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American Journal of  
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Microbial Fuel Cell Bio-Remediation of  Lambda Cyhalothrin, Malathion and 
Chlorpyrifos on Loam Soil Inoculated with Bio-Slurry
Kinyua A.1, Mbugua J.K1*, Mbui D.N2, Kithure J.L2, Wandiga S.O2, Waswa A.G3

Volume 1 Issue 1, Year 2022
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v1i1.249
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: May 10, 2022

Accepted: May 22, 2022

Published: May 25, 2022

In microbial fuel cell technology, the substrate is consumed by microbes in anaerobic 
conversion of  substrate to electricity. Bio-remediation of  pollutants involves microbial 
environmental cleanup using green approach. The primary problems with pesticides are 
linked to the non-negligible proportion of  the sprayed active ingredient that does not reach 
its intended target thereby contaminating environmental compartments persistently. The 
primary objective of  this study was to assess the potential of  microbial fuel cell technology 
in bio-remediation of  lambda cyahlothrin, chlorpyrifos and malathion in Limuru loam soil. 
H-shaped double chamber microbial fuel cell was fabricated where the anodic chamber 
was loaded with 750 mL loam soil inoculated with 750 mL bio-slurry doped with 10 
mL of  10 ppm lambda cyhalothrin, chlorpyrifos and malathion pesticide solutions. The 
cathodic chamber was loaded with 1500 mL distilled water. The setup was incubated for a 
90 days retention time where voltage and current were recorded daily using a multi-meter. 
The degradation level was assessed using a GC-MS after sample extraction using standard 
QuEChERs method. The voltage generated from the pesticide doped loam soil showed an 
upward trend from day 0 to day 15 in lambda cyhalothrin and malathion and from day 0 to 
day 20 in chlorpyrifos and pesticide mixture after which constant readings were observed 
for three days with downward trends thereafter. The maximum generated voltage was 0.537 
V, 0.571 V, 0.572 V and 0.509 V in chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and pesticide 
mix (MCL) respectively.   The bioremediation levels for chlorpyrifos and malathion were 
65.80 % and 71.32 %, respectively while no detectable, lambda cyhalothrin was observed 
after day 60 of  the study. This study concludes that bioremediation of  lambda cyhalothrin, 
chlorpyrifos and malathion in Limuru loam soil can be achieved using microbial fuel cells.

Keywords

Bioremediation, Bio-slurry, 
Loam soil, Microbial Fuel Cells, 
Pesticides

1, 2 Department of  Chemistry, University of  Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.
3 Department of  Physical Sciences, South Eastern Kenya University, Kitui, Kenya.
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: djames085@gmail.com 

INTRODUCTION
Agricultural pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, and 
heavy metals (HMs) have drastically degraded the quality 
of  soils, thereby presenting serious danger to health and 
environment (Rodríguez-Eugenio et al., 2018). Urgent 
efforts are needed to treat the contaminated soils to 
minimize further damage. One of  the sustainable and 
environment-friendly approaches is the use of  microbial 
bio-surfactants that can deliver an economically feasible 
bio-remediation technique to restore polluted areas 
(Fatima et al., 2022).
Pesticides are chemical or biological substances that 
are used to kill or destroy pests that interfere with crop 
production (Gilden, 2010). These pesticides are applied 
to prevent diseases, suppress weeds as well as kill pests. 
In the soil, they can transform to complex metabolites 
(Doolotkeldieva et al., 2018). Some of  the pesticides 
commonly used in “container gardens” are lambda 
cyhalothrin, malathion and chlorpyrifos (Mbugua et al., 
2015). Pesticide degradation refers to transformation 
of  complex parental pesticide molecule into simpler 
by-products which may be non-toxic or still toxic as the 
original molecule from which they were derived from 
(WHO, 2007). There are number of  processes that 
break down pesticides in the environment, these include 
photo-degradation and hydrolysis just to mention a few. 
Microbes such as fungi and bacteria (Vargas, 1975) have 

also been reported to aid pesticides degradation. For 
example, insecticides such as parathion (O, O-diethyl-
O-P-nitrophenylphosphorothiate) is extensively used 
and undergoes enzymatic hydrolysis to produce p-nitro 
phenol, which further hydrolyses to produce nitrous acid 
and hydroquinone which is a metabolic intermediate. 2, 
4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-D) bio-degrades to 
produce phenolic compounds such as 2, 4-dichlorophenol 
and 4-chloro-2-hydroxyphenol (Sánchez-González et al., 
2018). Chemical pollutants can adversely affect human 
and environmental health. In sediments, pollutants such 
as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy 
metals and pesticides have the potential to exert an 
array of  toxic effects on susceptible organisms. Certain 
chemicals including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane 
(DDT), various pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting 
agents (ex. nonylphenol) are recalcitrant in sediments, 
complicating removal (Rodríguez-Eugenio et al., 2018). 
Agents such as dioxins bio-accumulate in plant and 
animal tissues used for human consumption (Pisciotta 
and Dolceamore, 2016). Microbial-bioremediation 
process utilizes the indigenous microbial communities 
to clean up the environmental contamination. The rate 
at which the contaminants are detoxified depends on 
a number of  factors such as the composition of  the 
indigenous microbial communities, nature, and extent of  
the pollutant and environmental conditions (Ghosal et al., 

