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American Journal of   
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Assessing Indigenous and Modern Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change Among 
Legumes Producers in the Bongo District of  the Upper East Region, Ghana

Jonah Amosah¹*, Tahiru Lukman2, Enerst Dabil Nabwomya3

Volume 2 Issue 2, Year 2023
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v2i2.1584
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: April 07, 2023

Accepted: April 28, 2023

Published: May 03, 2023

Globally, climate change adaptation initiatives have significantly improved recipient farmers’ 
livelihoods by increasing their resilience, production, and overall standard of  living. Climate 
adaptation results in noticeably higher yields from food crops. Climate change events have 
had a detrimental impact on farmers in Ghana, especially in the Upper East region. This 
includes producers of  legumes in the Bongo District, which is a part of  the fragile savanna 
semi-arid zone. The growing food insecurity and failure of  legume crops point to serious 
losses in climate change adaptation methods. Farmer’s adaptation strategies have fallen short 
over time, necessitating a revision of  programs to assist growers of  legumes in the Bongo 
District. The obstacles connected with indigenous and contemporary adaptation techniques 
to climate change are also examined in this study, along with local and contemporary 
stakeholders’ involvement in adaptation efforts. The primary data was gathered through the 
use of  focus group discussions and interviews. In three communities, 70 farmers who grow 
legumes were sampled using a simple random sampling technique to select the respondents. 
The study concludes that farming and mixed cropping are important indigenous adaptation 
techniques, whereas forecasting and greater variety are important modern adaptation 
strategies. The MoFA and the Bongo District Assembly are the two important entities 
in executing adaptation plans, while local farmers were highlighted as key stakeholders. 
Additionally, it was determined that weak extension services and a lack of  integration 
of  indigenous adaptations into contemporary practices could pose serious obstacles to 
developing climate change adaptation strategies. The study recommends integrating local 
and contemporary adaptation strategies to combat climate change.

Keywords
Climate Change, Indigenous 
Knowledge, Indigenous and 
Modern Adaptation Strategies, 
Stakeholders and Participation

1 Department of  Development Studies, Faculty of  Integrated Development Studies, Simon Diedong Dombo University of  Business
  and Integrated Development Studies, (SDD-UBIDS), Ghana
2 Department of  Environment and Resource Studies (ERS), University for Development Studies, Ghana
3 Department of  Project Management and Community Development, Faculty of  Planning and Land Management, Simon Diedong 
  Dombo University of  Business and Integrated Development Studies, (SDD-UBIDS), Ghana
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: jamosah@ubids.edu.gh 

INTRODUCTION 
Climate change is the most significant global stressor 
on food supply and production (Ray et al., 2019). Sub-
Saharan Africa (SSA) is the most vulnerable region to 
climate change due to a combination of  limited adaptation 
capacity and distinct socioeconomic and climatic 
characteristics (IPCC, 2014). The area’s population is 
primarily dependent on agriculture, which is supported 
by rain (Shimeles et al., 2018). As a result, any negative 
impact of  climate change on the water cycle seriously 
threatens agricultural production, human well-being, and 
the economy (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2020). 
West Africa has been designated a significant climate 
change zone, which is expected to result in lower crop 
yields and food production, jeopardizing the region’s food 
security (Sultan & Gaetani, 2016). These consequences, 
which are expected to worsen in the future, will severely 
harm regional economies and people’s quality of  life 
(Sylla et al., 2016).
Furthermore, Ghana has been designated a climate 
change hotspot (Asante & Amuakwa-Mensah, 2015). 
Numerous studies have documented the effects of  
climate change in Ghana, the most visible of  which is 
increased rainfall variability, rising temperatures, rising sea 
levels, and an increased frequency of  weather extremes 

and disasters (Food and Agriculture Organization, 
2013). Ghana’s economy heavily depends on forestry, 
agriculture, and other climate-sensitive industries (MoFA, 
2007). Agriculture and forestry provide non-timber and 
timber forest products to approximately 70% of  the 
population (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2013). 
Climate change has the potential to affect Ghana’s 
economy, particularly the most vulnerable sectors (Asante 
& Amuakwa-Mensah, 2015).
Northern Ghana is more vulnerable than the rest of  the 
country to the effects of  climate change and variability 
(Klutse et al., 2020). This is because the area has a poorer, 
drier climate and the majority of  its residents rely on 
subsistence farming of  staple food including legumes 
(Darko & Atazona, 2013).  The production of  food 
crops including legumes is contributing significantly to 
Ghana’s food export promotion. Ghana is ranked 112th 
when it comes to the exportation of  Legumes in 2020 
and the 434th most exported product in the same year. 
Ghana’s main export destinations for Legumes are the 
United States, the United Kingdom, the United Arab 
Emirates, Belgium, and Canada. The production of  
legumes in the Bongo District is estimated to be around 
37% of  the food harvest (BDA, 2014). Legumes such 
as groundnuts, soya beans, and beans are the dominant 

