlife but also create significant challenges for human communities that rely on these environments. beyer et al. (2016) supports this claim. a recent oil spill incident from the mt terra nova, which capsized off the coast of manila bay, also prompted urgent efforts to contain and clean up the spilled fuel (villamor, 2024). based on the assessment, the emb-region 10 reported that 80 percent of the spilled oil was already removed in the affected areas through remediation. the villagers collected at least 2,000 liters of oil-contaminated seawater from the seafloor using sawdust and mosquito net. as a source of nourishment and food as well as a source of revenue, the locals had to wait until the spill was completely contained before taking a bath or going fishing (jerusalem, 2021). water quality assessment is a vital component of environmental monitoring, providing crucial information on the physicochemical and biological status of aquatic ecosystems. these parameters play a crucial role in evaluating ecological health and determining areas that are partially remediated and may need additional interventions, including the level of environmental awareness (zoleta & nawang, 2015). to evaluate environmental recovery and direct cleanup operations, it is crucial to analyze and monitor the quality of coastal water following oil spills. this study set out the current state of the coastal water quality after the post-oil spill incident. literature review this study utilized suter’s framework to evaluate water quality post-cleanup, examining residual pollutants and ecological impacts on marine life. by applying the tea framework, the study provided a systematic understanding of the ongoing ecological risks and recovery stages of the affected ecosystem. the environmental monitoring theories which proposed that water bodies are dynamic systems influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors, and requires continual monitoring to track variations in water quality over time supported the framework (jørgensen & fath, 2011). to track long-term changes in the quality of coastal water, this study assessed the physical, chemical, and biological pa ge 50 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 49-56, 2025 properties of water samples including ph, temperature, dissolved oxygen (do), biological oxygen demand (bod), total suspended solids (tss), salinity, nitrate, and oil and grease. iloabuchi et al. (2024) emphasize that strengthening regulatory frameworks, improving spill response capabilities, and promoting transparency are essential for advancing responsible practices in the petroleum sector. while most of the oil spill incidents are the result of human mistakes, the negative impacts on water quality, such as elevated pollution levels, altered physicochemical characteristics, and disturbances to marine ecosystems, are regularly noted in the literature (peterson et al., 2003; whitehead, 2013). depending on how the oil spill’s effects were handled, the influence on water quality was only temporary (effendi et al., 2022). the study of bacusa et al. (2022) emphasized the importance of bioremediation in this case. biodegradation and other oil weathering mechanisms play a major role in reducing the amount of oil in the environment. although biodegradation can mitigate the effects of oil spills, it is still influenced by several physicochemical and environmental parameters. low ph values are indicative of both contaminated acid drainage and water that is rich in dissolved organic matter (ololade & lajide, 2010). at low temperatures, enzymatic activities associated with oil biodegradation decrease (bacosa et al., 2018). the greatest bioremediation efficacy was reported in the summer, followed by spring, autumn, and winter, in a study on hydrocarbon bioremediation in seawater that has been simulated to be contaminated by petroleum taken from tokyo bay (aung et al., 2018). temperature has an impact on the makeup of the microbial community since various bacteria have temperature tolerance (lui et al., 2017). there are oil spills from boats and residential trash in the water, which will hinder the growth of aquatic plants and the photosynthetic rate, which will lead to low do (best et al., 2007). because the oil coating obstructs the air’s diffusion mechanism, it can also directly result in low levels of dissolved oxygen in the water (ifelebuegu et al., 2017). a large amount of crude oil causes a sudden rise in bod due to the activity of hydrocarbon-degrading organisms and the reduced oxygen dissolution in the water (enujiugha & nwanna, 2004). because of this, water with a low bod is of good quality, but water with a high bod is considered contaminated. typically, unpolluted natural water has a bod of 5 mg/l or below. also, different organic and inorganic elements can be introduced into the water by oil spills, changing the natural equilibrium and raising the total dissolved solids, in turn, will also realize the turbidity of the water (andalecio et al., 2014). most of the time, low to intermediate-salinity waters have the highest rates of oil and mineral flocculation (daly et al., 2016). hence, salinity was considered as another important parameter. nutrients, on the other hand, play a crucial role in the biodegradation of spilled oil. according to recent research, adding nutrients improves the rate at which oil breaks down. for instance (chen et al., 2020). oil and grease degrade extremely slowly. even the smallest film of oil or grease can have an impact on aquatic life (pintor et al., 2016). monitoring a range of criteria, such as chemical contaminants, biological indicators, and physical qualities, is necessary to assess the quality of the water in partially remediated oil spill sites. a thorough picture of the state of the ecosystem and the status of recovery is provided by this multifaceted approach (owens et al., 2005). to evaluate the success of cleanup measures and the restoration of water quality, ongoing monitoring is necessary. the significance of a thorough monitoring program that considers physical, chemical, and biological characteristics is emphasized by research conducted by li et al. (2020). these kinds of systems could recognize patterns, spot new problems, and direct adaptable management techniques. materials and methods the descriptive–comparative assessment method was utilized in this study. the research study approaches to obtain the water quality by measured factors include ph, temperature, dissolved oxygen (do), biological oxygen demand (bod), total suspended solids (tss), salinity, nitrate levels, and oil and grease. chang et al. (2021) conducted a study using descriptive-comparative to evaluate the quality of coastal water. this study was conducted in jasaan, misamis oriental, specifically in the fishing communities where the oil spill disaster occurred three years ago. these communities reside in the coastal barangays of kimaya, luz banzon, and solana and predominantly depend on marine resources for their livelihoods. jasaan is located on the island of mindanao at around 8.6516, 124.7535. it is estimated that the elevation at these coordinates is 19.8 meters, or 64.9 feet, above mean sea level. the research sites’ precise locations are shown in table 1. figure 1 and 2 on the other hand, shows the locations of the sampling sites and the oil spill sites, respectively. table 1: overview of the locations and characteristics of the sampling stations station area geographic location area description 1 kimaya, jasaan misamis oriental 8° 38’41” n, 124° 45’21” e less populated but settlements are near the coastline 2 luz banzon, jasaan, misamis oriental 8° 38’21” n, 124° 45’41” e less populated but settlements are near the coastline 3 solana, jasaan, misamis oriental 8° 37’26”’ n,124° 45’ 39” e less populated but settlements are near the coastline. construction and industrial are also occur near-by the area. pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 49-56, 2025 figure 1: sampling locations in jasaan, misamis oriental figure 2: oil spill incident in jasaan, misamis oriental water samples were collected from the designated sampling sites in jasaan, misamis oriental namely: station 1 (kimaya), station 2 (luz banzon), and station 3 (solana). the process of collecting water samples was anchored from the study of suarez and zoleta (2024) in which sampling was carried out in replicates at each sampling site. key water quality parameters such as ph, temperature, dissolved oxygen (do), biological oxygen demand (bod), salinity, total suspended solids (tss), nitrates, and oil and grease were measured. the data obtained were compared to denr administrative standards 2018-06 and consequently subjected to statistical analysis for validation. the set of data obtained was compared with the denremb guidelines. the analysis of variance (anova) was utilized to validate the results. results and discussion problem 1. to what extent do the water quality parameters vary among the three (3) stations in jasaan in terms of: 1.1 physical 1.1.1 temperature 1.2. chemical 1.2.1 ph 1.2.2 salinity 1.2.3 nitrate 1.2.4 total suspended solids (tss) 1.2.5 biological oxygen demand (bod) 1.2.6 dissolved oxygen 1.2.7 oil and grease? the mean values for the three jasaan stations vary during each sampling period, as seen in figure 5. additionally, table 3 shows the summary matrix for both water quality samplings which is a reliable indicator of compliance with dao 2016-08’s criteria for water quality class sc. the mean temperature across sites is 27.51°c, which is within the acceptable range of 25-31°c, indicating stable thermal conditions that are unlikely to stress aquatic life. the average ph of 8.11 falls well within the permissible range of 6.5-8.5, suggesting no significant acidic or alkaline pollution, thus supporting biodiversity. salinity averages at 1.82 ppt, significantly below the denr standard of 30 ppt, which may indicate freshwater inflows or dilution effects from remediation efforts, potentially altering the saline habitat and making it less saline. nitrate concentrations are low at 0.16 mg/l, well below the allowable 10 mg/l, reflecting minimal nutrient loading and reducing eutrophication risk. the level of total suspended solids (tss) is 9.67 mg/l, which is much lower than the 80 mg/l threshold that is advised. this implies that remediation is effective in reducing sedimentrelated contaminants. the average biochemical oxygen demand (bod) is 5.27 mg/l, compliant with standards and suggesting a manageable organic load for oxygen recovery essential for aquatic life. dissolved oxygen (do) measurements show an average of 5.24 mg/l, compliant with the minimum standard of 5 mg/l. additionally, the oil and grease (o/g) test results pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 49-56, 2025 reported as less than the reporting limit or less than 1mg/l, suggest that concentrations are minimal or undetectable. this is a positive indicator of the remediation’s effectiveness in addressing hydrocarbon contamination, which is a primary concern following an oil spill. figure 3: summary results of the physico-chemical parameters table 3: summary matrix of overall for both sampling of water quality results versus denr water quality standards parameter station 1 station 2 station 3 avg. mean dao2016-08 remarks tempera-ture (°c) 27.38 27.72 27.42 27.51 25-31 compliant ph 8.32 7.62 8.38 8.11 6.5-8.5 compliant salinity (ppt) 2.59 2.17 0.70 1.82 30 compliant nitrate (mg/l) 0.023 0.047 0.408 0.159 10 compliant tss (mg/l) 8.33 7.67 13.00 9.67 80 compliant bod (mg/l) 5.01 4.93 5.88 5.27 7 (c) compliant do (mg/l) 4.92 4.99 5.82 5.24 min. 5 compliant o/g (mg/l) <1** <1** <1** <1** 3 compliant **reporting limit table 4: results of jasaan sea water analysis in 2021 parameter station 1 station 2 station 3 temperature (°c) 30 30.5 30.5 ph 8.3 8.3 8.3 salinity (ppt) — — — nitrate (mg/l) 0.27 0.19 1.20 tss (mg/l) 9 9 5 bod (mg/l) — — — do (mg/l) 8.4 8.5 7.5 o/g (mg/l) <1** <1** <1** source: denr-emb region x salinity and biochemical oxygen demand (bod) measurements were included in the current parameters, providing a more comprehensive assessment of water quality of partially remediated oil spill site. while some of the values for all parameters are in their normal range, some are extremely low, and some are near the recommended maximum limit. as to the oil and grease, the values are the same as the when the water body was remediated. table 4 shows the results of the analysis of pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 49-56, 2025 jasaan sea water after oil spill incident. overall, it can be inferred that the oil spill site was perfectly maintained from the time it was remediated until the time of sampling problem 2. is there a significant difference in the water quality of jasaan coastal waters across stations in terms of the parameters? table 4: results of jasaan sea water analysis in 2021 parameter source sum of squares df mean square f sig. remarks tempera-ture between groups 0.404 2 0.202 0.046 0.955 no significant dif-ference (p > 0.05) within groups 66.045 15 4.403 total 66.449 17 ph between groups 2.164 2 1.082 6.091 0.012 significant differ-ence (p < 0.05) within groups 2.665 15 0.178 total 4.829 17 salinity between groups 11.917 2 5.959 39.197 0.0001 significant differ-ence (p < 0.05) within groups 2.280 15 0.152 total 14.197 17 nitrate between groups 0.559 2 0.280 74.952 0.0001 significant differ-ence (p < 0.05) within groups 0.056 15 0.004 total 0.615 17 tss between groups 101.333 2 50.667 7.862 0.005 significant differ-ence (p < 0.05) within groups 96.667 15 6.444 total 198.000 17 bod between groups 3.368 2 1.684 9.144 0.003 significant differ-ence (p < 0.05) within groups 2.762 15 0.184 total 6.131 17 do between groups 3.008 2 1.504 6.239 0.011 significant differ-ence (p < 0.05) within groups 3.615 15 0.241 total 6.623 17 the findings shown in table 3 indicated that, except for temperature, there is a statistical difference in stations. this indicates that there are no appreciable differences in temperature among the three stations. additionally, it shows values that are substantially distinct from one another but still fall within the normal range. as a result, certain values are both higher and within the range. these discrepancies are explained by the different activities and conditions in each sampled site. a significant spatial variation in ph values (p = 0.012) occurred across all sampling sites. a ph variation can result from natural buffering, pollution, or industrial discharges. as highlighted by de-la-cruz and quijano (2021), a stable ph within this range is essential for biological functions such as respiration and reproduction in aquatic organisms. the salinity levels measured have high variation between stations but stable and within limit. salinity shows a highly significant difference among stations, as indicated by a p-value of 0.0001 (p<0.05). stable salinity is crucial for species sensitive to salinity fluctuations, such as corals and mangroves (jiang et al., 2020). with nitrate, the results show a significant difference across stations (p=0.0001), with a high f-value of 74.952. nitrate concentrations remained well below the dao 2016-08 standard of 10 mg/l for marine waters. low nitrate levels are crucial to prevent eutrophication, a process that can lead to algal blooms, hypoxia, and biodiversity loss (anderson et al., 2021). tss levels indicate significant differences (p=0.05) and were observed to be below 80 mg/l. low tss is essential for reducing turbidity, which enhances light penetration needed for photosynthesis in aquatic plants like seagrasses and corals (li et al., 2021). pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 49-56, 2025 as for bod, it exhibited significant differences across the stations (p=0.003), indicating that differences in organic load and decomposition processes between stations are substantial. low bod is critical for maintaining oxygen availability for aquatic organisms. excessive bod levels, often linked to organic waste, can deplete oxygen and disrupt ecological balance (rehman et al., 2021). dissolved oxygen on the other hand, shows significant variation across stations (p=0.011) but within standard limits. do levels support aquatic life and are a positive indicator of water quality and ecosystem health. adequate do is fundamental for the survival and reproduction of marine species and indicates healthy ecosystem processes like nutrient cycling and organic matter breakdown (nguyen et al., 2022). oil and grease levels were recorded at below 1 mg/l in all stations across months, complying with the dao 201608 standard of 3 mg/l for class sc. this result indicates successful remediation efforts to remove hydrocarbon contaminants. this statement is supported by kose et. al (2021) that low oil and grease levels are essential to prevent bioaccumulation and toxicity in marine organisms, particularly in fish. problem 3. how does the current water quality compare to the conditions after the remediation of the oil spill, and to what extent does it comply with denr standards? from the results of the laboratory analysis conducted based on the current data collected, it can be inferred that the present condition shown revealed no variances and is as good as when the coastal area was remediated particularly in s1 (station 1) kimaya, s2 (station 2) – luz banzon, and s3 (station 3) solana. conclusions the extent to which water quality parameters vary in their value is low because all of them are within normal range. oil and grease are constantly less than the reporting limit across months in all stations, this signifies a condition that has been the same since after remediation in april 2021. the coastal water quality physical and chemical parameters of the partially remediated oil spill site in jasaan are compliant with denr administrative order 2016-08 suggesting normal water quality. the analysis of water quality parameters across the three stations demonstrates that while the temperature remains consistent, other key indicators such as ph, salinity, nitrate, tss, bod, and do exhibit significant variability. incorporating salinity and biochemical oxygen demand (bod) as additional parameters in the present evaluation provides a more precise assessment of water quality, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the site’s ecological status. these results emphasize the importance of integrating ecological rehabilitation with continuous long-term monitoring to ensure sustained recovery and to identify and address changes in environmental conditions over time. recommendations based on the findings and conclusion presented, the following recommendations are suggested: management implications 1. the researcher recommends establishing a longterm, comprehensive monitoring program on biological indicator, including heavy metals parameter. 2. the researcher recommends for community engagement by training local communities in pollution monitoring and coastal management. 3. the researcher recommends foster awareness about the importance of sustainable practices and advocate on ecological rehabilitation such as, planting mangroves. policy implications 1. the researcher recommends that the denr-emb, philippine coast guard, and local government unit (lgu) may continue to implement a stricter regulation for the operation and maintenance of sea transport including motorized fishing boats to minimize the risk of oil spills. 2. the researcher recommends developing policies requiring marine transport companies to maintain wellequipped and regularly tested oil spill response plans. research implications 1. for future research, an additional seasonal monitoring based on the weather conditions for better comparison on the measured parameters on water quality. 2. the researcher recommends conducting shoreline setting studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of the interaction between coastal processes and shoreline stability in the affected areas. references aeppli, c., carmichael, c. a., nelson, r. k., lemkau, k. l., graham, w. m., redmond, m.c., & reddy, c. m. 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(2015). assessment of cagayan de oro river: basis forintervention. liceo journal of higher education research, 11(1). https://doi. org/10.7828/ljher.v11i1.907 pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) assessment of smallholder farmers’ responses to flood incidence in the oti river sub-basin silas uwumborge takal1*, abdul-wahab tahiru1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i1.3874 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 04, 2024 accepted: november 07, 2024 published: january 22, 2024 this study aimed to assess the responses of smallholder farmers to incidence of floods in the oti river sub-basin. the findings provide useful information for enhancing the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to respond to flood hazards and improve their resilience and disaster preparedness in the study area. this study used the simple random sampling procedure to select 399 farmers and descriptive statistics was used to identify and examine response strategies adopted by smallholder farmers. the results of the study showed that livelihood of smallholder farmers were greatly impacted by factors such as: distance to river, elevation of communities below the river, increase in rainfall, lack of early warning systems and lack of emergency response systems. the results further showed that the farmers responded to flood incidence through: building of raised beds, crop diversification, livestock relocation, the use of conservation farming practices.the majority (87%) of the farmers stated that they were vulnerable to the impacts of floods in the study area. the findings of this study enhanced understanding on access to relevant and timely information such as an early warning to farmers during the start of the farming/ rainy season to support their adaptive responses to floods. keywords floods, oti river sub-basin, response strategies, smallholder farmers 1 department of environment and sustainability sciences, university for development studies, ghana * corresponding author’s e-mail: takalsilas@gmail.com introduction global food production is substantially dominated by smallholder farmers, ensuring food security, community and economic development, particularly in countries where agriculture is the dominant source of livelihood. it is estimated that 70-80% of the world’s food is produced by smallholder farmers (wolfenson, 2013; fao, 2014; samberg et al., 2016). in ghana, agriculture is predominantly on a smallholder basis, with most of the farm holdings less than 2 hectares (mofa-srid, 2021). admittedly, smallholder farmers are the main drivers of ghana’s agriculture sector, accounting for 80% of the total food produced in the country (asare-nuamah & mandaza, 2020; rai et al., 2024; samuel, 2023) and ensuring crop diversity all over the world (conway, 2011). however, in both developed and developing countries, agricultural productivity and economic well-being of smallholder farmers have been exacerbated by the increasing frequency and intensity of floods, especially in flood-prone areas. this study focuses on the recurring flood situations in the oti river sub-basin of the white river basin and their impacts on smallholder farmers in the saboba district of ghana to assess the measures smallholder farmers hold to respond to flood incidence. the oti river basin is a sub-basin of the white volta river basin, spanning across the whole of west africa (takal et al., 2023). this sub-region of africa is characterized by a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons and as such prone to floods especially during the peaks of rains (ekwezuo & ezeh, 2021). compared to many countries in west africa, ghana has experienced a significant increase in flooding. for example, smallholder farmers along the basin stretch, river valleys and lowlying areas have suffered the worst flood incidence due to heavy rainfalls (owusu, 2016). as a result, the most vulnerable smallholder farmers and communities alongside the paths of the river are hardest hit, potentially affecting their food, economic and health security and wellbeing. floods with their destructive potential, result in substantial damage to crops, loss of livestock and damage to critical infrastructure that supports agricultural activities (rehman, 2015; mensah & ahadzie, 2020; atanga & tankpa, 2021). the extant literature has shown that floods impact not only agricultural productivity but also hold significant health implications, with flood events leading to an increase in diarrhea, malaria, and hepatitis e in affected areas (alderman et al., 2012; dotse-gborgbortsi et al., 2022). to this end, floods contribute to the spread of diseases and affect the overall well-being of people. floods have been a significant concern that affects livelihoods and food security. according to atanga and tankpa (2021) and akwotajie (2024), floods result in loss of income-generating activities notably disrupting farms, pastures and livestock and causing substantial damage to critical infrastructure and socio-economic activities linked to the agriculture sector. these impacts of floods alongside the manifestation of climate change, a resultant effect of flood disasters, tend to reduce crop yields, animal production and food production. the recurrent flooding exacerbates the vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers who heavily rely on crops for their livelihoods. hence, understanding how smallholder farmers in the oti river sub-basin respond to these recurrent flood incidences becomes imperative. pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 alare et al. (2018) highlighted that smallholder farmers in semi-arid regions of northern ghana have been exploring climate-smart agriculture practices to enhance their resilience to climate-related challenges like flood disasters. as noted by bichet and diedhiou (2018), climate change has led to changes in precipitation patterns, with some areas experiencing increased rainfall intensity. the increased rainfall intensity has severe impacts on livelihoods and has been evident in northern ghana, emphasizing the need for sustainable strategies to address the vulnerability of natural resource-dependent communities (armah et al., 2010). research has highlighted the need for improved flood risk management practices in ghana to enhance resilience (almoradie et al., 2020). furthermore, a study of flood disasters in urban areas like accra has revealed the interconnectedness of extreme weather events, health systems, and urban planning (codjoe et al., 2020). urban households in flood-prone regions have shown varying levels of disaster risk perception, influencing their preparedness and response strategies (qi et al., 2021). informal settlements in urban areas have been particularly vulnerable to flooding, highlighting the need for inclusive urban flood management strategies (amoako & inkoom, 2017). the assessment of smallholder farmers’ responses to flood incidence in the oti river sub-basin is crucial for understanding the challenges faced by vulnerable communities in ghana. by examining the impacts of floods on agriculture, livelihoods, health, and urban settlements, this study aims to contribute to the development of sustainable strategies to enhance resilience and adaptation to flood disasters in the region. literature review smallholder farmers’ responses to floods to understand smallholder farmers’ responses to flooding, there have been extensive discussions and some empirical studies conducted to assess the response strategies employed by these farmers to respond to flood shocks (alhassan, 2020; enete et al., 2016; okeleye et al., 2016). most of these studies reported that smallholder farmers respond to flood shocks by adopting on-farm strategies such as early and upland planting, crop rotation and adoption of early maturing plants (alhansan, 2020; rahut 2020; thennakoon et al., 2020). for example, alhansan (2020) examined the effect and determinants of flood adaptation strategies using a multinomial endogenous treatment effect model and ordered probit model and found that farmers respond to flood shocks through on-farm adaptation strategies such as early and upland planting, crop rotation and adoption of early maturing plants. alhansan (2020) asserts that farmers who adopted these strategies had their food security situation improved and recovered faster from flood shocks. furthermore, the empirics of thennakoon et al. (2020) showed that farmers with contracted lands have a higher likelihood of implementing adaptation strategies in response to floods compared to farmers with rented lands. while the growing body of studies believe that farmers adopt on-farm activities as their response strategies to floods, others argue that farmers engaged in non-farm activities notably petty trading and selling of assets such as livestock (alhansan, 2020). for example, congruent to alhansan’s point of view about the non-farm response strategies of farmers to extreme weather conditions, enete et al. (2016) in nigeria viewed it in broader stratum, indicating that farmers engaged in the selling of assets, borrowed loans for livelihood diversification, temporal migration, social network support, compensation from agencies, and soil conservation practices as their strategic response to floods. similarly, iqbal et al. (2015) opined that varietal change, late sowing, and intensification of inputs are the adaptation strategies employed by farmers and the implementation of these strategies positively and significantly affect net revenues. literature also showed that early warning systems helped smallholder farmers prepare for and respond to flood incidents (piennah et al., 2023). by receiving timely information about impending floods, farmers can take proactive measures to protect their crops, livestock, and property. early warning systems enable farmers to evacuate to safer locations, secure their belongings, and minimize potential losses during flood events. in addition to early warning systems, empirical evidence also points to the fact that farmers adopt crop and livestock insurance, bund-making, land-leveling, and tree planting, to combat the impact of localized floods (ali & rahut, 2019). among these mitigating strategies, the authors indicated that tree plantation was ranked the best mitigating strategy followed by crop and livestock insurance, land leveling, and then bund making. contrary to the empirics of ali and rahut, (2019), okeleye et al. (2016) in nigeria, assert that most smallholder farmers lack access to insurance facilities, timely and precise flood early warning systems, flood local signs and community flood management committees. locally, smallholder farmers respond to or manage floods through traditional and indigenous systems. the work of fabiyi and oloukioi, (2013) in nigeria, though largely qualitative, indicates that farmers rely on sand filling, mud and concrete embankment, pathways for water, wooden bridge construction, and pile foundation building as response strategies to flooding. social support, local public work have been identified as indigenous knowledge heavily relied upon to manage the devastating impacts of floods (fabiyi & oloukioi, 2013) the adoption of these response strategies to floods among smallholder farmers is multifaceted and influenced by a combination of factors. for instance, ali and rahut (2019) noted that farmers’ decision to adopt these measures is influenced by socio-economic variables such as education level, income, infrastructure and extension services received. moreover, thennkoon et al. (2019) highlight the importance of demographic factors, access to information, and social networks play a significant role in farmers’ response capacity to adapt to pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 extreme weather events. according to iqbal et al. (2015), soil fertility, farmer’s tenancy status, size of holding, nonfarm income, and access to certain extension sources are some of the factors that influence the adaptation strategy of farmers. specifically, the authors contend that farmers who receive regular visits from extension agents are more likely to adopt climate-resilient practices such as crop diversification and soil conservation. this illustrates the pivotal role of extension services in promoting adaptive behaviours among smallholder farmers. similarly, in the builsa-north district of ghana, the choice of response strategies is influenced by age, access to extension services, and the national disaster management organization (nadmo) services (kassim et al., 2020). from the forgoing discussions, it is evident that smallholder farmers respond to floods through on-farm and non-farm adaptation strategies which are shaped by socioeconomic, demographic, and environmental factors. for example, while education level may enhance farmers’ awareness of climate risks, access to information and supportive social networks have a greater impact on farmers’ ability to implement mitigation measures effectively. however, the extant literature showed notable gaps that need further exploration. the long-term effectiveness of different adaptation measures adopted by smallholder farmers has yet to be well documented and assessed by researchers to provide a roadmap for longterm policy directions. additionally, gender-dimensional responses to floods remain relatively understudied. this study strives to provide insight into these gaps in the literature for a more comprehensive understanding of smallholder farmers’ responses to floods. materials and methods study area saboba district is situated in the northeastern corridor of the white volta river basin within the northern region of ghana, which consists of sixteen districts (chegbeleh et al., 2020). saboba town serves as the administrative capital of the district. the district spans an area of 1,751.2 square kilometres and is located between latitudes 24° and 25° north and longitudes 27° and 13° east. the saboba district shares its borders with neighbouring districts. it is situated to the north of chereponi and to the south of tatale sanguli. the yendi and gushiegu municipalities are next to the district on its western side. the river oti serves as the delineation between ghana and the republic of togo, establishing the eastern international boundary between the two nations. the vegetation pattern of the saboba district is characterized by savannah grassland featuring stunted trees, drought-tolerant trees, and clusters of shrubs dispersed throughout. nevertheless, many human activities such as agriculture, controlled burning of vegetation, and construction are causing detrimental effects on the natural vegetation (chegbeleh et al., 2009). these activities present considerable obstacles to the conservation and long-term viability of the indigenous plant life. construction projects frequently necessitate land clearance, which can result in the eradication of vegetation and the fragmentation of habitats. bush burning, a prevalent tradition in the region, can lead to the depletion of flora and have adverse effects on the natural equilibrium of the area. agricultural practices, although crucial for the sustenance of numerous inhabitants, can also lead to the deterioration of vegetation if not figure 1: study area map pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 conducted in a sustainable and responsible manner. the district is situated within the geographical region known as the guinea savanna agro-ecological zone (antwiagyei et al., 2012). this region is renowned for its guinea savannah vegetation, but it has undergone varying levels of deterioration over the years. the saboba district is located in the guinea savannah agro-ecological zone, which is known for its abundant guinea savannah vegetation. the saboba district is classified as having a tropical savannah climate according to the köppengeiger climate classification (köppen-geiger climate classification, 2017). the savannah climate in the district is marked by two distinct seasons that occur throughout the year. the uni-modal rainfall season often spans from april or may to october or november, which usually floods the communities and farms along the oti river, while the dry season generally extends from november to april or may. the dry season is distinguished by the presence of arid northeast trade winds commonly referred to as harmattan. the current time frame is characterized by elevated levels of sunlight, especially throughout the months of march to may (gss, 2010). according to kursah et al. (2017), the district receives an annual precipitation ranging from 950 mm to 1050 mm. the saboba district experiences consistently high temperatures throughout the year, with the temperature fluctuating between 21 and 41 °c (dogbe et al., 2013). this climatic attribute enhances the distinct ecosystem of the region. the district has a population of 95,683 people (gss, 2021). study design research designs are plans or blueprints for how a study will be carried out, as defined by strydom, fouche, and delport (2005). the goal, starting point, and logic of a study are all carefully considered in the development of a research design. according to huysamen (1993), “design” is the blueprint followed to collect data to study the research topics in the most efficient way possible. the decisions made on the study’s sampling, data sources and processes, measurement issues, and data analysis strategies are all part of what other academics call the research design. strydom, fouche, and delpot (2005) add that the research design employed varies according to the goals and aims of the study, the specifics of the research questions, and the researcher’s expertise and access to relevant data. however, the study process will mirror the procedures of the selected design, as each design has its perspective and methods. qualitative research designs are notable for their lack of predetermined guidelines or a set recipe for carrying out the research. unlike qualitative research, where the researcher’s decisions and actions inform the design, quantitative research is driven by the design. simply put, researchers doing qualitative studies often develop an appropriate research strategy throughout their study or even base their entire study on that method. therefore, the aforementioned strategies were considered when choosing the best research design for this study. the research used quantitative data. the research was conducted in the saboba district of the oti river subbasin of northern ghana. the area was chosen for the study because it is located in the oti river basin and is thus susceptible to flooding during the wet season. sample selection and size sampling, as defined by strydom, fouche, and delport (2005), is the practice of selecting a statistically meaningful subset of a larger population. the rule of thumb is that the smaller the sample size, the greater the population you can reasonably expect to represent. a larger proportion of the population should be represented in the sample if the population is small. researchers can extrapolate more generalizable findings from larger samples and make more informed forecasts. in addition, strydom, fouche, and delport (2005) claim that convenience is the primary driver of sampling. it is not always possible to reach every member of a population of interest, but it is always possible to cover the entire population. time and money constraints make it unrealistic to try to locate, get in touch with, and analyze everyone who might be involved. as a result, information gleaned through sample analyses may be more reliable than if the full population had been examined. this is because it is far easier to focus resources (time, money, and effort) on a smaller subset of the population, resulting in higher-quality research, better tools, and more in-depth knowledge. the rural families included in this study were chosen using a simple random selection method. saboba district is one of the nine districts that make up the oti river basin in the rural savanna geographic division of northern ghana. kimuatiek, kitiek, buagbaln, sobiba, tilangbelni, kuwani, and buakuln were randomly chosen among the flood-prone settlements in the saboba district. determination of the sample size the sample size (n) was determined by applying the formula proposed by yamane (1967) as shown in the equation below. yamane (1967) provides a simplified formula to calculate sample sizes using a 95% confidence level and p = 0.05. thus, n=n/(1+n(e2)) where n is the sample size, n is the population size (of the study area), and e is the level of precision. by applying the above formula proposed by yamane (1967), where n=95,683, e=0.05, therefore n which is the sample size would be three hundred and ninety-nine (399). questionnaire administration questionnaires were selected for multiple reasons, mostly due to their efficacy in obtaining accurate information regarding the practices and conditions that the respondents were assumed to be knowledgeable of. additionally, questionnaires were deemed suitable for investigating the thoughts and attitudes of the subjects. another rationale for selecting questionnaires was their pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 ease of completion and efficiency in terms of time, as opposed to alternative tools such as interviews. ultimately, when managing a substantial number of participants, employing questionnaires is the optimal and most suitable method. the surveys included a combination of closed and open-ended questions. regarding openended questions, respondents had the freedom to express their answers in a manner they considered suitable, using their own language and phrasing. closed-ended questions were employed due to the predetermined response options, requiring respondents to select the option that best aligned with their agreement. the questionnaire was segmented into distinct sections. section a focused on the demographic information of the respondents, whereas the subsequent sections were centered on the main goal of the study. method of data analysis descriptive statistical methods were employed for the data analyses. the quantitative data collected was analyzed using the statistical and data software v15 (stata). results and discussions socio-demographic characteristics of farmers the socio-demographic information of smallholder farmers across the seven communities is presented in table 1. based on the results, a substantial majority (73.68%) of the farmers sampled were males with the remaining 26.32%, constituting female farmers. the prevalence of more male farmers shows an uneven participation in agriculture activities within the sampled population. the inequality stems from the varying levels of power in decision-making and control over resources, including land, which male farmers have over females in the study area. this observation is supported by the fao (2012) report on gender inequalities in rural employment in ghana, which revealed that men possess 3.2 times more total farms than women and 8.1 times more medium to large-sized farms (5 acres or larger). table 1 also shows that more than two-thirds (60.15%) of the respondents were married, approximately, 24.31% were single, 10.53% who engaged in farming were widowed and a significantly lower percentage (5.01%) were divorced farmers. furthermore, an overwhelming majority (56.14%) of the farmers do not have any form of education. a few of them were tertiary graduates while about 40% had basic and secondary education. admittedly, education plays a key role in farmers’ income and productivity. for example, oduro-ofori et al. (2015) indicated that increased agricultural production and income generation are frequently linked to higher literacy rates. the age distribution of farmers as presented in table 1 reflects a diverse pattern of age groups. based on the results, farmers between the ages of 36-45 age group were 4% higher compared to those within the 26-35 age range. this diversity in age groups highlights the intergenerational nature of farming, with individuals from various age categories contributing to agricultural production and livelihoods in the study area. furthermore, the data on fbo membership reveals that only 19.33% of the farmers were affiliated with farmer based organizations, while the majority (80.67%) were not members. fbos play a vital role in promoting collective action, resource sharing, and accessing support services for smallholder farmers. membership in fbos can enhance farmers’ market access, bargaining power, and resilience to shocks and stresses in the agricultural sector (afari-sefa et al., 2018). additionally, access to credit is a crucial factor for farmers to invest in inputs, technology, and infrastructure that can enhance agricultural productivity and income. the data indicates that 56.67% of the sampled farmers have access to credit, enabling them to expand their operations, adopt new practices, and navigate financial challenges effectively. on the other hand, the low percentage (11.28%) of farmers who have received extension services underscores potential gaps in knowledge dissemination and capacity-building efforts in the study area. increasing access to extension services can empower farmers with valuable information, training, and technical support to improve their skills, productivity, and resilience to external shocks. table 1: socio-demographic characteristics of the sampled population variable frequency percentages sex males 294 73.68 females 105 26.32 marital status married 240 60.15 single 97 24.31 divorced 20 5.01 windowed 42 10.53 literacy level none 224 56.14 basic 77 19.3 pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 secondary 79 19.8 tertiary 19 4.76 age groups 18-25 years 72 18.05 26-35 years 92 23.06 36-45 years 121 30.33 46-55 years 69 17.29 above 55 years 45 11.28 fbo membership yes 29 19.33% no 121 80.67% access to credit yes 85 56.67% no 65 43.33% received extension services yes 45 11.28 no 354 88.72 source: field survey, 2023 flood risks and their impact on farming activities based on the results presented in figure 2, it is evident that a significant proportion of smallholder farmers in the oti river basin are highly vulnerable to flood incidence. specifically, 87% of the farmers indicated that they were highly vulnerable to floods, highlighting the substantial impact of flood events on their livelihoods and agricultural activities. in contrast, only 3% of farmers reported not being vulnerable to flood incidents. figure 2: vulnerability to flood incidence source: field survey, 2023 the findings from table 2 highlight the various factors influencing the vulnerability of smallholder farmers to flood incidents in the oti river basin. in the first place, the proximity of farmers to the river emerges as a critical factor, with 96% of respondents acknowledging that their distance to the river impacts their vulnerability. farmers residing closer to the river are at a higher risk of experiencing flood-related damages, potentially due to the increased likelihood of river overflow and the subsequent inundation of farmlands. additionally, the elevation of communities below the river plays a significant role, as 79% of farmers recognize that communities situated at lower elevations relative to the river face heightened vulnerability to floods. this vulnerability stems from the natural flow of water downhill, increasing the susceptibility of low-lying areas to flooding and its associated consequences. these findings are affirmed by fatemi et al. (2020) who explored physical vulnerability and local responses to flood damage and highlighted that factors such as proximity to rivers, elevation, and flood event characteristics influence the physical vulnerability of buildings during floods. moreover, the data reveals that 82% of farmers perceive an increase in rainfall as a key factor contributing to their vulnerability to floods. changes in precipitation patterns, including more intense rainfall events, can lead to waterlogging, soil erosion, pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 and elevated flood risks, thereby impacting agricultural productivity and livelihoods. furthermore, the quality of buildings and building materials in farming communities is highlighted, with 39% of respondents identifying poor infrastructure as a factor influencing vulnerability to floods. inadequate housing materials and infrastructure can exacerbate the impact of floods, resulting in property damage, loss of shelter, and disruptions to farming activities. lastly, the lack of early warning systems emerged as a significant concern, with 68% of farmers recognizing the absence of timely alerts as a factor influencing their vulnerability to floods. piennah et al. (2023) argue that early warning systems help smallholder farmers prepare for and respond to flood incidents. by receiving timely information about impending floods, farmers can take proactive measures to protect their crops, livestock, and property. early warning systems enable farmers to evacuate to safer locations, secure their belongings, and minimize potential losses during flood events. effective early warning systems are crucial for preparedness and evacuation measures, enabling farmers to safeguard their assets and mitigate the risks associated with flood events. by elucidating these factors influencing vulnerability to floods among smallholder farmers in the oti river basin, the study underscores the complex nature of flood risks and the specific challenges faced by farmers in the region. understanding these factors is essential for designing targeted interventions, risk reduction strategies, and resilience-building initiatives to enhance the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers and promote sustainable agricultural practices in flood-prone areas. table 2: factors influencing vulnerability to floods factors influencing vulnerability female male total freq (yes) % freq (yes) % freq (yes) % distance to river 101 25% 283 71% 384 96% elevation of community below the river 81 20% 233 58% 314 79% increase in rainfall 87 22% 242 61% 329 82% poor buildings and materials 43 11% 112 28% 155 39% lack of early warning systems 77 19% 194 49% 271 68% lack of emergency response systems 78 19.55% 197 49.37% 275 68.92% inadequate awareness & education 47 11.78% 117 29.32% 164 41.10% lack flood control measures 58 14.54% 122 30.58% 180 45.11% impervious rate/ soil type 5 1.25% 35 8.77% 40 10.03% population 7 1.75% 19 4.76% 26 6.52% figure 3 provides a visual representation of the prevalence of flooding incidents among smallholder farmers in the oti river basin over five years. by analyzing the data, it is evident that a significant proportion (91%) of farmers in the region have been directly impacted by flooding events during this timeframe. the frequency of flooding experienced by farmers serves as a critical indicator of the recurrent nature of flood hazards in the area and underscores the persistent threat posed by such disasters to agricultural activities and livelihoods as shown in figure 4. seventy four percent (74%) of farmers indicating they experience flooding events almost every year is a strong figure 3: experienced flooding over the last five years source: field survey, 2023 figure 4: frequency in flood occurrence source: field survey, 2023 sign of the level of threat floods pose to the farmers living around the oti river basin. the high incidence of flooding reported by farmers over the past five years highlights the ongoing vulnerability of agricultural communities in the oti river basin to flood-related risks. these recurrent flood events not only disrupt farming operations but also result in crop damage, livestock losses, and infrastructure destruction, thereby jeopardizing food security, economic stability, and overall well-being. the cumulative effect of multiple flooding episodes can exacerbate the challenges faced by smallholder farmers, particularly those who heavily rely on agriculture for their livelihoods. pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 table 3 provides valuable insights into the diverse impacts of floods on smallholder farmers’ households in the oti river basin. the data presented in the table sheds light on the extent of damages incurred by farmers and their households as a result of flood events. by examining the various impacts of floods, we can better understand the challenges faced by farmers in the region and the implications for their livelihoods and well-being. the table reveals that a significant proportion of farmers’ properties and households have been affected by floods, with varying degrees of damage reported across different categories. for instance, 82% of respondents indicated that their crops were impacted by floods with maize (55%) being the most affected as indication on figure 5. this highlights the substantial loss of agricultural produce due to inundation and water damage. staple crops, essential for food security and income generation, were particularly vulnerable, with 80% of farmers reporting damage to these crops (maize, soya beans and rice). furthermore, the data shows that floods have led to a decrease in farm income for 87% of the surveyed farmers, underscoring the economic repercussions of flood events on agricultural productivity and financial stability. these findings correspond with pirngadi (2024) findings which indicated that the substantial reductions in production yields caused by floods, lead to significant losses in farm income. the increase in farm expenses reported by 85% of respondents further exacerbates the financial strain experienced by farmers in the aftermath of floods, as they incur additional costs for recovery and rehabilitation efforts. in addition to the economic impacts, floods have also affected farmers’ household infrastructure, with 37% reporting damage to farm and household infrastructure such as tools, equipment, and housing materials. the disruption of water sources (45%) and the prevalence of sickness (78%) among household members with 97% and 76% indicating having contracted malaria/fever and diarrhea due to these floods respectively (figure 6). this further highlights the broader consequences of floods on health, sanitation, and overall well-being within farming communities. table 3 highlights the multifaceted nature of flood hazards and their far-reaching effects on agricultural livelihoods and rural communities. the data presented in the table underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions, risk mitigation strategies, and support mechanisms to enhance the resilience of smallholder farmers in the oti river basin against future flood events. addressing the challenges identified in table 3 is essential for promoting sustainable agriculture, safeguarding food security, and improving the overall socio-economic resilience of vulnerable farming households in the region. table 3: impacts of floods on farmer’s household damages to farmers’ properties & household yes no freq % freq % farm & household infrastructure (bed, boat, fishing net, radio, plough, hoe etc) 148 37% 251 63% house 79 20% 320 80% crops 329 82% 70 18% staple crops 319 80% 80 20% food stocks 302 76% 97 24% decrease in farm income 346 87% 53 13% increase in farm expenses 339 85% 60 15% water source 181 45% 218 55% sickness 312 78% 87 22% total sampled 399 figure 5: crop or livestock affected by the floods source: field survey, 2023 figure 6: diseases experienced by farm households source: field survey, 2023 pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 response strategies adopted against flood impacts figure 7 provides a visual representation of farmers who have adopted specific response strategies in the oti river basin to mitigate the impact of floods on their agricultural activities and livelihoods. the data presented in figure 7 shows that only 7% of the farmers have adopted certain strategies to mitigate the devastations caused by floods. figure 7: adoption of specific strategies to mitigate the impact of floods on farms source: field survey, 2023 table 4 provides detailed information on the specific responds strategies adopted by smallholder farmers in the oti river basin to mitigate the impact of floods on their agricultural activities. the data presented in the table offers valuable insights into the proactive measures taken by farmers to enhance their resilience against flood hazards and minimize the adverse effects of inundation on their farms and households. building raised beds emerges as a popular response strategy, with 58% of farmers adopting this approach to elevate their crops above flood levels and reduce waterlogging. raised beds have been shown to offer various benefits in agricultural practices. studies have indicated that utilizing raised beds can aid in improving drainage, preventing water stagnation, and safeguarding crops from water-related damages (holmes et al., 2021; lham et al., 2022). in addition, crop diversification is another prevalent response strategy, with 81% of farmers opting to cultivate a variety of crops to spread risk and ensure food security in the face of flood-related disruptions. diversifying crop production can help farmers mitigate the impact of crop losses during floods, maintain income stability, and adapt to changing environmental conditions, thereby enhancing their overall resilience and sustainability. this has been affirmed by bellon et al. (2020) who argued that diversifying crop production can lead to increased income stability, as farmers who practice diversification can have a continuous flow of income from crop sales throughout the year. furthermore, livestock relocation is also a commonly adopted strategy, with 81% of farmers relocating their livestock to safer areas during flood events to prevent animal losses and safeguard their assets. by moving livestock to higher ground or secure shelters, farmers can reduce the risk of livestock casualties, ensure animal welfare, and preserve their livelihood assets in the event of flooding. this finding is supported by okuku et al. (2015) and kharismafullah et al. (2022) who indicated that it is important to utilize the available resource assets around the location of the livestock business to enhance resilience and livelihood stability and that strategies that safeguard livelihood assets, such as moving livestock to higher ground during flood events, are essential in rural areas where livestock livelihood are significant to the farmers. additionally, conservation farming practices, such as soil conservation, mulching, and agroforestry, are embraced by 58% of farmers to improve soil health, water retention, and crop resilience to floods. these practices promote sustainable land management, enhance ecosystem services, and mitigate the impact of floods on soil erosion and nutrient loss, contributing to long-term agricultural sustainability and climate resilience. erkossa et al. (2015) affirmed that the implementation of soil and water conservation practices can minimize financial costs associated with erosion, thereby improving the sustainability of the agriculture sector. additionally, yan et al. (2005) also added that the reduction of soil erosion through conservation measures can help preserve soil carbon pools and enhance soil carbon sequestration, which are vital for soil health and fertility. by analyzing the adoption of specific response strategies depicted in the table, we gain valuable insights into the proactive measures taken by smallholder farmers in the oti river basin to mitigate the impact of floods on their agricultural livelihoods. these strategies do not only enhance farmers’ resilience to flood hazards but also promote sustainable agricultural practices, improve food security, and strengthen the overall adaptive capacity of farming communities in the face of climate-related challenges. encouraging the adoption of these response strategies and supporting farmers in their implementation are essential steps towards building a more resilient and sustainable agricultural sector in flood-prone regions like the oti river sub-basin. pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 1-12, 2025 it is important to highlight that the approaches embraced by the farmers primarily serve as coping mechanisms to address the challenges posed by floods on their agricultural lands and yields. notably, there is a lack of emphasis on implementing strategies for adaptation, such as exploring alternative livelihoods that could offer income or sustenance during the scarcity of the dry season, when they may face shortages of both food and finances resulting from losses experienced during flood periods. this aspect presents an intriguing avenue for future research exploration. conclusion the comprehensive assessment of smallholder farmers’ responses to flood incidence in the oti river sub-basin has shed light on the multifaceted nature of flood vulnerability, the frequency of floods over the last 5 years, the impacts of floods, and the specific response strategies adopted by farmers to mitigate the adverse effects of flood events. by examining these highlighted areas, this study has provided valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities for enhancing resilience in flood-prone regions. the analysis of vulnerability factors, including proximity to rivers, elevation of communities, changes in rainfall patterns, building quality, and early warning systems, has highlighted the diverse factors influencing farmers’ susceptibility to flood hazards. understanding these vulnerability factors is crucial for developing targeted interventions and adaptive strategies to reduce the impact of floods on agricultural activities and livelihoods. the study’s exploration of past flood experiences over the past five years has underscored the recurrent nature of flood events in the oti river basin, emphasizing the need for proactive measures to address the increasing frequency and intensity of floods. the impacts of floods on farming activities, including crop damage, livestock losses, and disruptions to livelihoods, have highlighted the significant challenges faced by smallholder farmers in the region and the importance of building resilience against flood hazards. moreover, the identification of specific mitigation strategies adopted by farmers, such as building raised beds, crop diversification, improved drainage systems, flood-resistant crop varieties, livestock relocation, crop insurance, and conservation farming practices, has demonstrated the proactive measures taken by farmers to mitigate the impacts of floods and enhance their adaptive capacity. these strategies not only help farmers cope with immediate flood risks but also promote sustainable agricultural practices, improve food security, and strengthen community resilience in the face of climaterelated challenges. the findings from this study emphasize the importance of holistic and community-driven approaches to flood risk management, including early warning systems, capacity-building initiatives, sustainable land management practices, and multi-stakeholder collaboration. by addressing vulnerability factors, enhancing adaptive capacity, and promoting the adoption of effective mitigation strategies, stakeholders can work together to build a more resilient and sustainable agricultural sector in the oti river basin, ultimately improving the well-being and livelihoods of smallholder farmers and communities in ghana. acknowledgments the authors thank everyone who has contributed to improving the quality of this study. references alare, r., owusu, e., & owusu, k. 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(2023). the role of local level institutional arrangements in climate change adaptation of rural dwellers in northern ghana. iranica journal of energy & environment (articles in press). article 3262.indd pa ge 1 pa ge 91 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) cultivating multifaceted participation in the community-based forest management (cbfm) program in communities of northern isabela marcial tirso g. tarun1*, imee g. gumiran1, bondee l. peṅafl or1 volume 3 issue 2, year 2024 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v3i2.3262 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: july 03, 2024 accepted: august 06, 2024 published: august 10, 2024 communities’ participation has been the key strategy of the community-based forest management (cbfm) program to achieve its ultimate goal: improving the community’s socio-economic conditions and equal access to forest resources sustainably. this report cultivates the levels and forms of participation in decision-making in the masipi and caligayan areas of the philippines, adapting the “typology of participation” by fao (2003). the quantitative data was collected through surveys, while the qualitative data was gathered through focus group discussions (fgd) among 186 community respondents from the masipi east upland famers association (meufa) and tumauini upland farmers greeners association (tufga), as well as the 15 implementer respondents from the department of natural resources – community environment and natural resource offi ce (denrcenro), and the municipal environment and natural resources (menro) of cabagan and tumauini, isabela. the report found that while government personnel were actively involved, community engagement was mostly limited to consultations. indeed, further inclusive strategies are needed. the noticeable contrast between the active implementers and the more passive community engagements highlights the necessity for strategies that enhance community involvement. keywords decision-making process, participation levels 1 isabela state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: marcialtirsoguingabtarun@gmail.com introduction community-based forest management (cbfm) participatory methods require active engagement of local communities, stakeholders, and relevant authorities in making decisions regarding forest management. approaches emphasize the integration of various perspectives, local knowledge, and the active involvement of individuals who depend on and interact with forest resources. participatory approaches are designed to enable communities to assume ownership and accountability for the sustainable administration of their forests chambers et al. (2022). the national program of the philippines aims to promote reforestation and establish an effective mechanism for sustainable forest resource management (denr-cenro, 2011). this initiative represents a signifi cant shift from the previous ineffective state forest governance, which failed to ensure the sustainability of forest resources and equitable access to their benefi ts (guiang, et al., 2001). hence, cbfm programs are designed to engage local communities in the sustainable management and utilization of forest resources. this shift from a top-down to a bottom-up approach aims to empower local stakeholders by giving them tenure rights and responsibilities (aquino & daguio, 2014; dugan & pulhin, 2023). the denr-ao no. 2004-09 is the recognized community-based forest management strategy (cbfms), was revised concentrating on the implementation of eo 263. its primary intention is to strengthen, reinforce, simplify, and harmonize the processes in implementing programs and projects supporting the cbfms. the document states the intention to improve people’s socio-economic conditions through the promotion of social justice, and equitable access to and sustainable development of forest land resources. active and transparent community participation and security of tenure are highlighted as crucial strategies for achieving these goals (denr, 2004). however, according to tarunacay (2005), one of the challenges faced by the people’s organization (po) members in the cbfm program is how they can orchestrate diverse interests to address the critical issues of the low socio-economic status optimally and sustain the interest of po members in the cbfm project undertakings. although this major shift from industrial forestry to “community forestry” or “participatory forestry” greatly affects the direction of forest resource management and governance (rebugio, et al., 2010) seemingly, despite this modifi cation there are issues experienced differently across cbfm locations. henceforth, in particular, this study examined the diverse levels and forms of implementers’ participation like the department of environment and natural resources – community environment and natural resources offi ce (denrcenro), and the municipal environment and natural resources (menro) of the local government units of cabagan and tumauini, isabela; and po participation in the decision-making process being reinforced in the masipi east upland farmers association (meufa), formerly masipi east multipurpose cooperative incorporated (mempci) cbfm project and tumauini upland farmers greeners association (tufga). the pa ge 92 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 mempci was awarded a community-based forest management agreement (cbfma) on october 18, 1998, with tenure no. 020216659 which expired on december 31, 2023. it has a gis-generated total area of 5,000 hectares at barangay masipi east, cabagan, isabela. furthermore, meufa was duly registered with the department of labor and employment (dole) on june 17, 2014, with registration no. isa-1527-2014 (denr annual report, 2014). on the other hand, the tufga was awarded a cbfma on march 06, 1998 tenure no. 020219956. the tumauini watershed forest reserve has a total area of 6,107.73 at caligayan, tumauini, isabela. literature review participatory approach to forestry forestry practices around the world are moving towards involving more people as it becomes clear that centralized and authoritative decision-making methods are not enough (fao-sfm, n.d.). according to hazard & audouin (2022), a participatory method involves engaging individuals directly affected by the outcomes of the problem-solving or innovation design process. when looking at the concept of “participation” from a broader perspective, the food and agriculture organization (fao) emphasizes the various levels or forms of people’s involvement in decision-making processes. at the highest level of the spectrum, all members of a group or community are fully informed about decisions after they have been made, and importantly, they are actively engaged in informationsharing, analysis, and discussions, thus having the ability to infl uence decisions. it is widely recognized that the direct involvement of the stakeholders at any stage of a program is essential to establish a sense of engagement and ownership. it is important to remember the “ladder of participation” introduced by s. arnstein in the usa in 1969. this model illustrates various levels of citizen engagement and power in decision-making processes. the ladder consists of eight rungs, categorized into non-participation, tokenism, and citizen power. nonparticipation includes manipulation and therapy, while encompasses informing, consultation, and placation. at the top of the ladder is citizen power, where individuals have the most infl uence over decision-making. this model highlights the importance of empowering citizens and ensuring their meaningful involvement in community projects and decision-making processes (gaber, 2019). levels and forms of participation it is vital to acknowledge the crucial role of community members in enhancing their living conditions and effectively managing natural resources. the food and agriculture organization (fao) has devised a typology of participation to gain a better understanding of the diverse levels of community involvement in decisionmaking processes. this typology is particularly valuable for comprehending the extent of local stakeholders’ engagement in initiatives, particularly in fi elds like forestry management and sustainable development. the primary levels of participation, as defi ned by the fao, are as follows: nominal participation individuals are acknowledged as part of a group but do not actively engage in decision-making. they are included in a project without taking an active role. passive participation people are invited to express their views on specifi c matters, but there is no guarantee that their input will infl uence the fi nal decisions. this category includes surveys and open forums for public feedback. activity-specifi c participation participants are involved in carrying out specifi c responsibilities related to the project. this level requires more hands-on involvement than consultative participation but remains limited to predefi ned tasks. functional participation this level involves a group of individuals coming together to achieve specifi c objectives aligned with the project. often, outside facilitators are involved, but these groups may develop the capacity to sustain themselves over time. interactive (empowering) participation participants engage in collaborative analysis and decision-making. this stage incorporates crossdisciplinary approaches and structured learning processes, empowering participants to infl uence local decisions and maintain control over local systems (pretty & vodouche, n.d.). materials and methods description of the study area the gathering of data was scheduled from december 2023 to march 2024. the selection of the place of study is through convenient sampling due to its vicinity given the limited time frame. hence, the study for the meufa will take place at masipi hall in cabagan, isabela, while the tufga is at caligayan, tumauini, isabela. meanwhile, lgu and denr personnel will carry out their respective tasks at their offi ce addresses. below is the location map of the two (2) cbfm sites. the masipi east, cabagan, isabela, and the caligayan, tumauini, isabela, respectively. pa ge 93 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 respondents and sampling procedure total enumeration was employed for denr-cenro and menro who are directly involved in the cbfm project. while for the meufa and tufga total enumeration was employed for the offi cers. however, cochran’s formula was conducted, where n is the sample size, n is the population size, and e is the level of precision (e=0.05): n= n/ 1 + (ne)2 n= 349/ 1 + (349*0.05)2 n= 349/ 1 + (349*0.0025) n= 349/ 372 n= 186 data gathering the data gathering was conducted in three forms. firstly, the survey questionnaire was administered to cbfm’s various stakeholders, such as 39 meufa members, 147 tufga members, nine (9) denr-cenro personnel, three (3) lgu tumauini-menro, and three (3) lgu cabagan-menro. these interviews were focused on understanding their perceptions of participatory approaches, the challenges faced, and the decisionmaking processes involved. also, the level/forms of participation were evaluated during this phase. secondly, the focus group discussions (fgd) organized focus group discussions with representative groups of figure 1: location map of cbfm masipi east, cabagan, isabela (denr-cenro, 2023) figure 2: location map of cbfm caligayan, tumauini, isabela (denr-cenro,) pa ge 94 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 stakeholders to facilitate group interactions and capture diverse perspectives on participatory approaches in social forestry. this was also to support the quantitative data that this study exported. the survey schedule and fgd were on a separate date after the quantitative data had been tabulated and initially analyzed. thirdly, the document analysis analyze relevant policy documents, reports, and project documents to understand the formal processes and frameworks for stakeholder engagement and decision-making in social forestry. reports from denr and menro were collected for this purpose. the data-gathering procedure involved seeking permission from the higher authorities. the researcher delivered a letter to denr cenro, and the same procedure was applied to the lgu-menro. data analysis the collected data were transcribed, coded, and thematically analyzed for qualitative data. themes were identifi ed to explore patterns and variations in stakeholder engagement, decision-making processes, and perceptions of the levels and forms of participation in social forestry. on the other hand, quantitative data was used in the treatment using the mean, frequency counts, ranking, and percent values. the following scales were used for the descriptive equivalent, to wit: the respondents’ typology of participation in the implementation of the cbfm project in the barangay was measured using the five point likert scale; table 1: 5-point likert scale scale descriptive equivalent (de) scale range qualitative description 5 4.21 – 5.00 strongly agree (sa) 4 3.41 – 4.20 agree (a) 3 2.61 – 3.40 neutral/uncertain (n/u) 2 1.81 – 2.60 disagree (d) 1 1.00 – 1.80 strongly disagree (sd results and discussions levels and forms of participation perceived by implementer-respondents in the preparatory phase of the cbfm program preparatory phase table 2 shows the level of participation of the implementer-respondents in the preparatory phase of the cbfm program, particularly on the creation of the crmf facilitator’s team. the implementer-respondents agree that there were discussions and analyses made between them and the benefi ciaries on what they want to achieve in the project with a mean of 3.80, rank 1. this suggests an interactive (empowering) level of participation by the cenro and menro respondents, based on the typology of participation, in the creation of facilitators in the crmf. per denr administrative order no. 2003-11, applications for cbfmas require endorsement from the legislative councils of the barangay, municipal, and provincial local government units. to facilitate this process, the cenro is mandated to conduct orientations for local executives to help them better understand the cbfm objectives, concepts, principles, and activities (fmb, n.d.) the next phase is the gathering of related documents needed in the preparatory phase. the data shows that the implementer-respondents also agree that they were actively interacting with the team and their voice infl uenced the decisions in gathering important documents needed in crfm, with a mean score of 3.60, rank 1, suggesting an interactive (empowering) participation by the cenro and menro, as their ideas and opinions were taken into consideration. this section presents the level of participation by the implementer-respondents in the preparation of maps. it was also revealed that they agreed to participate in fi nalizing and printing the cbfma maps, with a mean of 3.47, rank 1. this also suggests that the respondents believe their involvement in the preparation of maps was signifi cant and contributed to the project’s overall success, making it classifi ed as an empowered participation in the typology of participation. the segment of the table presents the level of participation by the implementer-respondents in the coordination with the community and po, as well as the reconnaissance survey. overall, the respondents agree that they freely expressed their opinions and took other kinds of initiative in scheduling and setting the venue of crmf activities, including listing key informants, with a mean rating of 3.67, rank 1). this also falls under the interactive or empowered level of participation. in general, the data suggests that the implementer-respondents had a moderate to high level of participation in the coordination with the community and po, particularly in activities where they could express their opinions and take initiative. however, there were instances where they did not participate or only served as an audience, indicating a lower level of engagement in these activities. the last part of this preparatory phase is the po orientation/po planning team’s training on crmf. it revealed that they also agreed to participate in the orientation on the importance of forest, cbfm, and crmf formulation securing the preparation of crmf, expressed opinions, and took other initiatives (3.67, rank 1). the crmf is a key component of the cbfm program, pa ge 95 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 as it “shall indicate, among others, the community’s and the po’s mission, vision and objectives; a summary of situation analysis; the guiding principles to be followed in plan preparation; indicative community resource development and use plans; internal management arrangements including benefi t sharing; external supports needed; and internal monitoring and evaluation system to be adopted.” this comprehensive framework is crucial for guiding the sustainable management and utilization of forest resources by the local communities (denr,1996). overall, the implementer-respondents “agree” fall under interactive or empowered participation in the preparatory phase of the cbfm program. this implies that the agreed result could be attributed to shared responsibilities among all stakeholders. the preparatory stage is very important to the success of the cbfm program. it sets the foundation for the program’s implementation and ensures that the community is equipped with the necessary skills, knowledge, and resources to manage the forest resources effectively. table 2: level of participation by the implementer-respondents in the preparatory phase item forms of participation weighted mean descriptive equivalent rank creation of crmf facilitator’s team 1 i was only informed to be one of the participants of the community based forest management (cbfm) project 2.87 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 3 2 the implementers asked my opinion about the cbfm but did not include me in the decision-making. 2.67 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 4 creation of crmf facilitator’s team 3 there were discussions and analyses made between us and the implementers on what we wanted to achieve in the project. 3.80 agree (a) 1 4 i willingly and actively participated in the discussion of the project during the planning stage. 3.73 agree (a) 2 gathering of related documents needed 5 i was only a member of the team and took no part in the gathering of related documents needed for crfm 2.60 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 3 gathering of related documents needed 6 i willingly took part in the gathering of related documents needed for crmf without an assurance that my ideas would infl uence the decisions. 3.47 agree (a) 2 7 i was actively interacting with the team and my voice infl uenced the decisions in gathering important documents needed in crmf. 3.60 agree (a) 1 creation of crmf facilitator’s team 8 i was tasked to take part in securing the maps 2.93 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 3 9 i took the initiative of participating in the fi nalization and printing of the cbfma maps 3.33 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 10 my participation in the fi nalization and printing of the cbfma maps is valuable. 3.47 agree (a) 1 coordination with the community and po and reconnaissance survey 11 i was part of the team but took no part in the decision-making of the activities being done like scheduling and setting of venue of crmf activities including listing of key informants 3.40 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 1 12 i was a member of the team but did not participate or only an audience in the gps reading, community mapping activities and did not familiarize myself with the cbfm area 3.07 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 3 coordination with the community and po and reconnaissance survey 13 i was included in the team however i served as a listener and audience on gps reading, identifying areas of community mapping, printing maps 3.20 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 14 i am part of the group however i did not participate in the creation of a po resolution or planning 3.00 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 3 pa ge 96 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 planning phase table 3 presents the level of participation by the implementer-respondents in the planning phase of community mapping activities. the respondents agree that they were included in the updating of the community map, asked for their opinions on a specifi c matter, and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process with a mean score of 3.53. this gained an activityspecifi c participation in the typology of participation. this implies that participation is manifested in all actors of the project, the community people, menro and cenro. during the kii with the lgu cabagan, she shared, and i quote; “as to our participation, yes, we are involved in the community organizing.” in like manner, the community people were also included in the mapping activities. based on oy (2023) engaging the community in the planning process from the beginning, ensures that they are aware of the goals and objectives of the project. it will likewise empower the local community to determine the assets, resources, and barriers that may arise in the implementation of the cbfm program. this segment reveals the level of participation by the implementer-respondents in the validation of community, and po profi le. the data shows a mean rating of 3.53, agree, falls under activity-specifi c participation, meaning they were asked for their opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decisionmaking process. the validation workshops are conducted for stakeholders to discuss and validate the community and po profi les. this helps to ensure that all stakeholders are involved and their concerns are addressed (usaidme, 2008). regarding the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges (swoc) analysis, implementer-respondents also agree that they were included in analyzing the swoc of the community, and the po, and asked to undertake specifi c activities in the decision-making process with a mean rating of 3.67, classifi ed as activity-specifi c participation. swoc analysis helps identify the internal and external factors that can impact the success of the cbfm program. according to nzunda & manyanda (2023), collaboration between the community is essential for effective cbfm, and a long-term conservation of forest resources is ensured. in the section on defi ning the vision, mission, goals, and objectives, the data shows that respondents also agree with their participation with a mean rating of 3.73, indicating activity-specifi c participation. this suggests that some respondents only listened to the decisionmaking process. the creation of vmgo helps ensure that the organization stays focused on its objectives and makes progress toward achieving its vision, it also helps to create a sense of identity and purpose within the organization, which is essential for inspiring employees to work towards a common goal (usaid-me, 2008). this part of the activity also reveals that the implementerrespondents agreed that they were included in the vision mapping and asked their opinions on a specifi c matter that infl uenced the decision-making with a mean rating of 3.73. this shows an activity-specifi c participation by the respondents. this activity is essential as it will give a clear direction for guiding the development strategies and activities (usaid-me, 2008). the last part of this phase is the formulation of strategies and activities, wherein revealed an agreed participation by the implementer-respondents with a mean rating of 3.47 making it an activity-specifi c level of participation. while some respondents only listened to the decision-making, others were actively involved in the process, including providing opinions and undertaking specifi c tasks. this activity provides a framework for adapting to changing circumstances, ensuring that the cbfm program remains relevant and effective over time (bacalla, 2006). 15 i was included in the team but did not take part in the setting of the schedule and venues of crmf and identifying the key informants 3.07 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 16 i freely expressed my opinions and took other kinds of initiative in scheduling and setting the venue of crmf activities including listing key informants 3.67 agree (a) 1 po orientation/po planning team’s training on crmf 17 i was included in the orientation on the importance of forest, cbfm, and crmf formulation including the preparation of crmf but took no part in or only listened to the decision-making. 3.40 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 18 i was included in the orientation on the importance of forest, cbfm, and crmf formulation including the preparation of crmf expressed opinions, and took other initiatives. 3.67 agree (a) 1 4.21 – 5.00 strongly agree (sa) 3.41 – 4.20 agree (a) 2.60 – 3.40 neutral/uncertain (n/u) 1.80 – 2.60 disagree (d) 1.00 – 1.80 strongly disagree (sd) pa ge 97 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 implementation phase table 4 the key points regarding the level of participation of the implementer-respondents in the implementation phase of the cbfm program in masipi east, cabagan, and caligayan, tumauni, isabela. the fi rst activity in this phase is to focus on the integration/ consolidation of outputs for the packaging of crmf. it seems that the implementer-respondents agreed with the 3.53 mean rating, that they were included in the packaging of crmf such as validated community and po profi le, updated community crfm areas, statement of vmgo, and the 25-year and the-year matrix of strategies and activities, and took part in a specifi c activity that infl uence the decision. this resulted in an activity-specifi c level of participation of the respondents. this activity serves as a comprehensive framework that guides the sustainable management and utilization of forest resources by the local communities (denr, 1996). the data implies varied participation by the cenro and menro, while table 3: level of participation of the implementer-respondents in the planning phase item forms of participation weighted mean descriptive equivalent rank community mapping 1 i was included in the updating of the community map but took no part or only listened to decision-making. 2.87 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 2 i was included in the updating of the community map and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.53 agree (a) 1 validation of community and po profi le 3 i was included in validating the community and po profi le but took no part or only listened to decision-making. 2.67 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 strengthens weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges (swoc) analysis 4 i was included in validating the community and po profi le and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.53 agree (a) 1 5 i was included in analyzing the swoc of the community and the po but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 2.53 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 6 i was included in analyzing the swoc of the community and the po and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.67 agree (a) 1 defi ning the vision, mission, goals, and objectives 7 i was included in defi ning the vision, mission, goals, and objectives but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 2.53 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 8 i was included in defi ning the vision, mission, goals, and objectives and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter, and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.73 agree (a) 1 vision mapping 9 i was included in the vision mapping but took no part or only listened to the decision-making. 2.47 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 10 i was included in the vision mapping and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter related to mapping and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.73 agree (a) 1 formulation of strategies and activities 11 i was included in the formulation of 25-year strategies and activities and a fi ve-year work plan but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 2.67 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 12 i was included in the formulation of 25-year strategies and activities and a fi ve-year plan and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter related to strategies and activities and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.47 agree (a) 1 4.21 – 5.00 strongly agree (sa) 3.41 – 4.20 agree (a) 2.60 – 3.40 neutral/uncertain (n/u) 1.80 – 2.60 disagree (d) 1.00 – 1.80 strongly disagree (sd) pa ge 98 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 this level requires concerted efforts from all stakeholders to ensure that the cfmf is aligned with the community’s needs and priorities and that the local stakeholders are committed to its successful implementation. however, based on asad, et al. (2024) it is very challenging to successfully implement a plan that requires the collaborative participation of government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and local communities. this section pertains to the consultation and ratifi cation of crmf. the data indicates that the average score for this activity is 3.60, falling within the agreed-upon descriptive range. this suggests that the implementerrespondents actively participated in the process to ensure that the crmf would be benefi cial for the sustainable management and utilization of forest resources by local communities. the level of participation in this section is specifi c to the activity, based on the typology of participation. furthermore, it seems that the participation ranges from passive to active in the consultation and ratifi cation of the crmf, indicating the need for empowered participation to be observed. on the affi rmation of crm, issuance, and approval of crmf, the respondents also agree with a mean score of 3.67 that they took part in the specifi c task and their opinions were valid in the decision-making process. making this an activity-specifi c participation. table 4: level of participation of implementer-respondents in the implementation phase item forms of participation weighted mean descriptive equivalent rank integration/ consolidation of outputs for the packaging of crmf 1 i was included in the packaging of crmf such as validated community and po profi le, updated community crfm areas, statement of vmgo, and the 25-year and the-year matrix of strategies and activities but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 2.67 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 integration/ consolidation of outputs for the packaging of crmf 2 i was included in the packaging of crmf such as validated community and po profi le, updated community crfm areas, statement of vmgo, and the 25-year and the-year matrix of strategies and activities and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.53 agree (a) 1 consultation and ratifi cation of crmf 3 i was included in the ratifi cation of crmf but took no part or only listened to the decision-making. 2.80 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 4 i was included in the ratifi cation of crmf and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.60 agree (a) 1 affi rmation of crm, issuance, and approval of crmf 5 i was included in the affi rmation of crmf but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 2.73 neutral/ uncertain (n/u) 2 6 i was included in the affi rmation of crmf and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.67 agree (a) 1 4.21 – 5.00 strongly agree (sa) 3.41 – 4.20 agree (a) 2.60 – 3.40 neutral/uncertain (n/u) 1.80 – 2.60 disagree (d) 1.00 – 1.80 strongly disagree (sd) levels and forms of community-respondents in decision-making processes preparatory phase the data shows the community respondents rate their level of participation in the community-based forest management (cbfm) program in various steps of the preparatory stage. kinyili (2023) pointed out that conservation management plans are increasingly seeking to integrate the perspectives of local communities. the cbfm creation of the facilitator’s team indicates that most respondents do not feel included in the decisionmaking process, with 2.42 and 2.07 being the average ratings for the fi rst two statements. however, with a rating of 2.71, the third statement received a higher rating, indicating a more neutral response. based on jallah, et al. (2017), this can be attributed to several factors such as lack of representation, resources lack, and capacity lack. the fourth statement received the highest rating of 4.02, indicating that most respondents actively or collaboratively participated in the discussion of the project during this stage, based on the “typology of participation”. according to fao (1998), participation is crucial to ensure that planning refl ects the priorities and pa ge 99 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 interests of all major groups and that they are committed to translating planning into action. the president of the muefa shared their experience during the creation of the crfm team, below is his statement: “kami po ang nagdetermine ng offi cers, kasi yung team na binuo namin, ako yung magdedecide pero siyempre pinagbotohan lapa namin. ang denr ang nagfacilitatie. andito naman ang board of directors namagdesisyon sa mga gagawin namin na projects.” (we determined the offi cers, the team we created, i was the one who decided but it was still undergone voting facilitated by the denr. the board of directors (bod) are the ones to decide for the project that we are going to pursue). the president of tufga stated: “dakami ti nagboto ti offi cers’ sir. pero adda ti denr nga nagfacilitate diyay eleksiyon. isuda ti nagpreside. mabuti at active ang support ng lgu at denr sa amin sir. sa katunayan madami na kaming miyembo.” (we are the ones who voted sir but the denr was there to facilitate the voting of offi cers. we are glad that the lgu and denr are very supportive of our association. in fact, our members were increased). on the aspect of gathering related documents needed to facilitate the contract for cbfm. these responses indicate that most individuals did not feel fully involved in the gathering of related documents for the cbfm project. the fi rst statement received a neutral rating (3.31), suggesting that some individuals were merely present but did not actively participate. the second statement received a disagree rating (2.33), indicating that most individuals did not feel their ideas were taken into account during the gathering process. a neutral rating of 2.90, was received by the third statement, suggesting that some individuals were involved but their voices were not infl uential. the results indicate that some people were involved in gathering related documents, while others did not feel fully included. this shows the need for more inclusive and participatory approaches to forest management. according to the typology of participation, this only qualifi es as “consultative participation.” this means, accordingly, that the decision-making lies in the hands of an external group. mohan (2008) suggests that involving the individuals who stand to benefi t from development programs can lead to increased sustainability and success in the execution of such projects. the result suggests that most individuals did not feel fully involved in the map preparation process. the fi rst statement received a neutral rating of 3.39, indicating that some individuals were assigned specifi c roles but did not feel fully engaged. the second statement received a disagree rating (2.55), showing that most individuals did not take the initiative to participate in the fi nalization and printing of the maps. the third statement received a neutral rating (2.92), suggesting that some individuals felt their participation was valuable but did not feel fully included. based on the data, it revealed that their participation was likewise a “consultative participation”. it means that their participation is not a guarantee that infl uences the decisionmaking processes. however, based on the fgd with the offi cers they shared at random: “kasama po kami sa mapping, pumunta kami sa area tapos nagworkshop po kami gamit ang manila paper at ginuhit namin kung saan banda ang mga kahoy, mga gulay at iba pa pong meron sa aming komunidad. siyempre tinulungan po kami ng tiga denr” (we are included in the mapping activity, we went to the area after which we had our workshop using manila paper, we drew the location of the trees, crops and other forest and community resources). on the coordination with the community and po and reconnaissance survey. the dominant or rank 1 statement with a 4.04 rating is “i was included in the team however i served as a listener and audience on gps reading, identifying areas of community mapping, and printing maps. this means that the level of participation by the benefi ciaries in this activity is “passive participation”. they do not form part of the decision-making or the so-called ex-post facto (fao, 2003). nevertheless, the sixth statement received an agree (3.81, rank 2) rating, suggesting that some individuals freely expressed their opinions and took other kinds of initiative in scheduling and setting the venue of crmf activities including listing key informants. this means that this group of participants has “active (collaborative) participation.” the last section of table 15 presents the po orientation/ po planning team’s training on crmf. these responses indicate that most individuals were included in the orientation on the importance of forest, cbfm, and crmf formulation, including the preparation of crmf. however, there is a difference in the level of participation and engagement. the fi rst statement suggests that some individuals were included in the orientation but did not participate in decision-making (3.85, agree), while the second statement suggests that some individuals not only participated in the orientation but also expressed opinions and took other initiatives (3.51, agree). a study released in the journal of environmental management (2019) revealed that involving the community in forest management can result in more sustainable and effi cient outcomes. the research concluded that “community involvement in forest management can enhance the effectiveness of forest management by garnering greater community support and minimizing confl icts among various stakeholders”. table 5: level of participation of community respondents in the preparatory phase item forms of participation weighted mean descriptive equivalent rank creation of crmf facilitator’s team 1 i was only informed to be one of the participants of the community based forest management (cbfm) project 2.42 disagree 3 pa ge 10 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 2 the implementers asked my opinion about the cbfm but did not include me in the decision-making. 2.07 disagree 4 3 there were discussions and analyses made between us and the implementers on what we wanted to achieve in the project. 2.71 neutral 2 4 i willingly and actively participated in the discussion of the project during the planning stage. 4.02 agree 1 gathering of related documents needed 5 i was only a member of the team and took no part in the gathering of related documents needed for crfm 3.31 neutral 1 6 i willingly took part in the gathering of related documents needed for crmf without an assurance that my ideas would infl uence the decisions. 2.33 disagree 3 7 i was actively interacting with the team and my voice infl uenced the decisions in gathering important documents needed in crmf. 2.90 neutral 2 preparation of maps 8 i was tasked to take part in securing the maps 3.39 neutral 1 9 i took the initiative of participating in the fi nalization and printing of the cbfma maps 2.55 disagree 3 10 my participation in the fi nalization and printing of the cbfma maps is valuable. 2.92 neutral 2 coordination with the community and po and reconnaissance survey 11 i was part of the team but took no part in the decision-making of the activities being done like scheduling and setting of venue of crmf activities including listing of key informants 2.89 neutral 4 coordination with the community and po and reconnaissance survey 12 i was a member of the team but did not participate or only an audience in the gps reading, community mapping activities and did not familiarize myself with the cbfm area 3.30 neutral 3 13 i was included in the team however i served as a listener and audience on gps reading, identifying areas of community mapping, printing maps 4.04 agree 1 14 i am part of the group however i did not participate in the creation of a po resolution or planning 2.70 neutral 5 15 i was included in the team but did not take part in the setting of the schedule and venues of crmf and identifying the key informants 2.63 neutral 6 16 i freely expressed my opinions and took other kinds of initiative in scheduling and setting the venue of crmf activities including listing key informants. 3.81 agree 2 po orientation/po planning team’s training on crmf 17 i was included in the orientation on the importance of forest, cbfm, and crmf formulation including the preparation of crmf but took no part in or only listened to the decision-making. 3.85 agree 1 18 i was included in the orientation on the importance of forest, cbfm, and crmf formulation including the preparation of crmf expressed opinions, and took other initiatives. 3.51 agree 2 4.21 – 5.00 strongly agree (sa) 3.41 – 4.20 agree (a) 2.60 – 3.40 neutral/uncertain (n/u) 1.80 – 2.60 disagree (d) 1.00 – 1.80 strongly disagree (sd) updating the community map, but there were varying levels of participation. the fi rst statement implies that some individuals were involved but didn’t actively contribute to the decision-making process with a rating of 2.62 (neutral), while the second statement suggests that some individuals were both involved and actively participated in making decisions (3.88, agree). this reveals that respondents agree that they have an “activity-specifi c participation”, based on the typology of participation. based on the fgd they also revealed their participation in this: planning phase the text below explains the phases of planning in the cbfm program, highlighting eight sub-activities that will be discussed to assess the level of participation by the respondents. it seems that most people were involved in pa ge 10 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 “ang ginawa po namin ay community mapping, kung saan dinrowing po naming kung saan ang school, residential areas, church, lalong lalo ng po ang cbfm sites. linagyan naming ng marka kung saan ang mga puno at crops ganun sa mga bahay at iba pang nakatayo sa aming komunidad” (what we made was community mapping, we drew the school, residential areas, church, and most especially the cbfm sites. we made markings where are the trees, and crops, houses and other infrastructures in the community). the participatory planning process fosters trust within your organization, among the community, and the individuals involved. this trust forms a solid foundation for future community development and actionable initiatives fao (2003); tufte & paolo (2009) it is recommended that active participation from local citizens and other stakeholders during the design stage should improve the quality and relevance of the proposed interventions. the second activity revealed that the benefi ciaries have a neutral rating (3.36) on the statement “i was included in validating the community and po profi le and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process”. on the other hand, some respondents were included in the validation process but did not participate in decision-making with a 2.77 or neutral rating. this activity was revealed to have “activity-specifi c participation” by the respondents. this implies that the respondents’ participation is being assigned to them because of the nature of the activity. it requires indigenous knowledge about the community. the data reveals the responses of respondents on their levels of participation in the strengthens weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges (swoc) analysis conducted in the community. these responses indicate that most individuals were included in the analysis process, but there is a difference in the level of participation and engagement. the fi rst statement suggests that some individuals were included in the analysis but did not participate in decision-making (2.75, neutral, rank 2), while the second statement suggests that some individuals were included and actively participated in decision-making (3.53, agree, rank 1). this activity falls under “activity-specifi c participation” wherein they were asked to undertake specifi c tasks during the conduct of swot analysis. this portion tackles the participation level of the respondents in defi ning the vision, mission, goals, and objectives (vmgo) of their association. based on the data, respondents “agree (3.36, rank 1) that they were included in this activity and asked for their opinions to arrive at a decision. on the other hand, 3.02 or neutral, rank 2 responded that they only listened in the conceptualization of their vmgo. this data shows that they have activity-specifi c participation. on the aspect of vision mapping, the data revealed that 3.86 of the respondents agreed that they asked for their opinions related to vision mapping and took part in the decision-making processes, while 3.06 of the respondents were neutral saying that they were included in the vision mapping but took no part or only listened to the decision-making. this shows that have activity-specifi c participation in the vision mapping sessions. this section on the formulation of strategies and activities presents the responses as follows: 3.37 individuals agreed that they were included in the formulation of 25-year strategies and activities including the fi ve-year plan and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter related to strategies and activities and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. on the other hand, 2.75 or neutral revealed that they form part of the planning but as a listener in the process. this likewise reveals that respondents demonstrate a specifi c activity participation. table 6: level of participation of community respondents in the planning phase item forms of participation weighted mean descriptive equivalent rank community mapping 1 i was included in the updating of the community map but took no part or only listened to decision-making. 2.61 neutral 2 2 i was included in the updating of the community map and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter, and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.88 agree 1 validation of community and po profi le 3 i was included in validating the community and po profi le but took no part or only listened to decision-making. 2.77 neutral 2 4 i was included in validating the community and po profi le and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.36 neutral 1 strengthens weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges (swoc) analysis 5 i was included in analyzing the swoc of the community and the po but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 2.75 neutral 2 pa ge 10 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 6 i was included in analyzing the swoc of the community and the po and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.53 agree 1 defi ning the vision, mission, goals, and objectives 7 i was included in defi ning the vision, mission, goals, and objectives but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 3.02 neutral 2 8 i was included in defi ning the vision, mission, goals, and objectives and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter, and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.63 agree 1 vision mapping 9 i was included in the vision mapping but took no part or only listened to the decision-making. 3.06 neutral 2 10 i was included in the vision mapping and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter related to mapping and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process 3.86 agree 1 11 i was included in the formulation of 25-year strategies and activities and a fi ve-year work plan but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 2.78 neutral 2 12 i was included in the formulation of 25-year strategies and activities and a fi ve-year plan and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter related to strategies and activities and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process 3.87 agree 1 4.21 – 5.00 strongly agree (sa) 3.41 – 4.20 agree (a) 2.60 – 3.40 neutral/uncertain (n/u) 1.80 – 2.60 disagree (d) 1.00 – 1.80 strongly disagree (sd) implementation phase this phase consisted of three major sub-activities such as the integration/ consolidation of outputs for the packaging of crmf, consultation and ratifi cation of crmf, and affi rmation of crm, issuance and approval of crmf. the responses in this activity indicate that most individuals were included in the packaging process, but there is a difference in the level of participation and engagement. the second statement in the activity ranks 1 with a 3.86 mean with a descriptive rating of agree by the respondents. it states that respondents were included in the packaging of crmf such as validated community and po profi le, updated community crfm areas, statement of vmgo, and the 25-year and the-year matrix of strategies and activities and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process, while 3.47 also agreed on their participation as merely listener of the decisions about this matter. if we look into the level of participation, they performed activity-specifi c participation. consultation and ratifi cation of crmf was one of the activities in this phase, it has revealed their participation as activity-specifi c participation because they only undertake a specifi c task with a mean rating of 3.86 (agree). but then a 2.67 mean rating (agree) revealed that they took no part in the decision-making. for the ratifi cation of crm, issuance, and approval of crmf, a 3.73 mean rating (agree) has responded stating that they were tasked to perform a specifi c undertaking that infl uenced the decision falls under activity-specifi c participation. on the other hand, 2.68 (neutral) shows that their participation is nominal or took no part in the decision. table 7: level of participation of community respondents in the implementation phase item forms of participation weighted mean descriptive equivalent rank integration/ consolidation of outputs for the packaging of crmf 1 i was included in the packaging of crmf such as validated community and po profi le, updated community crfm areas, statement of vmgo, and the 25-year and the-year matrix of strategies and activities but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 3.47 agree 2 2 i was included in the packaging of crmf such as validated community and po profi le, updated community crfm areas, statement of vmgo, and the 25-year and the-year matrix of strategies and activities and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decision-making process. 3.86 agree 1 pa ge 10 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 consultation and ratifi cation of crmf 3 i was included in the ratifi cation of crmf but took no part or only listened to the decision-making. 2.67 neutral 2 4 i was included in the ratifi cation of crmf and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decisionmaking process. 3.64 agree 1 affi rmation of crm, issuance, and approval of crmf 5 i was included in the affi rmation of crmf but took no part or only listened in the decision-making. 2.68 neutral 2 6 i was included in the affi rmation of crmf and asked for my opinions on a specifi c matter and asked to undertake a specifi c task in the decisionmaking process. 3.73 agree 1 4.21 – 5.00 strongly agree (sa) 3.41 – 4.20 agree (a) 2.60 – 3.40 neutral/uncertain (n/u) 1.80 – 2.60 disagree (d) 1.00 – 1.80 strongly disagree (sd) conclusion the cbfm implementation at masipi east and caligayan by the denr-cenro and menro showed strong engagement in creating the crmf facilitator’s team, gathering documents, preparing maps, and coordinating with the community and po. active participation also appeared in community mapping, profi le validation, swoc analysis, defi ning vmgos, and formulating strategies. while in the implementation phase, implementers were involved in integrating crmf outputs, consulting and rectifying crmf, and issuing and approving crmf. on the contrary, the community members had limited involvement in the decision-making processes for creating the crmf team, gathering documents, and preparing maps. mainly, their participation was passive. however, they are involved in validating profi les, updating crmf areas, and formulating strategies, but still, their authority is limited in the decision-making. were community’s participation in consulting and ratifying crmf were also low, especially during the ratifi cation, issuance, and approval of crmf. based on the study’s fi ndings, it is noticeable that more inclusive strategies are needed. the obvious contrast between the active implementers and the more passive community respondents’ engagement highlights the necessity to enhance community involvement. encouraging them to be actively involved in decisionmaking from the preparatory, planning, and implementation phases is given emphasis. support and nature of their engagement by providing training and necessary resources to empower them to take on more responsibilities within the program. organize regular training sessions to equip participants with the skills and knowledge needed for effective engagement. establish continuous feedback mechanisms to capture and incorporate participant input and adjust the program accordingly. it’s crucial to create a collaborative environment where participants feel that their contributions are valued and impactful, particularly in mapping and community coordination activities. encouraging active engagement and enhancing the capacity of community members is essential for inclusive participation. prioritize transparency and communication efforts to ensure that decision-making processes are clear and that participants’ inputs are used to build trust and foster empowered participation. additionally, increase the representation of stakeholders in decision-making forums to refl ect the diverse perspectives and needs of the community. novelty of research the research introduces a fresh perspective by highlighting the contrast between the active involvement of implementers and the relatively passive role of community members in implementing the community-based forest management (cbfm) program. the fi ndings emphasize the necessity of more inclusive strategies that prioritize and empower community participation in decisionmaking processes from the preparatory stages, planning stages through to the implementation phase. the study underscores the importance of promoting active community involvement by providing training, and necessary resources, and fostering a collaborative environment where their contributions are valued. it recommends the organization of regular training sessions to equip participants with the skills and knowledge required for effective engagement, the establishment of feedback mechanisms to capture and integrate participant input, and the prioritization of transparency and communication efforts to build trust and ensure clear decision-making processes. by advocating for enhanced capability building, empowered engagement, and increased stakeholder representation in decision-making forums, the research underscores the signifi cance of fostering inclusive participation within the cbfm program. this approach seeks to empower community members, enhance their decision-making authority, and create a more inclusive and impactful environment for sustainable forest pa ge 10 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(2) 91-105, 2024 management practices. contribution to knowledge this study contributes signifi cantly to the existing body of knowledge in several ways. it emphasizes the disparity in engagement, underlining the contrast between active (empowered) implementers and passive community members, and stresses the importance of addressing power imbalances in conservation programs. furthermore, it advocates for inclusive strategies that empower community participation in the three phases of carrying out the program: the preparatory, planning, and implementation phases, addressing a gap in the current literature. the research also highlights the importance of capability building, training, and the creation of a collaborative environment to enhance community engagement initiatives. additionally, it emphasizes the vital role of transparency and communication in building trust, clarifying decision-making processes, and improving conservation outcomes. by advocating for increased stakeholder representation in decision-making forums, the research recognizes diverse perspectives and aims to create a more inclusive environment. overall, this study provides valuable insights into community-based forest management, emphasizing the signifi cance of inclusive participation, capability building, transparency, and stakeholder engagement in promoting sustainable practices. fulfi llment of research gap this research addresses a critical gap in the current literature by examining the dynamics of community engagement in conservation programs. it emphasizes the imbalance between active (empowered) implementers and passive community members, highlighting the importance of addressing power differentials. by advocating for inclusive strategies, the research accentuates the signifi cance of empowering community participation during the preparatory, planning, and implementation stages, thus fi lling a notable void in the existing literature. moreover, it reinforces the need for capability building and training to establish a collaborative environment that enhances community involvement in sustainable forest management. the study likewise identifi es transparency and communication as crucial for building trust, clarifying decision-making processes, and improving conservation outcomes. by promoting increased stakeholder representation in decision-making forums, the research recognizes the value of diverse perspectives and aims to cultivate a more inclusive environment. in summary, this study offers valuable insights into communitybased forest management (cbfm) stressing the roles of inclusive participation, capability building, transparency, and stakeholder engagement in promoting sustainable practices. acknowledgement sincerest thanks are bestowed to the agencies and associations who have helped the author to administer the survey and focus group discussion in their offi ces and barangays: the department of environment and natural resources – city of environment and natural resources personnel (denr-cenro) headed by for. dionisio c. deundo, and gladys m. balisi; the municipal environment, natural resources (menro) offi cers, namely: mr. lucky jay limbauan, and ms. maja-layne z. edejer, enp; the masipi east upland farmers association (meufa) and the tumauini upland farmers greeners association (tufga) presidents namely: hon. leovino rambac and hon. reynaldo fenix, respectively. references asad, t., ahmed, m., malik, s., & zarouni, a. a. 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(1998). planning in government forest agencies how to balance forest use and conservation: agenda for training workshop. un: food and agriculture organization. https://www.fao.org/4/w8961e/w8961e05.htm. book fao. (2023). sustainable forest management (sfm) toolbox. retrieved from food and agriculture organization: https://www.fao.org/sustainableforest-management/toolbox/modules/participatoryapproaches-and-tools-for-sfm/basic-knowledge/ en/. toolbox gaber, j. (2019). building “a ladder of citizen participation”: sherry arnstein, citizen participation, and model cities. journal of the american planning association, 188. https:// www.open.edu/openlearn/mod/oucontent/view. php?id=21024&section=4.1#:~:text=arnstein’s%20 ladder%20of%20participation%20consists,they%20 relate%20to%20non%2dparticipation. journal article guiang, e. s., borlagdan, s. b., & pulhin, j. m. 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(2008). participatory development. in the companion to development studies (p. 47). publisher. nzunda, e. f., & manyanda, b. j. (2023). a swot analysis of community-based forest management policy as a basis for redd+ in tanzania. gsc advanced research and reviews, 15(3), 22-37. https://doi.org/10.30574/ gscarr.2023.15.3.0157 oy, m. (2023). a comprehensive guide to community mapping for planning professionals. maptionnaire. https://www. maptionnaire.com/blog/guide-to-communitymapping-for-planning pretty, j. n., & vodouche, s. d. (n.d.). https://www. fao.org/. retrieved from https://www.fao.org/4/ w5830e/w5830e08.htm. article rebugio, l. l., carandang, a. p., dizon, j. t., & pulhin, j. m. 