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Am. J. Environ. Clim. 1(2) 34-41, 2022

2016). Microorganisms transformation of  toxic pollutants 
into less or more-toxic forms or total mineralization 
yielding water and either carbon dioxide or methane 
can be identified as biodegradation (Hutchinson et al., 
2001; Singh and Ward, 2004). As far as the mechanism 
of  microbial degradation of  contaminants like pesticides 
is concerned, most of  the microorganisms consume the 
contaminants as their energy or nutrient sources. They 
degrade some pollutants in order to gain nutrients or 
energy released during the breaking down of  chemical 
bonds. Optimization and control of  bioremediation is 
a complex procedure driven by many factors (Das and 
Dash, 2014; Laurent et al., 2021). The efficiency of  the 
bio-remediation of  pollutants is highly influenced by 
some factors. For example, the presence of  microbial 
population with bioremediation ability is the major 
factors (Das and Dash, 2014) and the availability of  
sufficient concentration of  pollutant or toxic compounds 
that can be utilized by microorganisms for their nutrients 
or energy needs is one of  the most important factor 
that affects bio-remediation potential (Boopathy, 2000; 
Singh and Ward, 2004). “Temperature, pH, availability 
of  oxygen” or any other electron acceptors (Boopathy, 
2000; Singh and Ward, 2004; Das and Dash, 2014), 
redox potential (Eh), salinity (Aislabie & Lloyd-Jones, 
1995; Boopathy, 2000), and moisture content (Aislabie 
& Lloyd-Jones, 1995; Singh et al., 2013; Das and Dash, 
2014) are major environmental factors that directly 
affect the bioremediation potential. In addition to the 
major limitations that occurred due to inappropriate bio-
availability, substrate and environmental factors, some 
other limiting factors can also be identified. Among 
them, the Cost-benefit ratio may also be a limitation for 
the bioremediation process (Varshney, 2019). Moreover, 
environmental disruptions may also become a limitation. 
For instance, when microorganisms are introduced to a 
natural land for the purpose of  bioremediation, this can 
be disruptive to some other beneficial organisms due to 
the competition for nutrients or any other interactions 
among them (Randika et al., 2022). Therefore, in this 
study we assess the potential of  microbial fuel cell 
technology in bio-remediation of  lambda cyhalothrin, 
chlorpyrifos and malathion in Limuru loam soil.

METHODOLOGY
The procedure used to carry out loam soil analysis and 
bioremediation of  the pesticide residues is explained in 
this section.
Loam Soil Analysis 
Available nutrient elements (P, K, Na, Ca, Mg and 
Mn): Mehlich Double Acid Method 
(Tran & Simard, 1993, Mehlich, A. 1953)
The oven-dry soil samples were extracted in 1:5 ratios 
(w/v) with a mixture of  0.1 N HCl from Kobian 
distributors and 0.025 N H2SO4 (Tran & Simard, 1993). 
A flame photometer was used in determination of  K, Ca 
and Na while calorimetrically was used in determination 
of  P, Mg and Mn (Mehlich, 1953).