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crops that are grown (BDA, 2014). In contrast, the 
people have a low adaptive capacity for adaptation to 
climate change when compared to the rest of  the country 
because they rely on unimodal rain-fed agriculture and 
have low socioeconomic development (MoFA, 2016). 
Communities in northern Ghana are increasingly 
struggling to cope with harsh weather conditions such as 
drought and flooding. Coupled with these challenges is 
the high rate of  illiteracy in northern Ghana where Bongo 
is located (GSS, 2014), making it difficult for the majority 
of  farmers to understand the specifics of  weather and 
climatic forecasts. 
According to research, the majority of  rural farmers 
manage their farms using their native expertise, 
which improves rural livelihoods since they have an 
understanding of  the local environmental conditions 
(Sullo et al., 2020). Few studies have been conducted 
to examine how indigenous and modern adaptation 
practices are used to manage climate risks in Ghana 
(Gyampoh et al., 2009; Sullo et al., 2020). As a result, this 
study provides insight into how indigenous and modern 
adaptation strategies aid legume producers in adjusting to 
local climatic stressors in the communities of  Nyariga, 
Vea, and Gowrie in Ghana’s Upper East Region, where 
legume producers use both indigenous and modern 
adaptation strategies to adapt to climate change.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Legumes
Legumes are a crop of  crops with the potential to develop 
a country that invests in them. Legumes are nature’s 
priceless gift to humanity due to their high protein 
content (16-50%), vital element content, dietary fiber (10-
23%), and vitamin content (Maphosa & Jideani, 2017). In 
addition to protein, legumes are high in carbohydrates, 
sugars, vitamins, more than 15 essential minerals, and 
mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (Wang et al., 
2009). These foods also contain a lot of  dietary fiber, 
folic acid, and non-nutritional bioactive substances like 
polyphenolics, lectins, phytate, and trypsin inhibitors 
(Burstin et al., 2011). Furthermore, grain legumes reduce 
the risk of  obesity (Burstin et al., 2011). Legumes are 
essential for environmental services. Legumes are a 
preferred crop for the agricultural community in intensive 
farming because of  their biological nitrogen fixation, 
grain legumes are a preferred crop for the agricultural 
community in intensive cereal-based cropping systems 
(Kumar et al., 2018).
Long-term cereal-based cropping systems are one input-
intensive technique that considerably contributes to 
GHG emissions, groundwater contamination, and other 
second-generation problems (Hazra et al., 2018). Crop 
heterogeneity is essential for enhancing crop tolerance to 
biotic and abiotic stressors and climate change (Newton et 
al., 2011). This, therefore, makes legumes because of  their 
deep roots, symbiotic N-fixation, leaf  fall, and carbon-
rich soil organisms, legumes are therefore essential for 
carbon sequestration (Ghosh et al., 2012).

Legumes have a higher crop biomass and a slower rate 
of  C-mineralization than cereals, which considerably 
improve soil C retention in decreased tillage situations. 
Bayer et al. (2016) are of  the view that legumes transport 
a large amount of  their photosynthetic carbon as root 
exudates (amino acids, phenolic acids, and organic 
acids), along with other lignin-rich substances, which 
considerably aid in carbon sequestration and the lowering 
of  the plant’s carbon footprint (Hazra et al., 2018). 
Legumes feed the soil with nitrogen (N) for subsequent 
crops while reducing worldwide CO2 emissions (>300 
Tg Yr1) from N-fertilizer (urea) enterprises by up to 50% 
(Jensen et al., 2012). Interestedly, feeds high in legumes 
can lower the quantity of  CH4 released by livestock 
operations because they include less fiber, digest more 
quickly, and have condensed tannins and saponins that 
change rumen methanogenesis and prevent cell wall 
collapse (Eckerd et al., 2010). Also, it was discovered that 
legumes emit less nitrous oxide (1.02 kg N2O-N ha-1) 
than cereals fed with nitrogen (2.71 kg N2O-N ha-1) 
(Jensen et al., 2012). The advantages of  grain legumes’ 
lower GHG emissions were established by Schwenke 
et al (2015). Legumes occasionally produce more N2O, 
though. 
Faster N-rich residue decomposition and denitrification 
of  symbiotically fixed N within the nodule are two 
potential causes of  higher N2O emission by legumes; 
however, more extensive, multi-location research 
is required to obtain conclusive evidence because 
management practices and local climatic conditions 
heavily influence it (Bayer et al., 2016; Hauggaard-Nielsen 
et al., 2016). However, the enormous contribution that 
legumes provide to lowering GHGs and storing carbon 
in the deep soil has to be carefully examined.

Climate Adaptation 
The debate about how climate impacts the environment 
and to reduce climate change predominated in the 1990s 
and early 2000s. Lately, adaptation has become a topic 
of  increased interest (Adger et al., 2009; Dodman & 
Mitlin, 2011). Changing societal and ecological processes 
and activities to avoid would be harm or take advantage 
of  new opportunities constitutes adaptation to boost 
resilience and decrease susceptibility (Adger et al., 2007). 
Rarely does climate change adaptation concentrate solely 
on climate change problems (IPCC, 2012). Any process 
or program that increases the resilience of  society to the 
risks that climate change may exacerbate is considered 
part of  adaptation (IPCC, 2012).
Adaptation is an ongoing process that reduces harm or 
exploits opportunities and is the process of  responding 
to changes in natural or human systems as a result of  
current or projected climate stimuli or their consequences 
(IPCC, 2012; Smit & Wandel, 2006). As part of  this 
process, this study distinguishes between incremental and 
transformative adaptation (Kates et al., 2012; Nelson et 
al., 2007). To reduce losses, gradual adaptation to climate 
change means scaling up or changing current behaviors 

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and activities, or doing little more of  what is already being 
done (Kates et al., 2012; Park et al., 2012). On the other 
hand, transformative adaptation refers to adaptation 
strategies that are new to a specific location, adopted 
on a much larger scale, and bring about changes to local 
resource systems (Adger et al., 2011; Cates et al., 2012; 
Nelson et al., 2007).

Indigenous Knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is what Aboriginal people have 
known, understood, and practiced for generations and 
handed over from generation to generation mostly 
through oral tradition. Indigenous knowledge evolves 
through trial and error and is mostly not documented but 
has a proven ability to adapt to change (Melchias, 2001) 
since local people have an intimate relationship with 
their environment. Indigenous knowledge is information 
gathered over generations in a specific environment 
(Minja, 2000). 
Because the local people have more sensitivity to the 
effects of  their dependence on and close contact 
with the environment and its resources, local people 
have gradually acquired local knowledge to combat 
climate change (IPCC, 2007). Some communities have 
accumulated knowledge about environmental changes 
over long periods and have developed methods to detect 
and manage these changes (Changa et al., 2010).