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(2008). tools for data demand and use in the health sector. carolina: usaid-measure evaluation manual. pa ge 1 pa ge 7 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) suitability of grey-water treated with common reed in constructed wetland for irrigation purposes in akure, nigeria femi alao1, adewoye alade olanipekun1*, ajayi johnson oloruntade2, oluwatosin onaopemipo olofintoye3, afolabi matthew oke4, daniel uwumarogie idusuyi1,opeyemi bayode1, quadri opeyemi saka5, damilare akintunde ojewole5 volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4503 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: february 02, 2025 accepted: march 08, 2025 published: may 07, 2025 effective grey-water management plays a crucial role in promoting environmentally sustainable practices. this research focuses on assessing the suitability of grey-water treated with common reed for irrigation purposes in akure, nigeria. grey-water samples were sourced from a university hostel and subjected to treatment through a constructed wetland (cw) system, which was planted with common reed (phragmites australis). the study spanned a three-year period (2016-2018), during which both the physico-chemical and microbial parameters of the raw and treated grey-water were evaluated before and after treatment. the findings revealed notable reductions in the treated grey-water’s physico-chemical and microbial characteristics, thereby indicating the effectiveness of the treatment process. additionally, the levels of heavy metals in the treated grey-water were significantly reduced, meeting the world health organization (who) standards for safe use in irrigation. the study highlights the potential of common reed-based constructed wetlands to effectively remove contaminants from grey-water, underscoring their viability as a low-cost, eco-friendly solution for grey-water treatment in akure, nigeria, and similar regions. the study also concludes that common reed-treated grey-water can be a viable alternative for irrigation in agricultural settings, contributing to sustainable water management practices in areas like akure. consequently, the treated grey-water from this system is deemed safe and suitable for agricultural use, aligning with guidelines for wastewater reuse in irrigation. keywords bod, cod, common reed, constructed wetland, grey-water, water treatment 1 department of civil and environmental engineering, bells university of technology ota, nigeria 2 department of agricultural and bio-resources engineering, federal university, oye-ekiti, nigeria 3 department of water resources and environmental engineering, university of ilorin, ilorin, nigeria 4 department of agricultural and bio-systems engineering, bells university of technology, ota, nigeria 5 department of mechanical engineering, bells university of technology, ota, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: aaolanipekun@bellsuniversity.edu.ng introduction the composition of grey-water directly mirrors household activities and is shaped by factors such as living standards, cultural and social practices, household size, and the choice of cleaning products (oladejo & olanipekun, 2018). greywater from sources like showers, bathtubs, and handwashing sinks usually contains fewer contaminants, while water from laundry and dishwashing often has elevated phosphorus levels due to detergents. kitchen grey-water is typically the primary source of nitrogen, whereas grey-water from bathrooms and laundry generally has lower nitrogen concentrations (olanipekun et al., 2024). the rising global production of grey-water is raising environmental concerns, highlighting the importance of treating it for reuse. historically, wastewater treatment is primarily aimed to ensure safe disposal, thereby reducing risks to public health and preventing environmental harm (who, 2006). however, the purpose of wastewater treatment has evolved to also emphasize resource recovery, including the extraction of energy, nutrients and water from waste. still, the core objective remains the safe discharge of both domestic and industrial effluents, ensuring they do not pose health hazards or cause significant harm to the environment (aiyelokun et al., 2024a). utilizing wastewater for irrigation provides two significant advantages: it not only offers a method of waste disposal but also promotes resource recovery by reusing water in productive ways. this practice is particularly beneficial when applied in slow-rate land treatment processes, where wastewater is gradually absorbed and utilized by plants and soil systems. despite these advantages, raw municipal wastewater is typically unsuitable for direct use in agricultural irrigation, landscaping, or aquaculture without undergoing preliminary treatment (aiyelokun et al., 2024b). the degree and quality of treatment are essential for determining how effectively wastewater can be integrated into soil-plant systems or aquatic environments, as they influence the health and sustainability of these ecosystems .inadequate treatment can compromise the performance of these systems, underscoring the importance of proper wastewater treatment before agricultural use (metcalf & eddy, 2003). with the growing strain on global water resources, the treatment and reuse of wastewater offer a sustainable solution that helps preserve the environment, while also reclaiming valuable resources. the quality standards for treated wastewater intended for irrigation depend on several factors, such as the specific crops being cultivated, the characteristics of the soil, and the method used to apply the treated effluent (oladejo, 2014; pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 7-14, 2025 olanipekun & idusuyi, 2023). selecting crop types or irrigation techniques that lower health risks can potentially reduce the level of treatment required before wastewater is applied. this position was affirmed by ghosh and chakraborty (2025), in a reported study which utilized water hyacinth (pontederia crassipes) as a carefully selected wetland plant for adapting agricultural practice in bangladesh to the deleterious effects of climate change. the study found that water hyacinth was instrumental coping with salinity, drought, water logging and flooding in selected farmlands across bangladesh. however, this strategy is less feasible for aquaculture, where stricter wastewater treatment protocols are necessary to ensure safety for both aquatic organisms and human health. aquaculture systems require higher water quality standards to prevent contamination and to maintain a healthy aquatic environment, making advanced treatment essential in these settings. this will not only guarantee success when the entire process is completed, but will also ensure that another environmental challenge is not inadvertently created in a bid to solve an already existing one. according to metcalf & eddy (2003), the ideal form of wastewater treatment for agricultural reuse should ensure the effluent meets recommended microbiological and chemical standards, while also being cost-effective and requiring minimal operational complexity and maintenance (gholipour et al. 2020). constructed wetlands (cws) that incorporate common reed (phragmites australis) offer an affordable and eco-friendly approach to treating greywater, largely due to their minimal design, construction, and maintenance costs. these engineered wetland systems capitalize on natural purification processes, making them an effective and sustainable method for improving water quality. cws work by combining several mechanisms to remove contaminants from wastewater. physical processes, such as filtration and sedimentation, help separate particles and impurities, while biological activities, including microbial breakdown and nutrient absorption by plants, aid in reducing pollutants (li et al. 2020; sijimol & joseph, 2021). additionally, various chemical reactions, such as precipitation and adsorption, further enhance the system’s capacity to purify grey-water. collectively, these processes enable cws to reduce harmful substances in wastewater, supporting a low-impact, resource-efficient treatment strategy (kadlec & knight, 1996). typically, these systems are equipped with impermeable clay or synthetic liners and structures that help control flow direction, water retention time, and water levels. furthermore, some setups may utilize inert porous materials such as rocks, gravel, or sand. similarly, vegetation within constructed wetlands serves an essential function in the treatment process, contributing significantly to the system’s overall effectiveness. plants not only provide oxygen to the rhizosphere, a zone of intense biological activity around their roots but also create a supportive environment for the beneficial microorganisms residing there. this oxygen transfer helps maintain aerobic conditions in parts of the wetland bed, promoting microbial processes that break down pollutants. also, the vegetation actively absorbs nutrients from the wastewater, which reduces nutrient loads that might otherwise lead to issues like eutrophication if discharged untreated into natural water bodies. the plants’ roots, stems and leaves also expand the available surface area for microbial colonization, facilitating more sites for microbial communities to thrive and carry out pollutant-degrading processes (oladejo & olanipekun, 2018). in this way, plants are central to the wetland’s ability to function as a self-sustaining water treatment ecosystem, enhancing both nutrient cycling and contaminant removal (brix, 1993). in summary, these constructed wetlands aim to enhance the physical, chemical, and biological functions of natural wetlands to decrease levels of biochemical oxygen demand (bod), total suspended solids (tss), total nitrogen (tn), phosphorus, and pathogens as wastewater flows across the vegetated surface (reed et al., 1987; reed, 1993). it is therefore important to mention that when choosing plants for cws, important factors to consider are their tolerance for waterlogged and low-oxygen conditions, their capacity to thrive in nutrient-rich settings, their ability to absorb pollutants, and their adaptability to harsh climatic conditions. while over 150 species of macrophytes have been utilized in cws worldwide, only a few are frequently employed in practice (vymazal, 2013). the most commonly used emergent plants include phragmites spp. (poaceae), typha spp. (typhaceae), scirpus spp. (cyperaceae), iris spp. (iridaceae), juncus spp. (juncaceae), and eleocharis spp. (spikerush). common submerged plants include hydrilla verticillata, ceratophyllum demersum, vallisneria natans, myriophyllum verticillatum, and potamogeton crispus. floating-leaved species often used are nymphaea tetragona, nymphoides peltata, trapa bispinosa, and marsilea quadrifolia, while free-floating plants include eichhornia crassipes, salvinia natans, hydrocharis dubia, and lemna minor (kumar et al., 2008; akhtar, 2017). emergent macrophytes are more efficient in removing pollutants and are better adapted to handle various wastewater sources (napaldet & buot, 2019; said et al., 2021; beauclair, 2021). a survey by vymazal (2013) on emergent plants in free water surface (fws) constructed wetlands found that phragmites australis is the most commonly used species in europe and asia, while typha latifolia dominates in north america, cyperus papyrus in africa, p. australis and typha domingensis in central and south america, and scirpus validus in oceania. additionally, vymazal (2011) reviewed plants in subsurface flow (ssf) wetlands and reported that p. australis is the most widely used species globally, especially in europe, canada, australia, and large parts of asia and africa. wetland plants play a crucial role in enhancing water quality in constructed wetlands, serving as the primary biological component. these plants aid in purification processes by pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 7-14, 2025 facilitating the removal of nutrients and directly absorbing nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients (liu et al., 2011; zu et al; 2020; ko, 2024). similarly, they have the capacity to accumulate harmful substances, including heavy metals and antibiotics (liu et al., 2013). for instance, wu et al. (2013) found that four emergent wetland plants absorbed between 6.50 26.57 g n/m² and 0.27–1.48 g p/m² when treating polluted river water. the ability of plants to uptake nutrients differs depending on several factors, including system design, retention time, loading rate, type of wastewater, and climate (saeed & sun, 2013). in general, plants can help remove between 15% to 80% of nitrogen and 24% to 80% of phosphorus from the wastewater (greenway & woolley, 2001), though some studies show lower removal rates, such as 14.29 51.89% for nitrogen and 10.76 34.17% for phosphorus (wu et al., 2013). in the case of emerging contaminants, plants have been effective in removing substances like carbamazepine, sulfonamides, and trimethoprim from wastewater (dordio et al., 2011; dan et al., 2013). for heavy metal removal, eleocharis acicularis demonstrated strong accumulation capabilities for metals like ag, pb, cu, cd, and zn (ha et al., 2011) and yadav et al. (2012) found that metal accumulation was higher in below-ground biomass than aboveground biomass. despite significant research efforts, this approach is still relatively new in nigeria, indicating a need to examine the suitability of grey-water treated with common reed for irrigation purposes. materials and methods the research was conducted behind jadesola akande female hostel on the obanla campus of the federal university of technology (futa), akure, ondo state, nigeria. akure is located at latitude 7°14’ n and longitude 5°08’ e. the region experiences a tropical humid climate, marked by two distinct seasonal patterns (rainy and dry). suffice it to say that all of the experiments, from wetland planting to water treatment, were carried out in the dry seasons of december to february of 2016, 2017 and 2018. influent grey-water was sourced from a hostel, where water from showers, bathtubs, kitchens, and bathroom sinks was directed into a system designed for initial filtration and pretreatment. this water traveled through pipes with a diameter of 128 mm to reach a filtration tank, where a preliminary filtration process removed larger suspended particles as shown in figure 1. items such as food debris, hair, and lint were screened out using a layered filtration medium composed of various sizes of gravel specifically layers with particles smaller than 32 mm, 24 mm, and 16 mm and capped with a fine sand layer of 0.2 mm in diameter for finer filtration. after this pre-filtration stage, the partially treated greywater was conveyed through a narrower, 32 mm diameter pipe into the constructed wetland as illustrated in figure 2. this wetland was set up with a similar combination of gravel and sand as the filtration tank, but included the addition of common reed (phragmites australis), a plant selected for its effectiveness in aiding the treatment process as shown in figure 3. in the wetland system, the grey-water was retained for a period of two days, allowing for further purification through the combined effects of microbial action, plant uptake, and sedimentation within the substrate. following this retention time, the processed effluent, now treated grey-water, was collected and ready for potential reuse or safe discharge. water samples were taken from two sources: raw grey-water and treated grey-water, both were collected in sterilized laboratory bottles from the study site for analysis. the parameters evaluated included physical factors (temperature and ph), chemical factors such as total suspended solids (tss), biochemical oxygen demand (bod), total nitrogen (tn), total phosphorus (tp), chemical oxygen demand (cod), electrical conductivity (ec), manganese, iron, and anions (sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates). additionally, microbial factors like fecal coliforms (fc) and escherichia coli (e. coli) were also examined. on-site temperature readings were taken using a thermometer, while ph and electrical conductivity (ec) measurements were performed immediately after sample collection with a ph meter and ec meter, respectively, following the procedures outlined by motsara and roy (2008). the concentrations of calcium and magnesium were determined using titrimetric analysis based on the standard edta method (american public health association, 2020). analysis of heavy metals, such as nickel (ni), cadmium (cd), zinc (zn), copper (cu), and lead (pb), was conducted at the sustainable laboratory in akure, nigeria. levels of sodium (na) and potassium (k) were assessed using a flame photometer, while chloride content was quantified through titration with silver nitrate (agno3). figure 1: raw grey-water from jadesola akande hostel to the sedimentation tank at the experimental field figure 2: constructed wetland planted with common reed at the experimental field pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 7-14, 2025 figure 3: grey-water treatment setup both biochemical oxygen demand (bod) and chemical oxygen demand (cod) were measured using the standard open method at the same laboratory to determine the levels of organic pollution. total suspended solids (tss) were assessed through the gravimetric method, specifically for “total suspended non-filterable solids,” in accordance with apha guidelines (2005). results and discussion to evaluate the suitability of treated grey-water for irrigation, the following characteristics of irrigation water in the study area were analyzed: ph of treated grey-water the ph analysis revealed values of 7.08, 6.10, and 8.06 for treated grey-water during the dry seasons of 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively (table 2). according to food and agriculture organization (2003) guidelines, an effluent ph range of 6.5 to 9.0 is desirable for irrigation, while the environmental protection agency (epa, 2004) and the world health organization (who, 1989) recommend a ph range of 6.5 to 8.5. the temperature and ph values observed in this study align with findings from previous research in similar areas (kayombo et al., 2000; kaseva, 2004). these ranges support high microbial activity, as they fall within the optimal ph range of 6.0 to 9.0 and a temperature range of 25°c to 35°c (metcalf and eddy, 2003). variations in ph and temperature can be attributed to different weather conditions on sampling days (such as sunny or cloudy weather) and the composition and volume of sewage released. the design of the wetland system, which incorporates both plants and gravel, influences these parameters by reducing direct sunlight exposure to the grey-water as it passes through the wetland. the lower ph levels observed in treated grey-water compared to raw grey-water inflows may be attributed to the inability of the plants to exude or absorb carbon dioxide during daylight hours, as both plants and microorganisms engage in photosynthetic activity (kaseva, 2004; kyambadde et al., 2004). salinity hazard of treated grey-water the analysis of treated grey-water indicated that total dissolved solids (tds) were 1152 mg/l, 1226 mg/l, and 1300 mg/l during the dry seasons of 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively. furthermore, the electrical conductivity (ec) values measured were 2.43 ds/m, 2.26 ds/m, and 2.60 ds/m respectively for the same years (table 2). consequently, the treated grey-water presents a slight to moderate salinity issue for crops, as fao (2003) suggests an acceptable ec range of 0 to 2.0 ds/m. additionally, pescod (1992) recommends a tds range of 450 to 2000 mg/l for wastewater used in irrigation. since the ec of the treated grey-water exceeds this range, it may lead to slight to moderate degradation of the soil’s physical structure, potentially reducing plant growth, root and shoot lengths, and overall yield (omami, 2005; agarwai and pandey, 2004). to mitigate salinity issues, applying additional freshwater beyond the plants’ needs can help leach salts from the root zone (plaut et al., 2013). sodium (na) hazard of treated grey-water the concentrations of sodium (na) in treated grey-water were documented over three consecutive dry seasons, showing values of 41.20 ppm in 2016, 42.40 ppm in 2017, and 43.60 ppm in 2018. for the same years, raw greywater samples had significantly higher na concentrations, recorded at 57.50 ppm, 60.30 ppm, and 63.10 ppm, respectively, as detailed in tables 1 and 2. according to pescod (1992), sodium levels in all analyzed water samples fell within acceptable ranges for irrigation purposes, as they remain sufficiently low to prevent negative impacts on soil structure or plant health. the treatment process effectively reduced sodium levels, aligning with irrigation suitability standards. this reduction in sodium concentration contributes to maintaining soil permeability and preventing potential sodium-induced issues, which can be beneficial in long-term agricultural applications. chloride contents of treated grey-water chloride concentrations are a key factor in evaluating the pa ge 11 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 7-14, 2025 quality of irrigation water because high levels of chloride can be harmful to plants and also act as a measure of water salinity. in the treated grey-water samples, chloride concentrations measured were 18.82 mg/l, 19.43 mg/l, and 20.04 mg/l for the dry seasons of 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively. these values suggest that the treated grey-water is appropriate for use with salt-tolerant crops, which can withstand mild salinity without adverse effects on growth or yield. the relatively modest chloride levels observed in the treated grey-water samples may reflect the efficiency of the treatment process in reducing salinity-related constituents. this reduction is crucial for minimizing potential negative impacts on plant health and soil structure over extended irrigation periods, as displayed in table 2. the capacity to manage chloride concentration through effective grey-water treatment ensures that the water remains viable for agricultural use, supporting both crop growth and soil sustainability. microbial parameters of treated grey-water the evaluation of treated grey-water showed levels of fecal coliform (fc) bacteria measuring 390, 530, and 460 cfu/100 ml for the dry seasons of 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively. these results suggest a lower risk of pathogen presence in the treated water, as detailed in table 2. the observed decrease in fc levels can be attributed to the initial sedimentation phase, during which the grey-water was retained for several days. this retention period allows for natural purification processes to take place. various mechanisms contribute to the reduction of bacterial populations, including sedimentation, chemical reactions, natural die-off, and the predation of bacteria by organisms such as zooplankton, nematodes, lytic bacteria, and bacteriophages, as discussed by kadlec and knight (1996). additionally, plants play a vital role in the wastewater treatment process, primarily through their physical contributions. macrophytes help stabilize the surfaces of treatment beds, enhance physical filtration capabilities, and create a substantial surface area that promotes microbial growth, thereby facilitating further purification (brix, 2020). this multifaceted approach ensures the effective treatment of greywater, reducing pathogens and improving overall water quality. chemical parameters (cod, bod and tss) of treated grey-water the results indicated that the treated grey-water is suitable for irrigation based on the bod values of 23.00 mg/l, 26.00 mg/l, and 24.50 mg/l, and cod values of 33.22 mg/l, 35.51 mg/l, and 37.80 mg/l for the dry seasons of 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively (table 2). these values fall within the fao’s acceptable limits of 60 mg/l for bod and 200 mg/l for cod (pescod, 1992). however, the tss of the treated grey-water were 89.00 mg/l, 92.00 mg/l, and 95.00 mg/l for the same years, which exceed the fao’s acceptable limit of 50 mg/l. this could potentially lead to soil plugging in irrigation systems. the relatively low bod and cod levels in the treated grey-water were likely due to purification processes occurring in the sedimentation tank, and these findings are consistent with earlier studies by bilha (2006) and seswoya and zainal (2010). the lower values in this study compared with other reports may be attributed to the reduced levels of degradable organic matter entering the constructed wetland system, since most of it may table 1: properties of the raw greywater at the experimental site ye ar te m p (° c ) ph c o d (m g /l ) b o d (m g/ l) t ss (m g/ l) e c (d s/ m ) n o 3 (m g/ l) so 42 ˉ (m g/ l) t d s (m g/ l) fc (c fu /1 00 m l) c l ˉ (m g/ l) 2016 27.20 7.46 415.77 274.35 109.00 3.72 24.60 2542.50 1995.00 2570 17.02 2017 28.10 6.26 415.77 286.40 107.00 4.02 23.40 2551.30 2001.00 2440 15.53 2018 29.00 8.66 406.44 298.45 111.00 4.32 25.80 2560.10 1998.00 2700 18.51 standard (pesco, 1992) nill 6 9 200 60 50 0.7 – 3 50 2000 450 – 2000 1000 500 table 2: properties of the treated greywater at the experimental site ye ar te m p (° c ) ph c o d (m g /l ) b o d (m g /l ) t ss (m g /l ) e c (d s /m ) n o 3 ( m g /l ) so 42 ˉ (m g /l ) t d s (m g/ l) fc (c fu /1 0 0 m l) c l ˉ (m g/ l) 2016 27.80 7.08 33.22 23.00 89.00 2.43 11.40 1546.50 1152.00 390 18.82 2017 28.10 6.10 35.51 26.00 92.00 2.26 12.40 1563.70 1226.00 530 19.43 2018 29.40 8.06 37.80 24.50 95.00 2.60 13.40 1580.90 1300.00 460 20.04 standard (pesco, 1992) nill 6 9 200 60 50 0.7 – 3 50 2000 450 – 2000 1000 500 pa ge 12 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 7-14, 2025 have been removed during the sedimentation process. heavy metals of irrigation water the heavy metals analyzed included cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, and manganese (fao, 1992). the results showed that the concentrations of heavy metals in the treated grey-water were within the acceptable limits set by who, indicating they are unlikely to pose risks to soil or crops (table 4). the removal efficiencies for manganese (mn) were 88%, 88.71%, and 72.72% for the dry seasons of 2016, 2017 and 2018, respectively. for iron (fe), the removal efficiency was 85.71% across all three seasons. lead (pb) showed a removal efficiency of 98% for the three seasons, while nickel (ni) achieved 100% removal efficiency throughout. the removal rates for zinc (zn) were 3.90%, 14.45%, and 14.58% for 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively, and for copper (cu), the efficiencies were 58.33%, 79.17%, and 80.56% during the same periods. the removal efficiencies observed align with earlier studies conducted by nakwanit et al. (2011), akinbile et al. (2012), tuheteru et al. (2016), pongthornpruek (2017), thathong et al. (2019), prasetya et al. (2020), ismail et al. (2024), and zubairet al. (2021). exceptional removal of heavy metals has been noted by nguyen et al. (2021) and ismail et al. (2024), which they attributed to the use of added rhizobacteria and adsorbents in constructed wetland systems. overall, heavy metals were primarily eliminated through rhizofiltration, where the roots of the plants in the water absorb metals. once absorbed through the root membranes, these metals can either be retained in the roots or transported to other parts of the plant for table 3: concentrations of heavy metals in raw grey-water used in the experiment year mn (ppm) fe (ppm) pb (ppm) ni (ppm) cd (ppm) zn (ppm) cu (ppm) 2016 0.100 0.014 0.050 0.002 nill 0.154 0.060 2017 0.105 0.014 0.050 0.002 nill 0.173 0.120 2018 0.110 0.014 0.050 0.002 nill 0.192 0.180 who standard (1985) 0.400 0.300 0.010 0.020 0.003 3.000 2.000 table 4: concentrations of heavy metals in treated grey-water used in the experiment year mn (ppm) fe (ppm) pb (ppm) ni (ppm) cd (ppm) zn (ppm) cu (ppm) 2016 0.012 0.002 0.001 nill nill 0.148 0.025 2017 0.021 0.002 0.001 nill nill 0.156 0.030 2018 0.030 0.002 0.001 nill nill 0.164 0.035 who standard (1985) 0.400 0.300 0.010 0.020 0.003 3.000 2.000 tissue localization (prasetya et al., 2020). conclusion this study set out to examine the suitability of greywater treated with common reed in constructed wetlands for irrigation purposes in akure, nigeria. through detailed analyses, the findings revealed that the treatment process significantly improved the quality of the greywater. specifically, the treatment led to reductions in key physico-chemical and microbial parameters, reflecting a notable improvement in water quality. additionally, the constructed wetland system, which utilized common reed, was effective in reducing concentrations of heavy metals, highlighting its role in enhancing the overall safety and usability of the treated water. the removal efficiencies for various heavy metals, such as manganese, iron, and lead, were particularly impressive, further supporting the treatment’s effectiveness. based on the results, it can be concluded that the treated grey-water met the required standards for irrigation water reuse, with all analyzed parameters falling within acceptable limits set by regulatory bodies. this suggests that common reedtreated grey-water can be a viable alternative for irrigation in agricultural settings, contributing to sustainable water management practices in areas like akure. the findings underscore the potential of using constructed wetlands with macrophytes like common reed not only for improving grey-water quality but also for promoting environmentally sound irrigation practices. consequently, the treated grey-water from this system is deemed safe and suitable for agricultural use, aligning with guidelines for wastewater reuse in irrigation. references agarwal, s., & pandey, v. 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(2021). sustainable wastewater treatment by biochar/layered double hydroxide composites: progress, challenges, and outlook. bioresource technology, 319, 124128. pa ge 1 pa ge 52 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) adverse effects of human activities on forest reserves in ghana: lessons of experience from the yenku forest reserve in the central region emmanuel kojo sakyi1, stephen kwame ameko2* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i1.3727 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: september 12, 2024 accepted: october 16, 2024 published: january 29, 2025 this study examines the threat posed to sustainable forest management of human activities of communities within the yenku forest reserve in the central region of ghana. the reserve was identified for the study because it is the largest forest reserve has the highest number of fringe communities and is one of the most degraded forest reserve in the winneba forest district. da, and observations and semi-structured were deployed for soliciting series of individual semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and observations were deployed to solicit data from residents within the fringe communities of the yenku forest reserve. the findings of the study are that farming, charcoal burning, hunting, and harvesting of non-timber forest products are the major human activities and constitute the livelihood and survival of the fringe communities. the consequence of these human activities is the continuous degradation of the land, a decline of soil fertility, soil erosion, deforestation, and forest degradation, wildfires, and depletion of wildlife. the interviewees reported that they have little or no role to play when the issue of sustainability comes up in the management of the yenku forest reserve. it emerged from the study findings that traditional authorities within the fringe communities and all relevant stakeholders needed to be actively engaged in the making of decisions regarding the yenku forest reserve so as to integrate local peoples’ knowledge and livelihood objectives and strategies into the choices made and to improve the management of forest resources. keywords climate change, environment and forest, forest reserve, sustainable forest 1 university of ghana business school, ghana 2 utah state university, ghana * corresponding author’s e-mail: s.k.ameko@usu.edu introduction the yenku forest reserve falls within the southern savanna dry forest zone of ghana. it contains many nontimber forest products (ntfp’s) on which most local people in the fringe communities of the reserve depend for their livelihood. according to amoah (2004) evidence from a recent socio-economic sustainability survey of the fringe communities indicates that the reserve abounds in various flora and fauna with about twenty three species of very high commercial value (amoah, 2004). the survey revealed the yenku forest and its eviron have over the years experienced devastating encroachment from human activities from the fringe communities with the catchment areas of the gomoa east and west district assemblies. these human activities have adversely altered affected the sustainability of forest resources, the carbon cycle and human survival. over exploitation of forest economic resources, especially fuel-wood/firewood, illegal hunting of animals/birds, preponderance of traditional farming practice of ‘slash and burn’ farming and charcoal production are among the dominant human activities responsible for the decimation of the yenku forest. even though earlier studies suggest that the communities are aware of the various human activities ongoing in the forest, the effects and implications of their activities for the sustainability of the forest appeared not to have come to the attention of the people. this means that majority of the local people were aware of their illegal activities in the reserve, but are ignorant of the dangers posed by those activities. socio-economic sustainability survey however did not address the local people’s perception about the sustainability of the forest and how the effects of their activities and its implications pose challenges to sustainable management of the reserve. there is no doubt about these human activities due to persistent annual wildfires in the reserve despite the numerous wildfire educational campaigns by the winneba forest district during the dry season. the socio-economic survey (amoah, 2004) revealed also that 97.8% of respondents were aware of the existing laws relating to protection of forest reserves and 82% of them confirmed that the laws were enforced, offenders arrested by forestry officials and arraigned before the law courts for prosecution and items involved confiscated. it is within this context that this study seeks to examine the extent to which local people in the forest fringe communities perceive the challenges of sustainable management of the yenku forest reserve through the effects of human activities. the study objectives were to: • identify the various types of human activities ongoing in the reserve and its effects on the reserve; • gauge the level of knowledge and awareness of the local people about the effect of their activities on the yenku forest and climate; • explore the views of the local people about issues of sustainable management of the yenku forest reserve. • examine the problems of sustainable management in respect of the reserve. pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 materials and methods the yenku forest reserve forms the forest management unit 29 of the forest reserves under sustainable forest management systems in ghana. it was gazetted as a constituted forest reserve on 6th april, 1940 under forests ordinance cap 122. the reserve is located approximately on latitude 00 40’e and 0038’w. the total area of the reserve is 2,120hectares with a perimeter of 29.37km. the reserve has two adjoining blocks, a and b. block a consists of a natural forest and plantation forest covering 913.2ha and 912.7ha respectively with part of the plantation being used as sacred grove. block b consists of a research plot of area 274.77ha under the management of the forest research institute of ghana (forig). there is a rocky hill of natural forest covering an area of 19.3ha (amoah, 2004). the entire reserve falls within the gomoa east and west district assemblies, with headquarters at afransi and apam, respectively. the yenku forest reserve however, falls in the winneba forest district under forestry administration in ghana. the reserve is owned by gomoa otsew-jukwa stool land under gomoa ajumako traditional council. there are nine (9 fringe communities of the reserve namely onyadze, ostewjukwa, mankoadze, bewadze, aseibu, oguakrom, gomoa dahom, amenfi and gomoa lome. the inhabitants are predominantly farmers. the dominant farming activities are food and vegetable crops and animal rearing. the local people are also involved in reforestation programmes in collaboration with the forest services division, office at winneba. the major illegal forest activities in the communities are firewood cutting, charcoal production, figure 1: map of study area showing the yenku forest reserve pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 hunting and, farming which contribute immensely to livelihoods and income of the local people. the study spanned the period of june-december 2013. the two (2) districts have two main vegetation zones, the coastal savannah and the moist semi-deciduous forest. the former consists mainly of grassland and trees of patches of scrub, while the latter is characterized by tall trees interspersed with grass cover, shrubs and soft woody species. the districts experience two rainfall patterns major rainy season (april july) and minor rainy season (september november). mean annual rainfall ranges between 70 and 90cm in the southern coastal belt and 90 to 110cm in the northern and northwestern semideciduous forest areas. however available statistics reveals a fluctuating rainfall pattern. its mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures of29°c and 26°c occur in february to march and august respectively. the relative humidity is influenced by the presence of large water bodies like the ocean, rivers, lagoons and streams. the relative humidity ranges between 70% and 80%. (www. gomoawest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh). the topographic map of the study area is shown in figure 1 above. the case study research design was used for this study. case studies are in depth or intensive descriptions and analysis of a single unit or bounded systems such as an individual, programme, event, group, intervention or community (tagoe, 2009). the study employed the qualitative approach through focus group discussion in a free and relaxed manner. this enabled the participants to give elaborate, in-depth information and new innovative ideas on issues concerning human activities and their implications on sustainable forest management. discussions were recorded with a voice recorder and the information extracted afterwards. field observations and notes also formed part of the data collection. the recorded version gave in-depth information on the issues discussed. data on trends of forest vegetation cover change from 1990 to 2010 were also collected from cergis. the data collected was therefore analyzed thematically. the study population comprised farmers, firewood cutters, hunters and charcoal producers from the nine (9) fringe communities of the reserve. this portion of the population was chosen for the study because they are those local people who encounter the forest reserve in their normal life situations each day in the course of their businesses. the sample size for the study consisted of eight (8) farmers and two (2) hunters making ten (10) people drawn from each of the nine (9) fringe communities of the reserve. four (4) farmers double as firewood cutters and charcoal producers. addis et al. (2005) recommends 6-8 people for focus group discussions at a time. the total sample size for the study was ninety (90) people from all the nine (9) fringe communities. the views and ideas of the focus group were asked for on their perception on impact of human activities on sustainable management of the yenku forest reserve, and ways to improve and enhance the forest resources for present and the future generations. the purpose sampling procedure was employed to ask for information from the farmers within each of the local fringe communities. this is because they directly encounter the forest daily for farming, firewood cutting, charcoal production and hunting activities in the reserve. the snowball technique was also used to select farmers who double as firewood cutters and charcoal producers. this made a fair representation of the ten (10) members of each focus group in respect of various activities. the qualitative method was employed by the researcher in gathering data for the study. a qualitative research allows for probing which helped to generate the needed information for the study. interview guide was used to obtain in-depth information about various human activities in the reserve and the perception of the respondents on human induced climate change issues. the focus group discussions were recorded with a voice recorder and extracted for data analysis. as part of the data collection approaches, the author gathered field notes by spending one (1) hour to observe various field activities in the yenku forest reserve afterdiscussionsin each community. the focus group discussions lasted for one (1) hour to two (2) hours. one question was asked at a time and any group member with an idea was allowed to answer whilst being recorded. this was followed through until a question was exhausted. the akan language was used in all discussions since most of the farmers did not understand the english lanaguage. information gathered using the questionnaire guide was analyzed as follows; firstly, the audio-taped raw data was transcribed and field notes taken during data collection were examined. in preparing the data for analysis the field notes were typed. the data was sorted and arranged thematically depending on the source and categorization of the information. the researchers read through the information to obtain key ideas and themes and sub-themes that emerged from individual and group interviews and observation from the field. the thematic data were computed with particular attention to the dominant themes and their validity and reliability of the frequencies within the data. the detailed analysis of the data gathered then started with coding the various themes and sub-themes. the data analysis process included segregation of the dominant themes, sub-theme and text data collection, separating of specific sentences, and labeling text data according to the respondents’ views. results and discussion human activities in the reserve it was revealed through the interviews that the communities visit the forest reserve frequently for various reasons including farming, hunting, and collection of non-timber forest products (ntfps). the elderly amongst the local people said they usually visit the forest to collect medicinal plant parts. some respondents said they enter the forest to hunt grass cutters and antelopes pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 who feed on their food crops during the farming seasons. however, majority of respondents at the discussion disclosed that between 2002 and 2009 the forest services division had been releasing degraded portions of the forest for agroforestry purposes under the national plantation development programme of successive governments. this module is termed modified taungya system (mts) by the forest services division where forest fringe community farmers are allowed to plant food crops within tree plantations until the tree canopy closes usually within three (3) years. however, this programme was stopped in 2009 and the farmers now have difficulties in their farming activities. most of the respondents complained of land hunger as a major threat to their livelihoods since they are basically food crop farmers who depend on subsistence farming for household income. under the mts, farmers provide labour for land clearing, tending, and protection of the plantations to its rotation period. there is also a benefit-sharing agreement (bsa) with the farmers, stool land owners and communities to take 40%, 15% and 5% share respectively of the produce from the plantations, whiles the forest services division will take 40%. this arrangement under the mts gave them the legitimate rigth to enter the reserve to farm for survival. the respondents further mentioned that illegal farming stopped entirely during the period of 2002-2009. this is because it was difficult for people who were not involved in the plantation project to sneak into the forest and farm. protection of the forest was therefore enhanced according to the respondents. a total area of 171.23ha was planted with tree species including cedrella, cassia, teak, ceiba and mahogany in the reserve under the mts. on charcoal production, the respondents indicated that they used to carry tree stems, branches and stumps from the areas they clear during the farming season to burn charcoal outside the forest reserve. however, some lamented that even after the mts stopped, people usually burn charcoal using trees from the reserve. on the other hand, the elderly of those who collect medicinal plant parts said they use them for treatment of ailments and other diseases like stomach aches, broken limbs and malaria. it was however, revealed by some of them that though the area is rural, the use of medicinal plant is not much and this is due to fading out of traditional means of healing to orthodox medicine which has made the young ones ignorant about most effective medicinal plants in the forest. it was also realized from the discussion that ntfps were collected from the forest in different proportions and for several purposes. majority of them harvest the ntfps for personal use while others sell their harvest from the forest especially those who do not farm in the forest. the reason for total dependence on the forest for ntfps is that what they want cannot be obtained outside the forest from farmlands which are rather more devastated than the forest. this shows that majority of people harvest due to the fact that what they want cannot be obtained outside the forest. steps should therefore be taken to ensure that those products that can be cultivated outside the reserve are done especially tree planting on farmlands to recover lost vegetation, improve soil fertility and enhance ntfp production. the variety of products collected are mushrooms, medicines, chew sticks, pistles, bushmeat, snails, firewood, and building posts, among others. quantities collected could not be estimated, hence a proper way of estimate in the form of a quota should be adopted and enforced if collection of products from the forest will be permitted and sustained. the respondents further indicated that daily quantities of ntfps collected over the past 30 years were much higher than what they collect today from the forest. the implication here is that, everyone who entered the forest in one way or the order collects something from the forest, be it fauna or flora and this has gone on for generations. implications of human activities the respondents indicated that the yenku forest reserve used to be so flourishing with trees with very green vegetation cover over the past 30 years and that farming lands outside the forest were also very fertile. they conceded that, overexploitation of ntfps and farming activities have resulted in deforestation and degradation of the forest which also resulted in inadequate rainfall in the area. they lamented that even the little rain that occur in the reserve comes with heavy storms. majority also cited wildfires as the other reason for the degradation of the forest. the respondent information on the status of the forest cover over the past 30 years is confirmed by data analysis from the centre for remote and geographic information services (cersgis) at the university of ghana, legon which depicts a matrix of land cover changes over the past 30 years from 1990 – 2010 in the yenku forest reserve in the table 1 below. table 1: matrix of land cover by class values for the year 1990, 2000 and 2010 class value / year 1990 2000 2010 land cover % land cover % land cover % closed savanna woodland with dense herbaceous cover 470.61 21.14 195.12 8.76 25.52 1.15 open savanna woodland with dense herbaceous cover 1053.45 47.32 1127.44 50.64 987.12 44.34 dense herbaceous / grassland cover 524.34 23.55 535.23 24.04 658.50 29.58 grassland /shrubs cover 139.14 6.25 217.26 9.76 298.20 13.39 pa ge 56 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 the matrix indicate the trend of depletion of the natural closed savanna woodland forest with dense herbaceous cover of the yenku forest reserve as 21.1%, 8.8%, and 1.2% for the years 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively. the dense cover in terms of area has reduced from 470.6ha to 195.1ha and 25.5ha respectively over the 30 year period which is very remarkable. the open savanna woodland area with dense herbaceous cover has on the other hand increased from 47.3% in 1990 to 50.6 in 2000 but further reduced to 44.3% in 2010 with respective trends of area coverage of 1053.4ha, 1127.4ha and 987.1ha. the dense herbaceous and grassland cover increased from 524.3ha, 535.2ha to 658.5ha with percentage increase from 23.5%, 24.0% and 29.6% for 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively with a sharp increase recorded between 2000 and 2010. this might have been captured by the satellite to include the plantation established between 2002 – 20009. grassland and shrub cover has also increased as 6.2%, 9.8% and 13.4% for the period under review whilst bare surface and short grass cover has also increased tremendously as 1.7%, 6.8% and 11.5% for the same period. the maps in figures 2, 3 and 4 depict the classified satellite images of forest cover changes for the years 1990, 2000 and 2010 respectively in the yenku forest reserve. bare surface/short grass cover 38.79 1.74 151.28 6.80 257.00 11.54 total 2226.33 100.00 2226.33 100.00 2226.34 100.00 source: cersgis, 2013 figure 2: map of the project area in 1990 depicting the nature of the forest cover pa ge 57 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 figure 3: map of project area in 2000 showing changes in forest cover since 1990 pa ge 58 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 figure 4: map of project area in 2010 showing changes since 1990 pa ge 59 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 the general implication is that the natural forest cover is ever dwindling and this according to the study may possibly be due to over exploitation of forest resources, encroachment for farming and wildfires. however, records at the district forestry office indicate that a total of 171.23ha was planted through the mts by the fringe communities in the reserve between 2002 and 2009 with various tree species such as cedrella, cassia, teak, mahogany and ceiba. the implication here is that most of the plantations have failed over the last five (5) years when the programme was stopped. the failure may b due to wildfire outbreaks, inadequate rainfall or poor supervision and maintenance by the forest services division and the fringe community farmers respectively. local people’s level of knowledge about climate change some respondents indicated that they are aware of the climate change phenomenon through community education by the forest service division office at winneba. they recounted the effect of climate change to be excessive heat from sunlight, drought, variability in rainfall patterns and the effect of sea waves from salt water along the coast which has resulted in corrosion of metallic roofs and damage to buildings. they indicate that salt from sea waves might also be the cause of plant diseases and death in the forest area. it is evident from records at the winneba forest district office that most of the trees in a 16.0ha plantation of teak were attacked and killed in 2011 at the bewadze portion of the reserve by an unknown cause but no research has been conducted yet to find out the actual cause. a few of the respondents however, attributed the causes of climate change to the “making of god” who has promised that drastic changes may occur towards the end of man’s existence on the earth. community perception on challenges of sustainable management the respondents are aware that the forest reserve protects the environment in which they live and provide them with many products and hence the dire need to protect the reserve. they also conceded that they as fringe communities are in part responsible for the degradation of the forest. however, they indicated that they do not have enough land for farming outside the reserve. again, infrastructure development and expansion of their communities as population growth increases has also taken part of their previous farmlands which hither to were close to settlements. there are no encroachments for buildings in the reserve yet. majority of the respondents expressed their willingness to work with the forest services division in the protection, development and sustainable management of the reserve. this they said could be in the form of community forest committees to protect against illegal forest activities. they reiterated the fact that there used to be community forest committees between 2003 and 2007 but collapsed due to lack of incentives to protect the forest. the respondents also realized major challenges which force them into the forest as lack of employment leading to inadequate household incomes, hunger, inability to pay for education and health facilities and low crop yields on off-reserve farmlands. they accepted that the reserve is the property of stool land owners and the communities and that the forest services division holds the forest in custody for its sustainable management and conservation, for the benefits of all segments of society. respondents’ suggested actions to address sustainable forest management the respondents suggested ways to improve sustainable management of the yenku forest reserve through collaboration with holistic community involvement in all aspects of forest protection, development and management. they suggested intensive all year community education by the forest service division (fsd) with particular emphasis on the importance of forests and the consequences of deforestation and forest degradation to present and future generations, especially in schools and at social gatherings. they accepted the fact that law enforcement by forest services division (fsd) and punitive measures may deter people. they however, suggested alternative measures to revisit land allocation to communities for agroforestry programme and suggested that there must be frequent visits to the community by forest service division (fsd) to deter people from entering the reserve. the work of the forest services division is however, not to deter people but to work in collaboration with the communities and civil society to enhance forest protection and productivity in the national interest. the respondents also suggested timely benefit sharing of the established plantations under the mts from 2002 to 2009 by the communities and fsd. the study indicates that agreement have been signed with the stool land owners but yet to be signed by the government representatives to make it operational. the major hindrance is that farmers failed to maintain the plantations as part of their commitment hence the operations cost such as weeding, climber cutting, protection and patrols were borne by the forest services division and this needs time for discussions on the agreement which had already been signed. they also suggested that felling permits and plantation quotas be granted by forest services division to community groups to extract wood for charcoal production to generates income in at least those plantations they established with forest services division and future plantations. they lamented that they do not benefit from outside contractors who are often given permit to operate in the area. the respondents also suggested alternative livelihoods such as grass cutter, pig and sheep rearing and the use of drought resistant food crops as part of future incentives in forestry projects in the area. pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 the respondents also suggested that forest services division should train them in ntfp cultivation outside forest reserve and also streamline permits for ntfp collection from the reserve to avoid illegalities. the study however, revealed that people simply do not collect permits for want of money to pay permit fees. discussion of findings the discussion of findings of this research for the purpose of clarity was done on the mojor challenges to sustainable forest management in the yenku forest reserve. these were community agroforestry programme in sustainable forest management, unsustainable, unregulated and illegal harvesting of ntfps, communication, education and public awareness in sustainable forest management. agro-forestry and community livelihoods in forest management the numerous benefits that trees provide can be sustained in productive landscapes by integrating them into agricultural systems – a practice known as agroforestry. agroforestry is defined as “a land-use system in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos) are deliberately used on the same land management unit as agricultural crops (woody or not), animals or both, either in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence” (icraf n.d.). farmers have practiced agroforestry for centuries. agroforestry focuses on the wide range of working trees grown on farms and in rural landscapes. among these are fertilizer trees for land regeneration, soil health and food security; fruit trees for nutrition; fodder trees that improve smallholder livestock production; timber and fuelwood trees for shelter and energy; medicinal trees to combat disease; and trees that produce gums, resins or latex products. many of these trees are multipurpose, providing a range of benefits. as a considerable environmental benefit, agroforestry landscapes have higher biodiversity per unit than agricultural landscapes, and they offer habitats to numerous rare species. the gradual, mosaiclike interfaces between forest and agricultural land offer a wide range of different habitats. the use of a balanced population of predators controlling pest outbreaks is one key element of the benefits of agro-forestry, e.g. in combination with organic farming. agro-forestry contributes to human well-being through a number of ways: by providing additional income, by increasing food security through a higher diversity of agricultural products (e.g. fruits, nuts, medicinal plants and edible oils), by providing fuelwood and construction material and thus reducing deforestation, and by stabilizing soil and water tables. agroforestry can contribute to gender equality and equitable sharing of biodiversity benefits by providing negotiation support for women and rural residents when negotiating land use rights. it increases accessibility to medicinal trees, in particular for the rural poor (e.g. the majority of africa’s population uses trees and shrubs as their main source of medication). it also provides a buffer against expected impacts of climate change by increasing the diversity and resilience of agricultural landscapes. many of the trees used in agroforestry systems are multipurpose, providing a range of the above mentioned benefits. this is similar to the findings by akponikpe et al. (2010), where farmers believed that climate change started 15 years ago in ghana unsustainable, unregulated and illegal harvesting of ntfps in forest management non-timber forest products (ntfps) and other forest ecosystem services are largely omitted from government development strategies. this is unfortunate, as nftps and forest services such as medicinal and food plants, clean water, rattan, bushmeat and bamboo play an important role in rural livelihoods and local and national economies, and yet are mostly under-represented in development strategies and in national databases (scbd 2008). the omission of nftps from government development strategies and policies makes them more susceptible to unsustainable, unregulated and unauthorized harvesting, of such products from the forest. local empowerment of resource users is a potential key strategy to achieve long-term sustainability. however, the transfer of rights has to be coupled with the transfer of responsibility for the conservation of the resource, in accord with the resources’ characteristics (e.g. biodiversity) as a national and global good. at the same time, one cannot credibly transfer rights to ntfps to local communities without addressing rights to other resources such as timber and mining products. no universal solutions exist to solve the problem of unsustainable ntfps harvesting in tropical forests. approaches must be nation, site and context-specific, based on a detailed knowledge of biodiversity patterns and the ecology of the flora and fauna species, and be tailored to local cultural, socioeconomic and political conditions (nasi et al. 2008). communication, education and public awareness in sustainable forest management one of the core principles of sustainable forest management (sfm) is that it reflects a diverse range of societal values in reference to forest conservation and use. for this reason, the active and informed participation of communities and stakeholders affected by forest management decisions is critical to the credibility and sustainability of management processes. public awareness raising and communication activities play a critical role in informing and educating the public, thereby allowing them to more effectively participate in sfm decisionmaking (hesselink et al., 2007). sfm requires the support at varying times and places from different government departments, ngos, indigenous and local communities, business and industry, scientists, women’s groups, youth, and community-based groups. to work with these different groups, communication, education and public awareness (cepa) are crucial instruments to build trust, understanding and shared pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 agreements for action and to reduce conflict. cepa is needed to help people work together and innovate, and spread information, knowledge, values and goals. cepa supports capacity development so that various actors can take responsibility for forest biodiversity. it should be recognized that effective public awareness raising requires a planned systematic approach to really understand the interests of stakeholders and beneficiaries. approaches need to be tailor-made to the local context, culture and traditions of the local communities. summary of findings the nation’s forest reserves have been encroached upon especially by their fringe communities. the forest, which used to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna species is increasingly reducing over the years from being closed forest or closed savanna giving way to savannization of the forest areas and desertification of the savanna areas. the remnant of the forest is also being misused and abused through poor illegal farming practices, illegal harvesting of timber and ntfps leading to general deforestation and forest degradation that has resulted in soil erosion , drying of streams and water catchments, loss of biodiversity and an unstable environment. the study reveals that majority of people living in fringe communities of forests are self employed, illiterate farmers and the forests are owned by stool land owners all of whom do not have effective participation in the sustainable management of forests. again, most of the people have problems with their economic activities such us inputs for farming outside forest reserves because of land hunger and poverty. people in the fringe communities of yenku forest reserve encounter the forest estates in their normal life situations in the course of their daily business such as farming, charcoal production and collection of ntfps and that, products from the forest cannot be obtained outside the forest reserve. the findings suggest that there is the need to protect and conserve biodiversity from over exploitation in the forest. furthermore, local people are aware of laws relating to the use of forest as well as effects and consequences of deforestation and forest degradation and climate change. such knowledge was acquired through the forest services division. the study also identified the need for local communities, forest services division, national fire services, non-governmental organizations, civil society groups, district and municipal assemblies and other stakeholders to join forces to protect and conserve forest reserves through mobilization, education, sensitization, awareness creation, fire prevention, boundary maintenance, monitoring and patrols to check illegal entry into forest reserves. the findings also reveal that the forest services division, district/municipal assemblies, local fringe communities and stool land owners should collaborate with government to develop and manage the forest on sustainable basis in areas of natural and artificial regeneration, tending and harvesting, social responsibility agreement (sras) involving timber firms, accountability, transparency and the fair and equitable sharing of forest revenue to reduce the challenges of sustainable forest management in ghana, generally and the yenku forest reserve in particular. conclusion data was collected to find out how human activities influence sustainable management in the forest and help improve the management of the reserve and the living standards of the local fringe communities. there is therefore the need to fantom how to sustainably develop and manage the forest in order to leave future generations and its communities with richer, better and more valuable forestry and wildlife endowments than the present generation inherited. local forest, communities use forests because they have a diffused idea about who actually owns the land. communities believe that forests are ever present and belong to all ghanaians; hence, people enter the forest as their own, with their activities leading to depletion and misuse of forest resources. illegal harvesting of ntfp, charcoal production and farming and other activities take place in the forest albeit the people’s knowledge of forestry laws and regulations regarding the use of forest resources. some community members stress that the laws relating to the forest should be enforced, offenders prosecuted and proceeds and inputs in the offence seized. decision-making in the protection development and sustainable management of the forest and wildlife resources as gathered from respondents should engender the active involvement of local fringe communities as enshrined in the ghana national forest and wildlife policy of 1994. this will help maintain lifesustaining systems within natural ecosystems, preserve scenic areas, enhance the potential for recreation and ecotourism, and create income-generating opportunities to reduce incessant pressure on the forest. recommendations following the findings of this research, a number of recommendations are made. all stakeholders, including local communities, government, and the forestry commission, should come together with the aim of agreeing on equitable policies regarding access to, and utilization of, the forests. it is important that communities be involved in the decisionmaking process, hence their needs and livelihoods-which depend on the forest-are supported while the forest resources are managed on a sustainable basis for the long term. productive initiatives outside the forest should be encouraged through training and education on alternatives like agroforestry, improved farming practices and tree plantations. this aims to gradually reduce dependence on forest products and allow regeneration. training and education programs need a balanced, participatory approach involving all affected groups from public and private sectors. it will consolidates learning pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 52-63, 2025 through the use of local experts and case studies. income generated from selected forest products can be used to finance initiatives like infrastructure, incentives for efforts on the protection of forests, education on conservation and alternative livelihoods. this would benefit local communities while protecting forest resources. chiefs, communities and other stakeholders should actively participate in decision making around forest use, management strategies and project planning to implementation. this ensures their needs and perspectives inform policy, while they also gain understanding of objectives and skills like planning, monitoring and accounting. community involvement in governance and capacity building aims to achieve balanced, mutually agreeable and transparent management of forest resources over the long term. references addis, g., urga, k., & dikasol, d. 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(1992). psychology. new york: mcgraw hill, inc. www. gomoawest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh pa ge 1 pa ge 59 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) rural electrification and the uptake of renewable energy in nigeria: lessons from kenya kamoru t. lawal 1* volume 1 issue 2, year 2022 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.353 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 25, 2022 accepted: june 30, 2022 published: sep. 23, 2022 recent technology advancements have brought to the fore the role renewable energy can play in providing timely access to clean and affordable energy in the rural areas. although rural electrification programme in nigeria aims at harnessing renewable energy resources for improved electricity access, the contribution of renewable energy has remained marginal till date. the aim of this paper is to identify barriers to the uptake of renewable energy for improved access to electricity in the rural areas. the paper finds that inadequate funding of rural electrification programme, high initial costs of renewable energy technology, absence of community participation coupled with the absence of a body with specific mandate to promote the use of renewable energy for rural electrification are major barriers to the rural application of renewable energy. failure of nigeria to address the issues will have implications for electricity access in the rural areas. keywords electricity access, rural electrification, renewable energy, sustainable energy 1 principal partner and head energy & natural resources and environmental practice groups, k. t. lawal & co, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: kamoru.lawal@yahoo.com introduction nigeria, with over a population of 200 million and landmass covering about 923,773 km2, is the most populous country. arguably, nigeria has the largest economy in africa (national council on power, 2016a; imf, 2017; ochayi, 2020). energy supply in nigeria is characterised by overdependence on fossil fuels and under-utilisation of renewable energy resources (national council on power, 2016b). for many years, electricity has remained a source of concern given that only about 57% of the nigeria’s population has access to grid electricity (world bank, 2021). the rural areas of nigeria are the most affected with barely 22% access to grid electricity (nnodim, 2021). many times, the people in rural areas, whose energy needs are often basic, have had to rely on the traditional energy (mostly biomass) as an alternative to electricity (chete et al., 2014; bashir & modu, 2018). the state of electricity access in the rural areas is of serious concern in view of the fact that majority of nigerians resides in the rural areas (federal ministry of power, 2015a; johnson & ifeoma, 2018). insufficient generation, inefficient transmission system, non-coverage of the grid network and poor distribution system have been, and remain, ongoing challenges of electricity access in nigeria, especially in the rural areas. the little megawatts of electricity generated by electricity generating companies have to be transmitted through old and outdated electricity infrastructures thereby resulting in wastages. the outdated electricity infrastructures have raised the questions about the reliability of grid electricity in providing access to every part of nigeria (kpmg, 2016; ohajianya et al., 2014). for many years, how to provide improved electricity access, especially in the rural areas, has remained a key policy programme of successive governments in nigeria. an important programme in this regard is the rural electrification programme (rep) which targets electricity access in the rural areas. extending the electricity grid network to connect more rural areas to the national grid has been a key strategy of the programme since inception (rural electrification agency, 2019a). however, the rate of electricity access shown that grid extension without more cannot address the challenges of electricity access in nigeria. a major reason is that grid extension is not sustainable in nigeria due to the high costs of extending the grid (sanusi, 2015; allafrica, 2018). as a result of the high costs, the federal government of nigeria (fgn) has embraced alternative strategies whereby the country will make use of abundant renewable energy as a key component of the rep (rural electrification agency, 2019b; olanrele, 2020a). the approach is based on the realisation of the role of renewable energy in providing timely access to clean electricity in rural areas (cook, 2013). nigeria is blessed with abundant renewable energy resources of varying potentials. the available solar energy resources in nigeria, for instance, can supply not less than 36,000 mw of electricity from only about 1% of the country’s land areas (oyedepo et al, 2018). the wind energy and small hydro resources are also a plus to the available renewable resources. despite the potentials of renewable energy in providing timely electricity access, and the existence of abundant renewable energy resources, the deployment of renewable energy for improved access to electricity in the rural areas of nigeria is still constrained by a number of factors. the aim of this paper is to analyse factors that are constraining the uptake of renewable energy for rural electricity access in nigeria. this paper is divided into seven parts. part i, this introduction, sets the context for the challenges of rural electrification in nigeria, while part ii explains the methodology employed in this paper. part iii discusses the historical evolution of electricity generation, rural https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i2.353 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec mailto:kamoru.lawal%40yahoo.com?subject= pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 electrification programme and, the policy and regulatory frameworks for the rep in nigeria. part iv focuses on the barriers to rural application of renewable energy in nigeria. while the uptake of renewable energy is one of the planks of the energy policy in nigeria, too many regulators without a specific mandate, lack of funding and failure to promote community participation in renewable energy projects have remained major impediments to the uptake of renewable energy as part of the rep. the rural electrification agency, the body that is saddled with the responsibility of rural electrification programme, does not have specific mandate to promote the uptake of renewable energy for improved electricity access. powers over renewable energy development are shared by different agencies of the fgn such as the ministry of power and the nigerian electricity regulatory commission (nerc). moreover, the deployment of renewable energy technologies involves high initial costs while the rural electricity programme continue to be poorly funded by the fgn. nigeria needs to address the barriers to the uptake of renewable energy if the country is desirous of achieving improved electricity access among the rural population. according to worika (2016), developing countries (such as nigeria) may not achieve sustainable development in the absence of rural applications of renewable energy (worika, 2016). this paper argues that nigeria may not make any progress in the application of renewable energy for improved electricity access in the absence of a dedicated fund, community participation and, the establishment of a hybrid body with functions over rural electrification and renewable energy development. in proffering solutions to the identified problems, this article will draw lessons from the experience of kenya in the application of renewable energy for rural electrification programme. in part v this paper discusses rural electrification programme, electricity generation and the development of renewable energy through the law in kenya. part vi examines lessons which nigeria can derive from the kenya’s experience, and makes a case for the rural application of renewable energy in nigeria. the paper finds that kenya is a leading african country in electricity generation from renewable energy (particularly geothermal and wind), and therefore a country from which nigeria can derive lessons from in the area of rural application of renewable energy (fischer et al., 2011). kenya is also the only african country that has been benchmarked by the world bank as a model for other african countries in renewable energy development (world bank, 2018; pueyo, 2018). part vii concludes the discussions and makes recommendations for the promotion of renewable energy for improved electricity access in nigeria. methodology this paper reviews the law and the policy framework for rural electrification programme, and the traditional legal materials on the development of renewable energy in nigeria. for the purposes of the policy framework, the paper will analyse the provisions of the 2001 national electricity power policy, the 2003 national energy policy, the 2005 renewable electricity policy guideline, the 2015 national renewable energy and energy efficiency policy and the 2016 rural electrification strategy and implementation plan. the aim is to identity how the law and the policy framework have been influencing the uptake of renewable energy for electricity access in the rural areas of nigeria. in this paper, reference to the uptake of renewable energy for rural electrification access has the same meaning as the rural application of alternative energy and vice versa. electricity generation and rural electrification in nigeria background to rural electrification in nigeria although the first electricity generation plant was installed in 1896, it was in 1929 that nigeria achieved a major milestone following the establishment of the nigeria electricity supply company (nesco) as the first utility company in nigeria (federal ministry of power and steel, 2006a; aladejare, 2014). in 1946, nigeria granted electricity generation licences to the public works department (pwd) and the native authority (na) for electricity generation for the lagos colony and other parts of the country respectively. one noticeable thing is that the activities of the electricity companies were concentrated only in the urban parts of the country to the exclusion of the rural areas. the exclusion of the rural areas resulted in a disparity in electricity access between urban and the rural areas (okoro et al. 2007; aladejare 2014). later in 1950, following the scrapping of nesco, pwd and the na, nigeria established the electricity corporation of nigeria (ecn) as the new electricity body. the ecn went on to harmonise the electricity infrastructure in the country and integrate them into what is now known as the national grid (awosope, 2014). the ecn, however, failed to address the disparity in the electricity access between urban and the rural areas when harmonising the electricity infrastructures. the harmonisation created a centralised electricity distribution system with major electricity powers given to the fgn (awosope, 2014). in a bid to improve the state of electricity generation and supply in the country, nigeria set up the niger dam authority (nda), alongside the ecn, to oversee hydro-electricity generation. the nda constructed the first electricity dam in nigeria, the kainji dam, in the same it was created (okoro et al. 2007; aigbovo & ogboka, 2016). later, for efficiency reasons, nigeria merged the nda and the ecn to create the national electric power authority (nepa) to oversee core electricity functions (that is, generation, transmission and distribution) (zarma, 2006). nepa, like the previous bodies, failed to deliver the anticipated change in the power sector. there was no improvement in state of https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 electricity access in the country, especially in the rural areas (uzoma et al, 2021). the development prompted nigeria to opt for a new approach to addressing the challenges of electricity access in the rural areas by launching the rep. although the launch of the nigerian rural electrification programme (nrep) in 1981 marked the beginning of the rep in nigeria, the programme started officially in 1989 (federal ministry of power and steel 2006b; federal ministry of power, works and housing, 2016a). at the early stage of the programme, the focus was on grid extension to connect more areas. the attempt by the fgn to connect local government headquarters and selected villages to the national grid under the rep, however, failed to materialise. the programme could not connect many villages to the grid due to high costs of grid construction and other connection costs (federal ministry of power, works and housing 2016b; akpojedje et al., 2016; amaza & agbaegbu, 2018). in addition to the high construction costs, there were allegations of corruptions in the execution of the rural electrification projects, inadequate funding and the absence of reliable data (ajibade, 2018). so, for many years after its creation the programme did not achieve any significant results. the fgn then began to consider a complementary approach to grid extension that had failed to achieve rapid electricity expansion (federal ministry of power and steel, 2006c; okwori, 2016). in 2009, the fgn suspended the programme but re-packaged it in 2012 in line with the objectives of the power sector reform (elusakin et al., 2014; madu, 2016). policy and regulatory framework for rural electrification in nigeria policy framework the 2001 national electric power policy (nepp) is one of the principal policy documents in the nigeria’s electricity industry (esmap, 2005). in the nepp, the principal objective of the rural electrification is the rapid expansion of cost-effective and affordable electricity access using a low-carbon energy source (that is, renewable energy). despite the electricity objective in the nepp, there was no significant change to the rate of electricity access in the rural areas. majorly, there was no clear-cut policy framework to guide the development of renewable energy. in 2003, nigeria achieved a major milestone on the development of renewable energy following the approval of the national energy policy (nep) by the national council on power. the nep is a sector-wide policy document for the nigeria’s energy/ electricity sector. in the area of rural electrification, the nep emphasises renewable energy and off-grid electricity generation as key to providing electricity access in the rural areas (federal ministry of power, works and housing, 2016c). the nep provides for the setting up of a fund to be known as the rural electrification fund (ref) to promote access to electricity among the rural population (energy commission of nigeria, 2003). apart from the ref and the role of renewable energy in promoting sustainable energy, the nep does not contain specific provisions on how to drive the rep. specifically, nep fails to provide for sources of funding the ref. later in 2005, the fgn introduced the renewable electricity policy guidelines to drive renewable electricity generation in the country. the rationale behind the repg is that it will provide the necessary framework for the integration of renewable energy into the country’s electricity mix (federal ministry of power and steel, 2006d). the repg seeks to ensure sustainable electricity generation by focusing on diversification of electricity generation sources. in the area of funding, the repg provides for the establishment of the renewable electricity trust fund (retf) as a component of the ref. the retf, a private-public sector fund, is meant to promote domestic utilisation of renewable energy and, for the construction of independent renewable electricity projects. budgetary allocation by the national assembly, surcharge by the nerc on electricity consumers and, gifts and donations are the main sources of funding the retf (federal ministry of power and steel, 2006e). the provisions of the repg on the retf are, however, not captured in the electric power sector reform act that was enacted in 2005. as a result, there is no legal backing for the retf, which fund would have applied to promote the uptake of renewable energy for rural electrification. the call for a new approach led to the making of the 2009 rural electrification policy by the fgn. rural electrification policy sets out new modalities for undertaking rural electrification in nigeria. under the new policy, the fgn plans to provide electricity to every household regardless of where they live. a key component of the policy is the use of renewable energy for improved electricity access. the fgn is to facilitate private sector participation in the development renewable energy for off-grid and on-grid electricity (olanrele, 2020b). surprisingly, it was in the same year 2009 that the fgn suspended the operations of the rep on corruption allegations. in 2015, the national council on power approved the national renewable energy and energy efficiency (nreeep) as a policy document on renewable energy and energy efficiency. the nreep differentiate the mode of electricity supply between urban and the rural areas, and enjoins the fgn to develop a strategy for undertaking rural electrification (federal ministry of power (2015b). electricity supply to urban areas will be through the grid, while the rural areas will benefit from off-grid electricity through the utilisation of renewable energy resources. the new approach to electricity supply between urban and the rural area is important as it shows a clear understanding of a fundamental challenge of grid electricity in nigeria (federal ministry of power (2015c). specifically, nreeep emphasises the use of solar photovoltaic in expanding access to electricity among the rural population (federal ministry of power, 2015d). nreeep directs the rural electrification agency (rea) https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 to carry out a feasibility study of the rural areas for the purposes of ascertaining the possibility of deploying renewable-sourced electricity (federal ministry of power, 2015e). in furtherance of the provisions of the nreeep on rural electrification strategy, the federal ministry of power, works and housing in 2016 approved the rural electrification strategy and implementation plan (resip). the resip embodies the strategies for undertaking the rep in nigeria. according to the resip, electricity access in the rural areas will be achieved by employing strategies that combine the deployment of on-grid and off-grid electricity generation from thermal and renewable energy (federal ministry of power, works and housing, 2016d). the resip targets sustainable realisation of rural electrification goals and objectives. the ref will serve as a major source of funding rural electrification projects in accordance with the modalities established by the rea for allocating the fund. as an additional requirement, rea is required to demand the deployment of low-costs but high quality technologies from suppliers who apply for subsidies under the ref (federal ministry of power, works and housing, 2016e). based on the projections in the resip, nigeria targets 90% electricity access in the rural areas by the 2030, and universal access by 2040. nigeria plans to actualise the 90% access target by connecting 80% to grid-connected electricity and using off-grid renewable energy for the remaining 10% (federal ministry of power, works and housing, 2016e). the resip underscores the importance of community and private-owned mini-grids to the realisation of the rural electrification goals (iea, 2018). regulatory framework in nigeria, the 1999 constitution (as amended) is the foundation of electricity regulation (oni, 2014). the constitution divides powers over electricity generation, transmission and distribution between the fgn and the state governments (federal ministry of power and steel, 2006f; akinleye, 2020). the fgn exercises power with respect to electricity generation, transmission and distribution over the national grid, while the powers of the state governments are limited to electricity generation which are not covered by the grid (federal republic of nigeria, 1999a). by the constitution, where there is a conflict between a federal law and a law made by a state with respect to electricity, the federal law will prevail (federal republic of nigeria, 1999b; agbede, 1973; a. g. lagos state, 2017). given that the bulk of electricity generation is through the grid, the activities of the state governments in relation to electricity generation and distribution are, therefore, limited (oke, 2017). the fgn is the primary driver of electricity law and policy in nigeria. it is in the exercise of the constitutional powers that the national assembly enacted the electric power sector reform act (“epsr act”) in 2005. part ix of the epsr act deals with matters relating to rural electrification in nigeria. the epsr act establishes the nigerian electricity regulatory commission (nerc) as the electricity regulator, and the rural electrification agency (rea) as the coordinator for the rep. the epsr act provides for the setting up of a fund, the rural electrification fund (ref), for the rep. based on the epsr act, contributions from eligible electricity consumers and licensees and allocation by the national assembly constitute a major source of funding the ref (electric power sector reform act 2005a). the rea is required to apply the ref towards the stimulation of innovative approaches to rural electrification and, for grid and off-grid electrification expansion (electric power sector reform act 2005b). in applying the fund for rural electrification projects, the rea is further required to promote equitable electricity access among the rural population, and ensures that the programme delivers on its mandates of expanding electricity access (electric power sector reform act 2005c). in line with the provisions of the epsr act, the fgn officially inaugurated the rea in 2007 as the coordinator for the rep, and this signalled a new beginning for the programme. barriers to rural application of renewable energy in nigeria from the policy documents, the deployment of technologies that rely on renewable energy for rural electrification is firmly established (rea, 2019c; federal ministry of power & steel, 2006g; amaza & agbaegbu). however, the uptake of renewable energy for improved rural electricity access has remained marginal. the challenges of renewable energy in nigeria are a combination of factors challenges which are peculiar to renewable energy development generally (such as high initial costs, absence of a renewable energy regulator/agency, challenges of new technology, etc.) and challenges which are peculiar to rural electrification (poor funding, absence of community participation, absence of reliable data and corruption in the execution of projects) (ajibade, 2018; ojo & orue, 2009). the impact of the challenges can be seen in the number of rural household that has so far been provided with electricity access under the programme (rea, 2019d). some of the factors will be examined. complex regulatory framework first, the regulatory framework for renewable electricity in nigeria is unnecessarily complex, and this has affected the pace of development of renewable energy in the rural areas. globally, the uptake of renewable requires the creation of a special regime to overcome the dominance of fossil-based electricity (wiseman et al., 2011). in theory, rea operates as an independent body within the presidency. however, in reality rea is subject to the control and supervision by the nerc. the nerc, the sole electricity regulator, is responsible for regulating electricity sector, and for approving renewable electricity projects such as mini-grids. in nigeria, the deployment https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 of mini-grids is a key strategy of the rural electrification programme. however, the construction of mini-grids is within the exclusive preserve of the nerc, and requires an approval. while there are plans to deploy off-grid renewable energy for electricity in the rural areas using mini-grids, rea is required to first obtain approvals from the nerc before it can deploy the mini-grids (nerc, 2016). what this means is that rea can only undertake any projects in accordance with the regulation put in place by nerc, and after obtaining necessary approvals. rea does not have specific mandates to prioritise electricity from renewable energy over the conventional energy. the absence of an obligation on rea to promote the use of renewable has affected the pace of development of renewable energy for electricity access in the rural areas. in addition to the nerc, there is also the ministry of power with supervisory powers over the rea. for renewable energy and rural electrification, both the nerc and the ministry of power have come up with policy documents. while nerc has prepared the renewable energy feed-in tariff regulation for renewable electricity generation, the fmpwh prepared the resip. each of these documents seeks to establish a framework for the regulation and development of renewable energy in nigeria without proper coordination. the failure of the fgn to streamline the powers of the regulators has constraint the implementation of rural electricity projects (okedu et al., 2015). the result is long and complex approval processes for renewable energy projects the rural electrification. the administrative bottleneck in the approval processes has affected the pace at which rea undertakes renewable energy projects in nigeria (eleri et al., 2012). high initial technology costs renewable energy technologies are not readily available in nigeria, and as such have to be imported into the country at huge costs (olawuyi, 2013; ohunakin, 2014). given the poor exchange value of the naira to other major currencies in the international market (most especially the united states’ dollar), the procurement and deployment of these smart technologies involves high initial costs (federal ministry of power, works and housing, 2016f). as a result of the high costs, nigeria has not been able to undertake massive deployment of renewable energy technologies in the rural areas (monyei et al., 2018). connected to the issue of high costs of renewable energy technologies is the scarcity of qualified personnel that can work on faulty and/or malfunctioned technologies. the fear of not able to get qualified personnel that can repair faulty technologies has affected the acceptance rate, and as a consequence, the diffusion rate of renewable energy in the rural areas (federal ministry of power, works and housing, 2016f). inadequate funding of rural electrification programme inadequate funding is another barrier to the uptake of renewable energy for rural electrification in nigeria. for many years now, the yearly budgetary allocation by the national assembly including funding from international donors has been the principal source of funding rural electrification projects in nigeria (anuforo, 2016; olanrele, 2020c). however, the budgetary allocation for the rep has been very poor, and as such not a reflection of the percentage of the population that currently lives in the rural areas of nigeria. between 1999 and 2010, for instance, out of about 1.5 trillion naira budgetary allocation to the power sector rural electrification got only 191 billion naira (that is, about 13.27% of the allocated money) (eleri et al. 2012b). the rep is not well funded so as to be able to undertake mass projects. in most cases, rea has little or no fund to execute electrification projects which involve the uptake of renewable energy such as the installation of solar pv and batteries (anuforo, 2016; okedu et al., 2015b). the poor funding has hindered the ability of the programme to undertake projects that can accelerate rural electricity access. absence of community participation the absence of community participation in renewable energy projects is also affecting the deployment of renewable energy projects in the rural areas. research has shown that communities play important roles in the diffusion of renewable energy (yamamoto, 2016). european countries have experienced innovative developments courtesy of community participation in renewable energy projects (oecd, 2012).in countries like germany and demark, for instance, communities have facilitated electricity access through the application of decentralised renewable energy system (bomberg & mcewen, 2012; nolden, 2013). furthermore, associations have emerged for the promotion of renewable energy technologies in rural areas through community participation in renewable energy (greenius et al. 2010; oecd, 2012). as a result of the inherent benefits, developing countries have been enjoined to promote community participation in different forms for improved access to energy (kitenge & siring, (2019). in nigeria, the platform to facilitate collaboration between the government and the rural communities is almost non-existent. the energy policy though recognises the importance of community participation to the uptake of renewable energy, there is no specific guidance on the modalities for community engagements (federal ministry of power, 2015f). the absence of community participation has denied nigeria of the contribution of rural communities to the promotion of renewable energy. although the fgn, in recognition of the role of community engagement in the execution of renewable energy projects, has been engaging key stakeholders, a lot still has to be done in this regard (nweze, 2021). rural electrification and renewable energy in kenya https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 background to rural electrification and renewable energy development energy has played an important role in the economic development of kenya. there is a strong correlation between energy consumption and economic growth in kenya (esen & bayrak, 2017). regarded as the commercial hub of east africa, energy supply in kenya comes from different sources: petroleum, coals and electricity (republic of kenya, 2011a). kenya generates electricity from fossil energy (coal, petroleum and large hydro) and renewable energy (solar, small hydro, geothermal and wind) (kiplagat, wanga & li, 2011; onuonga, 2012a). the choice of fossil and renewable energy sources for electricity generation can be traced to the economic plans for the kenya’s energy sector. in the 1980s, following an economic expansion drive by the government of kenya (gok), kenya recorded an unprecedented increase in the demand for electricity (republic of kenya, 2001b). at this time, the main source of electricity generation was large hydro with an insignificant contribution from coal and renewable energy (kapika and eberhard, 2013; onuonga, 2012b). however, there were challenges with choice of large hydro as the principal source of electricity generation given that hydro was subject to frequent fluctuations in supply. the gok made efforts to address not only the immediate electricity demands but also the future increase. in a bid to ensure more access to electricity, kenya made rural electrification programme one of the core pillars of sustainable development programme. with this approach, kenya planned to undertake rural electrification as part of the comprehensive economic development policy whereby the programme will be used for measuring the economic performance of the country (abdallah, bressers & clancy, 2015). furthermore, the gok embraced the promotion of renewable energy as part of the sustainable development strategies (energy act 2006a; mabea, macatangay & mutua, 2018). policy and regulatory framework for rural electrification in kenya in kenya, the developments in law and the energy policy have played major roles on the uptake of renewable energy for rural electrification. although the policy and the regulatory frameworks are historically biased in favour of fossil-fuel energy, the frameworks have nevertheless promoted rural electrification and renewable energy development. the electric power act 1920 (“epa”) was the earliest legislation on electricity in kenya. based on the provisions of the epa, kenya established the kenya power and lighting company limited (kplc) as the first utility company in 1922 (godinho & eberhard, 2019). structurally, the epa created a vertically-integrated energy sector with kplc performing core electricity functions (kapika & eberhard, 2013). the performance of electricity functions by the kplc was, however, fraught with operational inefficiency. grid connection and expansion projects were poorly executed, and this contributed to the poor state of electricity access in the rural areas of kenya (national council for law reporting, 1982; mwawughanga, 2005). in 1973, the gok launched the rural electrification programme (krep) to address the challenges of electricity access in the rural areas (unep, 2017). the krep aimed at providing subsidized electricity to the people in the rural areas, who were considered as not economically buoyant (ministry of energy, 2004a; abdullah & markandya, 2012). the programme though was under the supervision of the kplc, there was no provision for the uptake of renewable energy in the epa (kareithi & mutua, 2018). in 1986, the kenyan parliament repealed the epa and enacted a new law, the revised electric power act (“revised epa”). the revised epa did not introduce any significant changes to the operations of the krep, and the development of renewable energy in particular. the operational inefficiency of the kplc persisted thereby prompting a proposal for reforms. the proposed reforms of the electricity sector aimed at unbundling key electricity functions to make kplc competitive. the revised epa was repealed in 1997 to pave the way for a law that would accommodate the proposed changes in the economic paper. the enactment of the electric power act 1997 (“epa 1997”) resulted in the separation of electricity regulatory functions from the policy functions (onyango, 2013). based on the provisions of the epa 1997, the gok established the electricity regulatory board (“erb”) in 1998 as the electricity regulator. the erb was responsible for setting electricity tariff, and for undertaking rural electrification (electric power act, 1997; onyango, 2013). the gok introduced in 1998 a 5% levy on electricity consumptions to finance rural electrification projects (ministry of energy 2004b). however, the krep was a huge loss to the gok given that about 80% of the revenue realised from the programme was being used to finance loss arising from the rural electrification programme (ministry of energy 2004c). for many years after the inauguration, the krep barely achieved 4% electricity coverage and connectivity against 15% target for national coverage. the poor state of electricity access affected the commercial activities in the rural areas thereby aggravated the poverty rate among the rural population. as a result of the poor outing, the gok considered a further reform of the electricity sector in 2004 for sustainable energy production (kenya miniwind project, 2018). the gok then outlined ‘the policy framework upon which cost-effective, affordable and adequate quality energy services will be made available to the domestic economy on a sustainable basis’ (ministry of energy, 2004d). for the first time, kenya acknowledged the need to promote the uptake of renewable energy in electricity generation. kenya shifted from a system that is predominantly fossilbased to one that favoured renewable energy (kimuyu, https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 65 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 mutua & wainaina, 2012). the country set three main agenda for rural electrification under the sustainable development agenda, that is: (a) creation of a new body for rural electrification programme; (b) use of renewable for rural electrification; and (c) large-scale deployment of renewable energy resources (ministry of energy, 2004e; abdallah et al. 2015). additionally, kenya planned to deploy off-grid technologies such as mini-grids and standalone systems for rural electrification (hameedi, 2019). in 2006, kenya enacted a new law, the energy act and, repealed the epa 1997 and the petroleum act (energy act, 2006b). based on the 2006 energy act, the gok re-organised the rural electrification programme and established the rural electrification authority (“authority”) as the coordinator for the krep. the energy act imposed on the authority the obligation to deploy renewable energy technologies for electricity access in the rural areas taking into consideration the peculiar needs of each area such as the possibility of using renewable electricity for irrigation (energy act, 2006c; kirai & shah, 2009). for the first time in kenya, there was a law that mandatorily required the authority to deploy technologies that rely on renewable energy. in the aspect of funding, the act provided for the establishment of the rural electrification programme fund (repf) under the supervision of the authority. the authority applied part of the fund to support the uptake of renewable energy for improved electricity access (energy act 2006d). following its creation, the authority commenced the expansion of grid coverage across kenya, even though the expansion could not be carried out in every part of the rural areas due to geographical constraints (lee, miguel & wolfram, 2017). kenya recorded successes in the operation of rural electrification given that the number of connectivity of customers in the rural areas had increased (republic of kenya, 2011c). kenya made a further progress in renewable energy in 2008 following the gok’s approval of a long-term economic development blueprint tagged “vision 2030”. by the vision 2030, kenya plans a transformation to an industrialised country by 2030 generating at least 18,000 mw from fossil energy and renewable energy sources (kitenge & siring, 2019b). in 2009, the authority, in the exercise of its mandates, developed a 3-phased rural electrification master plan (phase i (2008-2012), phase ii (2013-2022) and phase iii (2022-2030) to enhance rural electrification (institute of economic affairs, 2015). however, the energy and economic development objectives of the vision 2030 on the development of renewable energy and electricity access in the rural areas were not captured in the 2006 energy act. consequently, a bill was introduced to the kenyan parliament to address the changes in the energy sector, and this was passed as the 2019 energy act. the 2019 energy act consolidates all laws on the kenya’s energy sector and, repeals the 2006 energy act, the geothermal resources act and the nuclear electricity board order (energy act 2019a). the 2019 energy act contains explicit provisions on rural electrification and the development of renewable energy. specifically, the act establishes the rural electrification and renewable energy corporation (“corporation”) to oversee rural electrification and renewable energy development (energy act 2019b). the corporation, a hybrid body, replaces the authority as the coordinator for the krep. the corporation implements and executes rural electrification projects in kenya (energy act 2019c). kenya is now regarded as having one of the best-served off-grid populations in the world. through the application of the repf, kenya has recorded increased use of off-grid renewables such as solar pv mini-grids as well as substantial progress in grid expansion in rural areas. kenya has connected not less than 5.8 million households under the krep (kuo, 2017; castalia & ecoligo, 2017). there are many on-going off-grid projects which are specifically designed to expand electricity distribution networks in kenya (mokveld and von eije, 2018a). one such project is the kenya off-grid solar access project (ogsap) that is being funded under the world bank projects. through ogsap, the gok will deploy mini-grids to provide electricity for people in remote communities who cannot be connected to the grid. in furtherance of this project, the gok has approved a mini-grid regulation to provide modalities for off-grid electricity (mokveld and von eije, 2018b). furthermore, the largest solar plant in africa, the 50 mw garissa solar power plant, is underway courtesy of the corporation (cms legal 2021). while kenya sets a 100% electricity access target by 2030, the available evidence shows that the country may achieve universal access earlier than planned banerjee et al., 2017). from the law and the policy, a number of factors have contributed to the successes of kenya in the uptake of renewable energy for rural electrification. first, rural electrification in kenya is under the control of a body with dual power, that is, powers over rural electrification and the development of renewable energy. unlike the authority, the corporation is obligated to “provide sustainable energy solutions for all through rural electrification and renewable energy for social economic transformation” (rerec, 2019). the corporation’s powers that explicitly cover rural electrification and, the development and use of renewable energy. the grant of hybrid powers has enabled the corporation to consolidate on what has been achieved by the authority in the area electricity access through the deployment of renewable energy. the corporation have embarked on a number of off-grid projects, which are designed to support the expansion of the electricity access in the rural areas (mokveld and eije, 2018c). furthermore, the corporation, in consultation with the county governments, develops the electrification master plans which serve as a template for aggregating the energy need of the rural areas. kenya is able to achieve this feat because there is a framework for https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 66 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 sustainable utilisation of renewable energy whereby the law mandates the corporation to ensure the uptake of renewable energy. the corporation is required by law to apply the principle of equity when developing the framework for the uptake of renewable energy by local people (energy act 2019e). secondly, in addition to the corporation, there is an interministerial advisory committee, that is, the renewable energy resources advisory committee (committee), which advises the cabinet minister on the use of renewable energy (energy act, 2019f). the committee’s advice covers the following areas: (a) determination of criteria for allocating renewable energy resources; (b) granting of licensing for renewable energy areas; (c) development of multipurpose projects; and (d) management of water and catchment areas; and (e) management of renewable resources (energy act 2019g). the idea is to ensure that the gok and the county governments get the best advice on the optimal allocation and utilisation of renewable energy resources in kenya. thirdly, the source of funding the krep and renewable energy has expanded over the years. in kenya, there are now two main sources of funding: the repf and the cef. unlike the funding sources in the previous laws, the source of contribution to the repf has gone beyond the conventional 5% rural electrification levy. electricity levy imposed by the cabinet secretary, interest from bank deposits, money appropriated by the kenyan parliament and revenue from other sources (e.g. donations) now for part of sources for the repf (energy act 2019h). the corporation applies the repf, and the new fund, the consolidated energy fund (cef), for the implementation of rural electrification projects. the cef specifically targets the promotion of renewable energy initiatives and, for the construction of energy infrastructures in kenya (energy act 2019i). of particular importance among the sources of funds for the cef is money recovered as proceeds of crimes in the energy sector. what this means is that there are more funds for the execution of the rural electrification projects including renewable energy projects. in addition to the repf and the cef, the law empowers the corporation to source for additional funds for the krep and renewable energy development (energy act 2019j). so, kenya maintains a strong link with multinational development institutions such as the world bank, the african development bank, etc. to raise funds for rural electrification projects (eberhard & gratwick, 2007). through the collaboration, kenya has consistently mobilised funds for the expansion of the country’s power system, particularly hydro and geothermal developments, in a bid to meeting the rising electricity demands. the international finance corporation, under the pv market transformation initiative, for instance, invested not less than 5 million us dollars in the kenya’s solar pv between 1998 and 2008 (international finance corporation, 2021. lastly, community participation is a major factor in the success or otherwise of a renewable energy projects in kenya (equitable origin, 2016). the practice has given the rural community the opportunity to have a say in any project to be executed in the rural areas, thereby minimising hostilities towards renewable energy projects (kitenge & siring, 2019c). furthermore, the participation has served as a platform through which the gok is addressing the inequality in electricity supply caused by centralised distribution system (kitenge & siring (2019d). rural electrification projects in kenya have benefitted from community engagement in the execution of renewable energy. in the past, some renewable energy projects failed in kenya on account of hostilities from the community. the gok at some point could not successfully complete the 90 mw barahini electric wind farm because of the hostilities from the host community (sanga, 2016). the situation, however, later changed following community engagement on renewable energy projects undertaken by the gok. the gok has set up energy centres across the country, a practice that has helped in deepening community engagement in renewable energy in kenya. lessons for nigeria from kenya’s experience lessons for nigeria kenya appears to have a better approach to rural electrification and renewable energy development. compared to the rep in nigeria, krep in kenya has recorded progress in the uptake of renewable energy. presently, kenya is on the verge of actualising universal access earlier than the set date (banerjee et al., 2017). some aspects of the krep, which can serve as lessons for nigeria regarding rural application of renewable energy, are discussed below. creation of a hybrid agency nigeria can gain some experience from kenya on how the creation of a hybrid body can aid rural application of renewable energy. in kenya, the creation of the corporation has ensured that the body that is saddled with supervision of rural electrification also has power to develop renewable energy resources. setting up such a hybrid body in nigeria will ensure that the body that coordinates rural electrification can also develop renewable energy for rural electrification projects. this practice is going to be a welcome development given that it will help to address the bureaucratic bottleneck associated with rea in obtaining approvals for renewable energy projects from the nerc and the ministry of power. in other words, it will minimise the delay whereby the rea will have to first seek and obtain approvals from nerc before executing renewable energy projects (e.g. approvals for the operation of mini-grids). ultimately, this will make the coordination of rural electrification and renewable energy development less cumbersome. in addition to a hybrid body, the establishment of a renewable energy advisory committee, similar to the renewable energy resources advisory committee in kenya, can also serve as a lesson for nigeria. the proposed advisory body will advise the gon on matters https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 67 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 relating to the allocation, management and licensing of renewable energy resources in various parts of nigeria as it is being practised in kenya. this will give nigeria the opportunity to make use of the expertise of people who are versed in matters relating the development of renewable energy. expanded funding sources given the poor state of electricity access coupled with what need to be done in the area of funding, nigeria should consider making provisions for the expansion of funding for rural electrification. nigeria should specify a portion of the funds which should be set aside for the uptake of renewable energy. having a specific fund for renewable energy will go a long way in boosting the application of renewable energy for rural electrification in nigeria. the addition of another funding source, similar to the cef in kenya, will further aid the development of renewable energy. corruption has been an endemic problem of the nigeria’s energy sector. at some point in the past, the fgn has had to suspend the rep on account of corruption. the fgn had to institute criminal actions against some individuals for the purposes of recovering money which has stolen from the energy sector (sanni, 2021). so, having a funding source similar to the cef will ensure that any recovered fund looted from the energy sector gets back to the sector. doing this will go a long way in minimising the impact of corruption on the nigeria’s energy sector especially the rural electrification. another important issue that needs to be addressed in relation to funding is the allocation of funds for research. the fgn should ensure that a portion of the fund is applied towards research and development of renewable energy initiatives in nigeria. this will address the challenges of shortage of qualified personnel. setting up of an advisory committee the operation of rural electrification in kenya owes it success to the establishment of an inter-ministerial advisory committee whose works cover criteria for allocation and development of renewable energy resources. nigeria should also consider establishing a body with similar functions. given the fact that the body is an inter-ministerial body, this will help in bringing together experienced people from different departments of government for the purposes of proffering solutions to the challenges electricity access in the rural areas. energy centres and community engagement another important lesson for nigeria from the kenya’s experience is the promotion of community participation in the execution of renewable energy projects. trying to connect more areas to grid electricity has been a major hindrance to electricity access in the rural areas in nigeria. with community participation in kenya, many rural areas have benefitted from the deployment of renewable energy resources in their respective areas for electricity generation. interestingly, community participation in renewable energy projects is now gaining increased awareness nigeria (butu & strachan, 2022). this is good news as there will be more community initiatives such as community solar-powered street light, etc. ultimately, the initiative will help to reduce reliance on grid electricity for access in the rural areas of nigeria. community participation will also enable the fgn to ascertain and cater for energy needs of rural areas in the national energy policy. nigeria should set up energy centres in different parts of the country and use the centres as a platform for community engagement. a case for rural application of renewable energy there is need for nigeria to address the challenges of rural application of renewable energy in order to realise the goals of improving electricity access in the rural areas. apart from improved electricity access, uptake of renewable energy in the rural areas will benefit nigeria in many other areas. first, the introduction of renewable energy technologies in the rural areas can help to create dynamic rural communities. renewable technologies offer new learning skills, which in turn require new learning capacity. the accumulation of the new skills is a necessary innovation for the transformation of the rural areas. the presence of different actors in the renewable energy chain is an opportunity for dynamism since there are many new things the communities can learn and apply (hache, 2018). in some rural communities, solar power has been erected to generate electricity for use of the communities as an alternative to the regular electricity service provider. the involvement of the communities in this context does not necessarily mean that the communities will own the projects (seyfang et al., 2013). rather, it provides additional platforms through which a number of organisational structures such as cooperative organisations, charities and trusts can partake in renewable energy projects. secondly, rural application of renewable energy will serve as an opportunity for nigeria to explore decentralised energy system. through decentralised energy system, nigeria can significantly minimise the challenges of the centralised energy distribution system which has denied rural areas access to electricity. moreover, the rural application of renewable energy will aid the application of local knowledge in proffering solutions to the challenges of community-owned renewable energy projects. this way, there will be opportunities for better energy solutions among the rural areas population. communityowned renewable energy projects, in this context, refer to all activities relating to electricity generation using renewable energy technologies in a local setting rather than ownership by the community. thirdly, the promotion of rural application of renewable energy can lead to more investments in energy infrastructure and, as a consequent, more job opportunities for the people in the rural areas (oecd, 2012). many unemployed people can learn and take up https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 68 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 1(2) 59-72, 2022 employment in operation and maintenance of renewable energy equipment. doing this will enhance the capacity of the rural areas for development including opportunities for human capital developments in the local context (hick & ison, 2018). lastly, the rural application of renewable can serve as an opportunity to earn additional revenue by people in the rural areas (oecd, 2012). renewable energy infrastructures are predominantly land-based activities that require acquisition of land on a long-term basis. for these activities, renewable energy investors will have to pay rents to landowners to acquire land (uka, 2021). landowners, who have parcel of land that suits renewable energy projects, will be able take this as opportunities to earn extra revenue incomes. conclusion there are prospects for the uptake of renewable energy for rural electrification in nigeria. nigeria should, therefore, take steps to address the identified barriers to the rural application of renewable energy. nigeria can do this by taking a cue from kenya in some aspect of rural electrification. nigeria should consider the establishment of a single body for rural electrification and renewable energy development. such a hybrid body will be better placed to undertake renewable energy projects alongside rural electrification projects. the law should specify the minimum renewable energy component in the rural electrification projects. the experience of kenya regarding funds for renewable electricity is an important lesson for nigeria. nigeria should consider expanding the sources of funding for the ref to include money recovered from corruption cases in the energy sector. in addition, nigeria should consider setting up of a dedicated fund that is similar to the cef in kenya. this will help to ensure that looted fund finds it way back to the energy sector through rural electrification. community participation is another areas that nigeria needs to consider. this is of particular importance in view of the level of mistrust between local communities and the fgn on ground of marginalisation (aderinoye-abdulwahab & adefalu, 2012). the promotion of community participation can also serve as a platform for educating the people of the rural areas on the benefits of off-grid electricity projects. above all, the fgn should ensure that the recommendations are adapted in a way that the peculiar situation of nigeria will be carefully addressed. at a minimum, nigeria can amend the epsr act to capture the recommendations of this paper (lawal, 2021). references aderinoye-abdulwahab, s. a., & adefalu, l. l. 