Indigenous and modern Adaptation Strategies to 
climate change  
Individual, family, and community organizational levels 
(Adger 2000, Berkes & Seixas 2006, Cinner et al. 2009c), 
as well as national assessments (Marshall and Marshall 
2007), can be used to assess adaptive practices (Adger 
and Vincent 2005; Nelson et al. 2009a,b). Some systems 
estimate capacity using inductive, community-driven 
metrics, whereas others use deductive metrics (Nelson 
et al., 2008). Some adaptive capacity indicators (such as 
those used by He McClanahan and Cinner in 2009) are 
better suited for cross-scale comparisons, whereas others 
are better suited for stand-alone analysis of  specific 
communities or industries. Your objectives, available 
skills, and available budget determine the best approach 
for your specific situation. Choosing the most effective 
approach to adaptation planning necessitates taking into 
account both opportunities and constraints.
However, these techniques vary from community to 
community depending on local environmental and 
climatic conditions (Nindi & Mhando, 2011). Locals use a 
variety of  weather forecasts and indicators to explain the 
effects of  climate change. The appearance of  armyworms 
in theUpper East Region Bongo districtn is a sign of  
delayed rainfall. Red ant swarms appear in October and 
November, and the wet season occurs in August and 
September when swarms appear to fly from the hills to 
the lowlands. However, large swarms of  armyworms in 
September and October are a sign of  drought (Nindi & 
Mhando, 2011). In addition, smallholder farmers have 

developed cultivation techniques that are adaptable 
to climate change. To protect the soil, intercropping 
or capture crop methods are used in the semi-arid 
communities south of  Bongo.
According to Mafongoya and Ajayi (2017), local 
communities are implementing culturally distinct strategies 
to help limit the negative effects of  climate change on 
crop production. Farmers use indigenous knowledge and 
techniques to mitigate problems associated with natural 
disasters (Harvey et al., 2014). Most legume farmers are 
aware of  and engage in various cultural practices that can 
help them cope with factors and events that may threaten 
their production capacity such as mixed cropping 
(Rankoana, 2016). Examples of  these cultural traditions 
include precautionary measures to respond to early 
warnings of  expected rainfall or shortages due to wind 
direction, the shape of  the crescent, and the behavior of  
certain animals (Mafongoya & Ajayi, 2017). 
According to Berkes (2012), these are reliable rainfall 
probability forecasts that farmers can use to plan their 
agricultural activities in order to reduce risk and increase 
productivity. Other indigenous practices include seed 
selection, in which the best seeds are carefully selected 
for the following harvest season because they believe 
they grow better with less rainfall (Chigavazira, 2012). 
Morton (2007) asserted that these procedures form a 
substantial body of  knowledge and skill used in methods 
for managing and enhancing crop production resilience, 
mitigating the effects of  climate change, and reducing the 
likelihood of  crop failure. By fusing several information 
systems, it is possible to minimize the effect of  irregular 
rainfall on food production.
Berkes, (2012) as part of  a community effort to address 
the effects of  climate change on small-scale farming, new 
and improved technologies, as well as financial resources, 
may be considered to improve the indigenous techniques 
used by farmers (Davis & Terblanché, 2016) Utilizing 
adaptation technology in agriculture entails using organic 
fertilizers to increase the fertility and moisture content 
of  the soil (Dejene et al., 2011). Ponge (2013), using 
traditional wisdom to increase crop output under irregular 
rainfall is possible, but it can only be successful when 
combined with appropriate current scientific technology 
interventions, like the use of  organic fertilizers and 
pesticides, and meteorological data

Stakeholders’ Participation in Adaptation Strategies 
to Climate Change 
Studies from around the world, particularly in the 
global south, have shown that the costs which comes 
with the finance of  adopting orthodex practices, land 
tenure rights, educational level, gender, climate, labor 
shortages, and water scarcity are all factors influencing 
the level of  adoption of  new practices among farmers 
(Wollenberg et al., 2012). Modern approaches and 
techniques in transforming agricultural systems are 
needed to significantly increase food security, build 
resilience and adapt to climate change which smallholder 

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farmers find it difficult to develop. The need for 
institutional collaboration will therefore be critical to the 
successful adoption and development of  all aspects of  
climate change adaptation through training and engaging 
with local communities (Bernier, & Haglund, 2013). 
According to Hodgson (2006), local and external actors 
interact as both formal and informal systems that include 
organizations, social and cultural norms, and conventions 
that improve adaptation strategies.
Institutions are important for climate change adaptation, 
especially local institutions that have related and know 
the peculiarities of  their environment. The contributions 
of  these institutions is demonstrated by their ability to 
develop innovations to adapt to changing climate stressors 
(Amaru & Chhetri, 2013; Chhetri et al., 2012; Rodima-
Taylor, Olwig, & Chhetri, 2012) and invariably provide 
links to access finance for smallholder farmers (Mccarthy, 
Lipper, & Branca, 2011). They play pivotal roles in the 
areas of  information gathering and dissemination, 
resource mobilization, and allocation (Agrawal, 2008).

Challenges of  adaptation Strategies to Climate 
Change 
Climate-related adaptation barriers are factors, conditions, 
or barriers that reduce the effectiveness of  adaptation 
strategies (Bryan, et al., 2009). Financial, sociocultural, 
institutional, informational, and technological barriers 
to climate adaptation strategies can be classified into this 
category (Bryan, et al., 2009). The issues of  inadequate 
financial facilities are significant impediments to 
farmers’ implementation of  climate adaptation strategies 
in Ethiopia. Other research indicates that financial 
constraints are the primary impediment to smallholder 
farmers’ adaptation to climate shocks in Sub-Saharan 
Africa (Bryan, et al., 2009).
Individual or group sociocultural beliefs, cultural 
practices, and worldviews all have a significant impact 
on how farmers perceive climate change and their 

subsequent coping strategies (Fosu- Mensah, 2012). 
Previous studies have found that people’s reactions to 
risk are heavily influenced by their pre-existing beliefs, 
values, and norms about the event. This means that 
people from different cultural backgrounds may react 
differently to the risks associated with the effects of  
climate change (Fosu- Mensah, 2012).  Institutions play 
an important role in developing communities capacity to 
respond to climate change, which can help shape social 
and individual interactions in society (Fosu- Mensah, 
2012).  According to the existing literature, institutional 
barriers are the primary constraint for publications 
on coping strategies (Moser & Ekstrom, 2010). Food 
security in Ghana and many other Sub-Saharan African 
communities is jeopardized due to a lack of  institutional 
capacity and food security policies and climate adaptation 
information (Moser & Ekstrom, 2010).
Access to information about extreme weather events is 
a powerful tool that can be used to improve household 
coping strategy adoption and implementation in Ghana. 
However, due to a lack of  suitable climate data, some 
climate projections in the country have been made. As 
a result, households rely on agroecological knowledge 
gained through personal experience (Antwi-Agyei, et al., 
2013). This knowledge has enabled farmers to develop 
complex mental models of  climate that may hurt their 
farming practices (Antwi-Agyei, et al., 2013). Improved 
technology, improved crop varieties, and irrigation 
technology development, for example, are critical for 
farmers’ adaptation to climate change. However, due to 
the limitations of  these technologies, farmers are forced 
to rely on indigenous technology to reduce the impacts 
of  climate change (Antwi-Agyei, et al., 2013).

METHODOLOGY 
Study Area 
The study was conducted in the Upper East Region of  
the Republic of  Ghana’s Bongo District. The Bongo 

Figure 1:District Map of  Bongo
Source: Bongo District Assembly, 2012

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District is one of  the Upper East Region’s 15 districts. It 
was established in 1988 by Legislative Instrument 1446 
(LI 1446), with Bongo as its capital. The district has 459.5 
square kilometers of  land area and is located between 
longitudes of  0.45° W and latitudes of  10.50° N and 
11.09° N. Burkina Faso borders the Bongo District to the 
north, Kassena-Nankana East to the west, Bolgatanga 
Municipal to the south, and Nabdam District to the east. 
The map of  the Bongo District is shown below.
It is located in the Northern Savannah Zone and has 
one rainy season. The severe drought that comes before 
the rain and the district’s rainfall is canceled out by the 
extremely high rate of  evaporation, which is estimated 
to be 168 cm per year. The vegetation is similar to that 
found in the Guinea Savannah. Rivers and streams dry 
up during the dry season and vegetation withers. Farming 
operations are halted during this time, and cattle starve to 
death, significantly reducing their weight and household 
income.

Study Design 
The study adopted the mixed-method approach. The 
use of  both methods aided the study in addressing 
any weaknesses that either approach might have. The 
qualitative study focuses on observations and interview 
content rather than specific details (Zikmund, 2000). 
Quantitative methods, on the other hand, emphasize 
objective measurements and statistical, mathematical, 
or numerical analysis of  data gathered through polls, 
questionnaires, and surveys, as well as by manipulating pre-
existing statistical data using computational techniques. 
Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data 
and generalizing it across groups of  people or explaining 
a particular phenomenon. (Babbie, 2010). To achieve the 
objectives of  the study; the approach helped explore how 
legume farmers have coped with the effects of  climate 
change threats on the production of  legume crops, a mixed 
method was carried out. Through direct communication 
with the legume farmers, data were gathered from three 
farming communities Nyariga, Vea and Gowrie that were 
randomly chosen for this qualitative study. 

Sampling Technique
A sampling technique refers to the method used to select 
samples from a target population. Examples include 
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, targeted 
sampling, and snowball sampling (Creswell, 2011). Multi-
level sampling is a sampling strategy (such as collecting 
participants for a study) used when researching very 
large populations. The overall population is divided 
into spontaneous clusters and sub-clusters from which 
researchers randomly select samples (Karma, 1999). A 
multistage sampling method was used for data collection. 
The Bong District as the study area was sampled, because 
of  its semi-arid nature. Again, the Bongo District is one of  
the most sensitive areas when it comes to climate change in 
the Savannah Ecological Zone. The Bongo district is one 
of  the districts that actively contribute to food production 

in the Upper East region, including legumes. The next 
step in the sample was to classify communities into area 
councils after obtaining a list of  those actively involved in 
legume production from the Ministry of  Agriculture. In 
addition, simple random sampling technique was used to 
select the three communities for investigation. A simple 
random sampling was performed by using the lottery 
method to select communities under the Bongo District 
by writing the names of  the communities on a piece 
of  paper a draw was made and the three communities 
selected were Nyariga, Vea and Gowrie.

Sample Size
The study uses a sample size of  70 farmers who have 
produced legumes for about ten years. A simple random 
sampling method was used to choose 17 households from 
Nyariga, 30 from Vea, and 23 households from Gowrie, 
respectively.  Details of  the sample size distribution are 
presented below;

Table 1: Determined Sample Size
Variables Communities No. of  Respondents

Sample size 
Determination

Nyariga 17
Gowrie 23
Vea 30

Total 3 70
Source: Field Survey (June 2022)

Data Collection
Data on the socio-demographic characteristics of  legume 
farmers, the effects of  climate change, indigenous 
knowledge, indigenous coping mechanisms, and modern 
coping strategies were collected. In each community, 
one focus group discussion was held, as well as five key 
informant interviews with three farmers, one agriculture 
extension officer, and one meteorologist from the 
regional meteorological department. For ten years, the 
Ghana Meteorological Service collected data on rainfall 
and temperature in the district. Crop yield data for the 
district over the last ten years was also obtained from the 
Ministry of  Agriculture (MoFA).