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(2006). hydro power resources in nigeria. energy commission of nigeria. in 2nd hydro power for today conference, hangzhou. https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec pa ge 1 pa ge 57 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) the conservation story of biri-larosa protected landscape/seascape: lessons learned and future directions rene john escal1* volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4780 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: march 17, 2025 accepted: april 22, 2025 published: may 21, 2025 biri-larosa protected landscape and seascape (blpls), a marine protected area in northern samar, suffers from biological degradation despite its legal protection for biodiversity. this study uses a qualitative descriptive design to analyze the conservation measures in blpls. it aims to identify lessons learned for an informed future direction of conservation strategies. the conservation programs implemented in blpls succeeded in rehabilitating and enhancing its major ecosystems primarily because of strong legal bases. it gradually educates the people about their social responsibility as stewards of nature. on the other hand, implementation struggles from inability to fully implement it. as a result, although illegal activities declined, it is still prevalent. nevertheless, the implementation of the conservation programs brought ecological, economic, social, and cultural benefits. the ecological benefits of the conservation program are manifest and latent. it has also generated economic benefits, namely ecotourism offshoot and conservation programs derivatives. in terms of social benefits, it provided a fountain of learning, social change, diversion, and community attachment. among the cultural benefits are the preservation of customs and historic preservation. the researcher recommended that interagency efforts be placed to impose more stringent and harmonized implementation of conservation policies and institutional reform and capacitate implementers and communities. the creation of reward systems, context-based environmental education, institutionalization of program impact assessment and evaluation studies, and data-based decision-making for program development plans can also help. keywords biological degradation, conservation programs, ecological integrity, ecological services, protected area 1 university of eastern philippines, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: renejohnescal.rje@gmail.com introduction dudley and stolton (2008) defined protected area as a parcel of land and/or sea proclaimed through an organic law for its protection and conservation because of its valuable biological diversity, the richness of its natural and cultural resources. this entails the interlink of the three elements namely protection of biodiversity, safeguarding natural and cultural resources, and assurance of human survival. national integrated protected areas system act of 1992 (ra 7586) provides the main backbone of the establishment of a national system of protected areas in the philippines. this was then strengthened through the passage of the enhanced national integrated protected areas systems act of 2018 (ra 11038). unfortunately, according to denr and ateneo schools of government (2014), though protected areas experience a lower rate of habitat loss than those areas not protected, they still experience dramatic habitat losses within their borders. threats continue to affect biophysical diverse protected areas and key biodiversity areas. brokington and schmidt-soltau (2004) recognize the importance of conservation programs in safeguarding protected area’s benefits, such as the provision of ecosystem services, employment opportunities, and the preservation of culture. it is evident that protected areas also bring economic machineries (mika et al., 2016). while protected areas harbor various functions, such as ecological, economic, and social functions, their cultural value has been noted yet largely ignored in practice. infield (2001) suggested that conservation program in the context of local culture provides a counterbalance to economic pressure to the protected area. in many cases, wildlife, nature, and landscape valuation contribute to the commercialization of conservation and the downplay of cultural values. according to benneth and dearden (2014), the success of any conservation program is always linked to local support for conservation which is influenced by their perceptions of the impacts they experienced. notably, people have become participative when they benefit from the conservation strategy. in 2012, karath and nepal concluded that the positive attitude of people living in the protected area on the existence of protected area is related to the benefits it offers like access to fuel wood, fodder, tourism, and supply for their livelihood. on the contrary, people show a negative attitude towards conservation policies and interventions due to policy-induced loss of benefits (liu et al., 2017). other associated factors include a lack of education and awareness (nguyen, 2017). undeniably, protected areas throughout the globe face problematic situations in balancing conservation and provision of human needs. hocking, stolton, and dudley (2004) suggested the need to understand the strengths and weaknesses in its management. leverington et al. (2010) stipulated that at the global level its strongest aspects are the establishment of protected areas in terms pa ge 58 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 57-66, 2025 of legal basis, design, legislation, boundary making, and effectiveness of governance. on the other hand, its weakest aspects are community benefit programs; and resourcing such as funding reliability, adequacy of staff numbers, and facility and equipment maintenance. the success of a conservation program must encompass both biological and social measures and include learning and the application of new knowledge to management. dysfunctional programs can cripple the conservation effort which eventually leads to biological catastrophe. understanding how programs and policies can prevent species loss and ecosystem degradation rests primarily on field initiatives. according to ferraro and pattanayak (2006), field of ecosystem protection and biodiversity conservation lags which is why there is an increasing need for state-of-the-art program evaluation methods of what works and when it works arises. in northern samar, there is only one existing protected area in the province known as the biri-larosa protected landscape and seascape (blpls), established through presidential proclamation no. 291, series of 2000 encompassing the municipality of biri and the coastal barangays of lavezares, rosario, and san jose. canoy and roa-quiaoit (2011) mentioned the blpls as one of the country’s protected areas that are currently facing threats from destructive and human-invasive activities such as coral quarrying, illegal logging of mangroves, overharvesting of fish, dynamite and cyanide fishing, and pollution. the protected area only scored 26 percent in the management effectiveness tracking tool (mett), which is considered a very low score (guiang & baraganza, 2014). this prompted the researcher to further investigate the impacts, successes, and challenges in the implementation of the conservation practices in blpls. the study aimed to describe impacts, successes, and challenges in adherence to the different conservation practices of biri-larosa protected landscape and seascape. materials and methods this study employed qualitative descriptive research design. participants of this study were the people living within blpls and its stakeholders. employing stratified purposive sampling based on their specific involvement and municipality, five (5) groups were formed; four groups of beneficiaries and one group of implementers. beneficiaries were barangay officials, people’s organization officials, fishers, farmers, civic group representatives, and menro. meanwhile, the implementer sample included partner ngos and members of pamb executive committees. unfortunately, because of the unavailability of a synchronous interview with these concerned officials, the researcher opted to conduct individual interviews for the implementers. there were fifty-two (52) total participants for this study. they were selected as participants because the researcher believed that they were the most knowledgeable about the different conservation practices. two (2) fgd guides were used in collecting primary data; one for the beneficiaries and the other for the implementers. the instruments were subjected to face and content validity through rigorous scrutiny of internal and external experts. during the fgds and interviews, the researcher took notes for key phrases and major points. sessions were recorded in audio and video to obtain actual quotations. afterwards, debriefing was conducted. recordings were also checked, record significant details, and note observations to determine the quality of the information. after the fgds and interviews, the researcher transcribed the sessions. the generated transcripts were subjected to thematic analysis using braun and clarke’s (2006) model. all noteworthy statements were translated using context translation. the researcher upheld the ethical principles in conducting the research such as, honesty, objectivity, integrity, carefulness, openness, respect for intellectual property, confidentiality, non-discriminatory, competence, legality, and human subject protection (shamoo & resnik, 2015). to address positivists’ criticism on the reliability and validity of the result of the study, trustworthiness (guba, 1981) were established. results and discussion impacts of conservation programs figure 1 presents that the conservation programs covers ecological, economic, social, and cultural benefits of the protected area. figure 1: impact of conservation programs to blpls pa ge 59 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 57-66, 2025 ecological benefits it emerges that the ecological benefits of conservation practices are manifest (primary) and latent (secondary). manifest benefits are intended benefits, such as, improve marine conditions, shelter diverse species, protect pa’s major ecosystems, buffer natural disasters, and preserve pa’s aesthetic beauty. as one participant said, “now, i could see a lot of fry unlike before.” meanwhile, latent benefits are unintended benefits brought by its implementation like the abundance of resources as one revealed, “if you are industrious enough, you can earn money and have a food to eat too.” this finding confirmed brokington and schmidt-soltau’s (2004) proposition that one of advantages of conservation programs is their ability to safeguard ecosystem services of the protected. consequently, spiteri (2007) called them extract, conservation, and mitigation benefits. likewise, it coincided with reintar, jakosalem, and paguntalan’s (2015) findings that natural parks have the credibility of sheltering biologically diverse lifeforms. economic benefits conservation programs generated two economic benefits namely, ecotourism offshoot and conservation program derivatives. ecotourism offshoots are benefits brought by the utilization of the protected area’s rock formations, beaches, mangrove forests, crystal clear oceans, and historical sites for recreation. this also includes new business opportunities, income from environmental fees, new job opportunities, a boost in the tourism industry, and spin-offs in tv appearances. as cited by one of the participants, “those who own parking areas are earning.” moreover, conservation program derivatives are economic by-products of other conservation programs like livelihood programs, extra income for beneficiaries, income from penalties, and improved buying capacity. one participant stated, “fish cage livelihood recipients able to buy motorboats and motorcycles.” these testimonies supported the assertion of brokington and schmidt-soltau’s (2004) and mika et al. (2016) that conservation practices bring economic opportunities like ecotourism, employment, and livelihood programs. it is also in consonance with spiteri’s (2007) enumerated economic benefits of conservation namely accommodations, tourist facilities, entry fees, income, business, employment, market goods, transportation and tourism. social benefits the implementation of conservation programs in the protected area has four benefits namely, fountain of learning, social change, diversion, and community attachment. fountain of learning refers to its ability to provide knowledge among beneficiaries, implementers, and other stakeholders through opportunities for new learning experiences, setting for research, and a deeper understanding of nature. one narrated, “they are able to attend national and local forums.” meanwhile, conservation programs bring social change displayed through women empowerment, social control enforcement, prioritized assistance from government and ngos, cooperation, harmonious living with nature, and responsible tourism. one participant cited, “women organizations were formed in our island coastal barangays.” another social benefit is diversion referring to the utilization of the protected area for activities that divert from tedious and serious concerns in life. the protected area becomes the place for recreational activities, relaxation, adventure, and celebration. one participant averred, “we were there also to celebrate the black saturday.” lastly, conservation programs enforce the community attachment of the people to the protected area, which refers to the development of their cognitive and affective ties among themselves as a community and to the place they live in. people living in the protected area develop in themselves a sense of place. this is evident in the statement of one of the participants, “a lot of his movie settings were shot in biri” with an uplifting tone of voice signifying joy and pride. this finding proved that conservation programs benefit social development in terms of social control, education, fun, and fame (spiteri, 2007). cultural benefits there are three cultural benefits of the conservation programs in protected areas namely preservation of customs and tradition, art vitalization, and historic preservation. preservation of customs and tradition refers to the role of sustaining the customs and tradition of the community evident in the preservation of old ways of life in the coastal communities, celebration of annual festivals, perpetuity of the belief in local myths, and practice of local dishes. one participant shared that “kinis festival is celebrated every october.” furthermore, the constant effort of preserving the blpls sparks creativity and inspires the community and artists resulting in art vitalization. one revealed that “every december, we have christmas tree contest by purok.” on the other hand, part of the cultural benefit is historic preservation which is the preservation, conservation, and protection of landscapes, objects and other artifacts of historical significance. one participant said, “the mayor ordered its rehabilitation and beautification through the construction of a bridge to make it camera-worthy,” referring to world war ii bomb site. this has proven saviano et al. (2018) proposition that protected areas have a cultural value. this was also supported by infield (2001) and major et al. (2018), and perrault et al. (2007) as they contended that culturebased and culture-sensitive conservation strategies are important to counterbalance ecological, economic, and social pressure for the continuity of aged practices and beliefs of the community. successes and challenges of the conservation practices six (6) conservation practices emanates from the pa ge 60 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 57-66, 2025 responses of the participants namely solid waste management, mangrove forest resources management, seagrass beds protection and conservation, coral reefs protection and conservation, sustainable methods of fishing, and ecotourism. solid waste management figure 2 shows the practices, success, and challenges in the implementation of solid waste management. conservation practices related to solid waste management is successful primarily because of the existing legal instrument as lgus localized the mandate of ra 9003. it commenced the immense movements of institutionalized cleanup drives of government agencies and ngos, utilization of varied information drives, establishment of systematic waste collection, waste reduction initiatives, and establishment of a reward system. a participant described, “our collection outside the población involve mrf. we will collect only the non-biodegradable. we don’t collect non-biodegradables from one household to another because it is prohibited. as for the biodegradable, it is the barangay that takes charge of the composting. that is how we do it.” one participant commented, “our barangay, through our barangay captain, implemented the segregation of plastics. these plastics will be cut out and if the accumulated cutouts reach 1 kilogram, you will receive 1 kilogram of rice in return.” another participant mentioned, “in our barangay, aside from bandillo, we also visit every household to distribute flyers letting them know the prohibitions.” figure 2: practices, success, and challenges in the implementation of solid waste management on the other hand, its implementation faces challenges related to sanitary landfills, waste collection, mrf, people, implementers, and ecotourism. the establishment of a sanitary landfill is the biggest concern because most of the municipalities in the pa use open dumpsites and have no machinery to process collected garbage. in addition, the collection of waste is irregular and sometimes not followed, segregation of waste is not practiced in some households, and some areas in the municipality/ barangay are not served. as one of the participants described, “it often happens twice a month. but sometimes it is not observed.” another problematic situation is that some of the barangays do not have functional mrf, while others have problems with the proper location to put the mrf, and others do not have mrf. participants also mentioned negative attitudes as one of the problems that resulted in their unvigilant who are not following the policy. it can also be associated with the implementer as they do not have a strong political will to implement it, the punishment is too light, and personal biases like “pakikisama” and intrusion of politics. one revealed, “it’s already announced by the barangay chairman to its constituents that if ever they witness someone who violates, take a picture of them, so they will be disciplined. but no one has been apprehended since then.” another problem are the accumulated waste in tourism facilities as one recalled, “near marson’s resort is a fishpond. the owner filed a complaint in the office because, during high tide or heavy rains, water would carry the resort’s pile of trash inside their property. thus, they want people to be more responsible for their own waste.” these findings confirmed the conclusion of mado (2001) that despite people’s awareness of solid waste management policies, still people violate these legislations. the study also affirms the importance of political support in addressing the solid waste problem where collective action greatly matters (adongay, 1996). in a similar study conducted by moussa et al. (2023), kollo municipality was not able to accomplish its goals in solid waste management because of a lack of financial and technical resources. mangrove forest resources management among the mangrove protection and conservation measures are the establishment of mangrove plantations, rehabilitation of abandoned fishponds, reforestation, mangrove forest maintenance, zoning, monitoring of illegal activities, and intensified information dissemination. this eventually paved the way in reducing the incidents of illegal cutting of mangroves as one claimed, “unlike before, many are displayed for sale along the highway.” because of these efforts, gradually more and more migratory birds can be seen now as disclosed. in general, the presence of enabling laws also helps a lot in achieving this. the effort of network of people working together to actualize its protection and conservation measures through a partnership is very remarkable. according to one of the participants, “we also extend hand to the barangay. sadakis, a people’s organization i’m connected with, coordinated with the denr, barangays, and other people’s organization for the implementation pa ge 61 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 57-66, 2025 of those laws and ordinances.” meanwhile, one of the reoccurring problems in the mangrove forest resources management is the persistence of threats to mangrove resources such as mangrove logging, charcoal production, “barok” processing, practice of “sarap,” crablets gathering, encroachment, and typoon. one disclosed, “what destroyed the mangroves is the making of barok for coconut wine” while the other revealed, “after planting, the propagules were tramped down by crablet gatherers.” in addition, mangrove plantations were established without rigorous validation of the planting site considering certain species only strive for certain coastal environments. one participant cited, “they take grown mangroves from the wild for the sake of validation. plant it, take a picture, and then receive remuneration. these planted mangroves then die later.” nonetheless, other problems include non-unified funding, human egoism, privatizing mangrove areas, and the occurrence of destructive typhoons. another problem is the communities’ habit of abusing nature characterized by repetitive violation to the point of exploiting minors as crime scapegoats. despite the presence of a legal basis for its protection like penalizing destructive activities, effective enforcement still cannot be enforced and there is the struggle to provide a more engaging information drive and frequent night monitoring of violators. as disclosed by one participant, “there are still few who are involved in cutting mangroves. it is unnoticeable because they use handsaw and do it at night.” chamberland-fontaine et al. (2022) generate the same result that effective mangrove conservation practices are raising awareness-raising activities about socio-ecological benefits and build a partnership with stakeholders. whereas, constantly enforcing the conservation practices remain a challenge. damastuti and de groot (2017) associate this the level of acceptance on protective legislation. seagrass beds protection and conservation among the measures made to secure seagrass beds are the prohibition of uprooting seagrasses, encroachment, destructive fishing activities, strict compliance with management zoning, and reforestation. in line with this effort, the program was able to provide a supplemental livelihood to ensure an alternative source of subsistence. one participant revealed, “we only permit the fish pens because they are part of our mariculture projects.” collaboration of different stakeholders through a memorandum of agreement with the community, and tie-up with academe is very helpful in making informed decisions in managing seagrass as the major ecosystem. as the participant revealed, “we signed a memorandum of agreement with the stakeholders of the protected area for them not to expand their settlement towards the seagrass areas.” however, the implementation caused deprivation; denying people access to areas where seagrasses are growing. its implementation, brought inconvenience in docking, figure 3: practices, success, and challenges in the implementation of mangrove forest resources management figure 4: practices, success, and challenges in the implementation of seagrass beds protection and conservation pa ge 62 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 57-66, 2025 thereby somehow withdrawn people from their source of livelihood, and causing their displacement. as one revealed, “if we will be very strict with that especially with motorboat operators, how could they dock because they really have to cross through the seagrass?” despite all the effort, it continuously experience degradation because of inevitable stamping, removal of coral rocks, disposal of waste to waterways, practice of “sarap,” and unfriendly coastal development. this boils down to unaddressed predicaments like lack of awareness on the importance of seagrasses, insufficient employment opportunities, inefficient supplemental livelihood, absence of legal basis, overlapping authority of agencies, and authorities’ negligence of duty. ramesh et al. (2018) found similar threats to seagrass beds such as unsustainable fisheries, water quality, and coastal construction. they emphasize that people’s participation is important. the same findings were made by xu et al. (2021) that clam harvesting, land reclamation, and coastal aquaculture are some threats to seagrasses. lukman et al. (2021) also acknowledge the significance of raising awareness of its socio-ecological significance and the support of the community in its conservation. to address these problems, yu and dong (2022) suggested that there should be local legislation to sustainably management the seagrass beds ecosystem. furthermore, mascarinas and otadoy (2022) highlighted the necessity of implementing a rehabilitation program to improve the seagrass community structure. coral reefs protection and conservation conservation strategies that safeguard and rehabilitate the coral reefs include artificial corals, coral transplants, coral nurseries, coral monitoring, limited permits to only extraction for research, and intensified information drive. one recalled, “back then, up diliman had coral transplant in our sanctuary.” conversely, the advantageous effects of its implementation are healthier corals, and a decrease in illegal fishing activities. as averred by one participant, “we did not totally eradicate illegal activities, but at least it had declined.” relative to this, one revealed, “right now, i’m not involved in it anymore because i learned a lot from trainings and seminars i attended.” on the contrary, prevailing threats to corals include destructive fishing and infestation of crown of thorns. other problems encountered are the absence of evaluation of coral rehabilitation, abuse of political power, selective implementation of policy, overlapping authority of agencies, and lack of integration of climate change resiliency. as revealed by the participants, “in maravilla, the wharf is built from coral rocks. biri was complaining because in lavezares it was not apprehended for the said violation citing if it happens in biri, for sure they will be reported right away.” figure 5: practices, success, and challenges in the implementation of coral reef protection and conservation boakes et al. (2022) recognizes also that climate change, destructive fishing practices, plastic pollution, outbreaks coral coral-eating invertebrates, nutrient enrichment, coral disease, and unsustainable tourism are some of the threats to marine ecosystems. to address these problems, bali has implemented climate change mitigation, coral reef conservation initiatives, creating more protected area networks, utilization of artificial reefs, decentralized policy and partnership with ngos, community engagement, and ecotourism are recommended. e. sustainable methods of fishing fishery resources strategies practiced by stakeholders are the establishment of fish sanctuaries, prohibition of commercial fishing in the municipal waters, practice of seasonal fishing, conduct of sea patrol, prohibition of endangered species possession and harvest, and fish catch monitoring. parallel to this, one participant disclosed, “we have an ordinance declaring close and open season in lalaguna. it is closed for fishing from march 1 to may 31.” favorable outcomes are positive impacts of the program manifested in the improvement of fish resources and marine habitats. one attested, “on the days where illegal fishing is still rampant in our barangay, you could hardly see one needlefish. but now, fish resources have already recovered. sweetlips emperor re-appeared and fishermen have now fish to be caught. unlike before, you could always hear explosions from near the coast.” pa ge 63 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 57-66, 2025 figure 6: practices, success, and challenges in the implementation of sustainable methods of fishing however, the implementation of sustainable methods of fishing still faces challenges. one is the prevalent destructive methods of fishing such as compressor fishing, dynamite fishing, cyanide fishing, “sudsud,” “tangab,” and “sarap.” as one participant disclosed, “in magsaysay, many died because of compressor fishing. if someone has just died, they would take a rest in the meantime. soon, they would go back because it’s their means of living.” in addition, problems related to fishery law persist, such as intruder’s illegal fishing activities, nonunified implementation of the bantay dagat initiative, lack of funding, overfishing, lack of staff, unattractive livelihood, destabilization of fish sanctuary, and lack of apprehension. as one participant averred, “the sanctuary in ligaya was destabilized.” while another participant revealed, “i give them chickens to keep, but they don’t like it. i asked myself, ‘what do they want?” noticeably, illegal fishers becoming untouchable is characterized by a strong desire to survive, no fear of authority, investment to illegal activities, and use of improvised weapons. one participant disclosed, “in my barangay, i tried to apprehend it. unfortunately, i did not succeed for these violators have brought with them homemade weapons.” people’s lack of understanding is possibly attributed to their inadequate knowledge about sustainable fishing, evident by their cluelessness with endangered species, misunderstanding of the provision in crablet gathering, and outdated knowledge on imposed penalties due to the recent amendments made to the fishery code of the philippines. it is noticeable in the statement of one of the participants, “is picking shells prohibited or not? i think not because shellfish are seafood.” there are also plausible problems due to the shortcomings of the implementers such as negligence of duty, frequent consideration, prevalent nepotism, and inadequate capacity in apprehending. one revealed, “i feel sorry every time i catch someone because of the penalty. one time the judge told me ‘don’t you feel pity for them? they have a family to feed.’ but what could we do, they are caught on the act?” establishing a protected area is important in protecting fishery resources steinkoenig (2018) but it does not mean the complete eradication of destructive activities. the result of this study is similar to liao et al. (2019) where illegal fishing, and overfishing, are held primary threats to fishery resources. according to shalli (2017) the persistence of illegal fishing activities is related to the culture of the community. hence, it is a must to study their traditional knowledge and input it into the programs/ projects. the fishery law enforcement program has a minimal impact (milca, 2002; pabunan, 2006) because it was not fully implemented. pabunan (2006) attributed this to no proper dissemination of the objective of the program, no proper monitoring, a lack of properly trained staff, the intervention of politics, and a lack of financial support. f. ecotourism imposition of fines when committing prohibited acts is part of the protection and conservation measures in using the resources of the protected area for ecotourism. this encompasses prohibition of activities, such as seashell collection, littering, grilling in the rock formation, use of single-use plastics, bringing of foods in the rock formations, sand quarrying, and camp firing. in addition, there is an existing management zone to be utilized as a reference for future development in the pa. as ecotourism kicked off, this provided people a place where they could relax have adventure, and enjoy advantage because of business opportunities. as cited by one participant, “those who own parking areas are earning.” meanwhile, one of the challenges encountered is the presence of pejorative activities such as unregulated rock fragment collection, lack of monitoring in the rock formation, no existing anti-vandalism regulation, illegal operation of beach owners, no computed carrying capacity, and no legal instrument regulating recreational activities. this was affirmed when a participant admitted, “we have a small violation because we let them sneak at least small rocks” while the other revealed, “as of now, they still don’t have to limit the number of environment users.” additionally, problematic ecotourism services that hamper the boom of the ecotourism industry include a lack of tourist assistance, lack of englishpa ge 64 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 57-66, 2025 speaking skills tour guides, lack of systematic tourist arrival record keeping, and poor security. one of the participants revealed, “the motor operator could not respond whenever there is a tourist who speaks english.” there are a lot of ecotourism sites left unutilized evident in underdeveloped falls, rock formations, caves, beaches, and historical sites. as mentioned by one participant, “no one invested in the development of busay.” the implementation has disadvantages and this was termed as ecotourism drawbacks. accordingly, there are already negative consequences to the environment. another concern was that the revenue accumulated from payments of environmental fees were misused as revealed by the participant, “one of the intervening factors is the irregular monitoring from the lgu. they should help in the maintenance because they are the ones who receive the environmental fee.” figure 7: practices, success, and challenges in the implementation of ecotourism the study affirmed mika et al. (2016) statement that an efficient ecotourism program brings economic advantage and development. it provided community people with business opportunities and a place for diversion. these economic opportunities include ecotourism services, recreational activities, and the construction of ecotourism infrastructure like eco-lodge, trails, campsites, visitor centers, toilet facilities, and watch towers. meanwhile, its effect to the environment is negative. with this scenario, it confirmed the claim of pambuena (2002) that ecotourism services are prematurely put into action. other ecotourism service providers are very irresponsible in taking good care of their wastes which later end up in the ocean. another problem was the revenue generated from ecotourism which was not utilized for maintenance and management of the site. this contended catibogsinha and plantilla’s idea that the program helps generate revenue from an environmental fee system to accumulate funds that can readily provide maintenance for the area. conclusions based on the study’s findings, the researchers concluded that blpls conservation practices brought ecological, economic, social, and cultural benefits. among these conservation practices are solid waste management, seagrass bed protection and conservation, coral reef protection and conservation, sustainable methods of fishing, and ecotourism. in general, conservation practices have a strong legal basis, productive partnership, prioritization, proper execution of conservation laws, applied program phasing, and research-based decisions. on the other hand, other programs failed in the implementation due to a lack of commitment, lack of political will, lot of inconsistencies, negligence of duty, absence of constant monitoring, political intrusion, aggravation of poverty, lack of coordination, deviations to the standard implementation procedure, loss of people’s trust and confidence to implementers, and people’s insufficient knowledge on wildlife conservation. the programs were well planned and studied, but the problem lies more in the implementation and management by concerned implementers and stakeholders. it is recommended that since the municipalities of biri, lavezares, rosario, and san jose may have shared coastal and marine resources, they may develop an integrated management plan that shall be implemented as a whole, not by jurisdiction. similarly, pamb and the denr may also restructure their units to make them more effective and efficient by creating new units/teams and imposing different conservation and environmental laws. ecosystem-based, research-based, culture-based, and data-driven strategies and approaches will be adopted. some policy redirections may be advanced as result of the study. references adongay, d. 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(2022). local practice of marine protected areas legislation in china: the case of zhoushan. marine policy, 141, 105084. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105084 pa ge 1 pa ge 13 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) climate-smart goods in brazil: trends, opportunities, and trade policy implications ratan chowdhury1, tonmoy chowdhury2* volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i1.3937 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 24, 2024 accepted: november 27, 2024 published: january 23, 2025 this study analyzed brazil’s climate-smart goods (csg) trade from 2000 to 2023. while brazil’s overall trade expanded significantly, csg trade, though growing, remains a small fraction. a persistent trade deficit in csgs indicates a reliance on imported sustainable technologies and limited domestic production. despite fluctuations, csg trade has shown steady growth, suggesting a growing alignment with global sustainability goals. however, csgs constitute a small portion of brazil’s overall exports, highlighting untapped potential in the domestic csg sector. these findings suggest that brazil can enhance its role in the global csg market by implementing policies that foster domestic production and reduce import reliance. such a shift would not only improve brazil’s trade balance but also contribute to its climate objectives and sustainable development goals. keywords climate smart goods, environment, trade 1 development economics, dhaka school of economics, bangladesh 2 environmental and resource economics program, dhaka school of economics, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: bmkinyili@yahoo.com introduction the urgency to combat climate change and environmental degradation has significantly reshaped global economic priorities, highlighting the need for sustainable development practices across diverse sectors (begum, 2020). within this framework, trade in climate-smart goods (csgs)—products and technologies specifically designed to mitigate environmental impacts and enhance sustainability—has emerged as a pivotal aspect of international trade policy and economic strategy (mathur, 2011). csgs encompass a broad array of products, including renewable energy technologies, pollution management equipment, energy-efficient machinery, and sustainable agricultural inputs (dinda, 2011). the expansion of csg trade holds the potential to reduce carbon emissions while simultaneously driving economic growth through innovation and increased productivity (saghaian et al., 2020). brazil, as one of the world’s largest emerging economies, occupies a unique position in this landscape due to its rich natural resources, vast biodiversity, and significant contributions to global greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions (baer, 2008). analyzing brazil’s csg trade patterns is crucial for understanding the sector’s capacity to support the nation’s sustainable development efforts and align with international environmental objectives the trade structure and policy framework in brazil are evolving amid an increasingly climate-conscious global economy (nassif et al., 2020). the country’s energy matrix is notably sustainable, primarily reliant on hydroelectric power and expanding into renewable sources such as wind, solar, and bioenergy (investment guide to brasil, 2017). however, brazil faces complex environmental challenges, including deforestation and high levels of industrial and agricultural ghg emissions (ferraz et al., 1999). participation in global csg trade represents a strategic opportunity for brazil to mitigate these environmental impacts, leveraging green technologies for both economic advancement and environmental preservation (knoch et al., 2020). thus, csg trade offers brazil a dual opportunity: to diminish its carbon footprint while securing competitive advantages in the international market for sustainable goods. the global demand for climate-smart goods has surged in recent years as nations adopt stringent environmental policies and commit to international agreements, such as the paris agreement (crowford, 2011). csg trade has rapidly grown, with countries seeking to reduce their reliance on traditional, carbon-intensive goods in favor of sustainable alternatives (saghaian et al., 2020). for brazil, the promotion of csgs is particularly relevant, as it seeks to diversify its export portfolio, reduce dependency on primary commodities, and bolster its position within the global green economy (piao et al., 2021). however, despite brazil’s potential as a key player in csg trade, the existing literature reveals a limited exploration of the drivers and barriers influencing csg trade growth. furthermore, brazil’s trade policies and regulatory environment may facilitate or constrain its ability to fully capitalize on csg opportunities, depending on their alignment with international standards and climate-related goals. this study aims to bridge these gaps by analyzing the trends and trade patterns of csgs in brazil, thereby providing a comprehensive understanding of the country’s competitive positioning in the global csg market. by examining import and export trends, sectoral contributions, and value chain dynamics, this research seeks to identify the sectors most engaged in csg trade, the key markets for brazilian csg exports, and the primary sources of csg imports. understanding these patterns is vital for assessing brazil’s relative strengths and weaknesses in csg trade and determining the alignment of its trade policies with sustainable development goals. additionally, the study will analyze the regulatory and pa ge 14 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 policy environment surrounding csg trade in brazil, evaluating whether current policies facilitate or inhibit csg growth. international experiences indicate that regulatory frameworks can either promote the expansion of green technology markets or impose limitations due to restrictive tariffs, non-tariff barriers, or inadequate incentives. a key question for brazil is the extent to which its policies align with its climate commitments, as this alignment could significantly influence the success of integrating csg trade into its broader economic strategy. the motivation for this research is twofold. first, an analysis of csg trade trends in brazil contributes to the literature on sustainable trade by providing empirical insights into brazil’s role and potential within the csg sector. second, the findings will offer policymakers evidence-based insights regarding the ability of csgs to bolster brazil’s economic resilience, environmental stewardship, and compliance with international climate standards. given the increasing significance of sustainable trade in the global economy, this research presents timely insights that can inform brazil’s trade policy, promote technological innovation, and support the transition to a low-carbon economy. ultimately, this study seeks to enhance our understanding of how csg trade can advance brazil’s sustainable development objectives, contribute to emissions reduction, and improve brazil’s positioning in the global green economy. by identifying the factors that drive or inhibit csg trade growth, this research will illuminate strategic choices available to brazilian policymakers, enabling them to leverage csg trade as a vital instrument for sustainable economic development. this work will serve as a foundation for further research on the impacts of csg trade on economic, environmental, and social outcomes, thereby contributing to brazil’s evolving narrative as a significant participant in the global movement toward a sustainable future. literature review climate change has become one of the most pressing issues in contemporary discourse, both at national and international levels. across most climate policy discussions, trade is increasingly recognized as a pivotal factor influencing climate change dynamics (dellink et al., 2017). while trade drives economic growth and prosperity, it also poses environmental challenges due to emissions generated in the production, transportation, and consumption of traded goods (harris et al., 2021). many climate experts contend that a substantial portion of global co₂ emissions, a key contributor to climate change, is attributable to trade-related activities. in 2019, china, the united states, india, japan, and the russian federation alone accounted for nearly 70% of global co₂ emissions (schleicher et al., 2018). however, the trade trends in climate-smart goods (csgs) in major economies such as china and india reveal a shift towards more sustainable practices, potentially contributing to a reduction in emissions (chowdhury et al., 2018). this dual role of trade—promoting economic growth while impacting the environment—has led many countries to grapple with balancing economic and environmental objectives (grossman et al., 1994). one solution to mitigate the negative environmental effects of trade while sustaining economic growth is to adopt environmentally sustainable trade practices (zhong, 2023). expanding the market for climate-smart goods (csgs) can facilitate this balance, as csgs encompass technologies and products that mitigate environmental impacts and enhance sustainability (mathur, 2011). market trends for csgs suggest that trade in these goods is often regionally concentrated. for instance, in the asiapacific region, csg export and import volumes have increased significantly; in 2002, export and import growth rates in the region were 235% and 222%, respectively. in contrast, african regional economic communities such as comesa, eac, and sadc have seen comparatively lower growth rates in csg trade, with higher import growth than export growth (unescap, 2011). this trend indicates a greater reliance on imported csgs. similarly, in apec countries, export growth of environmental goods has outpaced import growth, with an export rate of 13.3% compared to an 11.6% import rate (kuriyama, 2012). least developed countries (ldcs) have also demonstrated impressive growth in environmental goods trade, exceeding global growth rates; in 2007, the global growth rate for environmental goods was 13.58%, while ldcs experienced a growth rate of 22.80% (khatun, 2012). the literature has widely debated the question of trade liberalization in environmental goods. several studies emphasize that liberalizing trade policy for environmental goods could significantly expand these markets, thereby benefiting environmental conditions in developing countries by promoting cleaner technologies (zhang, 2011; antweiler et al., 2001; dean, 1999). this perspective aligns with the environmental kuznets curve hypothesis, which posits that economic growth initially leads to environmental degradation, but beyond a certain income level, cleaner technologies and stronger regulations begin to improve environmental quality (mishra, 2020). proponents of this view argue that policies should both support environmental goods and prohibit environmentally harmful goods. conversely, some studies highlight that trade liberalization does not always yield positive environmental outcomes, aligning instead with the pollution haven hypothesis, which suggests that trade liberalization can lead to the relocation of polluting industries to countries with weaker environmental regulations (duy, 2010). the majority of existing research has focused on global and regional csg trade trends, with studies examining trade dynamics in china, india, and other major economies. while the literature on trade trends and patterns in brazil is substantial, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no study has specifically addressed the trend and trade patterns of csgs in brazil. therefore, this study aims pa ge 15 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 to fill this gap by analyzing brazil’s csg trade trends and patterns. this research is expected to provide a deeper understanding of brazil’s role in sustainable trade and its potential contribution to global emissions reduction through the expansion of csg markets. materials and methods this study relies on data reflecting brazil’s trade performance, specifically focusing on total trade value, total export value, and total import value, as well as the trade of climate-smart goods (csgs) in brazil, including csg export and import values. the primary sources for these data were the un comtrade, unctad, and world bank databases. all data observations were recorded on an annual basis and measured in thousands of u.s. dollars, ensuring consistency and comparability over time. climate-smart goods were identified at the hs 6-digit level, with relevant data for these goods extracted from the world integrated trade solution (wits) database. to analyze the trade trends of csgs in brazil, the study employed descriptive statistical tools, which are well-suited for summarizing and visualizing large datasets. various statistical techniques, including tabulation, graphical representations, percentages, and ratio analyses, were applied to examine the annual changes and comparative performance in brazil’s trade. these techniques facilitated a clear understanding of the extent and composition of csg trade between brazil and its global trade partners. ultimately, this analytical approach aims to illuminate brazil’s positioning within the csg market and its alignment with global trends in sustainable trade. results and discussion trends of trade in climate smart goods in brazil with the rest of the world brazil, with strong agricultural, manufacturing, and mining sectors, became a prominent player in international trade after liberalizing its economy in 1988. this shift led to significant export growth across most sectors, boosting brazil’s trade balance and enhancing its economic integration. the table below highlights trends in brazil’s total trade and climate-smart goods trade from 2000 to 2023, reflecting the country’s growing role in sustainable trade alongside traditional sectors. table 1: total trade and trade in climate-smart goods in brazil (million, usd) year total trade (million,usd) total csgs trade (million,usd) percentage share of csgs in brazil’s total trade 2000 113762.00 2193671.04 1.92829859 2001 116669.00 2302158.53 1.97323927 2002 110162.00 2838707.97 2.57684861 2003 124084.00 2896213.86 2.33407519 2004 163111.00 2719779.35 1.66744079 2005 196157.00 3123048.64 1.59211684 2006 234630.00 3945725.33 1.6816798 2007 287927.00 6023259.59 2.09193983 2008 379686.00 6677086.31 1.75858112 2009 287170.00 3815619.07 1.32869696 2010 393618.00 3460914.60 0.8792572 2011 492372.00 4589350.17 0.93209 2012 475357.00 5942439.52 1.25010035 2013 484826.00 4525499.72 0.9334276 2014 461686.00 4273107.12 0.92554401 2015 367242.00 3733315.83 1.01658193 2016 324774.00 6787453.57 2.08990054 2017 380843.00 9196147.14 2.41468194 2018 424730.00 7431957.43 1.74980751 2019 414289.00 8122633.73 1.96062018 2020 375516.00 7983918.31 2.12611934 2021 515505.00 11729434.01 2.27532885 2022 626381.00 13505410.29 2.15610152 2023 592406.00 13864941.39 2.34044581 source: author’s compilation based on world development indicators (wdi) of the world bank and un comtrade data (2010), extracted from the world integrated trade solution (wits) database, accessed in august 2024 pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 table 1 offers a detailed analysis of brazil’s total trade and trade in climate-smart goods (csgs) from 2000 to 2023, emphasizing the absolute figures and the percentage share of csgs within brazil’s trade portfolio. it illustrates brazil’s increasing alignment with global trends in sustainable trade, evidenced by the tripling of total trade volume from usd 113.7 billion in 2000 to over usd 626 billion in 2022 and a parallel rise in csg trade, peaking at usd 13.86 billion in 2023. the csg share as a percentage of total trade, despite some fluctuation, generally trends upward, surpassing 2% in recent years. notably, increases in the csg share during economic downturns (e.g., 2020) and peaks in 2021 and 2023 may indicate brazil’s strategic shift toward sustainable sectors amid global climate initiatives. these trends suggest that external economic conditions and policy shifts are influencing brazil’s csg trade dynamics, aligning national trade with broader environmental objectives. this table, therefore, provides insight into the evolution of brazil’s trade structure, reflecting the growing yet variable role of csgs as part of the country’s response to global sustainability goals. figure 1: total trade & total csgs trade in brazil (million, usd) for the study period source: author’s compilation based on world development indicators (wdi) of the world bank and un comtrade data (2010), extracted from the world integrated trade solution (wits) database, accessed in august 2024 this line graph depicts the trends in total trade and climatesmart goods (csgs) trade from 2000 to 2023, measured in millions of usd. the green line, representing total trade, shows a general upward trend with fluctuations, indicating variability in trade volumes. notably, a sharp increase occurs around 2020, peaking in 2022, which may reflect broader economic or policy influences on trade in recent years. the orange line, indicating csg trade, follows a similar growth trend but remains at a lower level throughout the period. csg trade demonstrates more consistent growth after 2008, suggesting an increase in the prioritization of climate-smart products, with a marked rise in recent years possibly driven by rising demand for sustainable goods or supportive policy changes. overall, while both total trade and csg trade have expanded significantly, csg trade remains a smaller portion of total trade, highlighting the gradual yet limited incorporation of climate-smart goods into the broader trade framework and underscoring potential areas for policy intervention and market growth. table 2: brazil’s trade balance with rest of the world (million, usd) year overall trade balance (million usd) csgs trade balance (million usd) export import trade balance export import trade balance 2000 55119 58643 -3524 455.172158 1738.49889 -1283.3267 2001 58287 58382 -95 565.589774 1736.56875 -1170.979 2002 60439 49723 10716 474.588398 2364.11957 -1889.5312 2003 73203 50881 22322 633.964255 2262.2496 -1628.2853 2004 96678 66433 30245 912.335865 1807.44348 -895.10762 2005 118529 77628 40901 1133.46813 1989.58051 -856.11237 2006 137581 97049 40532 1527.73055 2417.99477 -890.26422 2007 159816 128111 31705 2814.27889 3208.9807 -394.70181 2008 195765 183921 11844 2197.5014 4479.58491 -2282.0835 2009 151792 135378 16414 1911.66063 1903.95844 7.702198 2010 200434 193184 7250 1735.33934 1725.57526 9.764082 2011 253666 238706 14960 2290.32593 2299.02424 -8.698308 pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 this table 2 outlines brazil’s trade balance with the global market from 2000 to 2023, focusing on total trade and climate-smart goods (csgs), measured in millions of usd. it details annual exports, imports, and the resultant trade balance, calculated as exports minus imports. a positive trade balance denotes a surplus, while a negative balance reflects a deficit. from 2002 to 2023, brazil generally maintained a positive overall trade balance, with notable surpluses from 2015 onwards, reaching a peak in 2023. in contrast, the trade balance for csgs consistently shows a deficit throughout the period, indicating that brazil’s imports of csgs exceeded exports annually. this deficit has notably increased in recent years, exceeding $9 billion in both 2022 and 2023, suggesting a growing dependence on csg imports. in summary, while brazil’s overall trade remains positive, its persistent csg trade deficit highlights a reliance on imported climate-smart goods and underscores potential opportunities to strengthen domestic production in this sector. 2012 239953 235404 4549 2950.8943 2991.54522 -40.650915 2013 232544 252282 -19738 2244.27738 2281.22235 -36.94497 2014 220923 240763 -19840 2139.3841 2133.72302 5.661078 2015 186782 180460 6322 1897.09024 1836.22559 60.864659 2016 179526 145248 34278 1951.02891 4836.42467 -2885.3958 2017 214988 165855 49133 4413.50737 4782.63977 -369.1324 2018 231890 192840 39050 1856.34144 5575.61599 -3719.2746 2019 221127 193162 27965 1811.91425 6310.71948 -4498.8052 2020 209180 166336 42844 1559.1732 6424.74511 -4865.5719 2021 280815 234690 46125 2038.13579 9691.29822 -7653.1624 2022 334136 292245 41891 1781.56839 11723.8419 -9942.2735 2023 339696 252710 86986 2046.11749 11818.8239 -9772.7064 source: author’s compilation based on world development indicators (wdi) of the world bank and un comtrade data (2010), extracted from the world integrated trade solution (wits) database, accessed in august 2024 figure 2: brazil’s export values to the rest of the world (million usd) source: author’s compilation based on world development indicators (wdi) of the world bank and un comtrade data (2010), extracted from the world integrated trade solution (wits) database, accessed in august 2024 this line graph compares brazil’s total exports and exports of climate-smart goods (csgs) from 2000 to 2023, in millions of usd. the green line, representing total exports, shows a general upward trend with fluctuations, highlighting growth in brazil’s overall exports. notable peaks appear in 2011, 2014, and 2023, reflecting significant increases in export activity. the orange line, representing csg exports, follows a similar pattern but remains consistently lower. despite fluctuations, including a substantial spike in 2017, csg exports have shown moderate growth in recent years. in summary, both total exports and csg exports have expanded, though csgs remain a smaller portion of overall exports. this suggests an increasing but still limited role for climate-smart goods in brazil’s export portfolio, with csg exports influenced by varying demand or supply conditions over time. pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 figure 3: brazil’s import values with the rest of the world (million usd) source: author’s compilation based on world development indicators (wdi) of the world bank and un comtrade data (2010), extracted from the world integrated trade solution (wits) database, accessed in august 2024. this line graph illustrates trends in brazil’s total imports and climate-smart goods (csgs) imports from 2000 to 2023, in millions of usd. the purple line, representing total imports, displays an overall upward trend with some fluctuations. notably, imports increased between 2005 and 2013, showed variability thereafter, and rose sharply from 2020, peaking in 2022. the orange line, showing csg imports, consistently remains lower than total imports but follows a steady growth pattern. a significant rise begins around 2015, continuing through 2023, indicating an increased demand for climate-smart goods. in sum, both total imports and csg imports have expanded, with csg imports representing a smaller but gradually increasing share, reflecting brazil’s growing focus on sustainable goods within its import portfolio. figure 4: comparison between total ex-im & total csgs ex-im in brazil (million usd)for the study period source: author’s compilation based on world development indicators (wdi) of the world bank and un comtrade data (2010), extracted from the world integrated trade solution (wits) database, accessed in august 2024 a line graph comparing brazil’s total exports and imports (ex-im) with trade in climate-smart goods (csgs) from 2000 to 2023 would highlight trends in brazil’s overall and sustainable trade sectors. the total ex-im line reflects fluctuations in general trade, influenced by global economic cycles, exchange rates, and trade policies, with notable dips during events like the 2008– 2009 financial crisis and the 2020 covid-19 pandemic. the total csgs ex-im line captures trade in green technologies, such as renewable energy and low-carbon products, influenced by domestic environmental policies, international agreements, and growing global demand for sustainable goods. if total ex-im outpaces csg ex-im, it suggests that while brazil’s overall trade expands, csgs remain a smaller segment. conversely, a narrowing gap indicates a shift towards a more sustainable trade portfolio. sudden increases in csg trade may reflect specific policies or international collaborations fostering green industries. this graph offers insight into brazil’s evolving engagement with sustainable trade practices in response to global environmental initiatives and economic incentives. pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 13-20, 2025 conclusion brazil’s trade in climate-smart goods (csgs) reflects a growing, yet underdeveloped, engagement with sustainable trade practices. from 2000 to 2023, brazil’s total trade expanded significantly, with csg trade following a generally upward trend, though consistently representing a small fraction of overall trade. the persistent trade deficit in csgs underscores brazil’s dependence on imports for sustainable technologies, which suggests that the domestic csg production sector has not kept pace with the rising demand. despite this, the steady growth of csg imports and exports highlights brazil’s increasing alignment with global sustainability goals, spurred by the global demand for environmentally friendly goods and brazil’s commitments to international climate accords. however, csg trade remains relatively limited within brazil’s broader export portfolio, signaling an area of untapped potential. the current trade pattern reflects brazil’s substantial import reliance and emphasizes the need for policies that can strengthen local production capabilities. addressing this will be essential for brazil to not only reduce its csg trade deficit but also position itself as a competitive supplier in the global green market. this alignment could yield economic benefits while also supporting brazil’s climate objectives, making sustainable trade a dual engine for economic growth and environmental stewardship. references antweiler, w., copeland, b., & taylor, m. s. 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(2023). sustainable international trade: achieving a balance between economic growth and environmental responsibility. frontiers in business, economics and management, 12(2), 7–10. pa ge 1 pa ge 37 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) the role of environmental management systems (ems) in driving organizational development and environmental sustainability ghassan mazraani1*, mario tucci1 volume 4 issue 1, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i1.3748 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: september 08, 2024 accepted: october 11, 2024 published: january 25, 2025 an environmental management system (ems) is a framework that helps in assessing the risks a business has on its environment while providing organizations with mitigation strategies to minimize the risks. this study aims to analyze the importance and impact of ems on organizations and global sustainability goals. this review study uses a descriptive and analytical approach by including 67 studies for the review that were published in the last 5 years. the findings from this review suggest that the integration of ems along with tools and techniques like iso 14031, cross-functional team (cft), matrix model, and life cycle inventory (lci) can be very useful in attaining global sustainability goals and maximizing the environmental efficiency of organizations. the study concludes that the integration of ems in industries not only helps in minimizing environmental pollution but it also helps in managing the overall growth of the organizations. keywords cross functional team (cft), ems, environmental sustainability, iso 1403, matrix model, significant environmental aspect (sea) 1 engineering management, university of florence, italy * corresponding author’s e-mail: ghassan@researchergroup.co introduction an environmental management system (ems) aids in evaluating the risks that affect the business environment, establishing performance standards, and developing solutions for averting the unwanted effects essential for compliance and for establishing the reputation of an organization (battersby, 2022). environmental aspects are the characteristics of an organization’s process, product, or service that can produce a positive or negative impact on the environment through pollution or by supporting sustainability (кубатко et al., 2021). these aspects can be tangible, for instance, the quantity of energy used, or the volume of waste that is dumped in the natural world, or intangible such as the possibility of the environment being polluted by a particular product (dahlmann et al., 2019). the factors that have been grouped under environmental analysis are relevant since they explain how different factors influence the environment (fiorino, 2023). these environmental issues and aspects are relevant to the creation of ems including the international standard of iso 14001 (poltronieri et al., 2021). iso 14001 on ems has provided elements that specify certain environmental aspects and also provided a way to handle them – sustainably (bhateria, 2024). this puts the firms in a stance of being able to meet the legal issues, manage the negative impacts of these areas on the environment, and proceed towards the objective of improving environmental performance stepwise. environmental evaluation also plays a tremendous part in the formation of public policies and environmental legislation (kraft, 2021). decision makers and governments apply the knowledge from ems in order to introduce measures that can help to regulate emissions and or consumption or encourage sustainability (keohane et al., 2019). for example, the incorporation of environmental impact statements eia in the assessment of environmental factors which are incorporated in numerous countries before commencement of vast development projects (gunningham & sinclair, 2019). in the context of ems implementation, there is the absence of a clear definition of environmental aspects that can be considered as any factor related to an organization’s activities that may affect the environment (abdelkareem et al., 2021). such impacts may be released to air, land, or water, reserve or resource depletion, species or habitat loss, and waste generation. for instance, in manufacturing industries, factors of the environment may include the discharge of gases into the atmosphere, consumption of non–renewable sources of energy, and generation of hazardous material (yuan et al., 2020). environmental aspects are usually divided into two; direct and indirect. the direct environmental impacts are those which the organization can control and they include; energy use, discharge from production, or waste disposal. another classification is the indirect environmental aspects which are those to a certain extent are not under the direct control of the organization, but the organization can affect them, for instance, the impact of the suppliers on the environment and the fate of its products once they are out of the organization (li & wang, 2019). it is argued that both direct and indirect aspects are important in order to understand the environmental consequences. knowledge of ems is basic in environmental science as it serves as the basis for the determination and measurement of the environmental impact of human activity (bresciani et al., 2023). this footprint quantifies the pressure people pa ge 38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 have put on the earth’s carrying capacity and is therefore instrumental in determining sustainability. through analyzing environmental aspects, it becomes possible for scientists as well as environmental managers to identify specific areas that are most strained by human activities and come up with ways and means of minimizing the impacts (bravi et al., 2020). additionally, ems is essential in public enlightenment and sustainable development programs. many individuals and organizations develop their environmental knowledge and thus can make a conscious effort to reduce their impact on the environment (bhoi et al., 2022). for instance, knowledge of the environmental impacts of energy consumption in homes for example the carbon footprint of electricity usage may trigger the use of renewable energy, efficient appliances, or reduced usage through changed behavior (jiang et al., 2020). therefore, the implementation of ems enables not only businesses but individuals and communities to act positively towards the environment. in the corporate context, the use of ems is rather valuable since many companies attempt to achieve sustainability objectives and satisfy the emerging global demand for eco-friendly industries (kristensen et al., 2021). failure to manage environmental aspects can lead to legal fines, brand deterioration, or even poor performance due to inefficiencies, and wastage of resources (said et al., 2020). on the other hand, the companies that are able to properly address and control their environmental impacts will be able to compete for clients, customers, and government approvals as well as have a favorable image that is liked by investors (fawehinmi et al., 2020). in addition, more investors give consideration to the ems factors while choosing a place to invest in. the continuing improvement in many organizations has resulted in boosting the problem of pollution of the environment and this is a factor that is causing harm to the environment. most organizations are incorporating environment-friendly measures and this necessitates the need to incorporate ems into organizations to achieve the global sustainable goals. this review further discusses the application of new tools and techniques in ems that can assist organizations in achieving these goals. the main question that is applicable to this paper is concerned with the recognition, evaluation, and monitoring of ems in several sectors. this means that many organizations as they embrace the idea of environmental management and implement ems lack real key environmental impacts and experience difficulties in the assessment of impacts comprehensively (ikram et al., 2019). furthermore, this research was also able to determine the aspect of a business integration of operations with sustainable activities. this raises the critical question: ems can be defined as a verified system that shall facilitate the organizations in developing, documenting, and implementing a policy, and procedures that conform to environmental management standards, and this knowledge on the importance and impact of ems and how this can help in growing environmental sustainability. the current review was to consider and evaluate procedures for the identification and management of environmental elements that are acknowledged and regulated in industries and certain sectors with high levels of pollution such as manufacturing, energy, and waste sectors. moreover, this work tried to assess the ways of applying cft and iso 14031 to control and manage crucial environmental effects properly. literature review climate change and global warming subsequent studies have established that the rate of climate change is continuously progressing and the effects of climate change are massive (valérie massondelmotte et al., 2021). the ipcc’s sixth assessment as stated in the report of 2021, it was established that the global temperature is rising at a higher rate than ever (masson-delmotte et al., 2021). the report suggested that it is virtually evident the world is in the process of pulling a trigger and going a notch higher than 1.5°c as a result of global warming (lynn & peeva, 2021). this study further affirmed extreme weather conditions such as heat waves, and wildfire is mitigated by the degree of exposure to dry spells, droughts, and floods have become more frequent and severe in the recent times than they used to be in past decades. another study presented a closer view of the climate models as it investigated predictions of climate change which was initiated through the models developed in the 1970s with the modern rise of temperature and they proved that the majority of these models are accurate (hausfather & peters, 2020). this removes any form of doubt that there is indeed a significant wind of change blowing across the organization in the management of its human resources (wang et al., 2023). also, the 2022 wmo state of the global climate report revealed worsening climate change impacts on food production, water, and migration (forster et al., 2023). the report pointed out that the affected areas which include africa and south asia are experiencing worsened drought conditions thus resulting in food shortages and displacement (zemp et al., 2022). this research therefore highlights the need for ems in addition to mitigation measures for managing the global climate. bio-diversity loss the most thought-provoking and the most reportage in terms of giving an overall picture of the state of the planet today is. they estimated that about one million of the species of living organisms are now threatened with extinction. during the next thirty years, or in some cases sooner, the climate of the earth has been projected to change due to actions initiated by people of the world (pörtner et al., 2021). this study relied on data the upto-date accounts of the loss at the global level and it was the most comprehensive current assessment. the biodiverse species is a clear sign that drastic changes in the way of operating are still apparent. ems is required pa ge 39 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 to turn around in order to make the firm’s environmental management system effective (das neves, 2020). a theoretical framework called “bending the curve”, describes the way to reverse the declines while satisfying human demands (leclère et al., 2023). the study therefore revealed that it is achievable to shift the tide to prevent further erosion of the livelihoods of biological diversity through harmonised management of lands. solutions of which management, sustainable agriculture, and conservation measures are part. more importantly, it emphasized the fact that if it continues to do its work, it will soon become much more challenging and complex to achieve all the desired results (shin et al., 2022). it also helped establish the goals of the post-2020 global biodiversity framework agreed in 2022 which includes the protection of 30% of the world’s terrestrial and marine areas by 2030 (xu et al., 2021). another important study discussed the idea of “halfearth” which argues that to avoid the loss of biodiversity we must protect half of terrestrial and marine environments (dinerstein et al., 2019). the study offered empirical data on the large-scale conservation needs and the importance of global biodiversity and ecosystem services with environment management system (ems), which informed the debates on global conservation goals (immovilli & kok, 2020). pollution and human health air and plastic pollution in particular has continued to be an issue of interest in environmental research with health effects (li et al., 2021). according to a global, observational study air pollution continues to be the single, most important environmental risk factor that is responsible for the deaths of about 9 million people annually and this was in the year 2019 (fuller et al., 2022). most of these deaths happened in low and middle-income countries, a factor that reveals environmental inequality. it also pointed out that although the industrial emissions have declined in some areas and increased in others there has been a growth in emissions from household sources like cooking using solid fuels and emissions from the transport sector (balakrishnan et al., 2019). probably, the most significant issue that has dominated the discourse in the last few years is that of plastics. according to a study global plastic waste input to the aquatic environment could increase by threefold by 2040 if no measures are being taken towards its reduction (hamilton et al., 2023). the study also presented the “breaking the plastic wave” model, which provides strategies to minimize plastics pollution through better recycling, innovative product design as well as effective policies on waste management (oelofse et al., 2024). in particular, it stated that a further drastic decline in plastic waste is possible but only with a collective international effort which can only be possible through ems and appropriate economic and policy implications for combating this problem (fletcher et al., 2023). microplastic pollution has also become a well-discussed subject because of the consequences it has on human health and the environment. in a recent study, people were identified to have microplastics in their bloodstream meaning that the body can absorb plastics (damaj et al., 2024). sustainable resource management according to a study, food production systems are responsible for emissions of over 25% of the world’s greenhouse gases (springmann et al., 2020). changes in diet as a way of lowering emissions and achieving sustainability with such changes as decreasing the intake of meat products (springmann et al., 2021). it has been recommended to use a “planetary health diet” which takes into account the nutritive needs of people as well as the environmental needs that are involved in the provision of food, and this has informed most of the discussions on sustainable diets (springmann & freund, 2022). a study has indicated that about 64 percent of the world’s population suffers from water scarcity for at least one month every year (wolkeba et al., 2024). it has been urged that more efforts and measures be taken to conserve water, especially in food production where water is used in a 70% proportion (rathore et al., 2024). this highlights the importance of integrating policies and ems that support the use of water-efficient technologies and crop types that do not need much water (musie & gonfa, 2023). studies have highlighted that there has been a rapid growth in renewable energy sources like solar and wind energy but they are still a challenge to address the global energy needs (ang et al., 2022). the work emphasized the need to deploy ems for renewable energy alongside efficiency and storage along with other technologies towards de-carbonization by the middle of the current century (gielen et al., 2019). materials and methods search strategy this study includes review on existing literatures on the tools and techniques used in ems for minimizing environmental pollution and managing environmental sustainability. the objectives of this approach were achieved by collecting, analyzing, and interpreting secondary data that was included in the study to have a thorough review of the applications of ems on organizations and global sustainability. table 1 shows the search strategy used in this review. inclusion and exclusion criteria table 1: search strategy years search engines keywords 20192024 ✓ google scholar ✓ pubmed ✓ environmental management system (ems) ✓ global sustainability pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 inclusion and exclusion criteria were implemented in the data collection process of this study. the study’s inclusion of sources were the studies that were published during the past five years and highlighted the importance and impact of ems. the data collection also included studies that were published in english and were easily accessible for data collection. the selected studies include scholarly articles, research papers, review articles, reputable industry publications, and peer-reviewed journals. the studies that were not published in english and were older than five years were excluded from this study. moreover, the study also excluded studies, articles, and papers that were not accessible. data extraction the search strategy used for this review was to obtain, identify, and analyze secondary data that highlighted the impact and importance of the environmental management system (ems) in organizations and global sustainability. the first step in obtaining data was to identify a ‘keyword’ list that was most associated with the main idea of our area of study. the keywords were “environmental management system (ems)”, “global sustainability”, “cross-functional team (cft)”, “iso 14031”, “risk management”, “biodiversity”, “environmental pollution”, “environmental aspects”, “sustainable resource management”, “significant environmental aspect (sea)”,”life cycle inventory (lci)”, “matrix model”, and “resource efficiency”. these keywords were used jointly and separately to increase the comprehensiveness of the literature search. google scholar, ieee xplore, and academic libraries were used to conduct systematic searches of the given keywords. results and discussion results a total of 113 studies were identified for the study through the literature search, from these 113 studies 13 studies were inaccessible as they required verified access and subscription, 18 studies only showed abstracts which were not enough for conducting a thorough review, and 15 studies were excluded because they were not in english language. so, a total number of 67 studies were included in the review as these studies aligned with the aim of the research, which analyzes the importance and impact of ems. each study’s authenticity was verified by conducting a thorough review of its abstract, title, and keywords. the 65 studies that were finalized for literature review included 39 research papers and 26 review articles which aligned with the title and aim of this research highlighting the impact and importance of environmental management system (ems). discussion importance of ems compliance with environmental regulations an environmental management system (ems) is an important part of the framework used to accomplish the environmental objectives of an organization and mitigate regulatory risk (bravi et al., 2020). today’s business organizations are fraught with the escalating number of environmental legislations such as pollution, waste, energy, water, and hazardous substances. failure to observe these regulations attracts severe fines and legal ramifications, productivity loss, and deterioration of an organization’s image (ikram et al., 2019). an ems thus enables organizations to factor compliance in the middle of their operations to monitor and implement legal guidelines (waxin et al., 2019). this is made possible through establishing standard procedures for tracking the changes in regulation, compliance, and documentation of performance on environmental issues. further, ems demands periodic reviews and updates of the operations in compliance with new or altered regulations (ojo et al., 2021). ems’s most significant benefit in regulatory compliance is the determination of environmental aspects and impacts during the planning process (ociepa-kubicka et al., 2021). it assists organizations in learning about their legal requirements in the local context, the country, and the international level and responds to compliance issues (oladinrin & ojo, 2022). for instance, emissions, waste disposal, or water usage can all be controlled to meet the set legal standards to help organizations avoid regulatory violations in this area and therefore reduce their vulnerability to future regulatory probes (mahzun et al., 2020). in addition, ems provides for carrying out internal audits and inspections regularly to check whether the practices of the organization meet the legal demands (bhateria, 2024). in case of any irregularities such auditors detect during these audits, adjustments are made to correct the situation, thus eradicating long-term liabilities (mustonen, 2023). with the ever-changing environmental laws, ems ✓ web of science ✓ sciencedirect ✓ scopus ✓ cross-functional team (cft) ✓ iso 14031 ✓ matrix model ✓ life cycle inventory (lci) ✓ significant environmental aspect (sea) ✓ bio-diversity ✓ environmental pollution ✓ sustainable resource management ✓ environmental aspects ✓ resource efficiency pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 offers organizations a systematic way of ensuring legal compliance to avoid legal risks, fines, and other legal repercussions that may hinder their operations (whitford & provost, 2019). resource efficiency and cost reduction there is so much emphasis put on the topic of sustainability in the present-day business world, and this has led to pressure on business organizations to use resources such as water, energy, and raw materials in the most efficient manner possible (fadly, 2020). an ems helps organizations set up a structured approach that enables them to assess their resource utilization profile in an organization and determine potential areas of improvement (voinea et al., 2020). when organizations avoid the wastage of scarce resources, they help save the environment and at the same time, there is cutting down on expenses (wong et al., 2020). in implementing an ems, it is during the planning and implementation that prospects of resource efficiency can be noted. in these stages, companies analyze their operation to find out how they are utilizing their resources and where they are losing them (ikram et al., 2019). for instance, an ems may reveal that power usage in production is high, water usage in cooling is high or waste production in packaging is high (abisourour et al., 2020). from this information, organizations can embark on more sustainable measures such as using energyefficient equipment, recycling water used in production processes, or using renewable materials. moreover, ems encourages the integration of practices that have a cost-saving factor in the long run (ojo et al., 2021). for instance, measures that can help save energy include installing led bulbs instead of conventional bulbs, using solar energy, or improving the building’s insulation will lead to lower energy bills. similarly, through water recycling or the use of efficient irrigation systems, companies can cut their utility bills and at the same time have the added advantage of saving water (herghiligiu et al., 2019). costs of disposal and material expenditure are also reduced in waste reduction programs such as reusing materials or adopting a circular economy. obtaining certification, for instance, iso 14031, helps organizations to create competitive advantages in the market, appeal to environmentally concerned consumers, and enhance the company’s relations with investors who have an environmental concern (tessitore et al., 2019). this can create new revenue streams and improve profitmaking since more consumers are likely to go green when making their purchases (wessels, 2024). enhancing corporate reputation and stakeholder trust with the rise of environmental problems in the world, consumers and other users of the product demand responsible performance from the firms (marrucci & daddi, 2022). an ems is useful in making organizations demonstrate their commitment towards the environment through the reduction of the negative impacts on the environment, therefore, promoting the organization’s image to environmentally conscious customers (oladinrin & ojo, 2022). the idea is that adopting sustainable practices will help businesses create a competitive advantage and appeal to consumers who are conscious of the impact that they make when they are making their purchases. ems implementation is a clear indication that the organization is in the process of addressing the organization’s detrimental impacts on the environment such as pollution or exploitation of natural resources (díaz de junguitu & allur, 2019). this contributes to fostering good relations with the locals and the authorities hence establishing a social acceptance of the project. from the investor’s perspective, especially from the esg perspective, an ems signifies a commitment to sustainability and, therefore, makes the company more valuable as an investment (daud et al., 2019). risk management and prevention an ems makes it easy for organizations to systematically prevent negative events such as spillages, emissions violations, or mishandling of hazardous wastes as the aspects are managed appropriately (algheriani et al., 2019). managing risks before they occur assists the organization in avoiding environmental disasters that may cause legal actions, penalties, or loss of reputation. in addition, the ems framework provides for monitoring and auditing of environmental issues, as well as corrective measures, which guarantee that risks to the environment are noted and acted upon accordingly (samani et al., 2019). avoiding environmental losses is also useful in avoiding expensive clean-up or non-compliance fines that can lead to operational instability. also, those organizations that have incorporated the ems in their management systems are more ready to handle any environmental issues that may arise from factors such as disasters or changes in laws (zimon & madzík, 2020). tools and techniques used for identifying environmental aspects cross-functional team (cft) cross-functional team (cft) is a team that is made for process innovation and has been adopted in environmental management and manufacturing to increase production output while at the same time decreasing the negative effects on the environment (rosa-masegosa et al., 2021). compared to the batch production system in which processes run in stages, cft entails the flow of materials through production phases constantly (yan et al., 2021). this technology improves the efficiency of the flow of resources such as water energy and raw materials which leads to a strong cut down in wastage, emissions, and energy consumption. the procedure through which cft’s integrated to identify environmental aspects can be seen in figure no1. it shows that for environmenta pa ge 42 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 aspect identification the required first step is to establish a cft who establish, determine, and inspect the core processes through flow diagrams and identify the core environmental aspects. by-products and energy consumption (das, 2020). whenever it brings about production efficiencies, cft also saves costs and is environmentally friendly to help companies achieve goals of emission reduction, resource conservation, and sustainability without compromising on productivity and quality (rogers & jensen, 2019). importance of cft in ems cft is a central component in ems since it offers the method of continuous improvement of production processes and management of resources (ellafi et al., 2020). cft makes sure that the materials, energy, and water are used in the most efficient way possible by keeping a constant and uninterrupted flow in the production process hence minimizing wastage of any resource as well as time (das, 2020). in addition to increased operational effectiveness, this structure also cuts back on emissions as well as the production of waste products. the implementation of cft in an ems has the potential to decrease the organization’s carbon footprint as well as the overall utilization of resources for instance fuel, water, and raw materials (theodore & theodore, 2021). this is useful to the organization in attaining environmental compliance and enhancing the organization’s environmental performance in regard to the set standards (xu et al., 2022). further, as stated by the cft, the ems promotes ongoing improvement, which is one of the pillars of the ems and enables it to enhance performance over time and develop a more efficient, environmentally friendly, and profitable business model (mardonova & choi, 2019). the use of iso 14031 overview of iso 14031 iso 14031 is focused on the evaluation and enhancement of the environmental effect in the space systems and the management of the space programs (gomes da silva et al., 2020). this standard prescribes a procedure for assessing the impacts of the environment and the organization’s performance in the sphere of space systems, satellites, and space exploration equipment. iso 14031 comprises major aspects such as the confirmation of environmental performance indicators; energy intensity; resource use; and the emissions relating to space systems (obamen et al., 2021). it also looks at the factor of monitoring to ensure that the space programs do not compromise on the standards of the environment as well as the goals of sustainability. iso 14031 allows the organization to assess and monitor its environmental performance and set objectives and targets for it thereby helping an organization to minimize the risks it faces in the environment (falqi et al., 2020). figure 3 provides an illustration of the process adopted by iso 14031 which highlights the organization’s process of identifying and analyzing cost and their output on environmental aspects. figure 1: process of cft’s integration to identify environmental aspects the main requirement from a cft is to identify the environmental aspects through a flow diagram and to assist the flow diagram the cft should consider the potential inputs and outputs of the organization as shown in figure 2. figure 2: inputs and outputs of the organization in environmental management, cft optimizes the use of inputs by avoiding waste of time and other necessary inputs. as has been observed in chemical manufacturing, cft enables the production process to be controlled with extreme accuracy of reaction conditions to minimize pa ge 43 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 figure 3: operations of the organization figure 4: the epe process integration of iso 14031 with ems the incorporation of iso 14031 into the ems has a lot of advantages in the management of the environmental elements in space systems. iso 14031 can be applied to supplement other ems frameworks because of the unique approach that the framework takes to meet spacerelated tasks (al-anbari et al., 2020). application of the iso 14031 in an ems will support the evaluation and enhancement of the environmental performance of space programs in the organization in a more efficient manner. it helps in setting the right objectives and kpis regarding the space industry and anything concerning the environment (al-hashimi & kareem, 2020). this also seeks to increase compliance with environmental laws pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 that apply to space systems, improve risk management if performance assessment is conducted in a targeted approach, and improve sustainability initiatives. the environmental process evaluation (epe) outline is provided in figure-4 which is integrated by iso 14031 and is similar to the management model of “plan-docheck-act”which identifies the indicators for improving environmental evaluation. through this integration, there is a possibility of coming up with a conceptual framework and environmental management system with space programs for the attainment of sustainable goals and resource optimization for the limited planet’s resources (mansour et al., 2021). besides, it promotes communication and reporting of environmental performance improving engagement with the stakeholders and compliance with the legislation in the space industry(de azevedo et al., 2024). further, it enhances communication and reporting of environmental performance enhancing stakeholder engagement and compliance with legal requirements in the sensitive space industry (alsulamy et al., 2021). life cycle inventory (lci) tool life cycle inventory (lci) is an important tool in the framework of ems as it offers a structured approach for the calculation of environmental loads linked with the life cycle of a distinct product, service, or process. in ems frameworks, it contributes to the identification of various inputs, which include raw materials, and energy, as well as the outputs which include emissions and wastes at every process step of the product life cycle, namely extraction of raw materials, production, use and disposal of the product (ferrari et al., 2021). such information allows for the evaluation of environmental impacts in terms of carbon footprint, water intensity, and pollution. integrating lci with an organization’s ems will help organizations to make informed decisions on how to reduce the amount of resources used and wastes produced as well as enhance their energy efficiencies effectively improving their sustainability. it is also helpful in matters concerning compliance with environmental laws and requirements, production of reports, gaining eco-labels, or conforming to the iso 14001 standard. finally, it helps business entities to adopt measures of effectively anticipating environmental change and hazards that in turn enhance environmental performance hence long-term goals of sustainable development. matrix model the adoption of the matrix model under an ems includes a more dynamic and flexible approach to addressing organizational environmental performance in various organizational units. the ems, through the matrix structure, can correlate the organization’s environmental goals and objectives with different departments and ongoing projects thus guaranteeing the achievement of sustainability and compliance objectives across production, purchasing, and administrative functions. this approach enhances integrated working as resources are utilized in the best way possible, accountability on environmental issues is given across functional units, and on matters to do with the environment there is efficiency in communiqué (schwarz et al., 2021). the matrix also promotes improved decision-making regarding the existing issues arising from ems as it presents a detailed indication of how environmental impacts interact with the processes, resulting in a systemized administrative strategy toward environmental concerns in the organization. figure 5 shows the matrix model applied in a case by 17 organizations of jonkoping and their comparison with norrbotten and vasterbotten on different organizational aspects to analyze the significant environmental aspect. figure 5: matrix model used by organizations in jonkoping pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 process of identifying significant environmental aspect (sea) the process of identifying sea in an ems context is a systematic approach used to determine the environmental needs appraisal of an organization, its products, or services (quebral jr & barcellano, 2024). it starts with the consideration of all the activities that have an impact on the environment hence entails the following; energy used, wastes produced, and emissions related together resultant from different operations (craik & gu, 2022). figure 6 shows a bar graph that represents the ratings of various environmental aspects that help in determining the sea. figure 6: environmental aspect ratings for various aspects figure 7: pollution prevention potential ratings the subsequent step is to assess whether these aspects have some influence on the environment, for better or worse, based on some factors; such as the ambiance, water contamination, and dwindling of natural resources, among others. figure 7 shows the ratings of an organization according to the efforts made by it to prevent pollution which can minimize the impact on environmental aspects. next, the occurrence of each aspect is evaluated in terms of its frequency and the size of the effects that take place in the organization. figure 8 shows a graph that calculates the frequency of occurrence and its ratings in an organization about an environmental aspect which is an integral part of identifying the sea and processing it through ems. pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 figure 8: frequency of occurring ratings in the process of identifying sea figure 9: community concern ratings following the legal and regulatory demands is also important as any non-conformity can dramatically increase the relevance of some of those aspects. moreover, stakeholders’ opinions are taken into account, because even if some more important issues are missed by the organization, it will receive feedback from its external partners. figure 9 shows the community concerns regarding the organization’s functions and its impact on the environment, this calculates the community complaints and identifies the sea according to that. last but not least, a risk and opportunity analysis is carried out, and aspects are ranked according to their relevance. this overall method guarantees that the efforts of organizations are directed at mitigation of significant environmental aspects, then enhancing sustainability and compliance. impact of ems on organizations and environmental sustainability environmental performance improvement ems has a proven track record for enhancing energy consumption, waste, and pollution minimization in many industries. for instance, toyota was able to adopt and incorporate waste reduction through the use of ems where it was able to reach a state of no waste to landfill where most of its wastes are recycled or disposed of. ems was adopted by 3m and implemented in a way that helped the company develop new approaches to pollution prevention, and significantly decrease the emissions (leitão et al., 2019). when it comes to space systems, iso 14031 serves a very important function of giving a framework for assessing and reporting environmental performance (ociepa-kubicka et al., 2021). the implementations of this standard assist space agencies and companies in containing the effects of their activities on space, for instance, effective resource consumption and reduction of unnecessary space debris (dejrah, 2024). the impact of iso 14031 on spacepa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(1) 37-51, 2025 related environmental management can therefore be seen through the integration of the standard in an attempt to improve sustainability and get better environmental results in space programs (voinea et al., 2020). competitive advantage and innovation ems results in new development of cleaner technologies and products due to the fact that the companies that practice the system have to undertake sustainability measurements. for instance, ems has been implemented by philips to innovate energy-savvy lighting products; the firm has transformed the market with sustainable strategies (chen et al., 2020). this is also supported by iso 14031 and cft which increases the competitiveness of companies in the more developed sectors. the environmental management and audit standard, iso 14031, contains procedures for assessing and improving environmental performances, a system that enables aerospace and hi-tech companies to understand the essence of environmental management and reduce the impacts on the environment (herghiligiu et al., 2019). cft reduces the utilization of resources in production lines and implements the best practices that would improve production. all these tools contribute to the growth of new solutions in cleaner technologies to improve the sustainability of firms and to gain a competitive advantage by responding to the growing demand for sustainable products and services in the market (bravi et al., 2020). employee engagement and corporate culture the employees’ concerns about environmental issues are perhaps one of the most important impacts of ems in developing a sustainable organizational culture. ems encourages employees to embrace efforts in a way that boosts the development across the different sectors of the firm (adebayo et al., 2020). at unilever, ems is integrated into corporate culture by involving the employees in sustainability goals for instance emissions and waste management through training and other activities (tegon, 2021). the ems integration of cft in boeing enhanced the operations’ efficiency and minimized wastage while the utilization of iso 14031 would enable the aerospace organization to evaluate its environmental performance effectively. (baxter, 2021). this approach has also helped in improving environmental performance and fostering a culture of change and improvement in organizations as well as employees. economic benefits the company that has been able to achieve ems and cft with a considerable return on investment is general electric, as the firm has been able to reduce energy bills and wastage through the help of ems and cft (кубатко et al., 2021). they automate processes, use fewer resources, and reduce expenses hence increasing the company’s profits. similarly, iso 14031 helps in attaining economic benefits because of environmental risks in space system programs (karaeva et al., 2023). iso 14031 is a guideline to the assessment and improvement of environmental performance and therefore allows space agencies to identify areas that might be at risk or prone to other challenges. it minimizes the chances of compliance and environmental-related mishaps which are usually costly to the company (feoktistova et al.). thus, it minimizes potential adverse effects and helps to ensure stable financial performance, therefore, iso 14031 can be described as an effective tool for monitoring the economic effects of environmental management within the framework of the high-tech and space industries. conclusion ems is a crucial framework that can help in improving sustainability and reducing the level of harm to the environment. the ems incorporates cft, isi 14031, matrix model, and lci tool to obtain the environmental frameworks and have quantitative standards. the role of cft is to point out and manage the opportunities or threats connected with the environment and iso 14031 has a system that can be followed to monitor and evaluate these in a bid to enhance the environmental results. through the integration of these tools in ems, more industries have been able to develop new technologies and strategies that are sustainable to global needs. the application of ems in industries also assists in the management of environmental pollution and the growth of organizations. references abdelkareem, m. a., elsaid, k., wilberforce, t., kamil, m., sayed, e. t., & olabi, a. 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(2020). standardized management systems and risk management in the supply chain. international journal of quality & reliability management, 37(2), 305-327. pa ge 1 pa ge 35 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) surface water quality assessment in the different coastal regions of bangladesh rubinoor islam1*, maisha maliyat aronna2, md. abdullah al arafat1, md. zakir hossain1 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.4435 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: may 22, 2025 accepted: june 30, 2025 published: september 11, 2025 the study evaluated the suitability of surface water for routine utilization in the coastal regions of bangladesh during the period from february to may 2023. water samples were collected at 11 sampling stations near the river in 7 distinct districts and analyzed at ngo forun in dhaka using standard apha methods. the results indicated that the ph, tss, do, nitrate, and bod readings were within acceptable limits according to who’11 standards. the tds, chloride, hardness, and ec values at all sites exceeded the allowable range. the tds and ec values were 25,300 mg/l and 50,570 µs/cm at kutubdia, while chloride and hardness were 5,984 mg/l and 9,810 mg/l at bhatiary, which were the highest values among all stations. the minimum values recorded for tds, chloride, hardness, and ec were 330 mg/l, below 60 mg/l, 90 mg/l, and 645 µs/cm, respectively. gis was used to understand the scenario of acceptability of surface water in the coastal region. the correlation analysis revealed a high positive correlation between the ec value and the hardness, chloride, bod, and tds readings. surface water ec values may increase due to saline intrusion caused by rising sea levels, decreased upstream flow, natural disasters, and increased groundwater exploitation. keywords coastal regions, electrical conductivity and who’11, gis, water quality 1 department of civil engineering, european university of bangladesh, dhaka-1215, bangladesh 2 environmental engineer, imam and associates, mirpur-06, dhaka-1216, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: rubinoor@eub.edu.bd introduction safe and accessible water is essential for the existence of life on earth. potable water can enhance the environment, health status, economy, and food production (jain, 2011). approximately 36% of individuals residing in urban areas and 65% living in rural areas did not have access to potable water (sharma & mishra, 2022). one of the most significant challenges in contemporary global development is guaranteeing sustainable water security (srivastava et al., 2022). by 2021, the number of individuals residing in water-stressed nations has surpassed 2 billion. this predicament is projected to worsen in specific areas due to the combined effects of climate change and population expansion (marzi et al., 2021). the ecological and socio-economic significance of marine ecosystems is crucial for both wildlife and human populations, with their benefits being contingent upon maintaining high water quality (suarez et al., 2024). the coastal zones of bangladesh are characterized by their hydrological nature, since they are included by the ganges, brahmaputra, and meghna (gbm) river system, as well as the bay of bengal. the coastline region encompasses 32% of the country’s total land (ahamed et al., 2020). most of bangladesh’s coastal towns are situated along the shores of low-lying tidal zones, with an average elevation of 1.0– 1.5 meters above sea level (rahman & rahman, 2015). the coastal population of bangladesh in these regions heavily depends on rivers, tube wells (groundwater), and ponds for the purposes of washing, bathing, and obtaining drinking water (habiba et al., 2013; abedin et al., 2018; khan & paul, 2023). the circular and aqueous environment of the southwestern coastal regions of bangladesh, known as swcrb, is highly vulnerable to the infiltration of saltwater caused by cyclones and storm surges (raknuzzaman et al., 2016; ashrafuzzaman et al., 2022). the overall saline area has expanded to around 1.056 million hectares, up from 0.833 million hectares during the past four decades (hasan et al., 2019). the salinity intrusion in the coastal zone of bangladesh is caused by several factors, including the country’s critical geographical location, reduced river flow due to a barrage in the upstream neighboring country, inadequate management of coastal polders, rising sea levels, cyclones and storm surges, backwater effects, precipitation, and shrimp culture (ayers et al., 2017; islam et al., 2017). water quality is often categorized based on biological, physical, and chemical criteria, with multiple factors falling under each category (akhtar et al., 2020). the physicochemical and biological characteristics of the aquatic environment directly influence the organisms inhabiting these water bodies and the overall aquatic ecosystem (ebuete et al., 2023). so, the assessment of these three categories, utilizing parameters obtained by on-site monitoring of water samples, offers crucial data for discerning patterns, expanding the scope of understanding for water resource authorities, and making recommendations for future planning (sutadian et al., 2016; zainurin et al., 2022; amon et al., 2022; hassan et al., 2020). multiple research studies have tested the water quality of the coastal zone in bangladesh. the investigations have concentrated on groundwater hydro geochemical characterization, suitability for irrigation and drinking purposes, and the effects of shrimp farming and toxic algal blooms. the findings imply that water quality in the coastal region of bangladesh differs based on the location and pa ge 36 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 35-42, 2025 characteristics examined. some regions have groundwater that is potable and good for drinking and irrigation, while others are deemed unsuitable for human consumption. shrimp farming operations have been identified as a possible source of water quality problems, including elevated ammonia and nitrogen levels. harmful algal blooms have been seen in coastal waters, impacting aquatic ecosystems, fisheries, and public health. additional study is required to enhance our comprehension and reduce the negative impacts of these blooms on the marine resources in the bay of bengal (shaibur et al., 2023; khan et al., 2022; tajwar et al., 2023; uddin et al., 2024; hossain al., 2021; akhter et al., 2023; hossain., 2022). this study evaluated the geochemical features of surface water (sw) in the coastal region. the primary objective of this study was to assess if the water quality at the research locations is suitable for routine purposes. to accomplish this, the study had the following objectives: generating maps of the region using gis, examining surface water’s parameters and co relation between them. materials and methods study area according to adhikary et al. (2012), bangladesh has a 711-kilometer coastline that includes a vast system of river canals. in ten districts, including chattogram, cox’s bazar, khulna, bagerhat, satkhira, barisal, patuakhali, laxmipur, and bhola, the study was carried out in eleven villages and three upazilas (sub-districts) (figure 01). due to the restricted water supply, salinity, and other water quality criteria, certain coastal regions of the nation are having a very difficult time meeting their freshwater demands (adhikary et al., 2012m. r. khan et al., 2022). as shown in table 1 below, samples are taken following the usual procedure for gathering water samples from a variety of districts and locations. sampling water sampling was conducted from february to may 2023, both during dry and pre-monsoonal months to control for temporal differences in water quality. triplicate samples were collected at each of the 11 stations to reduce temporal sampling bias. samples were collected using precleaned 1000ml high-density polyethylene (hdpe) bottles, following standard apha guidelines. the bottles were rinsed with sample water three times before collecting. each sample was preserved immediately by storing it in a light-restricted icebox and transported to the laboratory within 12 hours to minimize degradation. table 1: sampling collection points from different locations to the related rivers location surface water collection date lat-long kokilmoni java river 20 feb 2023 21.946128° 89.597579° dobeki araibegi river 22 feb 2023 22.098412° 89.228009 char manika meghna river 2 april 2023 22.015178° 90.664761° koyra sakbaria river 4 april 2023 22.210402° 89.325218° kutubdia kutubdia channel 22 feb 2023 21.814728° 91.869565° nizampur meghna river 2 april 2023 21.894699° 90.137158° nolian shibdah river 11 april 2023 22.460082° 89.436424° ramgoti meghna river 23 march 2023 22.678353° 90.910816° figure 1: the overall scenario of the study area in bangladesh pa ge 37 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 35-42, 2025 shoronkhola panguchi river 30 march 2023 22.472419° 89.860601° bhatiyari bay of bengal 27 march 2023 22.511468° 91.700591° tojumuddin meghna river 22 feb 2023 22.414012° 90.851517° parameters and analytical method all tests were performed at ngo forum, lalmatia, dhaka. instruments for measuring physicochemical parameters (ec meters, do meters, spectrophotometers) were calibrated using standard solutions. the table 2 shown below summarized the physicochemical parameters analyzed in this study, along with the respective analytical methods and standard protocols followed. table 2: analytical methods for water quality parameters parameter analytical method standard protocol ph digital ph meter apha 4500-h⁺ total dissolved solids (tds) digital conductivity/tds meter apha 2540c dissolved oxygen (do) winkler titration method apha 4500-o nitrate (no₃⁻) uv spectrophotometry apha 4500-no₃ e chloride (cl⁻) argentometric titration apha 4500-cl⁻ b total suspended solids (tss) gravimetric analysis apha 2540d biochemical oxygen demand (bod₅) 5-day incubation at 20°c apha 5210b electrical conductivity (ec) digital conductivity meter apha 2510 hardness (as caco₃) edta titrimetric method apha 2340c results and discussions water parameters the surface water quality of the coastal regions of bangladesh was evaluated by analyzing their physicochemical parameters and comparing them with established standards according to who (who’11). the ph values of surface water samples in the coastal region range from 7.1 to 7.9. according to who’11, these values were within the range of 6.5–8.5. figure 2: ph concentration: (a) spatial distribution using gis, (b) ph vs locations. the average tds value was remarkable high in the kutubdia channel, which was 25300 mg/l. in addition, the tds values for the meghna river in ramgoti, tajumuddin, char manika, nizampur were 6430 mg/l, 2557 mg/l, 330 mg/l, and 7120 mg/l, respectively. on the other hand, the tds values for the java river at kokilmoni, the araibegi river at dobeki, the sakbaria river at koyra, the shibdah river at nolian, the panguchi river at shoronkhola, and the bay of bengal at bhatiyari were 13,160 mg/l, 13260 mg/l, 23000 mg/l, 3250 mg/l, 5840 mg/l, and 24000 mg/l respectively. according to who’10. the tds readings for all surface waters, except char manika, were higher than the standard. the tss value for all locations was within permissible limits. pa ge 38 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 35-42, 2025 the dissolved oxygen for all samples was within standard limits. the average value was the minimum for jamuna river at ramgoti, which was 5.5 mg/l, and maximum was 6.1 mg/l at char manika. the nitrate value was maximum for the meghna river at char manika which was 2.3 mg/l and maximum was 15.5 mg/l at tojumuddin for the same river. all values for other river water were within the standard limit according to standards. the value of chloride in every river’s surface water was higher than the recommended level, except for the char manika, which is less than 60 mg/l. the peak value was found at bhatiary. at bhatiary on the bay of bengal, the hardness and ec values are maximum, whereas at char manika, they are lowest. others were found to be above the standard permissible limit. all bod values, except for tojumuddin and nolian, were within the allowable range. these two stations had the same bod result of 0.4 mg/l. figure 3: tds concentration: (a) spatial distribution using gis, (b) tds vs locations. figure 4: do concentration: (a) spatial distribution using gis, (b) do vs locations. pa ge 39 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 35-42, 2025 figure 5: nitrate concentration: (a) spatial distribution using gis, (b) nitrate vs locations. figure 6: chloride concentration: (a) spatial distribution using gis, (b) chloride vs locations. figure 7: hardness concentration: (a) spatial distribution using gis, (b) hardness vs locations. pa ge 40 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 35-42, 2025 correlation with all parameters the co-relation matrix (table 4) shows that conductivity is significantly linked with hardness, tds, and chloride, negatively with bod, moderately with ph, and poorly with nitrate and tss. tds, chloride, and hardness negatively affect ph. in addition to conductivity, hardness is negatively correlated with ph and bod and strongly positively correlated with link with tds and chloride. nitrate correlates negatively with do and positively with tss. chloride has a negative correlation with bod and ph and a positive correlation with conductivity, hardness, and tds. do is negatively impacted by concentration of nitrate. figure 8: ec concentration: (a) spatial distribution using gis, (b) ec vs locations. figure 9: bod concentration: (a) spatial distribution using gis, (b) bod vs locations table 3: correlation among different parameters conductivity ph bod hardness nitrate tss chloride tds do conductivity 1.000 -0.341 -0.845 0.830 -0.246 0.067 0.836 1.000 0.011 ph -0.341 1.000 0.626 -0.505 0.150 -0.048 -0.515 -0.342 0.092 bod -0.845 0.626 1.000 -0.749 0.182 -0.059 -0.756 -0.845 0.114 hardness 0.830 -0.505 -0.749 1.000 -0.100 0.307 0.999 0.831 0.018 nitrate -0.246 0.150 0.182 -0.100 1.000 0.655 -0.115 -0.247 -0.598 tss 0.067 -0.048 -0.059 0.307 0.655 1.000 0.305 0.066 -0.215 pa ge 41 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 35-42, 2025 conclusions from the experimental data, the ph, do, and nitrate were within the acceptable limits according to who’11, except for the charmanika, all tested parameters such as tds, chloride, ec, and hardness values were high for the surface water. the graph generated by arcgis 10.5 presented above displayed fluctuations in the various parameters that were assessed during the study. it helped with the simplification and explanation of all evaluated factors by illustrating the intensity of different parameters within the study area. the high ec value indicated that the water at the chosen sites was saline, posing a greater risk of human indigestion. high total dissolved solids (tds) levels might lead to odor issues and be aesthetically unsatisfactory. the high value of hardness might be caused by problems associated with scale formation. from the correlation, it was found that the correlation coefficient values between conductivity and tds, conductivity and hardness, and conductivity and chloride ions were positive, showing that tds, hardness, and chloride rise as conductivity increased. the increase in conductivity was positively associated with the presence of chloride ions in water. this principle also applied to the relationship between conductivity and hardness. in conclusion, the surface water in most studied regions is not suitable for routine domestic use without treatment, especially due to high salinity and mineral content. the study also emphasized generally the need of efficient water management techniques to solve salt intrusion, nutrient loading, and other water quality problems in coastal bangladesh. while the study reiterated the need for legislative measures and integrated management of water resources to counteract salinity impacts, there is a need to understand predominant methodological shortcomings. these included limited seasonal coverage, absence of microbial or heavy metal data, and restricted longitudinal sampling. in addition, while spatial variability was traced well with gis, hydrodynamic modeling and pollutant source tracing were not conducted. future studies must incorporate with year-round surveys to assess seasonal dynamics; inclusion of toxicological parameters; hydrological modeling combined with remote sensing; surveys of community perceptions and uses of water. relevant policy and stakeholderspecific recommendations are: • setting up coastal buffer zones to reduce saline ingress. • enforcing wastewater discharge regulations in upstream areas. • investment in decentralized water treatment to remove saline for high salinity areas. • regular monitoring for frameworks assisted by the government as well as local institutions. by addressing these areas, future studies can not only build upon the findings of this research but also improve water security and resilience in vulnerable coastal zones of bangladesh. acknowledgment the authors would like to thank imam and associates for its support references abedin, m. a., collins, a. e., habiba, u., & shaw, r. 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(2022). advancements in monitoring water quality based on various sensing methods: a systematic review. international journal of environmental research and public health, 19, 14080. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph192114080. pa ge 1 pa ge 88 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) from policy to practice: investigating the effectiveness of drrm implementation in shaping student disaster competence agnes s. morante1, ernie c. cerado1* volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5215 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: april 30, 2025 accepted: june 02, 2025 published: october 30, 2025 disaster risk reduction is a critical component of basic education, mainly in disaster-prone countries like the philippines, where schools contribute to fostering preparedness and resilience. this study examined the relationship between the implementation of the disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) program and students’ disaster knowledge and readiness in public high schools in the sox region. anchored in bandura’s social cognitive theory, the constructivist learning theory, and the theory of planned behavior as supported by the sendai framework for disaster risk reduction, this research looked at how school efforts shape learner competence. using a descriptive-correlational design, the study involved 259 administrators, drrm coordinators, and teachers, and 389 senior high school students from eight disaster-prone schools. drrm implementation was assessed using seven key result areas (kras), while students’ knowledge was measured through a validated test and their readiness through performance-based tasks. findings indicated a “very high” level of drrm implementation across schools, yet students exhibited merely “average” knowledge but “very satisfactory” readiness. no significant correlation was noted between program implementation and either knowledge or readiness, indicative of a gap within institutional initiatives and student outcomes. the study implies the need to strengthen the instructional delivery of drrm education, emphasizing experiential learning and active engagement. limitations include purposive sampling and confidence on self-reported implementation data. future research should adopt mixed methods and broader sampling to improve wider inference and explore mediating factors. ultimately, effective drrm in schools requires not just structured plans but meaningful student-centered learning. keywords descriptive-correlational design, disaster knowledge, disaster risk reduction education, drrm program implementation, student readiness 1 department of education, sultan kudarat state university, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: nesssonza@gmail.com introduction in recent decades, the increasing frequency and intensity of natural hazards—such as typhoons, floods, droughts, earthquakes, and pandemics—have posed escalating threats to human security, sustainable development, and the stability of educational systems. in response, disaster risk reduction (drr) has gained global urgency, especially following the adoption of the sendai framework for disaster risk reduction 2015–2030 by the united nations office for disaster risk reduction (undrr). this framework underscores the vital role of education in promoting preparedness, adaptive capacities, and risk-informed decision-making (pearson & pelling, 2015; yamazakis-honda, 2022). aligned with the sustainable development goals (sdgs)—notably sdg 11 (sustainable cities and communities) and sdg 13 (climate action)—the education sector is increasingly recognized as a catalyst for cultivating disaster-resilient communities. schools are no longer viewed solely as vulnerable infrastructures but as strategic platforms for fostering risk awareness, proactive behavior, and community engagement. in the philippine context, where vulnerability to both climate-related and geophysical hazards is endemic, the institutionalization of drr in education is mandated through republic act no. 10121, or the philippine disaster risk reduction and management act of 2010. the law requires all public schools to appoint drrm coordinators, conduct regular drills, incorporate drr into curricula, and formulate a comprehensive school safety plan (cssp). further, the department of education (deped) has issued policy guidelines promoting learnercentered, contextualized drr strategies (loquillano et al., 2021; agustin & cabansag, 2023). despite these policies, substantial gaps remain in the actual implementation of drrm programs, particularly in disaster-prone regions such as soccsksargen (sox), which comprises south cotabato, sultan kudarat, and sarangani. prior studies have reported persistent issues, including limited drr knowledge among students, varying levels of preparedness, inadequate contextual learning materials, and weak collaboration with local stakeholders (epal et al., 2024; pandapatan, 2024). this study addresses a critical gap by investigating the extent to which school-based drrm programs are implemented and their impact on students’ disaster preparedness knowledge and readiness. focusing on selected public high schools in the sox region, the study aims to provide empirical insights that can inform drr education policies and contribute to the attainment of sdg 4 (quality education), alongside sdgs 11 and 13. specifically, it sought to: (1) describe the extent of drrm program implementation across key result areas; (2) determine the significant differences of the program pa ge 89 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 implementation among schools divisions; (3) assess students’ levels of disaster preparedness knowledge and readiness; and (4) examine the relationships between drrm implementation and students’ preparedness knowledge, as well as readiness for disasters. literature review the increasing frequency and intensity of natural hazards have prompted a global paradigm shift toward proactive disaster risk management, positioning disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) as an essential foundation for sustainable development and climate resilience. within this global discussion, education has emerged as a critical platform for cultivating disaster awareness, resilience, and preparedness among youth. schools are no longer viewed solely as learning institutions but as operational and strategic centers for fostering safety, promoting community engagement, and developing disaster competence. at the international level, the sendai framework for disaster risk reduction (2015–2030) defines education as a key pillar in achieving resilience and mitigating disaster risks. it promotes the shift from reactive response to proactive, knowledge-based interventions embedded within formal education systems (pearson & pelling, 2015). this framework aligns with the undrr’s broader advocacy to integrate drrm into multiple sustainable development goals (sdgs), notably sdg 1 (no poverty), sdg 11 (sustainable cities and communities), and sdg 13 (climate action), situating education at the intersection of risk reduction, equity, and sustainable development (yamazaki-honda, 2022). recent scholarship has further highlighted the synergy between climate change adaptation and drrm education, stressing the importance of intersectoral partnerships and the role of schools in promoting behavioral change (valente et al., 2022; wen et al., 2023). in the philippines, drrm in education has been instituted through republic act 10121, mandating both public and private institutions to mainstream drrm in their curriculum, planning, and operations. however, research suggests that implementation remains inconsistent across schools. according to (manalo and manalo, 2020), obstacles such as insufficient teacher training, lack of localized instructional materials, and unequal resource distribution continue to hinder effective drrm integration, particularly in the senior high school (shs) curriculum. in response, several initiatives have introduced contextualized learning materials and innovative pedagogies. (loquillano et al., 2021) verified improvements in student disaster awareness following the use of localized modules, while (ng, 2022) advocated for inquiry-based, experiential learning approaches and enhanced teacher capacity to deliver drrm content effectively. schools play a dual role in drrm, not merely as transmitters of knowledge but also as active implementers of preparedness measures. activities such as risk mapping, simulation drills, and drrm-themed lessons contribute to institutional and community resilience. (arao-arao et al., 2023) emphasized that comprehensive, school-based drrm plans foster a culture of preparedness and strengthen stakeholder participation. similarly, (dipon, 2023) underlined the importance of school leadership in translating drrm policy into concrete and sustainable programs. yet, disparities persist. leal and zipagan (2024) observed significant variations in drrm implementation, particularly in remote and underserved areas. nadal (2024) proposed three essential pillars for effective drrm curriculum integration, co-curricular activities, and community engagement denoting the need for systemic support and multi-stakeholder coordination. a growing body of literature has also explored the link between school-based drrm programs and students’ disaster competence. disaster preparedness, viewed through the lens of competence, includes cognitive (knowledge), affective (awareness), and behavioral (readiness) domains. e-palli publishers highlighted the positive impact of extracurricular disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) programs on students’ readiness and resilience. garcia et al. (2023) emphasized that engaging students in hands-on simulations enhances their knowledge of disaster protocols but and strengthens their collaborative skills during emergencies. the study of (orillo & prudente, 2023), complemented their idea that community-based activities significantly enhance students’ overall disaster competence while promoting a sense of civic responsibility. likewise, (pregoner et al. 2020) found that students exposed to drrm content perceived themselves as more prepared and capable of responding during emergencies. theoretical contributions from kelman (2017) and swaris et al. (2024) support this evidence, advocating for a resiliencebased education framework that ties drrm to broader goals of climate adaptation and sustainability. at the school level, several studies point out the importance of localized, inclusive, and well-resourced implementation strategies. (cruz and ormilla, 2022) found that schools with high levels of drrm implementation often characterized by regular drills, updated contingency plans, and teacher training demonstrated better overall preparedness. however, they also identified disparities in access to resources and administrative support. (fale, 2022) noted that limited drrm training among teachers weakens institutional readiness, recommending its integration into teacher development programs. capacitybuilding through collaborative planning was similarly emphasized by (mella et al., 2021), who advocated for student-led hazard mapping and stronger community partnerships. addressing inclusivity, (alarte, 2024) noted that students with special needs are often excluded from preparedness measures, prompting the need for differentiated drrm strategies to ensure no learner is left behind. pa ge 90 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 baluran (2023) further identified administrative and logistical gaps in drrm implementation, proposing a holistic model “our school, our safe zone to engage stakeholders and institutionalize preparedness protocols. likewise, (aquino, polintan, and mones, 2020) argued for positioning drrm not just as compliance but as integral to long-term school sustainability. firmo jr. (2022) admitted that vague policy direction and fragmented integration between academic and drrm components continue to limit program effectiveness, particularly during emergencies. meanwhile, (abenoja et al., 2023) showed that higher drrm implementation levels correspond with greater hazard-readiness among school stakeholders, although systemic barriers such as limited funding and weak monitoring mechanisms remain challenges. collectively, the reviewed literature sustains that while the policy infrastructure for drrm in schools is well-established, its practical implementation varies significantly. the success of school-based drrm programs depends largely on teacher training, resource availability, inclusive practices, stakeholder engagement, and administrative leadership. remarkably, the literature reveals a consistent pattern: when drrm programs are effectively implemented, students demonstrate higher levels of disaster knowledge and readiness. premised on these findings and theoretical insights, this review moves on the hypothesis that effective implementation of school-based drrm programs promotes enhanced disaster preparedness competence among students, particularly in terms of their knowledge and readiness to respond to emergencies. materials and methods research design this study employed descriptive and correlational research designs to examine the relationship between the implementation of the disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) program and the disaster preparedness knowledge and readiness of senior high school students in public high schools within the sox region during the 2024–2025 school year. these designs facilitated the determination of links between variables in a natural setting without manipulating the environment, enhancing the ecological validity of the findings (noah, 2021). locale and population of the study the study was carried out across eight secondary schools in high-risk areas of sox region, including provinces and cities such as cotabato, sarangani, south cotabato, sultan kudarat, general santos, kidapawan, koronadal, and tacurong. the selected schools were validated by the mines and geosciences bureau (mgb) as disaster-prone due to recurring hazards like floods, earthquakes, and landslides. respondents included a total of 259 school administrators, drrm coordinators, and teachers, as well as 389 senior high school students who were directly involved in or affected by drrm program implementation. their participation provided multi-level understandings into school practices and student preparedness in disasterprone environments. sampling technique a combination of purposive and random sampling was used. schools were purposively chosen according to geographic risk and drrm engagement. total enumeration was applied to administrators and drrm coordinators due to their limited numbers and critical roles, while stratified random sampling was opted to select teachers and students, making sure representativeness. sample sizes were calculated using yamane’s formula and proportional allocation. research instruments to collect the needed data for the study, three research instruments were utilized: a survey questionnaire, a multiple-choice test (mcq), and a practical assessment tool. these instruments were developed to align with the study’s objectives, particularly in evaluating how the school drrm program is being implemented and how knowledgeable and prepared students are for disasters. all tools went through content validation and reliability testing to ensure accuracy and consistency. the first instrument was a survey questionnaire used to measure the extent of drrm program implementation in schools. it was grounded on deped’s drrms strategic plan (2020–2022) and prepared around seven key result areas (kras): risk-informed plans and policies, partnerships for resilience, drrm information system and research, resilience education, iec and advocacy, learning continuity and resilience, and monitoring and evaluation. responses were rated on a 5-point likert scale. experts reviewed the tool, and all items got a content validity index (cvi) higher than 0.83 threshold (yusoff, 2029). a cronbach’s alpha of 0.92 indicated excellent reliability. the second instrument was a 50-item multiple-choice questionnaire (mcq) that tested students’ knowledge of disaster preparedness. it was based on the shs competencies in disaster readiness and risk reduction course. topics included hazard types and risks, risk assessment, preparedness strategies, early warning systems, and emergency plans and protocols. expert validation gave the test a scaled cvi of 0.88, and the kr-21 reliability coefficient was 0.78, showing acceptable internal consistency. the third instrument was a practical assessment tool designed to evaluate students’ actual readiness through simulated activities. the tasks under assessment included evacuation procedures, basic first aid and life support, crisis communication, resource coordination, and participation in preparedness drills. each activity was rated on a 5-point scale based on specific performance indicators. the tool was also validated by six drrm pa ge 91 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 and test experts, and reliability was confirmed through cronbach’s alpha, showing it was suitable for performance assessment. statistical treatment descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were used to describe the levels of drrm implementation, students’ preparedness knowledge, and readiness. besides, inferential statistics like oneway anova and pearson’s correlation analysis, were applied to test the difference of drrm implementation across divisions, and the relationship between drrm implementation and student outcomes, respectively. all hypothesis were tested at .05 alpha level. ethical considerations this study was guided by stringent ethical standards to warrant the safeguard of respondents and the veracity of the research. informed consent was secured from all participants to include school administrators, drrm coordinators, teachers, and students, with additional parental consent required for involved minors. participants were fully informed of the study’s purpose, procedures, and their voluntary involvement, including the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. confidentiality and anonymity were strictly observed. personal identifiers were removed, and data was presented in aggregate form. all physical and digital records were securely stored following institutional data management protocols. participants benefited from the process through better awareness of drrm issues, access to research findings, and the opportunity to help notify future practices and policies. their contributions were respectfully acknowledged in presentations and reports. the principle of non-maleficence was upheld, ensuring no harm whether physical, emotional, or psychological came to any participant. all procedures conformed to ethical guidelines of the university, deped, and relevant national and international standards for human subject research, ensuring academic integrity and respect for respondent rights throughout the study. results and discussions table 1 presents the extent of implementation of the school disaster risk reduction management (drrm) program in the sox region. table 1: implementation of school drrm program (n=259) key result areas means sd 1. risk-informed plans, policies, and standards 4.33 0.51 2. partnership in strengthening resilience 4.34 0.52 3. drrm information system (drrmis) and research 4.17 0.54 4. resilience education 4.19 0.56 5. information, education, communication (iec) and advocacy for resilience 4.03 0.65 6. learning continuity and resilience interventions 4.23 0.52 7. monitoring and evaluation on drrms comprehensive school safety initiatives 4.24 0.54 overall mean 4.22 0.47 legend: 1.00-1.79 (very low), 1.80-2.59 (low), 2.60-3.39 (moderate), 3.40-4.19 (high), 4.20-5.00 (very high) as indicated, the overall extent of disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) program implementation across all key result areas (kras) is very high (m= 4.22, sd=.47). this signifies that public schools in the region have largely embraced the mandates of the department of education (deped) in institutionalizing drrm structures and practices within the educational system. the strong implementation is particularly notable in areas such as partnership in strengthening resilience (m=4.34), risk-informed plans, policies, and standards (m=4.33), monitoring and evaluation on drrms comprehensive school safety initiatives (m=4.24), and learning continuity and resilience interventions (m=4.23), all of which obtained “very high” qualitative descriptions. a thorough examination at these results shows the success of inter-agency collaboration and community partnerships in promoting resilience. epe (2023) emphasized the importance of local government units and school partnerships in building child-centered disaster resilience. the high rating for partnership in strengthening resilience aligns with this finding, indicating that schools in the region are effectively engaging stakeholders such as lgus, ngos, and parent associations in drrm planning and execution. moreover, the implementation of risk-informed plans, policies, and standards being rated very high demonstrates the schools’ proactive orientation toward disaster preparedness. this supports the assertion of de la cruz (2023) that institutionalizing policies and integrating risk reduction in school development plans is critical in minimizing vulnerabilities. the high scores also reflect the alignment of schools’ efforts with the deped’s comprehensive school safety (css) framework and the global priorities set forth in the sendai framework and the sustainable development goals (sdgs), as discussed by navarro (2020). in addition, the implementation of monitoring and evaluation (m=4.24) and learning continuity and resilience interventions (m=4.23) as very high implies that schools are not only prepared for disasters but pa ge 92 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 are also continuously assessing and improving their strategies. according to firmo (2022), regular evaluation mechanisms ensure that drrm practices are responsive to emerging hazards and the evolving needs of learners. such emphasis on sustainability and improvement is a positive indicator of adaptive school systems. however, while resilience education (m=4.19), drrm information system and research (m=4.17), and information, education, communication (iec) and advocacy (m=4.03) were also rated high, they did not reach the “very high” threshold. this slight gap suggests areas for enhancement. for example, alarte (2024) highlighted that while most schools are structurally compliant with drrm frameworks, gaps remain in the integration of drrm concepts into the curriculum and the use of technology-driven information systems. similarly, javier and diliman (2019) underscored the need for disaster literacy among students, especially those in vulnerable communities, noting that education remains the most powerful tool for behavioral change and risk awareness. furthermore, cruz and ormilla (2022) found that drrm implementation in philippine schools, though generally high, is impeded by a lack of sustained capacitybuilding efforts, limited access to drrm materials, and fragmented advocacy initiatives. these constraints may explain the relatively lower scores in research, advocacy, and education-related kras. the consistently high ratings across most drrm implementation areas in sox region affirm that schools are transitioning from reactive disaster response to proactive resilience-building. however, the relatively lower ratings in education, research, and advocacy dimensions suggest a need for rebalancing efforts toward deeper curricular integration, systemic innovation, and behavioral transformation. the findings imply that for drrm efforts to be truly transformative and sustainable, education must be leveraged not only as a medium for awareness but as a core strategy for behavioral change and risk-conscious citizenship. this calls for the professional development of teachers as drrm educators, the utilization of technology for real-time data and predictive analytics, and the expansion of localized and research-driven iec materials tailored to the cultural and geographical contexts of learners. moreover, to further concretize the gains of drrm implementation, schools must evolve into knowledge hubs for disaster resilience, where students are empowered not merely as passive recipients of safety information, but as active change agents within their communities. as canlas and karpudewan (2023) argued, embedding disaster literacy in science and social studies curricula enhances not only cognitive competencies but also students’ sense of civic responsibility and environmental stewardship. finally, policy reforms that encourage schools to document, publish, and share best practices in drrm implementation may contribute to a more equitable and standardized approach across the region. the integration of drrm-related performance indicators into school evaluation tools may also incentivize long-term commitment among school leaders and stakeholders. as presented in table 2, a one-way anova was undertaken to test whether there are statistically significant differences in disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) mean scores among eight school divisions in sox. the analysis yields a significant result, f(7, 66.7) = 11.0, p < .001, indicative that drrm implementation varies across the divisions. tukey’s post hoc comparisons indicates three general performance levels. cotabato division (m = 4.50ᵃ) has the highest mean score and is significantly higher than general santos city, tacurong city, and kidapawan, placing it as the top-performing division. this finding may suggest aggressive adoption of drrm in cotabato, consistent with cruz and ormilla’s (2022) observation that successful implementation depends on firm adherence to deped order no. 21, s. 2015 and active stakeholder engagement. koronadal (m = 4.35ᵃ) and south cotabato (m = 4.30ᵃ) were statistically similar to cotabato and appear to have similarly orderly drrrm structures and practices in place. sarangani (m = 4.25ᵇ) and sultan kudarat (m = 4.20ᵇ) followed, representing a middle-performing tier. although they did not significantly differ from the top group in some comparisons, they fell short of reaching table 2: implementation of school drrm program (n=259) divisions n mean sd f p tacurong city 13 4.64a 0.355 11.0 <.001 kidapawan city 18 4.58ab 0.556 cotabato 72 4.37ab 0.379 sultan kudarat 49 4.25b 0.409 sarangani 18 4.08bc 0.462 general santos city 52 4.01c 0.392 south cotabato 16 3.96c 0.591 koronadal city 21 3.88c 0.313 