Data Analysis 
Thematic content analysis was used to analyze the data. 
The technique was used to find, examine, and report on 
data trends. The first step in the data analysis process was 
to understand the responses and implications from the 
participants’ perspectives. This procedure allowed the 
data to be coded and scored by counting the number 
of  times a specific subject was mentioned. After 
coding, themes and sub-themes were created. Finally, 
contextualizing and interpreting the data determined the 
extent to which the study problem was addressed. The 
final phase involved preparing the report and holding a 
follow-up meeting with the groups to communicate and 
confirm the study’s findings and ensure they accurately 
reflected the participants’ opinions.

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RESULTS
Demographic characteristics 
Table 2 below revealed that below 40% of  farmers in 
the study community are engaged in farming, while 
above 40% aged 35 to 60 are actively involved in legume 
production or farming. The data also revealed that below 
25% are involved in farming in the study communities. 
The data suggest that farming in the study area is labour 
intensive and this explained why those in the productive 
age group are involved in farming. In terms of  sex 
distribution, above 60% of  farmers were males in the 
study community, while below 40% were females. Though 
this does not correspondent with the 2010 population 
and housing outcomes which revealed there are more 
females than males in Ghana; it is largely because farming 
is a male-dominated activity in the study area as men have 
access to land and patrilineal ownership regimes, as well 
as farming being a household livelihood security, enjoined 

men to dominate. Data on household size revealed that 
below 30% in the study communities are averaging below 
5 and between 5 to 10 household sizes, respectively. It was 
also established that the majority of  the households in the 
study communities are 50% and above. This implies that 
the household size in the study community is large. This 
could be a result of  the extended family setting that is 
commonly practiced in the study area.
On education, above 50% of  farmers have received 
formal education in the study communities; while below 
50% have received one form of  education, thus basic, 
secondary, post-secondary, and tertiary, respectively. 
Junior High School education, while 16% received Senior 
High School education. The data further revealed above 
50% of  the farmers in the study area are living a married 
life, while below 30% were single. Besides, below 10% 
have been widowed or divorced respectively in the study 
communities.

Table 2: Demographic Characteristics of  Respondents
Variables Nyariga Gowrie Vea

Freq. Percent Freq. Percent Freq. Percent
Age 
<35 6 35 9 39 9 30
35 to 60 9 53 11 48 15 50
>60 and above 2 12 3 13 6 20
Sex
Male 11 65 15 65 21 70
Female 6 35 8 35 9 30
Household Size
<5 3 18 5 22 5 17
5 to 10 members 5 29 6 26 10 33
>10 9 53 12 52 15 50
Education
Basic Edu. 4 24 7 30 9 30
Secondary edu. 2 12 5 22 5 17
Post-sec./Tertiary 1 9 2 9 2 7
No formal 
education

10 59 9 39 14 47

Marital Status 
Single 5 29 5 22 4 13
Married 8 47 15 65 26 87
Divorced 2 12 1 4 0 0
Widowed 2 12 2 9 0 0

Source: Field Survey (June 2022)

Indigenous Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change 
on Legume Production
To provide an understanding of  adaptation strategies to 
climate change, the study examined the types of  legumes 
crops production in the study area. The data revealed 
that 41% constituting the majority cultivate groundnuts 
as their primary legume, while 35% of  farmers cultivate 

soya beans as a primary legume. Also, 12% cultivate 
Bambara beans, whereas 6% in the Nyariga community 
cultivate cowpea and beans, respectively. The data on 
legume crop production in Gowrie revealed that 39% 
of  farmers cultivate groundnuts, while 22% cultivate 
soya beans as a primary crop. The data also indicates that 
17% of  farmers cultivate Bambara beans, while 13% of  

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respondents indicated beans with only 9% of  farmers in 
Gowrie indicating cowpea. More, data on legume crop 
production in Vea revealed that 43% of  farmers cultivate 
groundnuts, while 33% of  farmers in Vea cultivate soya 

beans. Again, 10% of  farmers indicated cultivated beans, 
whereas 7% of  farmers cited Bambara beans with another 
7% indicating cowpea. Details on legume production are 
provided in table 3. 

In searching for a response on the type of  legume 
production in the local communities, the discussants 
provided various reasons. A discussant stated;
Groundnuts are a dominant crop majority of  farmers 
cultivate; considering the demand, right now a lot of  
companies visit our communities in search of  groundnuts 
and market women attract high interest in buying it; it is 
largely influenced by market availability and also based on 
the fact that the soil which is sandy support the cultivation 
of  such crop (A participant, Nyagri)

The views of  participants in the Focus group discussion 
in Gowrie also revealed that the majority of  farmers 
cultivate soya beans. A discussant held this view;
In the Gowrie community, most farmers cultivate 
groundnuts, it has high demand just as soya beans; 
groundnuts are our traditionally dominant primary legume 
we cultivate hear; women smallholders farmers, peasants, 
and other commercial farmers cultivate groundnuts (A 
discussant, Gowrie).
Data on the indigenous adaptation strategies to climate 

Table 3: Legumes Crops Production
Variables Nyariga Gowrie Vea

Freq. Percent Freq. Percent Freq. Percent
Legumes
Soya Beans 6 35 5 22 10 33
Groundnuts 7 41 9 39 13 43
Bambara Beans 2 12 4 17 2 7
Cowpea 1 6 2 9 2 7
Beans 1 6 3 13 3 10
Total 17 100 23 100 30 100
Source: Field Survey (June 2022)

change on legume production revealed mixed cropping, 
army warm infestation, crescent moon appearance, and 
agro-forestry. The communities’ indigenous adaptation 
strategies are learned and transmitted to the younger 
generation. The study revealed that 88% of  farmers in 
Nyariga practice mixed cropping (such as planting soya 
beans with beans) as an indigenous adaptation strategy, 
while 91% of  farmers in Gowrie pants groundnuts and 
beans as mixed cropping with 90% of  farmers in Vea 
plants soya beans and beans as mixed cropping farming 

as an indigenous adaptation strategy. Furthermore, 
59% of  farmers in Nyariga, 65% in Gowrie, and 90% 
in Vea indicated they cultivate legumes such as soya 
beans, groundnuts, cowpea, and beans, while at the same 
time keep farm animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and 
poultry birds including chickens, guinea fowls, ducks 
and turkeys as livelihood diversification. In addition, the 
table indicates that 71% (Nyariga) 65% (Gowrie) and 
67% Vea believe the appearance of  the crescent moon 
at a particular time is a sign of  a good farming season. 