notes: means sharing the same superscript letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 level according to tukey’s hsd test. pa ge 93 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 why some divisions fall slightly behind despite structural readiness. general santos city (m = 4.10ᶜ), tacurong city (m = 4.00ᶜ), and kidapawan (m = 3.90ᶜ) were identified as the lowest-performing divisions. these divisions shared common statistical subscripts, implying no significant difference among them, but they were consistently lower compared to cotabato and koronadal. this aligns with the findings of tabilon-tizon and comighud (2020), who reported disparities in drrrm capabilities among public schools due to inconsistent training, limited participation in drills, and underdeveloped school-based drrrm plans. de la cruz (2022) cited that effective drrrm implementation requires not only structural preparedness but also capability-building activities and active community involvement, which may be lacking in lowerperforming divisions. moreover, epe (2023) pointed out that child-led school watching programs and interagency coordination are often absent in schools with low drrrm scores, thereby weakening their preparedness profile. the variation in drrrm implementation observed in this study signifies the need for a differentiated approach to capacity development. high-performing divisions may serve as benchmarks for best practices, while those lagging should be provided with targeted technical assistance, sufficient funding, and policy support. as alarte (2024) emphasized, inclusive and localized drrrm strategies, rooted in school culture and led by empowered sdrrm teams, are key to improving outcomes at the grassroots level. concisely, the results reveal a meaningful gap in drrrm implementation across school divisions. the top-tier divisions like cotabato, koronadal, and south cotabato, demonstrate strong performance, while divisions like gsc, tacurong, and kidapawan would benefit from priority-focused initiatives to strengthen their drrrm systems and align with deped’s strategic vision for safe and resilient schools. in table 3, the findings on high school students’ disaster preparedness knowledge in the sox region reveal a mixed but generally moderate level of understanding and readiness, based on the content standards specified in the senior high school disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) curriculum. the general mean percentage score of (mps) is on average level (m=58, sd=14.70). such index of students’ knowledge about disaster preparedness implies that while drrm education has been integrated into the k–12 curriculum, its effectiveness remains uneven across different themes or domains. the highest mps is in the domain “understanding hazard types and risks” (m = 81, sd = 14.60), rated as “moving towards mastery.” this signifies that the basic knowledge regarding types of natural and man-made hazards and their associated risks is relatively well understood. this outcome aligns with the findings of mamon, suba, and son (2017), who reported that students generally exhibit a good grasp of disaster types, likely due to exposure to recent catastrophic events and growing public awareness. furthermore, the filipino context—being one of the most disaster-prone countries globally—inevitably conditions youth to be familiar with such hazards (javier & diliman, 2019). however, other course contents such as “disaster risk assessment” (m = 57), “prepared strategies and mitigation measures” (m = 58), “early warning systems” (m = 64), and “emergency plans and protocols” (m = 54) all fall under the “average” category. these scores indicate significant gaps in students’ applied and procedural knowledge, particularly in risk assessment and operational planning. this finding echoes those of lavilles and hordista (2024), who stressed that while drrm is taught, the transfer of knowledge into actionable understanding mainly in strategic planning, is still limited. manalo and manalo (2020) also noted that despite the legal mandate under republic act 10121 to institutionalize drrm education, the actual implementation is often superficial and lacks integration in critical thinking and decisionmaking exercises. the variability in students’ performance, indicated by relatively high standard deviations (ranging from 18.70 to 23.20), also implies inconsistencies in the delivery and reception of drrm content across schools in the region. these disparities may be attributed to factors such as the availability of qualified drrm teachers, the use of localized materials, and institutional support (cruz table 3: high school students’ disaster preparedness knowledge in sox region (n=389) contents mps sd 1. understanding hazard types and risks 81 14.60 2. disaster risk assessment 57 23.20 3. prepared strategies and mitigation measures 58 18.80 4. early warning systems 64 18.70 5. emergency plans and protocols 54 19.60 overall mean 58 14.70 legend: 96%-100% (mastered), 86%-95% (closely approximating mastery), (66%-85%), moving towards mastery, 35%-65% (average), 15%-34% (low), 5%-14% (very low), 0-4% (absolutely no mastery) pa ge 94 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 & ormilla, 2022; reyes, 2019). fale (2022) adds that the absence of a uniform standard in implementing drrm lessons contributes to an uneven level of resiliency and preparedness among students. furthermore, the results suggest the need to move afar theoretical instruction towards more experiential, competency-based disaster education. as baluran (2023) disputes, the mere presence of drrm modules does not suffice unless these are coupled with drills, simulations, and reflective activities that engage students in real-world applications. dollentas and gamba (n.d.) support this by pointing out that the average performance of drrm coordinators themselves affects the overall effectiveness of school preparedness programs. the knowledge gap in domains such as emergency planning and protocols is especially critical, as this component directly affects response during actual disaster events. alarte (2024) emphasized that inclusive, participatory drrm education programs are more successful when students understand the procedural steps needed during emergencies. this highlights the necessity for integrating drrm into both curricular and extracurricular activities, promoting student-led initiatives, and leveraging community-based disaster learning approaches. overall, as some progress is evident in students’ conceptual understanding of hazards, the relatively lower scores in application-driven areas reveal a systemic issue in the translation of drrm policies into effective pedagogical practice. the results affirm the call for strengthened drrm education through enhanced teacher training, curriculum contextualization, and school-wide implementation that goes beyond compliance to truly empower learners with life-saving competencies. these findings collectively point out that actual implementation at the school level is uneven and in need of systemic support despite the existence of a legal mandate for drrm education. educational leaders and policymakers must invest in sustained teacher capacitybuilding, contextualized learning resources, and inclusive program designs. the evidence also suggests that integrating drrm across curricular and extracurricular programs, combined with child-centered approaches and local community engagement, can foster a culture of safety and resilience among learners. moreover, consistent monitoring and evaluation of drrm implementation across regions could help bridge existing disparities and ensure that all students, regardless of their context, are adequately prepared for disaster risks. table 4: students’ disaster readiness in sox region (n=389) competencies mean sd 1. practical application of evacuation procedure 4.14 0.83 2. first aid and basic life support 3.96 1.16 3. crisis communication skills 4.25 0.79 4. resource management and coordination 4.29 0.76 5. participation in preparedness drills 4.48 0.68 overall mean 4.22 0.64 legend: 1.00-1.79 (very low), 1.80-2.59 (low), 2.60-3.39 (moderate), 3.40-4.19 (satisfactory), 4.20-5.00 (very satisfactory) as shown in table 4, the level of disaster readiness among high school students tested through practical demonstration of common competencies is very satisfactory (m = 4.22, sd = 0.64). this virtually means that students possess commendable competencies in preparing for and responding to disaster situations. this further indicates the ongoing integration of disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) skills in basic education, as defined in deped order no. 21, s. 2015, which obliges the institutionalization of drrm education in public schools. this finding is consistent with cruz and ormilla (2022), who emphasized that schools serve as critical venues for nurturing the life skills essential to disaster preparedness and resilience. in terms of specific competencies, participation in preparedness drills appeared with the highest rating of very satisfactory (m = 4.48, sd = 0.68). clearly, students are highly engaged in simulation exercises and schoolinitiated disaster preparedness activities. these drills help internalize procedures and instill automatic response behaviors during real emergencies. tanaka (2005) asserted that habitual participation in drills significantly enhances behavioral readiness, while tabilon-tizon and comighud (2020) stressed the importance of practical exposure in building student capabilities, arguing that knowledge and skills gained during drills are more impactful than policy alone. meanwhile, resource management and coordination was also rated very satisfactory (m = 4.29, sd = 0.76), demonstrating that students understand how to organize and mobilize essential resources in times of disaster. this is consistent with the principles of community-based disaster risk reduction and management (drrm), which regard learners as active participants rather than passive recipients of disaster education. in this context, dipon (2023) discloses the prominence of equipping students with resource management competencies as a key component of strategic drrm planning in the school setting. following this, crisis communication skills also got a very satisfactory rating (m = 4.25, sd = 0.79). this denotes that students can relay accurate information pa ge 95 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 and remain composed in crisis situations—skills that are essential in reducing confusion and coordinating responses. anchored in bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, these behaviors can be linked to effective role modeling and structured communication training in schools. similarly, javier and diliman (2019) cited that child-centered drrm initiatives enable learners with the confidence and accuracy necessary to convey during emergencies. on the other hand, practical application of evacuation procedures received a slightly lower but still very satisfactory rating (m = 4.14, sd = 0.83). the relatively high standard deviation suggests that while many students understand evacuation protocols in school, application at home or in the community remains inconsistent. manalo and manalo (2020) noted that implementation gaps in drrm are often rooted in limited collaboration between home and school. reinforcing this concern, alarte (2024) argued that drrm efforts must transcend institutional boundaries and engage households to ensure full preparedness. however, the domain of first aid and basic life support was rated only satisfactory (m = 3.96, sd = 1.16), the lowest among the five. this reflects inadequate handson training in administering life-saving procedures, as supported by the wide variation in student responses. loquillano et al. (2021) highlighted the importance of contextualized drrm modules that offer practical, step-by-step training in basic life support. moreover, baluran (2023) concluded that inconsistencies in funding and trainer availability contribute to disparities in the implementation of this crucial component. overall, these findings convey important implications. while students are palpably developing disaster-related competencies within the school setting, the lower score in first aid signals a pressing need for enhanced capacitybuilding initiatives. schools must partner with local health units, ngos, or red cross chapters to provide structured training programs that provide students with necessary emergency response skills. furthermore, drrm must become a whole-community effort, integrating households and local stakeholders in order to strengthen school-based learning and foster a culture of readiness. as epe (2023) pointed out, enabling children through inclusive, sustained, and well-supported drrm education is key to building resilient communities. table 5: correlation analysis between the drrm program implementation and the hs students’ disaster preparedness knowledge key result areas (kras) disaster preparedness knowledge spearman's rho p-value 1. risk-informed plans, policies, 2. and standards -0.26 0.528 3. partnerships for strengthening resilience -0.29 0.501 4. drrm information system and (drrmis) -0.48 0.230 5. resilience education -0.19 0.665 6. information, education, communication (iec) and advocacy for resilience -0.21 0.619 7. learning continuity and resilience interventions -0.62 0.115 8. monitoring and evaluation on drrms comprehensive school safety initiative -0.33 0.428 overall drrm program -0.38 0.360 notes: df=6; p<.05, significant table 5 presents the results of the spearman’s rho correlation analysis performed to test the relationship between the implementation of the disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) program measured through its key result areas (kras), and high school students’ knowledge on disaster preparedness. the general results divulged a weak and statistically nonsignificant negative correlation amid drrm program implementation and students’ disaster preparedness knowledge (ρ = -0.38, p = 0.360). this means that, even if there is a tendency for higher drrm program implementation to be associated with slightly lower preparedness knowledge, such a relationship is not strong enough to be deemed statistically meaningful. transitioning to the specific key result areas, all seven kras also displayed negative but non-significant correlations with disaster preparedness knowledge. the strongest negative association was observed in the implementation of learning continuity and resilience interventions (ρ = -0.62, p = 0.115), followed by the drrm information system (ρ = -0.48, p = 0.230). however, these associations, though moderately strong in direction, failed to reach significance at the 0.05 level, suggesting variability and inconsistencies in the extent to which these interventions influence or correspond to students’ knowledge levels. similar patterns are noted in the other kras, including partnerships for strengthening resilience (ρ = -0.29, p = 0.501), monitoring and pa ge 96 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 evaluation on drrms comprehensive school safety initiative (ρ = -0.33, p = 0.428), and resilience education (ρ = -0.19, p = 0.665), all of which show weak inverse associations that are not statistically significant. to support these findings, galvizo (2022) stressed that drrm integration into the school curriculum customarily needs consistent follow-through, particularly in ensuring comprehension and retention among students. besides, panes et al. (2020) stated that mere presence of drrm policies and partnerships does not result into enhanced disaster knowledge except these efforts are strategically communicated and adopted by learners. arcegono et al. (2024) likewise disputed that while student-led drrm activities and budgetary provisions improve institutional readiness, their direct influence on individual students’ knowledge remains reliant on pedagogical engagement and continuous instructional strategies. moreover, lavilles and hordista (2024) cited that while schools in region xii showed relatively high levels of drrm program implementation, this did not guarantee intensified awareness or preparedness among students unless there was connection between program delivery and students’ lived experiences and classroom realities. this confirms the present finding that implementation alone does not amount to knowledge acquisition. additionally, cruz and ormilla (2022) revealed that schools sometimes adopt a compliance-based approach to drrm, focusing more on documentation rather than student-centered outcomes—possibly explaining the disconnection observed between program implementation and student learning outcomes. given these explanations, it becomes apparent that the quality and delivery of drrm education, rather than the quantity of activities or formal implementation, pointedly influence student preparedness. it is also worth considering that some students may not fully grasp the content of drrm interventions due to lack of contextualization, especially when these are administered as one-time seminars or activities with minimal integration into core curricular areas. rico (2022) stressed the importance of embedded and participatory drrm instruction within regular school activities, which enhances students’ readiness through experiential learning. the non-significant negative correlations across all key result areas suggest a critical disconnect between program undertaking and student learning outcomes in disaster preparedness. this denotes that the current implementation model of the drrm program may be administrative or compliance-driven rather than studentcentered. if not acted upon, this gap may hinder the very objective of the drrm initiative, which is to empower learners with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary to respond effectively during disasters. thus, there is an urgent need to reassess the pedagogical strategies and learner engagement mechanisms embedded in drrm program delivery. schools should integrate drrm education directly into classroom instruction through participatory, locally relevant, and context-specific approaches. such integration is important to boost students’ long-term knowledge retention and nurture practical preparedness behaviors. table 6: correlation analysis between the drrm program implementation and the high school students’ disaster readiness key result areas (kras) disaster readiness spearman's rho p-value 1. risk-informed plans, policies, and standards 0.30 0.471 2. partnerships for strengthening resilience 0.33 0.428 3. drrm information system and (drrmis) 0.14 0.734 4. resilience education 0.17 0.703 5. information, education, communication (iec) and advocacy for resilience 0.29 0.501 6. learning continuity and resilience interventions 0.02 0.977 7. monitoring and evaluation on drrms comprehensive school safety initiative 0.31 0.462 overall drrm program 0.19 0.665 notes: df=6; p<.05, significant the correlation analysis presented in table 5 reveals a weak and statistically non-significant relationship between the implementation of the disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) program and high school students’ disaster readiness. among the seven key result areas (kras) evaluated, the coefficients of spearman’s rho range from as low as 0.02 to as high as 0.33, with all p-values exceeding the 0.05 level of significance. the strongest correlation is observed between “partnerships for strengthening resilience” and disaster readiness (ρ = 0.33, p = 0.428), followed closely by “monitoring and evaluation on drrms comprehensive school safety initiative” (ρ = 0.31, p = 0.462) and “risk-informed plans, policies, and standards” (ρ = 0.30, p = 0.471). however, these values still denote weak relationships and lack statistical significance, suggesting that variations pa ge 97 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 88-99, 2025 in drrm program implementation across these kras do not meaningfully correspond with students’ levels of disaster readiness in the sample studied. the relatively low correlation values and insignificant p-values may imply several possibilities. one key insight is that while the drrm program is being implemented, it may not be translating into tangible increases in students’ actual preparedness, possibly due to issues in delivery, integration, or contextual relevance. for example, cruz and ormilla (2022) emphasized that while schools do conduct student-led disaster preparedness activities, these are often isolated efforts that lack systematic integration with curricular content or broader school safety frameworks. similarly, the work of abenoja et al. (2023) revealed that although schools may show a high level of drrm implementation, there is still a disconnect in equipping students with practical knowledge and response capabilities during disasters. another influencing factor may be the limited attention on students’ experiential engagement and ownership of drrm processes. tabilon-tizon and comighud (2020) found that students’ preparedness improves significantly when they are exposed to hands-on drills and localized, context-specific training, rather than passive forms of instruction. however, in many cases, drrm activities tend to be administrative in nature or are reduced to mere compliance, with limited involvement from students as active stakeholders. this may explain the negligible correlation between components like “learning continuity and resilience interventions” and disaster readiness (ρ = 0.02, p = 0.977). moreover, lavilles and hordista (2024) affirmed that the success of drrm programs in building resilience relies on how intensely the concepts, values, and practical skills of disaster preparedness are embedded in the school culture and daily practices. if drrm efforts remain superficial or are only occasionally implemented without sustained engagement, their impression on student readiness is expected to remain minimal. the modest correlation values for “resilience education” (ρ = 0.17, p = 0.703) and “information, education, communication (iec) and advocacy for resilience” (ρ = 0.29, p = 0.501) further confirm that exposure alone does not suffice; effectiveness counts on heavily on the quality, relevance, and student-centeredness of the interventions. from a systems perspective, galvizo (2022) asserted that partnerships and community linkages can enhance the delivery and contextualization of drrm initiatives. however, if such partnerships are not localized or tailored to the students’ environment, their relevance diminishes. this could explain why even the relatively higher correlations for partnership-related kras did not bear significance. besides, alarte (2024) emphasized the significance of inclusive and differentiated drrm education, mostly in multicultural and geographically diverse regions of the philippines. when implementation fails to consider such variability, its effect on readiness is weakened. conclusion this study explored the implementation of the disaster risk reduction and management (drrm) program in public high schools across the sox region and its association with students’ disaster preparedness knowledge and readiness. it was revealed that though the drrm program is being implemented at a very high level, there are noted gaps across divisions, indicating uneven prioritization or resource allocation. remarkably, despite the high level of program execution, students’ knowledge on disaster preparedness stays at an average level, while their readiness, particularly in practical aspects, is dependably more satisfactory. these patterns denote a vital divergence between policy execution and educational impact. the absence of a significant relationship between program implementation and student preparedness outcomes implies a fundamental issue: the weight on procedural compliance and structural activities may not adequately address the instructional needs required to develop disaster competence. this points to the importance of redirecting from implementation-focused strategies to learner-centered approaches that effectively improve both cognitive and behavioral dimensions of preparedness. while the study offers valuable insight into the current state of drrm education, it is limited by its crosssectional design and dependence on apparent measures of program implementation and student competence. future research may benefit from longitudinal tracing and in-depth qualitative assessments to disclose the complex factors affecting the effectiveness of drrm education. integrating disaster preparedness into the formal curriculum using more interactive and contextual learning approaches might improve both student engagement and retention of critical knowledge and skills. bolstering the educational core of the drrm program could ultimately make sure that students are not just ready to respond but are also deeply informed and capable of making sound decisions in times of crisis. references abenoja, j. t., oducado, r. m. f., & ocampo, m. r. 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(2022b). global to local disaster risk reduction: an education perspective. unesco working paper series on global citizenship education, 12, 1–25. pa ge 1 pa ge 73 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) quantifying extreme rainfall events and hydrologic modeling for flood-resilient bridge design in kano, nigeria oluwatobi oluwaseun aiyelokun1*, adewoye alade olanipekun2, oluwole akinyele agbede1, quadri opeyemi saka3, damilare akintunde ojewole3 volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4518 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: february 15, 2025 accepted: march 17, 2025 published: june 25, 2025 climate change and some of its impacts (irregular rainfall and flooding) negatively affect hydraulic structures, especially in regions at risk of extreme weather conditions. thus, it is critical to incorporate robust weather data in the design of hydraulic structures such as bridges. therefore, this study evaluated extreme rainfall events and their implications for hydrologic and hydraulic modeling at a proposed bridge site in kano, nigeria. analysis of 2001–2019 rainfall data revealed annual maximum rainfall ranging from 44.43 mm to 114.89 mm, with a mean of 82.67 mm and a standard deviation of 19.22 mm, exhibiting a positively skewed distribution. frequency analysis using hazen plotting positions estimated the largest observed storm (114.90 mm) to have a 19-year return period, with projected rainfall intensities reaching 135.45 mm, 174.83 mm and 212.67 mm for 50, 100 and 500-year return periods, respectively. goodness-of-fit (gof) tests identified the log-normal distribution as the best fit for estimating design storms. intensity-duration-frequency (idf) analysis disaggregated 24-hour rainfall into durations as short as 10 minutes, yielding peak intensities of 67.89 mm/hr for 2-year events and 221.34 mm/hr for 1000-year events. hydrologic modeling incorporating catchment characteristics such as curve numbers, slopes, and basin areas simulated peak discharges of 78.34 m³/s, 142.67 m³/s and 186.45 m³/s for 2-year, 50-year and 100-year events, respectively at the proposed bridge location. the findings underscore the importance of robust rainfall modeling and hydrologic analysis in designing flood-resilient infrastructure, especially in regions susceptible to extreme weather events. keywords bridge design, climate change, hydrologic modeling, rainfall 1 department of civil engineering, university of ibadan, nigeria 2 department of civil and environmental engineering, bells university of technology, ota, nigeria 3 department of mechanical engineering, bells university of technology, ota, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: aiyelokuntobi@gmail.com introduction the scientific study of the ongoing movement, control, and distribution of water on earth is known as engineering hydrology. the design, building, and upkeep of engineering structures (open or closed channels) necessary for properly distributing treating, retaining and transporting water or other fluids is known as hydraulics engineering (nwaogozie & ekwueme, 2017). when it rains, the nearby trees’ stems and leaves typically catch the first drops of water that fall. this phenomenon is frequently referred to as interception storage. but as the downpour persists, the water that reaches the land starts to seep into the soil, until the rainfall volume surpasses the soil’s ability to absorb it (akpan & okoro, 2013). as a result, ditches, surface puddles, and other existing surface depressions are filled (depression storage), eventually resulting in surface runoff (oladejo, 2014). sule & ige (2016) claimed that the structure and the soil moisture content (dependent on the previous dry or rainfall season) greatly determine the infiltration capacity of the soil. moreover, a dry soil has a large initial infiltration capacity, but as the rainfall keeps on, the capacity reduces continuously until it achieves the final infiltration rate. therefore, surface runoff generation will keep on if the rainfall intensity surpasses the soil’s infiltration capacity and will similarly end right away the rainfall intensity falls below the infiltration rate. studies have verified that surface runoff generation could become a major environmental issue particularly in communities where drainages, culverts, bridges and other water holding structures which should channel the runoff generated into surface water bodies have not been sufficiently provided (obot et al., 2010; antigha & ogarekpe, 2013). according to oladejo & olanipekun (2018) asserted that the pools of water created become breeding grounds for disease vectors when ditches and surface puddles are filled up following rainfall without a sufficient channel through which the water will be transported, so putting the residents of such communities effectively at risk of waterborne diseases. furthermore, such pools of water begin to create bad odour as a result of facultative bacteria feeding on the water’s limited dissolved oxygen, thereby decreasing the community’s standard of life (olanipekun & idusuyi, 2023). studies have revealed that these conditions are the result of inadequate environmental and settlement planning, which is widespread impoverished and developing countries such as nigeria. residents of such communities endure multiple cases of waterborne infections each year, compared with developed countries with superior environmental planning practices norms (fadipe et al., 2020; world health organization, 2022). thus third-world countries must address this environmental anomaly by investing enough resources in the design, construction, and maintenance of hydrological and hydraulic structures for water channelization. pa ge 74 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 however, according to ahmed et al. (2021), the design of hydraulic structures such as drainages, culverts, and bridges necessitates a complete study of available rainfall data using a valid statistical method, which highly trained technical professionals, carry out. this entails using appropriate stochastic methods to determine rainfall intensity (or depth), which is an important consideration when designing hydraulic structures. hydrologic assessments give information on flood magnitudes and frequency, allowing for safe and cost-effective hydraulic structure design. an efficient and successful method for estimating design flood is flood frequency analysis (rasel & islam, 2015). the method allows the user to estimate the probability that a certain hydrological event will occur by fitting a theoretical probability distribution to one that is empirically obtained from recorded data. furthermore, also mentioned by adewale & isaac (2017) are intensity-frequency (idf) curves that define the relationship between rainfall intensity, duration, and return period or its inverse, likelihood of exceedance. consequently, the design of hydrologic, hydraulic, and water resource systems makes regular use of idf curves, often produced from frequency analysis of rainfall observations. given this, this work calculated different design storm estimates and the associated discharges for five bridge crossings in kano state of nigeria. this was considered for varied durations and return periods using the best available probability distribution model and design flood estimation process. the study developed idf curves and design peak discharge at 100-year return periods to simplify the hydraulic analysis of the proposed bridge crossing. this was accomplished through the study’s objectives, which included designating catchment regions for bridge crossings and outlets, developing the idf core of the project area, and computing the 100-year design flood for the planned bridges in kano state, nigeria. materials and methods study area and hydrologic modeling this study was conducted in kano, a city in nigeria’s northwest. according to isah et al. (2020), the city resides in the latitude 12°00’00.00”n and longitude 8º51’40.00”e. it is also found between latitude 10°30’n and 13°n and longitude 7°40’e and 10°35’e. kano is adjacent to the sahara desert, giving it dry and hot weather. however, the city sees both the dry and rainy seasons every year. the dry season lasts from october to april, while the rainy season lasts from may to september. like other northern cities, kano has experienced severe flooding in the past, and it is considerably more vulnerable now due to climate change and the lack of flood-resistant construction in the majority of the city’s hydraulic systems. the city contains scrub vegetation in the north and woodland savanna in the south. the kano-chalawa-hadejia river system provides drainage for kano. as a result, the following methods were used for hydrological and hydraulic simulation using design peak flood computation for bridge design in kano state, nigeria: extreme rainfall computation, probability distribution, goodness 25 of fit statistics and criteria, idf curve generation, and hydrologic simulations. the hydrologic modeling and simulation of peak floods projected for the planned bridge crossings were also carried out using the united states army corps of engineers, hydrologic engineering centre hydrologic modeling system (hec-hms) version 4.11. extreme rainfall computation using the integrated multi-satellite retrievals for gpm (imerg), (https://gpm.nasa.gov/data/imerg), the world weather for water data service (w3s) produced 19 years of daily rainfall data from 2001 to 2019. the gathered data were used to create a set of one-day severe showers. moreover, concise information about the produced series was given via statistical summaries comprising mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis. hazen’s plotting position computed the probability that the ranked maxima would be reached or exceeded for any return interval; the produced 1-day extremes were arranged in decreasing order of magnitude and shown in equation 1: tr=(m-0.5)/n ....(1) where; tr is the return period, m is the order or rank and n is the number of years of study probability distributions five probability distributions; weibull, gamma, gumbel, log-normal, and normal—were chosen based on first analysis of the 1-day extreme rainfall data. the probability density functions (pdf) of weibull, gamma, gumbel, log-normal, and normal distributions respectively are represented by equations 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. ƒ(x; α, β) = (β/α) (α/x)β+1 e-(α/x)β), -∞ < x < ∞, α > 0 ....(2) ƒ(x, α, β) = (1/(αβ гβ)) xβ-1 e-(x/α) ), x, α, β > 0 ....(3) f(x; α, β) = (e-(x-β)/α) e-e(-(x-β)/α)))/α, -∞<x<∞,α>0 ....(4) ....(5) ....(6) where; the mean and standard deviation of the series of the annual extreme rainfall are represented by µy and σy, the scale and location parameters are shown by α and β respectively; the mean and standard deviation of the logtransformed series of annual extreme rainfall is shown by µy and σy. furthermore, the distribution parameters were estimated in this work using the maximum likelihood method (mom). hassan et al. (2019) provided a description of the equations and theoretical vocabulary for parameter estimate employing mom of the selected distributions. pa ge 75 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 goodness of fit statistics and criteria along with gof criteria, akaike information criteria (aic) and bayesian information criteria (bic), kolmogorov-smirnov (ks) test (chowdhury et al., 1991), and cramer-von mises (cm) test (arnold and emerson, 2011) were used to evaluate the fit of the chosen probability distributions. anderson-darling (ad) test more often used for outlier detection, the ad test compares the cumulative distribution function of empirical and probability distributions. equation 7 gives the ad test (a2); a2 = n (1/n)∑n i=1 (2i 1)*(lnfe (qi) + (ln(1-fd (qi)) ....(7) where; the anderson–darling test statistic is a2; fe is the cumulative distribution function of the designated distribution; qi is the ordered observed data. kolmogorov–smirnov (ks) test equation 8 indicates the ks test, which is predicated on the highest vertical deviation between the cumulative distribution functions of the empirical and theoretical distributions. ks = max(f(qi) ((i-1)/n), (i/n) f(qi)) ....(8) where; f(qi) is the theoretical cumulative distribution of distribution being assessed. cramer-von mises (cm) test contrasting the first two gof statistics, the “cm test considers an observed hydrological time series in an increasing order” (langat et al., 2019). this is represented in equation 9 accordingly; w2 = ∑n i=1 (f(qi) (i 0.5)/n)2 + 1/12n ....(9) akaike information criterion regarding the established gof criteria, the akaike information criterion is extensively utilized for the selection of appropriate stochastic models, as delineated in equation 10; aic = n(logσ2 + 1) + 2p ....(10) where; σ2 and p presents the variance and the parameter count of the subset stochastic model. aic generally gives preference to models that minimize equation 10. bayesian information criterion (bic) bic is intricately connected to aic, as it is largely derived from the likelihood function and is expressed by equation 11 appropriately. -2 ∙ ln p(x | k) ≈ bic = -2 ∙ ln l + k ln(n) ....(11) where; l represents the maximum value of the likelihood function, p(x | k) denotes the probability or likelihood of parameters given the dataset, n signifies the sample size, k indicates the number of free parameters to be estimated, and x refers to the observed data. the extremely efficient ad test was used for final selection when various goodness-of-fit statistics or criteria supporting multiple distributions were considered (laio, 2004). the probability distribution with the lowest anderson-darling statistic and a cumulative distribution function closely resembling the actual distribution was selected. the adequacy of the distributions was additionally validated by a graphical or qualitative assessment method utilizing cdf plots. generation of idf curve rainfall intensity is the total amount of rainfall per time (rainfall depth). usually, it is expressed in millimeters per hour, or inches per hour. following the most suitable probability distribution for modelling the annual peak flood using the previous approaches, the disaggregated rainfall depth for lower rainfall durations longer than 24 hours was calculated using the empirical reduction formula supplied by the indian meteorological department (imd), as reported by laboya & nwachukwu (2022); pt = p24 (t/24)(1/3) ....(12) where; p24 is the daily rainfall depth (mm); pt is the required rainfall depth; t is the length of rainfall for which the rainfall depth is needed in (hr). rainfall was calculated for eight periods: five minutes, fifteen minutes, thirty minutes, sixty minutes, one hundred and twenty minutes, one hundred and eighty minutes, three hundred and sixty minutes, seven hundred and twenty minutes, and one thousand four hundred and forty minutes. subsequently, rainfall intensities were calculated for the calculated rainfall depths at specified periods using equation 13 as shown: i = r/t ....(13) where; the rainfall intensity (mm/hr), r; is the total rainfall (mm); t; is the rainfall duration (hr). hydrologic simulations the procedures adopted for the hydrologic design calculations are presented accordingly; hydrologic design the hydrological study aims to project the highest discharges that would pass across the bridge crossings. the study also took into account hydrology-related subjects including idf development and other factors influencing the rainfall-runoff correlation. catchment basins delineation the physiographical features of the upstream catchments were ascertained using the available satellite photos and elevation data in order to get all information concerning areas, elevations, slopes, and morphometric parameters, including information on main water course. thereafter, it was clear where the catchment area of the watercourses boarding or crossing the proposed bridge locations rested. moreover, the arcmap gis environment was used for the delineation of catchment areas; the five pa ge 76 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 catchments’ boundaries were generated by using the hec-geohms program feature of arcmap gis. developing the catchment models started with defining the watershed limits and stream network of the area of interest. usually referred to as terrain preprocessing, this method depends just on the input (digital elevation model) dem. terrain preprocessing was done using a 12.5-metre pixel size developed by the alaska satellite facility (asf), a component of the university of alaska fairbanks (alaska satellite facility, 2015), advanced land observing satellite/phased array type l-band synthetic aperture radar (alos/palsar) dem. the following grid files were derived from the dem by following the step by step functionality of hecgeohms. • fill sinks grid: empty sinks based on the input dem, grid generates a hydrologic-ally corrected dem which are either depression-less or otherwise. the program also automatically raises any pit cell’s elevation value to match the level of the surrounding terrain • flow direction grid: this grid came from the fill sinks grid. every grid cell in the grid processing defines the direction of the sharpest fall to a neighboring cell • flow accumulation grid: drawn from the flow direction grid, this grid specifies the number of upstream cells emptying into any specific grid cell • stream definition grid: this stage specified the stream network’s constituent cells depending on a threshold count of cells that drain into a particular cell. the criteria for the definition of streams in this study was one percent of ogun river basin’s overall area. the outcome was a grid in which lines of connected grid cells all satisfy the threshold requirements, therefore representing the stream network • stream segmentation grid: splitting the streams as stated in the stream definition grid at any junction produces this grid. • catchment grid: every stream segment identified by the stream segmentation grid corresponds to a demarcated watershed kept in a grid file three vector layers were produced depending on the results of these computational phases to finish the terrain preparation of the basin, comprising; • catchment polygons: this utility defines the limits of every sub-basin using the catchment grid as a vector layer. • drainage line: this converts the defined stream segments based on the stream segmentation grid into a vector stream layer. • adjoint catchment: here the upstream sub-basins are gathered at any stream confluence. although it is not hydrologic-ally relevant, this stage improves the computational efficiency in the subsequent ones. hec-hms methods and parameters using many computation methods, each with linked input parameters, the hec-hms model characterizes the hydrologic response process of a basin. graphical representation of the hec-hms processes, methods, and associated parameters implemented for the research area are shown in figure 1. this study however ignored base flow, canopy storage, surface depression storage and channel loss. figure 1: summary of processes, methods, and associated data requirements for hec-hms design storm conventional historical daily precipitation data for the project site was lacking, hence satellite-based data was chosen as described under extreme rainfall computation. thus, the modeling of floods in hec-hms took advantage of the precipitation input in form of design storms produced from the created idf curves. the frequency of a storm occurrence is the number of times pa ge 77 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 it passes during a given length of time. the frequency of storm events determines the probability of flooding and a low danger corresponds to a low frequency. design frequency depends on the hydraulic system installation and the areas of catchment that need to be drained. table 1 includes the recommended design storm frequency for the several hydraulic system components; since the hydrologic assessment was done for bridges, the study therefore used the design return period of one hundred years. table 1: design return period type of system design return period tertiary drainage network and secondary drainage system 5 years primary drainage system 10 years box culverts 25 years river, bridges and detention ponds 100 years definition of precipitation loss in a sub-basin the precipitation loss process aims to ascertain the proportion of precipitation that passes through the earth and the proportion that turns into runoff, thereby influencing river flow. this study made use of the soil conservation service (scs) curve number approach. the approach was chosen mostly because the necessary characteristics for un-gauged watersheds are readily available. developed by the soil conservation service, the approach finds precipitation surplus (us army corps of engineers, 2010) by combining soil cover, land use, and antecedent soil moisture. three input values; curve number, initial abstraction, and percentage imperative are needed by the technique. considered as a function of land use and soil type, the main parameter of the scs curve number method is the curve number (𝐶𝑁). the maximum precipitation the earth absorbs before runoff starts is defined by initial abstraction (𝐼𝑎). calculated as a fraction of the possible maximum retention (s), the initial abstraction is a function of the cn and represents the maximum total precipitation the ground can absorb. equations 14 and 15 thus indicate the correlations between curve number, possible maximum retention, and initial abstraction in si units; definition of overland flow in a sub-basin termed the transform method in hec-hms, the overland flow process illustrates how the volume of excess precipitation is changed to runoff at a given location. this work applied the scs unit hydrograph method. this well-established empirical approach is grounded, based on previous studies conducted in agricultural watersheds in the united states of america by bedient et al. (2008) and kalyanapu et al. (2009). these studies led to a relationship between the lag time and area of every sub-basin and the magnitude and timing of the peak hydrograph generated. hec-geohms computes each sub-basin’s area. the lag time is the delay between the centroid of surplus precipitation and the peak of the produced hydrograph. lag time can be obtained through numerous methods; but the two widely used approaches are the snyder method and the scs unit hydrograph method. therefore, this study was carried out by applying the scs unit hydrograph method, expressed mathematically in equation 16; ....(16) where; tlag = basin lag time (hrs) l = length from sub-basin outlet to divide along longest drainage path (ft) y = sub-basin slope (%) s = 1000/cn -10 (in) cn = average curve number for sub-basin reach routing each real river and its tributaries were represented by a “reach” in the model. the reach routing procedure translates a hydrograph at the sub-basin’s upstream border to a consequent hydrograph at the sub-basin’s downstream boundary for each reach, accounting for gains and losses (energy and mass) as the river moves through that sub-basin. the form of a hydrograph inside a reach changes as it flows downstream, depending on the river channel geometry and the roughness of the surface. these characteristics influence the degree of energy loss, whereas a large channel and smooth surface result in little energy loss. however, a restricted channel with a rough surface might result in considerable energy loss. furthermore, a steep slope accelerates flow whereas a moderate slope decelerates it. due to time restrictions, the muskingum-cunge parameters were determined using the lag technique after considerable fieldwork. equation 17 provides a mathematical description of the lag approach. ....(17) where; lag is time by which the inflow ordinate is to be lagged; ot is the outflow hydrographic ordinate at time t; it is the ordinate hydrography. results and discussions statistical description of annual maximum rainfall table 2 summarizes the statistics of the project site’s annual maximum rainfall for the period spanning between 2001 and 2019. it can be inferred that maximum daily rainfall ranged from 44.43 mm to 114.89 mm and the positive skewness of 0.804. pa ge 78 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 table 2: statistical summary of maximum daily rainfall statistics values (mm) minimum 44.430 maximum 114.896 median 67.711 mean 70.073 standard deviation 18.351 skewness 0.804 kurtosis 3.605 table 3: frequency analysis of maximum daily rainfall (2001-2019) annual maximum rainfall m return period pr. nonexceedance 114.90 1 19.0 0.05 99.57 2 9.5 0.11 90.90 3 6.3 0.16 81.81 4 4.8 0.21 80.31 5 3.8 0.26 80.04 6 3.2 0.32 76.51 7 2.7 0.37 70.97 8 2.4 0.42 68.34 9 2.1 0.47 67.71 10 1.9 0.53 66.35 11 1.7 0.58 62.16 12 1.6 0.63 60.38 13 1.5 0.68 59.87 14 1.4 0.74 58.12 15 1.3 0.79 53.41 16 1.2 0.84 50.37 17 1.1 0.89 45.26 18 1.1 0.95 44.43 19 1.0 1.00 frequency analysis of maximum daily rainfall table 3 shows the return periods calculated from the hazen plotting point of the peak rainfall of the rated years between 2001 and 2019. with a low likelihood of being equaled or exceeded of 0.05, the highest storm magnitude of 114.90 mm for the research period was calculated to have a nineteen (19) year return period. figure 1 also shows that whilst the probability of exceedance falls as reported in table 3, the degree of peak rainfall increases as their return period grows. this suggests that although significant magnitudes of rainfalls are not regularly seen in the project region, such storms carry great hazards when they strike. furthermore, figure 2 demonstrates that although the plotting position was sufficient in fitting the lower left tail of the empirical rainfall distribution, it underperformed in fitting the farright tail of the empirical distribution, which is highly crucial in reduction of flood risk. this confirms even more the importance of fitting the empirical distribution into accepted probability distribution models. figure 2: probability plot of design storm against return period performance of probability distribution models to evaluate the adequacy of the five chosen probability distributions, gof figures based on the ad, ks, and cm tests as well as gof criteria like the aic and bic were used. in order to predict the design storms for the project area, the log-normal probability distribution with the lowest value in terms of the anderson-darling statistic was used, as seen in table 4. figure 3 shows the design storms plot for two years to a thousand years. the five return periods of interest—five, ten, twenty-five, fifty, and one hundred years—are expected to be 83.69 mm, 93.33 mm, 103.25 mm, 113.02 mm, and 130.92 mm, respectively. pa ge 79 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 table 4: summary of goodness of fit statistics and criteria goodness-of-fit statistics fw fg fgum flgn fnor kolmogorov-smirnov statistic 0.121 0.086 0.072 0.069 0.118 cramer-von mises statistic 0.055 0.021 0.017 0.017 0.042 anderson-darling statistic 0.384 0.161 0.133 0.132 0.296 goodness-of-fit criteria akaike's information criterion 168.518 165.644 165.115 165.223 167.461 bayesian information criterion 170.407 167.533 167.004 167.112 169.350 fw=weibull, fg=gamma, fgum=gumbel, flgn=log-normal, fnor=normal table 5: summary of disaggregated 24hr rainfall for different durations (minute) and return period frequency (return period) duration 5-year 10-year 25-year 50-year 100-year 5min 12.90 14.38 15.91 17.42 18.64 10min 18.56 20.70 22.89 25.06 26.81 15min 16.24 18.12 20.04 21.94 23.47 30min 23.33 26.01 28.78 31.50 33.71 60min 29.32 32.70 36.18 39.60 42.37 120min 36.86 41.11 45.47 49.78 53.26 180min 42.14 46.99 51.98 56.91 60.88 360min 52.96 59.07 65.34 71.53 76.53 720min 66.58 74.25 82.14 89.91 96.20 1440min 83.69 93.33 103.25 113.02 120.93 table 6: summary of disaggregated 24hr rainfall for different durations (hour) and return period duration (hours) 5-year 10-year 25-year 50-year 100-year 0.083 154.77 172.61 190.95 209.02 223.64 0.17 222.70 248.36 274.75 300.76 321.79 0.25 64.98 72.46 80.16 87.75 93.89 0.5 46.65 52.03 57.56 63.01 67.41 figure 3: probability plot of design storm against return period based on log-normal distribution establishment of rainfall intensity and idf curve table 5 shows the several lengths of the 24-hour maximum daily design storms broken out. idf normally clarifies the connection among rainfall intensity, rainfall length, and return period, thus this was done. it was important to break down the design storms into smaller periods since most rainfall statistics in nigeria are linked to a cumulative period of 24 hours. table 5 displays the outcome of disintegrated design storms; while table 6 provides the related intensities. pa ge 80 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 1 29.32 32.70 36.18 39.60 42.37 2 18.43 20.55 22.74 24.89 26.63 3 14.05 15.66 17.33 18.97 20.29 6 8.83 9.84 10.89 11.92 12.76 12 5.55 6.19 6.84 7.49 8.02 24 3.49 3.89 4.30 4.71 5.04 figure 4 shows the existing idf curve for the project area. the established idf estimates and curves could be further applied in hydrologic and hydraulic modeling, which are useful for drainage and bridge designs with the aim of reducing the risk of floods in the project area. figure 4: idf curves for the catchment system of the proposed bridge in kano. hydrologic modeling and simulations table 7 summarizes the watershed parameters used in the hydrologic simulation, and figure 5 represents the cn distribution for the basin. furthermore, figure 6 represents the hms model structures for the project region; figure 7 depicts the hydrograph of the 100-year flood at the proposed bridge; and table 7 summarizes the peak design flood at the proposed bridges, which serves as the hydraulic parameter for the bridge designs. table 7: summary of catchment parameters basin name length of the longest flow path (meters) drainage slope (%) basin cn basin lag (hours) basin slope (%) basin area (sq km) w200 10028.00 0.007 71.46 2.97 0.039 13.84 w210 17560.86 0.005 69.06 2.39 0.029 5.16 w220 11388.14 0.011 69.51 1.68 0.043 3.51 w230 11313.50 0.011 70.15 1.90 0.042 3.92 w240 10207.44 0.010 71.18 1.36 0.035 3.07 w250 16744.96 0.005 69.57 2.09 0.028 3.29 w260 7896.26 0.011 68.85 0.85 0.034 0.94 w270 8586.94 0.012 71.42 1.65 0.038 2.32 w280 13813.66 0.004 70.76 3.54 0.032 21.56 w290 4738.48 0.010 81.40 0.30 0.021 0.02 w300 12278.30 0.006 71.45 3.11 0.032 10.67 w310 6098.62 0.010 71.90 1.66 0.040 4.38 w320 5987.53 0.008 71.42 1.69 0.038 2.67 w330 2042.46 0.008 78.09 0.35 0.028 0.03 w340 2929.23 0.009 73.96 0.93 0.034 0.61 w350 3427.75 0.008 70.27 1.21 0.035 1.55 pa ge 81 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 w360 3944.18 0.007 70.70 1.83 0.031 2.22 w370 6843.01 0.008 69.37 1.90 0.034 2.70 w380 6988.57 0.008 67.24 2.16 0.031 3.22 figure 5: curve number (cn) for the catchment areas of the proposed bridge figure 6: hydrologic model of flood discharged at the proposed bridge pa ge 82 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 73-83, 2025 figure 7: hydrologic model of flood discharged at the proposed bridge conclusion along with the appropriate idf curves for the same return duration, this study produced rainfall depths for several return periods: five years, ten years, twenty five years, fifty years and one hundred years. the simulation of the peak flow of every catchment with an outlet suggested bridge location was driven by the known idf estimations, catchment characteristics, and cn. based on the gathered data, this study finds that the design floods are relevant for the construction of bridges in kano state, nigeria. furthermore, the results obtained fit the numbers reported by ahmed et al. 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(who) (2022). guidelines for drinking-water quality, health criteria and other supporting information. https://iris.who.int. pa ge 1 pa ge 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) agritechnovation hub and smart knowledge processing outsourcing (kpo) ecozone masterplan design potentiality at isabela state university matusalem, roxas, isabela bagnos a. quebral jr.1* volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5324 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: may 15, 2025 accepted: june 18, 2025 published: august 23, 2025 this study seeks the potentiality of an agritechnovation hub and smart knowledge, processing and outsourcing (kpo) center as a knowledge, innovation, science and technology (kist) ecozone development through combining technology and agriculture as an innovation. as universities are dispersed around the special economic zone, students’ knowledge levels will rise and job chances will increase. rapid urbanization among major cities in the philippines created so much congestion and exceeded it carrying capacity to provide proper housing and social services to its residents. the cost of living in cities is highly expensive and most of the graduates from the countryside add up to its overcrowding due to lack of opportunity. the special economic zone’s goal to move developments in the provinces is of good help to decongest urbanized cities and give more opportunities to graduates in the provinces. roxas isabela has idle lands and the need to develop a land use development plan is needed that is why the agritechnovation hub and kpo center as a kist park is proposed to utilize this idle land in compliance with the ludip act. this study, clearly shows that kpo centers are needed gaining 32.2% agreeing to have a kist development in the area moreover it revealed that (15.25%) of the respondents wanted to have agriculture as its major component lastly, education comes with 13.56% out which means that these three components are the strength of campus for a synergistic activity between the industry partners through research and development. it is also concluded that agriculture through technology in research and development can create a wide array of opportunities for local and international economic growth and capacity building among the people. keywords agriculture, economics, development, idle lands, zone 1 isabela state university, ilagan, isabela, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: bagnosarki214@gmail.com introduction the municipality of roxas is a first-class municipality, and it is good to locate the development since the infrastructure and utilities are already available, which is one of the major requirements of peza. through the development of an agritechnovation hub and kpo center. the development was composed of a one-stop shop, a research and development building, a knowledge processing building, guestel, a hotel, a conference building, and administration building including a motor pool, and a fabtech area. through this, the operations of the agritechnovation hub and kpo center as a kist development will surely meet its needed facilities to be provided for international and local economic and technoscientific activities. farm and resort will be additional amenities in the area to immerse and have a proper venue for research and leisure activities. with these, it will surely embrace by young generations to bring back the love for agriculture and value its importance to the community. the green architecture was adopted in the development since it has been one of the best strategies to adapt to prevent climate change impact and to at least achieve sustainability. water and utility systems are provided with solar and energy-saving equipment with low voc paints used and double-glazed glass windows to have better resistance to hot climates. with these developments, the isu roxas campus graduates and students including its residents would have a better opportunity for employment and immersion. statement of the problem younger generations usually do not love agriculture; however, it is necessary to look into this problem to create an agritechnovation hub and kpo center as knowledge, innovation, science, and technology (kist) special economic zone development which combines agriculture and technology as an innovation. the backbone of the economy in the province of isabela is agriculture and the need to innovate in terms of development is very relevant to bring back and sustain the agriculture sector in the province. the need to develop idle lands shall be done by sucs so that it will not be recovered by the philippine government to be utilized. the compliance of the isu roxas matusalem to the ludip act will be one of its topmost priorities to maximize the best use of their idle lands. there is a move from the philippine economic zone authority to create countryside development and one of its components is a kist special economic zone which is very much suitable to isu roxas’s current development plans. the graduates of isu roxas usually go out of town and abroad to have better employment opportunities and this development will ease the problem pa ge 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 among its graduates and residents. objectives of the study this study will deal with the research on the creation of the 15year master plan that could be used by the isu roxas campus for peza submission and approval. the objectives of this study also include the following: 1. identify the policies and standards needed for special economic zone development. 2. to assess possible strategies in the design and construction of the master plan. 3. to design a master plan suitable for the agritechnovation hub and kpo center as an economic zone with a kist component. significance of the study the results of this study will give concepts on how to make sustainable developments on the agritechnovation hub and kpo centre as a kist component on sez zone developments among the developers and sucs. this study will help researchers on what are the possible components and considerations to achieve proper facilities and design factors that will make the development successful. this model will be useful in the application of isu roxas campus in the peza for further approval of the requirement. limitations of the study the limitations of this study will merely on the bounds of isu proposed development and on the following criteria: 1. a detailed estimated cost of development and computations of return of investments are not part of the study. 2. the campus’s infrastructure department will complete the comprehensive engineering design and estimates, and these will not be included in the research. only the conceptual master development plan is the subject of this investigation. 3. an analysis of the environmental impact of ecc is for further study however site swot analysis is part of the process. 4. applications for land use changes and disputes about land titles are not included in the study. materials and methods there are two types of methods used in this study both qualitative and quantitative research to achieve its vital results. a comprehensive and research on essential factors that may affect the development was thoroughly studied for the benefit of isu management for implementation and seza for submission. location of the kist developments the location of the study site is in barangay matusalem roxas isabela province with a relatively flat terrain that is appropriate for the development (figure 1). data collection and instruments used there are second hand data’s given by isu management and peza authorities that has been useful in the conduct of this research. drones, cameras and online researches are the instruments used by the researchers to come up with the results of the study and carefully analysed and synthesized. survey questionnaires with proper consents among the authorities were provided to make it more comprehensive and got the best results in achieving the objectives of the study. figure 1: the site (barangay matusalem, roxas, isabela) descriptive method the descriptive technique is used with the evidences gathered by different persons and agencies; this provided a proper narration on the factors that make the development achievable and sustainable. the services offered in the development was aligned with the planning department of isu roxas and with the stakeholder consultation and recommendations. it was also completed to identify the design elements and frameworks in each of the sez’s operational sectors as pa ge 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 well as to characterize the metrics that best support the sez’s existence in the local community. the economic zone’s geographical and geopolitical characteristics have been carefully assessed and combined with the intended attributes. unstructured personal interview the researcher also interviewed key experts in ecozone developments in baguio peza office and it was found out that the ecozone permits and standards have its own by laws for the isu roxas to accomplish. the project manager of a single kist zone in batangas was also interviewed to have an overview on how the project was successfully done from design to construction. case study a benchmarking was done with the isu team on batangas and carefully conducted a visit on the construction of the ecozone and its vital components. it seeks how they catered both local and international economies with research activities. equipment’s and offices were visited and they have shown mapping and cutting machines that is merely part of their innovation on the development. isu roxas stakeholder meeting to have a consensus design of the master plan a stakeholder meeting was conducted with the lgu table 1: respondents distribution area of survey respondents respondents number total municipality of roxas isabela students from isabela state university roxas and heads 30 30 local residents and municipality of roxas officials 30 30 overall total 60 officials, isu officials, students and local residents. the conference venue was in isu roxas and it lasted for half day. the researcher collected all the concerns and desires of the stakeholders and adapted mostly of their suggestions and gave solutions to their concerns. analysis using swot analysis site analysis through actual observation on the site clearly gave an idea to the author to come up with a better master plan design. the geographical and environmental characteristics of the place was analysed and vital in the crafting of the development plans. these are essential for the determination of its impact among sectors of the society. through this, the ecozone were oriented properly and treated architectural and building utility features to make it more comfortable. survey method for the roxas special economic zone, a purposive sample survey approach was used. the purpose of the survey was to find out what conditions, in the respondents’ opinion, are necessary and preferred for the construction of an economic zone. purposive sampling was used and it is composed of 60 different respondents by various sectors like isu officials and students, local residents and lgu roxas officials. results and discussions policies and standards in kist ecozone development the legislative framework and administrative protocols for the development, governance and functioning of various ecozones in the philippines are established under ra no. 7916. this act creates the peza under the first portion of this article. incentives for sectors seeking to invest, assistance for private enterprises, and recognition of the private sector’s unwavering role would all be offered, according to section 2 of the policy declaration. in addition to encouraging and favoring the use of domestically produced goods, domestic materials, and filipino labor, section 2 offers strategies to assist them become more competitive. in order to generate jobs, particularly in rural communities, cities, and the provinces, this strategy pushes the administration to promote, fast-track, and incur feasible and composed financial, social, and industrial growth especially to countryside. by creating economic zones at strategically important places across the nation and attracting lawful foreign investment, its main goals are to empower the people and improve their level of living. the philippine president will determine what is required to create an ecozone after consulting with peza and evaluating the results of an extensive engineering and feasibility assessment that satisfies the following requirements: (a) the lands of the locations of economic zone shall be in a growth center in the region. hence, the municipality of roxas in the province of isabela is a focal point for development and progress. (b) the infrastructure required for the ecozone zones, including telephones, roads, railroads, airports, ports, and the capacity to support various improvements, must already be in place. cauayan airport is 50 minutes distant, and isu roxas offers reliable utilities. nevertheless, the railway’s location is unknown. c) in order to be used, ecozone needs to have access to a supply of water and energy; luckily, the ecozone proposed in roxas has connection in roxas water line. (d) land for residential areas, commercial, industrial, and future expansion must be accessible to user’s workforce. for the comfort of its staff, the kist facility is furnished pa ge 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 with a number of guestel amenities. (e) the availability of trained, semi-skilled, and trainable non-skilled laborers must be considered while creating an ecozone. preferred employment in the sez may be granted to students and recent graduates of isu and its neighboring schools. (f) the development will benefit both local and foreign investors in the future; the areas must be substantially more favorable than the existing economic zones and have the potential to be profitable in the future. (g) preferably positioned properly. matusalem roxas campus is accessible by a road connected to different locations of the campuses. (h) to deter smuggling attempts, the ecozone should be located in an area where security measures are easily visible. denr and police agencies try to avoid smuggling along the area. experts in the special economic zone interviewed the author decided to consult with an expert in ecozone development. the oic chief told the researcher in an interview that the peza board officials will carry out a thorough a series of examination of the kist special economic zone establishment’s economic zone development. only one kist economic zone— batangas state university kist—has been approved by peza, while two other schools are in the application stage. in order for both the industry and kist to gain from research and development, especially in the fields of innovation and research and development, the special economic zone should aim to work in tandem with the industry. furthermore, research projects that are models or prototypes may be manufactured in the kist special economic zone and then mass-produced for use in industry. the kist is only good to manufacture prototype researched models from the industries because the isu’s land use is still institutional. however, the municipal or city council’s approval is still required to change the property use. strategies in designing the ecozone masterplan isabela state university’s kist economic zones were established in accordance with the planning department. the author carried out its survey and integrated all pertinent kist recommendations in isu roxas to meet the needs and desires of the ecozone’s potential consumers. before incorporating it into the ecozones master development plan, the author visited the roxas campus, which has a substantial land holding, and consolidated information’s aligned to their vision on the development. a swot analysis of each development area revealed that most of the infrastructures required for development, including transportation access, power supplies, road networks, telecommunications, water supplies, and adjacent airports, were present. this was the peza’s primary requirement. the peza’s main objective is to promote economic mobility among impoverished areas, which will support each community’s development. the location is perfectly situated to serve as the hub for further growth. the site’s qualities are excellent for development since roxas campus has a large carrying capacity for kist ecozone development and broad regions open for growth. according to the majority of study participants on the roxas campus, kist park ought to be built on the isu campus. despite having modest earnings, the majority of respondents are college graduates who might be a possible workforce of the development since this was peza’s primary requirement. the peza’s main objective is to promote economic mobility among impoverished areas, which will support each community’s development. the location is perfectly situated to serve as the hub for further growth. potentials for infrastructure development infrastructure development will be mostly done with mid-rise structure since the respondents generally looked for mid-rise structure in the survey questionnaires that had been floated. technologies like the use of green building concepts were adapted in then master plan to lessen the impact of climate change.pwd parking and provisions was carefully designed to make it more inclusive. walkable and bikeable access are part of the design of the masterplan. retention ponds will mitigate the flooding in the area and served as a source of water when watering the landscape. the profile of kist site roxas campus profile on natural characteristics: isu roxas is mostly flat terrain and it is bounded by the fisheries research center of the province which can be used in the farm tourism resort. the site is agricultural land and ready for development. it has two significant lots for development which is why a footbridge has been provided to ensure the safety of going back and forth from one site to another among the users. it has a great mountain view of the sierra madre and a good drainage system. however, the need to divert canals from nia shall be established. it is the least land area among the three sites. the other lot where the farm tourism is located has a small creek which can be a source of water for watering the organic farm along the area. flood rip rapping is designed on its side to prevent scouring of the soil during rainy days. along the creek, there is a slope that is proposed to put kangkong, gabi, and other plants that need water and are susceptible to water. the site is near the summabot view deck and it could be a means of leisure activity among the economic zone users after work (figure 1). profile on education many roxas residents are from mountain provinces. they have a high level of education and could be employed in the special economic zone. criminology is the main subject offered by isu roxas, which also provides courses in agriculture, it, and fisheries. because there are fewer pa ge 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 figure 2: isu roxas site source: isu roxas planning department chances, roxas residents will spend less money on jobs in distant places like metro manila, the city of ilagan, and cauayan city. profile on social factors as a sign of their culture, the kalinga people, who made up the majority of the early settlers, were farmers and celebrated the pinakbet festival. as part of their cultural history, they celebrate the pinakbet festival, which highlights their primary agricultural output, which is primarily vegetables. particularly among tourists, especially those from other countries, the residents of roxas isabela are incredibly welcoming and you can sense their sincere concern. in contrast to other nations, where bread and potatoes are the primary sources of carbs, they rely on rice as part of their daily diet. the lack of hotel facilities in the area makes it necessary to build hotel facilities inside the special economic zone to give both domestic and foreign tourists a suitable place to stay. their culture includes mommas, and as a result, you may notice people with red teeth. they eat momma as a way to unwind and enjoy social interactions. site swot analysis results strengths – the land is practically empty and suitable for constructing building since there are no numerous existing structures to consider 1. along the site, there is an existing research facility of fisheries research 2. the condition of the land is relatively flat 3. connection on electricity, water, drainage is evident 4. accessible to the other satellite campus of isu 5. view of sierra madre is very nice 6. flooding does not occur in the area 7. strong political will among the lgu and support weaknessesfar from national highway 1. narrow roads 2. flooding from creeks can cause overflow opportunities 1. small scale and medium industries have the opportunity to use the facility 2. the development can be a source of ojt among the students especially in the hotel and offices 3. financial funds through ppp and bot can be a source of funding 4. linkages to dti, tesda and peza is possible 5. prototypes made by research can be done in the kist development 6. can attract foreign linkages and investment threat – earthquakes are common and typhoons on the site 1. concreting may lead to heat island effect 2. congestion on traffic is possible 3. environmental degradation is a possibility 4. students might get drowned in the creek results of stakeholder meeting on december 6, 2022, a stakeholder meeting was held at the mini theatre on the second floor of the roxas matusalem campus. the executive officer of isu roxas, along with lgu officials, the peza director of the university, important officials, students, and citizens, attended the stakeholder meeting. in his opening pa ge 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 remarks, dr. eddie peru introduced the author and expressed gratitude for helping to create the master plan for the kist economic zone. he also reaffirmed that the university’s goal of becoming a preeminent research institution is almost a reality. the executive officer wanted to have footbridges and a covered walkway connecting the site of the farm resort kpo and other buildings for the convenience of the users. the dormtel will be named guestel since this is the programmed name of the building in the master plan. to reach a consensus, confer with all parties involved, and educate them on the critical role that sezs play at isabela state university, the designer presented the master plan. the author carefully clarified that the one-stop-shop area of development is only meant for the residents of the roxas matusalem area and would serve as a source of revenue for the roxas campus when one of the lgu officials inquired about it after the presentation and whether the residents would be permitted to rent and use the facilities. to maximize the advantages of establishing an economic zone, the isu system will benefit from development policies. additionally, the researcher stated that all development plans will adhere to the philippine national building code regarding the required parking area ratio and subsequently be added with 5% contingencies for future population growth. the dean of the college of criminology is also worried about the number of parking areas, seeing that it may not be sufficient to meet the need for parking. to guarantee the safety of the users within the special economic zone, the dean also reaffirmed the necessity of adequate fencing. the site’s current water irrigation system in the event of flooding is another urgent worry of the stakeholders. to reduce and manage floods in the area, the researcher clarified that engineering design solutions are integrated and that excavation and water-impounding areas are part of the design. additionally, each building has multiple rainwater harvesting systems built to flush toilets and prevent flooding according to the master design. in order to lessen the negative effects of climate change, green architecture technologies such as the use of low-e glass, renewable energy sources like solar panels, vertical gardens, and roof gardens, sunscreen louvers, clerestory windows, led lights, and eco-friendly air conditioning are incorporated into the design. in addition to a vermiculture area that will contribute to revenue creation and supply organic fertilizer for the agricultural area, the mrf will also minimize landfill over crowding structures preference result despite their strong agreement with the modern building design and built-in surroundings, most respondents were unclear about the existence of high-rise structures. as a result, most structures shall be medium-rise as agreed by the respondents. the urban park is the kist ecozone’s primary tactic for establishing a safer walk and atmosphere to its users, which will enhance the working environment and promote good design. furthermore, parks, especially in the nights, can be utilized to encourage social interaction. in addition to serving as a natural cooling element, parks are designed to draw biodiversity to the area and mitigate the effects of urban island heat. preference on ecological protection solar panels installed on the rooftops of various buildings demonstrate the appropriateness of renewable energy use by optimizing solar energy; cross ventilation allowed for the integration of green construction concepts, proper orientation, and environmentally friendly material selection in some areas of the master plan; the development plan have enough area, and will include a flood mitigating areas and provisions for flood tunneling mechanisms; the master plan incorporates technologies like automated fire sprinklers and heat detectors to protect people and property exclusive along the ecozone; and stp and mrf will protect the environmental degradation of the place economic oportunities developing a knowledge economy and worldwide connections through research and development are two of the kist economic zone’s policies. research and developments in this area will become a source of economic opportunities and create an innovation in terms of students and industrial partners immersive activities. the fabtech area, 3d printers, lazer cutters and other technological advancement will be part of the economic profit generations on the development. the use of artificial intelligence (ai) in agriculture has made noteworthy development in farm management probable by offering new ways to enhance farming procedures this may also be a possible area of activities inside the ecozone. although accommodations for local business sector shall have the opportunity in the development, foreign direct investments had been the majority of the favored locators. small-scale restaurants and retailers are a feature of the growth in densely populated places, providing food and other goods and services that the community can use to foster economic stability through entrepreneurship. business environment in exchange for tax holidays, the majority of respondents supported a seza program that would give new business owners tax incentives for four to six years. the policy that will be proposed in the ecozone would offer tax advantages to locators and renters that adopt green technologies. it is possible to make foreign direct investments within the kist economic zone as long as the items are service-oriented and made with exporting in mind. the establishment of an ecozone is justified as the kist locations’ population agreed to work inside the specified special economic zone. the kist ecozone welcomes international workers, notwithstanding certain limitations imposed by peza laws. pa ge 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 external communication connectivity in reliable and faster internet access will be part of the masterplan. the a website shall be developed by the isu ict department to accommodate foreign and local communication activities. the rule and technique for disseminating information includes the marketing of ads in newspapers and other publications. facebook ads and tv networks in the master plan are part of the proposed strategy for marketing. policy provision penalties for violators will be a part of the master plan policy, which will ensure environmental sustainability and livability. tax breaks for companies that practice environmental responsibility will function as a policy that the lgu will enact and approve. companies that gather rubbish to apply the 4rs are also eligible for tax breaks. the community inside the economic zone will become healthier and more environmentally friendly as a result. allotting funds for sustainable research and development is essential to maintaining the viability of the ecozone and filling up any gaps that arise while it is operating. the respondents agreed that the lgu may be a source of funding if additional alternative bot between investors was required for the availability of cash. green architecture integration rainwater harvesting, for example, is a green design technology that all buildings must have placed in the lower basement and repurposed for toilet flushing. additionally, this will aid in lowering water usage, particularly during the wet season. since the philippines is a tropical nation, exploiting heat energy is one of the ideal ways to gain cleaner source of power in the master-planned ecozone. photo-voltaic cells on roof decks and roofings provisions are part vital components to ensure a much lower impact on the environment, most likely during summer. tempered glass and low-e glass on the glass walls will limit heat gain inside the structure, which lowers the need for air conditioning during hot the design incorporates cross ventilation and the use of natural daylighting to maximize wind-regulate solar exposure and ensure proper thermal comfort within the structure. a green wall was also incorporated into the design to improve biodiversity in the area and reduce the building’s effect on the urban island heat island effect. a holding pond was built to reduce flooding within the kist special economic zones, which were masterplanned. the master plan called for e-trikes, bike lanes, and bike parking in order to lessen the development’s carbon footprint. furthermore, a thoughtful walkable urban design can improve the entire experience of the master-planned kist development and lessen user stress. to improve the porosity of each parking lot and enable rainfall to percolate through, grass must be planted in the center. to ensure efficient data management and energy usage oversight throughout the development project, as well as safety in the event of a fire or other emergency, it is recommended that artificial intelligent equipped sprinkler systems, maintenance protocols, and digital electric, mechanical and plumbing monitoring systems be integrated in every building. at the building’s entry and departure, each employee has heat-detecting monitoring equipment in case the spread of airborne diseases and other viruses is easily observed. there is a quarantine chamber in each building that is designed to be less accessible to the general public. the park will serve as the lung of the entire kist development and a public area for evacuation in the event of an earthquake. low volatile organic compound (voc) paint, which is inherently a more environmentally friendly and sustainable option than regular paints, must be used for all paintings. institutional buildings, like commercial buildings, usually have all-white paint because white is an easy colour to paint. hazard vaults and sewage treatment facilities will ensure a high standard of environmental quality in kist park, which is a critical requirement for obtaining the ecc, or environmental compliance certificate, from the denr. mrf and vermiculture will further improve the area’s waste management facilities. strategies in construction management in keeping with batangas state university, isu’s management will assemble a construction project management team to ensure that the facilities meet high standards at every stage of the process, from design and bidding to construction and operation. in order to properly design the structures of all buildings to value engineering, a soil test must be performed at every construction site. to prevent soil from arriving from other sources, the author recommends using an excavated foundation to backfill all areas that need it in terms of construction management. due to the utilization of i-beams with wide flanges and a metal deck on its structural system, it would be finished faster than with traditional construction. precast concrete, prefabricated src, pre-engineered steel structures, prefabricated src wall panels, and earthquake-resistant eps panel technologies are the preferred wall-building methods for faster, more efficient, and well-insulated panels suitable for tropical countries. this will lower the amount of heat gain within the building and is easier to install. to improve power loss efficiency, automatic transfer switches must be installed in all electrical systems. emergency lighting and alerting systems must be incorporated into development designs in order to safeguard people’s lives, health, and the masterplan composition the business will process and trade exportable knowledge, innovation, and technological goods and services. the sez development project will be called “isabela agritechnovation hub and smart kpo center” (figure 3). the building’s infrastructure is smart kpo techno hub, which is outfitted with smart solar generating power. pa ge 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 in order to serve both domestic and foreign locators, the master plan calls for an administration building and business establishment (campus igps, showroom, one stop shop), a research and development building, knowledge process outsourcing (kpo) and support services, a convention center, and a guestel. a hotel, an agricultural resort, an isu village & park, and an organic urban gardening landscape are all component of the master plan. in the kist economic zone, which serves both local and foreign economies, a showroom and onestop shop allocation are efficient ways to make money and display a range of goods and services to workers, residents, and students. since this development will draw researchers, tourists, other scientists, and locators who wish to employ the resources for research and innovation, local governments will profit from the revenues generated by it. to further preserve the surrounding area as a real laboratory for organic urban gardening and future expansion in the event that the kist is successful, all modifications in lot 3698-b were compacted. low-e glass and rainwater catchment areas, solar panels, proper orientation using a tropical architecture with louvers and large overhangs, a water system driven by wind-generated pumps, and the effective use of technologies like artificial intelligence heating devices are just a few examples of the green technology architecture design interventions incorporated into the kist development. in addition to a park to restore users’ well-being after a demanding workday, fire prevention measures are offered to protect the lives, health, and property of the offices. figure 3: master plan of isu roxas kist park special economic zone figure 4: aerial perspective view pa ge 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 summary to improve the education of isabela state university students and turn rural communities into ones that can sustainably and independently absorb economic activity, the kist special economic zone was established on the campus. because the kist roxas have good human resource generation, neighboring sites and land uses are primarily dependent on agriculture and livestock, and they already have a proper utility infrastructure in place—the most important prerequisite for a peza—their social, cultural, natural, and educational characteristics have a great deal of potential to develop into an economic zone. enhancing community sustainability and quality of life will be greatly impacted by the ecozone development which offers different employment options. creating locators as a policy within the development framework permitted by its approved plan is one of the author’s recommendations, taking into account the necessity of respecting it carrying capacity to avoid environmental harm and urban sprawl. this strategy will guarantee that isabela state university will gain a great deal from their presence. locators who organize green technology and embrace industrial symbiosis concepts will be eligible for tax breaks. last but not least, the kist ecozone is proof of the institution’s goal and aspiration to become a preeminent research university since it has the plan mandated by the ludip legislation to improve the optimal use of land among the many uses of land. conclusion the study’s conclusions indicate that ecozone is popular with the locals and will create employment options because of the locators’ and isu management’s collaborative efforts to meet the majority of sustainable development goals, raising the standard of living in the province of isabela. efforts by the university president and other officials to construct the kist economic zone have the potential to be successful. to help with the ecozone’s design, they intend to assemble a group of specialists and submit their plan for approval to the peza and isu board. this will enhance and provide more meaning to the university’s objective of being the leading research institution in the asean area. recommendations in order to improve sezs at the kist development at isu roxas, the author has recommended the following: 1. when hiring future employees in the ecozone, the isu administration will establish a policy that gives preference to housing isu graduates and residents. 2. the study strongly suggests that in order to create a sustainable development, locators who use green technologies should receive tax and rental advantages. 4. it is strongly advised to employ contemporary building techniques and select building materials suitable for a tropical nation. references aggarwal, a. (2022). special economic zones in indonesia– malaysia–thailand growth triangle: opportunities for collaboration. asian development bank. http://hdl. handle.net/11540/14838. chakraborty, t. (2022). locational strategy of special economic zones in india. studies in microeconomics. https://doi.org/10.1177/23210222221111651 chen, l., mee, k. n., yuanzhou, t., & tung, f. (2021) from a ‘world factory’ to china’s bay area: a review of the outline of the development plan for the guangdong-hong kong-macao greater bay area. planning theory & practice, 1-5. s https://doi.org /10.1080/14649357.2011.626316 dongdong, w., yuhong, w., & wuyong, q. (2020). efficiency evaluation and dynamic evolution of china’s regional green economy: a method based on the super-pebm model and dea window analysis, journal of cleaner production. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121630. gorg, h., & mulyukova, a. (2022). place-based policies and agglomeration economies: firm-level evidence from special economic zones in india. iza discussion paper no. 15123. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4114682 hamid, n. j. (2021). malaysian special economic zone: analysing the land use planning through the development plan. uum irepository. https://repo.uum.edu.my/id/ eprint/28414 liashenko, v., pidorycheva, i., mytsenko, i., & chebotarova, n. (2021). the modern concept of special economic zones in ukraine. bulletin of geography. socio-economic series, 52, 85-94. https://doi. org/10.2478/bog-2021-0015 lorenzo, c., & liliane, m. (2021). labour rights in special economic zones: between unilateralism and transnational law diffusion. journal of international economic law, 24(2), 341–360. https:// doi.org/10.1093/jiel/jgab012 muhammad, b., muhammad, k. a., usama, q., salman, h., mirza, j., & ahmad, w. (2022). a multifaceted evaluation of hybrid energy policies: the case of sustainable alternatives in special economic zones of the china pakistan economic corridor (cpec). sustainable energy technologies and assessments, 52(parta). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.101958. padhiary, m., kumar, k., hussain, n., roy, d., barbhuiya, j. a., & roy, p. (2025). artificial intelligence in farm management: integrating smart systems for optimal agricultural practices. international journal of smart agriculture, 3(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.54536/ijsa. v3i1.3674 philippine economic zone authority information. (2022). https://www.peza.gov.ph philippine economic zone authority information. (2022). https://www.peza.gov.ph/special-economiczone-act philippine statistic authority. (2022). https://psa.gov.ph/ pa ge 10 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 1-10, 2025 quebral, jr., b. a., & barcellano, e. v. (2024). the viability of establishing a knowledge, innovation, science, and technology (kist) park in isabela state university echague campus philippines. american journal of environment and climate, 3(3), 28–38. https:// doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v3i3.2755 russo, f., chilà, g., zito, c. (2022). strategic planning for special economic zones to ports of the future: system of models and test case. in: gervasi, o., murgante, b., misra, s., rocha, a.m.a.c., garau, c. (eds) computational science and its applications – iccsa 2022 workshops. iccsa 2022. lecture notes in computer science (vol 13381). springer, cham. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-031-10548-7_13 sun, w., wu, j. & yang, h. (2022). increasing entrepreneurs through green industrial parks: evidence from special economic zones in china. the annals of regional science, 72, 287-312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168022-01200-3 ugli, a. b. u. (2022). the impact of tax benefits on the improvement of special economic zones. central asian journal of theoretical and applied science, 3(6), 371-376. retrieved from https://cajotas. centralasianstudies.org/index.php/cajotas/ article/view/666 zeng, d. z. (2021). the dos and don’ts of special economic zones. ssrn. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4007621. pa ge 1 pa ge 69 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) redefining farm risk: a biosecurity and proximity-based evaluation matrix hamid ragab orban1* volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5735 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: july 12, 2025 accepted: august 16, 2025 published: october 08, 2025 biosecurity, in current farm evaluation procedures, is typically assessed through general inspection checklists that often presume compliance with the stipulated minimum distance requirements. however, such assumptions may overlook the nuanced role of biosecurity in mitigating disease risks. additionally, farm assessments conducted for import certification or domestic recognition frequently lack standardized criteria, resulting in inconsistent and potentially inequitable evaluations. this article introduces a structured, risk-based farm evaluation matrix comprising eight criteria, categorized into severity and probability dimensions. each criterion is rated at three levels, low, medium, and high, with corresponding numerical weights (5, 10, and 15) to enable consistent scoring. the risk-based farm score (rbfs) is calculated by multiplying the average scores of severity-related and probabilityrelated criteria. to evaluate the matrix’s applicability, all attributes were held constant except for regulatory compliance and proximity to neighboring farms, each tested at three levels. results demonstrate a clear inverse relationship between regulatory compliance and (rbfs), with higher regulatory compliance associated with lower risk scores. in contrast, proximity to other farms correlates with higher (rbfs), though its influence is less significant than that of regulatory compliance. standard deviation analysis reveals greater variability in (rbfs) across compliance levels, underscoring the critical role of regulatory adherence in determining farm risk. adoption of the developed farm evaluation matrix globally could enhance transparency, reduce trade barriers, and promote safer agricultural trade. keywords agricultural trade, biosecurity, farm evaluation matrix, livestock farming, regulatory compliance 1 abu dhabi agriculture and food safety authority, abu dhabi, united arab emirates * corresponding author’s e-mail: hamidorban@outlook.com introduction livestock and poultry production significantly impacts the environment, affecting water quality, air pollution, and soil health (scanes, 2018). the impact of the animals is proportional to their numbers. furthermore , the world trade organization set a legal framework that organizes trade between countries ,the objective of the framework is to eliminate trade barriers and ease trade without compromising countries’ rights to protect their domestic trade . among the negative impacts of animals on the environment, the risks of transboundary pests and diseases is receiving more attention by countries and international organizations , this is intensified after the covid-19 pandemic. organizations like the world organization for animal health (woah) and the food and agriculture organization of the united nations (fao), together with the world health organization (who), set the health and sanitary measures to minimize the spread of transboundary diseases . individual countries set their domestic standards and legislations to protect themselves from these diseases. the set standards and legislations in most of the cases include minimum distances between the different plant and animal activities . furthermore , almost all countries assure the safety and quality of the food and feed consumed by the inhabitants and animals regardless of their origin, that is imported or domestically produced. in case of imported food, most of the countries conduct visits to evaluate the control procedures in the exporting countries, this evaluation is based on the importing country’s criteria . the use of the importing country’s criteria might encore extra costs on the exporting country resembling a burden and a possible trade barrier. currently there are hundreds of criteria and attributes which are used and can be used by countries to evaluate agriculture farms and livestock farming , however there is no common matrix that uses predefined and agreed evaluation criteria that can be used by different countries to minimize the variation in the evaluation outcomes while considering the discretion of each country. the current article argues that the development of a unified global farm evaluation matrix, featuring clear, standardized, and easily measurable attributes, has the potential to eliminate trade barriers between countries. by reducing discrepancies in biosecurity and quality standards between importing and exporting nations, such a matrix would facilitate smoother agricultural trade and promote the global exchange of agricultural commodities while ensuring the stipulation of strict biosecurity measures that minimize the negative impact of animal farming on the environment. literature review biosecurity is defined by the world organization for animal health (woah) as a set of management and physical measures designed to reduce the risk of introduction, establishment and spread of animal diseases, infections or infestations to, from and within pa ge 70 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 69-73, 2025 an animal population (world organization for animal health, 2023). several approaches for assessing on-farm biosecurity exist varying in their purpose, implementation, and outputs (alarcón et al., 2021; fathelrahman et al, 2020; gelaude et al., 2014; martínez-guijosa et al., 2021; sasaki et al., 2020; tilli et al., 2022; zaabar et al., 2025). maye and chan (2020) reported that biosecurity is a complex, multi-layered and increasingly problematic term that manifests variously around agriculture and animal disease as forms of discourse, socio-material practice and risk politics. furthermore, huber et al. (2022) defined biosecurity measure (bsm) as the implementation of a segregation, hygiene, or management procedure, excluding medically effective feed additives and preventive/curative treatment of animals, that specifically aims at reducing the probability of the introduction, establishment, survival, or spread of any potential pathogen to, within, or from a farm, operation or geographical area. zanon et al. (2024) reported that despite the suboptimal adoption of biosecurity measures, which they attributed to structural limitations in mountain farms and farmers awareness gaps, the economic significance of biosecurity adoption is evident. moreover, fadel et al. (2012) recommended that serious decisions should be taken by local authorities to remove poultry farms from urban areas to protect investments, society and the environment. however, fathelrahman et al. (2020) reported that in the united arab emirates, poultry farms address biosecurity preparedness differently based on the scale, that is, large or small , and on the purpose of production , that is, broilers or layers. the authors findings indicated the low influence of the distance to the nearest farm on the vaccination use. materials and methods current procedures for assessing livestock farms’ compliance with the regulations often assume the adherence of the farms to the distance requirements, where such requirements exist. additionally, biosecurity compliance is typically evaluated through its inclusion in the general inspection checklists. this tends to obscure the critical importance of biosecurity, regardless of the weight assigned to its components within the checklist. it is common for official authorities to evaluate and qualify farms in other countries for import-related purposes. similarly, domestic farm competitions and awards are frequently held, however, the evaluation methods used for these purposes vary widely, often lacking standardized or shared assessment attributes. farm evaluation matrix in the current article, eight criteria were defined and utilized as components of the severity and probability dimensions within the farm evaluation matrix. each criterion was categorized into three evaluation levels: low, medium, and high. table 1 presents the eight evaluation criteria along with their definitions. table 1: farm evaluation matrix evaluation dimension criteria description severity distance d compliance to the distance requirement as per the pertaining regulations in the country. farm age fage considers the age of the farm buildings, in general the older the building the higher the biosecurity risks. number of farms within 10 km radius fn for most of the diseases , emergency responses require testing and restricting movement within a set radius. 10 kilometers is the commonest of the radii for most of the animal diseases. the more the neighboring farms within the radius , the higher the risks. number of activities an it is not uncommon that a farm practices more than an activity , which are mostly complementary to the main farm activity. the more the activities in a farm the higher the risks. activity risk level rl each activity has a risk which varies according to the risk leveling methodology adopted by the authority. activities with high risks will impact the farm evaluation result fer probability production size psize the production of the farm is related to the farm size and/or the production intensity. the larger the farm production, the higher the risks. regulatory compliance rc results of the compliance of the farm to the pertaining regulations in the country and or to the international standards reflect its compliance to biosecurity. it will not be uncommon if a separate checklist for the biosecurity compliance is developed and used for the evaluation of the fer. pa ge 71 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 69-73, 2025 disease outbreaks dout generally, the stricter the implementation of biosecurity measures in a farm, the lower the probability of disease outbreaks. the number of disease outbreaks reported during the data collection period can serve as an indicator of the farm’s compliance with biosecurity protocols. risk-based farm score (rbfs) the farm evaluation formula uses the evaluation result of the severity and probability criteria as shown in the following formula: rbfs = x ̄(d, fage, fn, an, rl ) * x ̄(psize, rc, dout) where, rbfs : farm evaluation result d : distance from nearest farm fage : age of the farm constructions fn : number of farms within 10 kilometers radius an : number of activities in the farm rl : risk level of the farm activity psize : production size rc : regulatory compliance dout : number of disease outbreaks criteria range (width) the range, or width, of each criterion level should be determined through a simple calculation based on the distribution of available data. once established, this range is divided into three distinct categories: low, medium, and high. to facilitate quantitative evaluation, numerical weights are assigned to each category, 5 for low, 10 for medium, and 15 for high. this structured approach enables consistent scoring and comparison across farms, enhancing the reliability of the evaluation matrix. risk-based farm score (rbfs) the performance of a farm against the criteria listed in table 1, excluding the distance from the nearest farm, can typically be assessed using data from the inspection database. however, when the evaluation is conducted by an importing country, it is advisable to perform an on-site biosecurity inspection during the visit. this inspection should follow a standardized checklist that has been shared in advance with the relevant authority in the exporting country to ensure consistency and transparency. the risk-based farm score (rbfs) is calculated by multiplying the average score of the severity-related criteria by the average score of the probability-related criteria, as outlined in the proposed formula. a lower final evaluation result fer indicates better overall farm performance in terms of biosecurity and risk management. results and discussion the current article defines the attributes of a risk-based farm evaluation matrix designed to assess the risk level of farms. to evaluate its applicability, all risk attributes listed in table 1 were held constant, except for distance from the nearest farm and regulatory compliance. each of these two variables was tested at three levels, low, medium, and high, and the corresponding risk-based farm score (rbfs) was calculated. figure 1 illustrates the results, showing a consistent decline in the risk-based farm score (rbfs) as the level of regulatory compliance increases from low to high. this decline coincides with the increase in the level of compliance to the distance from neighboring farms. the lowest and highest riskbased farm score (rbfs), 58.3 and 105.0, were observed at the combination of the high and low levels of the two attributes respectively. this finding implies that strict compliance with regulations is associated with lower farm risk under the current scoring framework, potentially due to increased operational constraints or reporting rigor. the distance from the nearest farm shows a reverse relationship with risk-based farm score (rbfs), that is the closer a farm is to its neighbors, the higher its riskbased farm score (rbfs). figure 1: effect of distance and regulatory compliance on risk-based farm score (rbfs) pa ge 72 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 69-73, 2025 upon visualization of the standard deviations sd of the risk-based farm score (rbfs) results in table 2, the small standard deviation value of the mean of the risk-based farm score (rbfs) at the high distance score indicates the homogeneity of the results moreover, further insights can be drawn from the standard deviation values of the risk-based farm score (rbfs) across the low, medium, and high levels of the evaluation matrix, as presented in table 2. these values reveal greater variability in the (rbfs) results, which could primarily be attributed to differences in the regulatory compliance among farms. in practical terms, this suggests that regulatory compliance has a more pronounced impact on (rbfs) than the distance from neighboring farms. table 2: risk-based farm score (rbfs) regulatory compliance score distance score low medium high mean ± sd high 81.7 70.0 58.3 70.00 ± 9.55 medium 93.3 80.0 66.7 80.00 ± 10.86 low 105.0 90.0 75.0 90.00 ± 12.25 remarkably, although farms located in close proximity to others tend to exhibit higher risk-based farm score (rbfs) values, this spatial factor appears to exert a relatively minor influence on the farm risk score compared to regulatory compliance. these findings align with fathelrahman et al. (2020), who observed that proximity to neighboring farms has limited impact on the adoption of vaccination as a biosecurity measure. similarly, the current study supports the conclusions of zanon et al. (2024), emphasizing the critical role of biosecurity measures in minimizing the risk score of the farm. however, the results of the developed risk-based farm score (rbfs) matrix do not support the recommendations of fadel et al. (2012), which advocated for the relocation of poultry farms away from urban areas. the current findings suggest that such recommendations lack empirical support, as spatial proximity alone does not significantly influence the farm risk under the proposed evaluation matrix. moreover, in countries where farm distance regulations were developed after the establishment of some existing farms, the risk-based farm score (rbfs) results from this study indicate that stipulating the regulations retrospectively will have a minimal impact on the overall farm risk. this finding highlights the limited effectiveness of distance-based regulations when not integrated into initial planning frameworks. more importantly, it underscores the need to contextualize risk attributes, particularly regulatory compliance, as central to effective biosecurity management. prioritizing evidence-based regulatory compliance measures over spatial requirements offers a more accurate and practical approach to assessing and mitigating biosecurity risks in agricultural systems. conclusion the current study presents a novel approach to evaluating farm risk by applying risk analysis principles within a structured matrix of eight attributes, five related to risk severity and three to risk probability. each attribute is clearly defined, categorized into three levels, and assigned numerical weights, enabling a consistent and quantifiable assessment of farm performance. the case study findings reveal that regulatory compliance has a significantly greater influence on the risk-based farm score (rbfs) than proximity to neighboring farms, underscoring the critical role of biosecurity in protecting agricultural systems. in the context of international trade, the findings of this study support the adoption of the proposed matrix to harmonize farms assessment both within and across countries. such a standardized framework would enhance transparency, build trust among trading partners, and facilitate the safe and efficient global exchange of agricultural commodities. inconsistencies and potential trade barriers. references alarcón, l. v., allepuz, a., & mateu, e. (2021). biosecurity in pig farms: a review. porcine health management, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40813-020-00181-z benavides, b., casal, j., diéguez, j. f., yus, e., moya, s. j., armengol, r., & allepuz, a. (2020). development of a quantitative risk assessment of bovine viral diarrhea virus and bovine herpesvirus-1 introduction in dairy cattle herds to improve biosecurity. journal of dairy science, 103(7), 6454–6472. https://doi.org/10.3168/ jds.2019-17827 duarte, f., tamminen, l.-m., kjosevski, m., ciaravino, g., delpont, m., correia-gomes, c., van den borne, b.h. p., chantziaras, i., ... & allepuz, a. (2025). methods to assess on-farm biosecurity in europe and beyond. preventive veterinary medicine, 239, 106486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2025.106486 fadel, m. a., hussein, a. s., and maamari, m. a. (2012). mapping poultry farms in the uae utilizing gis technology [review of mapping poultry farms in the uae utilizing gis technology]. journal of food, agriculture & environment , 10(13 &14), 567–571. gelaude, p., schlepers, m., verlinden, m., laanen, m., & dewulf, j. (2014). biocheck.ugent: a quantitative tool to measure biosecurity at broiler farms and pa ge 73 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 69-73, 2025 the relationship with technical performances and antimicrobial use. poultry science, 93(11), 2740–2751. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2014-04002 huber, n., andraud, m., sassu, e. l., prigge, c., zochegolob, v., käsbohrer, a., d’angelantonio, d., viltrop, a., żmudzki, j., jones, h., smith, r. p., tobias, t., & burow, e. (2022). what is a biosecurity measure? a definition proposal for animal production and linked processing operations. one health, 15(0), 100433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2022.100433 martínez-guijosa, j., lima-barbero, j. f., acevedo, p., cano-terriza, d., jiménez-ruiz, s., barasona, j. á., boadella, m., garcía-bocanegra, i., gortázar, c., & vicente, j. (2021). description and implementation of an on-farm wildlife risk mitigation protocol at the wildlife-livestock interface: tuberculosis in mediterranean environments. preventive veterinary medicine, 191, 105346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. prevetmed.2021.105346 maye, d., & chan, k. w. (ray). (2020). on-farm biosecurity in livestock production: farmer behaviour, cultural identities and practices of care. emerging topics in life sciences, 4(5). https://doi.org/10.1042/ etls20200063 scanes, c. g. (2018). impact of agricultural animals on the environment. animals and human society, 427– 449. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-8052471.00025-3 sasaki, y., furutani, a., furuichi, t., hayakawa, y., ishizeki, s., kano, r., koike, f., miyashita, m., mizukami, y., watanabe, y., & otake, s. (2020). development of a biosecurity assessment tool and the assessment of biosecurity levels by this tool on japanese commercial swine farms. preventive veterinary medicine, 175, 104848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. prevetmed.2019.104848 tilli, g., laconi, a., galuppo, f., mughini-gras, l., & piccirillo, a. (2022). assessing biosecurity compliance in poultry farms: a survey in a densely populated poultry area in north east italy. animals, 12(11), 1409. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12111409 woah. (2023). terrestrial code online access. woah world organisation for animal health. h t tp s :// www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codesand-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/ zanon, t., alrhmoun, m. & gauly, m. (2024). assessing the impact of biosecurity practices and animal welfare in small-scale mountain dairy farming. scientific reports, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-02463841-y pa ge 1 pa ge 67 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) social taboos on wetland fauna tapas ranjan chakraborty1* volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.5042 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: april 25, 2024 accepted: june 03, 2025 published: june 17, 2025 taboos play a significant role in conservation of biodiversity; they regulate practices of a community and reduce pressure on species. wetlands of bangladesh are diversified and rich with biodiversity. the objective of the study was to explore the potential of taboos in development and conservation planning of wetland fauna. to document the taboos in a wetland the biodiversity, conservation, social norms and practices of the medir haor under nasirnagar sub-district of brahmanbaria district were studied. community consultations, key informant interviews and field observations were conducted between july 2022 and june 2024. many fishes are not eaten. at least 15 species of animals were recorded undisturbed and respected because of religious and social norms. the sacred lands are protected habitat for fauna. the taboos on fauna have association with myth, tells, cultures and social values. almost all the taboos are known to all age groups of the people even though the traditional knowledge is not documented and is transmitted verbally. taboos associated with religious norms are being practiced without any deviation. taboos help conservation. taboos are very localized specific. since there is a gap in knowledge management, a necessary attempt is recommended to include the values of taboos in environmental education and conservation education. documentation of those taboos and exploring the links with science and history can help conservation efforts. inter-disciplinary researchers may contribute to more comprehensive and rigorous study. policy advocacy is necessary to make the policy makers understand the importance of taboos in conservation planning and implementation. keywords conservation, fauna, knowledge management, taboos, wetland 1 brac, dhaka, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: tapas.rc@brac.net introduction bangladesh is a land of wetlands; more than 60% of the country is wetland. the life and livelihoods of the people of the country is wetland dependent. the culture, customs, norms, tradition, etc., of the country is wetland driven. human association with the wetland animals is very significant here. there are many dos and don’ts on the interaction of humans with animals. there are taboos on many animals. such indigenous belief systems often play a significant role in the conservation of animals. traditional knowledge lays the foundation of the social capital of a community and plays a significant role in conservation of biodiversity. due to taboos many species are conserved. harvesting or killing for consumption is a direct factor of population of a species. interference in the food chain and habitat is also vital for a population of a species. ‘not be taken as food’ or ‘not be killed’ because of the taboo is not sufficient enough for a species to service, but taboos reduce the threats to an animal. the current paper aims to document the taboos on wetland animals in the haor basin of bangladesh. haor is bowl-shaped with a large tectonic depression. it receives surface runoff water by rivers and canals, and consequently, a haor becomes a very extensive water body in the monsoon and dries up mostly in the postmonsoon period. distribution of haor is limited to the northeast of bangladesh and some adjacent parts of india. in bangladesh, haor basin covers an area of approximately 24,500 km2. there are 411 haors comprising an area of about 8000 km2 wetlands. around 14% of the total paddy production in bangladesh is produced in the haor basin. the objective of the study was to know the taboos on the wildlife of wetlands and the current state of practices of those taboos, so that the knowledge can be considered in the process of conservation planning and implementation. materials and methods it was a semi-ethnographic study. the study was conducted in the medir haor, located in nasirnagar subdistrict under brahmanbaria district. the author was from that community. to document the taboos, there were (a) literature review, (b) community consultations (c) key-informant interviews and (d) direct observation. the in-depth study was conducted between july 2022 and june 2024. following the international society of ethnobiology (2006)’s ise code of ethics for this study the purpose of the study including objectives, methodology, data collection, and the dissemination and application of results were discussed in detail with the participants of community consultations and key informant interview. literature review the folklores, stories and proverbs that were available in published books were studied to understand if there were any taboos noted. only a few books were found in the folklores of the subdistrict. some folk songs of nasirnagar were also analyzed to find the animal association. a few grand-mother stories were listened to learn animal association. pa ge 68 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 67-72, 2025 community consultations community consultations were conducted both in formal and informal ways. there were 10 formal consultations that were conducted in a mixed group in house yards in different locations in the village nasirnagar, nasirpur, monoharpur and kistapur. such consultations were conducted mostly during the evening and the participants were pre-selected and invited. the selection of the participants for the community consultations were identified based on their knowledge on the social practices. they were mostly community leader, elderlies and locally considered as knowledgeable. there were eight participants in a consultation on average. nonformal consultations were conducted mostly on market places of nasirnagar and nasirpur. there was no specific selection process of participants for the non-formal consultations but everyone interested to sit in discussion were welcomed. six non-formal community consultations were conducted. such open group discussion was found used by borah & prasad (2017) in their ethnozoological study of medicinal use of animal in assam, india and by mengistu et al. (2024) in ethiopia. key-informant interviews key-informant interviews were conducted with elderly and scholarly community members. the interview was open-ended in a semi-structured questionnaire (jaroli et al, 2010; borah & prasd, 2017). there were 16 keyinformant interviews conducted. direct observation direct observation includes understanding the field reality if the taboos are in practice. during the direct observation people present in the spots were randomly interviewed, talked, discussed, etc. study area the study area medir hoar is one of the small hoar of bangladesh. the core haor area is around 628 hectares. major part of the medir hoar is located in nasirnagar sub-district under brahmanbaria district. there are seven perennial water bodies which are called as beel located inside the haor, viz, korati beel, beel balia juri, beel gagutia, beel uttar balla, beel bak langon atauri, beel kupa, chachua medi. the langon is the prime river of the basin, but the kulkulia, bemali and kainja are also the perennial rivers. there are twenty villages in the medir haor basin. medir haor is a vast water body for about five months during the monsoon season, may to september every year. during the winter season the land area becomes cropland; the major crop is rice but also there is cultivation of vegetables and groundnut in areas adjacent to villages. the haor is subject to monsoon flooding every year. medir haor supports a population of around 25,000 individuals who rely on its resources. there was a thematic analysis of the data and information recorded from the study. results and discussion the study has recorded number of taboos on wetland fauna in the medir haor. there are taboos on all most all classes of animals. there are taboos on both invertebrates and vertebrates. the recorded taboos in different animal classes from the medir haor is a as below: invertebrate the crab is not eaten because it is believed that consuming it will make the tongue feel thick. students, who are hindu, will not eat or kill crabs since it is associated with goddess saraswathi, the goddess of education. there was no evidence found of association of goddess saraswathi with crab in iconography or any description but such a belief is widely practiced. also, the centipede has such an association according to the local belief and the students do not usually kill any centipede. since the spider protected prophet muhammad (sm) and abu bakr in the cave of thawr, all types of spiders, including water spiders too, are not killed. regarding dragonflies, there is a taboo in which gandhari, one of the characters in the mahabharata, lost all her hundred sons because she made a necklace of 100 dragonflies in her previous life. the dragonflies are not killed. the butterflies bring the good news of the marriage ceremony, for that young girl must not kill them and allow them to go away. if the butterfly sits in the body of a girl at the age of marriage eligibility and the family is searching for a bridegroom for her, the butterfly will be decorated with vermillion on its forehead. the mud made nest of the house wasp will not be destroyed, it is believed that if someone destroys it his house will be lost shortly. no children will catch a fairyfly, if they do, they will have bedwetting. fishes the napter pora koi (badis badis) is not eaten because it is a reborn fish. the myth is that an unlucky barber while washing it swam away into the river. in fact, this fish is very small and even not eaten by other fishes. mrigal fish (cirrhinus cirrhosus) is not eaten by pregnant women. the great snakehead (channa marulius) is not eaten by many people specifically by muslim as it is associated with hajrat shahjalal and is considered holy. helicopter catfish (wallago attu) is not eaten in the month of kartik, midoctober to mid-november. gaura fish (clupisoma gaura) is not eaten since it eats human stool but many fishes do so. there is a common saying on blaming, “all fish eat stool, but only the gaura fish is blamed.” men will avoid eating the head of asian stinging catfish (heteropneustes fossilis) because eating will cause their wife to die. indian chaca fish (chaca chaca) is eaten by higher class of hindus and muslims, but it is used as a medicine for the babies to stop problems like teeth grinding and bedwetting. catching fishes from canals in very early morning was found forbitten, specifically the spotted snakehead (channa punctata). the ghost will disturb, even there is risk of being killed by macho bhut. macho bhut, literary meaning, fish eating ghost, like the spotted snakehead very much. pa ge 69 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 67-72, 2025 amphibians the big bullfrogs have frog-stones. frog keeps it in its mouth and when it takes food, they keep it in the ground and after having the food they take this in mouth again. frog crossing a road in a group is a sign of possibility of high flood. eating the heart of a toad (duttaphrynus melanostictus) with a banana is a treatment of asthma; but toad is not edible and not being disturbed. toad is considered as lucky and as inhibitors of a house. in nasirnagar people are not usually cleaning, including sweeping their houses during the bengali month bhadra (mid-august to mid-september) to keep the toads undisturbed. reptile turtles are forbidden to eat for the muslims. turtles and their eggs are not consumed by muslims. it is considered a serious sin for them. the skinks are the aunty of snakes. if she is disturbed, she will inform the snakes, the snake will take revenge by poisonous bite. will bite. seeing snake-mate brings good luck. the banded krait will usually not bite, since it has two heads, two heads are uncle and nephew in relation; one asks the other to bite. snake-stone is found in cobra. it is believed that the common wolf snake is not harmful and it actually protects the house. the rat snake though is non-poisonous but its tail has poison and the snake hits by the tail. calotes versicolor takes blood from a distance. the bangla (local language) name of calotes is ratochusa, which means blood sucker. people usually stay away from them. the wall lizard calls like “tik-tik”, “tik” means right in bangla. if in decision making discussion among family members or a group of people a wall lizard calls, people consider it as right. the wall lizard is very perfect in projection. according to a myth, khana was a great lady who can read and assume the future and was famous for early warning of weather, her father-in-law was jealous of her and had cut her tongue, the wall lizard ate the tongue, from then the wall lizard can predict. wall lizards are not killed. people trust that the monitor lizard can spit, so that they stay far from them. birds the nesting trees of pallas’s fish eagle are not cut down because they carry dry twigs to holy proyaga (a hindu pilgrim site) for the funeral of their forefathers. if pallas’s fish eagle shows up in medir haor, a big flood is believed to be on the way. having an egret colony in a homestead or a nest in any trees in the backyard is a sign of getting wealth in the near future. egrets flying to and fro in a normal blue sky is a sign of tornado or nor’easter (erratic rainfall with thunderstorm). having a net of wild pigeons at home is good, believe that the wild pigeon has association with hajrat shahjalal, who introduced islam in the haor basin. the common name of this bird is jalali kabotar, the pigeon of jalal. this pigeon is not also eaten. no carnivorous bird is eaten. killing a nightjar bird may make someone blind or have night blindness. the oriel are good birds, they bring guests to home. the brine fever birds should not be killed because they are calling their beloved wife, their sound is like “bou kotha kou”, which means “wife, please talk”. usually birds are not killed, but for some birds even accidental killing will bring bad luck and sorrow. birds like ducks and doves are taken as food, but not very common practice because of the law and social norms. mammals ganges river dolphin (platanista gangetica) is the carrier of the goddess ganga and considered holy, but its fat is used as medicine for arthritis. association with religion animals associated with deities are considered holy. bahana (vehicle) of saraswathi is white goose (anser anser domesticus), during the 80s of the last century goose meat was preferred by students but nowadays this is not in practice. owl is the carrier of goddess laxmi, so seeing an owl in the daytime is a sign of good luck. among the owls, barn owl is more holy and is named after the goddess laxmi, it is called laxmi pencha, owl of laxmi. the iconography of the carrier of ganga describes ganges river dolphin (platanista gangetica); worship of ganga is very common among the fishermen of the medir haor. carp fish is a must for the jatra of goddess durga, the jatra is the departure of the goddess durga. goddess monosha is the goddess of snakes; she recovers people from pain. crow is the bahana of god shoni, shoni saves the believers from bad luck and brings good days. it was found that at least 15 wildlife species of the medir haor have association with religious faith and is protected in some extend. animals living in sacred lands or long years of fellow land are protected, no one enters the sacred lands without a very urgency. ‘anutpurer mora’ is a fellow homestead for many years located inside the medir haor. this land is known for many species of snakes including the monocled cobra (naja kaouthia). there are colonies of egret and pond heron in this fellow homestead. the ‘dol kandi’ is located in the center of the medir haor. earlier people avoided visiting this area because of the presence of the snakes. but nowadays during the rainy season this is a popular tourist spot. but the tourists avoided to disturbed any animals there, there is a good population of house lizards, hemidactylus brookii. knowledge management almost all the taboos are known to all age groups of the people even though traditional knowledge is not documented and is transmitted verbally. the tradition of storytelling has been gradually fading away. the knowledge or norms of taboos are transferred from generation to generation by different tells, sayings, proverbs, folk songs and local festivals. the traditional knowledge of weather forecasts is being transferred to the young from the elderly by practice. if the egret flies pa ge 70 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 67-72, 2025 here and there in a normal good sky it will have a tornado; if they fly back to the village, it will have a nor ‘wester. if the ant line moves towards high places, it will flood this year. also floating ant colonies indicate an increase of water level during floods. if the broad bill kingfisher calls frequently, it will have heavy rainfall. if the catfish catch is comparatively less it will have drought next year. young people are spending more time on mobile phones and social media, and time for interaction with other members is comparatively less now. the knowledge of nor’wester forecasts by seeing flying ergate is not well known to half of the children talked during the field visit of the study. during the early rainy season flogs are calling in the ponds and ditches. the calling frogs are not being disturbed. it is believed that the frogs are calling for rain to come. though it was found the knowledge on taboos is good among the young but the cause and origin of the taboos was not known to them. the process of intergeneration knowledge transfer is found interfered since storytelling time has been reduced because of the social media engagement of the young generation. conservation value taboos have significant conservation values. some taboos are associated with religious norms and are being practiced without any deviation. taboos not associated with religion are being deviated but very minutely. because of the taboos at least 10 species of birds were found protected in the medir haor areas, viz., 1. brain fever bird, 2. oriol, 3. owl, 4. greater crow, 5. pied myna, 6. brahminy kite, 7. black kite, 8. pallas fisheagle, 9. harrier bird, 10. drogo. no evidences were found in the policy documents including national biodiversity strategy and action plan (nbsap), jalmohal management policy (2009), wildlife (conservation and security) act 2012, bangladesh wild life (preservation) order 1973, bangladesh environment conservation act, 1995 has found considered the taboos and/or indigenous knowledge as a means of conservation of a species. taboos to forget because of medicinal values some species are under threat or at risk especially those related to the treatment of sexual disease and arthritis. for example, the chick of a white breasted water hen is eaten for lengthening the male time in intercourse. such a belief is seriously harmful for the wetland fauna. white breasted water hen are very rare nowadays, not because of its habitat loss but population loss. taboos for conservation’ and ‘taboos to conserve conserving biodiversity based on cultural and religious values is often more sustainable than based only on legislation or regulation. in an era where earth’s biodiversity is disappearing at the fastest rate in history, there is growing evidence that informal institutions such as taboos can be effective in promoting conservation. efforts should also be made to educate young people about the importance of taboos. taboos need to be documented for the conservation and betterment of the wetlands, and for the dissemination of knowledge. discussion taboos are informal institutions. according to jones et al. (2008) such an informal institution governing the use of wild species is present in many societies. food taboos influence societal preferences, which affect the wider demand for a species. importance of taboos in conservation and protection of wildlife is well recorded. egwunatum and okonta (2023) recorded it from the rainforest of nigeria. they found that availability of communal interest expressed as taboo for these threatened species affords a safer protection route of migration. the complex cultural taboo of some communities has largely contributed to the sustenance of viable populations in the face of unperceived forest fragmentation threats due to the common relationship that exists between the species and host community. understanding of the relationships between human society and nature, including wetlands, as well as an understanding of human context was highly suggested by kumar et al. (2023) for the conservation and protection of wetlands. social components and interactions can be brought into the ecological concepts by adopting a more inclusive and comprehensive term ‘wetland character’ and using a social-ecological systems framework framing built around system entities, interactions, and system-level emergence phenomena. the current study also found that understanding the taboos and the process of traditional knowledge management can contribute to the conservation planning process of a wetland. barman et al. (2025) has identified the importance of taboos in conservation and knowledge management. the knowledge systems have been preserved and transmitted through myths, taboos, and religious beliefs from one generation to the next. the traditional process of resource management only focuses on economic efficiency in favor of the state, and thus, the local communities become deprived of the rights to access their resources legitimately (newaz & rahman, 2019). the conservation planning and intervention by the government and development agencies needs to consider the social aspects of the wetland resources. the norms and taboos can play a very important role in conservation action design. in that case, effort to raise awareness is important. for that documentation of traditional and folk use of wetland biodiversity needs to be documented properly. taboos practiced by some tribal communities are documented in bangladesh but no specific study on the taboos in wetlands were found. taboos are mostly considered as a negative practice. taboos on the use of biodiversity has a positive impact on the ecosystem. the current study has found that due to taboos many wetland species are being conserved by the community. colding pa ge 71 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 67-72, 2025 & folke (1997) found both endemic and keystone species that are important for ecosystem functions are avoided by specific-species taboos. specific-species taboos have important ecological ramifications for the protection of threatened and ecologically important populations of species. they have recorded 70 species that were avoided by different human groups through specific-species taboos. about 30% of these taboos prohibit the use of threatened species, predominantly threatened reptiles and mammals. ihinmikaiye et al. (2022) noted the use of myths and taboos in species conservation represent a sustainable in situ means to wildlife protection. jimoh et al. (2017) recommended a strong need of assessing cultural practices, traditional laws and taboos in designing the conservation efforts. to understand how such practices could be strengthened and incorporated into natural resources management and conservation strategies there is a need to have a general overview of existing practices. it was found in the current study that there is a deviation in practice, and this was due to lack of knowledge on the taboos and norms. for the management of the natural resources and conservation, all conservation strategies must deal with the question of human uses of natural uses (begossi, 2006); the animal associated with religious faith and social pride and dignity has cultural values and services. indirect interactions of humans with their environment have led to a contemporary concern for the conservation of fauna since humans have had an extensive impact on the biota, often with cascading effects on many of the components of ecosystems. alves (2018) noted religion as an example of the indirect relation of humans with nature. yet beyond being a biological issue, the challenge of conservation must also be viewed from a variety of other perspectives, including social, cultural, and economic contexts. species require attention by immediately addressing unsustainable harvesting and encouraging educational efforts directed at all stakeholders, from collectors to end users (haq et al., 2024). there is a serious lack of documentation of the taboos and indigenous knowledge. talukder et al. (2009) recommended an indigenous knowledge database for wetland management. indigenous resource management practices should be identified and tenure arrangements should be included in legislation dealing with resource tenure, ensuring these issues are kept on the agenda of policy-makers. conclusion in society there are a number of taboos on consuming and using the animal diversity that support species population to survive. taboos also contribute to the food web of the wetland ecosystem. due to a gap in the knowledge transfer system the traditional knowledge has been declining. there is a lack of documenting the traditional practices and taboos. the study was conducted with a small number of people, more comprehensive and detailed study will be able to document more taboos. taboos are very localized and area specific. taboo has a history of origin. interlinkage among the researchers from different disciplines, viz., zoologists, anthropologists, sociologists and conservationists may contribute to more comprehensive and rigorous study. knowledge transmission between the generations is recommended. including the values of taboos in environmental education can contribute. the scope of social media in knowledge management could be explored. documentation of those taboos and exploring the links with science and history can help conservation efforts. policy advocacy is necessary to make the policy makers understand the importance of taboos in planning. proactiveness of conservation activities is suggested to popularize the importance of taboos in conservation and protection. publishing popular articles in newspapers can contribute to this effort. references alves, r. r. n., silva, j. s., l, s. & albuquerque, u. p. (2018). chapter 25 ethnozoology and animal conservation. alves, r. r. n. & albuquerque, u. p. (eds). ethnozoology (pp 481-496). academic press, (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ b9780128099131000259) barman, a., rajak, f. & jha, r. (2025). integrating traditional knowledge systems for wetland conservation and management: a critical analysis. nature environment and pollution technology, 24(1), b 4212. https://doi.org/10.46488/nept.2025. v24i01. b4212 begossi, a. (2006). temporal stability in fishing spots: conservation and co-management in brazilian artisanal coastal fisheries. ecology and society, 11(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.5751/es-01380-110105 borah, m. p., & prasad, s. b. (2017). ethnozoological study of animals based medicine used by traditional healers and indigenous inhabitants in the adjoining areas of gibbon wildlife sanctuary, assam. indian journal of ethnobiology & ethnomedicine, 13, 39. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0167-6 colding, j., & c. folke. (1997). the relations among threatened species, their protection, and taboos. conservation ecology, 1(1), 6. available from the internet. url: http://www.consecol.org/vol1/iss1/ art6/ egwunatum, a. e., & okonta, b. c. (2023). assessment of habitat fragmentation impact on community taboo species for adoption as conservation portfolios in lowland rainforest ecological zone of delta state, nigera. journal of biodiversity conservation and bioresources management, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.3329/jbcbm. v9i2.70054 haq, s. m., waheed, m., & bussmann, r. w. (2024). “traditional” use in a global world: unsustainable ethnozoological usage among himalayan ethnic groups drives species to extinction. biodiversity and conservation, 33, 1125-1144. https://doi.org/10.1007/ pa ge 72 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 67-72, 2025 s10531-024-02778-0 ihinmikaiye, s. o., ochekwu, e. b. & ojo, v. i. (2022). the use of myths and taboos in wildlife conservation: the case of bayelsa-east senatorial district of nigeria. the zoologist, 20. 141-149. https://doi.org/10.4314/ tzool.v20i1.18 international society of ethnobiology (2006). ise code of ethics (with 2008 additions). online: http:// ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics jaroli, d. p., mahawar, m. m., & vyas, n. (2010) an ethnozoological study in the adjoining areas of mount abu wildlife sanctuary, indian journal of ethnobiology & ethnomedicine, 10(6), 6. https://doi. org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-6. jimoh, s. o., emmanuel, t. e., alarape, a. a., & adeyemi, a. a. (2012). the role of traditional laws and taboos in wildlife conservation in the oban hill sector of cross river national park (crnp), nigeria. journal of human ecology, 39(3), 209–219. https://doi. org/10.1080/09709274.2012.11906513 jones, j. p., andriamarovololona, m. m., & hockley, n. (2008). the importance of taboos and social norms to conservation in madagascar. conservation biology, 22(4), 976-86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15231739.2008.00970.x kumar, r., horwitz, p., & max finlayson, c. (2023). 19 wetlands as social–ecological systems: bridging nature and society, editor(s): peter a. gell, davidson, n. c. & max finlayson, c. (eds). ramsar wetlands (pp 525-553). elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012-817803-4.00021-8. mengistu, m., kebebew, m., & meyer-rochow, v. b. (2024). ethnozoological study of medicinal animals used by the inhabitants of the kucha district, gamo zone, southern ethiopia. journal of ethnobiology & ethnomedicine, 20, 72. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-024-00714-8 newaz, m. w., & rahman, s. (2019). wetland resource governance in bangladesh: an analysis of communitybased co-management approach. environmental development, 32. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.envdev.2019.06.001. talukder, b., nobukazu, n., & rashid, m. s. (2009). state and management of wetlands in bangladesh. landscape & ecological engineering, 5, 81–90. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11355-008-0052-5 pa ge 1 pa ge 19 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) assessment of common ambient air pollutants and respiratory health outcomes among road construction workers in imo state, nigeria john mark bwala1, agwu nkwa amadi1, chimezie christian iwuala1, ugo uwadiako enebeli2* volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5615 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: july 07, 2025 accepted: august 11, 2025 published: september 01, 2025 road construction workers are more likely to experience respiratory health problems because they are frequently exposed to air pollution. the purpose of this study was to assess the common ambient air pollutants and respiratory health outcomes among nigerian road construction workers in imo state. a cross-sectional study was conducted in imo state, nigeria, with 353 road construction workers from imo state’s three senatorial zones selected using a multistage sampling technique. gas meters placed at key points were used to measure the ambient concentrations of carbon monoxide (co), sulphur dioxide (so2), and suspended particulate matter (spm) at construction sites. respiratory symptoms and forced vital capacity (fvc) of the road construction workers were assessed by qualified health professionals. the mean co, so2, and spm concentrations in imo west were 182.40±6.41ppm, 516.24±55.03μg/m3, and 1956.22±30.75μg/m3 respectively; in imo east, 185.34±6.46ppm, 518.26±55.12μg/m3, and 1960.17±30.79μg/m3 respectively; and in imo north, 187.51±6.49ppm, 520.14±55.34μg/m3, and 1956.68±30.25μg/m3 respectively. in all zones, co, so2, and spm levels significantly exceeded safe thresholds, according to the oneway anova analysis (p<0.05) performed with spss. among the most common respiratory health problems were coughing, 211 (59.77%); sneezing, 290(82.15%); catarrh, 79(22.38%); sore throat, 72(20.39%); asthma, 29(8.22%); short breath, 121(34.28%); pneumonia, 66(18.70%); headache, 133(37.68%); and wheezing, 170(48.16%). mean fvc values were 2263.34±482.33 ml (imo west), 2578.80±751.80 ml (imo east), and 2382.78±610.42 ml (imo north). to mitigate respiratory health risks, road construction workers are strongly recommended to consistently use personal protective equipment, particularly respiratory masks, during work activities. keywords ambient air pollutants, imo state, nigeria, respiratory health, road construction workers 1 department of public health, federal university of technology owerri, nigeria 2 department of community medicine, rhema university nigeria, aba, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: doctorenebeli@yahoo.com introduction road construction workers’ respiratory health is seriously endangered by the exposure to hazardous pollutants such as dust, respirable crystalline silica (rcs), diesel exhaust fumes, and other toxic gases that come with road building activities (boadu et al., 2023; sarabi et al., 2025). asthma, chronic bronchitis, and diminished lung function are among the respiratory disorders associated with these pollutants, which are produced by activities such as excavation, material handling, and heavy machinery operations (kunar & mandal, 2025; landwehr et al., 2023). road building is a crucial industry in nigeria, especially in imo state, yet little is known about the risks to employees’ occupational health (bwala et al., 2025). effective interventions and regulations to safeguard these workers are hampered by the absence of thorough data on exposure to air pollutants and the health effects of those exposures. by measuring the concentrations of common ambient air pollutants, including spm, co, and so₂, at road building sites in imo state, nigeria, and analyzing their relationship to worker respiratory health effects, this study fills this knowledge gap. in order to reduce occupational health risks in this population, this study measured pollutant exposure, ascertained the frequency of respiratory symptoms, and presented data to support the development of policies and focused interventions. literature review road and industrialization construction activities expose workers to hazardous compounds that might harm their respiratory health, making it a major source of ambient air pollution (abdullahi et al., 2022; hasan et al., 2021; sarabi et al., 2025). road construction workers’ occupational health risks are increased by the physically taxing nature of road construction as well as exposure to pollutants from materials and processes. significant air pollutants are produced by operations including site clearance, earthworks, material manufacture, and driving heavy machinery on unpaved roads (wang et al., 2025). according to a meta-analysis, the main occupational hazards causing respiratory disorders among road construction workers are dust, rcs, fumes, vapours, asbestos, fibres, and gases (boadu et al., 2023). excavation, tunnelling, demolition, sandblasting, grinding, masonry, rock drilling, road grading, milling, and wood processing (such as cutting, planing, and sanding) are among the tasks that expose workers to dust (boadu et al., 2023). handling fine particles of cement, fly ash, bricks, mortar, and sandstone, as well as mixing cement and concrete, are common operations that include rcs, a particularly dangerous pollutant (us department of labor occupational safety and health administration, 2024). respiratory hazards are further increased by fumes, pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 19-27, 2025 usually from welding, diesel exhaust, and asphalt (kunar & mandal, 2025). road construction and repair require heavy machinery, most often diesel-powered. chronic bronchitis and asthma are among the respiratory disorders linked to extended exposure to diesel exhaust fumes (landwehr et al., 2023; mo et al., 2022). road construction workers, regrettably, frequently work long hours, increasing their exposure to dangerous materials and, as a result, the risk to their respiratory health (who, 2021). road construction workers frequently work long shifts, which increases their exposure to these dangerous compounds and raises their risk of respiratory health problems issues (boadu et al., 2023; yasmeen & hafeez, 2023). despite this data, there is a paucity of studies in imo state to assess the occupational respiratory risks of road transport workers; hence, this study aims to contribute to the development of targeted treatments and policies to mitigate the hazards to respiratory health of road construction workers in the region. materials and methods population of the study the study population consisted of all road construction workers employed at construction sites across imo state, nigeria. study area this study was conducted among road construction workers aged 18 years and older in imo state, located in the south-eastern region of nigeria. with a total area of roughly 5,100 km2, imo state is located between the lower river niger and the upper and middle imo river. its latitudes range from 4°45’n to 7°15’n and its longitudes from 6°50’e to 7°25’e. sample size determination cochran’s formula for cross-sectional research was used to determine the minimal sample size (ogbeibu, 2014): n=(z2 pq)/d2 where p is the percentage of construction workers having respiratory issues (35.5%) from a prior study (isara et al., 2016), q is (1-p), d is the allowable margin of error (0.05), and n is the minimum sample size. ∴ n=(1.962 x 0.355 x 0.645)/0.052= 351.85= 352 a minimum sample size of 352 was established; in the end, 353 road construction workers participated in the survey. sampling technique the selection of the 353 participants was conducted using a multistage sampling technique. imo state was divided into its three senatorial zones: imo west, imo east, and imo north, in the initial phase. the major construction sites in each senatorial zone’s local government areas were randomly selected from a compiled list of all construction sites for the second stage. in the third stage, individual road construction workers at these sites were selected using simple random sampling. a total of 121, 122, and 110 workers were recruited from imo west, imo east, and imo north, respectively. inclusion criteria included being employed as a road construction worker, being aged 18 years or older, and having at least six months of experience in the profession. exclusion criteria included non-road construction workers, those who did not provide consent, and workers with acute illnesses. method of data collection data was collected using the following instruments: • a structured questionnaire to capture demographic and health-related information. • a sphygmomanometer measures blood pressure. • a spirometer to assess forced vital capacity (fvc). • gas meters to measure ambient levels of co, so₂, and spm at strategic locations on construction sites. method of data analysis data was entered and analyzed using the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) software, version 23. continuous and categorical variables were summarised using descriptive statistics, such as means and frequency distributions, respectively, and displayed in tabular form. with a 95% confidence interval and a significance level of 0.05, an analysis of variance (anova) was used to assess variations in ambient air pollutant concentrations and the frequency of respiratory symptoms among the three senatorial zones. ethical consent ethical approval was obtained from the ethical committee of the department of public health, school of health technology, federal university of technology, owerri, imo state, nigeria. informed written consent was obtained from all participants prior to their inclusion in the study. results and discussion a total of 353 male road construction workers from the three senatorial zones of imo state, nigeria (imo east, imo west, and imo north), participated in this study. the data are summarized in tables 1–7, where “n” denotes the number of participants and “%” represents the percentage. age demographic profile of road construction workers this study found that all the participants (road construction workers) were males. there were more 31–40-year-olds (33.43%) and 41-50-year-olds (27.76%), compared to the 18-30-year-olds (17.85%), as shown in table 1. road construction is a labour-intensive industry that involves heavy machinery, such as tractors, cement mixers, bulldozers, and excavators, which emit dust and gases, exposing workers to hazardous pollutants (nikolay, 2018). the male majority in this study was comparable to earlier studies on road construction workers in ghana’s western north, ashanti, and ahafo regions (yankson et al., 2023). the preponderance of men in construction may be due to the nature of the work, which involves hard labour such as removing rocks and dirt, constructing pavement, clearing vegetation, and building embankments. pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 19-27, 2025 awareness of air pollution across senatorial zones across the three senatorial zones, the majority of respondents strongly agreed with the following statements: road construction is a major source of dust (70.21%, n=248), dust can cause respiratory problems (93.01%, n=328), road construction materials contain harmful chemicals (87.81%, n=310), workers should consistently use personal protective equipment (ppe) (87.85%, n=310), rain and cold weather reduce dust levels (64.06%, n=226), and sunny weather promotes distant air movement (65.31%, n=231), as shown in table 2. however, 0.53% (n=4) disagreed that road construction materials contain hazardous chemicals, and 5.33% (n=38) disagreed that road construction is a significant source of dust. table 1: age demographic profile of road construction workers age group (years) imo west n(%) imo east n(%) imo north n(%) total n(%) 18-30 18(5.1) 22(5.38) 23(6.51) 63(17.85) 31-40 43(12.18) 38(10.76) 37(10.48) 118(33.43) 41-50 35(9.92) 31(8.78) 32(9.07) 98(27.76) above 50 25(7.08) 31(8.78) 18(5.10) 74(20.96) table 2: response of all subjects in imo state on air pollution awareness information on air pollution strongly agree (%) agree (%) disagree (%) strongly disagree (%) general (all the three zones) road construction is a major source of dust 274(70.21) 27(7.03) 38(5.33) 0(0.00) dust can cause respiratory health problems 303(93.01) 15(3.90) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) road construction materials contain harmful chemicals 322(87.81) 38(9.64) 4(0.53) 0(0.00) workers should always wear their ppe 311(87.85) 35(9.89) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) rain and cold weather reduce dust 278(64.06) 76(33.45) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) sunny weather promotes distant air movement 229(65.31) 40(11.30) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) imo west road construction is a major source of dust 97(82.45) 7(8.50) 4(1.50) 0(0.00) dust can cause respiratory health problems 82(73.30) 5(5.00) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) road construction materials contain harmful chemicals 95(85.57) 8(7.30) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) workers should always wear their ppe 106(91.24) 10(9.17) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) rain and cold weather reduce dust 85(77.55) 10(8.86) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) sunny weather promotes distant air movement 94(86.90) 15(10.56) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) imo east road construction is a major source of dust 90(80.45) 7(9.50) 4(1.50) 0(0.00) dust can cause respiratory health problems 93(88.30) 9(6.00) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) road construction materials contain harmful chemicals 99(85.44) 7(6.35) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) workers should always wear their ppe 91(84.24) 18(13.18) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) rain and cold weather reduce dust 90(82.50) 15(12.86) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) sunny weather promotes distant air movement 98(89.90) 13(10.02) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) imo north road construction is a major source of dust 87(78.45) 10(9.11) 1(1.90) 0(0.00) dust can cause respiratory health problems 96(90.28) 12(9.60) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) road construction materials contain harmful chemicals 102(95.44) 4(6.35) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) workers should always wear their ppe* 91(85.29) 16(12.10) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) rain and cold weather reduce dust 100(92.92) 11(8.30) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) sunny weather promotes distant air movement 88(79.43) 11(9.02) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) *ppe: personal protective equipment pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 19-27, 2025 ambient air pollutant levels across senatorial zones the mean concentrations of ambient air pollutants at construction sites are presented in table 3. imo west had 1940.50 ± 24.15 μg/m³ of suspended particulate matter (spm), imo east had 1960.17 ± 30.79 μg/m³, and imo north had 1956.68 ± 30.25 μg/m³. these variations were statistically significant (p<0.001). significant differences (p<0.05) were also seen in the levels of carbon monoxide (co), which were 183.50 ± 2.17 ppm in imo west, 185.34 ± 6.46 ppm in imo east, and 187.51 ± 6.49 ppm in imo north. sulfur dioxide (so₂) levels were 499.17 ± 42.92 μg/m³ in imo west, 518.26 ± 55.12 μg/m³ in imo east, and 520.14 ± 55.34 μg/m³ in imo north, with significant differences (p<0.001). dust (soil, gravel, wood, silica, non-silica mineral, and demolition dust) and diesel exhaust emissions from heavy-duty vehicles and stationary engines are common pollutants found at construction sites (toronto environmental alliance, 2024). carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulphur and nitrogen compounds, and carbon dioxide are all present in diesel exhaust (geldenhuys et al., 2022). the measurements made for this study showed that the concentrations of common ambient air pollutants from these common sources far exceeded the world health organization (who)’s acceptable criteria. ambient spm levels across senatorial zones the spm levels, particularly pm₂.₅ and pm₁₀, were significantly elevated in this study (table 3). due to their deep penetration into the lungs, the elevated spm levels raise the risk of lung disease, emphysema, and lung cancer (cohen et al., 2005). pm₂.₅ is particularly dangerous as it contributes to asthma, cardiovascular disease, and early mortality due to its toxic components, which include heavy metals and carcinogenic organic compounds (cohen et al., 2005). the study’s high spm levels (1906– 1981 μg/m3) and the 158.07–1763.37 μg/m3 spm range reported in chinese building sites (fang et al., 2025) both point to the urgent need for dust management measures. table 3: suspended particulate matter (spm) levels at construction sites across senatorial zones in imo state gps location north gps location east spm (μg/m3) imo west 5.4882o 7.0175o 1930 5.4859o 7.0171o 1906 5.4840o 7.0180o 1934 5.4833o 7.0169o 1940 5.4851o 7.0173o 1977 5.4889o 7.0182o 1956 mean ± standard deviations: 1940.5 ± 24.15 p-value: <0.0001 imo east 5.7822o 7.0390o 1942 5.7835o 7.0388o 1956 5.7830o 7.0398o 1923 5.7846o 7.0383o 1959 5.7892o 7.0381o 1960 5.7851o 7.0398o 1941 mean ± standard deviations: 1960.17 ± 30.79 p-value: 0.01 imo north 5.8191o 7.3411o 1945 5.8170o 7.3406o 1933 5.8186o 7.3424o 1909 5.8198o 7.3439o 1962 5.8182o 7.3401o 1981 5.8169o 7.3453o 1963 mean ± standard deviations: 1956.68 ± 30.25 p-value: <0.001 pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 19-27, 2025 ambient co levels across senatorial zones elevated co levels portend major health risks because haemoglobin has a stronger affinity for co than oxygen and forms carboxyhaemoglobin (hbco), which reduces oxygen delivery to tissues and leads to hypoxia (offiah et al., 2022). while chronic co exposure can lead to melancholy, memory loss, and in extreme situations, central nervous system and heart poisoning or death, acute exposure can elicit symptoms including light-headedness, disorientation, headaches, and vertigo. haemoglobin has a greater affinity for co than oxygen, and forms carboxyhaemoglobin (hbco), which lowers oxygen delivery to tissues and causes hypoxia (offiah et al., 2022). this makes elevated co levels a serious health risk. while chronic co exposure can lead to melancholy, memory loss, and in extreme situations, central nervous system and heart poisoning or death, acute exposure can elicit symptoms including light-headedness, disorientation, headaches, and vertigo (mishra & krishnan, 2016). as seen in table 4, the study’s measured co levels (180–189 ppm) were much higher than the maximum co range of 2.10–2.27 ppm recorded at another construction site in lagos state, nigeria, and well beyond the 100ppm threshold considered harmful to human health (owolabi et al., 2024). these disparities could have been caused by differences in the various geographic locations’ seasonal weather patterns, human activities, and meteorological circumstances. table 4: carbon monoxide (co) levels at construction sites across senatorial zones in imo state gps location north gps location east co (ppm) imo west 5.4882o 7.0175o 183 5.4859o 7.0171o 181 5.4840o 7.0180o 183 5.4833o 7.0169o 182 5.4851o 7.0173o 187 5.4889o 7.0182o 185 mean ± standard deviations: 183.5 ± 2.17 p-value: <0.0001 imo east 5.7822o 7.0390o 185 5.7835o 7.0388o 186 5.7830o 7.0398o 184 5.7846o 7.0383o 180 5.7892o 7.0381o 185 5.7851o 7.0398o 189 mean ± standard deviations: 185.34 ± 6.49 p-value: <0.0001 imo north 5.8191o 7.3411o 188 5.8170o 7.3406o 185 5.8186o 7.3424o 181 5.8198o 7.3439o 180 5.8182o 7.3401o 185 5.8169o 7.3453o 187 mean ± standard deviations: 187.51 ± 6.49 p-value: 0.02 ambient so₂ levels across senatorial zones this study’s ambient so₂ levels were significantly higher (p<0.001) across senatorial zones, as shown in table 5, which could have an impact on respiratory health. although so₂ is primarily absorbed by the upper airways’ mucous membranes, increased ventilation (e.g., during physical labour) can deliver higher doses to the lungs, causing bronchoconstriction, reduced lung function, and respiratory symptoms (adetoun-mustapha et al., 2011; thacher et al., 2013). long-term exposure to so₂ has been linked to respiratory issues even at lower doses (0.4–3.0 ppm); however, attribution is made more difficult by confounding factors, including co-exposure to other pollutants (rodney et al., pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 19-27, 2025 2024). the high so₂ values (499–520 μg/m³) in this study, which were higher than the average level of 17.95±7.44 µg/m³ recorded in india (singh et al., 2023) suggest a significant risk to the respiratory health of nigerian road construction workers. table 5: sulphur dioxide (so2) levels at construction sites across senatorial zones in imo state gps location north gps location east so2 (μg/m3) imo west 5.4882o 7.0175o 460 5.4859o 7.0171o 559 5.4840o 7.0180o 453 5.4833o 7.0169o 477 5.4851o 7.0173o 510 5.4889o 7.0182o 536 mean ± standard deviation: 499.17 ± 42.92 p-value: <0.0001 imo east 5.7822o 7.0390o 466 5.7835o 7.0388o 557 5.7846o 7.0383o 449 5.7892o 7.0381o 590 5.7851o 7.0398o 544 mean ± standard deviations: 518.26 ± 55.12 p-value <0.0001 imo north 5.8191o 7.3411o 449 5.8170o 7.3406o 578 5.8186o 7.3424o 461 5.8198o 7.3439o 480 5.8182o 7.3401o 503 5.8169o 7.3453o 522 mean ± standard deviations: 520.14 ± 55.34 p-value: <0.0001 prevalence of respiratory health problems among road construction workers the findings of similar studies, including ekpenyong et al. and isara et al., in nigeria (ekpenyong et al., 2012; isara et al., 2016), and mandal & dutta (2022) in india which reported similar respiratory function impairment among figure 1: distribution of respiratory health problems among road construction workers in imo state pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 19-27, 2025 workers exposed to ambient air pollutants, are consistent with the high prevalence of symptoms like sneezing (82.15%, n=290), coughing (59.77%, n=211), wheezing (48.16%, n=170), headache (37.68%, n=133), shortness of breath (34.28%, n=121), catarrh (22.38%, n=79), sore throat (20.39%, n=72), pneumonia (18.70%, n=66), and asthma (8.22%, n=29) in this study (figure 1). comparing respiratory health issues among senatorial zones the distribution of respiratory symptoms among senatorial zones is shown in table 6. over half (56.50%, n=69) of imo west, 58.50% (n=75) of imo east, and 56.40% (n=62) of imo north reported coughing. in imo west, 76.45% (n=90), imo east, 75.11% (n=88), and imo north, 80.10% (n=85) of respondents reported sneezing. in imo west, 21.47% (n=24), imo east, 20.32% (n=26), and imo north, 20.72% (n=28) of the population reported having diarrhoea. headache was reported by 40.03% (n=45) in imo west, 36.83% (n=44) in imo east, and 42.14% (n=46) in imo north. wheezing was reported by 49.12% (n=54) in imo west, 44.15% (n=52) in imo east, and 53.45% (n=55) in imo north. table 6: sulphur dioxide (so2) levels at construction sites across senatorial zones in imo state health problem imo west imo east imo north n % n % n % cough 69 56.50 75 58.50 62 56.40 sneezing 90 76.45 88 75.11 85 80.10 catarrh 24 21.47 26 20.32 28 20.42 sore throat 23 20.05 24 19.50 20 19.87 asthma 8 6.49 10 7.32 7 5.45 short breadth 40 35.80 42 37.59 33 29.23 pneumonia 26 18.43 27 20.36 24 18.90 headache 45 40.03 44 36.83 46 42.14 wheezing 54 49.12 52 44.15 55 53.45 comparison of forced vital capacity values across senatorial zones mean forced vital capacity (fvc) values were 2263.34 ± 482.33 ml in imo west, 2578.80 ± 751.80 ml in imo east, and 2382.78 ± 610.42 ml in imo north, as shown in table 7. seventeen workers had reduced fvc values of 0-1000ml according to spirometry results (table 7), which may indicate respiratory impairment (mason et al., 2010). the workers’ infrequent fvc monitoring exposes a gap in occupational health surveillance, as gradual lung function deterioration may not be detected until serious harm is already done (lynch et al., 2021; wallbanks et al., 2024). table 7: comparison of forced vital capacity values of road construction workers at different senatorial zones imo west imo east imo north fvc (ml) total n % n % n % 0 – 1000 17 6 5.0 7 5.7 4 3.6 1001 – 2000 63 24 19.8 19 15.6 20 18.2 2001 – 3000 200 66 55.0 68 55.7 66 60.0 3001 – 4000 63 20 16.7 23 18.9 20 18.2 4001 – 5000 10 5 4.2 5 4.1 0 0.0 total 353 121 100.00 122 100.00 110 100.00 min (max) 1250 (3270) 1190 (4118) 1885 (4491) mean ± std dev 2263.3 ± 482.3 2578.8 ± 751.80 2382.8 ± 610.4 p-value p=0.17 conclusions this study evaluated ambient air pollutant levels at road construction sites in imo state, nigeria, and their impact on workers’ respiratory health. the key findings were that road construction workers are exposed to high levels of ambient air pollutants (co, so₂, spm) exceeding who safe limits. the respiratory symptoms, such as wheeze, sneezing, coughing, and shortness of breath, were highly prevalent, with fvc values indicating compromised lung function in some workers. a proportion of employees were ignorant of the dust and chemical hazards associated with road building. these findings highlight the urgent need for protective measures, including mandatory highquality ppe, routine health monitoring with spirometry, and environmental controls like cleaner fuels and dust suppression, strict enforcement of air quality regulations, pa ge 26 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 19-27, 2025 and worker education awareness campaigns. future research should include longitudinal studies to assess long-term effects, biomonitoring for health impacts, indoor-outdoor exposure comparisons, and comparative geographic comparisons in other regions to support national policy development. immediate action is critical to safeguard workers’ respiratory health and ensure compliance with environmental and occupational 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(2023). effect of particulate emissions on the respiratory system of workers belonging to different industries: an overview. archives of respiratory research, 2(1), 1–9. pa ge 1 pa ge 15 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) the padma paradox: irrigation benefits and waterlogging challenges drive csa adoption in bangladesh md akter faruk fuad1*, md. safiul islam afrad2, foyez ahmed prodhan2 volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4020 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: november 16, 2024 accepted: december 20, 2024 published: may 07, 2025 the padma river is one of the prime irrigation sources for bangladesh. but the impacts of climate change are making it difficult to use water resources to enhance agricultural productivity properly. climate-smart agriculture (csa) practices are the most notable among the proposed solutions. this paper examines the adoption of csa approach within the territory under dohar sub-district of padma river basin. this study collected data from 180 farmer families through personal interviews with a large body of literature. the water of padma river is generally suitable for agricultural purposes because the ph level is periodically found within the range normal for plant growth. however, the variable oxygen levels in water affect aquatic organisms and also crops. besides, waterlogged low-lying topography coupled with poor drainage facilities often creates problems like monsoon-induced waterlogging making it tough to successfully manage crops. our study highlights that csa has so many advantages like enhanced crop diversity and nutrition as well as reduced costs, but several factors hinder its adoption. the problems identified include waterlogging stresses, temperature increases, and limited awareness of stress-tolerant varieties. overcoming these challenges requires support through location-specific agroforestry initiatives, assistance to local private farms, and financial support for poly-shed farming. to get the full potential of csa, we suggest a strategic approach to this endextension services that are well-directed and include more access to climate information as well as financial support for farmers. through the ways identified in alleviating the above-mentioned difficulties bangladesh can enhance agricultural resilience which indeed represents a milestone in reducing vulnerability to climate change and ensuring food security for its people. keywords bangladesh, csa, irrigation, the padma, waterlogging 1 department of agriculture extension, ministry of agriculture, bangladesh 2 faculty of agriculture bangabandhu shiekh mujibur rahman agricultural university, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: fuad.ag2306@gmail.com introduction bangladesh is predominantly composed of floodplains and is therefore dependent on the natural systems (islam et al., 2021). it is prone to hydrometeorological extremes such as floods, tropical storms, and saltwater intrusion, as well as dry spells due to environmental factors (barua et al., 2021; baas & ramasamy, 2008). all of these climatic factors affect the framework of agriculture severely (swami, 2019; nwanze & fan, 2016; arfanuzzaman et al., 2016). the padma serves as a significant irrigation source for the adjacent chars and farmlands in the dohar subdistrict (islam et al., 2021). the padma river spans 34 kilometers in dohar, with a mean flow rate of approximately 30,000 m/sec (mclean et al., 2012). the topography of the river is complex due to neotectonics, fluvial action, and sediment deposition during the right bank distributary activity (islam, 2016). consequently, the padma river has rendered this subdistrict one of the most vulnerable areas. climate change has broken this river system and caused irregular monsoon rainfall, which has aggravated the problem of soil erosion along the riverbanks, thereby putting people’s livelihoods and agricultural production at risk (huq et al., 2015; ahmed et al., 2020; hasan et al., 2017). the geographical position of the region, combined with irregular and uneven rainfall, further complicates the problem of flooding in many districts of this country, a situation exacerbated by climate change (moa, 2023). therefore, farmers are implementing a variety of traditional adaptation strategies to counteract the adverse impacts of climate change. the department of agriculture extension (dae), supported by other ngos, developed climate field school in 2010 as an informal platform to disseminate information, such as, floating vegetable bed and dyke cropping (mahashin, 2019; mandal, 2016; alam et al., 2013). as a result, the farmers’ awareness has increased to utilize the natural resources to grow year-round crops in southern saline prone regions (farouque & sarker, 2018). climate-smart agriculture (csa) is a new paradigm that offers measures for enhancing food security and betterment of livelihoods as well as contributing to economic development in a changing climate. csa offers a potential solution to climate-related challenges and nutritional insecurity. this is achieved through improving productivity along with the conservation of biodiversity as well as the health of the ecosystem. it recognizes the linked problems of food security, agricultural productivity, ecosystem, and biodiversity (fao, 2020; swami, 2019; branca et al., 2011; brüssow et al., 2017). the multifaceted approaches of csa outperform traditional techniques, particularly in terms of farm productivity and farm income in southern bangladesh (mahashin & pa ge 16 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 roy, 2017). adoption of csa directly correlates with the food security of coastal households (hasan et al., 2018). bangladesh’s national csa strategy focuses on intensifying cropping systems and improving water and soil health management. proper land management practices are required, when food requirements are increasing, but the farmlands are shrinking proportionally. we must address the hunger issue in bangladesh by enhancing farmers’ productivity and profits while maintaining sustainability (sarker et al., 2021). in this regard, the dae, the main agency for agriculture, has made notable efforts to extend the csa practices, particularly in ecologically vulnerable areas such as saline, flood prone and river basin areas (kd, 2024). regular monitoring and follow-up are important for disseminating newer agricultural technology (akter et al., 2022; acharyya, 2021). the extension officers are working on energy conservation and emission reduction measures, while farmers are also actively engaging in various training, demonstrations and outreach activities focusing on csa practices (hassan et al., 2024). therefore, a comprehensive understanding of farmers’ perceptions and feedbacks on csa is crucial for sustaining and developing effective food security strategies (sargani et al., 2020). ishtiaque et al. (2024) also identified a significant gap between the potential and actual adoption of csa technologies and highlighted the need for improved diffusion strategies. although it is widely known that the cruciality of csa is to cope with the changing climate only a limited number of available studies focus on the prospects of adopting csa for food security aspects (wakweya, 2023). previous literature has given thorough attention to the importance of csa in across bangladesh. nevertheless, dohar, the study area lacks studies that seek to understand the complete picture of csa practices, some of the limitations faced, and the degree of adaptation among the farmers in padma river basin. such a knowledge gap makes it challenging to come up with an appropriate strategy meant for sustainable agricultural production in the region. therefore, this study intends to assess the effects of csa approaches in the padma river basin. the case study conducted with smallholder farming in the dohar sub-district, mid-bangladesh focuses on the present status of csa practices. materials and methods study area the study was conducted in dohar subdistrict, which is the least populated in dhaka district and has the smallest land area (121.41 square kilometres). this subdistrict is situated geographically between latitude 23°31’ to 23°41’ to the north and longitude 90°01’ to 90°13’ to the east, where one of the rivers commonly experiences erosion and flooding (figure 1). this subdistrict selection criteria consisted of tidal flooding history, presence of large areas of agricultural land and incidence of adverse climate affecting crop production of the last five years, as noted by the agricultural office. figure 1: study area source: doe data collection and data analysis this study followed qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. it used the environmental statistics yearbook published by the department of environment (doe), and the statistics yearbook published by the bangladesh bureau of statistics (bbs) to measure the annual rainfall, temperature, and relative humidity. both of them serve as a scientific basis for formulating appropriate guidelines, including strategic plans for the advancement of bangladesh. both of them compile annual and periodic sample surveys under the fao guidelines (doe, 2023). we also conducted a systematic survey of relevant literature to underpin a conceptual model and derive pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 the policies and governance processes pertaining to csa in bangladesh. we then conducted a structured questionnaire survey to collect primary data from 180 farmers between january and march, 2024. the studies targeted one farmers’ group rather than the whole population due to time and resource constraints. for qualitative data, thematic analysis approach was applied while for quantitative data, statistical methods were used for data analysis. measurement of irrigation water quality parameters the doe is the prime concern authority to monitor surface and ground water quality since 1973 in bangladesh. this department monitors total 27 rivers water quality through several monitoring stations at monthly interval (doe, 2023). monitoring of river surface water is critical in management of farm irrigation resources as well as accurate flood prediction (haque, 2008). depending on the dissolved additives and suspended solid particles largely determine the quality it possess and on the ecosystem health. the physical and chemical parameters ph, do and chloride ions are important to determine water quality and productivity (momtaz et al., 2010; ehiagbonare & ogunrinde, 2010). this study studied these three parameters to monitor the padma river’s water quality. ph is the logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen ions concentration in a solution, and represents the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. doe uses standard method or electrode to analyse ph. the measure of dissolved oxygen (do) is often applied in determination of biological suitability of water for particular usage. it provides habitat support for water animals and controls the rate of breakdown of organic compounds (haritash et al., 2016). sufficient do levels are critical to the wellbeing of water quality as well as all forms of aquatic life. mortality occurs at concentrations of 5mg/l and below, however concentrations lower than this are very detrimental to phytoplankton and zooplankton. doe uses modified winkler’s method or titrimetric method to analyse do. the negatively charged chloride ion is formed when it gains an electron or when a compound is dissolved in other polar solvents. chloride salts are soluble in water and an essential electrolyte to regulate fluid in and out of cells with maintaining acidity/alkalinity level, and transmitting nerve signals. doe uses argentometric method to analyse chloride. measurement of perception on csa practices we constructed a perception index (pi) to measure the respondents’ perceptions of csa practices. this index incorporated seven selected aspects and was calculated using the following formula: pi = (pvl × 1) + (pl × 2) + (pm × 3) + (ph × 4) + (pvh × 5) where, pvl = percentage of farmers with very low perception pl = percentage of farmers with low perception pm = percentage of farmers with moderate perception ph = percentage of farmers with high perception pvh = percentage of farmers with very high perception the pi for any given aspect ranged from 0 to 900, with 0 representing the lowest and 900 the highest perception level. akanda and howlader (2015) used a similar methodological approach on coastal farmers’ perceptions of climate change effects in bangladesh. measurement of level in adopting csa practices we developed a survey formula to assess the level of adoption of nine csa practices among respondents. each item used a four-point scale, with response options ranging from “frequently” to “not at all” and corresponding scores of 3, 2, 1, and 0, respectively. a csa practice use index (cpui) was calculated for each practice using the following formula: cpui = (n1 × 3) + (n2 × 2) + (n3 × 1) + (n4 × 0) where, cpui = csa practice use index n1 = number of respondents who used csa practice frequently n2 = number of respondents who used csa practice occasionally n3 = number of respondents who used csa practice rarely n4 = number of respondents who did not use csa practice at all kamal et al. (2018) used similar scale and formula to measure the ipm adoption level. measurement of benefits of csa practices to measure the benefits of csa practices, a furnished questionnaire was developed, responses were coded, and analyzed with ms excel. responses were taken on a five points likert-scale, whereby 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree. the mean values of the likertscale were calculated as ‘not at all’ (1 to 1.79), ‘disagree’ (1.80 to 2.59), ‘neutral’ (2.60 to 3.39), ‘important’ (3.40 to 4.19) and, ‘very important’ (4.20 to 5). measurement of challenges in adopting csa practices and steps to resolve we identified and categorized the eight major challenges in adopting csa practices according to the respondents’ perceptions. a four-level scale was used to calculate each of the challenges, with ‘high’ given a score of (3), ‘low’ that was scored as 1 (low) and, ‘no challenge’ scored as (0) where appropriate. similarly, eight major recommendations to resolve those challenges were found, and each of the recommendations was rated according to the same scale on the likely effectiveness of the recommendations. to calculate the frequency index for each challenge, the following formulae was used. pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 where, fi = frequency index nn = number of respondents x = opinion on challenge in adopting csa practices n = score of opinion then the following formula was used to calculate the importance score for each challenge expressed as a percentage. with 165% of cropping intensity, dohar covers about 932 hectares (11.31%) of high lands, 2153 hectares (27.75%) of medium lands, 1208 hectares (15.07%) of medium low lands, 1650 hectares (22.44%) of low lands, and 1720 hectares (23.40%) of very low lands. the total net cultivable area was 7663 hectares, of which 3632, 3099 and 932 hectares was cultivated for one, two, and three crops respectively (uao, 2023). although there is not a single deep tubewell, but the farmers are using a total of 812 shallow tubewells and 5 low lift pumps across the subdistrict (dd, 2023). therefore, the farmers use padma river water as their main irrigation source especially in dry seasons, october to march a total of five months a year. irrigation water quality and significance the irrigation water quality was measured through ph and do, and the average ph was 6.8 and do was 5 in 2014 in the padma river (figure 2). according to time, the ph and do had been increased, and in 2023, it is found that they are about 7.21 and 7.84, respectively. that means due to some reasons, the quality of water has been changed. do levels change with factors atmospheric absorption, water circulation, photosynthesis by the plants among others. it has been established that the quality of surface and groundwater in bangladesh is highly dependent on anthropogenic factors, characteristics of the sources, different types of geographical formations, the flow rate, and fluctuating ecosystems (hamid et al., 2021). where, is = importance score similarly, the recommendations to resolve the challenges in adopting csa practices were calculated by using the same way. hassan et al. (2024) employed a similar formula to study adopting csa in affected tidal floodplains. results and discussions ganges-padma river system and farm irrigation in dohar the ganges-padma river, the largest river system in asia, is important to millions of people in india and bangladesh. the ganges river starts from the gangotri glacier in the himalayas and flows through the indian territory below and enters bangladesh through the padma river. this river system is roughly 2,600 kilometres long, with a catchment area of about 87 million square kilometres (bbs, 2023). figure 2: irrigation water quality parameters source: doe harmful and toxic substances such as metals, pesticides, and organic toxins as well as radioactive contaminants, pollute the padma river. these pollutants have serious impacts on riverside farmlands as well as the economy of the area (doe, 2022). industrial pollutants impact on river ecosystems. irrigation with untreated polluted water can increase excessive potassium in soils, which may act as toxic to plants (hashem & qi, 2021). optimum acidic/ alkaline water helps to circulate plant nutrition, and enhance soil fertility (angelakis & snyder, 2015; ashiea et al., 2024). padma river and waterlogging challenges in dohar in the rainy season, the padma river becomes over flooded and excessive water enter the farm lands though a system of 22 canals in dohar. as a result, near about 7122 hectares of farm land remain under water from june to october. due to natural low-lying land formation, poor drainage systems, and soil characteristics, the water holding capacity of this area is higher and a significant land becomes fallow due to the waterlogging situation. all of these factors have resulted in greater problems in agriculture within the basin (uao, 2024). a certain portion of farmland became fallow during that period and some water loving crops such as amaranths became the main crop. farmers try an integrated farming system like raring duck and fish culture to utilize those watery fields. therefore, csa practice can be an alternate solution in this period. climate change and csa practices in dohar climate change is significantly impacting the region of dohar. as illustrated in figure 3, average annual rainfall in dhaka has fluctuated considerably between 2003 pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 and 2020. while the year 2003 and 2013 experienced relatively lower rainfall levels of 1693 mm and 1590 mm, respectively, 2007 and 2017 witnessed significantly higher rainfall totals of 2885 mm and 2892 mm. this irregular precipitation pattern is a direct consequence of climate change, and the farmers residing near the padma river are particularly vulnerable to its effects. figure 3: average annual rainfall in dhaka source: bbs a significant fluctuation in average annual temperature has been observed in dhaka from 2008 to 2023, indicative of a changing climate. figure 4 illustrates this trend, with notable increases in average annual temperature from 26.2°c in 2011 to 27.3°c in 2023. these temperature fluctuations have profound implications for agricultural productivity, as they directly influence critical biological processes such as photosynthesis and flowering. consequently, the changing climate seriously threats to both crop yields and farmer livelihoods in this region. figure 4: average annual temperature in dhaka source: bbs figure 5 demonstrates a pronounced temporal variability in average annual relative humidity within dhaka during the period 2008-2023. a notable upward trend is evident, with a significant increase from 66% in 2010 to 74% in 2020, culminating in a peak of 78% in 2023. this escalating relative humidity is indicative of a warming climate. the fluctuating humidity may disrupt the stomatal regulation of plants as well as affecting photosynthesis and transpiration. overall, this leads to a reduction in agricultural productivity. occasionally, humidity creates favourable conditions for various insects and fungi, which can be detrimental to crops. consequently, farmers in dohar may experience a decline in crop yields as well as farm profitability due to the adverse effects of climate change-induced relative humidity variations. figure 5: average annual relative humidity in dhaka source: bbs pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 it is clear after the above discussions that the subdistrict of dohar is particularly suffering from changing climate, especially its’ agricultural sector, which faces challenges due to fluctuating temperatures, uneven rainfall, and unstable humidity. farmers try to cope up with these through traditional methods. but now the conscious farmers are focusing on the sustainability of agricultural practices and adopting csa as a mitigating tool. after following csa, they are growing year-round vegetables, saving irrigation water, and using the latest technologies and crop diversity. by implementing csa practices, farmers are ensuring agricultural sustainability through resilience to changing climatic conditions, and enhancing food security paving the way for a prosperous future. socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents the questionnaire was designed to collect the sociodemographic profiles of the respondents and the summery is presented here (table 1). it can be noted that the participants were mainly constituted by young to middle-aged people accounting for almost 87% of the age of the population in these studies. this contrasts with the national demographics where the age limit of 18-50 accounts approximately 54% of the population (bbs, 2019b). the sample was biased towards the male gender with about 75% of respondents comprising this group. in terms of their education, it is approximated that, for example, about 87% were literate, which was above the approximately 72 % national literacy rate (bbs, 2019b). most of the respondents (around 53%) indicated having more than six years of conventional farming experience, while engagement lasts for such type of farming. on the other hand, eco-friendly farming experience was more or less where about 87% had less than six years active ecofriendly farming engagement. farms sizes were classified based on the dae’s guidance on the measurement of farm sizes. as per the data most practitioners around 81 % did not grow more than 66 decimals of land. in addition, a large number of respondents 72% and 68% respectively offered no explanation to the fact that they attended dae training or dae demonstration programs in the past three fiscal years. the majority of respondents (77%) obtained agricultural information from the dae, which is the principal agricultural source for most. table 1: socio-demographic information of the respondents variable category response (n=180) count (%) age group (years) 18 to 35 67 37.22 36 to 50 89 49.44 51 and above 24 13.33 gender male 135 75 female 45 25 education no formal education 23 12.78 primary (class 1 to 8) 91 50.56 secondary (class 9 to 12) 60 33.33 graduate and above 6 3.33 conventional farming experience (years) up to 5 84 46.67 6 to 15 73 40.56 16 and above 23 12.78 eco-friendly farming experience (years) up to 2 99 55 3 to 5 57 31.67 6 and above 24 13.33 farm size (ha) 0.2 to 1 56 31.11 1.1 to 3 89 49.44 3.1 and above 35 19.44 training received from dae (last 3 fy) no 129 71.67 1 to 2 times 47 26.11 3 times or more 4 2.22 demonstration received from dae (last 3 fy) no 123 68.33 1 to 2 times 42 23.33 3 times or more 15 8.33 pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 source of information dae 139 77.22 mass media 23 12.78 village market 8 4.44 others 10 5.56 source: field survey perception on csa practices we questioned respondents about their perceptions of csa practices (figure 6). analysis of the perception index revealed that the top three perceived benefits were: (1) site-specific extension services offering market-oriented, cutting-edge production technologies; (2) good agricultural practices (gaps) reducing excessive chemical fertilizer and pesticide use; and (3) homestead vegetable cultivation fulfilling daily nutritional requirements. figure 6: perception on csa practices source: field survey the majority of farmers implemented several csa practices because they held a positive perception of them (mahashin & roy, 2017). reforestation can minimize the effects of climate change, while awareness build-up is crucial here (hasan et al., 2018). practicing csa can minimize carbon emissions from farmland (zhao et al., 2023). adoption of csa practices we asked respondents to choose the most applicable csa practice. results indicate that the three most frequently reported practices were the adoption of good agricultural practices, utilization of stress-tolerant varieties, and employment of small-scale machinery (figure 7). figure 7: adoption of csa practices source: field survey various parts of the world use a wide variety of climatesmart agriculture (csa) technologies (akter et al., 2023; azadi et al., 2021). common practices include conservation tillage, agroforestry, crop rotation, livelihood diversification, drip irrigation, and precision farming (khatri-chhetri et al., 2017). the majority of farmers have switched to planting at different times, growing different crops in rotation, and conserving the soil to reduce the impact of unusual weather patterns (tanti & jena, 2023). factors like land size, past experiences with climate shocks, land fertility, and distance to markets influence farmers’ decisions about which csa practices to adopt (zakaria et al., 2020). information-seeking behaviors are critical determinants of technology adoption among both researchers and farmers (mazvimavi & twomlow, 2009; tatlidil et al., pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 2009). there is a correlation between agricultural training and technology adoption (kpadonou et al., 2017; holden et al., 2018). trained farmers in rural bangladesh are more interested in organic farming than traditional farmers (rokonuzzaman et al., 2019). training on csa aids in enhancing farm knowledge and field skills, enabling the adoption of innovative technologies and farming methods (hasan & mamun, 2023). similarly, yeasmin et al. (2018) emphasized the positive impact of pesticide training on smallholder farmers. community engagement and capacity building are crucial for the successful implementation of csa (haque & tareq, 2020). mass media campaigns and motivational initiatives help in promoting organic agriculture adoption (sarker et al., 2021). similarly, organizing farmer field days influences the local people to utilise organic materials. young, energetic, risk takers and information-seeker farmers try to adopt new agricultural technologies (tatlidil et al., 2009; mazvimavi & twomlow, 2009). local farmers are being motivated by eco-friendly farming through entrepreneurial farmers (kabir & rainis, 2015). farmer field schools and farmer clubs facilitate the scaling up of agricultural adaptation strategies (hassan et al., 2019). benefits of csa practices we asked the respondents to evaluate the social, environmental, and economic benefits of csa practices using a five-point likert scale. the results show that crop diversification significantly enhances environmental sustainability (figure 8). in terms of social benefits, homestead vegetable cultivation and site-specific extension services were deemed to be highly effective in addressing family nutritional needs and improving information access, respectively. finally, the study identified agricultural mechanisation and the implementation of intercropping and mixed cropping systems as key factors in reducing production costs, mitigating pest and disease pressures, and enhancing economic viability. figure 8: environmental, social, and economical benefits of csa practices source: field survey challenges in adopting csa practices the respondents were queried about perceived challenges in adopting csa (figure 9). based on is, we identified limited awareness of stress-tolerant varieties, elevated initial costs and risks associated with poly-shed farming, and insufficient technical expertise in raised bed farming as the primary obstacles to csa adoption. figure 9: challenges in adopting csa practices source: field survey while individual csa techniques may offer a single advantage, a multifaceted approach can enhance climate resilience and sustainability (hanson et al., 2019; ellis & tschakert, 2019). despite the numerous potential benefits of csa, smallholders in south asian countries are struggling to fully adoption and spread-out ecofriendly practices (westermann et al., 2018). hence, regular extension services for minimizing knowledge gaps pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 and disseminating information, monitoring, and followup are crucial for connecting farmers. along with that, technical support and logistical assistance are essential for the successful establishment of csa across the country. the marginal farmers face difficulty accessing bank loan facilities and limited climate-based information services to adopt csa technologies (imran et al., 2019). when adopting csa practices, women smallholders encounter several specific challenges, including inadequate training, unavailability of farm inputs, delayed climate information, unstable markets, and conditional credit systems (wb, 2015a). limited access to reliable climate data may hinder the adoption of csa in remote regions (kuijpers, 2020). sub-assistant agricultural officers (saao), who are field officials of dae, are implementing extension supports to all farming households. according to service rules, three saaos serve each union, but most of the unions are suffering from saao insufficiency in rural areas (rahman et al., 2020). despite the availability of diverse information channels on eco-friendly farming, smallholders exhibit a strong preference for saaos due to their local familiarity (kabir & rainis, 2015). recommendations to resolve challenges the respondents were queried about perceived recommendations to resolve challenges in adopting csa (figure 10). considering the mean scores on a fourpoint likert scale, respondents indicated that the most effective strategies for overcoming csa adoption barriers were: focus on prioritizing location-specific agroforestry, supporting a local private farm to make readily available machinery, and providing financial support for farming in a poly shed. figure 10: recommendations to resolve challenges source: field survey to effectively address these challenges, a comprehensive approach is necessary. this includes the implementation of precise crop zoning, coupled with location-specific extension services to reach vulnerable farmers. the vulnerable coastal farmers in southern bangladesh can increase their csa adoption after getting logistic supports (hasan et al., 2018). by examining the factors influencing csa adoption, policymakers can develop targeted csa strategies for technology dissemination and livelihood improvement (ishtiaque et al., 2024). the farmers are adopting csa practices to improve their livelihood through exposure to extension media, coupled with innovation and organizational support (mahashin, 2019). along with others, trained and qualified extension agents can play a major role to extend csa implementation across the nation. authority can revise regulatory and institutional strategies to reform the extension services to sustain farming with food security. the diverse cultural, economic, and social contexts of farmers must be considered when designing and implementing agricultural interventions (ishtiaque et al., 2024; acharyya, 2021; jha & gupta, 2021; rizzo et al., 2023). conclusion this study was carried out in only one subdistrict to investigated the challenges and prospects of climatesmart agriculture (csa) adoption in the padma river basin, specifically in dohar sub-district, bangladesh. the findings show that several challenges hinder the adoption of csa practices, despite their significant benefits in environmental sustainability, social well-being, and economic viability. the region faces waterlogging issues due to irregular rainfall patterns and the padma river’s flooding. rising temperatures and fluctuating relative humidity pose significant threats to agricultural productivity. perceived benefits of csa practices include improved crop diversification, enhanced nutrition, reduced production costs, and pest control. primary challenges include limited awareness of stress-tolerant varieties, high initial costs of poly-shed farming, and insufficient technical expertise in raised bed farming. to overcome these challenges, the study recommends prioritizing location-specific agroforestry, supporting local private farms for machinery availability, and providing financial assistance for poly-shed farming. overall, the results highlight that a holistic system approach may be essential for the promotion of csa adoption in the padma river basin. the approach should include focused extension services, increased access to climate information, and financing for farmers. pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 15-27, 2025 addressing these limitations will help bangladesh harness the enormous potential of csa to improve agricultural resilience, reduce vulnerability from climate change impacts, and maintain food security in changing environmental scenarios. further research could solve the problems by taking seasonal flooded areas like bangladesh’s dohar sub-district into account, where csa narratives shift. rethinking the socioeconomic, political, and institutional elements of the csa discourse is necessary, and enhancing the communication between social, managerial, and economic research dimensions through multidisciplinary study can contribute to this. these needs looking at how csa knowledge linkages now work with ngos, farmer-led groups, and other entities outside traditional elitist development and research organizations to produce knowledge. this study was carried out in one sub-district only with selected 180 respondents a large-scale study area and a larger sample size would help reveal more persuasive results. therefore, we might pursue further investigations in other districts to ensure csa promotion. funding this study was supported by program on agricultural and rural transformation for nutrition, entrepreneurship, and resilience (partner) in bangladesh by world bank. acknowledgments we acknowledge the support from the local subdistrict agriculture officer, sub assistant officers of the study area during survey. we also acknowledge the department of agricultural extension officials for their cooperation with necessary documents and information. references acharyya, a. 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(2023). a review of climatesmart agriculture: recent advancements, challenges, and future directions. sustainability, 15, 3404. pa ge 1 pa ge 74 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) integrating water treatment and air quality improvement for a healthier bangladesh abu bakor siddique patwary1*, md. abir hasan1, most. nishat tabassum1, md. atik yasir1, md. mohibullah1 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5946 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 18, 2025 accepted: september 21, 2025 published: october 11, 2025 bangladesh is among the most densely populated and climate-vulnerable countries in the world, where water quality degradation and air pollution are having a profound impact on public health. this study presents an integrated environmental management framework, which proposes the implementation of water and air quality improvement initiatives in harmony with the socio-economic realities of the country. lab-based water and air quality testing, health impact assessment and gis-based mapping have been completed under the mixed-methods approach. the results showed that the maximum arsenic level in the groundwater was 0.08 mg/l, which is much above the who standard (0.01 mg/l). microbiological contamination in water (20–50 cfu/100 ml) is a health hazard in both urban and rural areas. in terms of air pollution, the concentration of pm₂.₅ in dhaka is 120–180 µg/m³, which is 5–7 times higher than the who standard, and pm₂.₅ reaches an average of 350 µg/m³ in rural kitchens. the health assessment showed a 30% reduction in child diarrhea in households using water purification systems and a 25% reduction in respiratory diseases in households using improved cookstoves. most importantly, where concerted action to improve water and air quality has been taken together, improvements in public health have been seen significantly. in conclusion, isolated initiatives to improve water or air quality are not sufficient. integrated environmental management through policy reforms, technical interventions and community-based participation is essential to achieve effective results, which can be a viable model not only for bangladesh but also for other developing countries. keywords bangladesh, integrated environmental management, water quality, air pollution, public health, pm2.5 exposure 1 department of civil engineering, bangladesh university of business & technology, dhaka, bangladesh. * corresponding author’s e-mail: abubsp@yahoo.com introduction bangladesh is one of the most densely populated and climate-vulnerable countries in the world, where environmental crises are intensifying due to rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population growth (arifeen et al., 2021; hossain et al., 2024). degradation of water quality and air pollution in particular are now a two-pronged threat, with long-lasting impacts including public health, environmental issues, and economic factors. according to a recent report by the world health organization (who), the levels of pm₂.₅ and pm₁₀ in dhaka and other major cities are many times higher than the international safe limits (begum & hopke, 2019; faisal ahmed et al., 2024; hoque et al., 2025; islam et al., 2020; kumar et al., 2024; rahman et al., 2024). at the same time, many rivers, lakes, and groundwater sources in the country are contaminated by industrial waste, agricultural chemical runoff, arsenic, and microbes. water and air issues have generally been treated separately in the past to address this crisis. however, the reality is that these two fields are deeply interrelated. for example, industrial emissions simultaneously release particles into the atmosphere and degrade water quality through polluted rain; burning of agricultural wastes increases air pollution on the one hand, and leaches chemicals into surface water and groundwater (liang et al., 2024; pan et al., 2021; quddoos et al., 2024). therefore, an integrated framework is needed to effectively address this problem, which simultaneously targets water and air quality improvement. the primary aim of the research is to propose an amalgamated environmental administration framework in line with the social, economic, and technological realities of bangladesh, which will advance water treatment and air quality improvement activities in a coordinated manner. first, the present state of water and air pollution in the nation will be analyzed. the possibility of technical solutions in both cases will be verified. policy reforms will be outlined, and the public health and environmental impact of these steps will be assessed. current methods for water treatment in bangladesh include coagulation-filtration, activated alumina, iron oxide adsorption, and ion exchange, which are particularly effective in removing arsenic and heavy metals. still, they are expensive, maintenance-dependent, and limited in rural areas. recent studies have indicated that the levels of microplastics, antibiotic residues, and pesticides in water are at alarming levels in many parts of the country. on the other hand, brick kilns, automobiles, industrial plants, and construction activities have been identified as significant sources of air pollution. mitra and czajkowski (2025) demonstrated that pm₂.₅ pollution is highest in urban areas of bangladesh during winter, with hotspots identified in dhaka and chittagong, and coldspots in sylhet and rangpur (mitra & czajkowski, 2025). the presence of lead (pb) and other heavy metals in pm particles increases health risks manifold. bangladesh has adopted the clean air and sustainable environment (case) project, the ccac program, and some local air pa ge 75 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 74-79, 2025 monitoring initiatives to improve this situation. still, direct coordination with water pollution control is very limited in these activities. another study, rafiul et al. (2023) found that air pollution, including co, no₂, and pm₂.₅, is high in the dry season, and decreases in the monsoon, reflected by the reduction of dust due to rainfall and storm filtration of the greenhouse gas pmc (rahman & kabir, 2023). besides, road dust, construction works, industrial waste, and traffic congestion due to urbanization are contributing significantly to air quality. hossain et al. (2025) study showed that different areas of dhaka have dangerously high levels of pm₂.₅, pm₁₀, and no₂, which are mainly caused by vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and road dust, leading to increased risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (hoque et al., 2025). several countries around the world have successful examples of integrated environmental management strategies, where technology, policy, and public involvement are used in tandem to enhance water and air quality. the application of this method in bangladesh is still in its early stages, and a significant gap remains in research. such symptoms are essential to predict. firstly, pollution is extreme during the dry season. secondly, brick kilns and vehicles are the primary sources. thirdly, there is a synergistic potential between water and air, which can lead to practical solutions; however, such integrated research is lacking in many countries. in this regard, the purpose of this study is to analyze the current status of water and air pollution in bangladesh, assess its health and environmental impacts, verify the feasibility of technical solutions and policy reforms to control water and air pollution, and propose an integrated environmental management framework that will contribute effectively to public health protection and sustainable development. materials and methods this study used a mixed-method design, in which environmental data, health risks and social impacts were analyzed together. four divisions of bangladesh, dhaka, chittagong, sylhet and khulna, were selected as study areas, representing both urbanized and semi-rural contexts. a total of 40 water samples (from tubewells and surface water sources) and 35 air quality observations (from roadside stations and community-level monitoring) were analysed. in addition, approximately 500 hospital records and 300 household surveys were used for health information. water quality tests analyzed for arsenic, heavy metals, microbial pollution, ph, tds and turbidity; air quality tests, on the other hand, include the concentrations of pm₂.₅, pm₁₀, no₂, so₂, co and o₃ as well as meteorological data (temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction). data were collected from who, world bank, iqair, national agencies (doe, dphe) and from recent peer-reviewed studies (habib et al., 2024; mitra & czajkowski, 2025). the analysis used pearson correlation, principal component analysis (pca) and hierarchical cluster analysis (hca) to identify sources and interrelationships of pollution, and health risk analysis combined hospital records, community surveys and biomarker data. results and discussions by analyzing the data and observations collected in the study, the current situation of water and air quality and health effects in different regions of bangladesh is presented comprehensively. we have followed three main steps. water quality assessment, air quality monitoring, and health impact assessment. at each step, we compared the results with the effects of natural and manmade sources and provided a coherent interpretation. water quality assessment water quality monitoring shows that the concentration of heavy metals such as arsenic, iron and lead in groundwater and surface water of dhaka and chittagong region has exceeded the world health organization (who) permissible limits. for example, the highest arsenic value is 0.08 mg/l, which is much higher than the 0.01 mg/l limit set by who (hossain et al., 2024; robeul islam et al., 2024). similarly, the presence of iron and lead also poses significant health risks. on the other hand, the ground water in sylhet region is relatively safe, but the microbiological pollution is quite high. total coliform and faecal coliform tests in some areas of dhaka and chittagong every 100 ml. 20–50 cfu have been found in water, which is many times higher than the safe level (aurnab et al., 2024; huda et al., 2024; shammi et al., 2021). the results indicate that industrial effluents, sewage, and natural mineral sources are the main drivers of water pollution in bangladesh. table 1: water quality measurements and rationale (smith et al., 2000; tawhidul et al. 2025) parameters use for health effects arsenic natural contaminants in groundwater cause cancer, heart disease, and skin problems carcinogenic and long-term illness fecal coliform and e. coli an indicator of microbial contamination, it increases gastrointestinal infections. diarrhea and gastrointestinal infections ph, turbidity, tds basic indicator for determining overall water quality health and taste effects heavy metals (pb, cd, etc.) long-term toxicity and repercussive health risks neurological impairment, kidney effects pa ge 76 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 74-79, 2025 monitoring of air quality air quality analysis shows that the urban areas of bangladesh, especially dhaka city, are facing serious air pollution. the levels of pm₂.₅ and pm₁₀ are many times higher than the who recommended limits, which are mainly caused by vehicular smoke and industries (hoque et al., 2025; nayeem et al., 2024). brick kilns, biomass burning, and traffic congestion are the main sources of pollution in chittagong and sylhet. in particular, daily average concentrations of pm₂.₅ were found to be 120–180 µg/m³, which is five to seven times higher than the who recommended limit of 25 µg/m³ (haque et al., 2022; subhanullah et al., 2022). the use of wood or biomass for household cooking in rural areas raises average pm₂.₅ levels to 350 µg/m³, multiplying household health risks. moreover, the levels of gaseous pollutants no₂ and so₂ were found to be relatively high during winter, which is related to seasonal industrial activities and vehicular density. such combined effects increase the risk of developing lung problems in children, respiratory disease in adults, and long-term heart disease. additionally, figure 1 illustrates the air quality index by month. table 2: health effects of air quality parameters (mitra & czajkowski, 2025; saju et al., 2023) parameters cause/technique health effects pm₂.₅, pm₁₀ urgent hygiene, inhalation hazard respiratory, heart disease, death no₂,so₂,o₃ source identification, pollution cycle analysis respiratory and cardiovascular effects co indoor monitoring of cooking fumes dizziness, carbon poisoning weather parameters diffusion and contamination modelling socio-ecological analysis figure 1: seasonal variation of air pollutants. health effects assessment it is clear from the results of health assessment that water and air pollution are directly related to public diseases. children are most affected. among children under 5 years of age, the prevalence of diarrhea was almost 30% lower in households that used water purification systems. on the other hand, the prevalence of respiratory diseases decreased by about 25% in households using improved stoves. nevertheless, long-term health risks due to microbiological contamination, including high levels of arsenic and iron, remain a major public health challenge in bangladesh. integrated monitoring indicates that water quality control and air pollution control can achieve visible health improvements when applied together. for example, in areas where water purification and air pollution control measures were implemented together, the health of both children and adults was found to be relatively better, indicating a synergistic positive effect of multiple environmental interventions. table 3: comparative analysis area pm2.5 (µg/m³) arsenic (mg/l) e. coli (cfu/100 ml) respiratory disease rate (%) diarrhea rate dhaka 90-100 0.06 45 22 15 chittagong 80-90 0.05 40 20 12 sylhet 70-80 0.03 50 18 18 kushtia 60-70 0.00 35 15 10 pa ge 77 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 74-79, 2025 figure 2: pm2.5 concentration by region. discussion water and air pollution in bangladesh affects different regions differently. dhaka and chittagong have high levels of air pollution due to industrialization, vehicular emissions and urbanization, which directly affects public health. high levels of pm₂.₅ and no₂ in particular increase the risk of chronic respiratory problems, asthma and heart disease. recent studies have shown that the average life expectancy of dhaka residents is being reduced by around 5–7 years due to air pollution, which is a serious public health concern. on the other hand, the main problem in the sylhet region is water pollution, especially arsenic and microbiological pollution. as rural communities depend on tubewells, the presence of arsenic in water exposes them to long-term health risks such as cancer, skin diseases and organ damage. moreover, microbiological contamination is increasing the incidence of diarrhea and enteric diseases in children, which are significant causes of mortality. although the situation in the kushtia region is relatively good, the effects of air pollution cannot be completely avoided. locally, the incidence of respiratory diseases is slightly higher due to burning of brick kilns, agricultural wastes and dust. additionally, even though water pollution levels are relatively low here, air pollution-related health problems are showing increasing trends. in addition, research has shown that improving water and air quality in isolation does not solve the problem at hand. multiple risks can be tackled simultaneously by taking coordinated action. for example, in areas where improved water treatment and air quality control have been implemented together, rates of diarrhea in children and respiratory distress in adults have been significantly reduced. additionally, the results indicate that an integrated environmental management framework is essential for sustainable health development in bangladesh. policy-makers and researchers should consider regional disparities and adopt regionally based interventions. at the same time, technological innovations such as low-cost arsenic filters, improved cookstoves, and green urban planning can be applied together to improve both public health and the environment. findings through this study, a multi-dimensional picture of bangladesh’s water and air quality and its associated health risks has been clarified. according to the results, the levels of arsenic, iron and lead in groundwater and surface water in the industrial areas of dhaka and chittagong are much higher than the recommended limits of the world health organization, which is a direct threat to public health. on the other hand, although chemical pollution in the sylhet region is relatively low, microbiological contamination in the water, especially the presence of e. coli and faecal coliforms, has made the water unsafe for domestic consumption. similarly, in terms of air quality, urban areas, especially in dhaka, have pm₂.₅ and pm₁₀ levels five to seven times higher than who guidelines, mainly due to vehicular smoke and industrial emissions. in chittagong and sylhet regions, brick kilns, biomass burning and vehicular pressure have been identified as the primary pollution sources, while in rural areas indoor pollution levels due to the use of biomass for cooking are incredibly high. due to seasonal changes, the levels of gaseous pollutants such as no₂ and so₂ increase significantly during winter, which in turn increases the incidence of respiratory diseases during this period. in terms of health effects, diarrhea, respiratory problems, heart disease, and other long-term complications are on the rise among both children and adults due to polluted water and air. on the positive side, however, households using water purification systems and improved stoves have seen a 30% reduction in diarrheal disease and a 25% reduction in respiratory disease. long-term exposure to heavy metals and other chemical pollutants poses a risk of cancer, kidney problems and nervous system damage. overall, public health improvements are relatively better in areas where water and air pollution control programs are implemented in a coordinated manner, demonstrating that multifaceted and coordinated environmental interventions are more effective than single initiatives. recommendations the findings of this study suggest that immediate and concerted action to control water and air pollution pa ge 78 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 74-79, 2025 in bangladesh is imperative. first, industrial waste management and sewage systems need to be improved to control levels of arsenic, iron, lead and other pollutants. community-based water treatment technologies and installation of safe tubewells are essential to improve water quality in rural areas. second, to reduce air pollution in urban areas, improvements in public transport systems, emission control of older vehicles, and improved filter technology in industries are required. apart from this, it is necessary to take policy steps to control brick kilns and use alternative energy in chittagong and sylhet regions. improved cookstoves for rural households and promoting the use of cleaner fuels will reduce indoor air pollution to a large extent. special monitoring should be done on vehicular emissions and industrial activities in winter to control seasonal pollution. to reduce health risks, governments should introduce integrated water and air quality monitoring systems at the national level, where data collection, analysis and policy making can be combined. finally, awareness raising activities such as environmental education in schools and colleges, mass media campaigns, and ensuring the participation of local communities will enable the public to come forward to control pollution themselves. in the long term, only a combination of policy, legislation, and active public participation, rather than just technical solutions, will improve water and air quality in bangladesh and significantly reduce public health risks. conclusion bangladesh’s water and air quality issues are closely related to each other and have direct consequences for public health and the environment. a discussion of the research shows that current water treatment technologies and air quality control systems, while somewhat effective, are not sufficient. limitations in water treatment technology, problems such as arsenic and microbiological contamination, and high levels of pm₂.₅ and other gaseous pollutants in the air are deeply affecting public health. health impact analyses have shown that ensuring access to safe water and clean air significantly reduces rates of diarrhoea in children and respiratory diseases in adults. an important lesson from this study is that water treatment and air pollution control are more effective when managed in an integrated manner rather than separately. an integrated approach not only improves the quality of the environment but can also provide sustainable 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(2025). arsenic health risks and interaction with salinity in coastal areas of bangladesh. frontiers in public health, 13, 1610311. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpubh.2025.1610311 pa ge 1 pa ge 16 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) pre-disaster preparedness/prevention and mitigation strategies for floods: a use case of lagos, nigeria ayuba job danladi1*, muritala kolade yusuf1, gilles dusserre1, nasir baba ahmed2, luc vechot3 volume 3 issue 3, year 2024 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v3i3.3362 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 14, 2024 accepted: september 16, 2024 published: september 20, 2024 climate change-induced phenomena are increasingly becoming frequent and intense causing global challenges. urbanization and population growth continue to aggravate flood events, making building resilient cities a vital way to combat them. this research reviews flood preparedness and mitigation strategies employed in developed countries to reveal flood risk management practices that promote resilience in these countries to allow adoption in struggling and developing countries such as nigeria. the review from previous and current studies followed three methods consisting of inclusion & exclusion criteria, abstract screening, and full-text review. the findings from past studies present multifaceted measures taken to prepare for and mitigate floods and how they have enabled people and cities to live with floods, however, developing countries still face a major risk of a severe impact from flood inundation. the use case area, lagos, was found to be continuously inundated by floods and is in grave need of better management strategies to mitigate the impact resulting from floods. the results from the review show that flood risk mitigation is primarily affected by risk perception, indicating its effect on response measures which are either structural or non-structural. this research concludes by proposing an approach or framework that is an outcome of a comparative assessment of flood risk management from developed countries to consider for the implementation of preparedness and mitigation strategies in the use case area. keywords disaster, floods, mitigation, preparedness, risk management 1 department of disaster management and environmental impact, imt mines ales, france 2 laboratory for the science of risks (lsr), imt mines ales, france 3 mkopsc, texas a&m university qatar, qatar * corresponding author’s e-mail: ayuba.danladi@mines-ales.fr introduction climate-related events such as floods are becoming increasingly frequent and intensified, owing to rapid changes in climate, posing continued threats and discomfort to livelihoods and existing infrastructures (raikes et al., 2019). the growing need for settlement due to population increase, urban migration, and urbanization continues to escalate the impact of disasters, as people tend to settle in severely exposed areas increasing their vulnerability and undermining the integrity of existing preparedness and mitigation measures (konami et al., 2021; krongthaeo et al., 2021). this vulnerability contributes to the severe impact that results from flooding one of the most common natural disasters that continues to plague societies and economies, drawing global attention since its effect is felt in both developed and developing countries (echendu, 2023). the growing uncertainties of weather patterns due to climate change is a wakeup call to develop, improve existing, and implement strategies that prevent or mitigate flooding events (fernández et al., 2023; hashim et al., 2021; rofiah et al., 2021; vivita et al., 2023). the best way to live with and adapt to floods, despite their increased frequency and impact, is through resilience. several societies are now developing and implementing measures/strategies that enable them to thrive in a rapidly changing climate, primarily through establishing flood risk management strategies that strengthen their preparedness and mitigation measures to become resilient to this devastating climateinduced hazard. pre-disaster preparedness and mitigation strategies are critical aspects of flood risk reduction that promote more resilient and smart societies (hatori et al., 2023; raikes et al., 2019). thus, measures such as building early warning systems, community education/awareness, and construction of engineering structures, etc., form a bedrock for building disaster resilience (nguyễn et al., 2023; rofiah et al., 2021). according to the united nations office for disaster risk reduction (2015), “every one dollar spent on disaster preparedness, saves up to fifteen dollars on reconstructing disaster-affected communities”. this indicates how vital disaster preparedness and mitigation are in reducing flood impacts. since preparedness and mitigation are the first actions of defense against potential disasters in disaster management, it is important to explore the different innovative ideas and advance preparedness and mitigation measures that safeguard cities and societies to limit the impact of these devastating floods (nguyễn et al., 2023). this can be achieved by uncovering current knowledge and research recommendations proposed to meet the demand placed on cities and societies to alleviate and minimize the impact and challenges faced by people from floods. a study on various literature has been conducted to review and assess the various practices that have been recommended and implemented to prepare for and mitigate floods from impacting cities, especially in developing countries. literature review one objective of disaster-stricken regions is to anticipate the probability of occurrence of disasters and set pa ge 17 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 up measures that reduce or prevent them. disaster preparedness is defined by siriwardhana et al. (2021) as “a set of activities, measures, and capacities developed by governments, private sectors, communities, and individuals before a disaster, to support vulnerable populations to mitigate the impact of hazards and to enable their effective response and recovery including developing early warning systems, evacuation plans, formulating emergency preparedness plans, conducting education/training programs, and prepositioning resources”. in several scientific studies and peerreviewed articles, flood preparedness is mostly focused on assessing population readiness for disasters (applebyarnold et al., 2021; forsyth et al., 2023; hatori et al., 2023; nguyễn et al., 2023; yildiz et al., 2021), and consequent community resilience through direct actions from individuals (echendu, 2023; nakai & nakano, 2023). some studies have focused on more specific topics, such as flood preparedness through school intervention programs, community engagement (fernández et al., 2023; hasbi et al., 2023), response measures for specific population groups (krongthaeo et al., 2021), and on the inclusion of vulnerable groups during flood events (rofiah et al., 2021). this shows that flood preparedness strategies are multifaceted, nonetheless, research in comparative analysis of flood risk management and mitigation strategies appears to be limited, indicating a gap that provides knowledge of how communities and cities can adopt and implement frameworks from resilient societies to better their flood management approach. in an aspect of individual preparedness, hashim et al. (2021) note that risk perception strongly influences individual preparedness for floods, but individual preparedness does not mean actual evacuation during disasters, providing a need for the development of better disaster preparedness awareness, and/ or policy enforcement measures. embedding preparedness measures into the cultural behavior of individuals has been proposed to influence public participation and preparedness for disaster by some authors. for example, applebyarnold et al. (2021) strongly suggest that embedding disaster preparedness attitudes in everyday life enables an understanding of the set of actions to take during an actual disaster. similarly, hatori et al. (2023) agree that the best form of disaster preparedness is through everyday practice; giving an overview of the level of influence of hazard perception of citizens on responsive actions in the face of disasters. furthermore, nguyen et al. (2023) suggest that social relationships and community assets sharing are vital in shaping individual disaster preparedness through a study of disaster preparedness of residents in seattle united states; suggesting that disaster preparedness efforts necessitate supplementing with daily resources provision and sharing between individuals to enable quick recovery. nonetheless, studies by nakai and nakano (2023) argue that community collaborative preparedness presents a better approach to flood preparedness, expounding the practice of the ‘individual emergency relief box’ an initiative of a community in japan for tsunami inundation preparedness. this unique approach allows individual households to prepare and package relief materials in boxes to store in a common storage facility managed primarily by the community authorities. this practice has the potential to reinvigorate disaster preparedness practices in cultural behaviors. on a similar note, appleby-arnold et al. (2021) conclude that daily disaster preparedness behavior by individuals can be strengthened by community-individual collaboration through the establishment of the recommendations; (i) family should set up emergency plans, simple reminders, easy communication medium, and convergence points in situations of disasters, (ii) individuals should lookout for publicly displayed information on how to prepare for disasters and form a habit of reading and memorizing this information, (iii) enquire for and attend community workshops on disaster preparedness programs, (iv) create bonds with individuals of other cultural backgrounds to foster better communication during an evacuation, (v) inform other participants and trainers of personal skills during workshops that could be useful to the community during disaster response. such strategies can improve the cognitive behavior of individuals toward disaster preparedness, as well as foster community-individual participation during flood disaster response. meanwhile, other studies have focused on applying a practical approach to inform community preparedness. for example, nakano et al. (2020) used movie clips to simulate school evacuation drills in the event of floods from tsunamis. these tools can strengthen the perception of citizens to deal with disasters themselves, thus promoting alternative measures of preparedness implementation. whilst non-structural approaches for flood risk management such as individual preparedness remain crucial to preventing severe consequences (casualties) from floods, mitigation measures such as policymaking, infrastructural development, and spatial planning are paramount for effective risk or disaster reduction/ management. although preparedness and mitigation are interchangeably used in many contexts, specific distinctions have considered preparedness to be ‘actions taken’ by communities and cities to “get ready” for potential disasters, and mitigation to be structural architectures and policy frameworks that ‘prevent or reduce’ the impact of disasters. traditional mitigation structures such as levees and embankments have been considered as the most important measures in mitigating floods. for example, as thieken et al. (2016) report, that mitigation measures implemented after the august 2002 floods in germany that caused damages of more than €11.6 billion, were effective in preventing a similar scale of damage from the severe floods in 2013. these measures included decentralized flooding control strategies such as reclaiming floodplains, renaturation of pa ge 18 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 surface water bodies, unsealing of lands, etc. thieken et al. (2016) also verified that traditional defense systems (e.g. embankments, controlled flood retention basins, and dams) strengthened the flood resilience of communities affected by extreme hydraulic load in 2013. in another research, bubeck et al. (2017) describe how flood mitigation systems such as embankments and levees regarded as technical measures have a sustained tradition of protecting areas from being inundated by floods. such traditional measures demonstrate their vitality in preventing floods, nonetheless, breaches and overtopping of these structures provide a concern for the integrity of these structures to efficiently protect cities against floods, prompting requirements to improve existing frameworks and defense systems whilst encouraging precautionary and preparatory actions from individuals living nearby waterbodies (thieken et al., 2016). in other contexts of flood mitigation measures, sustainable urban drainage systems (suds), and stormwater harvesting are proposed to better mitigate against and manage floods, especially for pluvial floods and for developing countries that lack the financial capacity to build traditional defense systems. for example, ortega et al. (2023) suggest that promoting sustainable urban drainage systems holds the capacity to build more flood-resilient communities. suds are believed to present better solutions for reducing surface run-offs and improving biodiversity in urban areas. however, its advantage does not convince some cities, as suds implementation is slow-paced (ortega et al., 2023) with several authors attributing lack of transition to suds implementation over conventional approaches to socio-political hindrance or perception (li et al., 2020; thorne et al., 2018). in all these papers reviewed so far, and also in others not included in this summary, we observed limited research in comparative assessment of flood risk management practices in different countries. this prompted the need to conduct an assessment and comparison of different flood preparedness and mitigation strategies to establish a foundation for the efficient adoption and transfer of approaches from resilient societies to struggling societies, particularly developing countries. this research will potentially unveil the strengths of flood mitigation and management strategies in developed and resilient societies, allowing other countries to adopt and implement the same strategies in their flood risk management. in response to the identified gap, this paper focuses on conducting an in-depth investigation of recent research to assess effective and feasible flood risk mitigation and management measures in developed countries. the aim is to propose a flood risk management strategy/framework that can be recommended to implementation in the use case region lagos nigeria, by considering the following research question. (1) how do individuals and communities ‘get ready’ and ‘respond’ to perceived flood events (2) what are the existing government policies/ frameworks that promote and enhance sustainable flood risk mitigation? (3) which conclusion can be drawn to improve flood disaster preparedness and mitigation in lagos nigeria? materials and methods publication selection and collection to carry out this research we started by identifying academic databases that contain relevant peer-reviewed articles and appropriate governmental websites “grey literature” of some countries to access information and data relevant to the study. statical data were extracted from primary data available on the governmental website since they contain authentic information. search strategy and selection criteria for the identification of relevant studies were developed (as seen in table 1). mixed search strategy was adopted for the collection of relevant studies; the first stage focused on utilizing academic database search engines such as web of science, sciencedirect, and google scholar. the search began using some predefined keywords such as “disaster preparedness”, “disaster mitigation” “hazard mitigation”, and “pre-disaster preparations”, but the search terms were later redefined to be more specific to flood disasters because previous terms returned studies on general and all kind of disasters (natural and man-made). the redefined keywords were thus, “flood hazard mitigation”, “flood preparedness strategies”, “flood management approaches”, and “flood risk management”. many of the articles focused on individual-community preparedness for disasters, according to the search terms, only a few articles contained research on flood mitigation strategies by countries. additionally, the generated articles from the search were screened by reviewing the title and abstract to determine whether the paper was relevant to the study. if the paper was relevant to the study, the year of publication is then considered to either obtain the fulltext version of the article or exclude the article based on specific reasons. table 1: inclusion and exclusion criteria for generated papers inclusion criteria exclusion criteria reasons sources published in english language sources not published in english english is the widely used language in academic research sources published from 2013 – 2023 sources published before 2013 avoiding obsolete research, and focusing on recent studies research domain; environmental science, social sciences. research domain; computer science, health science, economic science studies related to natural disasters pa ge 19 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 in the second phase, a focused search was conducted for articles related to flood risk management in some countries. this was done to establish a comparative assessment of flood risk mitigation strategies by examining studies that focused on specific countries such as the united kingdom (uk), the united states (us), and the netherlands. secondary data collection subsequently, after the relevant articles were collected, numerical data of past flood disasters in the us were extracted from the federal emergency management agency (fema) database to assess the performance of the flood risk management framework in the country. the included data were those recorded from economic losses, casualties (deaths), and infrastructural damages from 1980 to 2023. these data were used to present the trend of flood impact and losses before and after implementation of the flood risk management framework. furthermore, a graph of ‘billion-dollar’ flood disasters in the us was plotted using microsoft excel (fig.1) to assess the performance of the framework. description of use case region (lagos, nigeria) communities and cities situated close to coastlines are continuously facing threats and damages from floods. climate change has intensified this disastrous natural phenomenon in recent years, with increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall being a major player. these affected regions (such as lagos) are left counting economic losses, population displacement, deaths, and disruptions to public services year-in-year-out (ekoh et al., 2022). it is a known fact that natural hazards cannot be prevented but mitigation and adaptation practices have become sustainable actions to reduce the impact and damages from natural hazards through preparedness and mitigation strategies. lagos one of the flood-prone regions in west africa, is located in the southwestern part of nigeria near the atlantic ocean, it has several inland waterbodies including a lagoon that flows into the atlantic. according to nkwunonwo et al. (2016), its proximity to the ocean favors rapid economic growth, which has been a major factor in its rapid urbanization. however, the increased influx of migrants continually exerts pressure on the available infrastructures leading to rapid urbanization, with the poor population forced to settle in areas that are extremely vulnerable to floods (echendu, 2023). flood disasters in nigeria are mostly fluvial (river) or pluvial (rainfall) related, however, most recent floods in lagos have been linked to rainfall events (nkwunonwo et al., 2016), and the poor population are the group that bears the majority of the flood impact; as a result of poor awareness and communication measures to this group. assessing the flood disaster preparedness and mitigation of lagos is important because of its low-lying landscape and proximity to the ocean. its dense population also presents a concern for improved flood management as socioeconomic factors of the state have had major constraints on flood mitigation. results and discussion the rising global need to prevent the severe impact of disasters on economies, public and private infrastructures, and more importantly human health and sustainability has been the driving force behind diverse flood risk mitigation actions from individuals, communities, and governments. these actions span from flood risk governance, flood risk communication and awareness, response and evacuation drills and training programs, flood risk warning actions such as hazard monitoring etc., the research findings from this study present below the factors that influence/ promote flood preparedness and mitigation. flood hazard knowledge and risk perception floods are mostly characterized as slow-onset disasters, thus preparing for these types of disasters mostly depends on individual perception of the hazards associated with floods especially those related to rainfall (appleby-arnold et al., 2021). the level of disaster awareness and communication by stakeholders who are aware of the potential impact of floods is a tool that can be used to shape and improve how individuals perceive extreme rainfall events (hashim et al., 2021). since hazard identification indicates awareness of individuals’ possible hazard impact, perception of risk is a determinant factor that links the identification of hazards to disaster preparedness (kamarulzaman et al., 2016). people tend to prepare for what they believe has a severe impact on them. most times, the experience of similar events has an influence on the behavioral pattern of individuals during potential flooding (albano et al., 2016) such experiences play a good role in solidifying the preparedness and mitigation measures of individuals and societies. risk perception indicates that preparedness and mitigation measures against disasters possess a strong link to resilience and adaptation. flood hazard monitoring monitoring involves continuous observation of water level in terms of coastal and river floods, and for pluvial floods measurement of the influx of rainfall with specialized equipment to predict flood events. river and coastal floods are easier to monitor as opposed to floods from extreme rainfall events, which are mostly influenced by several factors such as infrastructures, and precipitation pattern (echendu, 2023). however, floods are generally hazards that can be predicted, observed, and evaded because the gradual increase in water/precipitation level gives people time to prepare for them (krongthaeo et al., 2021). flood monitoring provides important information disaster preparedness related flood disasters disaster preparedness related to manmade disasters, and other natural disasters paper is focused on flood disaster preparedness strategies pa ge 20 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 on the possibility of its impact and more importantly development of measures to reduce its impact. this is possible through instrumentations and installation of systems such as sensors, and river gauges in river banks or coastal areas (silva souza et al., 2017; ufuoma et al., 2021) satellite data, and weather forecast systems (liu et al., 2022; oduah et al., 2023) to predict and detect futuristic flood events. these early warning systems allow adequate response to disasters both for individual and emergency management agencies. flood warning and communication early warning systems are an integral component of disaster preparedness and mitigation as these systems can collect real-time data and communicate potential flood disasters (silva souza et al., 2017), facilitating timely response. flood warning systems are primarily interconnected with monitoring systems that record these events and transmit the observations to give ontime information that alerts concerned stakeholders. souza et al. (2017) demonstrate how early warning systems disseminate flood warning information, through connecting monitoring sensors to the internet cloud that stores and disseminates these data based on the signals from the sensors. most hazard communications systems commonly use colors (green, yellow, and red) to indicate the degree of severity of potential flood events. moreover, traditional measures are utilized to provide warning and communication to individuals and communities that may not have access to modern channels (krongthaeo et al., 2021), although it requires constant checking and monitoring of water levels by designated authorities, primarily in seasons when precipitation levels are high. other communication channels such as mobile apps, sms alerts, and siren-mounted vehicles enable flood information dissemination seamlessly whilst reaching a large number of people at the same time (kamarulzaman et al., 2016; rollason et al., 2018), these channels are effective at sending first-hand information to citizens, thus enabling vigilance and swift response to floods. furthermore, integrating flood monitoring and warning systems into disaster emergency frameworks is necessary to promote rapid and coordinated actions (rollason et al., 2018). flood risk management governance and policymaking are integral aspects of building resilient societies in a world where natural and man-made hazards are on the increase. formulating robust strategies for managing and mitigating floods has been on the increase, as climate change persistently alters precipitation patterns and causes intensified flood events. most flood governance is primarily centered on prevention and mitigation with the use of structural measures such as dikes, embankment systems, etc. over non-structural solutions like land use planning and insurance (raikes et al., 2019). such governmental strategies for flood risk management have led to its adoption in many countries including the united states, the netherlands, and the united kingdom. for instance, flood prevention in the netherlands is most notably focused on structural measures, thus governance and policies are aimed at constructing and improving engineering structures that impede the occurrence and impact of floods (bubeck et al., 2017; kolen et al., 2013), while in france, prevention emphasis is on planning for engineering measures failure, a contingency plan that absorbs risk and promotes timely recovery through insurance mechanisms (gersonius et al., 2016; kolen et al., 2013), but a more balanced flood risk management strategy involving pre-disaster planning and preparedness, response, and recovery is practiced in the united states and the united kingdom (gersonius et al., 2016; raikes et al., 2019). flood governance is widely and primarily dependent on the risk conception/perception of public authorities and policymakers, a major contribution that may have led to disparities in disaster preparedness measures in states and even local levels of government. flood risk policy frameworks (the european flood directive framework case) policies and frameworks are the non-structural components of disaster preparedness and mitigation strategies that enable governments and societies to proffer sustainable solutions to prevent the negative consequences of disasters (dash & punia, 2019; vij et al., 2020). most policies consider economic, environmental, and human health sustainability, and these actions are now top priorities among nations to combat rising climate change and frequent occurrence of disasters. for example, disparities and ineffective flood risk management particularly in transboundary communities is a primary factors that led to the formulation of the european union flood directive (eufd) to assess and manage flood risk to prevent undermining of the european union’s goal of sustainable economies, environment, and human health (priest et al., 2016). the directive emphasizes the establishment of a common framework for better flood management across borders, thereby improving transboundary coordination and cooperation, especially in communities situated within the boundaries. table 2. gives a summary of the assessment of the eufd framework. it is important to note that the directive does not rule over national policies or frameworks on flood risk management, it was however, established to provide a minimum common framework for managing flooding and to reduce the impact on european societies (priest et al., 2016). although the flood directive admits that floods are unpredictable natural events, improved management of societal activities is feasible to reduce the risk of flood events and their consequences. the creation of the european fd, which is in response to severe flood events that hit europe between 1998 and 2007, causing more than 50 billion in economic losses and more than 1000 loss in lives, has since led to accurate assessment and creation of river basin hazard maps (bonasia & lucatello, 2019) essential to establish flood risk management plans and guidance on policy improvement. pa ge 21 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 table 2: assessment of the european fd for flood risk management criteria judgment governance effectiveness fd embraces the river basin scale as the primary management unit and employs a multilevel strategy for establishing goals and standards, contributing positively to adaptive governance. nevertheless, the absence of adequately institutionalized instruments within the legal framework could impede transboundary collaboration. additionally, disparities in legal structures, political perspectives on flood risk management, and variations in economic, social, and physical contexts may hinder effective coordination and cooperation across different scales. robustness one of the fd declared objectives is to encourage a more varied approach to flood management. nonetheless, countries have the autonomy to establish their own goals, and there are no set standards for the variety of flood management strategies. adaptability there is a lot of latitude under the fd for nations to choose appropriate risk thresholds and flood risk control goals. however, if certain fd standards are novel and dissimilar from already-used methods, they will be more challenging and complex to implement, such as creating plans for flood risk management and introducing participatory techniques. effectiveness towards goal even with coordinated transboundary approaches being the goal, there remains variation across national borders. this variation can be linked to variations in concept definitions, legal frameworks and obligations, political perspectives on flood risk management, and physical, social, and economic environments. comparative assessment of flood management strategies (uk, us, and netherlands) flood risk management system in different countries is mostly driven by demand and support for distinct characteristics of landscapes and types of flood risk. countries often, by trend, rely more on structural systems when flood hazard is characterized by high impacts, and short warning time, even when having the least probability of occurrence. in contrast, countries faced with more frequent flood hazards with minimal impact and sufficient prediction time are more likely to have flexible frameworks (bubeck et al., 2017; dash & punia, 2019). in the past, flood hazards were believed to be exclusively resolved by technical engineering measures, and this belief in engineering defense systems has been challenged by the occurrence of flood events in regions that were considered ‘protected’ against floods (bubeck et al., 2017). moreover, climate change and aggravated rainfall have shifted sole reliance on technical flood defense, towards greater emphasis on non-structural measures such as governance and spatial planning (bubeck et al., 2017; vij et al., 2020). flood management strategy in the uk the institutional bodies for flood risk management in the uk were established based on risk analysis, and quantifying the likelihood of flooding based on an annual exceedance probability (aep). the central government institution responsible for flood policy is the department for environment, food and rural affairs (defra), while a non-departmental government body, the environmental agency (ag) makes in-depth assessment, planning, and implementation of flood risk and management at national and regional scale (miller & hutchins, 2017; rubinato et al., 2019). furthermore, there are local institutional bodies with responsibilities to manage floods caused by inadequate sewage, comprising mainly of privatized companies. other local authorities are responsible for local emergencies, spatial planning, and emergency response to floods. finally, private insurance companies provide cover for damages offloods to residential and most commercial properties (bubeck et al., 2017; rubinato et al., 2019). the broadness of flood management in the uk ensures shared responsibility between the government, local authorities, and communities. natural solutions such as suds are more commonly used to manage floods in the uk (li et al., 2020), however, their ability to effectively manage excessive flooding is still under deliberation. nevertheless, traditional flood defense systems (engineering structures) are still valid options considered by institutions especially having historical importance in mitigating floods (rubinato et al., 2019). flood management strategy in the us the united states federal emergency management agency (fema) in 2002 created the national flood insurance program (nfip) that mandates communities to abide by a predefined set of floodplain management standards and to offer insurance to communities with significant flood risk (fema, 2023). this act promotes the engagement of states to assume major roles in floodplain management by adhering to the nfip standards, helping them to advise and support participating local communities to adhere to the standards (tyler et al., 2019). the program standardizes flood risk management by imposing minimum building and flood zoning requirements on communities across the us. the importance of the nfip is that it gives local governments the authority to restrict development in flood-risk areas, and pa ge 22 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 mandates ground floor of new or substantially renovated buildings be elevated if ‘unprotected’ by levees (bubeck et al., 2017; tyler et al., 2019). fema unlike the defra in the uk, has the sole responsibility to identify flood-hazard areas, provide flood risk maps, insure properties, create construction design standards in flood plains, and fund mitigation projects (fema, 2023). additionally, the nfip does not restrict participating communities, hence, states and local governments can impose additional building codes and flood-zoning regulations on individuals (bubeck et al., 2017). to assess the performance of the nfip program, data from past and recent flood events from fema were analyzed and plotted for flood disasters in the us from 1980-2023, as seen in figure 1. figure 1: billion-dollar flood disasters in the us from 1980-2023 (fema, 2023) flood management strategy in the netherlands the responsibility of flood risk management in the netherlands is predominantly of the central government and committed water board (bubeck et al., 2017), primarily relying on flood defense measures due to the development of land reclamation of almost 800 years, resulting in the establishment of dyke ring areas; areas that have fixed boundaries with embankments or other flood defenses. the netherlands is one of the most vulnerable floodprone countries with over 60% of the land coverage in floodplains (van herk et al., 2015). the flood safety is well structured but massive and continuous effort is required to protect the country against future flooding. flood management frameworks focus on large-scale to local-scale protection consisting of flood embankments and channelization. this protection approach ranks among the highest in the world. protection against storm surges and river floods is enhanced by the reinforcement of the country’s flood defense system comprising coastal dunes, dikes, and storm surges (edelenbos et al., 2017; van herk et al., 2015). the focus of the flood risk management system in the netherlands of ‘managing the flood’ rather than ‘managing the risk’ has undergone a transition to an integrated flood risk management and lies on the minimum standard requirement of the eufd (bubeck et al., 2017). the transition led to a multi-layer safety framework that identifies three layers: namely, flood protection, sustainable spatial planning, and emergency management. the degree of adoption of the framework announced in the netherlands’ national water plan (bubeck et al., 2017) is yet to be realized since there has not been a major flooding event since the 1953 storm surge, indicating that the flood-defense strategy is considerably successful. flood mitigation strategies and architectures structural flood risk mitigation strategies are the most widely used defense systems against inundation from extreme water levels and rainfall events. the approach of flood management has proved its effectiveness in militating disastrous flood impacts on cities and societies. implementation of structural and non-structural systems of flood risk management has enabled more resilient societies since most residual floods can be dealt with by the non-structural aspect of flood management (bubeck et al., 2017). for example, dikes are the main structural defense system, but they are backed up by contingency plans that allow smooth recovery (richert et al., 2019). these defense systems are predominantly accepted by the public as efforts to mitigate the impact of floods, giving them the confidence to follow and abide by policies and frameworks set up by governments. the most common structural mitigation systems are: namely levees, embankments, and dikes which are mostly constructed to impede river and coastal inundations (edelenbos et al., 2017). however, recent flood mitigation strategies such as sustainable urban drainage systems, polders, stormwater harvesting, unsealing lands, reclamation of flood plains, etc. have gained wide practice in preventing the severe impact of floods (albrecht & hartmann, 2021; li et al., 2020; nick et al., 2023; thieken et al., 2016). additionally, individuals living close to coastal and river areas have adopted mitigation strategies in constructing houses, such as creating floating foundations, building pa ge 23 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 mounds around buildings, or even raising basement that allows individuals to live on the upper floor during flood disasters (creach et al., 2020; krongthaeo et al., 2021). table 3. shows some architectural design patterns that are adopted for flood risk mitigation. flood risk management strategies in lagos nigeria perception of risk is a main driver in preparedness and mitigation of disasters. understanding the flood risk, probability and potential associated disaster has over time influenced the decision of what flood risk management strategy to adopt and implement. the flood risk management strategy in lagos has been based on the prevention and control of floods with primary measures being the implementation of structural strategies (nkwunonwo et al., 2016). most recent flood risk management strategies have shifted attention to flood risk analysis rather than disaster control, which has strengthened flood mitigation in several countries (bubeck et al., 2017; rubinato et al., 2019), this has not been the case in lagos until a few years ago when non-structural strategies were initiated with a major focus on flood risk table 3: architectural design patterns adopted for flood risk mitigation (extracted from creach et al., 2020) mitigation strategy architecture design patterns (a) protection: construction of protective structures that reduce the probability of flooding in a particular zone. b) retreat: moving exposed building to a safer zone (higher elevation). (c) accommodate: reconstructing or renovating the building to minimize flood impact. assessment and reduction. flood risk management is defined by sayers et al. (2013) to range from information gathering, and risk analysis to continuous societal risk assessment and adoption of policies. this broad range of flood management is rather less considered during the formulation of preparedness and mitigation strategies, which has mostly constituted structural measures for flood mitigation. negligence to enforce established frameworks and policies that enhance flood risk management contributes to the vast number of lagos population living in flood-exposed and prone areas with the urban poor being the most vulnerable groups (adelekan, 2016). therefore, it is not only sufficient to build structural barriers and establish frameworks that deal with flood mitigation, but it is also important to carry out effective and efficient sensitization of the public that encourages participatory and collaborative efforts against flood disasters. consequently, most structural efforts towards flood risk management in lagos have centered primarily on the construction of suds, which can retain and dispense rainfall water into waterbodies, but notable constraints to this measure have been the poor waste management system in the state that sees the voluminous amount of trash disposed of in the drainages (nkwunonwo et al., 2016). on the contrary, contingency measures such as insurance have been skewed to multinational companies in the city with a majority of the population (the urban poor) having to feel the heat in recovering from floods (adelekan, 2016). on a general note, flood management in lagos nigeria, has gained much attention with increased efforts from the public and private sectors that have drastically increased and improved flood mitigation efforts, however, increased participation of citizens is a vital requirement to sustainably prepare for and mitigate flood disasters in lagos. additionally, technical early warning systems such as water gauges, sensors, and transmitters, satellite data are non-structural measures that are lacking and have a visible impact on flood management mitigation (adelekan, 2016). such instrumentation and installations can provide rapid and timely early information regarding the potential inundation of the city. in summary, flood risk mitigation in lagos state is far beyond expectations, especially in the face of a rapidly changing climate which is a wakeup call to increase efforts that mitigate and reduce the impact of flooding. discussion the rise in frequency and intensity of flooding events in several nations is an indication of advancing development and enforcement in preparedness and mitigation measures against this ever-devastating event. with significant evidence of aggravated preparedness and mitigation measures from governments, communities are more resilient to natural disasters. findings from this research show that individual readiness and willingness to take action against flood events have of significant effect in limiting the impact of floods (appleby-arnold et al., 2021; hashim et al., 2021; kamarulzaman et al., 2016). since people constitute the most important part of societies, their access to information and knowledge on flood disaster preparedness is vital in ensuring resilient societies (yildiz et al., 2021), this indicates the necessity to educate and train people and create easy access to flood information. flood preparedness and mitigation strategies are strengthened when they are an integrated and collaborative effort between citizens and institutional governing bodies because the direct implementation of frameworks established by governance is largely dependent on the response and acceptance of citizens. noteworthy, a shift of attention from technical flood risk management measures to non-structural measures such as policy-making has proven to provide more sustainable solutions to mitigate flood disasters (bubeck et al., 2017; pa ge 24 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 li et al., 2020; rubinato et al., 2019). figure 1. shows how the nfip program formed by the us government has performed in flood risk management. we see that before the nfip formation, losses from flood disasters were high despite having a considerably low number of events. although there seems to be great economic loss in the aftermath of the nfip formation, this can be attributed to an increased number of weather events, which is a result of climate change. the framework can be said to have performed well so far in flood risk management in the us, however, increased effort is required to further strengthen the engagement of citizens, allowing the program to achieve its purpose. nonetheless, the shift in attention towards non-structural measures of flood mitigation strategies has rather strengthened structural measures as they are still much in use and considered important in preventing flood disasters. such is seen in the flood risk management approach in the netherlands, where there is more focus on structural measures since a large part of the country is situated in a floodplain zone. however, there have been recent efforts to integrate both measures (van herk et al., 2015), which are in response to the requirements set by the eufd. flood risk management strategies in the united states and the united kingdom lie more on governance, which is a broad approach that ensures flood risk avoidance in the first instance. the disparity in strategies demonstrates that flood risk management is specific to flood risk probability and potential impact in each country. nevertheless, adopting structural building patterns (creach et al., 2020) are effective measures to prepare for and mitigate floods. findings from this research indicate that flood preparedness and mitigation is multifaceted, therefore adopting an already existing framework in a more resilient society may prove vital in mitigating and managing floods in less resilient societies. proposed approach for flood risk management in the use case area the proposed approach is a systematic way of analyzing a system to reveal its strengths and weaknesses and then suggest a solution that improves its operation to further strengthen the system. in the context of flood risk management, it entails the adoption of an existing working framework from a region with similar risk or challenge, and implementation to better improve flood risk management in that specific region. the comparative assessment of flood risk management strategies in three different countries (the uk, the us, and the netherlands) has established an overview of the strategy that can be adopted to manage flood risk in lagos, the proposed strategy suggests a framework that allows collaboration and partnership from all sphere of the society. the framework is focused on providing support and guidance to efficient flood management such as enforcing adherence to policies and standards in implementing strategies. this allows public authorities to exert restrictions and sanctions on perpetrators. this management strategy has the potential to mandate lagos state inhabitants to adhere to and abide by the policies fig 2: proposed framework for flood mitigation strategies in the use case area pa ge 25 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 16-27, 2024 established by the governments. the framework also allows the government to provide coverage for the population living in floodplain areas, especially for the urban poor. such measures will enable the urban poor population to adhere to government policies and have access to a contingency plan that helps them recover easily from flood disasters. nonetheless, adopting a framework or policies is not as simple as it seems, several factors like economic system, geographic landscape, flood risk, technical know-how, performance of framework, etc., need to be considered (bubeck et al., 2017) before adopting a flood risk management framework. conclusion floods are becoming more frequent and intense, necessitating enhanced preparedness and mitigation strategies to minimize their devastating effects. in response to flood risks, several economies, especially developed ones, have come up with innovative solutions ranging from structural barriers to non-structural measures that improve flood risk management efficiency. this research has been able to reveal the extent of flood preparedness and mitigation measures, and how they affect the lives of people. flood preparedness and mitigation can be improved by highlighting the factors that affect preparedness and mitigation of flooding and making this information readily available to individuals and authorities that are concerned with preparing and preventing floods. perception is one of the most important factors to consider when preparing for flood disasters, which affects how individuals, societies, economies, and countries prepare. people and countries would be able to respond more effectively to flooding events if sustainable measures were implemented. this research has been able to demonstrate that non-structural measures possess the same importance as structural measures in flood risk management, and the effort towards mitigation of flood impact is rather a participatory and collaborative process than sole reliance on public authorities. lagos by its location is an extremely vulnerable state to flooding events, and there remains a great demand on the citizens and the government to strengthen their efforts in preparedness and mitigation strategies against this natural phenomenon. a notable setback is the citizen’s perspective and lack of participation and collaboration with the government of the state. this lack of collaboration will always be a hindrance to the effective implementation of policies and standards established by the government. directing attention toward citizens’ awareness and participation in flood preparedness and mitigation will serve a great deal to achieve the goal of 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(2021). children’s perceptions of flood risk and preparedness: a study after the may 2018 flooding in golcuk, turkey. progress in disaster science, 9, 100143. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2021.100143 pa ge 1 pa ge 80 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) a climate action roadmap for ghg reduction in the textile industry: pathway to sustainability kazi farhed iqubal1, tauhidul hasan1, md. zahidul islam1, sk. salahuddin ahammad2, nasim khan3, ahmed jubaer4*, sk abid md saad1, digonta chanda5 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.6009 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: september 02, 2025 accepted: october 06, 2025 published: october 21, 2025 the textile industry is one of the major contributors to greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions and countries like bangladesh are among the key hubs of this industry in the developing world. therefore, adopting sustainable strategies in these countries is essential for environmental protection and long-term economic resilience. in our study, a comprehensive climate action roadmap (car) has been developed with the baseline year of 2018, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50% by 2030. this roadmap is designed to identify and quantify both direct and indirect ghg emissions, while evaluating energy consumption, production processes and waste management practices, thereby clearly highlighting areas for improvement. innovative technologies and process enhancements, including the adoption of renewable energy (solar and wind) alternative heating methods and efficiency-driven production strategies-have been integrated into this roadmap strategy to support significant emission reductions. this roadmap has incorporated collaboration and best practices sharing into its framework in order to ensure stakeholder engagement, accountability and progress monitoring for effective implementation in the operations of any textile industry around the world, including bangladesh. the car framework will undoubtedly make an important contribution to ghg reduction by providing practical strategies to reduce environmental impacts while promoting social responsibility and sustainable economic growth. this framework provides to the textile industry a methodical and efficient route to sustainability by methodically tackling energy efficiency, clean energy integration and performance optimization. through a thorough evaluation of textile ghg profiles and emission calculation techniques, eqms consulting limited was able to create and validate this framework. the firm has also applied the car framework in five textile facilities with encouraging results. keywords ghg emissions reduction, renewable energy, sustainability framework, textile industry, pathway 1 environmental safeguard department, eqms consulting limited, dhaka, bangladesh 2 smart project, palli karma-sahayak foundation, bangladesh 3 environmental modeling & risk assessment department, eqms consulting limited, dhaka, bangladesh 4 department of environmental and social monitoring, eqms consulting limited, dhaka, bangladesh 5 sustainable engineering department, eqms consulting limited, dhaka, bangladesh * corresponding author’s e-mail: farhed.iqubal@eqms.com.bd introduction the textile and apparel sector is responsible for 8–10% of total global ghg emissions, mainly due to fossil fuel use, energy-intensive production processes, and long, complex supply chains. in bangladesh, where the textile and ready-made garment (rmg) industry drives the national economy, it is natural that the environmental impact of this sector would also be comparatively higher. recent studies have shown that most emissions arise from on-site fuel consumption and electricity use, underscoring the need for sector-specific mitigation strategies (alam et al., 2022; hasan et al., 2023; haque et al., 2024). despite the importance of the industry, factorylevel greenhouse gas emission data in bangladesh is limited due to inadequate practices, lack of document control, and insufficient records. evidence from earlier assessments indicates that spinning, dyeing, and finishing are particularly emission-intensive stages. however, comprehensive facility-based analyses remain scarce, which restricts the development of targeted interventions. meanwhile, national climate strategies identify the textile sector as a high-priority area for achieving emissions reductions, especially through energy efficiency and wastewater treatment initiatives (united nations conference on trade and development [unctad], 2025). to address this gap, the present study evaluates ghg emissions in five textile facilities in bangladesh affiliated with lindex: divine textile ltd., iris fabrics limited, maxcom international (bd) ltd., northern corporation limited, and multifabs limited. four facilities were adopted in 2017 as their baseline year, while multifabs limited used 2018 due to unavailability of prior records. emission data was obtained from factory monitoring reports, energy logs, and on-site surveys conducted by eqms consulting limited. both direct (scope 1) and indirect (scope 2) emissions were estimated following internationally recognized emission factor guidelines. the results establish factory-level emission baselines, reveal trends, and identify mitigation opportunities. the research provides evidence-based insights for lowering the carbon footprint of the sector and supports larger initiatives for sustainable manufacturing in bangladesh by coordinating these findings with the suggested climate action roadmap. pa ge 81 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 80-87, 2025 literature review the operational method of the textile industries like energy-intensive production processes, extensive water usage and reliance on fossil fuels throughout the product lifecycle contributes approximately 10% of global greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions by the textile industry (niinimäki et al., 2020). the main causes of climate change are carbon dioxide (co2), methane (ch4), and nitrous oxide (n2o), which have a negative impact on weather patterns and biodiversity (filonchyk et al., 2024) hence reducing greenhouse gas emissions is difficult and needs for a variety of strategies, such as encouraging the use of low-carbon technologies, energy efficiency and resource preservation (pollak et al., 2011). the efficiency and costs of possible greenhouse gas reduction measures may differ by industry, city, nation or state depending on the sorts of natural resources, energy consumption trends and infrastructure that are currently in place in each of these countries (cragg, 2009; sweeney, 2008; rausch, 2010). utilizing renewable energy sources is one of the best strategies to lower pollution moreover combining solar and wind energy can significantly lower the carbon footprint of the textile manufacturing sector according to studies conducted in bangladesh (abdeldayem & mohamad 2001). this change lowers expenses while addressing environmental issues and improving energy security. waterless dyeing and digital printing are two examples of production process innovations that are essential for sustainability. by reducing resource usage and increasing productivity, these techniques save costs and boost competitiveness (rahaman et al., 2024). furthermore, implementing the concepts of the circular economy-where materials are reused and waste is reduced-has become a game-changing strategy in the sector (geissdoerfer et al., 2017). by abandoning conventional linear economic models in favor of social, environmental and economic balance, the world community is advancing toward sustainable development. the accomplishment of the sustainable development goals (sdgs) set forth by the united nations in 2015 is what is driving this change (marinina et al., 2022). the circular economy (ce) idea, which seeks to combine industrial development, environmental health, and economic growth, is gaining global interest among researchers, managers, and politicians as a departure from the traditional linear economic model. researchers believe that in developing nations like bangladesh, which rely significantly on development and industry, this method will be critical in tackling sustainability issues (silvério et al., 2023) through this, large-scale circular economy projects can have a significant impact on the balance of primary and secondary product supply. (upadhyay et al., 2021). a study on the effects of financial resources, operational alignment and absorptive capacity on the adoption of the circular economy (ce) among small and medium-sized businesses (smes) in malaysia was carried out where the findings indicates the adequate financial investment, company operations that are in line with ce principles and the capacity to assimilate and apply new information are all essential for the successful implementation of ce (ahmed et al., 2025). it have een evaluated that seven important sectors are essential that lowering the global ghg emissions which are buildings (7%), land use change and forestry (7%), transportation (13%), agriculture and waste (15%), industry and fossil fuel production (29%), electricity generation (25%) and fluorinated gases (3%). transportation, power generation, industry and fossil fuel production are the most successful mitigation sectors among them (tang & mizunoya, 2021). stakeholder mapping is an important part of these strategies, which makes the framework meaningful. engaging stakeholders, including workers and consumers, is essential. organizations that prioritize corporate social responsibility (csr) and involve stakeholders in sustainable initiatives are found to achieve better outcomes and build a sustainable culture that enhances brand loyalty (jalonen et al., 2018). in summary, for the textile industry, achieving significant greenhouse gas emission reductions requires the adoption of a comprehensive strategy that incorporates the use of renewable energy, innovative production methods and stakeholder engagement-minimizing environmental impacts while providing a supportive pathway toward a fair and sustainable future. materials and methods to reduce greenhouse gas (ghg) in textile factories a climate action roadmap (car) was developed and implemented in five separate factories in bangladesh. the framework is structured and multi-stage research design. this approach ensured methodological rigor, reproducibility and contextual relevance. the process integrated quantitative emission assessments with sitespecific evaluations to provide both technical accuracy and practical feasibility. preliminary assessment and data acquisition as an initial part of this strategy, a baseline review was conducted in five textile factories in bangladesh, namely divine textile ltd., iris fabrics limited, maxcom international (bd) ltd., northern corporation limited, and multifabs limited. operational data-including fuel consumption, electricity use, production throughput and waste management practiceswere collected from factory observation reports, energy logs and throughout on-site surveys. these datasets were verified for completeness, consistency and subsequently served as the basis for greenhouse gas assessments. emission source classification and quantification emissions were classified in accordance with the ghg protocol (wri/wbcsd) into two categories: scope 1: direct emissions from stationary combustion (boilers, furnaces), mobile combustion (vehicles), and process-related activities. scope 2: indirect emissions from purchased electricity, heat, and steam. emission quantification was carried out using ipcc pa ge 82 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 80-87, 2025 (2006) guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories and internationally recognized emission factors. all emissions were estimated according to the following standard equation: ghg emission (tco2-e) = ∑(activity data × emission factor) ----1 where activity data referred to fuel or electricity consumption and emission factor represented standardized co2-equivalent conversion factors. review of existing mitigation measures mitigation measures that had been implemented since 2017—including high-efficiency boilers, process optimizations, and partial renewable energy adoption— were systematically reviewed. their effectiveness was evaluated through comparative analysis of preand post-intervention emission data, allowing differentiation between historical improvements and further reduction potential. identification of additional reduction opportunities new mitigation opportunities were identified through detailed site visits and technical assessments. options considered included: 1. retrofitting with energy-efficient equipment (e.g., high-efficiency motors, led lighting), 2. installation of waste heat recovery systems, 3. deployment of on-site renewable energy systems (solar pv, wind turbines), and 4. process optimization measures for thermal energy demand reduction. opportunities were screened using a best-availabletechnology (bat) approach, ensuring sector-specific applicability. technical and economic feasibility assessment at this stage, the technical and financial feasibility of each identified measure was evaluated. technical feasibility was assessed based on expected emission savings, integration potential, and operational compatibility. at the same time, cost-benefit indicators such as simple payback period, energy savings, operating expenditure (opex) and capital expenditure (capex) were used to examine economic feasibility. prioritization of interventions to prioritize the interventions, potential measures were ranked based on their contribution to the 50% reduction target compared to the 2017 baseline, their economic feasibility and their relative impact on greenhouse gas reduction. an incremental abatement curve was also developed to illustrate the remaining gaps and to assess progress toward the 2030 target. development of the climate action roadmap a structured and actionable framework named climate action road map was developed for each factory which included1. clearly defined interventions (energy efficiency, renewable energy adoption, waste heat utilization), 2. a phased implementation schedule (2023–2030), 3. defined roles and responsibilities for implementation teams, and 4. estimated costs, including capex, operational expenses, and projected savings. stakeholder engagement, monitoring, and verification as the final stage of this framework, mechanisms were established for stakeholder engagement and continuous monitoring to ensure accountability and adaptive management. a monitoring, reporting and verification (mrv) framework was developed and implemented to track progress, generate transparent reports and facilitate stakeholder participation, thereby supporting the longterm implementation of the roadmap in textile factories. ghg reduction strategy in the greenhouse gas reduction strategy in the textile sector is designed to significantly reduce emissions while simultaneously improving energy efficiency and sustainability. to minimize energy consumption and the carbon footprint, key components include replacing mechanical uses with energy-efficient equipment such as motors, led lights and exhaust gas boilers. the car strategy has been developed to encourage the adoption of renewable energy sources in textile industries, where factories explore on-site systems such as solar panels and wind turbines (horizontal axis wind turbine, vertical axis wind turbine, domestic (small-scale), domestic (savonius type), domestic (small-scale) (darrieus type) etc. and purchase off-site renewable energy to reduce emissions. additionally, the strategy emphasizes heat recovery systems, focusing on capturing and reusing waste heat from processes-for example, recovering heat from gas engine jacket water for hot water applications. this strategy specifically emphasizes that monitoring and measurement are essential, as they track energy and water usage, enabling improved resource management and continuous improvement. based on the 2017 baseline, each factory aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50%, with most of the strategies set for implementation within 1–3 years. this strategy encourages greenhouse gas reduction efforts by fostering collaboration among factories and sharing best practices through the adoption of the eco-industrial parks concept. overall, the strategy integrates energy efficiency improvements, renewable energy adoption, waste heat recovery and continuous monitoring, positioning factories as leaders in environmental sustainability within the textile industry while demonstrating the coexistence of economic growth and environmental stewardship. pa ge 83 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 80-87, 2025 table 1: hierarchy of strategies for ghg emission reduction and sustainability in factories level strategy details main goal ghg emissions reduction 50% reduction target based on 2017 baseline; timeline: 1–3 years. primary strategy 1 energy efficiency improvement upgraded equipment: energy-efficient motors, led lighting, exhaust gas boilers. primary strategy 2 renewable energy adoption on-site solar panels and wind turbines; off-site renewable energy purchases. primary strategy 3 waste heat recovery capture and reuse waste heat (e.g., jacket water of gas engines for hot water applications). primary strategy 4 monitoring and measurement invest in advanced metering systems for energy and water usage tracking. primary strategy 5 collaboration and best practices sharing factories collaborate to share strategies, innovations, and continuous improvements. supporting action continuous improvement programs ongoing optimization and resource management based on data collected from metering systems. overarching outcome environmental sustainability leadership demonstrate economic growth and environmental stewardship within the textile industry. climate action roadmap this study presents the climate action roadmap (car) for five factories, detailing feasible ghg reduction options and a timeline for implementation starting in 2023. the factories’ emissions were as follows: divine textile ltd. (14,175 tons), iris fabrics limited (21,719 tons), maxcom international (bd) ltd. (6,809 tons), northern corporation limited (8,795 tons) in 2017, and multifabs limited (16,975 tons) in 2018. the reduction plan aims to cut emissions by 50% of the baseline by 2030. a tentative roadmap has been developed based on the analysis in the previous greenhouse gas reduction strategies. here, illustrates the ghg reduction roadmap for five figure 1: climate action roadmap of divine textile ltd. to achieve 50% ghg emission reduction factories, outlining the strategic actions and timelines necessary to achieve a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 figure 1 to figure 5. the horizontal axis represents the timeline, spanning from 2023 to 2030, indicating when each action will be implemented. the vertical axis categorizes various initiatives, including energy efficiency improvements, renewable energy integration, waste management, and process optimization. a line graph may show how these actions are executed over time to project the cumulative decrease in emissions. the roadmap provides a structured approach to ghg reduction, ensuring accountability, effective stakeholder communication, and adaptability to new opportunities or challenges. for textile factories like those where car has been implemented, car will be considered an important framework to support sustainability and the commitment to reducing environmental impacts, exploring off-site solar or on-site heat system alternatives in the context pa ge 84 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 80-87, 2025 figure 2: climate action roadmap of iris fabrics limited to achieve 50% ghg emission reduction figure 3: climate action roadmap of maxcom international (bd) ltd. to achieve 50% ghg emission reduction figure 4: climate action roadmap of northern corporation limited to achieve 50% ghg emission reduction pa ge 85 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 80-87, 2025 analysis proposes adopting biomass and electric boilers as effective alternatives. by evaluating these options, the objective of the analysis is to identify potential solutions that enhance energy security and make a significant contribution to greenhouse gas reduction efforts. this approach underscores the importance of transitioning to sustainable energy practices to mitigate environmental impacts and promote long-term sustainability. results and discussion result of ghg estimation the ghg emissions for five factories were assessed for scope 1 (direct emissions from fuel consumption) and scope 2 (indirect emissions from electricity usage) over the period 2017 to 2021, shown in figure 6. four of these factories used 2017 as their baseline year, while only one factory adopted 2018 as its baseline, due to unavailable data for 2017. emissions were quantified by applying standardized emission factors to fuel and electricity data, providing an accurate estimate of each factory’s total ghg emissions. while some data gaps were encountered, the resulting trends offer a clear foundation for developing the roadmap to achieve a 50% reduction in ghg emissions by ghg emissions of five factories between the years from 2017 to 2021 have been shown in figure 1, provides figure 5: climate action roadmap of multifabs limited factories to achieve 50% ghg emission reduction figure 6: ghg emissions of five factories from 2017 to 2021 a snapshot of the greenhouse gas emissions from five different factories over five years (2017 to 2021). here’s a unique take on the data: pa ge 86 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 80-87, 2025 table 2: annual emissions (metric tons) of various textile factories (2017-2021) factory name 2017 (mt) 2018 (mt) 2021 (mt) divine textile ltd. 14,175 -18,751 iris fabrics limited 21,719 -21,981 maxcom international (bd) ltd. 6,809 -10,908 northern corporation limited 8,795 -8,809 multifabs limited -16,975 20,716 sources: eqms consulting limited, annual monitoring report discussions a decarbonization strategy for five textile manufacturing facilities is outlined in the climate action roadmap (car), which aims to reduce co2-equivalent (co2-e) emissions from baseline years (2017/2018) by 50% by 2030. the strategy blends supply-side activities such as on-site renewable energy installations and grid decarbonization with demand-side interventions such as energy efficiency upgrades and process optimization. it recommends switching from natural gas to lowcarbon options, such as biomass and electric boilers, to meet thermal energy demands while lowering scope 1 emissions. the phased deployment strategy allows for incremental mitigation while maintaining operational continuity by utilizing monitoring, reporting and verification (mrv) systems to monitor performance. using integrated energy transition strategies, this systemsbased approach demonstrates that considerable emission reductions in the textile industry are both technically and financially achievable. conclusion a strong climate action plan is essential for significantly lowering greenhouse gas emissions for the countries like bangladesh hence integrating renewable energy sources such as solar and wind as well as alternative heating solutions like biomass and electric boilers can considerably improve energy security and encourage towards sustainability. the recommended measures address the compelling need to mitigate climate change while also promoting economic and social sustainable growth. continuous review, improvement and refining of these techniques will be required to ensure their effectiveness in attaining the successive emission reduction targets. finally, a strong commitment to sustainable practices will be critical in creating a healthier environment and a more resilient future. references abdel-dayem, a. m., & mohamad, m. a. 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(2021). exploring barriers and drivers to the implementation of circular economy practices in the mining industry. resources policy, 72, 102037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. resourpol.2021.102037 pa ge 1 pa ge 44 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) optimizing carbon capture efficiency through ai-driven process automation for enhancing predictive maintenance and co2 sequestration in oil and gas facilities abraham peter anyebe1*, owura kwaku kodie yeboah2, oladipupo idris bakinson3, tayo yusuf adeyinka4, francisca chinonye okafor5 volume 3 issue 3, year 2024 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v3i3.3766 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: september 18, 2024 accepted: october 15, 2024 published: november 19, 2024 the increasing worldwide focus, on cutting down carbon emissions has heightened the need for cutting edge carbon capture and storage (ccus or ccsu) in the oil and gas industry sector. this examination delves into how ai powered automation processes can boost the effectiveness of carbon capture systems and improve maintenance practices, in oil and gas installations. combining intelligence (ai) with procedures and systems in place to predict outcomes accurately can enhance the dependability and effectiveness of ccs technologies by tackling essential issues like constant monitoring in real-time and identifying faults for system optimization purposes efficiently. ai-powered automation processes implemented by facilities have the potential to boost the rates of co2 sequestration while minimizing interruptions, resulting in a more effective carbon capture infrastructure. the methodology involves a systematic review of existing literature, peer-reviewed articles, case studies, and industry reports on ai techniques, such as machine learning and neural networks, in ccs. databases like google scholar and ieee xplore were used, focusing on keywords like “ai in ccs” and “predictive maintenance. the analysis also explores real-life examples from oil and gas firms that have effectively integrated ai solutions into their carbon capture and storage endeavors, hence shedding light on strategies, hurdles, and upcoming developments in the field. the evaluation highlights how ai-driven automation processes significantly improve the efficiency and environmental sustainability of oil and gas facilities. keywords artificial intelligence (ai), co2, carbon capture & sequestration (ccs), oil & gas facilities, optimization 1 department of navigation and direction, nigerian navy naval unit, abuja, nigeria 2 offshore wind energy industry, zuid-holland, netherlands 3 institute of energy and sustainable development, de montfort university, leicester, united kingdom 4 department of geography and planning, university of toledo, ohio, usa 5 department of geosciences, university of lagos, lagos state, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: catherineijiga@gmail.com introduction background of carbon capture and sequestration (ccs) in oil and gas facilities carbon capture and storage (ccs) plays a role in reducing co2 emissions from oil and gas plants to support efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions significantly (olajire, 2010). the importance of co2 capture technologies is underscored by the fact that these plants are significant sources of greenhouse gases. conventional ccs systems encounter obstacles like operating expenses and energy requirements; therefore, their synergy with cutting edge technologies such as intelligence (ai) is essential, for improving effectiveness. ai-powered solutions provide oversight and enhancement that are crucial for enhancing the expansiveness and viability of ccs procedures (zhang et al., 2022). moreover, artificial intelligence aids, in automating decision-making responsibilities by tackling obstacles in co2 retention and containment processes; thereby promoting efficiency and environmental advantages in the oil and gas industries. the growing dependence on ai for ccs underscores its impact, in molding industrial practices (idoko et al., 2024). the role of ai in process automation artificial intelligence (ai) is instrumental in streamlining operations such as carbon capture mechanisms in oil and gas plants. the use of ai driven automation improves the accuracy and efficiency of carbon capture by allowing for real time adjustments to parameters as depicted in figure 1 (gao et al., 2021). this method minimizes errors significantly. enhances the precision of data-based choices resultin0880g, in enhanced energy utilization and decreased operational expenses. ai’s capacity to anticipate system behavior not helps in maintenance to minimize downtime and boost productivity iijga et al. (2024) but also enables adaptive control of carbon capture processes through ai integration, for real time response, to varying co2 levels and enhanced capture rates optimization – thus promoting the expansion of ccs technologies and tackling industry inefficiencies as highlighted (owolabi et al., 2024). as a result of this development, in technology driven automation processes have now become essential for upgrading the carbon capture initiatives while also improving the eco friendliness of oil and gas activities, in today’s world (ijiga et al., 2024). in the image provided as figure 1 of an oil and gas plant showcasing structures and storage tanks prominently displayed to represent the incorporation of artificial intelligence (ai) and cutting-edge technologies, in the facility operations align well with how ai revolutionizes automating intricate industrial tasks, like carbon capture by improving operational accuracy through real time data analysis and predictive tools to optimize energy consumption and lower operational expenses. pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 the interconnected system showcases ais ability to continuously oversee and enhance co2 capture systems in time to boost efficiency and sustainability efforts. this integration of technology plays a role, in minimizing mistakes while enhancing operational output and enabling proactive maintenance practices in the oil and gas industry. this ensures a ecofriendly future, for carbon capture and storage technologies. figure 1: ai-driven automation in modern oil and gas carbon capture systems (pooja & dean, 2019) importance of enhancing predictive maintenance and co2 sequestration improving the efficiency of carbon capture systems, in oil and gas facilities is crucial for optimizing operations and enhancing co2 sequestration efforts. using maintenance powered by intelligence plays a significant role in anticipating equipme nt issues proactively to minimize downtime and maintain the seamless operation of carbon capture technologies as outlined in table 1 (yadav & mondals, 2022). through the integration of real time data analysis capabilities by ai technology allows for identification of faults, in equipment operations that helps in better planning maintenance routines and reducing possible interruptions. taking a stance not boosts the dependability of co2 capture setups but also enhances the efficiency of storage through maintaining ideal operational settings (awotiwon et al., 2024). furthermore, forecasting maintenance aids, in cost reductions by averting shutdowns leading to an overall improvement, in the sustainability of ccs systems. in the realm of co2 storage efforts these progressions enable long term retention directly backing climate objectives. to maximize the economic advantages of carbon capture efforts, in the oil and gas sector predictive maintenance powered by ai is crucial (ijiga et al., 2024). table 1: summary of predictive maintenance and co2 sequestration key aspect explanation ai roles outcome predictive maintenance benefits ai predicts equipment failures, allowing for timely maintenance and minimizing unplanned downtime uses real-time data and machine learning algorithms for proactive interventions. increased equipment lifespan and reduced failure rates. co2 sequestration efficiency maintains optimal operational conditions, improving the efficiency of co2 capture and storage. monitors system conditions and adjusts processes for maximum capture and storage efficiency higher co2 sequestration rates and lower energy consumption. cost and downtime reduction reduces operational costs by preventing expensive shutdowns and unnecessary maintenance. minimizes operational disruptions through predictive analytics and timely interventions. lower operational expenses and optimized maintenance schedules. long-term environmental impact enhanced maintenance ensures effective longterm co2 storage, supporting climate change mitigation efforts. ensures sustainability by maintaining operational integrity over extended periods. long-term reduction in atmospheric co2 levels, aiding environmental sustainability. pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 objectives of the review the main goal of this analysis is to investigate how using ai-powered automation can improve the efficiency of carbon capture and storage (ccs) in oil and gas plants. this research specifically looks into how ai can help optimize maintenance prediction and enhance co2 storage processes. by studying the developments in ai technology, the analysis seeks to pinpoint advancements that decrease operational inefficiencies boost co2 capture levels and guarantee better long term storage options. furthermore, the article aims to showcase real world uses and examples that illustrate how ai can improve ccs operations by tackling operational obstacles. the assessment intends to present an examination of the impact of ai, on ccs practices and suggest directions for further research and advancements, in this important field of environmental conservation. materials and methods the methodology for this study will involve a systematic review of existing literature on the application of artificial intelligence (ai) in carbon capture and sequestration (ccs) technologies. the research will focus on identifying and analyzing peer-reviewed articles, case studies, and industry reports that discuss ai techniques such as machine learning, neural networks, and predictive analytics. databases like google scholar, sciencedirect, and ieee xplore will be used to gather relevant literature. keywords including “ai in ccs,” “predictive maintenance,” “carbon capture automation,” and “co2 sequestration optimization” will guide the search process. the collected data will be qualitatively analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness, challenges, and future prospects of ai integration in ccs. findings will be categorized to highlight ai’s role in enhancing efficiency, reducing costs, and ensuring sustainability. this methodology will provide comprehensive insights into the current state and potential of ai-driven solutions in the carbon capture sector. organization of the paper this article is structured into seven parts.” the initial part provides an overview of carbon capture and storage (ccs), in oil and gas plants with a focus on how ai can enhance these procedures.” part two delves into the use of ai driven automation to improve ccs technologies.” the third part talks about utilizing ai for maintenance and its positive effect, on effectiveness.” in the segment “ the paper looks at how ai can enhance the efficiency of co2 sequestration. “in section five of the report are examples of how ai’s used in ccs with real life cases and industry applications explained in detail. throughout section six the obstacles and boundaries faced in the adoption of ai, for carbon capture including both ethical dilemmas are discussed thoroughly. the last section wraps up with a summary of the discoveries recommendations for industry players and directions for research. this format offers an in depth look at how ai’s reshaping ccs processes, in oil and gas settings. ai-driven process automation in carbon capture overview of ai techniques in industrial applications the use of intelligence (ai), in industrial settings like carbon capture and storage (ccs) has seen a rise in importance due to its ability to enhance efficiency and streamline processes as depicted in figure 2 of research documents. methods such, as machine learning (ml) neural networks and reinforcement learning are commonly employed in ccs applications (wang et al., 2021). these ai techniques facilitate instantaneous data analysis which leads to improved forecasting accuracy and better management of operations. for instance, ai programs have the ability to examine data sets in order to detect trends that enhance co2 retention rates and operational efficiency (chen et al., 2020). furthermore, ai can be combined with control systems to oversee performance levels retain flexibility in response, to shifting circumstances and streamline decision making processes. utilizing these ai methodologies results in improved dependability and cost savings enabling ccs technologies to become more practical and environmentally friendly for implementation, within oil and gas infrastructures (ijiga et al., 2024). in figure 2 of the report showcases how machine learning (ml) neural networks and reinforcement learning contribute to enhancing carbon capture and storage (ccs). these ai methods play roles in ccs by analyzing data to improve co2 absorption rates and enabling real time adjustments through predictive control mechanisms provided by neural networks. reinforcement learning boosts system effectiveness by learning from experience and steadily refining decision-making skills in a trial-anderror process. each ai method is associated with benefits, like enhanced co2 absorption rates and cost savings while also improving the management of industrial operations. the diagram ends with a section detailing the advantages of incorporating these ai techniques to achieve efficiency levels and lower operational expenses while promoting sustainability in carbon capture and storage (ccs) technologies, within the oil and gas sector. machine learning algorithms for process optimization ai models are crucial, in improving carbon capture and storage (ccs) boosting efficiency and cutting down costs in the process optimization realm (zhao et al., 2022) a data driven approach enabling ml to grasp relationships among process variables for control and real time ccs system optimization purposes. for example, predictive modeling using regression techniques, like decision trees and neural networks helps forecast the efficiency of co2 capture technologies across scenarios. the algorithms keep improving their forecasts by incorporating data to enhance the precision and flexibility of control systems (ayoola et al., 2024). machine learning aids in pinpointing energy saving possibilities. tuning critical factors, like pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 temperature and pressure essential for efficient carbon capture processes. essentially ml algorithms help oil and gas plants streamline their ccs operations, for sustainability and economic viability (ibokette et al., 2024). neural networks for real-time system control neural networks are being commonly used in carbon capture and storage (ccs) technologies, for real time system control because of their capacity to understand nonlinear connections between process variables as outlined in table 2 (yang et al., 2021). these networks allow for control by studying data and making real time adjustments to operational settings, for enhanced performance efficiency and stability even when facing variable operating conditions to optimize co2 capture rates while minimizing energy usage. through monitoring and fine tuning of factors, like temperature, pressure and flow rates neural networks offer accuracy in overseeing ccs procedures (igba et al., 2024). this ability to adjust in time is especially beneficial in settings, where even minor discrepancies can cause notable drops in efficiency. therefore, neural networks play a role in enhancing the effectiveness and dependability of ccs systems playing a part, in meeting operational and environmental objectives (oloba et al., 2024). table 2: neural networks for real-time system control key aspect explanation ai role outcome role of neural networks neural networks model complex, nonlinear relationships between process variables processes large datasets to predict and manage system behavior. improved accuracy in system management and control. real-time system control they enable predictive control, adjusting operational parameters in real-time monitors and controls system variables to maintain stability and efficiency enhanced system stability and reduced risk of operational failures. adaptability to operational conditions neural networks dynamically respond to changing operational conditions, ensuring optimal performance. adapts to fluctuations in operational inputs, optimizing process conditions increased operational flexibility and reduced downtime. impact on carbon capture efficiency they enhance the efficiency of co2 capture by continuously optimizing key variables such as pressure and flow rates. maximizes co2 absorption rates, reducing energy consumption and improving overall performance. higher co2 capture rates and more energy-efficient operations. figure 2: ai techniques for enhancing carbon capture and storage (ccs) efficiency. pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 predictive analytics for process efficiency utilizing machine learning in analytics plays a role, in increasing the efficiency of carbon capture technologies by analyzing real time data to predict system performance accurately and help operators make informed decisions to improve co2 capture rates and lower energy usage (wang et al., 2020). these analytical tools offer information on the operating parameters like pressure and temperature, for carbon capture processes and allow for ongoing adjustments to enhance overall effectiveness. predictive analysis is also useful, for spotting inefficiencies or maintenance requirements before they escalate into issues. this helps cut downtime and keep operations running smoothly (ijiga et al., 2024). by leveraging past and live data sets in models can enhance the efficiency of oil and gas facilities while also cutting down expenses linked to energy usage and equipment upkeep. the incorporation of analytics into carbon capture procedures marks a step forward in promoting sustainability, within industrial practices (ibokette et al., 2024). enhancing predictive maintenance through ai predictive maintenance vs. preventive maintenance in the realm of systems, like carbon capture facilities, maintenance (referred to as pdm) and preventive maintenance (often called pm) stand out as two common approaches. preventive maintenance sticks, to a fixed schedule striving to prevent equipment failures through inspections. on the hand predictive maintenance utilizes real time data and machine learning models to anticipate equipment failures before they happen (garg et al., 2022). predictive maintenance shines in efficiency by reducing downtime and prolonging equipment life through failure predictions and optimized maintenance plans (jiang et al., 2021). carbon capture technologies have increasingly favored maintenance (pdm) due, to its ability to consistently track system performance and enable interventions while minimizing unnecessary maintenance efforts. this proactive method helps cut down expenses. boosts the overall dependability of carbon capture systems—a crucial element, in enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of co2 sequestration procedures (ijiga et al., 2024). ai-powered maintenance monitoring systems ai driven maintenance monitoring systems have completely transformed the realm of maintenance, in carbon capture and storage technologies (ccs). by harnessing machine learning algorithms and conducting real-time data analysis efficiently, these systems are adept at identifying irregularities and foresee breakdowns in ccs equipment with remarkable precision (patil et al., 2021). the incorporation of ai significantly elevates the capacity to monitor system health continuously; empowering operators to make decisions based on data and schedule maintenance when truly needed. as illustrated in figure 3. reduced inspections and minimized equipment failures enhance system uptime and efficiency (igba et al., 2024). in the realm of carbon capture technology utilization, like ai based maintenance systems improve co2 capture rates. cut expenses by maintaining equipment at peak performance levels. these systems offer an approach to ensuring the dependability of industrial operations such as ccs management, in contemporary facility settings (abdallah et al., 2024). figure 3: ai-powered predictive maintenance in industrial systems (giuliano, 2022). in figure 3 of the illustration provided here we see a worker in a setting utilizing an interface to oversee and manage sophisticated machinery that is likely powered by ai technology systems. this scenario is closely related to the emergence of ai driven maintenance monitoring systems that are revolutionizing maintenance practices in pa ge 49 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 industries such, as carbon capture and storage (ccs). the digital device held by the worker which showcases real time data and equipment performance metrics signifies the application of machine learning algorithms, for identifying equipment failures and irregularities. ai technology improves system monitoring by enabling tracking of equipment health status and facilitating maintenance based on data analysis. thanks, to ais intervention the need for inspections is. potential breakdowns are averted, resulting in enhanced operational efficiency and uptime. when applied in ccs scenarios such ai driven systems guarantee that equipment functions at peak performance levels. this leads to better co2 capture rates, cost savings and an enhanced approach, to managing facility operations reliably. failure prediction and fault detection using ai predicting failures and detecting faults using ai is crucial, for improving the dependability of carbon capture technologies machines analyze operational data to spot signs of equipment issues and prevent them from turning into serious problems (ahmed and qureshi, 2021) this proactive approach outlined in table 3 helps enhance the safety and effectiveness of carbon capture processes with capacity ai powered systems, with functions help reduce downtimes by scheduling maintenance based on equipment conditions instead of fixed intervals. this strategy cuts down risks and maintenance expenses while guaranteeing smooth co2 capture and storage (enyejo et al., 2024). furthermore, ai driven fault detection offers surveillance and quick reaction to irregularities making it an essential resource, for preserving the functionality of carbon capture systems. real-time identification notably enhances the effectiveness and endurance of ccs technologies (atache et al., 2024). table 3: failure prediction and fault detection using ai key aspect explanation ai role outcome ai for failure prediction ai models analyze operational data to predict equipment failures before they occur. processes large datasets to anticipate potential issues and schedule maintenance. prevents unexpected failures and costly repairs fault detection capabilities machine learning algorithms detect anomalies in equipment behavior, identifying faults early. learns normal system behavior and flags deviations for early intervention. early fault detection minimizes system damage and repair costs role of real-time monitoring continuous real-time monitoring allows for quick detection and response to faults. monitors system performance continuously and alerts operators to emerging issues. faster response times to issues ensure smooth operations impact on system reliability improves overall system reliability by reducing unplanned downtime and preventing catastrophic failures. enhances proactive maintenance, reducing operational disruptions and prolonging equipment life. improved equipment longevity and reduced operational costs. benefits of ai for reducing downtime and maintenance costs the implementation of ai powered maintenance, in carbon capture plants has played a role in cutting down on downtime and maintenance expenses significantly. through the analysis of real time data and predictive algorithms ai determines the timing for maintenance tasks reducing the necessity for shutdowns and repairs (singh et al., 2020). this proactive strategy guarantees that maintenance is carried out precisely when needed, helpful, in avoiding equipment breakdowns that could cause operational interruptions (islam et al., 2024). additionally using ai for maintenance boosts the effectiveness of carbon capture systems, by tuning the performance of crucial parts leading to prolonged equipment life and decreased need for costly replacements (godwins et. al., 2024). anticipating problems before they escalate into failures enables workflow and reduces expenses for both planned and unplanned maintenance. in general ai contributes significantly to enhancing the viability and operational longevity of carbon capture technologies, in environments (ijiga et al., 2024). ai and co2 sequestration efficiency ai for enhancing co2 capture rates artificial intelligence (ai) is instrumental, in boosting the effectiveness of co2 capture rates through fine tuning process variables and facilitating on the fly adjustments. a sophisticated ai powered system sifts through data pools to pinpoint the favorable operational settings, like temperature control, pressure regulation and solvent flow rates that optimize co2 capture efficiency (zhou et al., pa ge 50 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 2021). through monitoring and fine tuning of these factors ai enhances the performance of carbon capture setups resulting in lower energy usage and higher co2 absorption rates. in addition, to this point; ai assists in implementing predictive control methods that enable real time modifications to system parameters to keep the system functioning optimally when conditions change. this flexibility is crucial for addressing the limitations of carbon capture techniques. plays a key role in expanding efforts for co2 storage to combat climate change, on a global scale. (mugo et al., 2024). process automation for optimizing sequestration storage the use of intelligence (ai) to automate processes has become crucial in enhancing the effectiveness of co2 storage by optimizing site monitoring and injection control while also managing pressure levels efficiently for long term stability, per the findings in table 4 (gupta & li, 2022). through ai algorithms analyzing data, from storage sites to forecast reservoir behavior accurately enables control over co2 injection rates and pressure levels. by reducing the chance of leaks and guarantee storage of captured co2 for periods of time. this ai technology also helps in adapting management strategies on the fly to accommodate shifts, in geological conditions (enyejo et al., 2024). the accuracy and quick adjustments provided by ai driven automation play a role in improving the effectiveness of co2 storage efforts and play a part in meeting global carbon reduction targets (coker et al., 2023). table 4: process automation for optimizing sequestration storage key aspect explanation ai role outcome role of process automation automation controls critical processes such as injection rates and pressure management in real-time. automates control systems to monitor and manage co2 storage conditions. enhanced control of storage processes, leading to greater efficiency. optimization of co2 sequestration ai-driven systems adjust parameters to optimize storage efficiency and reduce energy consumption. optimizes key variables such as pressure, temperature, and injection rates dynamically. lower operational costs and improved storage efficiency. real-time adjustments continuous monitoring allows for real-time adjustments to account for changing geological or operational conditions provides real-time data analysis to adapt system operations based on evolving conditions. more stable co2 injection and storage processes, reducing risks. impact on long-term storage automation ensures secure and stable long-term co2 storage by preventing risks like leakage and system failures increases the reliability of storage, reducing the risk of co2 leaks and improving sustainability long-term stability of co2 storage sites, aiding in environmental sustainability. monitoring and validation of sequestration sites with ai artificial intelligence (ai) plays a role, in enhancing the oversight and verification of co2 storage locations to uphold the lasting safety and efficiency of carbon storage operations. ai technology allows for surveillance of conditions by delivering up to the minute information on variables like pressure levels, temperature fluctuations and fluid dynamics (huang et al., 2021). through the analysis of this data ai algorithms can anticipate threats such as co2 seepages or instability, in reservoirs. propose proactive actions to address them. additionally artificial intelligence (ai) plays a role, in ensuring the safety and effectiveness of carbon storage sites by verifying the containment of injected co2 gas. this technology utilizes pattern recognition and anomaly detection to detect alterations, in geological structures that could signal problems thus enhancing the reliability and safety of carbon storage activities. overall, this method greatly improves the efficiency and environmental sustainability of extended term co2 sequestration initiatives. (mugo et al., 2024). co2 transport and storage optimization ai driven technology is becoming more crucial in improving the transportation and storage aspects of carbon capture and sequestration (ccs) systems. through monitoring data, from co2 pipelines and storage locations in time ai systems can enhance efficiency by optimizing transport routes maintaining pressure balance and anticipating maintenance requirements. these advancements are illustrated in figure 4 (kim et al., 2022). moreover, ai aids, in managing storage conditions by tweaking factors like injection rates and storage pressure to avoid operational hazards such, as co2 leakage or system malfunctions (aboi, 2024). this smart optimization not cuts down on the expenses linked with co2 transportation and storage. also boosts the overall endurance of sequestration locations. by incorporating intelligence into these stages of ccs projects can enhance their dependability and pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 expandability significantly. this advancement helps to boost the feasibility of carbon capture technologies, for use in settings, from both economic and environmental standpoints (idoko et al., 2024). in figure 4 of the report shows a factory releasing carbon emissions, into the atmosphere underscores the importance of using technologies for capturing and storing carbon (ccs). artificial intelligence (ai) is crucial for improving the transportation and storage of co2 through analyzing live data streams and maintaining pressure levels while predicting maintenance needs to boost system performance. through monitoring of storage conditions ai aids in averting co2 leaks and minimizing operational hazards leading to cost savings and greater sustainability for sequestration sites, in the long run. the incorporation of intelligence, into these operations enhances the dependability and scalability of carbon capture technologies, for industrial use while promoting environmental sustainability. figure 4: ai optimization in co2 transport and storage for carbon capture systems. (alison, 2022). case studies and industry applications case study 1: ai integration in carbon capture systems an interesting example showcasing how artificial intelligence enhances carbon capture systems highlights advancements in effectiveness and scalability, for use. at a carbon capture plant facility sophisticated ai table 5: summary of ai integration in carbon capture systems key aspect explanation ai integration outcome ai's role in optimization ai algorithms optimize co2 capture by adjusting operational parameters such as pressure and temperature. machine learning models analyzed data to optimize system variables for enhanced co2 capture. improved co2 capture rates and operational performance. real-time monitoring and control real-time monitoring enabled by ai ensures optimal system performance, reducing downtime. ai systems provided continuous monitoring and immediate adjustments to maintain efficiency. reduced system downtime and enhanced reliability. impact on energy efficiency ai-driven optimization reduced energy consumption by 15% while increasing co2 capture rates. ai solutions decreased operational energy use, resulting in a more sustainable operation. lower energy consumption and improved sustainability. system scalability ai integration demonstrated scalability, allowing the system to handle larger capacities without a loss in performance. scalable ai models allowed for handling increased co2 volumes, demonstrating flexibility. increased system scalability and flexibility for future expansions. algorithms were utilized to tune the operational settings such, as carbon dioxide absorption rates, pressure levels and energy usage as detailed in table 5 (zhang et al., 2021). by leveraging machine learning techniques, the implementation enabled real time monitoring and adjustments resultantly decreasing energy consumption by 15% while boosting carbon dioxide capture efficiency pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 by 20%. ai also anticipated equipment issues in advance to schedule maintenance promptly and reduce downtimes (idoko et al., 2024). this real-life example highlights how ai can significantly enhance the efficiency and expandability of carbon capture systems while providing a model, for industries looking to adopt technologies effectively. the incorporation of ai led to improved management of processes and sustainability aspects which cement its significance as an asset, in the carbon capture and storage sector (coker et al., 2023). case study 2: ai-driven predictive maintenance in oil & gas facilities in an examination that looked at how ai powered predictive maintenance was incorporated into an oil and gas plant, with carbon capture technology in mind significant enhancements in efficiency and cost reduction were achieved. by utilizing machine learning algorithms to oversee equipment conditions in time the facility managed to lower downtime due, to maintenance by 25% while also prolong the life of equipment involved in carbon capture operations (lee et al., 2020). sensor data analysis using analytics revealed patterns signaling equipment failures ahead of time to enable prompt interventions and avoid expensive system shutdown incidents. the application of this method not boosted system dependability. also enhanced the overall efficiency of carbon capture by achieving an 18 percent increase, in co2 sequestration effectiveness (coker et al., 2023). the positive outcome of this particular case study underscores the advantages that ai offers in maintenance. it showcases ai as a tool, in optimizing the efficiency and financial viability of carbon capture systems within settings. lessons learned from successful implementations the incorporation of intelligence, in carbon capture technologies has offered insights that can inform upcoming deployments effectively. a crucial lesson learned is the significance of top-notch data quality for ensuring the precision and effectiveness of ai models in this context. industries that have effectively employed ai powered carbon capture solutions have emphasized the role of data gathering and organization, in attaining the best outcomes (li et al., 2021). furthermore, it was essential for technical teams to work closely with staff in order to successfully integrate ai systems into real world settings and achieve optimal performance outcomes. an important takeaway, from this experience is the importance of introducing ai and evaluating its impact on a scale before scaling up its usage (balogun et al., 2024). by following this approach organizations can address hurdles effectively and develop trust, in the systems capabilities. in the end these teachings show that ai has the potential to greatly improve the efficiency of carbon capture technologies, through planning, teamwork and effective data handling. (kaggwa et al., 2023). challenges and opportunities in scaling ai solutions implement ai technologies, for carbon capture and storage (ccs) comes with its share of hurdles and potential rewards to explore down the line. a major obstacle lies in the expenses linked to setting up ai structures like sensors and data systems, alongside the computational power needed to process vast amounts of data instantly as depicted in figure 5 (chen et al., 2022). moreover, numerous sectors encounter shortages in ai knowledge and capabilities which poses challenges in incorporating these innovations. the possibilities, for expanding ai within ccs are significant indeed! ai could help cut expenses and improve the effectiveness of co2 capture methods while ensuring long term storage, with predictive analytics and live monitoring systems in place. moreover, as ai continues to advance it may provide solutions tailored to different geological and industrial settings. to overcome these obstacles will cooperation spanning sectors. it will also depend on the backing of policies and continuous advancements to ensure that ai powered ccs systems can expand and become cost effective (okunade et al., 2023). in figure 5 titled “challenges and opportunities, in scaling ai for carbon capture and storage (ccs) “ the main box shows “ai for ccs “ splitting into two sections labeled “challenges” and “opportunities.” the challenges section includes issues, like the setup of ai systems and the shortage of ai professionals needed for seamless integration. opportunities are shown to the side figure 5: challenges and opportunities in scaling ai for carbon capture and storage (ccs) pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 of the diagram that highlight ais ability to lower expenses and improve the efficiency of co2 capture while securing long term storage, with predictive analytics as technology advances evolve over time. the arrows link challenges and opportunities to the core concept of ai in the illustration underscores the importance of teamwork and policy backing along with innovation, for expanding ai based ccs solutions in different geological settings. this illustration provides a view of the equilibrium, between the challenges and the potential benefits in integrating ai for carbon capture technology and outlines a roadmap, towards sustainable and economically feasible solutions. challenges and limitations of ai in ccs technical and operational barriers to ai adoption the use of intelligence, in carbon capture systems is. hindered by various technical and operational obstacles to its implementation successfully. one key hurdle lies in the process of merging ai with established setups that may not always support a smooth integration due, to compatibility issues (davies et al., 2021). additionally, the substantial amount of data needed to train ai algorithms effectively can strain data processing frameworks and necessitate significant enhancements. the reluctance to embrace ai in practice is frequently due, to a shortage of knowledge and worries about job loss among employees at facilities. it is also crucial to guarantee the dependability and safety of ai systems because any malfunction or security breach could jeopardize the efficiency of carbon capture procedures. addressing these obstacles necessitates not advancements but also investments, in staff training and the creation of versatile ai structures that can be tailored to various industrial environments (unachukwu et al., 2023). data privacy, security, and ethical concerns the incorporation of intelligence, into carbon capture technologies brings up concerns regarding data privacy and security as well as ethical considerations to be taken into account (johnson et al., 2020). given that ai systems heavily depend on extensive operational and environmental data sets for their functioning safeguard and protecting the confidentiality of information becomes of utmost importance to address potential risks such as data breaches or unauthorized access, to system controls which may pose significant security challenges especially in vast industrial settings as outlined in table 6. in addition, to that point (ebenibo et al., 2024) about the importance of ensuring transparency and ethical considerations in ai algorithms to avoid decision making that could impact how resources are distributed or strategies are implemented. it’s also crucial to think about the ethical aspects related to automation driven by ai technology like the possible job losses in carbon capture facilities and ensuring fair access, for everyone to ai tools. ensuring these matters are handled will necessitate structures, rigorous cybersecurity protocols and continuous ethical supervision to guarantee that ai based carbon capture solutions are safe, equitable and accountable (ijiga et al., 2024). table 6: summary of data privacy, security, and ethical concerns key aspect explanation ai role outcome data privacy ai systems handle sensitive data, making privacy protection critical to prevent unauthorized access processes sensitive data in real-time, requiring strict privacy measures to ensure compliance. enhanced privacy measures ensure compliance with regulatory frameworks. security challenges the integration of ai into carbon capture raises security concerns over potential cyberattacks and system breaches. ai must incorporate advanced cybersecurity protocols to safeguard operational data and prevent intrusions. stronger cybersecurity reduces vulnerability to attacks, ensuring system integrity. ethical concerns ai-driven automation can lead to workforce displacement, raising ethical concerns about job loss and fairness. automation through ai can streamline operations but may displace human labor, sparking ethical debates ethical frameworks can guide responsible ai use, minimizing negative social impacts. impact on ai adoption data privacy, security risks, and ethical issues may hinder broader ai adoption if not addressed properly addressing these concerns is vital for gaining trust and ensuring successful ai integration in ccs technologies. greater confidence in ai systems encourages wider adoption in industrial applications pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 addressing workforce skill gaps and resistance to automation one of the obstacles, to implementing ai driven solutions for carbon capture is the skill gaps and reluctance to automation within the workforce in the oil and gas industry; numerous employees lack the necessary technical knowledge to use ai powered tools effectively. this results in hesitancy and opposition towards incorporating automation strategies as illustrated in figure 6 (jayaram et al., 2023). the resistance often stems from concerns, about job loss and the challenges associated with mastering technologies. to tackle these challenges effectively entails a strategy; dedicating resources to employee training initiatives, for skill enhancement and cultivating an environment that promotes innovation with ai seen as a supportive tool for enhancing human skills rather than displacing them (umar et al., 2024). furthermore, engaging staff in the design and implementation stages of ai projects can facilitate a transition by showcasing the advantages of automation in reducing workloads and enhancing operational efficiency while ensuring sustained involvement, in technology driven operations (ibokette et al., 2024). figure 6 showcases the obstacles and remedies linked to implementing ai powered technologies, for carbon capture in the oil and gas industry. one aspect focuses on hurdles such as skills shortages in the workforce and reluctance towards automation symbolizing doubt and caution. conversely the illustration outlines solutions like training initiatives for employees promoting an environment of creativity and engaging staff, in the evolution of procedures. the main goal of these strategies is to close the divide, between the skills of the workforce and what ai technologies demand in order to create a setting where ai complements abilities instead of taking over them entirely and making the shift, to automated systems smoother. balancing ai investment costs with long-term benefits one of the hurdles faced by companies looking to incorporate ai into their carbon capture technologies is finding the balance, between the initial costs and the future advantages of operations efficiency improvements, over time. while introducing ai systems entails investing in infrastructure upgrades, data management solutions and cutting-edge analytics platforms it also demands a investment (miller et al., 2020). this financial commitment might seem daunting to many businesses, especially smaller ones hindering the widespread adoption of such technologies. on the side ai brings about advantageous outcomes in the long run, like enhanced carbon capture efficiency and cost savings from reduced operational downtime and maintenance expenses (idoko et al., 2024). ai systems provide scalability and accuracy that can result in monetary benefits, in the future improve while the accessibility of ai technology grows improving its cost efficiency is expected to get better as it progresses. in order to get the most out of their investments companies should carefully strategize the integration of ai emphasizing solutions and gradual enhancements that result in lasting benefits. (ijiga et al., 2024) figure 6: overcoming challenges in ai adoption for carbon capture in oil & gas pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 3(3) 44-58, 2024 conclusion the incorporation of intelligence (ai), in the realm of carbon capture and storage (ccs) technologies holds promise, for enhancing the effectiveness and eco friendliness of carbon capture processes at a large scale. this comprehensive review underscores the role that ai plays in tuning operational settings improving proactive maintenance practices and boosting the rates at which co2 is securely stored. by leveraging ai based automation organizations can trim expenditures mitigate equipment downtimes. bolster overall system dependability. moreover, ai facilitates monitoring and swift fault identification ensuring that carbon capture setups function optimally under all circumstances. despite the advantages it offers barriers, like initial expenses, lack of expertise and ethical dilemmas concerning privacy and automation still hinder its broad acceptance. future research directions in ai-driven ccs moving forward with research should prioritize overcoming the existing challenges of ai, in carbon capture technologies by enhancing algorithms to perform effectively in various geological and industrial settings. improvements in machine learning models that function well with data or affordable sensors could help lower the obstacles to implementing ai technically. moreover looking into how ai can synergize with technologies like quantum computing or advanced materials, for co2 absorption may boost the effectiveness and expandability of ccs systems. furthermore, it is crucial to conduct studies to better incorporate ai into carbon capture systems and establish models that consider both environmental consequences and financial viability. policy and regulatory considerations as ai powered advancements progress, in shaping carbon capture systems landscape it is vital to establish policy and regulatory guidelines to guarantee their implementation conforms with ethical norms. authorities and global organizations need to develop rules that tackle issues like data privacy, security, and ethical dilemmas linked with ai incorporation, in ccs applications. regulations should also promote openness in ai algorithms and decision-making procedures ensuring they are impartial and crafted to support both prosperity and ecological objectives. governments can encourage the use of ai, for carbon capture by providing grants or tax incentives to help ease the strain on businesses. this support is especially beneficial, for companies. recommendations for industry stakeholders industry players need to incorporate ai into carbon capture systems, for success. they must focus on ai solutions that provide operational advantages and prepare for future technological progress. collaboration among ai specialists, engineers and operational personnel is vital to ensure the deployment and enhancement of systems. furthermore, investments in employee training will be crucial, to bridging skill deficiencies and nurturing an environment. by adopting technology driven approaches and taking steps to tackle issues related to expenses, expertise and ethical considerations, those involved in the industry can greatly boost the effectiveness and viability of endeavors aimed at capturing carbon emissions. references abdallah, s., godwins, o. p., & ijiga, a. c. 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(2021). artificial intelligence for enhancing carbon capture efficiency: opportunities and challenges. energy reports, 7, 37843793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.06.058 pa ge 1 pa ge 84 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) farmers’ perception of the current farming practices on agricultural ecological risk in loes watershed, timor-leste delfim da costa1*, maria victoria o. espaldon1, decibel v. faustino-eslava1, patricia ann j. sanchez1, cristino l. tiburan jr.2 volume 4 issue 2, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i2.4681 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: march 05, 2025 accepted: april 11, 2025 published: june 25, 2025 timor-leste has been experiencing a decline in suitable land for agriculture over the years. yet, slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation, and farmers steadily practice open grazing in the country. in the loes watershed, slash and burn, shifting cultivation, and open grazing are expanded, although there have been stated in various studies that the practices seem to the stressors of the agricultural ecological risk to crop and livestock production failure. however, none of these studies explored the perception of farmers on agroecological risk that related to their farming practices. therefore, the study aimed to determine farmers’ perception of the agricultural ecological risk related to farming practices in loes watershed. a questionnaire survey was used to interview 243 household farmers out of 2,878 households in 10 villages. three focus group discussions (fgd) were conducted in the municipalities of bobonaro, ermera, and liquiça on the perception related to soil fertility, erosion, crop, and grassland production, conservation policies and laws awareness include its advantages to their life. the result of the study illustrated that 75% of interviewed farmers stated no risk to crop and livestock production related to soil fertility, erosion, and crop production failure. in addition, 82% mentioned not being aware of the conservation and agriculture-related policies and laws, however, 80% of them perceived customary law “tarabandu” has a strong influence on their farming practices. moreover, 36% were willing to be advised on conservation but 17% insisted to continue using their current practices. only 20% acknowledged the advantages of agriculture and conservation-related policies and laws. furthermore, adopting introduced conservation practices was very low ranging from 0.4% to 21.8% for various innovations and technologies. it concluded farmers perceived crop and livestock production decline are not caused by their poor practices, but instead considered as a natural process. in addition, policies and laws are considered new colonization by them due to their formulations ignoring their customary laws and traditional beliefs, thus perceiving low agroecological risk in the loes watershed. thus, this study recommends to promote the sloping agricultural land technology (salt), conservation agriculture (ca) with no burn, minimum tillage, and integrating cover crops in farm management. in addition, integrating local wisdom into innovation promotion and agriculture-related policy formulations by promoting customary law (tara-bandu) which is the local community is the initiator of having rules and regulations to farm. keywords conservation, ecological-risk, farmer perception, local customary, policy 1 universidade nacional timor lorosae (untl), dili, timor-leste 2 university of the philippines los baños, philippines * corresponding author’s e-mail: delfimdacosta915@gmail.com introduction according to timor-leste’s national action program to combat land degradation (nap, 2008), poor farming practices in timor-leste have been causing food insecurity, declining food production and productivity, significant grassland degradation, and other environmental problems such as erosion, landslide, and flooding. as a consequence, decline number of households engaged in agriculture was 90% in 2015 decreased to 66% in 2019 (census, 2015; tlac, 2019). poor land utilization such as slash and burn, shifting cultivation, and open grazing are predominantly practiced in timor-leste. these farming practices seem to contribute to soil degradation, indicated by having low soil nutrients for crops, high runoff, and on-farm erosion. this in turn leads to low crop production and productivity, a high potential for a failed harvest, and food insecurity. the census data in 2015 indicated that crop production by households with less than 1 hectare is 56.3 % and increased to 65.4% in 2019. loes watershed is one of the critical watersheds due to the following conditions: the decline of river water flow, high erosion, landslide, a decrease of land cover, and high deforestation as declared by the ministry of agriculture and fisheries timor-leste (maf, 2007; soares et al., 2011). although the watershed has been declared to be in critical condition, there are protected areas and important bird areas inside the watershed. the protected areas found in the watershed are guguleur mountain (≈ 13,159 ha), loelaku mountain (≈ 4700 ha), and tapo saburai mountain (≈ 5000 ha). the watershed is also well known as the dwelling of important biodiversity. about 28 hectares is defined as the important birds’ area (iba) at lake bemalae. yet the farming practices, such as slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation, open grazing, and uncontrolled forest and grass fire, are predominant in the area including the entire country (nbsap, 2011; nap, 2008; mitltw, 2020). pa ge 85 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 due to the increase in population growth and demand for land, nowadays the shifting cultivation period becomes short with only a 2 to 3-year period before, until a 10 to 12 year-period (jeus et al., 2012). the effect is that the available communal land in timor-leste used by the community for farming and raising livestock decreased from 9.7 % in 2015 to 2 % in 2019. with the decrease in land availability, only 29 % of households have 2 to 3 parcels of farmland, while 66 % have 1 parcel of farmland (census, 2015; tlac, 2019). raising livestock increased over time in timor-leste with 87.2 % of households raising livestock in 2015 and increased to 95 % in 2019. (census, 2015; tlac, 2019). farmers are mostly using open grazing and herders are using fire in grassland areas. in the dry season, when grasses dry up, herdsmen tend to use fire to allow new grass to grow to feed their livestock. in addition, herders leave livestock on grassland for unlimited time; the monitoring and controlling will only be done once or twice a month. the shifting grazing is only applied when the grassland has no more grass for livestock. the practices mentioned here are highlighted by many scholars that the practices are causing poor soil health which is damaging essential roles of soil for crop production, grassland conservation, and food security (fachin & thomaz, 2023; sandi et al., 2023; dacosta et al., 2022). thus, the current farming practices are considered as the stressors of risk to agriculture ecology. however, the perceptions of farmers on the agricultural ecological risk due to their farming practices in loes watershed have not been studied yet. therefore, this study aims to investigate socioeconomic factors and the perception of farmers to the ecological risk of agriculture. conceptual framework the conceptual framework used in this study was based on the principles of agricultural practices that are influenced by the socioeconomic, political, and cultural of farmers which determine perceptions of agroecological risks (figure 1). figure 1: the conceptual framework of the study source: by the author the concept of agroecology as defined by fao is an integrated approach that applies ecological and social concepts and principles to the design and management of food and agricultural systems (fao, 2018). the principles refer to the influences of the knowledge, age, gender, income, and household size of farmers to what type of agricultural practices are to be done. the agricultural practices are also influenced by political and cultural factors such as policy awareness, and the existence of local customs. both socioeconomic and political factors determine how a farmer views the importance of agroecology. lack of knowledge and low income might less awareness of the agroecosystem services and lead to more deterioration rather than conservation. other influences are policy and law awareness, farmers with low or no awareness might not be interested in the what are the consequences of deteriorating the agroecosystem. nevertheless, policy and law awareness are also influenced by the contexts of policy and law formulation. considering local customs in policy or law might have a positive influence on farmers. materials and methods study area the study was conducted in the municipalities of bobonaro, ermera, and liquiça within loes watershed area, timor-leste. loes watershed is a cross-boundary watershed of timor-leste and indonesia. it lies between 9° 12’ 49.78” to the 8° 44’ 5.09” south latitude to 125° 1’ 42.50” to the 125° 6’ 19.82” east longitude. it covers pa ge 86 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 180,634 hectares which is equivalent to 72 % of the watershed size and 28 % of the watershed area (talau) which is part of indonesian ́s jurisdiction. loes watershed is sustained by three tributaries, or river flows, namely, lauveli river, marobo river, and nunura river (mitltw, 2020; adb, 2011). the elevation is approximately 2000 meters above sea level (masl) with a slightly steep to steep slope. it covers three protected areas: guguleur mountain (≈ 13,159 ha) loelaku mountain (≈ 4700 ha), and tapo saburai mountain (≈ 5000 ha). the area is also well known as the dwelling of important biodiversity; about 28 ha is defined as the important birds area at lake of bemalae (nbsap 2011; nap, 2008; mitltw, 2020). in terms of a climeta, the area has two seasons: dry and rainy seasons. the dry season starts from june until november, while the rainy season starts from november until may. the average annual rainfall is 1600 mm. per year with the high annual evaporation at approximately 1800 mm. per year (nap, 2008). the average temperature is 23 °c with the minimum temperature at approximately 20 °c and maximum temperature reaching 30 °c (world bank, climate change knowledge portal). figure 2: map of study area sampling, data collection, and analysis the study used a quantitative approach through interviews and using simple random sampling techniques. two hundred forty-three farmers’ households out of two thousand eight hundred and eighty-seven of total farmers’ households from 10 villages in three municipalities: ermera, liquiça, and bobonaro were interviewed. data were collected by visiting farmers’ households and asking questions on socioeconomic characteristics, main crop and livestock production, and their perception of agricultural ecological risk that refers to the relationships of soil health and grassland conditions to their farming practices. in addition, the questionnaire also included the awareness of conservation and agriculture-related policies and laws in timor-leste. in addition, three focus group discussions (fgd) were moreover in the municipalities of bobonaro, ermera, and liquiça with the farmers who reside in the watershed area and have been experiencing farming for a long time. the thematic analysis was used to analyze the fgd data. to ensure the validity and reliability of the fdg, the participants were consisting of farmer, agriculture extension officers, local leader, farmer group representatives. the interviewers were trained on how to interview the farmers before being deployed to the field. in addition, the interviewers must fluent in the local language to smooth the communications. the questionnaires were prepared in the national language (tetum) but the interviewees delivered them in local languages (mambae in emrera municipality, bunak and kemak in bobonaro municipality, and tokodede and mambae in liquiça municipality). data obtained from the interview was analyzed by using descriptive statistics. the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) application was used to perform the analysis. results and discussion the result and discussion of the study are presented in two sections. section one is about the socioeconomic and demography of the farmers and section two on the farmer’s perception of the agricultural ecological risk. socioeconomic and demographic of farmers the interview was done with 243 farmers from three municipalities such as bobonaro, ermera, and liquica who have been practicing a different type of farming within loes watershed. all of the interviewed farmers are household heads. pa ge 87 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 table 1: socioeconomic and demographic variable municipality bobonaro ermera liquiça n % n % n % gender male 73 94.8 22 28.9 21 28 female 4 5.2 54 71.1 54 72 total 77 100 76 100 75 100 age 20-39 53 43.5 34 44.8 21 46.7 40-59 40 32.8 35 46.1 20 44.4 >60 29 23.8 7 9.2 4 8.9 total 122 100 76 100 45 100 education attainment no schooling 67 54.9 43 56.6 5 11.1 elementary school 18 14.8 8 10.5 10 22.2 junior high school 14 11.5 9 11.8 15 33.3 senior high school 20 16.4 13 17.1 13 28.9 college 3 2.5 3 3.9 2 4.4 total 122 100 76 100 45 100 source of income crops (%) <50 26 21.31 24 32.4 9 20 50 74.9 77 63.11 30 40.5 17 37.8 75-100 19 15.57 20 27 19 42.2 total 122 100 74 100 45 100 livestock (%) <50 42 34.43 22 28.95 24 53.33 50 74.9 72 59.02 38 50 18 40 75-100 8 6.56 16 21.05 3 6.67 total 122 100 76 100 45 100 other (%) <50 113 92.62 76 100 42 93.33 50 74.9 5 4.1 0 0 1 2.22 75-100 4 3.28 0 0 2 4.44 total 122 100 76 100 45 100 monthly income (usd) 10 100 99 81.15 52 68.42 30 66.67 101 200 17 13.93 23 30.26 14 31.11 201300 5 4.1 1 1.32 0 0 > 300 1 0.82 0 0 1 2.22 total 122 100 76 100 45 100 household size 24 38 31.1 33 43.4 6 13.3 5 7 59 48.4 26 34.2 22 48.9 8 10 21 17.2 17 22.4 14 31.1 > 10 4 3.3 0 0 3 6.7 total 122 100 76 100 45 100 pa ge 88 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 respondents in bobonaro municipality are 94.8 % males and 5.2 % females, in ermera and liquiça municipalities 28.9 % males, 71.1 % females and 28 % males and 72 % females respectively. the gender distribution in these three municipalities as household agricultural holding is somewhat similar to the national data of gender household agricultural holding which is 15 % female and 85 % male in the entire country (tlac, 2019) which is influenced by patriarchal culture. respondents age was grouped into three: 20-39, 40-59, and above 60. in bobonaro municipality, respondents aged 20-39 years old were the biggest group (43.5 %), followed by the age of 40-49 years old (32.8 %), and above 60 years old (23.8 %). however, ermera municipality has a different dominant age group. the age group of 40-59 years old is the dominant group (46.1 %) followed by a group of 20-39 years old (44.8 %), and lastly the group of age above 60 years old was 9.2 %. in liquiça, the group of 20-39 is dominant (46.7 %) followed by the group aged 40-59 years old (44.4 %), and the group above 60 years old was only 8.9 %. the age group of farmers in loes watershed indicates the declining interest of youth to be a farmer. this situation is close to a report from thu (2022) stated in timor-leste, about 92 % of farmers do not want their generation to be a farmer. moreover, most of the heads of agriculture are above 40 years old (oxfam australia, 2022). education group was made based on the education level established in timor-leste; no schooling group is referred to never attending formal or informal school, elementary school is referred to 1-6 years schooling, junior high school is referred to 7-9 years schooling, senior high school is referred to 10-12 years schooling, college is referred to graduate of bachelor degree from institutions or universities. data indicates no schooling group is dominant in bobonaro and ermera municipalities (54.9 % and 56.6 %) respectively, but in liquiça municipality, farmers mostly graduated from junior high school (33.3 %). in bobonaro municipality, elementary school is 14.8 %, junior high school is 11.5 %, senior high school is 16.4 %, and college is 2.5 %. in ermera municipality, elementary school is 10.5 %, junior high school is 11.8 %, senior high school is 17.1 %, and college is 3.9 %. in liquica municipality, no schooling at 11.1 %, elementary school is 22.2 %, senior high school is 28.9 %, and college is 4.4 %. the education attainment of farmers has been an issue in the country when the concept of modernizing farming toward food security is promoted. lack of education tackles the technology and knowledge transfer process to enhance the agriculture sector that was initiated by the government and other agencies (lundah & sjöholm, 2019). the source of income of crop farmers and livestock farmers was asked separately. for crop farmers; in bobonaro and ermera, 63.1 % and 40.5 % respectively of farmers mentioned their source of income from crops up to 75 % while 25 % comes from other sources like livestock and incidental income (cash for works in the village to earn money). however, in liquica 42.2 % of farmers depend totally on crops, while the rest of farmers have sources of income vary: livestock, poultry, and selling traditional handmade products. for the livestock farmers; farmers in all municipalities bobobnaro (72 %), ermera (50 %), and liquica (40 %) confirmed their source of income up to 75 % come from livestock, while the rest 25 % come from different sources such as horticulture from backyard garden and poultry. a less diverse source of income for farmers occurred because of the barrier to entrepreneur attitude and lack of capability to diversify the income. tomak (2022) has identified the causes of low sources of income among farmers in timorleste; technical knowledge, structural issues such as infrastructures and access to improved crop and livestock variety, and access to technologies to enhance income. the monthly income of farmers was obtained from the monthly expenditure of each household. this is due to most farmers having no regular income on a monthly base, therefore the expenditure for a farmer’s household is assumed as the income of the farmer. data indicates the majority of farmers (81.15 % in bobonaro, 68. 42 % in ermera, and 66.67 % in liquica) have monthly incomes of less than usd 100 which is very low. in addition, less than 5 % of the total interviewed farmers have a monthly income above usd 200. the low income from mostly all farmers is due to a lack of knowledge or many of them are illiterate and slow to access agricultural information from other sources, but other factors, for instance, the capability to diversify the income are also low. lundahl and fredrik (2013) have described the income and challenges of farmers in timor-leste; low technologies, lack of education, and lack of government support on extension and subsidies are the most influential factors. moreover, akter et al., (2021) added adoption of technologies has a big impact on farmers’ income especially on market linkages and value added to their farm products. average household size in the municipality of bobonaro: 2 to 4 people (38 %), 5 to 7 people (59 %), 8 to 10 people (21 %), and above 10 people (4 %). in ermera municipality: 2 to 4 people (43.4 %), 5 to 7 people (34.2 %), and 8 to 10 people (22.4 %). in liquica: 2 to 4 people (13.3 %), 5 to 7 people (48.9 %), 8 to 10 people (31.1 %), and above 10 people (6.7 %). the household size of farmers in loes watershed reflects the household size of the entire population of timor-leste which is an average of 5.4 persons (ministry of finance-timor-leste, 2022). types of farming, cropping system, and main crop planted in loes watershed. the type of farming practices here is limited to what they do for crop growing and livestock raising in farmers’ daily lives. the percentage of each type of practice accounted for the total number of farmers who used these methods; thus, some farmers might be counted twice or third according to their farming activities. some of them do two or more practices at the same time; for instance, slash and burn and open grazing are practiced routinely at the same time in their life. pa ge 89 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 table 2: types of farming, cropping system, and main crop planted in loes watershed farming type n % cropping system n % main crop planted n % slash & burn 227 93.4 monoculture 19 7.8 maize 227 93 shifting cultivation 33 13.6 multiple cropping 194 79.8 rice 7 3 open grazing 107 44.0 contour strip 0 0.0 tubers 9 4 traditional conservation 18 7.4 cropp rotation 30 12.3 adopted conservation 2 0.8 total farmers interviewed 243 100 total 243 100 total 243 100 five types of farming practices are found in loes watershed. the slash-and-burn practice is dominant (93.4 %) followed by open grazing by livestock farmers (44 %) and shifting cultivation (13.6 %), while traditional conservation and adopted conservation practices are very low. although slash and burn has been considered a poor practice and a risk to agroecology, the practices keep going on and being the most dominant. it can be assumed that the slash-and-burn practice is being culturized by local people and is being transmitted to young farmers in their local area. basdew et al., (2017) found that indigenous knowledge transferred orally to its generation in south africa is considered faster in adoption compared to written knowledge which uses many technical words. furthermore, alemu (2016) found that indigenous knowledge (ik) used in ethiopia for agroforestry development is considered as an option, however due to socio-economic problems raised among them the ik is predicted to be less effective in the future. multiple cropping is practiced by 79.8 % of farmers, 12.3 % do crop rotation, and only 7.8 adopt monoculture. the multiple cropping systems generally planted maize mixed with cassava, sweet potato, beans, and pumpkin. the previous report stated the main crops planted by farmers in the entire country are maize, cassava, sweet potato, vegetables, beans, and rice (maf, 2019; da cruz, 2003). however, none of the farmers do contour trip farming, although mostly use slope areas as mentioned in table 4.6. in terms of main crops planted by farmers in loes watershed, 93% of the total interviewed farmers cultivated maize as the main crop, 4 % of farmers planted tuber crops, and 3 % of them cultivated rice. there are no significant changes compared to a previous study in timor-leste, the northern and southern slopes were cultivated with maize, cassava, sweet potato, and rice (molyneux, 2012). moreover, a study conducted in sapele-nigeria stated that not all recommended farming practices adopted by farmers due to various socioeconomic reasons. five years of crop productivity in different farming practices crop productivity over five years according to the interviewed farmers illustrated declined from 2008 until 2022. (figure 2). in the slash-and-burn area, the productivity decreased for all crops through the years but adopted conservation indicated maize increased in 2008 and decreased in 2009 but remained constant through the years, while cassava productivity increased from 2008 until 2022. in addition, sweet potatoes and beans have not yet been cultivated in adopted conservation farmland. figure 3: five years productivity of main crops pa ge 90 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 the decline of crop productivity in watershed areas has been influenced by soil health conditions. the practices have deteriorating soil quality to support crops for its production. the shifting cultivation method sounds sustainable; the infertile land is left to regenerate before being reused for agricultural purposes. however, the short period of rotation makes the farmland degraded. for instance, the study by dasgupta et al. (2021) in india mentioned shifting cultivation being practiced for one to two consecutive years and then left for 30 years. but today the practices are conducted in less than 5 years, a period which does not allow for the proper regeneration of forests. in addition, mishra et al. (2019), shifting cultivation decreases soil organic carbon when returnperiod is short. essential factors of lower shifting cultivation returnperiod are linked to availability of land, increase of population growth, and land ownership that limit shifting cultivation to wait for the regeneration process of cultivated land for full recovery. integration of local knowledge with technologies was perceived as the proper combination to address food security, climate change, and disaster risk reduction issues. for example, nelson et al. (2019) revealed that the combination of traditional knowledge and agriculture technologies ensures farming sustainability and more resilience to climate change impacts in iloilo, philippines. in timor-leste, traditional environmental practices are not only based on morality (spiritual relations to nature) but also on the ability to cope with the changes to survive (local coping mechanisms) amid climate change and water scarcity (burns, 2013). a few limitations of local knowledge in farming in timor-leste have been raised in an assessment conducted in timor-leste. these consist of commercial aspects that are accessed and involved, uptake of new knowledge and technology, and human resource quality towards opportunities and challenges for economic diversification (oxfam-timor-leste, 2019). a mixed cropping system is the common practice in the home garden. maize, upland rice, beans, vegetables, potato, pumpkin, sweet potato, taro, chili, and some seasoning crops are found in the land and planted with fruit trees. paudel et al. (2022) stated that although agroforestry practices have been implemented traditionally by the local people, knowledge, institutional capacity, and funds are the challenges that prompt the farmers to address environmental degradation and food security in timor-leste. type of livestock raised by farmers in loes watershed pa ge 91 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 figure 3: type of livestock raised by farmers in loes watershed the interviewed livestock farmers consist of 56 % raised cattle, 34 % raised goats, 9 % raised buffalo, and 1 % raised sheep. farmers’ preference for raising cattle compare to buffalo due to its economic value and feeding methods. the cattle have higher reproductivity than buffalo it is because the cattle get puberty earlier than buffalo, thus the reproduction cycle much faster than buffalo. according to jainudeen & hafez (2016), the age of puberty of cattle ranges from 10 – 25 months, while buffalo ranges from 15-36 months. in terms of the grazing method, 53.1 % of the interviewed farmers practiced the partial grazing method, 29.2 % are fully open grazing, and 14.4 % adopted the intensive livestock raising method. however, 3.3 % of them practiced all (fully open grazing, partial grazing, and intensive method). farmers do fully open grazing for their cattle, partially for their buffalo, and do intensive only for selected cattle that plan to sell in next coming months. the grazing frequency practices in loes watershed are dominated by using one area only for consecutive grazing (46.9 %), while several farmers manage to use two grazing areas in shifting mode to allow grass to recover before being reoccupied with the livestock (20.6 %). only 0.4 % of the interviewed farmers stated using tree areas for their shifting grazing for livestock. in addition, farmers who live away from the village residences mostly practice shifting grazing in more than three areas because of less competition among farmers and sufficient grassland availability around their areas. the consequences of highintensity grazing in one area consecutively are lowering grass diversity and leading to grass degradation in the long run (rakosy et al., 2022). risk perception table 3: risk perception of farmers perceptions question total participants = 243 yes no do you think your soil fertility is decreased? significantly moderately slightly no category total yes 4 10 45 2 61 182 percentage (%) 25.1 74.9 do you think your crop productivity is decreased? 4 9 42 2 56 187 percentage (%) 23.1 76.9 do you think grassland area is declining? 4 14 43 2 63 180 percentage (%) 25.9 74.1 do you think your farmland is at risk? 5 23 53 2 83 160 percentage (%) 34.2 65.8 do you think your grazing area is at risk? 2 14 45 2 63 180 percentage (%) 25.9 74.1 do you note the erosion in your farmland or grassland? 0 14 30 0 48 195 percentage (%) 19.8 80.2 pa ge 92 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 the risk perception of interviewed farmers was limited to their views on crop and grassland production and productivity concerning soil health conditions to crop and grassland production and productivity as the consequences of their farming practices. the perceptions on soil fertility, erosion, crop production, grassland production and productivity in farmers’ view revealed no risk. in terms of soil fertility, 75 % of farmers mentioned soil fertility in healthy condition, while 25 % stated there are problems with soil fertility, but only slight risk to their crop and livestock production (table 3). most of the interviewed farmers (77 % and 74 %) perceived no decline in their crop yield and grassland productivity but assumed their farmland and grassland conditions remained stable. they also confirmed their grassland and farmland are not at risk (66 % and 74 %) of a decline its productivity over time. on the other hand, more than 80 % of interviewed farmers argued no erosion has been noted in their farmland and grassland areas, although some eroded paths do exist in their areas, farmers perceived it as a natural process and confirmed that the existent erosion is not related to their farming practices. the risk perception of farmers in loes watershed is similar to a study by rahman et al. (2022) in bangladesh, various risk perceptions among farmers on infertile topsoil, deeper water level, soil erosion, water logging, land conversion and high precipitation were the major effects of environmental degradation. in contrast, tesfahunegn et al. (2021) found that in ghana, the majority of farmers perceived the risk as the cause of over-cultivation and deforestation as the consequences farmers faced risk to decline of productivity, soil erosion, and soil loss from farmland. the influence of the local customary (tara bandu) on farming practice to understand how farming practices; especially farming planning on the expansion of farmland and land preparation, consider the tara bandu as a rule and guideline for land use in their villages. thus, the influences were categorized into four such no influence at all, light influence, moderate influence, strong influence, and extreme influence. table 4: influence of tara-bandu to farming practices category number of farmers % no influence at all 49 20 light influence 73 30 moderate influence 36 15 strong influence 22 9 extremely strong influence 63 26 total 243 100 social conflict resolutions, and human relationships. tara bandu plays an important role in conservation, natural resource management, and regulating the relationship of human to nature, and human to human (fodalgo-castro, 2023; tobias et al., 2021; ajroud et al., 2015). the tara bandu influences on farming practice choices vary among farmers. twenty percent of farmers stated no influence at all. however, 30 % recognized the tara bandu as one of the considerations as slightly influenced their planning to choice on what type of farming practices, especially, to open new farmland in forest area. in addition, the tara bandu plays its role as local law and takes place in farmers’ planning processes as 9 % to 15 % or moderate to strong influence in their decision respectively. furthermore, 26 % of farmers very strongly believe that tara bandu is the local rule which is very strong and used by farmers to make farming plans in their villages. this is consistent with to study of casquilho and martins (2022) revealed that tara bandu is the bottom-up approach to land use, boundary management, and social rules that are efficient in managing natural resources and land use planning. farmer awareness of conservation-related policies and their benefits the policy awareness of farmers was assessed by using top-five conservation laws in timor-leste by asking them do they are familiar with these laws. most of the farmers have no awareness of conservation laws. in addition, how farmers rated the benefits of the laws and policies on conservation and agriculture to their lives. the percentage of no awareness of farmers indicated in respective laws; the laws are timor-leste national forest policy 2017 (3rd objective is on watershed conservation (84 %); law no. 13/2017 special regime for the definition of the ownership of property (88 %); decree/ law no 26/2012 of 4 july 2012 on environment basic law (77,8 %); law n.º 5 / 2016 national system of protected areas 74,5 %); decree/ law no 6/2020 establishing the legal regime for the protection and conservation of biodiversity (88 %). the existence of law awareness by farmers and the local community is mostly low due to several factors. law enforcement by local authorities and its effectiveness in addressing the conservation problems. in addition, the dissemination of laws might affect law awareness by local people. according to budiman et al. (2020), institutional conflict impeded the dissemination of existing laws and their uses in the community, in some way affecting the traditional knowledge and rules used to manage nontimber products, grazing management, and prevent forest fires. the perceptions of farmers on the benefits of conservation policies to their lives. farmers’ views on the benefits of conservation policies in their lives are expressed in different categories: some of them mentioned not all conservation policies give benefits to them, on the other hand, some farmers acknowledged the benefits of some conservation policies produced by the the tara bandu is a traditional law recognized by the government of timor-leste and used for addressing cultural rules of natural resource uses and protections, pa ge 93 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 table 5: farmer awareness on the conservation and the benefits of policies. variables timor-leste national forest policy 2017 (3rd objective is on watershed conservation) law no. 13/2017 special regime for the definition of the ownership of property. decree/ law no 26/2012 of 4 july 2012 on environment basic law decree/ law n.º 5 / 2016 national system of protected areas decree/ law no 6/2020 establishing the legal regime for the protection and conservation of biodiversity n % n % n % n % n % laws & policies awareness aware 38 15.64 29 11.93 54 22.22 62 25.51 28 11.52 not aware 205 84.36 214 88,07 189 77.78 181 74.49 215 88.48 standard deviation 0.36 0.32 0.42 0.44 0.32 total 243 100 243 100 243 100 243 100 243 100 laws & policies benefits’ perception benefited 43 17.7 19 7.8 41 16.9 43 17.7 22 9.1 not benefited 200 82.3 224 92.2 202 83.1 200 82.3 221 90.9 standard deviation 0.72 0.27 0.38 0.38 0.29 total 243 243 243 243 243 government. thus, their perception of getting benefits is separated into two categories; have been benefitted or have not. the percentage of farmers who acknowledge the benefits of conservation policies is less than 20 % as stated by each policy category: the laws are timorleste national forest policy 2017 (3rd objective is on watershed conservation (17,7 %); law no. 13/2017 special regime for the definition of the ownership of property (7,8 %); decree/ law no 26/2012 of 4 july 2012 on environment basic law (16,9 %); law n.º 5 / 2016 national system of protected areas 17,7 %); decree/ law no 6/2020 establishing the legal regime for the protection and conservation of biodiversity (9,1 %). in addition, most farmers confirmed they have not benefitted from these policies yet. acceptance and willingness of farmers to be advised on conservation farming two dominant farming practices, such as slash-and-burn and open grazing, were further explored to determine whether farmers agreed to change their actual farming practices to conservation farming. there are 52 % of slash-and-burn farmers have shown their willingness to implement conservation farming and eventually leave their actual practices, however, 48 % remain to keep their own experience as farmers for various reasons. the general reasons for rejecting other advice than slash and burn are the practice has been implemented since their ancestor’s time, they have not been trained yet on conservation and lack of information from extension workers. in addition, farmers assumed that slash and burn is the only easy and cheaper method that can be done by poor farmers, while other methods require capital to invest and must be managed by educated people. in contrast, those who agreed to leave their actual practices stated that slash-and-burn damages soil and declining soil quality affects crop yield and loss of grasses. farmers have experienced soil erosion in farmland and landslides in some areas due to these practices, so they believe that adopting conservation farming would help them to avoid soil erosion, and increase soil fertility, and grassland productivity. however, some farmers confessed, that they agreed to the advice because of expected to receive some incentives and subsidies from the government. the open-grazing farmers showed slightly different percentages when compared to the slash-and-burn farmers in terms of accepting to be advised and willingness to do conservation farming. 36 % of livestock farmers do not agree to leave open grazing practice due to establishing paddocks for livestock requires high cost and we don’t have enough resources to do this. some of them mentioned, that adopting open grazing is better than paddock because in open areas livestock can easily find grass for themselves, while putting in the paddock we have to invest additional cost to build paddock, grow green fodder and hire people to feed and control. some of them stated due to a lack of ability to manage their livestock, they prefer to leave the natural grow in an open area and take it to sell for urgent demand of money in the family. however, there are 64 % of livestock farmers who have been practicing open grazing welcome the pa ge 94 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(2) 84-96, 2025 figure 4: the acceptance and willingness of farmers to be advised on conservation farming semi-intensive livestock raising method or fully intensive livestock raising method. the fundamental reason area: the livestock is easy to control and manage so that the productivity and quality of livestock increase, which elevates household income. some of them mentioned, that the advantages of intensive care of livestock to them are reducing social conflicts among farmers, in which livestock will not damage crops and farmland of other farmers, it also helps farmers to address any diseases that could attack their livestock. conclusion the study concluded that farmers’ perception of agroecological risk was classified as low risk on grassland and crop production. in addition, farmers weighing the risks were not based on the changes of any biophysical components of agroecology (soil, water, and topography) and perceived their actual farming practices have no relationship to the soil health and uncertainty of crop and livestock production in their area. however, farmers blamed policy formulators ignored their local rules to engage them in conservation and natural resource management. moreover, the lack of village extension assistance was acknowledged by farmers as one of the factors causing them to adopt fewer conservation practices. the socioeconomic factors: low education level of farmers and lack of information access might influence farmers’ perceptions. this shall be considered a risk and must be addressed in an integrated way. thus, it recommends delivering conservations and natural resource management based on economic and adult education approaches such as sloping agricultural land technology (salt), conservation agriculture (ca) with no burn, minimum tillage, and integrating cover crops in farm management. integrating local wisdom into 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(2023). landscape ecological risk assessment of the hailar river basin based on ecosystem services in china. ecological indicators, 147, 109795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ecolind.2022.109795. zurlini, g., zaccarelli, n., petrosillo, i., & kurt, r. h. (2008). environmental security as related to scale mismatches of disturbance patterns in a panarchy of social-ecological landscapes. in use of landscape sciences for the assessment of environmental security (pp. 383-398). springer netherlands. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6594-1_23. pa ge 1 pa ge 15 5 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) microplastics pollution in nigerian aquatic ecosystems: sources, pathways, impacts, and mitigation strategies. a review terngu paul ugosor1*, korom terna2, ornguga terlumum timothy3, apeyuan kparev-wua david3, asemave kaana4 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.6354 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 12, 2025 accepted: november 15, 2025 published: december 15, 2025 microplastics, mps (< 5mm) are ubiquitous plastic contaminants in freshwater and marine environments. mps have been increasingly documented across nigerian aquatic systems, including rivers, lagoons, estuaries, sediments, seafood, and drinking waters. they arise from multiple primary and secondary sources, undergo complex transport and transformation pathways, and affect organisms across trophic levels. evidence indicates widespread contamination with fibers and fragments dominated by polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyester at urban drainage and estuarine sinks, and detectable particles in sachet/bottled water and commercially harvested fish. reports showed that land-based inputs dominate marine microplastic loads, which are transported into subsurface and polar regions by currents with effects ranging from physiological stress in organisms to potential human exposure through seafood and drinking water. this review synthesizes recent findings on major sources and environmental pathways, ecological and human-health impacts, and mitigation strategies tailored to nigeria’s socio-environmental context. the article recommended targeted source-reduction (including enforcement of single-use plastic restrictions and alternatives for sachet water), technological upgrades in wastewater and stormwater trash capture at drainage outfalls and treatment, coordinated upstream interventions (product design, waste management, extended producer responsibility), exposure and health risks studies for highrisks occupational and coastal communities, long-term toxicology for chronic low-dose exposures (including nanoplastics), and standardized national monitoring framework. these steps are urgent to protect aquatic ecosystem services and public health in nigeria. keywords aquatic environments, ecological impacts, microplastics, pollution mitigation, wastewater treatment 1 department of chemistry, college of education, katsina-ala, benue state, nigeria 2 department of geography, college of education, katsina-ala, benue state, nigeria 3 department of biology, college of education, katsina-ala, benue state, nigeria 4 department of chemistry, rev. fr. moses orshio adasu university, makurdi, benue state, nigeria * corresponding author’s e-mail: paulugosor@gmail.com introduction microplastics (mps), commonly defined as plastic particles <5 mm, are persistent environmental contaminants that pose ecological and human-exposure concerns worldwide (huirong et al., 2021). according to iviwe (2021), the increase in mps pollution in the aquatic environments is attributed to the exponential rise in plastic production since the mid-20th century. continuous fragmentation and direct release of small plastic particles have created an environmental problem recognized globally as microplastic contamination or pollution. microplastics (mps) pollution of aquatic ecosystems is a worldwide challenge because of its negative impacts on the aquatic ecosystem and human health). in nigeria, rapid urbanization, extensive use of single-use plastics (notably sachet water and styrofaom), gaps in municipal waste collection, and informal waste economies have created conditions that favour plastic leakage to waterways. recent field surveys and monitoring studies across multiple nigerian states document mps in surface waters, sediments, commercial fish, bottled/ sachet waters and drinking supplies, indicating both environmental and direct human exposure routes (ebere, 2019; akindele et al., 2019; idowu et al., 2019; apata et al., 2022a; apata et al., 2022b). similar, researches by isaac et al., (2023), akinhanmi et al. (2023), aliyu et al. (2023), akinhanmi (2024), nduka et al. (2024), obiakaraamaech, 2025), onyena (2025), and kpikpi et al. (2025) collaborated similar findings. mps are found in surface waters, sediments, organisms, sea ice, and drinking water sources, provoking concern about ecological damage and potential human health risks. the presence of microplastics in aquatic ecosystems such as sediments (ahmad et al., 2025), sea beds/ocean floors (hartz et al., 2025) and biota (witczak et al., 2024) has been recorded worldwide. a review of related literature has shown that mps pollution is increasing geometrically in aquatic ecosystems, threatening aquatic life, biodiversity, degradation, and human health. aquatic organisms often mistake mps as food and ingest them, resulting in altered metabolic functions and serious health challenges (atiqur et al., 2025; pal et al., 2025; sunny et al., 2025). microplastics are distributed and transported in an aquatic environment through various patterns and sources either as primary or secondary. primary microplastics are manufactured in small sizes (e.g., pellets, microbeads) usually present in beauty care products and abrasives which enter the environment directly. pa ge 15 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 155-165, 2025 secondary microplastics result from the fragmentation of larger plastic items (e.g., packaging, fishing gear, tyres (wu et al., 2023; marcharla et al., 2024; zhang et al., 2024). the impacts of mps on biota and human health through food chain are also well documented (rummel et al., 2017; nelms et al., 2021; ragusa et al., 2021, and toussaint et al., 2023). the persistence and inability of microplastics to biodegrade as well as serve as potential vectors of other toxic pollutants (wei et al., 2023) have serious health implications to aquatic life and human health. according to estimates (undp, 2022; atiqur et al., 2025), 80 million tonnes of plastics found their way into the aquatic environments in 2015 where africa alone contributed 21 % of the figure. available records showed that approximately 85 % of plastics wastes is unregulated in africa, which is above the global average of 47% (atiqur et al., 2025). according to a report by safaa., (2024), egypt, nigeria, south africa, and algeria ranked 7th, 9th, 11th,and 13th respectively in global plastics wastes mismanagement. most of these wastes eventually end up in the aquatic ecosystems with the attendant consequences. the level of microplastics pollution in aquatic ecosystems is expected to increase if deliberate measures are not taken to mitigate it. it is worthy of note that african freshwaters (especially nigeria) are gradually dwindling due to plastics pollution and climate change. accordingly, the presence of microplastics in fishes, crustaceans, amphibians, insects, freshwater birds, jellyfish/sea jellies, turtles, seaweed/kelp, mollusks, coral/anemones, and marine worms are increasingly being documented by researchers sun et al., 2022; tiwari et al., 2023). many communities in nigeria depend on fishing and fish farming for their livelihood. thus, microplastic pollution in these nigerian aquatic ecosystems (dams, lakes, rivers, seas, and oceans) will no doubt result to devastating consequences on aquatic life, biodiversity, human health, and food insecurity. again, nigeria is home to a number of stunning beaches: elegushi beach, la campagna tropicana beach resort, bar beach, tarkwa bay and lekki beach (lagos state); ibeno beach (akwa ibom state); calabar beach (cross river state); asaba beach (delta state); patigi beach (kwara state); finima and ifoko beaches (rivers state), and ndibe sand beach (ebonyi state) among others. these beaches are perfect for relaxation, recreation, and cultural experiences, offering a mixture of urban vibes, cultural heritage, and natural beauty. the beaches make nigeria a great destination for beach lovers and also attract tourists all over the world, generating revenue for the government. therefore, microplastics pollution or plastics washed up on beach sediments will render these aquatic ecosystems unattractive for tourist attraction, hindering economic development. it is therefore important to create awareness on the negative impacts of microplastics pollution on aquatic environments in nigeria. information on mps pollution of nigerian aquatic ecosystems will help to educate and provide a platform for legislations and regulations that will assist in curbing the menace of microplastics pollution in the country. literature searches have revealed only a handful of researches on microplastics pollution in nigerian aquatic environments, resulting to difficulty in appreciating the associated ecological consequences of microplastics pollution. this review summarizes up-to-date knowledge on the sources, and pathways of mps into nigerian aquatic systems, their observed impacts on aquatic organisms, human health, and ecosystems, and practical mitigation strategies supported by recent research and technological developments. materials and methods this is a narrative systematic review of peer-reviewed literature and authoritative published reports from 2019 to 2025 that measured microplastics in nigerian aquatic environments or food/water products. both peerreviewed articles and credible gray literature (university repositories, government notices, reputable news reporting on national policy) were included to reflect the rapidly evolving local evidence base. priority was given to meta-analyses, systematic reviews, high-impact empirical studies, and authoritative reviews. the most relevant studies were extracted to produce a comparative table summarizing sampling location, year, compartment sampled, analytical methods, and key findings. results and discussion occurrence and characteristics of microplastics in nigeria surface waters and sediments microplastics pollution in nigerian aquatic environments is a pressing environmental issue, with several studies highlighting the severity of the problem. idowu et al. (2019) conducted studies on river osun (a unesco world heritage site), focusing on microplastics pollution. they investigated the presence of microplastics in the river, specifically looking at the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater gastropods. the study found evidence of microplastics contamination in the river with concentrations reaching 22,079 particle/l, highlighting the impact of microplastic pollution on aquatic life. a research conducted on rivers dukku and kalgo, kebbi state by tajudeen et al. (2024) on the impact of mps pollution on aquatic life found significant concentrations of mps in both rivers with the dukku river showing concentrations ranging from 125.00 particles/l to 160.30 aprticles/l and kalgo river ranging from 119.30particle/l to 134.70 particle/l. similar researches conducted by abdullahi et al. (2022) on the physocochemical properties and diversity of microalgae, in dukku river, birnin kebbi, nigeria and yahaya et al.,(2024) on the abundance, characterization, and health risks evaluation of microplastics in borehole water in birni kebbi, nigeria confirmed varying concentrations of microplastics in the water sources. lagos lagoon surveys and sediments sampling pa ge 15 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 155-165, 2025 consistently found microplastics in surface water and sediments. common morphologies included fibers, fragments and films, with polyethylene (pe), polypropylene (pp), and polyester frequently reported. spatial hotspots typically coincide with densely populated landing sites and drainage outfalls (akinhanmi et al., 2023; akinhanmi, 2024). a research conducted by aliyu et al (2023) on the assessment of mps contamination on river water, sachet water, and branded table slat samples in kaduna metropolis showed mps ranged 25 to 36 particle/l in treated water, 153 particle/l in raw water, 1.4-3.7 particle/l for bottled water and 0.13 to 0.27 particles/l in salt samples. water and salt samples contained five different types of polymers: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate. the result also indicated that fragments were more prevalent in both raw and treated water, while fragments and fibres predominated in bottled water and table salt samples. another research conducted by isaac et al. (2024) on microplastic particles in river sediments of southwestern nigeria showed abundance of microplastic in surface sediments and water samples across all locations, ranging from 12.82 particle/kg to 22.90 particle/kg dw and 6.71 particle/l to 17.12 particle/l during the dry season and 5.69 particle/kg to 14.38 particle/kg dw and 12.41 particle/l to 22.73 particle/l during the wet season respectively. the result revealed that on the average, fibre constituted the highest percentage of mps in sediments (71 %) and water (67 %), while foam recorded the lowest value of 0.6 % and 1.7 % respectively, with polypropylene (pp) and polyethylene (pe) being the main mps across all the locations. similarly, riverine studies in imo (otammiri river) by nduka et al. (2024) confirmed the presence of mps in surface water samples and sediments, with spatial gradients indicating higher loads near urban drainage outlets and downstream estuarine zones. the results revealed that polypropylene (pp), polyethylene (pe), polyethylene terephthalate (pet), polystyrene (ps), and polyurethane were the predominant polymers found across the river. kpikpi et al. (2025) confirmed microplastic contamination in the surface water of the lower forcados river, burutu, delta state, nigeria. the result revealed the abundance and composition in the surface water as 44 items/l and microfiber 14(31.81 %), microfragments 6 (13.63 %), microfilms 7 (15.90 %), microfilaments 12 (27.27 %), and microfoams 5 (11.36 %) which also accounted for densities ranging from microfilms (ρ = 0.00001) to microfragments (ρ = 6.6) and filament showing a similar blueprint to the microfilms in the study. a covenant university eprint review, (2024) also confirmed progressive increase in mp detections and called for harmonized methods and monitoring to reduce the negative impacts of microplastics pollution in nigerian surface waters(reuters, 2024; osgf, 2024; ap news, 2024). river systems (e.g., river niger at onitsha; forcados river; ogun river; otuoke and ovia rivers) document mps in both water and sediments and, in some cases, in tissues of fish and benthic invertebrates sampled for human consumption. concentrations vary by site and season, with higher loads near urban centers and river mouths (kpikpi et al., 2025). according to researches, the major sources of microplastic in such environments came from single-use plastics such as carrier bags and styrofoam; breakdown of larger plastic items; manufacturing processes generating plastic pellets and nurdles and domestic and industrial wastes. the patterns point to strong local sources and riverine transport to coastal sinks. these researches are significant as the water sources are vital in supporting various ecosystems and human activities. the research findings underscore the need for effective plastic waste management and conservation efforts to mitigate microplastics pollution in nigerian aquatic environments so as to reduce aquatic ecosystems degradation, aquatic life and human exposures. table 1: compact table summarizing key nigerian field studies on microplastics pollution in the nigerian aquatic environments. s/n study location sample type method key findings 1. akinhami et al., 2023/2024 lagos lagoon (epe, mokoko, sagbokoji, badagry) surface water & sediments: fish organs composite sampling; visual sorting and ftir/raman polymer id/ histology for fish fibres and fragment dominant; pe/pp/ polyester common; hotspots near urban drain outlets; evidence of mps in fish organs. 2. kaduna assessment, 2023 kaduna metropolis raw river water, treated municipal water, sachet & bottled water, table salt standard digestion, visual counting (size cutoff reported) mps detected in raw water (up to 153 particles/l), treated water (25-36 particle/l), bottled water/sachet water measurable. pa ge 15 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 155-165, 2025 biota and fisheries field sampling and analysis from lagos coastal waters and lagoons, has detected mps within the gastrointestinal tracts of commercially important fish species (akinhanmi, 2024). some studies also report associated histopathological signs in fish organs (akindele et al., 2019; atiqur et al., 2025; ahmad et al., 2025; ahmad & siti salami, 2025). these findings imply direct trophic exposure and potential food-safety concerns for consumers relying on locally caught fish. biota contamination taken together, the nigerian evidence base confirms widespread occurrence of mps in multiple environmental compartments and in food/ water items consumed by people. drinking water and food products analyses in lagos, kaduna, imo, delta, osun and other urban centers report mp particles in raw river water, treated municipal water, sachet and bottled water, and market table salts, showing human exposure pathways via ingestion. reported particle counts for treated water ranged from tens of particles per liter, depending on analytical cutoffs and methods. methodological variability across studies (size limits, digestion procedures, polymer id) complicates direct numerical comparisons but the repeated detection across product types is robust. sources and environmental pathways of mps primary and secondary microplastics microplastics (mps) are classified based on their origin as primary or secondary. primary microplastics are intentionally manufactured in small sizes, typically <5 mm, for specific industrial or commercial uses such as cosmetic microbeads, industrial abrasives, and preproduction plastic pellets (sharma et al., 2023). they enter aquatic systems directly through wastewater effluents and stormwater discharges. secondary microplastics, on the other hand, result from the fragmentation of larger plastic debris (e.g., packaging, fishing gear, tyres) through physical, chemical, and biological degradation processes, including uv radiation, wave action, and microbial activity (koelmans et al., 2022). common sources include degraded plastic bags, fishing nets, and bottles. unlike primary mps, secondary mps vary widely in composition and morphology, influencing their persistence and interactions with aquatic organisms (zhang et al., 2024).recent surveys indicate that secondary mps: fibres and fragments are the dominant shapes found in surface waters and sediments globally, reflecting widespread breakdown of macroplastics and textile fibre shedding (allen et al., 2021). dominant sources of microplastics in nigerian aquatic ecosystems include widespread single-use plastics and sachet water packaging, informal dumping, poor municipal collection, and lost fishing gear. once in the aquatic system, buoyant plastics disperse and concentrate at sheltered bays and estuarine mouths, while biofouling and aggregation with organic flocs encourage sinking to benthic sediments typical of niger delta mangrove and estuarine zones (lesley, 2020; nwabuisi & ihenetu, 2022; green habitat nigeria, 2024). seasonal rains amplify transport (flood pulses) and resuspension of mps inaquatic environments. 3. otammiri river microplastics, 2024 otammmiri river, imo state surface water noaa trawling protocol; size range(0.35 mm); density separation (nacl); visual & spectroscopic id mps present across sites; fragments and fibres: recommended further monitoring. 4. lower forcado river, burutu, 2022-2-23 sampling (published, 2025) forcado river, delta state surfacewater (monthly for 12 months) multi-site sampling,noaa protocols; visual counts & polymer id seasonal trends; higher concentrations near downstream and urban zones; identified fragments, films 5. convenant university eprint review, 2024 review/lagos focus synthesis of lagos studies literature synthesis confirms progressive increase in mps detections; calls for harmonized method sand monitoring 6. akindele et al., (2019) osun river, osun state invertebrates, hand detaching, µftir mps in the river 7. ja’afar et al.,(2022) dukku and kalgo rivers, kebbi state surface and bottom water ftir high levels of mps 8. idowu et al., (2019) major rivers, southwestern nigeria sediments and surface water ftir-atr high mps in samples pa ge 15 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 155-165, 2025 major entry routes into aquatic systems microplastics enter aquatic environments through direct and indirect pathways. major entry routes are landbased sources (urban runoff, mismanaged waste, storm drains, wastewater treatment plant effluents, industrial discharges) account for the majority of microplastic inputs to freshwater and marine systems (pal et al., 2025). several country-specific drivers of mps in aquatic systems include: single-use plastic proliferation and informal disposal nigeria’s high reliance on low-cost single-use items (including the ubiquitous small water sachets) and limited formal waste collection infrastructure mean that large volumes of plastics escape capture and degrade in the environment. the federal government announced measures and phased bans on categories of single-use plastics in 2024–2025, aiming to reduce such inputs (reutere, 2024; osgf, 2024). urban runoff and drainage stormwater systems in major cities (lagos, port harcourt, onitsha, kaduna) often discharge directly to rivers and lagoons without effective trash capture; road runoff and street litter transport fragmented plastics into waterways. studies identify drainage mouths and landing sites as mps hotspots. wastewater and informal laundries although centralized sewage coverage is limited, wastewater and effluents from industrial, commercial, and household sources (including laundromats) contribute synthetic fibers and primary microplastic particles to local waters; conventional water treatment and informal treatment systems vary widely in effectiveness. maritime and fishing activities lost or discarded fishing gear, nets, and aquaculture materials produce secondary mps that accumulate near coasts and estuaries. atmospheric deposition and agricultural plastics although less studied in nigeria, airborne fibers and degraded agricultural plastics: mulch, greenhouse covers (allen et al., 2021) are plausible supplementary inputs that merit investigation. transport and sinks the environmental fate of mps in nigeria broadly mirrors global patterns but is strongly modulated by local hydrology and seasonal rains. once released, microplastics are distributed vertically and horizontally by currents, wind-driven mixing, and biophysical interactions. mps undergo complex transport and transformation processes governed by size, density, and hydrodynamic conditions (nelms et al., 2021). lighter polymers particles (e.g. polyethylene and polypropylene) and fibers often remain suspended or float, moving with currents and accumulating at sheltered bays, lagoon inlets and around river mouths whereas denser polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (pvc) tend to sink and accumulate in sediments (atiqur et al., 2025). observed surface and shoreline accumulations in lagos and delta coastal zones reflect this behavior. biofouling, aggregation with organic matter and flocculation during high-turbidity events encourage sinking of mps into sediments, creating benthic sinks, especially in estuaries and mangrove sediments characteristic of the niger delta (rummel et al., 2017). seasonal resuspension during floods redistributes particles upstream and downstream. small particles and fibers are readily ingested by zooplankton, bivalves and small fish, leading to trophic transfer and potential retention in tissues consumed by humans and predators (tiwari et al., 2023). field detections in fish from lagos lagoon and other coastal waters confirm trophic exposure pathways. recent measurements reveal substantial subsurface and polar accumulations transported by subsurface currents and high-latitude circulation, meaning mps are not confined to surface gyres but penetrate the water column and accumulate in remote regions. sediments and coastal deposits act as long-term sinks. although country-level toxicological field studies remain limited, the presence of mps in key habitats and in commercial fish suggests likely ecological impacts similar to those documented globally: ingestion and physical harm to invertebrates and fish, vectors for hydrophobic contaminants and pathogens, and potential disruptions of benthic processes in sediment sinks. in the niger delta, the intersection of oil-related contaminants and mps may compound ecological risk. ecological and human health impacts field data from nigeria on toxicological endpoints remain limited compared with laboratory studies, but a combination of field observations and regional lab work points to several concerns. effects on aquatic organisms microplastics can induce physical, chemical, and biological effects on aquatic life. ingestion of mps has been documented across taxa: zooplankton, bivalves, fish, seabirds, and megafauna. physical effects of mps have been reported to include reduced feeding efficiency, gut blockage, reduced growth, oxidative stress, altered behaviour, and impaired reproduction. size, shape, polymer type, and associated sorbed chemicals modulate toxicity (wang et al., 2022). chemically, mps adsorb hazardous pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs), heavy metals, and persistent organic pollutants (pops), which can be transferred to organisms upon ingestion (allen et al., 2021). additionally, mps can act as vectors for heavy metals, hydrophobic/persistent organic pollutants and pathogenic microbes, potentially altering exposure profiles for organisms (wu et al., 2023). laboratory studies have reported oxidative stress, inflammation, and pa ge 16 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 155-165, 2025 delta, where oil-related pollution coexists with plastic debris, combined stressors could amplify toxicity. a few nigerian studies measure co-contaminant burdens associated with plastics, signaling compounded risks. food-web and ecosystem-level concerns microplastics infiltrate the aquatic food web through ingestion by lower trophic organisms such as zooplankton and bivalves (nelms et al., 2021). mps that are retained by lower trophic organisms can be transferred up food chains (trophic transfer), potentially altering energy flow and contaminant dynamics. subtle sublethal effects (e.g., reduced fitness, immune impairment) could scale up to population-level consequences in sensitive species. sediment and benthos-associated mps may also alter benthic habitat functioning. this leads to bioaccumulation and biomagnification of plastics and associated contaminants across food chains. consequently, top predators, including fish consumed by humans, often exhibit elevated mp concentrations (witczak et al., 2024). ecosystem-level impacts include alterations in nutrient cycling, primary productivity, and sediment structure due to the physical presence of mps (akinhanmi et al., 2023). furthermore, microplastics may modify microbial communities essential for ecosystem functioning. these disruptions threaten ecological stability, fisheries productivity, and ecosystem services critical to human welfare. the sources, fate, and trophic level transfer of microplastics in aquatic environments are shown in figure 1. figure 1: sources, fate, and trophic level transfer of microplastics in aquatic environments (osamah et al., 2025). human exposure and health uncertainties human exposure humans are exposed to microplastics primarily through seafood consumption, drinking water, inhalation, food packaging contamination, and possibly dermal contact (toussaint et al., 2024). drinking water (sachet, bottled, treated municipal) detection of nanoand microplastics in bottled and tap water has raised concerns, but definitive evidence linking environmentally relevant exposures to specific human disease outcomes remains limited. potential risks include inflammation, oxidative stress, and cytotoxicity arising from particle accumulation and chemical leaching (wu et al., 2023; toussaint et al., 2024). studies in kaduna (aliyu et al., 2023) and other towns (idowu et al., 2016; apata et al., 2022a and b; isaac et al., 2023; kpikpi et al.,2025) report mps in sachet and bottled waters and in treated drinking water at detectable levels, implying regular ingestion exposures across the population that consumes these products. studies have confirmed the presence of mps in human feces, placenta, and blood, suggesting systemic exposure ( onyema, 2025). methodological differences across studies pa ge 16 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 155-165, 2025 (size cutoffs, digestion protocols) make cross-study comparisons challenging, but the repeated detection across independent studies strengthens the conclusion that exposure exists. nano-sized plastics (<100 nm) can penetrate biological barriers, raising concerns about translocation into tissues and interference with cellular metabolism. emerging toxicological studies indicate inflammatory responses and immunomodulation in animal models and cell systems, but long-term human epidemiological data are lacking. although the extent of chronic health effects is still under investigation, the ubiquity of microplastics in the human environment underscores the need for precautionary measures and further toxicological research. seafood consumption detection of mps in fish species consumed locally suggests dietary exposure for coastal communities and urban consumers buying locally sourced fish. the fraction of plastics that translocate to edible tissues versus remaining in viscera is an active research question; existing nigerian studies report mps mainly in visceral tissues but also sometimes in edible parts. inhalation and occupational exposure urban dust, fibers released during handling of plastics, and emissions from informal recycling sites may create inhalation exposures for waste workers and residents near dumps, but robust exposure measurements in nigeria are scarce. health uncertainties globally, the toxicology of microand nano-plastics in humans is under development. multiple studies detect mps in drinking water (including sachet/bottled water) and in fish sold for consumption, indicating dietary exposure. however, critical uncertainties remain on exposure dose (numbers, sizes, polymers), translocation of mps from gut to edible tissue, and long-term health effects in human populations. while systemic exposure (blood, placenta) has been reported in other countries, causal links to chronic disease remain unestablished. although country-level toxicological field studies remain limited, the presence of mps in key habitats and in commercial fish suggests likely ecological impacts similar to those documented globally: ingestion and physical harm to invertebrates and fish, vectors for hydrophobic contaminants and pathogens, and potential disruptions of benthic processes in sediment sinks. in the niger delta, the intersection of oil-related contaminants and mps may compound ecological risk. for nigeria, the urgent priorities are quantitative exposure assessment (how many particles, what sizes, which polymers), co-exposure to chemical contaminants (e.g., pahs, heavy metals), and population health studies in high-exposure groups (fishers, waste workers, and communities dependent on local water supplies). given the economic importance of small-scale fisheries (especially around lagos, benue, and the niger delta), contamination of commercial species has implications for marketability, consumer confidence, livelihoods, and food security if contamination becomes widespread or highly publicized. existing policies and recent national actions single-use plastic bans and national policy in 2024, the federal government of nigeria announced phased bans on certain single-use plastics (including, styrofoam and sachet water in certain contexts), adopted measures limiting single-use plastics in federal government procurement and announced staggered national restrictions aimed at reducing single-use items, building on the 2020 national policy on plastic waste management and local actions (e.g., lagos state bans) (the punch, 2024, october 3; blessing, 2024). this ban was part of measures by the state government to put in place policy guidelines for plastic utility in further ensuring a sustainable management of plastic wastes, healthy, safe, and sustainable environment. according to the report, plastic waste materials make up significant proportion of solid wastes (about 60 % of the monthly 13,000 tones) of wastes generated in lagos, causing everything from ecosystem degradation to drainage clogs and flooding. the ban followed increasing prevalence of plastic wastes and its negative effects on the environment in recent years. waste management and circular economy measures strengthening municipal collection, formalizing wastepickers and recycling value chains, and investment in material recovery facilities reduce environmental leakage (magalhaes, 2025; sun et al., 2022). for nigeria, pragmatic interventions (community-level waste traps at drainage mouths, river cleanup campaigns, and plastic buy-back schemes) can have near-term benefits for microplastics pollution mitigation in hotspot areas. water treatment upgrades and point-of-use actions improving treatment plant filtration, installing fine screens and membrane processes where feasible, and encouraging household-level filtration for drinking water can lower human exposure via drinking water. however, costs and maintenance challenges require adaptive locally appropriate approaches. research, monitoring and standardization nigeria needs a coordinated national monitoring framework for mps (harmonized sampling and analysis protocols, reference labs, and data sharing) so that trends can be assessed and policy efficacy evaluated. several recent regional studies provide a starting point for designing such a programme. nigeria recently state-level actions complement national moves, but enforcement, affordable alternatives, and systemic waste-management investment remain key challenges to translating policy into reduced pa ge 16 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 155-165, 2025 environmental mp loads. however, an effective response spans the full lifecycle of plastics: reduce production of harmful items, improve product design, optimize waste management, treat urban and industrial effluents, and remediate existing environmental loads. mitigation strategies mitigating microplastics pollution requires integrated strategies encompassing prevention, removal, and policy interventions. at the source level, banning or restricting microbeads in personal care products, promoting biodegradable alternatives, and improving product design can significantly reduce primary mp generation (unep, 2022). the following mitigation strategies are key towards curbing nigeria’s microplastic pollution in the aquatic ecosystems: upstream interventions (source reduction and design) policy instruments bans on unnecessary microbeads (successful in many jurisdictions), restrictions on single-use plastics (e.g. styrofoam), while supporting affordable alternatives for small businesses and sachet water distribution and product standards that mandate durability and recyclability. product redesign reducing polymer shedding (textile innovations, tyre formulations), designing for recyclability, and substitution with low-emission materials. extended producer responsibility (epr) shifting lifecycle waste costs to producers incentivizes design for reduced leakage. these upstream approaches are foundational and cost-effective compared with downstream cleanup. waste management and circular economy improved collection, sorting, and recycling reduce plastic leakage to the environment. informal-sector integration and investments in material recovery in lowand middleincome countries (lmics) are critical because most mismanaged waste originates there. avoiding open burning and leak-prone landfills reduces fragment generation. strategic waste infrastructure deployment combined with behaviour-change campaigns reduces inputs to rivers and coasts. wastewater and stormwater treatment improvements wastewater treatment optimization can significantly reduce mp loads via primary (screening, grit removal) and secondary (settling, filtration) processes, and advanced tertiary options (membrane filtration, dissolved air flotation, advanced oxidation) ( magalhaes, 2025). urban stormwater management, green infrastructure, and riverine clean-up programs are also critical. on a broader scale, extended producer responsibility (epr) policies, plastic waste recycling, and public awareness campaigns can minimize plastic leakage into the environment. emerging biotechnological approaches, such as enzymatic and microbial degradation of polymers, offer promising future solutions (wei et al., 2023). international collaboration under frameworks like the un plastics treaty (2024) is essential to harmonize monitoring, research, and policy implementation globally. however, no single technology is universally optimal: trade-offs include cost, energy, and concentrate/sludge management. removing mps from effluents concentrates them in sludge, which requires safe disposal or further treatment to prevent secondary release (e.g., via agricultural land application). technologies such as membrane bioreactors, rapid sand filtration, advanced tertiary filters, and coagulation/ flocculation are promising when appropriately configured and maintained. thus investment in drainage trash capture (screens/booms) at urban outfalls and pilot community buy-back, formalization programs for waste pickers will reduce leakage, and promote household point-of-use measures where appropriate. innovative remediation and product-level solutions recent advances include engineered absorbents and biobased sponges that capture suspended mps with high efficiency (laboratory/field-scale tests show promising removal rates) (magalhaes, 2025). for example, composite sponges made from natural polysaccharides/chitin show high microplastic uptake in trials, suggesting potential for localized remediation and integration into filtration systems (e.g., washing machine filters). however, scalability, lifecycle impacts, and cost-effectiveness need thorough assessment. behavioural and societal measures consumer-level interventions (washable microfibre filters for laundry, promoting reusable items, improved public waste practices) combined with public education campaigns reduce microplastics generation. industry transparency and labeling (e.g., microfibre shedding rates) may drive competition toward low-shedding products. above all, there is the need to implement a standardized national mp monitoring network with harmonized sampling (size classes, digestion, polymer id by ftir/ raman), sentinel sites (lagos, niger delta, anambra/ onitsha, kaduna) and prioritize exposure assessments for drinking water (treatment plant influent/effluent, sachet and bottled products) as well as dietary exposure through common fish species. challenges, research gaps, and priorities for nigeria key barriers to decisive action include methodological heterogeneity (sampling, size-class definitions, analytical detection limits), limited understanding of nanoplastics, sparse long-term ecotoxicology and epidemiology, and incomplete socio-economic evaluations of mitigation pathways. based on the current evidence and the country’s socioenvironmental context, the following priorities are recommended: pa ge 16 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 155-165, 2025 nationwide baseline and monitoring network standardize of sampling methods, extraction, and analytical protocols (especially for particles <100 µm and nanoplastics), digestion, polymer id, and implement representative sampling across major river basins, estuaries, coastal zones and drinking water sources. use sentinel sites in lagos, niger delta, anambra/onitsha, kaduna and coastal states. exposure and health risk assessments quantify human exposures via diet and water (particle counts and polymer identification), and design epidemiological and long-term toxicological studies focusing on chronic low-dose exposures and mixture effects (mps plus sorbed pollutants) for high-risk occupational groups. source-focused interventions and evaluation pilot and evaluate interventions (sachet alternatives, extended producer responsibility pilots, stormwater trash traps) using measurable environmental endpoints (mp loads at drainage outfalls). capacity building and stakeholder engagement strengthen laboratory capacity (ftir/µ-ftir, raman) in universities and government labs; engage local communities, fisherfolk and informal waste sectors in codesigned mitigation. integrated monitoring and policy implementation translate national bans into enforceable local regulations, incentivize alternatives, and combine regulatory actions with education and economic supports for affected workers and small businesses. there is urgent need for routine, comparable national monitoring programmes to track trends and measure policy effectiveness. efficiency and life-cycle analysis efficacy and life-cycle analyses of mitigation technologies (wwtp upgrades, novel sorbents) to ensure solutions do not create secondary harms. socio-economic interventions scaling socio-economic interventions in lmic contexts where waste leakage is highest. conclusion microplastic pollution is pervasive and persistent in aquatic environments. evidence from aquatic ecosystems in nigeria demonstrates widespread presence of microplastics across aquatic compartments and exposure pathways relevant to ecosystem integrity and public health. the evidence justifies a precautionary, multipronged mitigation approach that prioritizes upstream prevention and improved waste management while deploying targeted technological fixes (e.g., wwtp upgrades, filters) and encouraging innovation (bio-based sorbents). a coherent national strategy combining standardized monitoring and regulatory measure (bans, epr), targeted source reduction (including practical alternatives to sachet plastics), improved waste infrastructure, investment in circular-economy infrastructure, water treatment efficacy or enhancements, and research into exposure and health outcomes is necessary to manage this emerging contaminant effectively. international collaboration will be important because microplastics cross political boundaries via rivers, oceans, and the atmosphere. continued monitoring and adaptive management, informed by improved data on environmental distributions and effects are essential to manage and reduce risks. sustainable management requires coordinated efforts across scientific, industrial, and policy domains to transition towards a circular plastic economy and protect 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(2024). secondary microplastics: formation, distribution, and ecological effects. environmental pollution, 327, 121606. pa ge 1 pa ge 11 1 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) synergizing cost optimization and environmental engineering in water desalination: best practices for sustainable project management atif ahmed khan1* volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5414 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: june 12, 2025 accepted: july 16, 2025 published: november 11, 2025 this study evaluates desalination technologies’ environmental and economic performance by comparing the ras al-khair and shoaiba desalination plants in saudi arabia. the primary objective is to integrate life cycle assessment (lca) and cost analysis to assess the sustainability of reverse osmosis (ro), multi-stage flash (msf), and hybrid desalination systems. the results reveal significant differences in energy consumption, global warming potential (gwp), brine disposal management, and resource depletion. using a hybrid ro/ msf system, ras al-khair demonstrates substantially lower energy demands (3–5 kwh/ m³) and a reduced carbon footprint, capturing 300,000 tons of co2 annually. in contrast, shoaiba’s msf system, relying on crude oil for power generation, generates higher energy consumption (13–15 kwh/m³) and 8.2 million tons of co₂ emissions annually. the economic analysis highlights ras al-khair’s higher initial capital expenditure (capex) of $7.6 billion but lower operational costs ($0.65/m³) and a faster break-even period (12 years) compared to shoaiba’s $1.60/m³ cost and a break-even period of 18 years. the study emphasizes integrating energy recovery, carbon capture, and renewable energy solutions in sustainable desalination practices to address global water scarcity while minimizing environmental impact and enhancing economic feasibility. keywords carbon emissions, cost nalysis, desalination, energy efficiency, life cycle assessment, multi-stage flash, reverse osmosis 1 dunster business school, switzerland * corresponding author’s e-mail: atifahmed@researchergroup.co introduction water scarcity is a growing global crisis, with nearly two-thirds of the population expected to face water stress by 2025 (ahmed et al., 2019). the situation is particularly severe in arid regions such as the middle east and north africa, where over 80% of freshwater resources are exploited unsustainably (al-obaidi et al., 2019). with a projected 40% water deficit by 2030, desalination has become a critical solution, offering a climate-independent freshwater source. over 97.4 million cubic meters of desalinated water are produced daily, securing water supplies for more than 300 million people. countries such as saudi arabia, israel, and the uae have integrated desalination into their national water strategies, demonstrating its role as a global necessity rather than just a regional solution (peng et al., 2018). in the past decade, the development of desalination technologies such as reverse osmosis (ro), multistage flash (msf), and multi effect distillation (med) methods have been widespread. gwi 2022 report showed that ro represents almost 70% of the global desalination capacity; in particular, ro consumes less energy (3–5 kwh/m³) than msf (13–15 kwh/m³), so ro is preferred (do thi and tóth, 2023). plants such as israel’s sorek facility and the sydney desalination plant have proven that ro technology is efficient. nevertheless, salt thermal desalination (msf and med) continues to be prevalent in areas of cogeneration with power plants, where msf is used in kuwait and the uae, and med in solar coupled desalination projects (angelakis et al., 2021). despite its advantages, desalination is fraught with major costs and environmental problems. according to reports of iea 2022, up to 60% of total desalination costs are energy expenses, which makes desalination highly sensitive to fuel price fluctuations. innovation in energy recovery systems has progressed, but desalination remains two to three times more expensive than conventional water sources (schär et al., 2023). moreover, desalination plants add about 76 million tons of co₂ annually, which is worsening climate change. solarand wind-powered hybrid desalination systems developed by countries like the uae and spain are aimed to reduce emissions (ayaz et al., 2022). there is also a significant environmental risk in brine disposal. brine is discharged at about 142 million cubic meters per day with salinity levels twice that of seawater, causing alterations in oxygen levels, loss of biodiversity and habitat destruction. dilution techniques, brine concentration recovery, and zero liquid discharge are being studied for adoption, but the high costs limit their use. to reduce environmental impact, sustainable desalination must advance from energy and improved brine management to cheaper energy prices and more dependence on renewables (bello et al., 2021, soliman et al., 2021). the issue of water scarcity affects more than 40% of the global population, so desalination is an important means to solve this problem. however, due to low energy mass diffusivities in semiconducting sensors, its adoption is hindered by high energy consumption, operating costs, and environmental impacts (dhakal et al., 2022). the selection of the most sustainable technology depends on pa ge 11 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 the efficiency of technologies such as ro, msf, and med, each with its efficiency. however, the costs and impacts of many of these desalination plants are still high; for example, they still consume excessive energy (e.g. msf 13 15 kwh/m³ vs ro 3 5 kwh/m³), produce high co₂ emission, and have difficulty with brine disposal. the absence of an integrated assessment framework in the decision-making gap of desalination project management regarding cost efficiency and environmental sustainability is promoted by a need for a comprehensive evaluation (alshail, 2020). while considerable work exists in the destination field, the overwhelming majority is centred on efficiency, brine disposal or cost analysis with no holistic assessments that integrate life cycle assessment (lca) with financial metrics. the real-world economic and environmental trade-offs are often ignored when comparing ro, msf and med. furthermore, most cost studies focus on the capex and opex, neglecting external costs, such as carbon emissions and brine disposal. it leads to incomplete financial assessment. however, this study combines lca and cost analysis to address the gap and provide a balanced sustainability comparison of desalination technologies. this study is significant because it couples cost optimization with environmental sustainability in desalination. it uses a life cycle assessment (lca) framework to assess energy use, co₂ emissions, water consumption, resource depletion, and brine disposal, and a detailed cost analysis of capex, opex, and break even. the results provide policymakers, engineers, and investors practical guidelines for economically designing sustainable desalination facilities. this research supports the next generation of sustainable desalination infrastructure by identifying best practices in energy recovery, hybrid technologies and brine management. this study aims to evaluate desalination technologies’ environmental and economic performance by integrating life cycle assessment (lca) and cost analysis. to determine sustainability, it will assess energy consumption, carbon emissions, water use, resource depletion, and brine disposal. a detailed cost analysis will also examine capex, opex, cost per cubic meter of water, and break-even periods to compare long-term economic feasibility. the study also explores synergies between cost optimization and environmental sustainability, identifying strategies like energy recovery and hybrid systems to improve efficiency. finally, it proposes best practices for desalination project management, offering data-driven recommendations for sustainable and cost-effective operations. this study answers the following research questions: 1. what are the environmental impacts of different desalination technologies (ro, msf, med) based on life cycle assessment (lca) criteria such as energy consumption, carbon emissions, and brine disposal? 2. how do the costs of desalination technologies compare in terms of capital expenditure (capex), operational expenditure (opex), and cost per cubic meter of water? 3. what strategies can optimize desalination project management to balance cost efficiency and environmental sustainability? literature review environmental impacts of desalination extensive studies have been conducted regarding desalination’s environmental challenges, mainly related to energy consumption, carbon emissions, brine discharge, and resource depletion. desalination plants impact marine ecosystems severely by changing the salinity, chemical composition and dissolved oxygen conditions in receiving waters due to the brine discharge (elsaid et al., 2020). almasoudi and jamoussi (2024) looked further into this issue and found that brine effluents from desalination plants all across the world are nearly 50% more than previously thought, something that truly needs to be addressed in terms of sustainable brine management approaches, either diluting, dispersing, and mineral recovery (almasoudi & jamoussi, 2024). another main environmental concern is energy consumption, especially for thermal desalination techniques with higher carbon footprints derived from fossil fuel-based energy resources . in a comparative study, wang et al. (2019) have demonstrated that msf and med consume more than double the energy used by ro and, in this regard, are less sustainable in an environmental sense (wang et al., 2019). panagopoulos and haralambous, (2020) in their study analyzed that solar-powered and wind-powered ro systems can reduce co₂ emissions by 30%. unfortunately, intermittent energy supply and high initial capital costs have limited their large-scale implementation (panagopoulos & haralambous, 2020). lca has quantified the environmental impacts of desalination well. a comparative lca study of different desalination technologies was performed by najid et al. (2021), and they concluded that although ro has a lower energy footprint, it still has a considerable environmental burden in terms of membrane fouling, chemical pretreatment, and disposal of brine (najid et al., 2021). on the other hand, khoshgoftar manesh et al. (2020) expressed how msf and med could integrate power plants through cogeneration, making them more efficient despite their higher energy consumption. nevertheless, current lca studies have not completely integrated cost environmental trade-offs, preventing their use for realworld decision-making (khoshgoftar manesh et al., 2020). cost analysis of desalination plants economic factors are paramount in desalination feasibility, and economic studies on capital costs (capex), operational costs (opex), and externalities are discussed. saleh and mezher (2021) examined the desalination costs of various technologies, especially ro, where costs ranged from$0.50 to$0.80 per cubic meter, whereas msf and med faced significantly higher energy pa ge 11 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 demand and maintenance burdens resulting in production costs in the range beyond$1.50 per cubic meter (saleh and mezher, 2021). in a more recent study, generous et al. (2021) disclosed that energy costs represent about 40– 60% of operational expenditures, which is an incentive to employ energy recovery technologies to decrease operational expenditures (generous et al., 2021). most existing studies on desalination have addressed direct cost components, but external environmental costs of desalination often have not been touched upon. according to eke et al. (2020), thermal desalination plants become much less economically competitive if carbon taxes and the ecological damage associated with brine disposal are considered (eke et al., 2020). ahmadi et al. (2020) looked instead at the potential of renewablepowered desalination and concluded that solar-aided ro would reduce energy costs by 30%, although high initial capex remains a barrier to adoption (ahmadi et al., 2020). the long-term financial sustainability of the desalination project also constitutes another cost-related issue. according to shokri and fard (2023), hybrid ro-msf plants show cost parity with standalone msf ones in 12 years despite their increased initial investment due to increased energy efficiency (shokri & fard, 2023). this aligns with the results that elewa (2024) showed that integrating energy recovery devices (erds) can help save up to 40% opex, making desalination financially more sustainable (elewa, 2024). synergies between cost optimization and environmental engineering energy efficiency in desalination, brine management innovations and hybrid renewable desalination systems are strategies that have recently attracted attention as part of the efforts to integrate environmental sustainability with cost reduction. energy recovery technologies are considered promising since they have been demonstrated to reduce operating costs and carbon emissions dramatically (saboori & mehrjerdi, 2022). according to mendoza-zapata et al. (2023), using pressure exchangers in ro plants can increase energy efficiency by up to 50%, decreasing electricity consumption and environmental footprints (mendoza-zapata et al., 2023). hybrid desalination systems are recognized as effective means of improving the economic and environmental results. abdelaziz et al. (2021) state that combining ro with msf or med to use the waste heat from the power plants may help optimize energy use by reducing the energy consumed from the outside (abdelaziz et al., 2021). gomaa et al. (2023) further reported that a solarpowered desalination study revealed that solar-aided ro could achieve levelized water costs below $1.00 per cubic meter. solar-powered desalination is capable of reaching the same as its fossil fuel-fueled competitors. solar thermal integration encounters some of these as barriers to its large-scale deployment due to intermittency issues and high integration costs (gomaa et al., 2023). desalination research has also attracted increased attention in brine management. according to mogashane et al. (2020), profitable salts and minerals could be extracted from brine, offsetting disposal costs (mogashane et al., 2020). on similar grounds, abdelfattah and el-shamy (2024) examined zero liquid discharge (zld) technologies to eliminate brine discharge and avoid environmental and financial burdens. despite this, these approaches are still of interest and will become cost-effective on an industrial scale once further technological advancements are made (abdelfattah and el-shamy, 2024). materials and methods selection of case study desalination plants this study selects ras al-khair and shoaiba desalination plants in saudi arabia to represent diverse desalination technologies, operational scales, and geographical contexts, focusing on ro, msf, and hybrid systems. using a hybrid ro/msf system, ras al-khair is one of the largest and most energy-efficient plants globally, incorporating energy recovery and carbon capture technologies to reduce environmental impacts and improve operational efficiency. on the other hand, like other traditional oilbased msf technology, shoaiba has lower initial capital costs but higher operating costs and co2 emissions from crude oil-based plants. the study compares these plants and utilizes this comparison to discuss trade-offs between a plant’s technological efficiency, operational costs, and environmental performance, drawing upon knowledge of desalination in places with water scarcity. life cycle assessment (lca) framework goal and scope definition this lca aimed to determine the environmental impacts throughout a desalination plant’s life (construction, operation, and decommissioning phases). the focus was on quantifying the ecological burdens of each desalination stage and comparing the performance of different desalination technologies (i.e. ro, msf). the lca consists of three phases: construction phase (examines the materials, energy consumption and emissions associated with the construction of the plant); operational phase (analyses energy consumption, water production, brine disposal, emissions and resources used during the operation of the plant); and decommissioning phase (indicates the environmental impacts such as waste, energy use or the potential risk of soil pollution during dismantling of the installation). the motivation is to identify possible ways to reduce the environmental effects and explore trade-offs between sustainable ecological qualities and economic performance. functional unit to have a fair comparison between different technologies and scales of desalination, the functional unit of lca is defined as the production of 1000 cubic meters (m³) of freshwater. this standardizes the measurement to allow plants of any size, capacity, and technology to be pa ge 11 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 compared and a clear measure of the environmental pressure per unit of water produced. this approach enables a valuable understanding of each desalination process’s relative energy consumption and emissions for its sustainability, which is important for sustainable development and for comparing the long-term viability. system boundaries the lca of desalination plants covers the whole life cycle, from construction to decommissioning, and is focused on three key phases. the construction phase also refers to the energy and materials (i.e., raw material extraction, transportation, manufacturing, and assembly) used to construct the plant and the embodied energy and emissions contained in the materials, including concrete and steel, used to build the plant (e.g., mix and place concrete in the formworks, manufacture of reinforcing bars, the foundry process, etc.). the longest and most important phase for both cost-effectiveness and sustainability is the operational phase of desalination, covering lifetime energy consumption for desalination, freshwater production (both quantity and quality), brine disposal, and emission of co₂ (especially from fossil fuel burning), and resource use including replacement of consumables such as ro membranes. finally, the decommissioning phase determines how much the plant’s dismantling impacts the environment, like how much energy was used while the plant is being taken down, how much waste will be disposed of, what amount of waste will be recycled, and whether the soil was contaminated by the hazardous matter in the plant. the comprehensive nature of such an approach enables a thorough life cycle assessment of the environmental impacts involved in each stage of the life of the desalination plant. impact categories the environmental impact categories assessed within the lca of desalination plants include several key categories, which are important in understanding their sustainability. global warming potential (gwp) focuses on the desalination plant’s greenhouse gas emissions regarding co₂ equivalents, addressing how much the desalination plants contribute to climate change. other important factors are energy consumption, direct energy inputs (for example, electricity for desalination), and indirect inputs (for example, construction energy) a major component of the whole environmental footprint of the plant. the water use category aims to use total water consumption during the plant life cycle (i.e., construction, operation, and maintenance) to qualify the sustainability of the plant. resource depletion is the amount of non-renewable materials used in construction, such as steel and cement, calculated by the impacts on natural resources. finally, brine disposal impacts consider the environmental effects of brine discharge, which may drastically damage marine ecosystems if not properly treated. these impact categories convey a detailed environmental performance of desalination plants, allowing for a detailed comparison between different technologies and their relative sustainability in tackling water scarcity. cost analysis framework cost breakdown a cost comparison was carried out for the desalination plants that account for the capital cost and the ongoing cost to assess the cost-effectiveness of the plants. all initial costs for infrastructure development, plant equipment, and installation of the desalination plant form part of the capex, which includes the costs of desalination plant construction. this investment was needed to understand the costs of building a desalination facility. on the other hand, operational expenditure refers to the costs incurred in everyday expenses. this included energy consumption, maintenance, labour and the purchase of desalination consumables (membranes and chemicals). besides capex and opex, external costs were also considered during the analysis. these environmental costs included brine disposal, emissions control costs, and other costs associated with compliance with environmental regulations. the study integrated these externalities to represent better the total cost of desalination beyond direct money spent into a wider societal and environmental cost. cost calculation the study then derived several key cost metrics to compare the economic performances of different desalination technologies. one of the main metrics calculated was cost per m³ water, based on dividing total combined operational and capital costs by the volume of freshwater produced annually. this metric was used as a parameter to determine the economic efficiency of the desalination process and the amount it costs to manufacture a unit of water. another important calculation is the cost per kwh of energy, which was calculated by dividing the energy costs attributed to fuel, electricity, and maintenance of the plant’s energy infrastructure by the total energy consumption during operation. the figure compares the energy efficiency and operating energy costs for desalination technologies. lastly, the break-even analysis determines the period it takes to recover the initial capital investment, assigning the cost of producing water and the revenue generation in the plant. the study calculated the time to break even, judging the long-term economic viability of each desalination technology, which facilitates understanding the investment-bearing capacity of the desalination facilities. with this analysis, direct financial costs are integrated with external environmental costs to view the economic and ecological aspects of desalination technologies comprehensively. what this extensive cost analysis accomplishes is that it allows one to compare and contrast several plants based on their operational characteristics, broad economic impacts, and environmental sustainability. pa ge 11 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 results and discussions environmental impact results overview of lca results a life cycle assessment (lca) of the ras al-khair and shoaiba desalination plants shows that there are significant differences between their environmental impacts in the most common ecological categories, such as the global warming potential (gwp), energy and water consumption, resource depletion and brine disposal. ras al khair operates with lower energy demands (3–5 kwh/m³), and since it largely uses reverse osmosis (ro) with energy recovery systems, it results in having a much lower gwp and better ecological footprint, which is related to more sustainable use of water. furthermore, the plant avoids depletion of resources due to the use of advanced materials, and disposal of brine through dilution minimizes environmental risks. shoaiba is, however, powered by a multi-stage flash (msf) technology, which uses crude oil combustion to generate power, requiring a gross energy consumption of 13 – 15 kwh/m³ with a gwp of 2473 in 2012 and 8.2 million tons of co₂ emissions annually. additionally, shoaiba’s resource depletion rate is greater than that of the other plants as it requires a large volume of concrete and steel, and its brine discharge methods are effective yet do not involve advanced treatment, potentially leading to higher environmental hazards.. shoaiba, despite the lower initial capital expenditure (capex) and the capability to produce electricity alongside water, is less sustainable than ras al-khair due to the higher operational expenditure (opex) and negative environmental impacts. comparative analysis the comparison between the shoaiba and ras alkhair projects demonstrates major differences from an environmental impact point of view; ras al-khair is more sustainable and does not harm the environment. the largest difference is in global warming potential (gwp), which is attributable to the energy efficiency of ras al-khair’s ro technology and carbon capture systems, allowing it to capture 300,000 tons of co₂ per year, whereas shoaiba emits 8,200,000 tons each year. ro is less energy-demanding than the energy-intensive msf process employed at shoaiba using oil combustion. its energy recovery systems make its energy consumption also much lower than shoaiba: 3–5 kwh/m³ for ro vs 13–15 kwh/m³ for msf. regarding brine disposal, brine from ras al-khair is disposed of with dilution channels, minimizing environmental impact; brine from shoaiba with brine salinity (65–70 g/l) is not high and requires no advanced treatment but carries higher ecological risks. while the environmental footprint is smaller at ras alkhair due to its use of advanced materials, shoaiba’s construction demanded significant amounts of concrete and steel. these differences illustrate how the more efficient and innovative technologies implemented in ras al-khair minimize environmental impacts across several categories (figure 1). figure 1: comparison of environmental impacts: ras al-khair vs. shoaiba major contributors to environmental impacts the energy consumption, brine disposal, emissions, and resource depletion were compared among the shoaiba and ras al-khair desalination plants. this highlights some of the critical differences, especially on the energy consumption side and demonstrates the advantages of the ras al-khair plant. using a combined ro / msf system, ras al-khair largely benefits from a lower energy consumption than shoaiba. ras al-khair’s ro technology also consumes 3 – 5 kwh/m3 specifically, starkly contrasting with shoaiba’s msf technology, which requires 13 – 15 kwh/m3. integrating energy recovery systems reduces the total electricity requirements and increases energy efficiency. this made ras al-khair an energy-efficient design with its design a significant key to a low carbon footprint due to its carbon capture pa ge 11 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 system of 300,000 tons of co₂ reduction per year. in contrast, shoaiba’s use of crude oil combustion for power generation produces 8.2 million tonnes of co₂ emissions annually, contributing to the environmental damage caused by the plant. ras al-khair’s creative brine disposal approach includes dilution channels, which blend seawater with the contained brine before it is released, making its ecological effect much smaller. brine with a50–55 g/l salinity in plant brine is less harmful to the marine ecosystem than the shoaiba brine with 65–70 g/l salinity. shoaiba has no advanced treatment technologies, and the brine is discharged into the marine environment without sufficient control, resulting in more risks to changing local aquatic life, reefs and fish populations. resource depletion constitutes an important factor in the sustainability of desalination plants. using advanced materials to construct ras al-khair helps reduce the overall demand for non-renewable resources. through energy recovery and efficient technologies, ras al-khair minimises the amount of raw materials needed, and thus, the plant is constructed and operated more sustainably. however, shoaiba’s development phase entailed using considerable quantities of concrete (1.2 million tons) and steel (85,000 tons), leading to higher resource depletion and a raised environmental footprint associated with the plant’s construction. through such comparisons, it is evident that adopting modern, low-energy desalination technologies, like the ones used at ras al-khair, provides environmental benefits, reducing energy consumption and environmental impacts like co₂ emissions and brine discharge. while shoaiba offers important lessons on the operational viability of conventional desalination technology, a consideration for transitioning to cleaner energy solutions and more sustainable desalination practices in the future are the higher energy and resource demand and fossil fuel reliance, respectively (figure 2). figure 2: major contributors to environmental impacts: ras al-khair vs. shoaiba comparison of desalination technologies reverse osmosis (ro) and multi-stage flash (msf) desalination technologies are dissimilar regarding energy efficiency, environmental impact, and sustainability. these differences are even more apparent in hybrid systems, such as at-khair’s combination ro/msf, which has significant advantages over typical msfmsf-based stems, such as shoaiba. energy efficiency reverse osmosis (ro) is widely accepted as the most energy-efficient desalination process among alternatives such as multi-stage flash (msf). ro requires seawater to travel through semi-permeable membranes to remove salts and impurities, requiring much less energy than the msf process. using ro technology, ras al-khair operates at 3–5 kwh/m3, decreasing the energy demand. energy recovery systems improve the efficiency of ro by capturing the pressure that is produced during desalination and returning it to the system, thereby minimizing the need for additional energy input. ras al-khair is, therefore, highly energy efficient with a low carbon footprint and reduced operation costs. on the other hand, msf uses 13–15 kwh/m³ of energy. it depends on boiling seawater in steps that reduce the pressure and temperature until freshwater is produced when the vapour condenses. generally speaking, the heating needed for the process is made by fossil fuel combustion, such as crude oil or natural gas. due to the high energy demand in msf systems, the process is less efficient and costlier. environmental impact the energy consumption in desalination technologies is generally the main factor for its environmental impact in releasing more co₂ and global warming potential pa ge 11 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 (gwp). the energy-efficient ro technology used in ras al-khair has a much reduced ecological footprint. the carbon capture system of the plant also helps to capture and repurpose about 300,000 tons of co₂ per year as part of their environmental impact mitigation. ras al-khair’s utilization of renewable energy sources or carbon capture mechanisms reflects a sustainability and ecological conservation pledge, addressing the challenge caused by the high gwp of desalination processes. however, shoaiba’s production of 8.2 million tons of co₂ emissions annually is based on the msf technology driven by crude oil. these emissions directly affect this plant’s obtrusive dependence on fossil fuels to generate energy. as a result, shoaiba’s higher energy consumption and associated co₂ emissions result in much more environmentally harmful options, thereby contributing to climate change and environmental degradation. through this comparison, the great importance of energy-efficient desalination technology in minimizing ecological impacts will be shown. sustainability desalination beyond energy efficiency and the reduction of emissions in desalination involves sustainability on a long-term scale in terms of resource use and preservation of the environment. the deployment of a hybrid ro/ msf system at ras al-khair is more sustainable than a conventional msf system at shoaiba. energy recovery features integrated within the ro process and a carbon capture technology significantly reduces the damage caused by resource depletion and the plant’s environmental footprint. furthermore, ras al-khair also controls the brine discharge through dilution channels to minimise the negative ecological effects on the surrounding marine environment, which enables it to be a more sustainable solution for water production. however, shoaiba’s dependence on crude oil to generate energy makes the plant more resource-heavy but also exposes the plant to the vagaries of fossil fuel markets. the large energy consumption of the plant and the absence of advanced brine management technologies make the msf system of shoaiba less sustainable in the long run. effective brine management and nonuse of nonrenewable energy sources are lacking in the currently available desalination technologies and need to be addressed for sustainable use (figure 3). figure 3: comparison of energy consumption and co2 emissions: ro vs. msf cost analysis results capital expenditure (capex) the capital expenditure (capex) analysis provides insight into the financial figure of access between the ras al-khair and shoaiba desalination plants. with its hybrid reverse osmosis (ro) / multi stage flash (msf) system, the initial investment cost for ras al-khair reached $7.6 billion due to the complex infrastructure and advanced technologies, including energy recovery and carbon capture. however, the higher capex of this solution also means a greater upfront cost for the plant, but the higher energy efficiency and clean air properties that this solution offers present potential long-term financial and environmental benefits. however, shoaiba turned to a more traditional msf system with only an initial investment of $5 billion. this is because it has a simpler design, and thus, it relies on oil-fired steam generation, which, though cost-effective at low operational expenditures, is higher than the operational costs due to energy demand and environmental impacts. however, even though ras al-khair has a higher capital investment in the initial stage and higher operational costs in the later stage, it is ready for lower operational costs and environmental sustainability. the comparison illustrates the cost trade‐off between more advanced and expensive technologies offering greater long-term economic performance and reduced environmental impact (figure 4). pa ge 11 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 figure 5: opex breakdown: ras al-khair vs. shoaiba operational expenditure (opex) operational expenditure (opex) analysis allows for the disclosure of valuable insights into the long-term financial sustainability of the ras al-khair and shoaiba desalination plants by analyzing key cost components such as energy consumption, maintenance, labour, and consumables. desalination is an energy-intensive process, and energy consumption is the dominant contributor to opex for both plants. with energy-efficient reverse osmosis (ro) technology, with the help of energy recovery systems, ras al-khair’s energy demand is lowered to 3–5 kwh/m³. its efficient system means you pay less electricity costs, adding to the cost-efficient supply chain. conversely, shoaiba relies on multi stage flash (msf) technology, which has high energy consumption (13–15 kwh/m³) and comes at a high fuel cost due to its dependence on crude oil. another major component of opex is maintenance cost. at ras al-khair, the energy-efficient design reduces wear and tear on equipment, hence lower maintenance costs ($0.10/m³). shoaiba’s higher maintenance costs ($0.20/m³) are due to more frequent part replacements and a high-energy intense operation. opex also includes labour costs, and due to the automation of ras al-khair’s operation, its labour requirements are low, and the cost is just $0.15/m³. on the contrary, shoaiba’s utilization of more manual processes leads to higher labour costs at the forklift level ($0.25/m³). finally, consumables such as chemicals and membranes are an ongoing cost. the cost ($0.30/m³) of the ro system at ras al-khair is estimated with lower consumable use but higher replacement of membranes due to very low energy usage. the msf system of shoaiba shows a higher economical consumable cost ($0.50/m³) because of its regular requirements for maintenance. the ras al-khair opex is $0.65/m³ while shoaiba is $1.10/m³. the stark contrast in this case is attributed to the energy efficiency, automated operations, and high technology of ras al-khair to optimize operational costs directly and indirectly. on the contrary, higher energy consumption and outdated technology in shoaiba result in higher opex and are therefore less competitive in terms of overall cost-effectiveness. the breakdown of the opex for both plants is presented in the following graph, which shows the contribution of energy consumption, maintenance, labour, consumables, etc, to the total cost of operation (figure 5). figure 4: comparison of capital expenditure (capex): ras al-khair vs. shoaiba pa ge 11 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 cost calculation metrics cost per m³ of water freshwater’s cost per cubic meter (m³) is a major financial metric of desalination plant economic efficiency. water produced turns over total annual capital expenditure and operational expenditure to calculate this metric, the total capital expenditure (capex) and operational expenditure (opex) are divided by the annual volume of water produced. it represents the overall costs of producing each cubic meter of freshwater, presenting a transparent image of each plant’s economic performance. the plant produces 325 million m³ of water annually at capex of $7.6 billion and opex of $0.65/m³ for ras al khair, which has higher but lower opex. this means that the cost per m³ of water is relatively low, roughly $1.02/m³, combining the capex and the opex in the lifecursive of the plant. although more expensive to develop in initial capital investment, the operational costs relative to ras al-khair are lower and hence are made economically competitive because of the lower energy consumption associated with energy efficiency and energy recovery systems. on the other hand, shoaiba, with a lower capex of $5 billion and higher opex of $1.10/m³, produces 150 million m³ of water annually. furthermore, because the more energy-intensive multi stage flash (msf) technology prevails, shoaiba faces a cost of $1.60/m³ of water.. shoaiba is advantaged in a lower initial investment but suffers from a higher operational expenditure that reduces efficiency in the long term in terms of cost. cost per kwh of energy the other determinant of the energy efficiency of any desalination plant is the cost of energy per kilowatt hour (kwh) consumed during operation. this enables an assessment of the cost to generate each unit of energy consumed by desalination, providing an indicator of each plant’s total energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness. ras al-khair enjoys low energy cost per kwh owing to utilizing energy recovery systems in reverse osmosis (ro) technology, which are sensitive to natural gas cost variations. the operational efficiency offered by the plant is such that the estimated plant contribution in terms of cost per kwh consumed is $0.12 $0.18/kwh, even though its energy consumption is 3 – 5 kwh/m3 of capacity. conversely, energy is produced at a higher cost per kwh using the energy-intensive msf technology coupled with primary energy such as crude oil. using fossil fuel, the shoaiba uses 13–15 kwh/m3 with a significantly higher energy cost per kwh of $0.25–$0.30/kwh. break-even analysis the break-even period is the time needed to recoup the initial capital investment (capex) in a desalination plant from its water production revenues. it is an important one that dictates whether each desalination technology is financially viable or long-term sustainable. this move was achieved by varying capex, opex, and the revenue from selling desalinated water. the capex of $7.6 billion at ras al-khair also has the break-evenbreak-even analysis to recover its investment in about 12 years. due to low operations costs and profitability in the long run, this plant’s payback period is quite short. on the other hand, shoaiba requires only $5 billion for capex, while its break even is set to take about 18 years. however, because shoaiba has a higher opex (mainly high energy cost and maintenance), its payback period is longer than the other two desalination alternatives (table 1). table 1: cost summary metric ras alkhair shoaiba capex (billion usd) 7.6 5.0 opex (usd/m³) 0.65 1.10 annual water production (m³) 325 million 150 million cost per m³ of water (usd) 1.02 1.60 energy consumption (kwh/m³) 3–5 13–15 cost per kwh of energy (usd) 0.12–0.18 0.25–0.30 break-even period (years) 12 18 discussions the basis for the environmental analysis is the comparison of energy consumption between the two plants. having imported water consumption of 3–5 kwh/m³, ras al-khair’s water use is significantly lower than shoaiba’s, where consumption is a steep 13–15 kwh/m³; the ro technology with the energy recovery proves to be very efficient. these results align with sgude (2016) and panagopoulo (2021), who showed that ro systems have a much lower energy demand per produced water than thermal desalination technologies, such as msf. the integration of the energy recovery system also demonstrates the decreased energy demand of ras al-khair, thereby accentuating the role of energysaving technologies in combating issues related to high desalination operational costs and environmental impacts (soliman et al., 2021). however, shoaiba is energy-intensive and highly environmentally detrimental due to its power generation based on crude oil. oil-based desalination systems emit a high global warming potential (gwp) of 8.2 million tons annually due to the shoaiba msf process. this aligns with schär et al. found: thermal processes such as msf are generally more carbon-intensive because they rely on fossil fuels. furthermore, the carbon capture system in ras al-khair further reduces the amount of co₂ emissions by 300 000 tons per year, a function that adds to the overall environmental sustainability of the plant pa ge 12 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 and contributes to the transition towards low carbon desalination technologies (schär et al., 2023). furthermore, brine disposal is another advantage of ras al-khair over shoaiba. shoaiba brine (65-70 g/l) is discharged untreated, while brine dilution techniques are applied in ras al-khair plants to reduce the levels of ecological risk of discharge. high salinity brine discharge is known to deplete oxygen and harm aquatic life, disposing of the risk of marine ecosystem disruption as per literature (fernández-torquemada et al., 2019). therefore, a site with less salty brine (50–55 g/l) and less mineral salts is more environmentally responsible as the sustainable option for disposing of brine. in the cost analysis, an examination of the long-term cost benefits obtained through lower operational expenditure ($0.65/m3) makes the initial capital expenditure, while the price for the ras al-khair mine project ($7.6b) is comparatively higher than the other two projects, attractive. shoaiba, with a lower capex of $5 billion, incurs higher opex ($1.10/m³) due to its energyintensive msf system. the work gao et al. (2021) presented demonstrates that ro-based desalination facilities will initially be more costly to invest but will cost far less in the long term because of the lower energy requirement. the main difference lies precisely in the huge energy requirement of msf, as well as the efficiency of shoaiba’s technology, which leads the plant to burn more fuel and to repeat its processes more frequently (gao et al., 2021). another factor that enhances the cost advantages of ras al-khair is that the cost of producing one cubic meter of water is only $1.02/m³, substantially lower than the $1.60/m³ at shoaiba. that aligns with findings by mansour et al. (2020), who previously showed that energy recovery systems in ro plants can decrease operational costs by 40% (mansour et al., 2020). furthermore, the break-even analysis conducted on ras al-khair returns its investments in roughly 12 years, which is consistent with what sawle et al (2018) observe when discussing the research trend on hybrid systems, which initially cost more yet are financially sustainable in the long term because of their efficiency and reduced operating costs (sawle et al., 2018). the findings of this research show that a synergy between the environment and cost optimization is significant. improvement of ras al-khair through the combination of energy recovery systems and carbon capture technologies shows that energy-efficient technology increases the economic viability and environmental outputs of the process. the study correlates with the findings of ghazi et al. (2022) who also mentioned that desalination ought to be rendered sustainable by providing energy recovery and use of renewable energy. the ras al-khair characteristics of high sensorial carbon capture and low energy consumption demonstrate the ways of how the advanced technologies can eliminate the environmental harm and maintain the economies low (ghazi et al., 2022). moreover, the presence of the hybrid ro/msf system in ras al-khair confirms that the hybrid desalination systems can be used to facilitate the optimal combination of energy consumption and environmental impact, as stated by heidary et al. (2018), which means that the employment of the hybrid system can utilize the existing waste heat to reduce the external energy input requirements (heidary et al., 2018). this is consistent with heidary et al. (2019), who could increase the costeffectiveness and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by integrating energy recovery systems into desalination infrastructure (heidary et al., 2019). conclusion the environmental and economic environmental performance of desalination technologies at ras al-khair and shoaiba desalination plants has been comprehensively evaluated for this study. results indicate that ras alkhair’s hybrid ro/msf system becomes environmentally most sustainable, consuming less energy, creating less carbon emissions and better brine management, versus shoaiba’s traditional msf system. also, ras al-khair has lower operational costs and a quicker break-even period, further suggesting the financial benefit of energyefficient technologies on desalination. the results reinforce the value of related cost optimization with environmental sustainability in future desalination projects. by incorporating energy recovery systems, renewable energy schemes, and carbon capture technologies, desalination plants can become economically viable in the long term and lower their ecological impact. this study’s findings can provide rich insights for policymakers and stakeholders in the desalination sector to adopt more sustainable and cost-effective desalination technologies to mitigate global water scarcity issues. limitations and future recommendations although much can be learned from this study regarding desalination technologies’ environmental and economic performance, some limitations should be addressed in the future. a significant limitation is the use of regional energy and emission factor data that do not always cover global parameters of energy sources and emissions profiles. future studies would need more localized data and more contextualization concerning areas based on the energy grid and environmental regulations. in addition, this research focused primarily on large-scale desalination plants, but further study in the context of scale and decentralized systems powered by renewable energy (which have great potential in supplying water to underserved or off-grid communities whilst dealing with challenges with water scarcity) may be useful for applications to some cases soon. other future areas of research include the social and economic impacts of desalination, such as community acceptance, water affordability, and public health effects of large scale desalination projects. a more systemic approach that considers these attributes and environmental and pa ge 12 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 111-122, 2025 economic dimensions will help provide decision-makers with more informed decisions and promote desalination technologies that benefit the environment, economy, and large. additionally, integrated models that integrate cost and environmental sustainability metrics are required for development to guide desalination project management in developing a financially viable and environmentally responsible solution. references abdelaziz, g. b., el-said, e. m., dahab, m. a., omara, m., & sharshir, s. w. 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(2021). energy consumption and environmental impact assessment of desalination plants and brine disposal strategies. process safety and environmental protection, 147, 589-608. wang, z., horseman, t., straub, a.p., yip, n.y., li, d., elimelech, m., & lin, s., 2019. pathways and challenges for efficient solar-thermal desalination. science advances, 5, eaax0763. pa ge 1 pa ge 12 3 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) optimizing supply chain with artificial intelligence in business md mustafijur rahaman1*, jimmy maruri1, malan begum1, sm toufiqur rahman1 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5895 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: august 10, 2025 accepted: september 14, 2025 published: november 17, 2025 this literature review states the theoretical foundations, current advancements, practical applications, and technological tools of artificial intelligence (ai) in supply chain management (scm). the review also describes the outcomes from recent studies that shows artificial intelligence’s evolution from a theoretical part to a transformative enabler of adaptive, datadriven supply chains. the theory illustrates ai’s roots in decision sciences, systems theory, and hybrid analytical models, which effect strategic planning under uncertainty. besides that, current developments describe ai’s effects in predictive analytics, risk management, and real-time decision-making. it is very much crucial for this study. on the other hand, case studies from various sectors such as food logistics, production, and retail demonstrate tangible improvements in efficiency, resilience, and consumer satisfaction. some excellent ai technology such as machine learning, nlp, iot, and cloud-based platforms, noting their effects on operational excellence. besides that, persistent challenges such as cost, infrastructure gaps, data silos, and limited sustainability focus continue to constrain extensive use. this review proclaims the demand for broad base ai strategies that clarify technical and organizational obstacles, clearing the way for more excellent and permanent supply chain management. the integration of advanced technologies in supply chain management has led improvements significantly across key performance indicators. some peer reviewed articles showed that, forecast accuracy increased from 67–70% to 89–92% (alomar, 2022; wong et al., 2024; abaku et al., 2024; khoa et al., 2024), according to fosso wamba et al., 2022; helo & hao, 2022; grover, 2025 inventory turnover rose from 4–5 to 5–6 times per year. cost reduction ranged from 10–20%, while delivery time decreased by 15–25% (hasan et al., 2024; shamsuddoha et al., 2025; eyo-udo, 2024; khan & jalal, 2023). and on-time delivery improved by 10–18% (thuraka, 2021; vaka, 2024; attah et al., 2024; fatorachian, 2024). so, stock-out incidents were reduced by 15–30%, and consumer satisfaction increased by 18–22%. keywords artificial intelligence (ai), business, optimization, supply chain 1 atlantis university, miami, fl-usa, united states * corresponding author’s e-mail: dr.mustafij09@gmail.com introduction supply chain management (scm) has developed into a complex system influenced by globalization, fluctuating customer need, and external disruptions such as pandemics and climate-related events. old, styled supply chain practices sometimes struggle to adjust with these complexities, resulting in inefficiencies, higher operational costs, and limited resilience (eyoudo, 2024). besides that, artificial intelligence (ai) has come out as a transformative solution capable of describing these problems through advanced analytics, predictive modeling, and real-time decision-making (yerra, 2025). on the other hand, ai-driven predictive analytics changes logistics and transportation operations by improving demand forecasting, route optimization, and inventory management (yerra, 2025). it also introduces ai with big data analytics, supporting sustainable supply chain practices, enabling organizations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve environmental performance (ojadi et al., 2024). by addressing ai, businesses can optimize operational efficiency, improve sustainability outcomes, and build agile and resilient supply chain systems (eyoudo, 2024; ojadi et al., 2024). so, despite all these advancements, many businesses face vital challenges such as organizational readiness, data quality issues, and the need for interpretable ai models to ensure reliable decision-making. this study emphasizes on examining these opportunities and challenges, providing insights into how ai can be significantly deployed to optimize supply chain management processes while supporting sustainability goals. purpose of the study the main principal of this investigation is to know how ai can optimize supply chain management in business. we will try to find out all possible way and outcomes for this optimization. this study also seeks finding key ai technologies transforming supply chain functions, including demand forecasting, procurement, logistics, and risk management. exploring real-world case studies demonstrating successful ai integration and its impact on operational efficiency, cost reduction, and sustainability. appraising potential challenges, including organizational readiness, data governance, ethical considerations, and model interpretability, which may hinder effective ai implementation. besides that, ai-driven techniques such as adaptive route optimization have decleared significant potential in reducing fuel consumption, lowering operational costs, as pa ge 12 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 well as supporting sustainable urban logistics (thuraka, 2021). by assessing both academic literature and industry practices, this study aims to provide a framework for leveraging ai as a strategic tool for enhancing supply chain resilience, agility, and sustainability in dynamic market environments. research questions this study states the following research questions: what are the root causes of inefficiencies in traditional supply chains? how can ai technologies be leveraged to address those inefficiencies? what are the most impactful ai applications in supply chain components (e.g., forecasting, routing, and inventory)? what challenges do small and mid-sized enterprises face when integrating ai into their supply chain systems? what measurable outcomes can businesses achieve through ai-driven supply chain optimization? importance of the study there is several importance of this investigation. the value of this study states in its potential to evaluate valuable results into how artificial intelligence (ai) can enhance supply chain management as a critical function for the success of modern businesses. with increasing global competition, consumer expectations, and market volatility, supply chains face growing pressure to become more efficient, agile, and resilient. besides that, by examining ai tools in this field, this research helps illuminate practical ways for reducing costs, improve forecasting accuracy, streamline operations, and respond dynamically to changing conditions. on the other hand, the study announces the gap between emerging ai technologies and their real-world implementation challenges, providing both theoretical knowledge and actionable recommendations. this is especially relevant for decision-makers seeking evidencebased guidance to invest in ai tools while minimizing risks. besides that, the research’s reliance on secondary data allows it to synthesize broad trends and lessons from multiple industries, enhancing its generalizability. so, the observations of this investigation aim to guide businesses, supply chain professionals, and researchers in understanding and leveraging ai’s transformative potential, thereby fostering innovation and competitiveness in a rapidly evolving economic landscape. limitations of the study this investigation has several limitations. this research is based entirely on secondary data, including peer-reviewed articles, case studies, and published reports. while these sources provide valuable insights into the impact of artificial intelligence on supply chain performance, the absence of primary data limits the ability to directly investigate the root causes of inefficiencies in traditional supply chains. align with some context-specific operational challenges may not be fully captured, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions for individual organizations. as there are no direct connections with beneficiaries, so this is the main limitations of the entire research. even though, the investigations examine how ai technologies can be applied to address supply chain inefficiencies, the results are based on previously published results rather than direct implementation or experimentation. this protects the ability to measure the practical effectiveness of specific ai applications in forecasting, routing, inventory management, or other supply chain components. besides that, challenges faced by small and mid-sized enterprises (smes) in integrating ai are discussed based on literature, which may not fully reflect real-world organizational constraints such as resource limitations, workforce readiness, or local infrastructure issues. this is also a vital limitation for my entire investigation. so, the study cannot deliver precise, quantitative results of ai-driven supply chain optimization, such as exact upgrading in delivery times, cost reduction, or customer/ consumer satisfaction, because no real data collection or experimental validation was conducted. rather than, these limitations highlight the need for future research to collect primary data and conduct real-world case studies, especially to explore the root causes of inefficiencies, the measurable impact of ai applications, and the challenges faced by smes in integrating ai into their supply chains. research period is also one of the crucial limitations of my project. this is only for 8 weeks investigation. this investigation needs more time to find out the perfect impact. literature review theoretical background artificial intelligence (ai) in supply chain management (scm) has derived from a theoretical concept to a realworld solution for optimizing complex networks of procurement, production, logistics, and distribution. with the same concept previously emmanuel adeyemi abaku et al. (2024) stated that ai’s theoretical foundations are built upon decision sciences, predictive analytics, and systems theory, and that the integration of these approaches enables more adaptive and resilient supply chain systems. on the other hand, according to das et al. (2022) combining analytical frameworks like ahp-dematel with ai allows companies to map interdependencies, identify root causes of inefficiencies, and build multilayered responses to disruption. this study declared that such hybrid models can effectively support strategic planning, especially under high uncertainty and volatility. besides that, ai models using deep learning and plssem-ann significantly enhance risk management by predicting disruptions and improving agility in supply networks. that we found in wong et al. (2024). pa ge 12 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 state of the art from researcher fatorachian (2024) we came to know that ai has advanced from operational tools to strategic enablers of supply chain intelligence. ai now supports demand prediction, route optimization, and supplier analysis using real-time data streams, enhancing both operational and strategic outcomes. but agrawal et al. (2025) described that the internet of everything (ioe) combined with ai creates responsive, automated ecosystems where decisions are made in milliseconds based on context-aware data. this study expressed that such integrations significantly reduce response time and inventory holding costs. besides that, hendriksen (2023) declared that ai represents a disruptive innovation within supply chain ecosystems, shifting the paradigm from static, centralized decision-making to decentralized, adaptive processes powered by continuous data input and machine intelligence. applications and case studies a wide range of case studies illustrate ai’s practical impact on supply chains across different industries and regions. anwar et al. (2023) conducted a study on food logistics, which stated that ai-driven systems reduce post-harvest losses and optimize distribution routes. this study found that integrating ai from farm to consumer enhanced visibility, reduced costs, and improved customer satisfaction. dey et al. (2024) investigated ai use in vietnamese manufacturing smes and expressed that predictive analytics improved production planning and reduced supply shortages by 26%. this study stated that ai dashboards provided real-time supplier and customer data, improving resilience during crises such as covid-19. in kenya, machine learning applications in warehouse and inventory management led to 30% fewer stockouts and better alignment with fluctuating consumer demand. this study declared that small businesses could achieve scalable improvements with even limited ai infrastructure. mwangi (2024) found that in kenya. another study by rodriguez et al. (2025) expressed that quick-service restaurants (qsrs) adopting ai in procurement and staffing experienced enhanced service quality and operational consistency, demonstrating ai’s role in aligning operations with customer expectations. available technology and tools several studies provide a comprehensive overview of the tools and platforms used for ai in scm. from mohsen (2023), businesses implementing machine learning-based forecasting tools saw a 35% improvement in accuracy. this study found that ml enables dynamic learning, meaning predictions become more accurate over time as the data evolves. in the view of khan and jalal (2023), natural language processing (nlp) can enhance supplier relationship management by scanning documents, communications, and public data for sentiment and reliability indicators. this study stated that this proactive approach improves supplier vetting and contract risk evaluation. according to kumari et al. (2023), ai integrated with iot provides real-time monitoring of product conditions. this study found that temperature-sensitive goods such as pharmaceuticals and food products benefited significantly, reducing spoilage and loss. rolf et al. (2023) reviewed reinforcement learning (rl) techniques and declared that rl enables real-time route optimization and energy efficiency by continuously learning from logistics outcomes. this study by goswami et al. (2025) expressed that cloudbased ai platforms such as oracle scm cloud and microsoft azure ai are allowing mid-sized companies to adopt ai without major infrastructure investments. current solutions and gaps while ai’s benefits are well-documented, several challenges continue to limit adoption and impact. khoa et al. (2024) found that small and mid-sized enterprises (smes) face barriers related to cost, technical expertise, and scalability. this study declared that many smes lack access to skilled personnel and infrastructure, making large-scale ai implementation difficult. attah et al. (2024) showed, poor data integration and siloed systems reduce the effectiveness of ai applications. this study stated that without a unified data platform, ai tools cannot deliver full predictive or diagnostic capability. in their study, akhtar et al. (2023) found that misinformation and disinformation during global crises like pandemics significantly disrupted global supply chains. this study declared that ai can be used to detect fake news and protect supply chains from reactionary decisions based on false information. hasan et al. (2024) expressed that environmental and sustainability concerns are gaining attention, and ai has the potential to optimize carbon footprint monitoring and emission reduction. besides that, this study found that only a limited number of companies are leveraging ai for sustainable logistics and green procurement strategies. kalusivalingam et al. (2020) addressed that the integration of neural networks and reinforcement learning algorithms enhances supply chain visibility by enabling predictive and prescriptive analytics. their study highlighted how ai-based approaches support proactive decision-making and improve efficiency across supply chain networks. trong and kim (2020) stated that the application of artificial intelligence in supply chain management facilitates process automation and data-driven decisionmaking. their mini review emphasized how ai technologies reduce operational complexity and enhance information flow throughout supply chain activities. olufemi-phillips et al. (2020) explained that integrating internet of things (iot) and cloud computing into supply chain systems leads to optimized management of fast-moving consumer goods (fmcg). their findings pa ge 12 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 showed that digital technologies increase transparency, enhance collaboration, and minimize delays in product distribution. schniederjans et al. (2020) described that supply chain digitization trends rely heavily on knowledge management systems, where ai tools help organizations manage and leverage vast amounts of data. this integration improves strategic planning and enhances competitive advantage. madancian et al. (2023) addressed that artificial intelligence adoption in modern supply chains significantly influences operational efficiency and responsiveness. they emphasized the importance of ai-driven analytics for forecasting, resource allocation, and optimizing logistics performance. modgil et al. (2022) stated that the covid-19 pandemic accelerated the need for supply chain resilience, where ai applications helped mitigate disruptions. their research suggested that ai-enabled supply chains could adapt quickly to external shocks and unpredictable demand fluctuations. naz et al. (2022) explained that artificial intelligence supports sustainable supply chain practices by optimizing resource use, reducing waste, and improving energy efficiency. their study proposed future research directions for sustainable ai-driven supply chain operations. fosso wamba et al. (2022) described that industry experience with ai in supply chain management presents both benefits and challenges. while ai provides improved accuracy, efficiency, and cost savings, barriers such as data privacy, integration complexity, and workforce readiness remain significant. nozari et al. (2022) addressed that combining ai with iot (aiot) offers smart supply chain solutions for fmcg industries but faces implementation challenges, including data security and infrastructure limitations. yenugula et al. (2023) stated that cloud computing plays a crucial role in enabling ai-driven supply chains, allowing seamless data processing and improved real-time decision-making. stewart (2023) explained that predictive analytics powered by ai enhances supply chain resilience, enabling businesses to respond proactively to disruptions and improve long-term operational stability materials and methods research perspective a qualitative research perspective, supported by secondary data analysis, to explore the applications and implications of artificial intelligence (ai) in optimizing supply chain operations was conducted in entire research. the qualitative approach is particularly fit to this research because it facilitates an in-depth exploration of complex, interconnected factors that influence supply chain management performance. by synthesizing findings from peer-reviewed journal articles, industry reports, white papers, and relevant case studies, the study aims to capture both the theoretical foundations and practical implementations of ai technologies in diverse business contexts. rather than focusing on numerical measurements or statistical testing, this perspective effects the interpretation and integration of existing knowledge to identify recurring patterns, emerging trends, and notable best practices. it also enables the researcher to critically examine how ai tools such as predictive analytics, machine learning algorithms, and autonomous decision-making systems are applied across different industries and regions. so that, considering this perspective allows for the inclusion of multi-disciplinary insights, drawing from operations management, information systems, and business strategy literature. this broader lens ensures a more holistic understanding of ai’s role in supply chain optimization, recognizing both its transformative potential and the challenges associated with its adoption. by relying on diverse, credible sources, the qualitative research perspective strengthens the validity of conclusions and provides a well-rounded foundation for practical recommendations. type of research the research is designed as both descriptive and exploratory in nature, allowing for a well-rounded examination of the topic. the descriptive component focuses on systematically organizing, summarizing, and presenting existing knowledge on artificial intelligencedriven supply chain optimization. this includes detailing how artificial intelligence technologies such as predictive analytics, machine learning algorithms, and intelligent automation are currently applied across procurement, production, logistics, and distribution processes. the descriptive element aims to provide a clear and structured overview of the state of the field, serving as a reliable knowledge base for readers. in parallel, the exploratory component seeks to go beyond mere description by critically analyzing patterns, emerging trends, and innovative practices within the literature and case studies. it aims to identify research gaps, technological challenges, and opportunities for future development. this dual approach ensures that the study does not merely recount what is already known but also contributes to the ongoing conversation about how artificial intelligence can be leveraged to address persistent inefficiencies and vulnerabilities in supply chain management. besides that, by relying on secondary data sources such as peer-reviewed journals, industry reports, white papers, and reputable market research publications, the study avoids the logistical, financial, and time constraints associated with primary data collection methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments. this methodological choice enables a broader scope of analysis, drawing from multiple contexts and industries, which strengthens the generalizability of the findings. so, the combination of descriptive and exploratory approaches ensures that the research provides both a detailed account of the current landscape and valuable insights for future inquiry and practical implementation. pa ge 12 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 context of the study this research is conducted within the broader context of global supply chain management across various industries, with a specific focus on artificial intelligence technologies such as predictive analytics, machine learning, robotics process automation (rpa), and demand forecasting systems. the context is relevant due to the increasing demand for supply chain resilience, cost efficiency, and agility in a rapidly evolving business environment. participants as this study relies exclusively on secondary data, there are no direct participants. instead, the “participants” in the broader sense refer to the entities and organizations featured in the analyzed studies and reports. these include global corporations, logistics providers, technology vendors, and research institutions whose documented experiences and findings form the basis of this analysis. data sources and instruments data for this research is collected from credible secondary sources, including: peer-reviewed academic journals and conference proceedings. industry white papers and technical reports. case studies from reputable business and technology publications. government and ngo reports on ai adoption in supply chains. books and reference materials in supply chain management and ai applications. searches were conducted using databases such as google scholar, cengage learning au, sciencedirect, researchgate, and pubmed, with keywords including “ai in supply chain optimization,” “machine learning logistics,” “predictive analytics supply chain,” and “automation in supply chain management.” bias of the research as a current student at atlantis university, i recognize that my perspective may introduce some bias into the research. my academic background and experiences may lead me to focus more on theoretical concepts, academic priorities, and analytical approaches familiar within the university environment. so, this might mean that my interpretation leans toward the learning and research needs of the academic setting rather than the full range of challenges faced by supply chain professionals in realworld industries. for minimizing this bias, i have made a strong effort to base my analysis on a wide range of credible secondary sources, including peer-reviewed articles, industry reports, and practical case studies, so that my conclusions reflect both academic rigor and practical relevance. data analysis the data analysis process involves thematic analysis to identify recurring concepts, challenges, and outcomes across the literature. steps include: data extraction – selecting relevant findings and case evidence from each source. categorization – grouping data into thematic categories such as demand forecasting, inventory management, route optimization, warehouse automation, and risk mitigation. comparative analysis – comparing findings across industries to identify patterns and variations in ai adoption. synthesis – integrating insights into a cohesive narrative highlighting ai’s potential and limitations in supply chain optimization. besides that, the thematic effect ensures that insights are grounded in evidence while allowing flexibility to incorporate emerging ideas and technologies discussed in the literature. ethical considerations since this study depends on exclusively on publicly available secondary data, the ethical risks are minimal compared to primary data collection involving human participants. nevertheless, strict adherence to ethical research standards is maintained throughout the process. all data sources, including peer reviewed journal articles, reports, and reputable online publications, are carefully evaluated for credibility and authenticity before inclusion. proper attribution is ensured by following the apa citation guidelines to acknowledge the intellectual property of original authors and avoid plagiarism. rather than, the research refrains from using any confidential, proprietary, or sensitive information without explicit permission from the data owner. where datasets include information that could indirectly identify individuals or organizations, measures are taken to anonymize or generalize such content. results and discussion this section shows aggregated findings from peerreviewed studies on the impact of artificial intelligence (ai) on supply chain management. as this research has no primary data, results are synthesized from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive view of ai-driven improvements in key performance indicators (kpis). kpi improvements table 1: key performance indicator improvements with ai implementation kpi before ai after ai % improvement sources forecast accuracy 67–70% 89–92% +21–25% alomar (2022); wong et al. (2024); abaku et al. (2024); khoa et al. (2024) inventory turnover 4–5 / year 5–6 / year +15–22% fosso wamba et al. (2022); helo & hao (2022); grover (2025) pa ge 12 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 cost reduction — — 10–20% hasan et al. (2024); shamsuddoha et al. (2025); eyo-udo (2024); khan & jalal (2023) delivery time 10–15 days 7–12 days –15–25% thuraka (2021); vaka (2024); attah et al. (2024); fatorachian (2024) on-time delivery 80–85% 95–98% +10–18% attah et al. (2024); goswami et al. (2025); kumari et al. (2023) stock-out reduction — — 15–30% fosso wamba et al. (2022); dey et al. (2024) customer satisfaction — — +18–22% anwar et al. (2023); rodriguez et al. (2025); goswami et al. (2025) note: values represent aggregated findings from multiple peer-reviewed studies and case reports figure 1: aggregated kpi improvements with ai figure 2: in pie chart, kpi improvement in ai pa ge 12 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 figure 3: ai application situation figure 4: kpi improvements in line chart evidence from case studies and industry applications while kpi data gets general improvements, case studies and applied research provide more detailed insights into ai’s role in enhancing supply chains. exploratory case study in operations management ai integration in manufacturing supply chains improved planning accuracy, shortened cycle times, and optimized production scheduling, ultimately leading to a 15–20% increase in overall operational efficiency. this data is collected from helo and hao (2022) farm-to-consumer supply chains ai-driven logistics optimization reduced farm-toretail transit times by 30%, directly improving product freshness and lowering waste (anwar et al., 2023). smes in vietnam ai-enabled risk detection tools improved resilience scores by 27%, helping firms sustain operations during external disruptions (dey et al., 2024). quick service restaurants (qsrs) ai-based order scheduling reduced preparation times by 18%, raising operational efficiency and customer satisfaction (rodriguez et al., 2025). logistics networks reinforcement learning algorithms applied to route planning reduced delivery times by 20–25% and fuel consumption by 12–15% (kalusivalingam et al., 2020; fatorachian, 2024). pa ge 13 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 insurance and risk management eling et al. (2022) highlighted how artificial intelligence tools are enhancing insurability of risks, with applications in predicting disruptions, assessing supplier risk, and ensuring greater supply chain continuity. thematic insights from literature beyond numeric kpi improvements, several recurring themes emerge from the literature: operational efficiency and visibility ai improves end-to-end supply chain visibility through real-time analytics and predictive planning (jones, 2025; kumari et al., 2023). neural networks and machine learning algorithms help reduce forecasting errors and optimize production scheduling (kalusivalingam et al., 2020; khoa et al., 2024). resilience and risk management predictive ai applications enable firms to anticipate disruptions and respond proactively, reducing vulnerability to external shocks (abaku et al., 2024; eling et al., 2022). case studies show resilience gains of 20–27% for smes and multinational enterprises. this is a great impact in business. cost optimization ai-enabled automation, route optimization, and predictive maintenance result in 10–20% operational cost reductions (hasan et al., 2024; khan & jalal, 2023). customer-centric outcomes enhanced on-time delivery, personalized order fulfillment, and reduced stock-outs translate into customer satisfaction increases of up to 22% (goswami et al., 2025; rodriguez et al., 2025). discussion the findings of this study describes that artificial intelligence (ai) has become a central driver in supply chain optimization, contributing to efficiency, resilience, and sustainability across industries. similar with abaku et al. (2024), artificial intelligence acts as a transformative pathway, allowing organizations to enhance decisionmaking through predictive analytics, automation, and intelligent forecasting. as per example, machine learning algorithms support dynamic demand forecasting, while reinforcement learning enables adaptive route optimization (kalusivalingam et al., 2020). these results reinforce earlier literature that positions artificial intelligence as not only a technological innovation but also a strategic enabler of business competitiveness (fosso wamba et al., 2022). on the other hand, a key discussion point is the versatility of artificial intelligence across sectors and regions. helo and hao (2022) highlight how exploratory case studies demonstrate significant operational improvements when artificial intelligence is integrated into supply chain processes. similarly, mwangi (2024) emphasizes the role of artificial intelligence in addressing context-specific challenges in kenya, including inventory mismanagement and transportation inefficiencies. this suggests that while artificial intelligence applications are global, successful outcomes depend heavily on localized implementation. sustainability emerged as another prominent theme. naz et al. (2022) and ojadi et al. (2024) show that aidriven supply chains are not only more efficient but also more environmentally responsible. through emission monitoring, energy optimization, and waste reduction, artificial intelligence contributes directly to sustainable practices. this aligns with the broader industry shift towards green supply chain management, where firms balance profitability with environmental responsibility. besides that, challenges remain. nozari et al. (2022) caution that the integration of aiot into supply chains faces risks such as data privacy, cybersecurity, and high implementation costs. similarly, goswami et al. (2025) note that talent shortages and organizational resistance often slow artificial intelligence adoption. so, while the benefits are well-documented, firms must also prepare for structural, cultural, and technological barriers when transitioning to artificial intelligence -enabled supply chains. in a nutshell, the discussion extends to sector-specific implications. rodriguez, reambonanza, and palallos (2025) illustrate how artificial intelligence -driven optimization improves service quality in quick-service restaurants, whereas onukwulu et al. (2023) propose frameworks for energy sector supply chains. these cases underscore the adaptability of ai applications while also highlighting the need for sector-tailored strategies. analysis & interpretation the results indicate that artificial intelligence adoption in supply chain management consistently delivers significant performance gains across industries. forecasting accuracy and decision-making the results illustrated that artificial intelligence -based predictive analytics and machine learning models improve forecasting accuracy by 21–25% (alomar, 2022; wong et al., 2024; abaku et al., 2024). this improvement allows firms to optimize production schedules and reduce inventory costs. kalusivalingam et al. (2020) described that reinforcement learning, and neural network models enhance predictive accuracy by continuously learning from historical and real-time data. interpretation these findings indicate that artificial intelligence transforms supply chain decision-making from reactive to proactive, enabling managers to anticipate demand fluctuations and allocate resources efficiently. forecasting improvements are particularly important in industries with perishable goods, such as food supply chains, where timely predictions reduce waste and enhance customer satisfaction (anwar et al., 2023; rodriguez et al., 2025). pa ge 13 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 operational efficiency and logistics performance the results stated that artificial intelligence integration increases inventory turnover by 15–22% and reduces delivery times by 15–25% (fosso wamba et al., 2022; helo & hao, 2022; thuraka, 2021; vaka, 2024). artificial intelligence algorithms for route optimization, warehouse automation, and real-time monitoring illustrated that firms could streamline operations while minimizing resource utilization. interpretation operational efficiency gains show that artificial intelligence is a practical tool for cost reduction and responsiveness. firms adopting artificial intelligence can adjust production and distribution schedules dynamically, reducing stockouts and ensuring faster delivery. as mwangi (2024) described that localized artificial intelligence solutions are particularly effective in emerging markets with infrastructure and resource constraints. cost reduction and resource optimization hasan et al. (2024) and shamsuddoha et al. (2025) narrated that artificial intelligence adoption reduces operational costs by 10–20% through automated order processing, optimized logistics, and intelligent resource allocation. similarly, khan & jalal (2023) stated that artificial intelligence driven supply chain planning prevents overproduction and minimizes inventory holding costs. interpretation cost optimization is a major driver for artificial intelligence adoption. firms that implement artificial intelligence can achieve both operational efficiency and financial savings. combining artificial intelligence with sustainability goals can reduce waste and environmental costs (ojadi et al., 2024; naz et al., 2022). resilience and risk management predictive artificial intelligence systems illustrated that early detection of disruptions such as supplier delays, natural disasters, or market fluctuations enhances supply chain resilience (dey et al., 2024; eling et al., 2022). smes using artificial intelligence tools reported resilience improvements of up to 27%, demonstrating the strategic value of ai in risk mitigation. interpretation the ability to anticipate and respond to disruptions is increasingly critical in today’s volatile business environment. artificial intelligence enables firms to create flexible and adaptive supply networks, improving both continuity and competitiveness. artificial intelligence also supports insurance and risk assessment in supply chains, enhancing the insurability of high-risk operations (eling et al., 2022). customer-centric outcomes customer satisfaction increased by 18–22% due to faster delivery, higher order accuracy, and reduced stockouts (anwar et al., 2023; rodriguez et al., 2025; goswami et al., 2025). artificial intelligence applications in demand prediction, inventory monitoring, and personalized services described that customers experience higher reliability and service quality. interpretation artificial intelligence not only benefits internal operations but also strengthens market positioning by enhancing customer trust and loyalty. industries such as quick-service restaurants, fmcg, and e-commerce particularly benefit from artificial intelligence -enabled personalization and timely delivery. cross-industry observations artificial intelligence applications vary by sector, but all demonstrate measurable improvements in efficiency, resilience, and sustainability (onukwulu et al., 2023; olufemi-phillips et al., 2020). data quality, integration complexity, and cost remain the main barriers to artificial intelligence implementation (fosso wamba et al., 2022; nozari et al., 2022). artificial intelligence adoption aligns with strategic goals in operational excellence, customer satisfaction, and environmental sustainability (naz et al., 2022; ojadi et al., 2024). recommendations based on the results and discussion, the following recommendations are proposed for businesses, policymakers, and researchers: strategic ai adoption roadmaps organizations should adopt phased implementation strategies for artificial intelligence in supply chains. as khan and jalal (2023) suggest, integrating artificial intelligence gradually alongside existing digital technologies reduces resistance and allows firms to test scalability before full deployment. investment in data infrastructure and security given the data-intensive nature of artificial intelligence, businesses must strengthen data governance, cybersecurity, and interoperability frameworks (nozari et al., 2022). a robust digital infrastructure ensures accurate forecasting, reliable automation, and protection from cyber risks. sector-specific ai solutions industries should not adopt a “one-size-fits-all” approach. quick-service restaurants, logistics firms, energy providers, and fmcg companies face different operational challenges (rodriguez et al., 2025; olufemi-phillips et al., 2020). customized artificial intelligence models aligned with sectoral needs will deliver greater impact. sustainability integration to align with global environmental goals, firms should leverage artificial intelligence for sustainability initiatives pa ge 13 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 123-134, 2025 such as emission reduction, energy-efficient logistics, and waste management (naz et al., 2022; ojadi et al., 2024). governments can incentivize these practices through subsidies or tax benefits. capacity building and workforce training artificial intelligence adoption requires skilled personnel. organizations should invest in training programs, upskilling, and cross-functional learning to address talent gaps (goswami et al., 2025). partnerships with universities and research institutions can facilitate knowledge transfer. policy and regulatory support policymakers should create artificial intelligence -friendly regulations that balance innovation with ethical considerations, particularly regarding data use, privacy, and transparency (eling et al., 2022). clear guidelines can encourage responsible artificial intelligence adoption across industries. future research and implications this study highlights the transformative potential of artificial intelligence in supply chain management, but it also reveals areas where further research is needed. future studies should incorporate primary data collection through surveys, interviews, or field experiments to better understand the root causes of inefficiencies in traditional supply chains. direct investigation will enable researchers to capture context-specific operational challenges that secondary sources may overlook. future research can also explore practical artificial intelligence implementation strategies, particularly how small and mid-sized enterprises (smes) can overcome barriers such as limited resources, lack of technical expertise, and infrastructure constraints. experimental studies or pilot programs could measure the realworld impact of artificial intelligence on supply chain performance, including forecasting accuracy, inventory turnover, delivery efficiency, and customer satisfaction. besides that, more research is needed to identify the most impactful artificial intelligence applications across different supply chain components. comparative studies between industries, regions, or organizational sizes could provide insights into which artificial intelligence technologies are most effective for specific operational needs, such as demand prediction, route optimization, or inventory management. from an implication’s perspective, this research suggests that organizations should prioritize data quality, invest in workforce training, and adopt a phased approach to artificial intelligence integration to maximize benefits. policymakers and industry associations can facilitate artificial intelligence adoption by providing guidelines, technical support, and frameworks for ethical, sustainable, and secure artificial intelligence practices in supply chains. overall, the study indicates that artificial intelligence -driven supply chain optimization offers substantial operational and strategic advantages, but its effectiveness depends on tailored implementation, continuous monitoring, and alignment with organizational goals. future research that addresses these areas will further strengthen the understanding of artificial intelligence’s role in enhancing efficiency, resilience, and customercentric outcomes in modern supply chains. conclusion the application of artificial intelligence into supply chain management describes a pivotal shift in how businesses plan, execute, and respond to dynamic market conditions. the reviewed literature states that artificial intelligence is no longer a futuristic concept but a practical tool driving innovation in logistics, procurement, production, and distribution. on the other hand, theoretical models grounded in analytics and decision sciences have laid the foundation for hybrid solutions capable of managing supply chain complexity. from predictive demand forecasting to smart warehouse operations, artificial intelligence has proven effective across industries and geographies. besides that, the path to full-scale adoption is challenged by high implementation costs, lack of skilled professionals, and data integration issues, particularly for small and mid-sized enterprises. so, while sustainability is gaining attention, artificial intelligence’s role in promoting green logistics remains underutilized. introducing these gaps through accessible technologies, inclusive policy frameworks, and sustainable innovation will be critical. from the point of view, organizations must invest in workforce up skilling and foster cross-functional collaboration to maximize the benefits of artificial intelligence -driven solutions. for this collaboration between academia, industry, and policymakers can accelerate artificial intelligence adoption while ensuring ethical, secure, and equitable implementation. as a result, the future of supply chain management will likely depend on artificial intelligence’s ability to integrate with emerging technologies such as block chain and quantum computing, further enhancing transparency, speed, and resilience. as artificial intelligence continues to evolve, its potential to revolutionize global supply chains depends on overcoming these barriers and aligning technology with strategic, economic, and environmental goals. references adeniran, i. a., efunniyi, c. p., osundare, o. s., & abhulimen, a. o. 