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The data further revealed that 88% of  farmers in Nyariga 
believe army warm infestation has a trend in production 
outputs and for that matter, they turned to prepare for the 
farming season when the infestation is observed. Again, 
87% in Gowrie and 50% in Vea also share the same view 
regarding army worm infestation.  The study revealed 
that 29% 0f  the respondent from Nyariga indicated that 
they practice agro-forestry as an adaptation strategy to 
climate change, while 24% from Gowrie agreed with 
the adaptation of  agro-forestry, with 30% from Vea also 
agreeing to agro-forestry. Details are provided in Table 4.
 In soliciting participants’ views during Focus Group 
Discussions (FGD) at Gowrie participants indicated that 
the use of  indigenous adaptation strategies is essential to 
the production of  legumes. A participant has this to say;
Over the years, most farmers have been cultivating two 
or more crops on the same piece of  land. We believe 
that not all crops could do well at the same time and so 
having a variety of  crops planted, one could gain from 
crops that did not go bad. When one cultivates maize, 
beans, and soya beans are often introduced to the farm. 
Our experience in farming also shows that legumes such 
as beans, soya beans, pepper, etc do not need much of  
the modern fertilizer to develop and so it is easy and 

cost-effective to engage in the farming of  legumes (A 
discussant Gowrie)
When asked about the relevance of  the indigenous 
adaptation strategies to climate change on legume 
production, discussants in Vea indicated the importance 
cannot be overemphasized. A middle-aged farmer 
indicated that the experience and test of  the indigenous 
strategies for climate change adaptation have produced 
results repeatedly . A discussant indicated;
Indigenous adaptation strategies to climate change are a 
product of  local knowledge systems and it is transmitted 
through daily experience and observation of  events. 
We are happy because, it goes to confirm with modern 
understanding of  climate change scenarios (A participant, 
Vea)
The views of  participants in the Focus group discussion 
in Nyariga also revealed the same position of  their 
colleague farmer respondents in the other communities. 
A discussant held this position; For me, it is important 
to acknowledge the fact that mixed cropping has been 
one of  the best adaptation strategies. It has helped many 
farmers to have more produce. I have been practicing 
mixed cropping and it is good, other farmers are equally 
doing the same (A discussant, Nyariga).

Table 4: Indigenous Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change on Legume Production  
Variables Nyariga Gowrie Vea

Freq. Percent Freq. Percent Freq. Percent
Mixed cropping
Yes 15 88 21 91 27 90
No 2 12 2 9 3 10
Mixed farming 
Yes 10 59 15 65 25 83
No 7 41 8 35 5 17
Armyworm infestation
Yes 15 88 20 87 15 50
No 2 12 3 13 15 50
Tree Planting (agro-forestry)
Yes 5 29 6 26 9 30
No 12 71 17 74 21 70
Source: Field Survey (June 2022)

Modern Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change on 
legume production
The study also examined the modern adaptation 
strategies to climate change on legume production. The 
study revealed that 71% of  farmers in Nyariga, 62% in 
Gowri, and 47% in Vea indicated they rely on the Ghana 
metrological agency weather forecast for the result. This 
helped in their effective planning to climate change 
scenarios. Also, integrated soil fertility management 
(fertilization application) appears to be the second most 
common modern adaptation strategy. This view is held 
by 16% of  farmers in Gowri, 21% in Vea, and 28% in 
Nyariga. 

More so, below 20% of  farmers, in the study communities 
indicated the practice of  plowing in rolls as a modern 
adaptation strategy to climate change. Further findings 
revealed that 10% of  farmers in Nyariga used improved 
seed, with 5% in Gowri and Vea respectively practicing 
fallowing of  land. The data implies that the legume 
farmers in the Bongo West District used forecasting and 
fertilizer application as modern adaptation strategies to 
climate change.
In finding answers to the question of  modern adaptation 
strategies to climate change on legume production during 
Focus Group Discussions, participants indicated the use 
of  chemical and weather forecasting as information is 

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critical to agronomical activities. At Nyariga, a farmer 
revealed that;
“the continuous farming on the same piece of  land has 
led to low crop yield, so fertilizer application has become 
a major part of  soil nutrient management; again we rely 
on the weather forecast information to understand rainfall 
patterns and early warning signs regarding drought or 
flooding’’ (Farmer, Nyariga).

Adaptation Strategies to climate change by Local 
Stakeholders
In the Bong District, many local actors play a critical 
part in adaptation strategies. Farmers, farmer unions, 
Tendaanas, households, community volunteers, and 
diviners are major local players in implementing 
adaptation strategies at the community level. The data 
revealed farmer and household responsibilities are rated 
as highly effective, while the contribution of  Tendaana, 
community volunteers, and diviners was also rated as 

effective. Details are provided in Table 5.
Discussants indicate that there are local stakeholders 
in their communities that are immensely contributing 
to adaptation strategies to climate change on legume 
production. They indicated that farmers, farmer unions, 
tendaanas, and household members are local actors who 
play a crucial role in ensuring climate change adaptation. 
It was revealed that farmers took charge of  major 
decisions regarding cropping and farmland management. 
This is what a discussant stated:
‘’… In terms of  key actors in this community, we (farmers) 
are in charge of  all decisions regarding land preparation 
and cropping; the chiefs and opinion and Tendaanas, and 
diviners play a part in terms of  the indigenous approach 
to climate change adaptation on legume production; the 
share experiences on signs and revelations that could 
influence farmers decision to respond to climate change 
adaptation strategies (A discussant, Nyariga).