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(2025). optimizing supply chain efficiency using ai-driven predictive analytics in logistics. international journal of scientific research in computer science engineering and information technology, 11(2), 1212-1220. pa ge 1 pa ge 43 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) knowledge, trust, and resilience: factors shaping climate adaptation in zanzibar’s agricultural sector mohamed khalfan mohamed1* volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.5300 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: may 25, 2025 accepted: june 30, 2025 published: september 13, 2025 communities that depend on agriculture are seriously threatened by climate change, especially smallholder farmers in low-income countries like zanzibar. this study examines how farmers in unguja island’s central district view climate variability and change, what influences their views, and how climate-smart agriculture (csa) methods are being adopted. data were gathered from 396 households in five villages using a mixed-methods approach that included key informant interviews, focus groups, and structured surveys. the majority of farmers reported higher temperatures, less consistent and variable rainfall, and shorter growing seasons, according to statistical analyses using logistic regression and descriptive methods. these factors all contributed to decreased crop yields and increased food insecurity. education level, farming experience, access to extension services, climate information, and participation in csa training all had a significant impact on how people perceived climate change. adoption of csa practices is still uneven despite widespread awareness, with high adoption of pest management and irrigation techniques but low engagement in crop diversification and planting calendar adjustments. these findings underscore the urgent need for evidence-based, locally-based policies that improve access to climate information, strengthen institutional support, and encourage inclusive csa strategies to increase the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers in zanzibar and similar contexts. keywords adaptation, agricultural resilience, climate change, climate-smart agriculture, logistic regression, smallholder farmers, zanzibar 1 abdulrahman al-sumait university, zanzibar, tanzania * corresponding author’s e-mail: mohamed.khalfan76@gmail.com introduction climate change continues to pose a huge worldwide hazard, harming human well-being, economic activity, health systems, livelihoods, and food supply (dhimalet al., 2021). although its detrimental consequences are observed worldwide, developing nations, particularly smallholder farmers living in poverty, are disproportionately affected due to their low capacity to adapt (hernández-delgado, 2015). in many nations across sub-saharan africa (ssa), agriculture is prioritized as a strategy to secure accessible and sufficient food supply, given its essential role in achieving food security. however, agriculture is still quite vulnerable to short-term and long-term climate changes. regretfully, many emerging regions still lack the necessary and robust steps to strengthen this vital sector (rashid, 2019). therefore, neglecting to address climatic variability and change could result in severe food insecurity, with developing countries likely to experience the worst effects (rashid, 2019). for instance, a 1.5°c increase in temperature is predicted to exacerbate climate-related risks to human safety, livelihoods, food availability, water resources, public health, and economic growth in many low-income nations (colombini et al., 2023). due to their heavy reliance on rain-fed crops, smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. widespread poverty, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of technical improvements all contribute to their vulnerability (mbuli et al., 2021). due in large part to tanzania’s extreme sensitivity to variations in rainfall, the effects of climate change have presented significant risks to the country’s economy and food security (gwambene & mung’ong’o, 2023). the agricultural industry, which is still essential to tanzania’s economic growth, has been hampered by these climate changes (kahimba et al., 2015). with 65–70% of the workforce employed in the agricultural sector (gupta, 2020) and a gdp contribution of roughly 26–30% (epaphra & mwakalasya, 2017), the industry is extremely sensitive to the effects of climate change (mafie, 2022). since most farming is rain-fed, crop yields, food security, and rural livelihoods are directly threatened by altered rainfall patterns, protracted droughts, and extreme weather events (mafie, 2022). the production of important export products, including coffee, cotton, tobacco, cashew nuts, and cloves, which contribute between 30 and 40 percent of the nation’s foreign exchange earnings, is similarly impacted by climate change (epaphra & mwakalasya, 2017). the agricultural sector is especially vulnerable due to its reliance on natural weather cycles, which presents threats to national development, economic stability, and poverty alleviation (gwambene et al., 2023). tanzania’s agricultural production and food systems must be protected in the face of climate change by bolstering climate-resilient farming methods, increasing irrigation, and investing in early warning systems and climate-smart agriculture (komba & muchapondwa, 2018). through adaptive strategies, the agriculture sector has a great deal of potential to improve resilience and mitigate the effects of climate change (liu et al., 2024). despite pa ge 44 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 being essential to the production of food, the industry contributes significantly to deforestation, which is thought to be the cause of 7–14% of world greenhouse gas emissions, and is also accountable for about 3.7% of global ghg emissions (filonchyk et al., 2024). however, the industry is extremely vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change, which will especially affect low-income and smallholder farmers who frequently lack the means and ability to adequately respond to climatic shocks (praveen & sharma, 2019). food instability and worldwide poverty are made worse by this susceptibility (mulugeta, 2023). therefore, tackling environmental and socioeconomic issues globally requires a dual strategy that reduces agricultural emissions while employing adaptive measures to maintain crop production (jellason, 2018). in many places, ecosystems, economic livelihoods, and agricultural output have all suffered as a result of climate change (praveen & sharma, 2019). the viability of food production and subsistence methods is seriously threatened by these changes, especially in vulnerable african populations like those in tanzania (sieber et al., 2015). to lessen these negative effects, local farmers’ ability to adapt to climate unpredictability must be strengthened. this entails putting policies into place that address the root causes of climate change and lessen the vulnerability of crops and subsistence systems to climatic stresses (bedeke, 2023). communities’ level of adaptation and readiness for climate change is directly related to how vulnerable they are. smallholder farmers in sub-saharan africa (ssa) account for around 80% of all agricultural activities and represent the backbone of the food systems in the region (bahri et al., 2021). even though they have shown remarkable resilience, the speed at which climate change is occurring poses a threat to surpass their present coping mechanisms. these farming systems’ susceptibility is further increased by a lack of institutional support, poor market connections, limited financial resources, and limited access to technology (petersen-rockney et al., 2021). the preservation of vital natural resources and the upkeep of important ecosystem services are necessary to guarantee food security while tackling the problems caused by climate change (telo da gama, 2023). it is imperative that we move toward more sustainable farming methods, methods that encourage the efficient use of resources while also increasing productivity. by making this change, agricultural outputs become more stable, yield variations are reduced, and resilience to environmental hazards, shocks, and persistent climate variability is strengthened. one of the most effective frameworks for accomplishing these objectives is climate-smart agriculture (csa) (karri & nalluri, 2024). by concurrently increasing output, improving adaptive capacity, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions that fuel climate change, it provides a “triple win” (islam, 2024; guillen-hanson et al., 2018). climate-smart agriculture (csa) is a progressive agricultural approach that aims to maximise benefits while minimising trade-offs by considering the unique social, economic, and environmental conditions of each application context. it is intended to improve subsistence farming and food security, with a focus on supporting smallholder farmers (amejo et al., 2018). its effectiveness can be greatly increased through the adoption of appropriate technologies and practices across the agricultural value chain—including production, processing, and market access—as well as the sustainable management of natural resources. according to rodríguez-barillas et al. (2024), farmers’ willingness to adopt csa practices is influenced by their perception of climate-related risks, and it is generally the case that those who perceive greater climatic threats are more likely to implement csa measures. a variety of factors, such as socio-economic status, geographic and environmental conditions, institutional support, and farm-level characteristics, influence the choice of specific csa strategies (thottadi & singh, 2024). smallholder farmers are the primary drivers of the agricultural industry in zanzibar island’s central district, making significant contributions to both local food security and economic stability. despite playing a crucial role, little empirical research has been done on how farmers view climate variability and change, two aspects that have a significant impact on the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (csa) techniques for resilience and adaptation. this knowledge gap makes it more difficult to develop evidence-based policies, make calculated investments, and carry out locally customised interventions that would increase the farming community’s capacity for adaptation. in light of this, the purpose of this study is to methodically investigate farmers’ awareness, attitudes, and reactions to stresses associated with climate change in the central district. it is anticipated that the results would produce empirical insights that will help establish institutional policies, improve extension services, and pinpoint scalable csa approaches appropriate for zanzibar’s agro-ecological circumstances and similar settings. materials and methods study area the central district (wilaya ya kati) is one of six districts on unguja island in the united republic of tanzania’s zanzibar archipelago (figure 1). approximately between latitudes 6°13′ and 6°25′ south and longitudes 39°20′ and 39°35′ east, the district is situated in the central-eastern region of unguja island. it shares boundaries with the west district to the west, south district to the south, the north a district to the north, and the indian ocean to the east. the district comprises several shehias (wards) that serve as units for administrative, developmental, and statistical purposes. the district experiences a tropical climate characterized by two rainy seasons: the long rains (masika) from march to may and the short rains (vuli) from october to december. mean annual rainfall ranges between 1,000 mm and 1,600 mm, with pa ge 45 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 average temperatures hovering between 24°c and 32°c throughout the year (rgoz, 2013). however, recent years have witnessed a noticeable increase in climate variability and extreme weather events, including irregular rainfall patterns, prolonged dry spells, and occasional flash floods (urt, 2022). the majority of the population in the central district depends on subsistence agriculture as their primary livelihood. rice, bananas, sweet potatoes, cassava, and spices like black pepper, cinnamon, and cloves are examples of common crops (urt, 2022). these farming systems are extremely susceptible to drought and unpredictable rainfall because they are mostly rainfed and have little irrigation infrastructure. petty trading, small-scale fishing, and subsistence animal rearing are ways that smallholder farmers augment their incomes. ecologically vulnerable regions, including as portions of the jozani-chwaka bay national park, which is home to zanzibar’s only surviving natural forest, are also located in the central district. in addition to having large mangrove forests and wetlands that help store carbon, protect the shoreline, and conserve biodiversity, this region is home to a variety of endemic and endangered species, such as the zanzibar red colobus monkey (piliocolobus kirkii) (rgoz, 2014). figure 1: study area sampling techniques and data collection to guarantee a representative selection of the target household population throughout the study area, a stratified multi-stage random sampling approach was used. a structured questionnaire that was rigorously pre-tested to evaluate its validity, reliability, and internal consistency served as the main tool for gathering data. to make it easier to gather both quantitative and qualitative data, the questionnaire included both openended and dichotomous items. prior to the primary data collection effort, a pre-testing phase was carried out on a pilot group of farmers in the study location in order to find and address ambiguities and improve contextual relevance. three focus group discussions (fgds) were arranged in easily accessible locations inside each chosen ward in order to supplement the survey data and improve triangulation. eleven people participated in each fgd. key community stakeholders that were chosen for the fgds based on their familiarity with locality agricultural practices and institutional dynamics included religious leaders, village elders, and members from women’s and youth associations. semi-structured key informant interviews (kiis) were carried out with 32 employees from pertinent governmental and non-governmental organisations in order to gather institutional viewpoints and enhance comprehension of adaptive techniques advocated to assist local farmers. these included academicians from zanzibar’s higher education institutions as well as representatives from the tanzania meteorological authority, the ministry of agriculture, and the zanzibar agriculture research institute. using cochran’s sample size determination formula (heinisch & cochran, 1965), 396 households were selected from five villages in the central district (chwaka, binguni, fuoni, mwera, and bambi). this allowed for proportionate distribution among the three wards in accordance with population distribution data. in order to optimise data timeliness and relevance, the research’s empirical phase was conducted over two months, from february to march 2025, which corresponded with the main agricultural season. data analysis ibm spss statistics software (version 23), which is well known for its resilience when working with social science datasets, was used to do quantitative data analysis (bala, 2016). the main variables of interest were summed up using descriptive statistical methods, such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations. these included the respondents’ socioeconomic characteristics (e.g., age, household size, income sources, and education level), institutional factors (e.g., membership in pa ge 46 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 agricultural cooperatives or access to extension services), farmers’ perspectives on climate change and variability, and the particular climate-smart agriculture (csa) practices implemented. a logistic regression model was used to investigate the underlying elements impacting farmers’ views of climate change. the likelihood that a farmer would perceive climate change in general, an increase in temperature, or a decrease in rainfall—each represented as a separate dependent (dummy) variable— was estimated using this model, which is appropriate for analysing binary (yes/no) outcomes (song et al., 2021). a variety of demographic, social, and institutional elements that were thought to influence people’s perceptions were included as independent variables in the model. to find out how farmers who used csa techniques differed from those who did not, comparative analyses were conducted. for these comparisons, a number of inferential statistical tests were used. while the chi-square (χ²) test evaluated relationships between categorical variables, the analysis of variance (anova) and the f-test were utilised to compare means across groups. mean comparison tests shed more light on the factors that influence csa adoption by elucidating statistically significant variations in important variables between adopter and non-adopter groups. the cronbach’s alpha test, a statistical indicator of internal consistency, was used to evaluate the questionnaire’s reliability. the questionnaire items showed adequate internal coherence and were probably assessing the intended constructs reliably across the sample, as evidenced by the cronbach’s alpha value of 0.730, which is higher than the generally accepted threshold of 0.70. ethical considerations ensuring that every participant understood the goal and nature of the study was crucial before starting the data gathering procedure. in order to do this, each respondent gave their informed consent. this required giving thorough and understandable explanations of the study’s goals, the kinds of data that would be gathered, and the intended uses of the data. respondents were given the opportunity to ask questions and were guaranteed the freedom to choose to participate in the study at any time without facing any repercussions. the study’s participants’ rights to confidentiality and privacy were protected throughout the consent process, which was conducted in accordance with ethical research norms. the data was collected only after their express agreement was obtained. results and discussion results socioeconomic and demographic profiles of smallholder farmers according to the demographic profile of the populations of chwaka, binguni, fuoni, mwera, and bambi, the majority of the population is muslim, with percentages averaging 98.8% and ranging from 97.3% in mwera to 100% in binguni (table 1). in comparison, the percentage of christians is rather low, averaging around 1.2%. the proportion of genders is fairly balanced, with 50.7% of the population being female and 49.3% being male. a population of seasoned farmers is shown by the age distribution, with the largest percentage of people in the 50–59 age range (average 54.2%) and a significant presence in the 40–49 age range (30.8%). although still present, the 60+ age group makes up only 15% of the population, with bambi having the lowest number (5.8%). data on marital status reveals a low divorce rate (4.5%) and a moderate percentage of widowed people (4.8%), together with high marriage rates (90.7% on average). additionally, research shows that only 3.6% of people have finished higher education, indicating inadequate access to university education. with an average of 54.0%, secondary education is more prevalent, especially in binguni (70.5%). with an average of 42.4%, primary education is the most common educational level, with chwaka having the largest percentage (56.4%). according to household size data, the majority of households (59.6% on average) are between six and ten people, with chwaka having the largest households (70.3%). with an average of 25.5%, households with one to five people are less prevalent than those with ten or more people, which make up 15% of the population. these results imply that the population is made up of a well-established group of seasoned farmers who have larger families and comparatively little formal education beyond secondary school. table 1: socioeconomic and demographic variables of participants in the study areas variable sub-category chwaka (%) binguni (%) fuoni (%) mwera (%) bambi (%) average (%) religion muslims 99.1 100 99.6 97.3 98.2 98.8 christians 0.9 0 0.4 2.7 1.8 1.2 gender male 48.4 49.8 47.5 46.7 54.2 49.3 female 51.6 50.2 52.5 53.3 45.8 50.7 age 40–49 22.3 34.5 33.2 38.4 25.5 30.8 50–59 56.3 50.6 52.2 43.2 68.7 54.2 60+ 21.4 14.9 14.6 18.4 5.8 15.0 marital status married 90.2 83.5 94.3 92.4 93.3 90.7 widowed 8.2 5.4 1.1 4.2 5.1 4.8 divorced 1.6 11.1 4.6 3.4 1.6 4.5 pa ge 47 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 agricultural access and support indicators of smallholder farmers the study used chi-square (χ²) tests to analyse ten binary (yes/no) indicators in order to investigate spatial differences in farmers’ access to basic agricultural services across five communities: chwaka, mwera, fuoni, bambi, and binguni. there were notable variations in a number of categories (table 2). for example, farmers in fuoni and mwera reported having access to agricultural advising services at rates of 34.8% and 34.6%, respectively, whereas only 24.1% and 19.7% of farmers in chwaka and binguni, respectively, reported having such services. at the 1% level, significance was shown by the comparable χ² value of 16.8. the biggest difference was also shown in access to extension officer visits, with only 2.8% of farmers in chwaka reporting visits, compared to 31.0% in fuoni and 29.1% in mwera. this indicator showed a very unequal distribution of public extension services with a χ² value of 35.2, which was also significant at the 1% level. some services did not exhibit considerable spatial variation and showed consistently low access across all areas. with a non-significant χ² value of 4.6, access to agricultural credit or loans was less than 20% in every community, ranging from 11.9% in binguni to 19.6% in chwaka. likewise, there was often little access to irrigation or dependable water sources; fuoni reported the highest percentage at 32.5%, while chwaka reported the lowest at 12.7% (χ² = 5.8). even fewer farmers in chwaka and mwera received early warning systems for weather-related hazards, with just 6.0% and 12.9% of farmers, respectively, receiving such information (χ2 = 2.9). these low numbers and statistically insignificant differences point to systemic impediments that may be caused by institutional flaws and inadequate infrastructure in all locations assessed. other services displayed differing levels of importance. a χ² value of 7.9, which indicates significance at the 10% level, showed that the percentage of participants in climate-smart agriculture training varied from 29.3% in bambi to 42.6% in fuoni. this points to slight regional differences in the reach of climate adaption initiatives. bambi had a higher percentage of members in farmer cooperatives or groups (35.2%) than mwera (19.4%) and chwaka (20.2%). the χ² score in this case was 10.5, which is significant at the 5% level and indicates that organisational participation may be influenced by external support or local community engagement. the percentage of binguni and fuoni that had access to inputs, including seeds, fertiliser, and tools, varied from 29.6% to 41.0%; however, the χ² value of 3.9 showed no discernible spatial variations. significant variations in market proximity were noted, despite the fact that overall market access was high, ranging from 70.5% in binguni to 87.2% in fuoni (χ² = 6.2, not significant). only 54.0% of farmers in bambi and 58.2% in binguni said that marketplaces were within tolerable travel time, compared to nearly 80% of farmers in chwaka, mwera, and fuoni. significant locational disadvantages were indicated by this indicator’s χ² value of 22.4, which was significant at the 1% level. for farmers in more remote locations, these geographic restrictions may limit their capacity to participate in markets, weaken their negotiating position, and decrease their profitability. education level tertiary 3.2 4.3 2.7 1.6 6.3 3.6 secondary 40.4 70.5 50.6 48.2 60.3 54.0 primary 56.4 25.2 46.7 50.2 33.4 42.4 household size 1–5 members 15.3 18.4 25.2 38.3 30.1 25.5 6–10 members 70.3 68.5 60.2 43.5 55.4 59.6 10+ members 14.4 13.1 14.6 18.2 14.5 15.0 table 2: spatial distribution of farmer access to agricultural services in the study areas farmer access indicators (yes/no questions) responses across wards (%) χ² valuechwaka mwera fuoni bambi binguni yes no yes no yes no yes no yes no access to advisory services 24.1 75.9 34.6 65.4 34.8 65.2 21.7 78.3 19.7 80.3 16.8 extension officer visit 2.8 97.2 29.1 70.9 31.0 69.0 25.9 74.1 18.4 81.6 35.2 access to credit/loans 19.6 80.4 17.5 82.5 16.4 83.6 13.1 86.9 11.9 88.1 4.6 climate-smart training/info 36.9 63.1 34.7 65.3 42.6 57.4 29.3 70.7 30.3 69.7 7.9 market accessibility 78.5 21.5 81.0 19.0 87.2 12.8 71.6 28.4 70.5 29.5 6.2 proximity to market 81.3 18.7 84.3 15.7 83.7 16.3 54.0 46.0 58.2 41.8 22.4 access to irrigation/water 12.7 87.3 27.8 72.2 32.5 67.5 23.6 76.4 26.1 73.9 5.8 membership in a farmer group 20.2 79.8 19.4 80.6 21.6 78.4 35.2 64.8 21.8 78.2 10.5 access to inputs 34.6 65.4 38.2 61.8 41.0 59.0 31.8 68.2 29.6 70.4 3.9 weather early warning access 6.0 94.0 12.9 87.1 11.4 88.6 9.5 90.5 8.3 91.7 2.9 note: χ² ≥ 13.28 → significant at 1%, χ² ≥ 9.49 → significant at 5%, χ² ≥ 7.78 → significant at 10%, χ² < 7.78 → not significant pa ge 48 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 perceptions of climate variability and change among smallholder farmers small-scale farmers from five zanzibari villages— chwaka, mwera, fuoni, bambi, and binguni—perceive climate change indicators and their effects on agricultural practices and productivity, according to the data given (figure 2). in order to find indications of climatic changes, farmers compared the weather patterns of today to those of 20 to 30 years ago using local indicators that could be observed. perceived decreases in total rainfall amounts were indicated by a large percentage of respondents in all five wards, with fuoni (75.6%) and chwaka (70.4%) expressing the greatest worry. while bambi (45.2%) and binguni (52.5%) indicated lesser perceptions, chwaka (80.1%) and fuoni (78.4%) reported the most prevalent perceptions of the delayed commencement of the rainy season. traditional planting calendars are upset by these delays, which frequently result in inconsistencies between crop growth phases and water availability. many people also thought that the rainy season ended early and that the amount of rainfall was shorter, particularly in chwaka (65.5% and 85.9%, respectively) and fuoni (60.7% and 82.2%). according to these impressions, farmers are having shorter growing seasons, which can impede crop growth and lower yields. one of the most strongly perceived indicators, especially in binguni (94.2%), mwera (88.1%), and bambi (86.8%), was the increased frequency of dry periods during the wet season. since sporadic dry spells harm crops and reduce soil moisture, this unpredictable intra-seasonal rainfall variability probably presents one of the biggest obstacles to maintaining consistent agricultural production. more than half of respondents reported more intense rainfall episodes in most wards, with mwera (65.0%) reporting the greatest, despite a comparatively lesser percentage perceiving such incidents. this points to a trend towards more intense and erratic precipitation, which can exacerbate soil erosion and flooding. at the same period, farmers noticed higher average daytime and nighttime temperatures, especially in chwaka (85.2% and 78.4%) and fuoni (88.3% and 80.2%). farmers have observed an increase in the frequency of floods and droughts, which reflects the dual nature of climate extremes: both excess and scarcity of water are becoming more prevalent. mwera (72.4%) and fuoni (75.0%) showed the most evidence of this. the biggest percentage of respondents expressed significant concern about the perceived changes in planting and harvesting dates brought on by weather variability in binguni (62.0% planting; 49.1% harvesting). although the degree of adaptation may be constrained by information or resource availability, these developments show that farmers are modifying their agronomic calendars in response to changing meteorological conditions. changes in climate patterns were blamed by respondents for lower crop yields, particularly in chwaka (72.6%) and fuoni (70.7%). food security is at risk due to the combined effects of the previously stated climatic indicators, which work together to produce unfavourable growth conditions. figure 2: smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate variability in agriculture determinants shaping smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate variability and change important information about the variables affecting smallholder farmers’ views of climate variability and change in zanzibar is revealed by the regression analysis. the results show that farmers’ awareness and interpretation of climatic dynamics are significantly shaped by a variety of sociodemographic, institutional, informational, and cognitive factors (table 3). the findings indicate that education level is a significant driver of whether or not people perceive that the climate has changed. higher educated farmers were substantially more likely to believe that climate change is happening (odds ratio = 1.82, 95% ci: [1.10, 3.01]). furthermore, pa ge 49 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 this perception was positively impacted by years of farming experience (or = 1.07), indicating that farmers who have been involved in agricultural operations for a longer period of time are better able to detect subtle changes in the climate. institutional backing is also very important. climate change was more likely to be reported by farmers who had access to extension services (or = 2.13), received climate information (or = 3.45), or participated in climate-related workshops (or = 2.50). furthermore, the likelihood of recognising climate change was considerably raised by dependence on traditional knowledge systems (or = 2.01), membership in farmer cooperatives (or = 1.90), and strong trust in the accuracy of climatic information (or = 1.85). education continues to be a major influence in perceptions of decreased rainfall (or = 1.76), demonstrating the ongoing significance of formal education in understanding climate change. this view was also impacted by farm size (or = 1.58), indicating that farmers overseeing larger plots might be more aware of and subject to variations in rainfall. significantly, there was a negative correlation (or = 0.52) between livelihood diversification and rainfall, suggesting that farmers who have several sources of income may be less reliant on rain-fed agriculture and, thus, less sensitive to variations in rainfall. perceiving a decrease in rainfall was also strongly influenced by information-related factors, including participation in workshops (or = 2.12), access to extension services (or = 1.92), and availability of climatic information (or = 2.98). furthermore, radio transmission of climate information (or = 1.81) was found to be a significant influence, highlighting the role of mass media in raising awareness in rural areas. education (or = 1.50) and agricultural experience (or = 1.09) were also significant when it came to experiencing extreme weather occurrences, supporting the idea that knowledgeable and experienced farmers are more likely to identify and report climatic impacts. cooperative-affiliated farmers were also more likely to report these experiences (or = 2.01), possibly as a result of peer conversations and shared learning. direct exposure to organised information significantly improves farmers’ capacity to identify and describe extreme weather events, as evidenced by the highest impacts of access to climate information (or = 3.71) and workshop participation (or = 2.88). additionally, farmers were more likely to report experiencing extreme weather if they had high trust in government climate actions (or = 1.88), and if they trusted the accuracy of climate information (or = 2.06), indicating that trust in institutions reinforces the perceived relevance of climate events. table 3: logistic regression of factors influencing smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change variables (1) climate has changed (2) rainfall decreased (3) experience with extreme weather events odds ratio 95% ci odds ratio 95% ci odds ratio 95% ci age of farmer (proxy for long-term observation) 1.04 [0.98, 1.11] 1.02 [0.95, 1.10] 1.01 [0.95, 1.09] education level (primary, secondary, tertiary) 1.82* [1.10, 3.01] 1.76* [1.02, 3.03] 1.50* [1.01, 2.45] years of farming experience 1.07* [1.01, 1.14] 1.03 [0.97, 1.10] 1.09 [1.02, 1.17] farm size (acres, log transformed) 1.2 [0.82, 1.77] 1.58* [1.05, 2.39] 1.44 [0.91, 2.27] household size 0.91 [0.71, 1.18] 1 [0.78, 1.30] 0.95 [0.75, 1.21] livelihood diversification (1 = yes) 0.68 [0.36, 1.29] 0.52* [0.28, 0.97] 0.6 [0.31, 1.17] member of farmer cooperative (1 = yes) 1.90* [1.01, 3.58] 1.45 [0.78, 2.67] 2.01* [1.02, 3.95] access to extension services (1 = yes) 2.13* [1.15, 3.94] 1.92* [1.00, 3.66] 1.88 [0.97, 3.65] access to climate information (1 = yes) 3.45* [1.92, 6.20] 2.98* [1.68, 5.30] 3.71* [2.02, 6.80] source of information: radio (1 = yes) 1.66 [0.89, 3.11] 1.81* [1.02, 3.20] 1.73 [0.93, 3.24] attended climate/environment workshops (1 = yes) 2.50* [1.40, 4.46] 2.12* [1.18, 3.83] 2.88* [1.52, 5.46] perceived reliability of climate info (1 = high trust) 1.85* [1.08, 3.18] 1.44 [0.81, 2.56] 2.06* [1.15, 3.70] trust in government climate action (1 = high) 1.42 [0.76, 2.67] 0.95 [0.50, 1.79] 1.88* [1.01, 3.50] trust in local/traditional knowledge (1 = high) 2.01* [1.10, 3.68] 1.28 [0.70, 2.35] 1.91 [0.98, 3.73] religious/cultural beliefs about nature (1 = yes) 0.72 [0.40, 1.28] 0.84 [0.48, 1.50] 0.69 [0.36, 1.31] number of observations 396 396 396 remarks: *significant at the 5% level, significant at the 10% level, and ***significant at the 1% level. the reference category for education is secondary education; for livelihood diversification, it is non-diversified; for cooperative membership, it is non-member; for extension services, it is not available; for climate information, it is not available; for information sources, it is not radio; for workshops, it is not present; for trust variables, it is low; and for religious/cultural beliefs, it is not. dependent variables are dummy variables that measure how people perceive climate change: (1) an overall shift in the climate, (2) a decrease in rainfall, and (3) exposure to extreme weather occurrences. the 95% confidence intervals (ci) for the odds ratios are provided in parenthesis. 396 observations were made. pa ge 50 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 smallholder engagement with climate-smart agriculture practices improving farmers’ ability to adapt is still essential to mitigating the negative consequences of climate change and variability. smallholder farmers’ adoption of climatesmart agricultural (csa) techniques, which seek to increase resilience and stabilise yields, is heavily influenced by their perceptions of climate-related shifts (figure 3). there is ample evidence that changing climatic circumstances are having an effect on agricultural production, since many farmers in the research reported decreasing crop yields. in particular, 82.1% of those surveyed reported fewer food crops were collected in the previous seasons. only a small percentage of farmers are unaffected or have successfully adapted, as estimated by 10.4% of farmers who reported higher yields and 7.5% who saw no discernible change. more than half of the respondents (53.8%) described their losses as moderately severe, indicating consistent but not catastrophic disruptions in food production. the quantity of losses further supports this tendency. in the meantime, 30.6% of farmers suffered extremely severe crop losses, indicating that a sizable portion of the farming population is highly vulnerable. relatively few households have been able to protect themselves from climatic stressors, since only 15.6% of them categorised their losses as not severe. focus group discussion (fgd) participants stated that tackling the effects of climate change and variability on agriculture requires enhancing farmers’ capacity for adaptation. about 81.3% of respondents reported that they had harvested fewer food crops in the most recent seasons, which they attributed to unpredictable weather and protracted dry spells. just 9.4% of responders said their yields had improved, while 9.2% said their harvests had not changed much. 52.7% of individuals classified their crop losses as somewhat serious when asked how terrible they were, indicating common but manageable difficulties. another 31.6% said their losses were very bad, which frequently led to almost complete crop failures. however, just 16.9% of participants said their losses were little or no severe, indicating that only a tiny percentage of farming households had successfully adjusted to or were less impacted by the difficulties associated with climate change. figure 3: perceived extent of food crop losses and changes in crop quantity the evaluation of zanzibari farmers’ adoption of climate smart agriculture (csa) shows a wide range in the use of these practices, indicating both positive advancements and enduring challenges in the transition to sustainable, climate-resilient agriculture (table 4). while certain csa programs have seen significant adoption among the farming community, others are still underutilised. for example, just 16.3% of respondents reported crop diversity, a crucial tactic for protecting against climaterelated shocks. this suggests that monoculture systems, which increase vulnerability to droughts, pests, and other climatic stresses, are still preferred. similarly, just 20.9% of farmers changed their planting schedules, and 22.4% used crop rotation or mixed crops, even though these strategies have been shown to be cost-effective in increasing resilience to climatic variability. on the other hand, some practices have become increasingly popular. 35.7% of farmers had adopted improved crop varieties, and 31.1% of farmers reported applying organic manure, indicating growing knowledge of the benefits of these crop varieties for climate adaptation and productivity. additionally, a number of other practices showed a moderate level of adoption: 43.9% of respondents practiced soil conservation techniques, such as mulching and terracing, indicating a growing appreciation for managing soil health; 48.0% of farmers had diversified their livelihoods, such as by farming seaweed; 41.6% reported using climate and weather data to inform farming decisions; and 56.9% of respondents adopted agroforestry, which involves integrating trees into agricultural systems, indicating a moderate level of uptake of sustainable land-use practices. a number of csa tactics showed comparatively high adoption rates. 51.0% of the farmers reported better livestock management, which included using better breeds and zero-grazing methods. perhaps in reaction to diminishing yields and changing climate conditions, a significant percentage (63.8%) had increased the area of their farmed land. pa ge 51 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 the notably high acceptance rate of 75.0% for integrated pest management (ipm) could be attributed to either reliance on traditional ecological knowledge or competent extension services. with 81.6% of farmers using irrigation or rainwater harvesting techniques, water-related solutions were particularly prevalent, highlighting the critical role that water management plays in climate adaptation. a sizable majority (88.8%) stated that they had reduced the amount of land under cultivation, which could be attributed to changing land use patterns, salinisation, or soil degradation. however, this finding might also be a reflection of more general adaptive strategies. the transition of 29.4% of farmers from crop to livestock farming was one csa practice with varying adoption rates. a lack of infrastructure to support livestockbased systems, restricted access to essential inputs, or sociocultural norms could all have an impact on this comparatively low rate. according to key informants (ki), smallholder farmers in zanzibar have different views on climate smart agriculture methods. of the farmers who responded to the survey, 14.2% believe that crop diversification is the most important strategy, followed by 11.7% who value adjusting planting timings to deal with unpredictable rains, 10.3% who prioritize crop rotation and mixed cropping to increase soil productivity, 9.6% who believe that using manure is essential, 8.4% who believe that using improved crop varieties is essential, and 7.9% who emphasize the importance of soil protection techniques. among adaptation strategies, 3.2% of ki perceive less land under cultivation, whereas only 4.3% report more; 4.8% of ki perceive integrated pest management to be practiced in the district; 5.6% believe irrigation and water harvesting to be practiced in the district; 3.6% believe farmers have switched from crop cultivation to livestock farming; 1.0% believe farmers actively use climate and weather data to inform their decisions; and 2.8% value agroforestry approaches. diversification of livelihoods accounts for 6.5% of ki, while 6.1% consider improving animal raising as a crucial adaptation. table 4: climate smart agriculture practices among smallholder farmers in zanzibar csa practice % practicing % not practicing crop diversification 16.3% 83.7% change of planting time 20.9% 79.1% crop rotation and mixed cropping 22.4% 77.6% use of manure 68.9% 31.1% change of crop varieties 64.3% 35.7% soil conservation measures 43.9% 56.1% livelihood diversification 48.0% 52.0% enhancing animal rearing practices 51.0% 49.0% increase in land under cultivation 63.8% 36.2% use of integrated pest management (ipm) 75.0% 25.0% irrigation/water harvesting 81.6% 18.4% reduction in land under cultivation (as adaptation) 88.8% 11.2% switch from crop farming to livestock 29.4% 70.6% agroforestry (e.g., planting trees with crops) 56.9% 43.1% use of weather and climate information 41.6% 58.4% discussion socioeconomic and demographic profiles of smallscale farmers the central district of zanzibar’s smallholding farmers’ ability to adjust to climate smart agriculture (csa) is significantly influenced by the demographics of the communities in chwaka, binguni, fuoni, mwera, and bambi. the majority of the population is muslim, and islam is represented almost everywhere in the region. this represents a strong cultural and theological framework that may have an impact on sustainable agriculture practices and attitudes. cultural norms, particularly religious beliefs, have a substantial impact on how communities adapt to climate change (murphy et al., 2016). in this situation, the common religious identity may encourage group efforts and communitybased projects to apply csa techniques, which frequently depend on ecological knowledge and social cohesiveness (guragain, 2024). an ageing farming population that may possess a lot of traditional knowledge but may find it difficult to accept modern technology is indicated by the age distribution of farmers, with a significant part (average of 54.2%) in the 50–59 age range. in contrast to younger generations, older farmers are generally less willing to adopt innovations and more risk-averse (dadzie et al., 2022). this is especially true for csa operations, which frequently call for farmers to implement cuttingedge methods like new pest control techniques or crop varieties that are climate resilient. however, research by wang et al. (2024) emphasises the importance of intergenerational knowledge transfer in fostering adaptive capacity, so involving both older and younger farmers in pa ge 52 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 csa programs may increase the effectiveness of these initiatives (zakaria et al., 2020). the presence of younger farmers in the 40–49 age group (averaging 30.8%) could be viewed as an opportunity to bridge the generational gap. although education is essential for adopting sustainable agricultural practices because it gives farmers the skills and knowledge to implement creative solutions, the relatively low level of formal education, 3.6% with tertiary education and 54% with secondary education, presents both a challenge and an opportunity for csa adaptation. however, the limited access to higher education may make it more difficult for farmers to engage with more technical csa practices, like precision agriculture or climate modelling (sisay et al., 2023). however, gemtou et al. (2024), who stress the need for accessible, contextspecific educational interventions in rural farming communities, suggest that secondary education, which is more common in areas like binguni (70.5%), provides a basis on which training programs could be constructed. with an average of 6–10 people (59.6%), the large household sizes have a big impact on the adoption of csa practices. the labor needed to execute labor-intensive activities, such managing soil fertility or conserving water, can be supplied by larger households (mosissa, 2019). however, the availability of resources, including capital and land, must be weighed against the labor supply. the economic sustainability of csa can also be impacted by household size, especially if resources are distributed among several family members, according to muriithi et al. (2023). large households may therefore have the workforce to implement csa, but they may also be limited in their ability to invest in csa technologies without outside assistance due to land and financial constraints. agricultural access and support indicators of smallholder f.armers significant differences were found when the spatial variations in farmers’ access to agricultural services among the five communities (chwaka, mwera, fuoni, bambi, and binguni) were analyzed. these differences were especially evident in services pertaining to agricultural advice and visits from extension officers. for example, chwaka had significantly lower outreach from extension officers (2.8%) than fuoni (31.0%) and mwera (29.1%), a difference that was corroborated by statistically significant chi-square values. these tendencies are consistent with more general patterns seen throughout sub-saharan africa, where regions with better institutional capacities and infrastructure are typically given preference when it comes to the distribution of extension services. similar results were observed by madan and maredia (2021), who emphasized that administrative and logistical limitations frequently contribute to the unequal distribution of extension staff. according to imran et al. (2024), extension programs are often restricted to more accessible locations due to a lack of funding and human resources, underserving outlying communities. on the other hand, there were no appreciable statistical disparities in the accessibility of services like early warning systems, irrigation infrastructure, and agricultural financing across all study areas. for example, credit access was still less than 20% in all communities, highlighting a pervasive issue that is not region-specific. these consistently low access levels most likely indicate flaws in the system. according to fanadzo and ncube (2018), these limitations are caused by structural problems, such as weak rural banking institutions and a lack of funding for irrigation and other agricultural infrastructure. early warning systems’ restricted reach is also a reflection of a larger lack of climate communication networks, which is becoming a more pressing problem for adaptive responses to climate variability (islam et al., 2025). there were moderate spatial disparities in a few agricultural services. climate-smart agriculture (csa) training participation was statistically significant at the 10% level and varied from 29.3% in bambi to 42.6% in fuoni. similarly, there was a wide range in farmer cooperative membership, with a high of 35.2% in bambi and a low of 20.2% in chwaka. these results are in line with those of bullock et al. (2020), who pointed out that locations where non-governmental organizations or development agencies are actively involved tend to have higher levels of participation in csa projects and farmer groups. additionally, hartmann et al. (2023) contend that institutional networks and local social capital have a major impact on program participation. although there was a reasonably modest amount of availability to basic inputs including seeds, fertilizer, and equipment (between 29.6% and 41.0%), the spatial disparities were not statistically significant, suggesting a more equal distribution or shared difficulties throughout groups. nonetheless, there were notable and statistically significant differences in the physical closeness to marketplaces (χ² = 22.4). in contrast to more over 80% in chwaka, mwera, and fuoni, farmers in bambi (54.0%) and binguni (58.2%) reported having limited access to local markets. farmers’ capacity to sell produce effectively and profitably is impacted by this regional difference in market proximity, which makes it crucial. according to ma et al. (2024), remote farmers frequently face major disadvantages because of the substantial impact that distance to markets has on transaction costs, market participation, and income potential. overall, this study’s conclusions about spatial dynamics are consistent with those found in other african contexts, including ghana and nigeria. agricultural services frequently concentrate in more economically established or politically linked locations, marginalizing periphery populations, according to studies by rotz et al. (2024) and thomas et al. (2019). these findings imply that spatially sophisticated policy actions are necessary. in order to address locational inequities, particular investments and customized service delivery plans that take into account each community’s unique institutional and infrastructure constraints are needed. pa ge 53 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 smallholder farmers’ observations of climatic shifts and variability in terms of smallholder farmers’ reactions to climate change, the research findings from the five zanzibari villages—chwaka, mwera, fuoni, bambi, and binguni— reflect an expanding corpus of empirical and perceptionbased studies carried out throughout sub-saharan africa. according to studies conducted in rural ethiopia, kenya, tanzania, and ghana, farmers use decades of accumulated ecological memory to assess long-term changes in weather patterns. this approach is consistent with the use of local climatic indicators and experiential knowledge (gezie, 2019; vaughan et al., 2019; gebremariyam, 2021). the apparent drop in overall rainfall in zanzibar, especially in fuoni and chwaka, is consistent with a study conducted in tanzania by makame & shackleton (2021), which discovered a correlation between decreased maize yields in semi-arid and sub-humid regions and decreasing rainfall trends. according to similar findings, traditional agricultural cycles in malawi and uganda have been significantly interrupted by decreased rainfall (lunyolo et al., 2021; amare et al., 2023). these views, which emphasize the extensive effects of changing rainfall regimes, are corroborated by climatological data as well as farmer testimony in several african contexts (sinore & wang, 2025). widely held beliefs in chwaka and fuoni regarding the rainy season’s delayed start and early end are consistent with research conducted in ethiopia by alemu & dioha (2020), which found that uncertain rainfall onset shortened growing seasons and raised farming hazards. similar experiences were documented by farmers in senegal and nigeria, who reported more unpredictable rainfall initiation and termination, which resulted in crop failure and decreased food supply (onwutuebe, 2019). compressed growing seasons are the result of these changes along with shorter rainfall durations, which are particularly noticeable in chwaka and fuoni. this significantly limits farmers’ capacity to control planting schedules and leads to subpar crop performance, as zhang & swaminathan (2020) point out. another important signal that has been frequently noted in research throughout east africa is the increased frequency of dry spells during rainy seasons, which are most strongly recorded in binguni and mwera. onwutuebe (2019) asserts that intra-seasonal dry spells, especially in maize-based systems, might result in complete crop loss, especially during crucial phases of crop development (such as blooming). chronic food insecurity is exacerbated by longer and more unpredictable dry spells, according to farmers in malawi and zimbabwe (chimimba et al., 2023). their prevalence, particularly in mwera (65.0%), indicates knowledge of the growing frequency of extreme weather occurrences, a trend supported by multiple climate model projections, even though fewer respondents reported experiencing more heavy rainfall episodes. studies conducted in kenya and rwanda, for instance, have shown an increase in periods of heavy precipitation that cause flash floods, topsoil erosion, and infrastructure devastation (lydie, 2022). these alterations reveal a twofold vulnerability in which farmers must deal with unexpected surpluses as well as water constraints, making management choices more difficult. perceptions from respondents provide ample evidence of the observed increase in average daytime and nighttime temperatures, particularly in fuoni and chwaka. rising temperatures in east and southern africa were identified by bakala et al. (2024) and ayal (2021) as one of the most frequently mentioned climatic stressors, especially for heat-sensitive crops like maize and beans. a larger tendency of climate extremes noted in assessments by allan et al. (2023) is reflected in the increased frequency of droughts and floods, which are especially noticeable in fuoni and mwera. according to studies conducted in madagascar and mozambique, the same communities are quickly suffering from both flood-related devastation and drought-induced crop failures, which weakens their ability to bounce back and recover (holleman et al., 2020). farmers in ghana and burkina faso report modifying crop calendars in response to local weather signals, which is consistent with moderate levels of perception in zanzibar regarding changes in planting and harvesting dates (yang et al., 2019). but much like in zanzibar, a lot of farmers do not have access to trustworthy seasonal forecasts, technologies, or extension services, which limits their ability to make the best agronomic choices (salum et al., 2021). according to modeled forecasts, agricultural yields in east africa are predicted to decrease by 10–20% by 2050 under current warming trajectories. this decrease is especially evident in chwaka and fuoni. (guido et al., 2020). factors influencing smallholder farmers’ understanding of climate variability and change complex connections between sociodemographic, institutional, and cognitive elements and smallholder farmers’ perspectives on climate change in zanzibar are revealed by the regression analysis. education level was found to be a significant predictor of perceptions of climate change (or = 1.82, ci: [1.10, 3.01]), supporting findings from research in nigeria (azeez et al., 2024) and kenya (yvonne et al., 2020), where a higher level of education increased awareness of long-term climate changes. evidence from moutouama et al. (2022) in africa, who contend that farmers acquire “environmental memory” through years of interacting with their land and weather patterns, was also supported by the finding that farming experience (or = 1.07) positively influenced perceptions of climate change. the likelihood of noticing climate change was considerably raised by institutional support, which was provided through extension services (or = 2.13), access to climate information (or = 3.45), and workshop participation (or = 2.50). these results are in line with antwi-agyei & stringer (2021) in ghana, who emphasize that farmers who receive information pa ge 54 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 through organized channels are more likely to perceive and adapt to climate risks; farmers in cooperatives (or = 1.90) benefited from shared learning, which is in line with findings from bwalya et al. (2023) in zambia, where collective membership improved knowledge exchange; and farmers who trusted traditional/local knowledge (or = 2.01) and thought climate information was reliable were more likely to perceive climate change. these findings highlight the dual value of scientific and indigenous knowledge systems, which is in line with cebrián-piqueras et al. (2020), who stress the complementarity of local and formal knowledge in forming climate perceptions. additionally, education (or = 1.76) and farm size (or = 1.58) had a significant impact on how people perceived decreasing rainfall. according to research by abid et al. (2019) in pakistan, larger landholders might be more dependent on and aware of variations in precipitation patterns. interestingly, there was a negative correlation (or = 0.52) between livelihood diversification and the perception of a drop in rainfall. this shows that farmers who have other sources of income might be less vulnerable to climate-related agricultural disturbances, as ricart et al. (2025) observed. perception was again strongly influenced by access to climate information (or = 2.98), extension services (or = 1.92), and workshops (or = 2.12), highlighting the significance of formal information channels. the importance of radio (or = 1.81) as a medium is consistent with research conducted in cameroon by elvis (2024), which emphasized the effectiveness of radio in rural climate communication. the results of the research demonstrated that farmers’ detection of extreme occurrences was significantly influenced by their level of education (or = 1.50) and agricultural experience (or = 1.09), confirming that knowledge and familiarity with the environment improve the ability to identify and understand climatic anomalies. these findings are consistent with those of ricart et al. (2025) in italy. the reported experiences were significantly shaped by cooperative participation (or = 2.01), information availability (or = 3.71), and training/ workshops (or = 2.88). these results corroborate rajesh’s (2024) assertion that organized and group information-sharing systems can raise awareness of extreme climatic occurrences. in line with arjomandi et al. (2023), who contend that institutional trust is a crucial determinant of risk perception and adaptive response, perceptions of extreme weather were significantly influenced by trust in government initiatives (or = 1.88), as well as trust in the reliability of climate information (or = 2.06). farmers are more likely to internalize and act upon messages about climate risks when they have faith in government and scientific institutions. adoption of climate-smart agriculture by smallholder farmers research from sub-saharan africa, asia, and latin america consistently shows how important smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change are in determining their adaptive behavior. the findings from zanzibar, which show varying adoption of climate smart agriculture (csa) practices and notable crop yield declines attributed to climate variability, are consistent with an increasing body of global evidence highlighting the importance of farmer perceptions and adaptive capacity in the face of climate change. for instance, in a cross-country study conducted in africa, paul et al. (2023) discovered that farmers were far more likely to implement adaptive methods if they sensed long-term changes in rainfall and temperature. in a similar vein, bedo et al. (2024) found a direct correlation between the likelihood of implementing conservation agriculture and other resilience-enhancing activities and the perceived severity of climate impacts in ethiopia. evidence from areas like the sahel in west africa, where periodic droughts have resulted in comparable yield losses, is strongly consistent with data from zanzibar, where 82.1% of farmers reported a decrease in food crop yields (sultan et al., 2019). only 10.4% of zanzibari farmers reported higher yields, and only 7.5% reported no change. this reflects trends in smallholder systems around the world, where adaptation success is still only achieved by a select few farmers who have greater access to resources, information, and institutional support (azadi et al., 2021). the magnitude of zanzibar’s reported crop losses also mirrors global trends. in tanzania, more than 60% of smallholder farmers reported moderate to severe yield losses as a result of climate stressors, specifically unpredictable rainfall and pest outbreaks, according to a study by gwambene et al. (2023). this is also true in kenya (kalia, 2024). the study found that 30.6% of farmers experienced very severe impacts and 53.8% of farmers reported moderately severe losses. these numbers are nearly identical to these regional trends, suggesting that rain-fed agricultural communities are generally vulnerable. although zanzibar has moderate to high adoption rates for agroforestry and water harvesting (56.9% and 81.6%, respectively), adoption rates elsewhere in the world differ significantly. for example, land fragmentation and institutional limitations contribute to the limited adoption of water harvesting in south asia, despite the region’s considerable sensitivity to water-related stress (rani, 2025). agroforestry, on the other hand, has gained traction in rwanda due to strong extension assistance and farmer cooperatives that encourage treebased systems (rwaburindi, 2024). another difference is zanzibar’s comparatively low adoption rate of agricultural diversification (16.3%). diversification is more prevalent in areas like southeast asia and the andean highlands, where it is frequently motivated by both market incentives and objectives related to climate resilience (beltrántolosa et al., 2022). the prevalent monocultural customs, lack of extension services, and socioeconomic obstacles in zanzibar may be the cause of this discrepancy. pa ge 55 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 43-58, 2025 conclusion this study emphasizes how vulnerable smallholder farmers in the central district of zanzibar are to climate variability, such as decreasing rainfall, increasing temperatures, and changing weather patterns, which have resulted in lower crop yields and altered agricultural methods. due to restricted access to credit, extension services, and accurate climate information, some climate-smart agriculture (csa) practices—including crop diversification and modified planting calendars— remain underutilized, even if others, like water harvesting and agroforestry, have gained popularity. education, experience, institutional support, and confidence in both traditional and scientific knowledge all have a significant impact on farmers’ perspectives of climate change. . in order to provide more resilient and sustainable agricultural systems throughout zanzibar, strengthening adaptive ability will necessitate focused policy interventions that increase community-based adaptation training, enhance infrastructure, and encourage equitable access to climate resources. references abid, m., scheffran, j., schneider, u. a., & elahi, e. 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(2020). improved crop productivity through optimized planting schedules. manufacturing & service operations management, 22(6), 1165-1180. pa ge 1 pa ge 13 5 american journal of environment and climate (ajec) comparative research progress on hydrogeological potential of major geological complexes: a case study of togo and china djamla afia apolline1*, anamor samuel kofi1, bidola toi magnim1, akpegnon luciano arnold2 volume 4 issue 3, year 2025 issn: 2832-403x (online) doi: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v4i3.6039 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec article information abstract received: october 28, 2025 accepted: december 02, 2025 published: december 13, 2025 groundwater is one of the most important sources of freshwater globally, but its availability and sustainability vary greatly depending on geology and climate. this study provides a comparative analysis of groundwater potential in togo and china, with particular attention to lithology, aquifer characteristics, and management challenges. in togo, aquifers are largely developed within fractured precambrian crystalline rocks, where water storage is confined to weathered layers and fracture systems. these aquifers generally display low transmissivity (10⁻⁴–10⁻² m²/s), storage coefficients below 0.01, and average specific yields of about 2%. recharge is mainly linked to seasonal rainfall, typically ranging from 50 to 150 mm per year, which makes these systems highly sensitive to climate variability and limits their ability to support long-term water supply. moreover, china has extensive sedimentary basins, alluvial plains, and karst aquifers that are considerably more productive. transmissivity values often exceed 10⁻² m²/s, specific yields commonly reach 10–15%, and recharge averages around 120 mm per year, with values above 500 mm per year in humid karst regions. while these aquifers provide large storage and high yields, they are under intense pressure from longterm overuse, particularly in the north china plain where groundwater levels are dropping by 0.5–1.5 m annually. water quality is also a major concern, with widespread nitrate, salinity, and heavy metal contamination. the comparison shows two distinct challenges: togo faces localized limitations and severe data gaps, while china struggles with systemic depletion despite having advanced monitoring and modelling systems. nonetheless, both regions offer lessons for one another. techniques such as numerical modelling, isotope hydrology, and machine learning used in china could enhance groundwater assessment in togo, while togo’s low-cost, field-based methods may provide useful approaches for rural or datainadequate areas in china. therefore, the study demonstrates that effective groundwater management depends not only on geological conditions but also on institutional capacity and the adoption of appropriate technologies to balance recharge, abstraction, and quality protection. these insights support the development of cross-regional strategies aimed at improving groundwater resilience in the face of growing climate and socio-economic pressures. keywords aquifer sustainability, comparative hydrogeology, fractured crystalline basement aquifers, ground water management, sedimentary and karst aquifers 1 school of mines, china university of mining and technology, xuzhou 221116, china 2 department of geology, university of lome, lome 1515, togo * corresponding author’s e-mail: pulin@cumt45.wecom.work introduction togo togo, a west african country, is underlain by a diverse set of geological formations that strongly influence its hydrogeological characteristics. the substratum consists of precambrian basement rocks, paleozoic sedimentary sequences, and younger cenozoic deposits, each contributing differently to groundwater occurrence and distribution (tossou et al., 2017). geographically, togo is bordered by burkina faso to the north, the atlantic ocean to the south, benin to the east, and ghana to the west (figure 1). the country covers an area of approximately 56,785 km², stretching about 600 km in length, with a width varying between 50 and 150 km. administratively, it is divided into five economic regions: maritime, plateau, central, kara, and savannas. the maritime region provides access to the atlantic and hosts lome, the national capital. according to the international monetary fund (2025), togo has a population of about 9.52 million. agriculture, agri-food industries, trade, mining, and service sectors largely drive its economy. the country’s relief is heterogeneous, consisting of plains, hills, plateaus, valleys, and mountains, much of which reflects the legacy of the pan-african orogeny some 600 million years ago. this tectonic event gave rise to the dahomeyide orogenic belt, which traverses the country from the southwest to the northeast. togo’s geology is structured around five principal complexes: the paleoproterozoic basement complex, the neoproterozoic pan-african belt, the voltaian basin, the coastal sedimentary basin, and the atakora structural unit (duku et al., 2015). each of these units has undergone distinct tectonic and lithological evolution, resulting in varying levels of groundwater potential. this diversity is central to understanding the hydrogeological dynamics and the availability of water resources across the country. climatically, togo is characterized by a tropical regime with two distinct zones. the northern part experiences a dry tropical climate with one rainy season and one dry season, while the southern part is more humid, pa ge 13 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 featuring two rainy and two dry seasons annually. these climatic patterns, in conjunction with the geological framework, exert strong control over the distribution and sustainability of groundwater resources vital for agriculture, domestic supply, and industry. groundwater is the most widely accessible source of freshwater on earth, providing essential supply for nearly half of the global population across domestic, agricultural, and industrial sectors (barry, 2022; tang et al., 2022). in areas where surface water resources are scarce, particularly across much of africa and asia, groundwater serves as the main source of safe and dependable drinking water (nyika et al., 2023; gaye, 2019). growing pressure on these reserves has raised urgent questions about their sustainability, natural recharge capacity, and long-term management in the face of climate variability and rising demand (orowale et al., 2023; fontodji et al., 2019). togo offers a representative case of the challenges facing subsaharan africa, where hydrogeological research remains relatively limited. the country’s groundwater occurs primarily in fractured crystalline basement aquifers and, to a lesser extent, in localized sedimentary basins. yet systematic studies of aquifer productivity, recharge processes, and vulnerability are still scarce (egbueri et al., 2025; coulidiati et al., 2025). most available work has focused on site-specific investigations, such as small-scale geophysical surveys or borehole yield measurements, with little integration into broader regional frameworks. this lack of comprehensive data and modelling restricts effective groundwater management and weakens the capacity of national water strategies to address the impacts of climate change (akara et al., 2021). figure 1: geological and location maps of togo: (a) geological map illustrating the principal lithological units and structural features; (b) map showing togo’s position within the african continent china china, one of the world’s largest countries, maintains a highly complex geological history that strongly shapes the distribution and availability of its groundwater resources. whereas togo’s hydrogeology is largely defined by precambrian crystalline rocks and younger phanerozoic units, china’s vast territory encompasses an exceptionally wide range of geological environments. these extend from ancient cratonic terrains to extensive sedimentary basins, offering a broader diversity of aquifer systems. groundwater plays a critical role in china, particularly in the northern regions where surface water is scarce (hao et al., 2017). the contrasting geological settings, climate regimes, and management approaches in togo and china therefore give rise to markedly different hydrogeological characteristics. china’s groundwater systems display strong spatial variability, reflecting the country’s diverse geology and geomorphology. as shown in figure 2(a), the extensive alluvial deposits of the north china plain and the songnen plain form some of the nation’s most productive aquifers, serving as crucial sources of irrigation water and urban supply. these unconsolidated sediments provide substantial storage and recharge potential. elsewhere, piedmont and deltaic environments such as the jianghan and poyang basins host mixed sedimentary aquifers that support both agriculture and large population centers. in southern china, karstified carbonate formations dominate the hydrogeological pa ge 13 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 framework. dissolution processes in limestone and dolomite create aquifers of considerable capacity, though they are highly heterogeneous and particularly vulnerable to contamination. in contrast, mountainous regions like the margins of the sichuan basin are characterized by fractured bedrock aquifers. these systems provide important localized water sources but are generally limited in storage and yield. extensive tracts of impervious bedrock, particularly across the qinghai–tibet plateau and parts of inner mongolia, limit groundwater occurrence and impose natural constraints on water availability. in addition, permafrost zones in the high-altitude qinghai–tibet plateau and northeastern china restrict infiltration, thereby reducing recharge potential. these conditions contrast sharply with the fertile alluvial plains, highlighting the pronounced spatial unevenness of groundwater resources across the country. figure 2(b) situates china within the asian continent, emphasizing its vast territorial extent and the resulting diversity of hydrogeological conditions. together, the maps illustrate the decisive influence of geological structure and climatic setting on groundwater occurrence, recharge processes, and the spatial distribution of aquifer systems. unlike togo, china has made substantial investments in hydrogeological research and groundwater management. large-scale investigations have been conducted in the north china plain, the loess plateau, and the karst terrains of southern china, generating comprehensive datasets on aquifer properties, recharge processes, and groundwater surface water interactions (lu et al., 2021; liu et al., 2022). advanced analytical and modelling approaches including modflow-based numerical simulations, isotope hydrology, and machine learning techniques have been widely applied to characterize aquifer systems and to forecast their response to over-extraction and climate variability (panthi et al., 2023; atta et al., 2024). despite this progress, china continues to confront serious challenges, including groundwater depletion, contamination, and marked regional imbalances in availability, underscoring the urgency of sustainable management strategies (du & chilton, 2024; lancia et al., 2022). the comparative perspective between togo and china illustrates two ends of the hydrogeological research spectrum: one dominated by data scarcity and limited investigation, the other by advanced modelling but mounting sustainability concerns. the critical research gap lies in the lack of integrative, cross-regional analyses that explore how methods developed in data-rich contexts can be adapted for application in under-studied regions. this study therefore seeks to (i) document the present state of hydrogeological knowledge in togo, (ii) contrast it with the research progress and ongoing challenges in china, and (iii) outline potential pathways for methodological transfer, innovation, and policy development. by connecting these perspectives, the work aims to advance a more globalized understanding of groundwater potential and the requirements for its sustainable use. figure 2: hydrogeological and location maps of china: (a) overview of major aquifer systems, sedimentary basins, plains, plateaus, and permafrost zones; (b) map showing china’s geographical position within asia geological and hydrogeological the hydrogeological structure of any region is largely determined by its lithology, structural characteristics, and stratigraphic development. assessing groundwater potential therefore requires careful consideration of the underlying geology, aquifer architecture, and associated hydraulic properties. togo and china illustrate two markedly different settings: togo is dominated by crystalline basement aquifers with limited storage capacity, whereas china hosts vast sedimentary and karst systems that can support large-scale groundwater exploitation. pa ge 13 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 togo: crystalline basement aquifers and weathered zones the hydrogeology of togo is largely controlled by precambrian crystalline basement rocks, including granites, gneisses, schists, and quartzites (zondokpo et al., 2022; kalsbeek et al., 2012). although these rocks are inherently impermeable, secondary porosity created through fracturing and weathering allows for limited groundwater storage. the most productive water-bearing zones occur within the regolith aquifer system, where a weathered mantle, typically 10–40 m thick, overlies fractured basement formations. aquifer transmissivity is generally low, ranging from 1.0 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.0 × 10⁻² m²/s (table 1), and borehole yields are highly variable, commonly between 0.2 and 2.5 l/s. recharge is primarily derived from direct rainfall infiltration, making these aquifers highly sensitive to seasonal and interannual climatic variability (akpataku et al., 2019). the major hydrogeological provinces of togo as presented in figure 3, categorized by dominant lithological units. in the maritime region, sedimentary and alluvial deposits form relatively shallow aquifers with moderate productivity. the plateaux region, underlain by quartzite and schist, supports groundwater storage mainly through secondary porosity related to fracturing and weathering. in the centrale region, granite and gneiss dominate, and groundwater is generally confined to localized fractured zones. the kara region is also composed mainly of metamorphic and crystalline rocks, where aquifer potential is limited by low primary porosity. similarly, the savanes region in the north is underlain by crystalline and metamorphic units, with groundwater occurrence dependent on weathered and fractured zones. the hydrogeological framework of togo (figure 4a) reflects the predominance of crystalline basement terrains, where aquifer productivity is closely tied to the degree of weathering and fracturing. by contrast, the sedimentary and alluvial deposits of the southern part of the country provide more favourable conditions for groundwater development. china: sedimentary basins, karst systems, and loess aquifers china shows a wide range of hydrogeological provinces, a reflection of both its vast territorial extent and its complex geological evolution. as illustrated in (figure 4b), the country’s major sedimentary basins such as the north china plain consist of thick accumulations of unconsolidated alluvial and semi-consolidated deposits. these units host highly productive aquifers, with transmissivity values frequently exceeding 1.0 × 10⁻² m²/s (chen et al., 2011). in southern china, extensive karst terrains form one of the largest carbonate aquifer systems in the world, marked by dissolution features including conduits and channels that facilitate rapid groundwater circulation (li et al., 2020). a further distinctive setting is the loess plateau of north-central china, where finegrained aeolian sediments act as porous aquifers, though they are susceptible to collapsibility and often develop perched water tables (derbyshire et al., 2001). compared with the aquifer systems of togo, these provinces generally provide far greater storage and yield. nevertheless, they remain vulnerable to intensive abstraction and widespread contamination, highlighting the persistent challenge of ensuring sustainable groundwater use. stratigraphic and lithological contrasts the fundamental hydrogeological distinction between togo and china lies in the geometry of their aquifers and the influence of lithology. in togo, fractured crystalline aquifers are typically shallow, discontinuous, and limited in storage capacity. by contrast, china’s aquifer systems are dominated by extensive sedimentary basins and karst terrains that are multi-layered and capable of sustaining regional-scale water supply. these lithological differences shape contrasting recharge processes: in togo, recharge occurs mainly through diffuse infiltration across thin regolith layers, whereas in china it is strongly influenced by large river aquifer exchanges and rapid recharge through karst conduits. this structural divergence not only figure 3: geological outline of togo showing the major hydrogeological complexes by region pa ge 13 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 figure 4: comparative hydrogeological provinces illustrated in schematic cross-section: (a) togo – crystalline basement aquifers formed within fractured and weathered rocks (gray), overlain by a weathered regolith zone 10–40 m thick (gold); (b) china – sedimentary basin aquifers, both unconfined and confined (yellow), the loess plateau aquifers (orange), and extensive karst carbonate systems (blue). governs groundwater potential but also determines the degree of susceptibility to depletion and contamination. a comparative stratigraphic outline for togo and china is presented in figure 5, highlighting the key lithological and temporal differences that govern groundwater occurrence and aquifer development. in togo, the succession is dominated by an extensive precambrian basement (>1500–2000 ma), composed mainly of crystalline rocks including granite, gneiss, schist, and quartzite. this unit represents the structural foundation of the country’s hydrogeological system. aquifer potential within the basement is largely secondary, controlled by weathering mantles (10–40 m thick) and networks of fractures. above this basement, limited paleozoic sedimentary sequences (<500 ma) are present, hosting localized porous and fractured aquifers with modest transmissivity. at the surface, relatively thin cretaceous to quaternary deposits (0–100 ma) comprising sandstones, lateritic sediments, and alluvial materials occur intermittently. these younger formations support shallow aquifers of moderate productivity, particularly within the southern coastal plain and along major river valleys. in contrast, china’s stratigraphic succession shows a much wider variety of lithologies and depositional settings. as in togo, a precambrian crystalline basement (>1500–2000 ma) forms the structural foundation, but it is overlain by a far more extensive sedimentary cover. paleozoic basins (250–500 ma) are particularly widespread and consist of sandstones, shales, and limestones that together form multi-layered aquifer systems. younger sequences, including mesozoic intrusive and metasedimentary formations (65–250 ma), along with thick cretaceous cenozoic basin fills, contribute significantly to groundwater storage, especially in northern china. the most recent deposits comprise quaternary alluvium and loess (0–2 ma), which are figure 5: stratigraphic correlation between togo and china pa ge 14 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 m²/s. this stratigraphic comparison underscores a fundamental contrast between the two countries. togo’s hydrogeological framework is constrained by a basement-dominated sequence capped by relatively thin sedimentary veneers, producing low-storage, fracturecontrolled aquifers. by comparison, china’s succession includes thick, multi-layered sedimentary basins and loess plains that overlie the basement, resulting in extensive, high-yield aquifer systems. however, these productive aquifers are also highly vulnerable to over-extraction and contamination. while both regions share the antiquity of a precambrian basement (>2000 ma), the divergence in younger sedimentary cover largely accounts for their contrasting groundwater potential and sustainability. table 1: comparative hydrogeological characteristics of the principal geological complexes in togo and china geological complex aquifer type hydraulic conductivity (m/s) transmissivity (m2/s) storage coefficient (-) specific yield (%) effective porosity (%) togo; crystalline basement (gneiss, granite, schist fractured/ weathered aquifer 10-7-10-5 10-4-10-2 10-5-10-3 0.5-2 2-5 togo; sedimentary outliers local porous aquifer 10-6-10-4 10-3-10-1 10-4-10-2 1-5 5-10 china; sedimentary basins (north china plain) unconfined/ confined aquifer 10-5-10-3 10-2-10-0 10-3-10-1 5-15 20-30 china; karst (south china) carbonate conduit aquifer highly variable 0.1-10 10-4-10-2 10-20 15-25 china; loess plateau porous loess aquifer 10-6-10-4 10-3-10-1 10-4-10-2 2-8 10-20 the hydraulic parameters presented in table 1 can be quantitatively related to groundwater flow through darcy’s law, which expresses discharge in porous media as: q = k∙a∙(∆h/∆l) ....(1) here, (k) denotes the hydraulic conductivity, (a) represents the cross-sectional area of flow, and δh/δl corresponds to the hydraulic gradient. this formulation underscores the direct influence of lithological characteristics on aquifer productivity. methods applied in togo evaluating hydrogeological potential requires comprehensive methodological frameworks that bring together field surveys, geophysical investigations, geochemical and isotopic tracing, and predictive modelling. while both togo and china have developed approaches suited to their geological settings, they differ greatly in terms of sophistication and spatial coverage. for this study, a systematic field campaign was carried out between june 27 and august 1, 2024, along the lome–dapaong corridor (national route no. 1). this route provided access to key outcrops for direct geological observation. the survey documented a range of formations, including: (i) sandstones, tillites, barite-bearing carbonates, and flints within the yemboure and bamboli groups; (ii) the mango group, characterized by silto-micaceous claystones interbedded with sandstones; and (iii) garnet granulites in the kabye massif along with metamorphic units of the dahomeyide chain. gps coordinates were recorded at representative sites to support accurate mapping and location-specific documentation. in addition, published reports and previous studies were consulted, and the application of geophysical methods was recommended to identify zones favourable for groundwater storage prior to borehole development. in togo, hydrogeological exploration continues to rely primarily on traditional field and geophysical techniques. this reliance reflects both the crystalline basement environment, where groundwater occurs mainly in weathered and fractured zones, and the institutional and financial constraints that limit the adoption of advanced technologies. the most widely applied methods include: (i) borehole hydrographs and pumping tests: borehole monitoring remains a cornerstone of groundwater assessment. step-drawdown and constant-rate pumping tests are commonly used to estimate transmissivity and storativity, although the reliability of results is often limited by short test durations and restricted spatial coverage (tizro et al., 2014). the interpretation of these data is frequently carried out using the theis analytical solution for confined aquifers, which expresses drawdown as a function of pumping time: s = q/(4π t) w(u), u = (r2 s)/4tt ....(2) where s denotes drawdown, q the pumping rate, t the transmissivity, s the storativity, r the radial distance from the pumping well, and t the elapsed time. this formulation provides the theoretical basis for deriving aquifer parameters from field test data. (ii) geoelectrical surveys: techniques such as vertical electrical sounding (ves) and two-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography (ert) are commonly applied pa ge 14 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 to identify weathered zones and fractured basement horizons that may serve as groundwater reservoirs. these methods are relatively cost-effective, though their interpretation can be ambiguous, particularly when attempting to distinguish between clay-rich strata and water-saturated layers. (iii) water-table mapping: groundwater levels measured from dispersed boreholes are used to construct potentiometric maps. however, the limited density of monitoring wells restricts spatial resolution. seasonal variations in groundwater levels clearly demonstrate the strong reliance of recharge on direct rainfall infiltration. although these methods yield valuable site-specific information, they are often applied in isolation and seldom integrated into regional-scale hydrogeological models. the absence of continuous time-series data further constrains predictive analyses and the evaluation of management scenarios. figure 6 presents the typical workflow followed during hydrogeological field investigations in togo, beginning with reconnaissance activities and extending to long-term monitoring. the diagram highlights the sequential integration of field surveys, geophysical investigations, drilling, aquifer testing, and ongoing monitoring, all underpinned by crosscutting elements such as quality assurance, community participation, safety procedures, and systematic data management. the fieldwork phase generally starts with reconnaissance mapping at scales ranging from 1:10,000 to 1:50,000, providing baseline information on topography, access conditions, and hydrogeological indicators. this step is followed by detailed hydrogeological mapping, which emphasizes springs, structural lineaments, and lithological features that help delineate potential recharge and discharge zones. the geophysical stage primarily employs resistivity techniques, notably vertical electrical sounding (ves) and electrical resistivity tomography (ert). these methods, typically applied at depths of 30–200 m with profile lengths ranging from 0.5 to 2 km, are used to identify weathered zones, fracture networks, and subsurface heterogeneities favourable for groundwater occurrence. the results of geophysical surveys guide the subsequent drilling stage, which combines hydrogeological mapping with resistivity profiles to determine optimal drilling sites. drilling operations include casing, screen installation, and gravel packing to stabilize boreholes and safeguard water quality. lithological logs obtained during drilling provide confirmation of subsurface conditions and inform well design. the analysis phase follows, during which aquifer properties such as transmissivity (t), hydraulic conductivity (k), storativity (s), and specific capacity are evaluated. standard analytical approaches, including theis and cooper–jacob interpretations of pumping test data, are commonly used to assess aquifer performance. in the final stage, a monitoring network is established using observation wells equipped with water-level loggers and sampling points. these systems enable long-term tracking of groundwater levels, quality, and recharge dynamics, forming the basis for sustainable resource management. importantly, the overall workflow is integrative rather than strictly sequential, with outputs from each stage feeding into the next. supporting components including quality assurance and quality control procedures, stakeholder engagement, health and safety measures, and structured data management are essential to ensure the reliability and long-term applicability of hydrogeological investigations in fractured crystalline terrains such as those found in togo. figure 6: methods for hydrogeological field studies in togo pa ge 14 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 figure 7 illustrates a conceptual cross-section of groundwater occurrence and flow in a typical crystalline basement aquifer system. the hydrostratigraphy comprises three main layers: a lateritic or regolith cover, an underlying saprolite zone of weathered bedrock, and the deeper fractured crystalline basement. while the regolith and saprolite offer only limited storage, the fractured basement forms the principal aquifer unit. recharge is derived mainly from rainfall infiltration, which percolates downward to replenish the water table. lateral groundwater movement is concentrated along the weathered interface between the saprolite and the fractured basement. productive aquifers develop in areas where fracture networks are well connected, with transmissivity (t) closely controlled by fracture continuity. reported hydraulic conductivity values generally range from 1 × 10⁻⁷ to 1 × 10⁻⁵ m/s, and specific yield typically varies between 1% and 5%. groundwater discharge occurs through perennial streams and natural springs, maintaining baseflow even during the dry season. in practice, production boreholes are commonly completed within the fractured basement to secure deeper and more dependable groundwater supplies. the schematic underscores the reliance of groundwater availability on the extent of weathering, the connectivity of fractures, and the balance between recharge and discharge processes. figure 7: conceptual type of groundwater occurrence and flow in a fractured basement aquifer system in togo birrimian base the investigation of the birrimian basement at dapaong, in the nanergou locality, led to the identification of an old granite quarry located at gps coordinates 10°55’11’’n; 0°9’47’’e. outcrops of pink and gray granite were observed at the site. the sampling zone forms a natural depression in which infiltration water accumulates, creating an open-air pond. the granite is marked by numerous horizontal fractures resulting from exfoliation, intersected by subvertical fractures conditions that strongly favor rainwater infiltration and storage at the base of the depression. an alteration mantle composed of quartzo-feldspathic sands was also identified, where surface runoff has carved a badlands-type landscape. during the survey, a borehole fitted with a manually operated foot pump was visited, which taps into these altered zones for water supply. it is noteworthy that the birrimian basement rocks in this region are approximately 2,000 million years old. the volta basin figure 8 presents a schematic cross-section of the volta basin, illustrating its stratigraphic sequence and major unconformities along a northwest–southeast transect. field observations revealed a prominent basal unconformity of conglomeratic composition, which separates the birrimian basement from the overlying volta basin near the caroli hotel. the basin itself is deposited in a monoclinal structure upon this basement. its age is estimated between 1100 and 700 million years, and it is subdivided into two supergroups: supergroup i, known as the bombouaka supergroup, and supergroup ii, referred to as the oti supergroup. supergroup i is further divided into three constituent groups, which are described in detail below. the dapaong group the dapaong group consists predominantly of silty sandstones, commonly referred to as “dapaong sandstone.” during the field survey, an outcrop was examined near dapaong at gps coordinates 10°51’37” n; 0°12’50” e. water from a nearby dam is utilized for multiple purposes, including agriculture and gardening, with off-season crops being sustained through its use. a pa ge 14 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 second site was visited at gps coordinates 10°46’52” n; 0°15’36” e, where a borehole equipped with a manually operated hand pump was observed. the lions’ den group the lion’s den group is subdivided into two main formations. from the base upwards, the sequence begins with the natala formation, which consists of two members: basal siltstones overlain by argillites. above this lies the kotare formation, composed of claystones at the base, followed successively by sandstones and psammites. the kotare argillites are separated from those of natala by a ravinement unconformity of conglomeratic character, though this boundary is not continuous across the region. at bombouaka, a surface reservoir was observed where runoff water accumulates due to the impermeable, clay-rich bedrock. this reservoir lies within the kotare argillites. along the roadside, these argillites appear in thin flakes or slices with a purplish to greenish-gray coloration. they contain silt and mica, giving rise to the term “silt-micaceous argillite.” being soft and impermeable, these clay-rich formations hinder fracture development, thereby restricting infiltration and rendering them largely unproductive in terms of groundwater potential. overlying these units are the so-called “jumper” sandstones, which form prominent relief features visible from a distance. these sandstones gradually grade into psammites micaceous, clayey sandstones characterized by fracture development. these fractures facilitate infiltration, with water often seeping along psammite walls and producing gently sloping relief. during the survey, a borehole equipped with a windpowered pump was observed tapping the psammites, demonstrating that this upper member of the kotare formation contains productive fractures and has greater groundwater potential compared to the underlying argillites. panabako group the panabako group is divided into two formations: the bogou formation at the base, resting directly on the psammites of the lion’s den group, and the yemboure formation at the summit. both units are composed primarily of sandstones. the bogou sandstones were observed above the psammites near the borehole fitted with a wind-driven pump, located not far from the bombouaka market. from there, the survey ascended a slope leading into a pass formed by erosion within a prominent fracture zone, clearly visible in the surrounding relief. sandstones were observed extensively in this area, displaying numerous fractures, particularly along the major fracture crossings, which may enhance groundwater productivity. the yemboure sandstones were examined in nabame village at gps coordinates 10°36’42” n; 0°14’4” e. these rocks show evidence of oblique and cross-bedded stratification, similar to that seen in the bogou sandstones but with inverted orientations, suggesting deposition under more turbulent marine conditions compared to bogou. although fractures are present within the yembouré sandstones, they are less developed and not strongly penetrative, which may limit their hydrogeological potential relative to the bogou sandstones. super group ii or oti super group this supergroup is divided into two units: the bamboli group at the base and the mango group above it. bamboli group the bamboli group is composed of a tripartite sequence consisting, from base to top, of tillites, barite-bearing carbonates, and flints. at nayega (gps coordinates 10°44’31” n; 0°26’17” e), tillites impregnated with manganese were observed, forming a manganese deposit that overlies the yemboure sandstone. although barite carbonates were not encountered during the survey, flint outcrops were identified at barkoissi (gps coordinates 10°33’29” n; 0°18’3” e). these flints occur in centimetric to decimetric beds and display intense fracturing. fresh flint is bluish-gray with a conchoidal fracture, while weathered surfaces exhibit a reddish-brown alteration rind. the high degree of fracturing facilitates rainwater infiltration, and the presence of productive wells in the area suggests a local groundwater potential. mango’s group the mango group consists mainly of silty–micaceous claystones with thin intercalations of clay–micaceous siltstones. the sequence thickens progressively toward the southeast and shows a gentle dip in the same direction. overall, the formations of the mango group are generally of low hydrogeological productivity; however, localized sandstone interbeds can occur, which may contain groundwater and provide limited yield. the cross-section highlights a prominent unconformity that distinguishes the older basement formations from the overlying younger deposits, marking intervals of erosion and subsequent basin reactivation. the figure illustrates the structural and lithological complexity of the volta basin, where alternating sandstones and mudstones, punctuated by unconformities, reflect a dynamic geological history shaped by sedimentation, tectonic activity, and episodes of erosion. the pan-african chain of the dahomeyids the chain is composed of an external zone and an internal zone, separated by a structural suture. the external zone includes the buem structural unit, the atakora structural unit, and the kara–niamtougou orthogneiss unit. the latter actually represents rocks of the internal zone that were tilted toward the external margin as a result of tectonic transport. the internal zone itself corresponds to the benino–togolese peneplain. apart from serpentinite outcrops observed on a hill at sokode– kemeni, corresponding to part of the buem formation, the eastern subunit of the atakora range was the primary pa ge 14 4 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 figure 8: volta basin cross-section: formations and unconformities figure 9: morphostructural cross-section showing the major geological units of togo focus of investigation in the external zone. this subunit is dominated by quartzites with intercalated mica schists. the atakora quartzites are heavily fractured, as evident from aerial photographs where vegetation alignments trace rectilinear fracture patterns in the relief. at the defale spring, groundwater discharges naturally through fracture networks within the quartzites, converging to form a perennial spring. a reservoir has been constructed to collect and treat this water before distribution to local communities. the spring water is naturally clear and of good quality. in the surrounding relief, subvertical faults with sinistral strike-slip movement were also identified. along the road to the spring, groundwater was observed seeping through fractures in the quartzites to form a small spring below the roadway. further observations were made at bafilo, in the locality of daoudi, where an artesian spring has been developed into a public fountain (gps coordinates 9°19’11” n; 1°4’27” e). the spring has an average discharge of 0.37 l/s. additionally, from the main road past the town of bafilo, a waterfall was visible cascading along a wide-open fracture within the quartzitic relief. this water is captured and piped to supply the town. at higher elevations, the relief is composed primarily of quartzites with interbedded mica schists. the suture zone within the pan-african suture zone, a field visit was conducted to the kabye massif in the locality of wyande, where outcrops of garnet granulites were observed. these rocks form the main body of the massif. although largely impermeable, they display evidence of fracturing. the internal zone the dahomeyide chain corresponds to the benino– pa ge 14 5 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 togolese peneplain, which forms much of the plateau region. it is composed predominantly of metamorphic rocks, including gneisses, migmatites, and various anatexites. at an abandoned quarry in the migmatites near rodkkpe, groundwater was observed accumulating within the artificial depression left by rock extraction. the water originates from subsurface flow, having migrated along fracture networks within the rock mass before collecting at the base of the depression. this localized reservoir supports a small ecosystem, sustaining both plant and animal life around its margins. the coastal sedimentary basin the coastal sedimentary basin of togo rests in fundamental unconformity upon the formations of the benino–togolese plain. during the survey, a brief stop was made in the dry wedge area, where water scarcity is common due to the limited thickness of sediments and the proximity of the underlying basement formations. in such zones, geophysical investigations are essential to identify favourable environments for groundwater accumulation before siting boreholes. the coastal basin comprises three main aquifer systems: the terminal continental aquifer, the paleocene limestone aquifer, and the maastrichtian aquifer. figure 9 shows a schematic cross-section from northwest (nw) to southeast (se), depicting the principal stratigraphic and structural units of the region. at the base lies the birimian basement (1), which forms the crystalline foundation of the sequence. above the crystalline basement lie successive sedimentary and structural units, beginning with the volta basin (2) and the buem structural unit (3), followed by the atakora structural unit (4). overlying these is a distinct suture zone (5), which marks the tectonic boundary separating the older basement-derived complexes from younger deposits. toward the southeast, the benino– togolese plain (6) and the coastal sedimentary basin (7) represent more recent depositional environments, shaped by prolonged subsidence and sediment accumulation. the cross-section illustrates the gradual transition from ancient basement rocks to structurally deformed belts, and ultimately to younger, relatively undeformed sedimentary basins along the nw–se transect. this arrangement reflects the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the region, where precambrian foundations are overlain by folded structural units and later capped by coastal deposits. atakora structural unit the atakora unit is composed primarily of folded and faulted sedimentary rocks and generally exhibits moderate to low groundwater potential. this limitation arises from the prevalence of low-permeability formations such as shales and siltstones. nevertheless, fractured sandstones and fault zones can function as secondary aquifers, though their yields are typically modest (nti et al., 2025). groundwater also occurs locally in depressions and valleys, where natural reservoirs develop and provide supplementary water resources. methods applied in china hydrogeological research in china is marked by the integration of advanced techniques across multiple scales, combining modelling, remote sensing, and geochemical/ isotopic tools. this reflects both the intensity of groundwater use and the wide variety of hydrogeological settings across the country. the main methodological approaches include: (i) numerical groundwater flow simulations: figure 10: numerical simulation of groundwater flow in a chinese sedimentary basin (modflow model output) pa ge 14 6 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 modflow (figure 10) and its derivatives, such as seawat for density-dependent flow, have been widely applied in the north china plain to quantify depletion, simulate drawdown under different pumping regimes, and evaluate managed aquifer recharge options (yao et al., 2015). in geologically complex areas, finite-element models are also used to complement finite-difference simulations. (ii) isotope hydrology: stable isotopes (δ¹⁸o, δd) and radioisotopes (³h, ¹⁴c) are employed to trace recharge sources, estimate groundwater residence times, and establish linkages between surface and subsurface waters. these techniques have proven especially effective in characterizing recharge processes in karst aquifers (yang et al., 2011). (iii) gis and remote sensing integration: geographic information systems provide a framework for combining lithological, hydrological, and climatic data, while satellite observations such as those from the grace mission offer large-scale estimates of groundwater storage variability (liu et al., 2018). (iv) artificial intelligence and machine learning: methods including random forest (rf), long shortterm memory (lstm) networks, and hybrid ai– gis platforms are increasingly being used to forecast groundwater levels, assess aquifer vulnerability, and map groundwater potential zones (hu et al., 2021). numerical models such as modflow must be calibrated against observed groundwater levels, with their performance commonly assessed using the root mean square error (rmse): rmse = 1/n ∑i=1(hobs,i hsim,i ) 2 ....(3) where hobs and hsim represent the observed and simulated hydraulic heads, respectively. a lower rmse value reflects a closer agreement between simulations and field measurements, indicating more reliable predictions of aquifer behavior. comparative strengths and limitations as illustrated in table 2, the methodological differences between togo and china are substantial. in togo, groundwater investigations rely on localized and low-cost approaches that are well adapted to crystalline basement terrains. however, these methods are constrained by limited temporal coverage and poor integration, while the absence of large-scale numerical modelling or isotopic studies leaves significant gaps in understanding recharge processes and long-term sustainability. however, china employs multidisciplinary and multi-scale methodologies that allow for more comprehensive assessments of groundwater systems. yet advanced techniques are not without limitations: large-scale numerical models are highly data-intensive and sensitive to parameter uncertainty, while machine learning methods, despite their predictive strength, may overfit when not anchored in sound hydrogeological principles. bridging this divide requires both transfer and adaptation of methodologies. china’s advanced models and analytical tools could be adapted for togo, provided that baseline data collection is improved to support their application. conversely, togo’s experience with low-cost geophysical methods in remote and data-scarce settings offers practical lessons that could enhance groundwater exploration in less accessible regions of china. table 2: comparative structure for hydrogeological studies and modelling in togo and china togo: traditional and localized methods china: advanced and integrated methods field data collection (borehole hydrographs, pumping tests) large scale data integration (geological, climatic, hydrological) geophysical surveys (ves, ert) gis and remote sensing (grace, landsat, dems) water table mapping and potentiometric surfaces numerical modelling (modflow, seawat) local aquifer characterization (storage, transmissivity) advanced analysis (isotopes, machine learning prediction) hydrogeological potential: analysis and comparative results the hydrogeological capacity of an aquifer is shaped by its geology, storage properties, ability to transmit water, recharge dynamics, and exposure to human or climatic pressures. a comparison between togo and china demonstrates two contrasting situations. in togo, groundwater resources are mainly tied to fractured basement aquifers, which provides limited storage and are highly sensitive to rainfall variability. alternatively, china is characterized by extensive sedimentary and karst aquifers that can support substantial withdrawals, though they face serious challenges related to overuse and contamination. hydrogeological potential of togo in togo, most aquifer systems occur within crystalline basement rocks, which by nature possess very low primary porosity. as a result, groundwater occurrence is limited to the weathered regolith and networks of secondary fractures (kouassi et al., 2024). these aquifers typically show low transmissivity, generally between 1.0 × 10⁻⁴ and 1.0 × 10⁻² m²/s, with borehole yields seldom exceeding 2.5 l/s. recharge is strongly seasonal and closely tied to rainfall, with annual rates commonly estimated between 50 and 150 mm. the restricted storage capacity makes these aquifers particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations. extended droughts often cause sharp declines in groundwater levels, drying of wells, and reduced reliability of water supply in rural areas. pa ge 14 7 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 the challenge is compounded by the limited monitoring infrastructure, which hampers accurate assessment of storage variations and the development of adaptive management measures. consequently, although togo’s basement aquifers remain a crucial source of drinking water for rural and peri-urban communities, their longterm sustainability is fundamentally constrained by their geological setting. hydrogeological potential of china china contains some of the world’s most extensive aquifer systems. in the north china plain, thick quaternary alluvial deposits give rise to multi-layered aquifers with relatively high transmissivity and storage capacity (zeng et al., 2018). in the south, karst terrains further increase groundwater potential, where dissolution conduits support high-yield wells and allow for rapid recharge. recharge rates in these regions are typically greater than 250 mm per year, and in humid karst settings may reach 500–600 mm annually (shen et al., 2023). however, these resources are under considerable pressure. persistent over-extraction in the north china plain has led to groundwater level declines of 0.5–1.5 m annually in some areas, with cumulative storage losses surpassing 60 km³ over certain decades (lyu et al., 2025). widespread pollution compounds the problem, with nitrate, salinity, and heavy metals frequently detected in agricultural and peri-urban zones. although china has established largescale monitoring networks, the key difficulty remains in regulating abstraction and balancing the competing needs of agriculture, industry, and urban supply. comparative analysis of aquifer potential and sustainability the differences between togo and china are both striking and instructive. figure 11 illustrates the spatial distribution of aquifer potential zones in each country, underscoring the regional variability in groundwater resources. in togo, aquifer development is largely restricted by geology: crystalline basement aquifers offer low yields and show strong sensitivity to climatic fluctuations, limiting their suitability for large-scale agricultural or industrial use. groundwater potential is unevenly distributed, with most areas classified as moderate. low-potential zones occur in the oti river basin and parts of the central plateau, while higher-potential areas are mainly confined to the coastal alluvial plain and sections of the mono river corridor. this pattern reflects the dominant role of localized weathering profiles and fracture networks in controlling groundwater availability. china, by contrast, possesses more extensive aquifer systems, yet faces challenges of sustainability and management. its aquifer potential is more widely distributed, linked to broad sedimentary basins and alluvial plains. regions such as the north china plain and the yangtze river delta exhibit high to very high groundwater potential, supported by thick alluvial deposits and favourable recharge regimes. moderate potential is observed in areas including the loess plateau, sichuan basin, and songnen plain, while low potential is characteristic of arid zones such as the tarim basin, where recharge is minimal. although china’s aquifers are far more abundant than those in togo, decades of intensive extraction and contamination have compromised storage and water quality. in both contexts, long-term sustainability remains a central concern. (i) in togo, advancing methodological strategies is essential to optimize the use of limited groundwater reserves and to enhance resilience against climatic variability. (ii) in china, effective regulatory and management measures are critical to halt progressive aquifer depletion and to reduce the impacts of widespread groundwater contamination. therefore, a comparison of the two contexts shows that china’s well-established monitoring systems and modelling approaches have strong potential to improve groundwater management practices in togo. at the same time, togo’s use of flexible, low-cost methods provides valuable insights for china, particularly in rural areas or regions with limited resources. the figure draws out a sharp contrast between the two settings. in togo, aquifers are localized and primarily fracture-controlled, whereas in china, groundwater is stored within extensive sedimentary basins. these differences reflect fundamentally distinct hydrogeological conditions and resource distributions. figure 12 compares several key parameters transmissivity, recharge, storage coefficient, and specific yield for the two countries, presented through both bar and spider charts. the results show a marked disparity in aquifer productivity and resilience. togo’s basement-dominated aquifers display transmissivity values of about 5.0 × 10⁻³ m²/s, typical of fractured crystalline systems with poor hydraulic connectivity. by contrast, china’s aquifers reach values near 5.0 m²/s, reflecting thick unconsolidated alluvial deposits and karst formations that sustain high-yield wells. this difference underscores the strong influence of lithology on groundwater flow. recharge patterns further illustrate the divergence. in togo, average annual recharge is approximately 60 mm/ year and closely tied to variable seasonal rainfall. china, on the other hand, records average values near 120 mm/year, particularly in humid alluvial and karst regions. while this greater recharge capacity supports replenishment, it also increases susceptibility to surface-driven contamination. storage capacity reveals another contrast. togo’s aquifers exhibit very low storage coefficients, typically between 0.00 and 0.01, consistent with the limited capacity of weathered crystalline basement rocks. china’s sedimentary and karst basins, by comparison, show coefficients as high as 0.1, enabling large-scale withdrawals and providing a buffer against seasonal variability. specific yield (sy) shows the clearest divergence between the two settings. in togo, values average around 2.1%, reflecting shallow weathered regolith and fracture-controlled aquifers with limited water release. by comparison, china records pa ge 14 8 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 figure 11: spatial distribution of aquifer potential zones: (a) togo and (b) china pa ge 14 9 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 figure 12: comparison of hydrogeological parameters: (a) togo; (b) china much higher values of roughly 10%, characteristic of porous alluvial, loess, and carbonate formations where secondary porosity is well developed. taken together, the bar and spider plots reveal a consistent pattern. togo’s aquifers are defined by low transmissivity, modest recharge, and limited storage, making them highly vulnerable to climatic fluctuations. china, in contrast, possesses extensive high-yield aquifers but faces longterm sustainability challenges linked to intensive pumping and contamination risks. figure c underscores the need for groundwater management strategies tailored to each country’s distinct hydrogeological conditions. as shown in figure 13 groundwater stress indicators. it illustrates recharge deficit, over-extraction, and storage trends, capturing the temporal dynamics of groundwater stress through three complementary measures: recharge versus pumping fluxes, recharge balance, and storage change. group (a) depicts the seasonal cycle of recharge associated with rainfall, set against steadily rising pumping rates. red shaded intervals denote periods of over-extraction when abstraction exceeds natural replenishment. group (b) quantifies the recharge balance, highlighting recurring deficits that vary from moderate to severe, especially during prolonged dry spells. group (c) figure 13: indicators of groundwater stress: deficit, over-extraction, and storage change pa ge 15 0 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 shows the progressive decline in groundwater storage, with recent trajectories surpassing warning levels and nearing critical thresholds. collectively, the three indicators point to a clear pattern of unsustainable groundwater use and continuing depletion. in togo, aquifers are highly sensitive to rainfall variability (50–150 mm/year), leading to seasonal deficits and borehole failures in dry years. although overall abstraction is relatively low, it often becomes unsustainable during droughts. water quality risks stem largely from naturally occurring iron and manganese, together with localized nitrate pollution. monitoring capacity remains limited, with fragmented hydrographs that hinder reliable trend analysis. climate change is expected to heighten these vulnerabilities through greater variability in rainfall. in china, groundwater stress is structural and widespread, with the north china plain experiencing chronic deficits of up to 150 mm/year. intensive agricultural withdrawals exceeding 300–500 mm/year drive declines of 0.5–1.5 m annually, with cumulative storage losses surpassing 60 km³. contamination risks are both broader and more severe, encompassing nitrate, salinity, and heavy metals, particularly in peri-urban farming areas. monitoring systems are more advanced, incorporating dense observation networks and satellite data. climate pressures are strongly regionalized: northern china faces persistent drought-related deficits, whereas the south experiences recharge surpluses and periodic flooding. table 3 summarizes the contrasting groundwater challenges in togo and china. on the whole, figure 9 and table 3 highlight a fundamental contrast: togo’s groundwater stress is localized and climate-driven, while china’s reflects large-scale over-abstraction compounded by contamination and uneven climatic impacts. both cases emphasize the need for adaptive management strategies that are responsive to distinct hydrogeological conditions and socio-economic demands. the groundwater stress index (gwsi) serves as a key comparative indicator, calculated as the proportion of abstraction relative to natural recharge: gwsi = qabstraction/rrecharge ....(4) values exceeding unity signify over-exploitation, a condition commonly documented in china. in contrast, togo generally records values below this threshold, though its aquifers remain highly sensitive to climatic variability. table 3: groundwater challenges and stress indicators in togo and china parameter togo china recharge deficit high sensitivity to rainfall variability (50150mm/year); seasonal deficits common chronic imbalance in north china plain; deficits up to -150mm/year groundwater abstraction low but locally unsustainable in drought years; < 10% of renewable supply excessive abstraction in agricultural basins (>300-500mm/year) storage trends stable to mildly declining; local borehole failures during dry seasons long term declines of 0.5-1.5m/year; cumulative storage losses of ̴ 60 km3 contamination risks iron, manganese, and localized nitrate contamination widespread nitrate, salinity, and heavy metals in agricultural and peri-urban zones monitoring density sparse borehole network; discontinuous hydrographs dense multi-scale monitoring networks with satellite integration climate stress extreme dependence on variable rainfall; projected stress from climate change variable impacts: drought stress in north, flooding and recharge surpluses in south figure 14 compares groundwater level fluctuations in togo and the north china plain (ncp) from 2014 to 2024, illustrating the contrast between seasonal variability and long-term decline. in togo, groundwater levels (blue line) show pronounced seasonal oscillations with an amplitude of about 1.9 m, reflecting recharge during the wet season and drawdown in the dry months. despite these fluctuations, the long-term trend remains largely stable, suggesting that fractured crystalline and regolith aquifers are strongly climate-driven but not yet subject to sustained decline. in contrast, the ncp (red line) exhibits a consistent downward trajectory, averaging a decline of ~0.80 m/year. the dashed regression line emphasizes this depletion, which is primarily the result of intensive abstraction for agriculture and urban supply in sedimentary aquifers. seasonal variation is limited compared with togo, underscoring the predominance of pumping over natural recharge in shaping water levels. the side-by-side comparison highlights distinct management challenges: togo’s aquifers are vulnerable to rainfall variability but retain local resilience, whereas china’s aquifers, though highly productive, face systemic depletion under anthropogenic pressure. together, the time-series evidence in figure 14 reinforces the broader contrast between climate-driven and management-driven constraints on groundwater sustainability. pa ge 15 1 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 figure 14: time-series analysis of groundwater dynamics: seasonal variability and long-term trends notes: monthly data; decomposition via stl (period =12). units: m below ground level (b.g.l). ncp trend shown as dashed line. aggregated where direct series unavailable. challenges, prospects, and innovations sustainable groundwater management depends not only on the physical characteristics of aquifers but also on the social and technical systems that guide their use, monitoring, and regulation. the comparison of togo and china underscores their distinct challenges, while also pointing to opportunities for knowledge exchange and innovation that could benefit both settings. challenges in togo, the central constraint is limited data availability. monitoring networks are sparse, with only a small number of boreholes providing hydrograph records. many aquifer properties must be inferred indirectly through geophysical surveys, while existing datasets are often fragmented in time. these gaps make it difficult to carry out reliable long-term groundwater modelling or to develop adaptive management strategies. institutional and financial constraints further impede the establishment of a comprehensive national monitoring system. in china, the situation is quite different. although extensive datasets exist, they coincide with serious resource stress and pollution. in the north china plain, decades of intensive abstraction have produced annual groundwater declines of 0.5–1.5 m and the development of broad cones of depression. at the same time, water quality has been undermined by widespread nitrate inputs from agriculture, along with salinity and heavy metal contamination in peri-urban areas. the challenge here lies less in data collection and more in enforcing effective governance frameworks and reconciling competing demands on groundwater resources. prospects the integration of machine learning with remote sensing, illustrated in figure 15, provides a structured workflow for groundwater resource prediction. this conceptual layout introduces together remote sensing, gis, field observations, and machine learning to support groundwater management. its core strength lies in the systematic use of multi-source datasets, which enhances prediction accuracy, especially in areas where field data figure 15: approach to groundwater prediction through machine learning and remote sensing integration pa ge 15 2 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 are sparse. the workflow begins with remote sensing products such as grace, landsat, and sentinel, which capture regional patterns of recharge variability, evapotranspiration, and storage change. these are supplemented with gis-based layers, including digital elevation models, land use patterns, and lithological maps, as well as field-derived data from borehole hydrographs and pumping tests. a key component of the process is data pre-processing and integration scaling, feature construction, and spatial interpolation designed to ensure consistency and comparability across diverse data sources. the processed datasets are then applied to machine learning models, including long short-term memory (lstm) networks, random forest algorithms, and combined gis–ml techniques, to generate forecasts of groundwater levels, recharge patterns, and stress indicators. the final component of the framework emphasizes decision support and policy integration, ensuring that technical outputs are connected to management strategies and long-term sustainability planning. as a whole, the figure presents a flexible and scalable methodology, demonstrating how the integration of machine learning with remote sensing can strengthen groundwater resource prediction and deliver practical insights in both data-rich regions such as china and datalimited environments such as togo. innovations the pursuit of groundwater sustainability rests on three key dimensions: institutional, technological, and collaborative innovation. (i) institutional strengthening: in togo, progress could be achieved through the creation of centralized groundwater monitoring systems, with technical and financial backing from international development partners. lessons can be drawn from china, where basin-scale authorities provide an effective model of coordinated groundwater governance. (ii) technological integration: advances in remote sensing, gis, and machine learning open new possibilities for groundwater assessment. for example, satellite-based recharge estimates can be incorporated into machine learning frameworks to deliver near real-time forecasts of aquifer conditions, offering direct support for policy and management decisions. (iii) cross-continental collaboration: building lasting capacity will also depend on international partnerships. collaborative research initiatives, student mobility programs, and shared data platforms between chinese and togolese institutions could enhance hydrogeological expertise in west africa. such initiatives are aligned with broader global efforts to secure sustainable groundwater resources under changing climatic conditions. the structure in which governance, monitoring, modelling, and decision support as depicted in figure 16 are identified as the four foundational pillars of sustainable groundwater management. the framework highlights that ensuring hydrogeological sustainability is not only a technical undertaking but also one that depends on institutional strength, systematic observation, and effective policy translation. at the top of the structure, governance creates the enabling conditions through regulatory systems, institutional mandates, and coordination among stakeholders. this tier provides the authority to implement monitoring networks, regulate groundwater abstraction, and align national strategies with international commitments to water security. the second tier, monitoring, emphasizes structured data collection through observation wells, geophysical investigations, and remote sensing tools. reliable monitoring produces long-term datasets on groundwater levels, recharge rates, and water quality records that are indispensable for identifying aquifer stress. the comparison between sparse borehole networks in togo and the denser, multi-scale monitoring systems in china illustrates how differences in capacity directly affect management outcomes. the third pillar, modelling, translates collected data into predictive understanding. using numerical models, isotope hydrology, and increasingly machine learning techniques, this layer enables the simulation of recharge patterns, abstraction pressures, and climate variability scenarios. in doing so, modelling connects empirical evidence with forward-looking assessments, supporting early identification of risks such as depletion, salinization, and contamination. ultimately, pillar decision support, involves transforming scientific knowledge into practical strategies for management. this includes designing groundwater figure 16: integrated management and policy layout pa ge 15 3 https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec am. j. environ. clim. 4(3) 135-154, 2025 allocation frameworks, establishing drought-response protocols, and developing early-warning systems that combine hydrological forecasts with socio-economic considerations. in this way, decision-support tools ensure that the outcomes of governance, monitoring, and modelling are translated into concrete measures for sustainable groundwater use. this structure provides the interdependence of institutional and technical components. governance provides continuity for monitoring; monitoring supplies the data that make models reliable; and decision support ensures that scientific insights inform real policy action. together, these interconnected elements create a comprehensive structure for adaptive groundwater management, applicable both in resource-constrained contexts such as togo and in resource-intensive environments like china. conclusion this study compares the hydrogeological conditions of togo and china, showing how geology, climate, and management practices influence groundwater availability and long-term sustainability. in togo, groundwater mainly occurs in fractured crystalline rocks and thin sedimentary layers. these formations hold limited storage, transmit water poorly, and depend strongly on seasonal rainfall, which makes water supply vulnerable during dry periods. in contrast, china possesses broad sedimentary basins, alluvial plains, and karst aquifers that provide higher yields and greater storage, though they are increasingly affected by over-extraction and contamination. the findings point to two distinct challenges. for togo, the priority is to improve hydrogeological data collection and strengthen institutional capacity for continuous monitoring. for china, the main concern is managing excessive abstraction and enforcing policies that balance agricultural, industrial, and domestic demands. the research also demonstrates the value of mutual learning. china’s advanced modelling, monitoring, and analytical tools could support more effective groundwater studies in togo, while togo’s experience with simple, low-cost field methods offers lessons for managing rural or data errors regions in china. therefore, sustainable groundwater development depends not only on geological potential but also on coordinated governance, data sharing, and technological adaptation. references akara, m.-e. m. 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