Figure 3: Modern Adaptation Strategy to Climate Change. Source: Field Survey (June 2022)

Table 4: Indigenous Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change on Legume Production  
S/N Stakeholders Duties Findings Effectiveness 

Highly 
Effective

Effective Less 
Effective 

1 Farmers *Preparing farmland No issue regarding 
land ownership 

*Decision regarding 
crops to be cultivated 
*In charge of  securing 
seed & inputs for crops 

2 Tendaana/ 
Earth priest

*Link between the living 
and ancestors

Interceding for rains or 
averting curse

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Modern Stakeholders in Adaptation Strategies to 
Climate Change
This section examines the role of  external stakeholders 
in contributing to climate change adaptation strategies. 
These external stakeholders are established by law and 
are either government establishments or private entities. 
The Bongo District Assembly, Ghana Metrological 
Agency, National Disaster Management Organization 
(NADMO), Water Resources Commission, and Ministry 
of  Food and Agriculture, are government institutions, 
while non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are 
formed by private individuals. Modern stakeholders exist 
to empower or complement local stakeholders in initiating 
and practicing adaptation strategies to climate change. 
The study revealed that 65% of  farmers in Nyariga rely on 
agri-extension services for adaptation practices, whereas 
71% of  farmers in Gowrie also depend on the MoFA 
extension services, with 69% of  respondents in Vea also 
sharing the same opinion. Again, the Ghana Metrological 

agency’s role in weather forecasting is a major source 
of  information for adaptation practices. This view was 
held by 15% of  respondents from Nyariga, 12% from 
Gowrie, and 21% in Vea. Further findings also indicate 
that the Bongo District Assembly, National Association 
of  Disaster Management Organization, and World Vision 
Internation play a part as stakeholders in adaptation 
strategies to climate change (Refer Figure. 4).
Discussants also noted that the role of  the Department 
of  Food and Agriculture under the Ministry of  Food 
and Agriculture in giving support services to extension 
officers is significant. A discussant stated;
“ We have an extension officer who meets us the farmers, 
legumes, maize, rice, and other cereal farmers; the officer 
has been periodically visiting our farms and educating us 
on best agricultural practices. Through such engagement, 
we are motivated to adopt best practices to increase crop 
yield (A discussant, Vea).”

3 Community 
volunteers

Participate in 
implementing community 
decision 

Ability to sustainably 
implement initiative

4 Households Support in farming 
activities

Source of  labour √

5 Farmer 
groups

Working together 
to improve legume 
production 

Collaborating with 
external stakeholders 

√

6 Diviners Spiritual verifications of  
occurrences and events 

Giving direction to 
avert crisis

√

Source: Field Survey (June 2022)

Figure 4: Modern Stakeholders to Adaptation Strategy to Climate Change

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Challenges to Indigenous Climate Change 
Adaptation Strategies
Farmers respond to climate change in different ways. 
Farmers face a variety of  challenges as they develop 
strategies to deal with the effects of  extreme weather 
events, ranging from personal to institutional constraints. 
Five constraints were identified based on the literature 
and focus group interactions with respondents revealed 
the introduction of  new faiths, the uncoordinated 
nature of  indigenous strategies, the mindset of  the new 
generation, the lack of  documentation, and limited / no 
integration of  indigenous adaptation strategies to modern 
practices as challenges to climate change adaptation. 
The data revealed that 41% of  respondents indicated 
the issue of  limited or absence of  merger of  local 
adaptation strategies to climate change as a major setback 
to the indigenous approaches. It was further uncovered 
that the introduction of  new belief  systems (Islam 
and Christianity) have also weakened traditional belief  
systems including norms, taboos, and superstitions, which 

adversely affect local adaptation strategies, this view was 
held by 28% of  respondents. Also, 15% of  respondents 
attributed the weakness of  indigenous adaptation 
strategies to the mindset of  the new generation of  
farmers, as they have confidence in modern approaches 
to adaptation to climate change. In addition, 9% of  
farmers also cited a lack of  documentation of  indigenous 
adaptation strategies as a setback, while 7% expressed 
worry about the uncoordinated nature of  indigenous 
adaptation strategies to climate change. 
The result from the Focus group discussion also revealed 
that inadequate attention given to indigenous adaptation 
strategies is one major factor identified. A discussant 
revealed this; “it is obvious that limited attention is 
placed on the indigenous adaptation strategies to climate 
change among legume farmers; We (farmers) are shifting 
focus to depending on weather forecasting and fertilizer 
application to the detriment of  making good use of  
indigenous adaptation strategies which are long age 
practices (A discussant, Gowrie).”

Figure 5: Challenges to Indigenous Climate Change Adaptation Strategies 

Challenges to Orthodex/Modern Adaptation Strategies 
to Climate Change
The table below (Table 5) revealed that poor extension 
service (39%) is the major challenge associated with 
modern adaptation strategies to climate change. This was 
followed by the high cost of  agronomical inputs (36%). 
Also, 11% cited poor access to metrological service, while 
7% attributed inadequate access to drought-resistant 
varieties and the high cost of  technological service, 
respectively. 
Probing further in focus group discussions, participants 
shared similar views with respondents. The issue of  poor 
extension service, high cost of  inputs, and inadequate 
access to metrological information were identified as 

major challenges. One discussant in Nyariga stated;
Although we have the agriculture officers coming around 
occasionally, there is too much pressure because he has 
many communities to cover; it is very difficult to reach out 
to him at all times. Again, his work is not supported with 
adequate electronic tools for us to further appreciated 
extension service and knowledge sharing. 
Another discussant added;
The cost of  inputs is another issue of  concern, the prices 
of  fertilizer are on the high side and the lands have lost 
their nutrients, so inputs have become a preferred option 
for soil fertility management, the cost of  it is a challenge 
to farmers (a discussant Gowrie). 

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Table 5: Challenges of  the Modern Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change 
Variable Response Frequency (N= 70) Percent (%)
Challenges of  modern 
adaptation strategies to 
climate change

Poor access to Metrological information 8 11
High cost of  agronomical inputs 25 36
Poor extension service 27 39
Inadequate drought-resistant varieties 5 7
High cost of  technological service 5 7

Total 70 100
Source: Field Survey (June 2022)

DISCUSSIONS
The study established three key issues- adaptation 
strategies to climate change, stakeholder participation 
in adaptation strategies, and challenges of  adaptation 
strategies to climate change. This is based on the fact that 
climate change variability affects legume production in the 
Bongo District. The study revealed that mixed cropping 
and mixed farming are predominant adaptation strategies 
to climate change among legume farmers. These findings 
are synonymous with the view held by Rankoana (2016) 
who indicated that legume farmers diversify crops by 
planting more than one type of  crop to reduce the risk of  
one crop failure. Regarding modern adaptation strategies, 
forecasting and the use of  improved seed variety were 
identified as contemporary adaptation strategies. These 
findings also align with Berkes (2012), who expressed the 
opinion that legume farms depend on weather forecasting 
as an adaptation measure. Again, the view that improved 
variety has recently become an appropriate adaptation 
strategy is also in conformity with Dejene’s (2011) work 
where he stated that fertilizer application contributes to 
enriching soil fertility as it maintains moisture content. 
As a result of  this, there is a need for the Bongo District 
Assembly to inculcate already adaptation strategies for 
climate change action planning.
The study also identified local actors including legume 
farmers, households, and Priest as some stakeholders 
in adaptation strategies to climate change, while the 
Ministry of  Food and Agriculture, the Bongo District 
Assembly, and the Ghana Metrological Agency were 
also identified as modern actors in climate change 
adaptation strategies. The findings uncover that legume 
farmers lead intake decisions regarding cultural farming 
practices, including land preparation and cropping. The 
provision of  extension service and formation on weather 
forecasting are equally facilitated by the Ministry of  Food 
and Agriculture and the Ghana Metrological Agency, 
respectively. These findings agree with Hodgson, (2006) 
who indicated that local and external actors worked 
as both formal and informal systems and encompass 
organizations, and social and cultural norms to ensure 
effective adaptation strategies.
On challenges to adaptation strategies to climate 
change, the study identified limited or no integration 
of  indigenous strategies to modern adaptation practices 
and the introduction of  new belief  systems (Islam 

and Christianity) has also weakened farmers’ ability to 
prioritize indigenous adaptation strategies to climate 
change. These findings support the position of  Fosu- 
Mensah (2012), who held that sociocultural constraints 
including beliefs, cultural practices, and worldviews of  
individuals or groups greatly influence how farmers 
respond to climate change adaptation strategies. Findings 
also revealed that poor extension service and weak access 
to weather forecasting information are stumbling blocks 
to modern adaptation strategies to climate change. This 
also brings to bear the contribution of  Antwi-Agyei, et al., 
(2013) as they held the position that the lack of  suitable 
climate data has resulted in some climate projections 
in the country, causing legume farmers to rely on agro-
ecological knowledge based on their own experience.

CONCLUSION 
The conclusion arrived at from the findings/result from 
the study is that mixed cropping, mixed farming, and 
crescent mood prediction are the dominant indigenous 
adaptation strategies to climate change regarding legume 
production. More so, weather forecasting, integrated 
soil fertility management, and the use of  improved seed 
variety were identified as modern adaptation strategies to 
climate change concerning legume production.
Findings on local stakeholders’ participation in indigenous 
adaptation strategies identified legume farmers, household 
members as labour sources, and earth priests as major 
actors, while the Ministry of  Food and Agriculture 
(MoFA), Ghana Metrological Agency, and Bongo District 
Assembly (BDA) were identified as modern stakeholders 
participating in adaptation strategies. Further findings 
revealed that inadequate integration of  indigenous 
adaptation strategies to modern approaches, new belief  
systems and mindset of  the new generation farmers are 
constraining factors to indigenous adaptation practices 
to climate change, while poor extension service, cost 
of  chemical inputs, and inadequate access to drought-
resistant varieties were identified as challenges to modern 
adaptation strategies to climate change. 
There is a need for stakeholders such as the Environmental 
Protection Agency (EPA), the Ghana Tourism Authority 
(GTA), and the District Assembly to engage fringe 
communities on developing and sustaining the identified 
natural resources into attractive avenues.
The local and external stakeholders should establish a 

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strong bond of  coordination for effective governance of  
natural resources in the Wa West District.
The study’s findings have brought to light the adaptation 
strategies to climate change of  legume production in 
the Bongo District. It implies that there is a need to 
design and implement relevant programs by concerned 
agencies to minimize climate change’s effects on legume 
production. 

RECOMMENDATION
The following recommendations based on the findings 
as outlined may be relevant in designing programs and 
policies to ensure adaptation to climate change in the 
Bongo District.
The Ministry of  Food and Agriculture should consider 
introducing a drought-resistant variety of  soya beans and 
groundnuts to legume farmers in the Bongo District to 
boast production. 
It is also important for the Ministry of  Food and 
Agriculture, Ghana Metrological Agency, and Bongo 
District Assembly to mainstream indigenous adaptation 
strategies into climate change actions, plans, and 
communication.
There is a need for the Ministry of  Food and Agriculture, 
Bongo District Assembly, and World Vision International 
as a Non-governmental Organization (NGO) to build the 
capacities of  local communities to effectively developed 
indigenous adaptation strategies to an appreciable level.
The local and external stakeholders should establish a 
strong bond of  coordination for effective adaptation to 
climate change practices in the Bongo District.
The Bongo District Assembly should engage local 
communities to develop sustainable adaptation plans for 
climate change.
There Ministry of  Food and Agriculture should consider 
posting more agriculture extension officers to the Bongo 
District for effective support services given the adaptation 
mechanism. 
There Ghana Metrological agency should also consider 
working closely with farmer volunteers to facilitate 
information dissemination to legume producers.

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