Total organic carbon: Calorimetric method (Gislason 
& Craig, 2005)
All organic C in the soil sample is oxidized by acidified 
dichromate at 1500C for 30minutes to ensure complete 
oxidation. Barium chloride was added to the cool 
digests. After mixing thoroughly, digests are allowed 
to stand overnight. The concentration is read on the 
spectrophotometer at 600 nm.
Total nitrogen: Kjeldahl method (Persson et al., 2008)
Soil samples were digested with concentrated sulphuric 
acid containing potassium sulfate, selenium and copper 
sulfate hydrated at approximately 350 0C. Total N is 
determined by distillation, followed by titration with 
H2SO4.
Soil pH (1:1 soil-water)
Soil pH was determined in a 1:1 (w/v) soil-water 
suspension using a high precision pen type Gray348697 
pH meter with 0.01pH resolution , 0-80 0C operating 
temperature and 2 by 1.5 V power supply.
Available trace elements (Fe, Zn & Cu) Extraction 
with 0.1 M HCl
The oven-dry soil samples are extracted in a 1:10 ratio 
(w/v) with 0.1 M HCl. The elements are determined using 
an atomic absorption flame emission spectrophotometer 
(AAS). 
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) pH 7.0 and 
Exchangeable Ca, Mg, K and Na
The soil sample was leached with 1N ammonium 
acetate buffered at pH 7. The leachate was analyzed for 
exchangeable Ca, Mg, K and Na. The sample was further 
leached with 1N KCl, and the leachate is used for the 
determination of  the CEC. Elements such as Na and K 
were being determined with a flame photometer and Ca 
and Mg with AAS (atomic absorption spectrophotometer). 
CEC is determined by distillation, followed by titration 
with 0.01M HCl (Turner & Clark, 1966). 
Microbial Fuel Cells Construction
Two 1.2 liter containers were prepared as anode and 
cathode chambers. Two small holes were made on the 
caps of  the containers to insert the wire through. One 
end of  the copper wire was attached to 5.7 cm long and 
0.7 cm diameter graphite rod electrodes. A salt bridge 
was prepared using 2.5 litres of  1M NaCl, 3% agarose 
solution and lamp wicks. The wicks were boiled in NaCl 
and 3% agarose solution for 10 minutes after which it was 
kept in the freezer at -4°C for solidification. The solidified 
salt bridge was passed through PVC pipes and attached to 
the chambers using an adhesive, which makes them leak-
proof. The electrodes used in this study were spent battery 
carbon rods stuck together using a zero-resistance copper 
wire as shown in figure 1. The carbon rods were obtained 
from batteries after which they we thoroughly cleaned 
using water and later scrub using a sand paper. They 
were then socked in concentrated Sulphuric acid for 24 
hours before stacking them together. The electrodes had 
a 0.00399 m2 operating surface area. The assembly of  the 
H-shaped MFC was done, as shown in figure 1 as earlier 
described by Kamau et al., 2018. A digital voltmeter was 

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Am. J. Environ. Clim. 1(2) 34-41, 2022

Figure 1. Set-up of  H-shaped microbial fuel cells with a 
multi-meter 

attached to the copper wires from the cathodic and anodic 
chambers, and the voltage and current were monitored 
daily (Mbugua et al., 2022; Kinyua et al., 2022b).

Bio-remediation studies 
The microbial bio-remediation study involved 
investigation of  efficiency of  microbial fuel cells in 
degradation of  lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and 
chlorpyrifos pesticide residues. The anodic chamber was 
fed with 750 g loam soil (previously analysed) inoculated 
with 750 mL bio-slurry from a running biogas digester 

spiked with 10 mL, of  100 ppm lambda cyhalothrin, 
malathion and Chlorpyrifos and a mixture solution of  
lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and Chlorpyrifos.(Mbugua 
et al., 2022; Kinyua et al., 2022a).  The degradation levels 
were determined by measuring the concentration of  
the pesticide after every 5 days for 90 days. The Voltage 
and current generated were recorded on daily basis. The 
degradation levels were determined by measuring the 
concentration of  the pesticide after every 5 days for 90 
days.  The pesticides after degradation were extracted 
using the standard QuEChERS method (Anastassiades et 
al., 2003). The sample extracts were placed onto a tray for 
automated GC/MS analysis as described by (Amirahmadi 
et al., 2013). The Voltage and current generated were 
recorded on daily basis. The control experiment was run 
by loading the loam soil into the anodic chamber and 
reading the daily voltage and current for 90 days. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Loam soil properties
The macro and micro properties of  the loam soil used in 
this study is shown in table 1. From the analysis, the soil 
pH was in the range of  6.5 -6.8 ±0.51 while the electrical 
conductivity of  this soil was 0.03±0.01 ms/cm. 

Table 1: The properties of  the loam soil

Profile Properties Profile Properties

Soil depth cm Top Calcimn milli-equivalent% 44.4±2.11

Soil pH-H20 (1:2.5) 6.5±0.51 Magnesium me% 3.1±0 .09

Elect . Cond. ms/cm 0.3±0.01 Potassium me% 1.5±0 .66

Carbon % 2.7±0.32 Sodium me% 3.6±1.11

Sand % 40±3.56 Sum me% 52.6±3.44

Silt % 40±4.55 Base % 100+

Clay % 20±2.88 ESP 14.4±6.74

Textm·e Class Loam Total nitrogen % 0.25±0.08

Cat. Exch. Capacity. me% 24 .8±2.67 Phosphorns ppm 44± 5.00

Zinc ppm 62 .9± 10.22 Iron ppm 96.2± 12.90

Copper ppm 1.22±0.11 me is milli- equivalent

The loam soil was top soil collected about 1-2 cm deep. 
The organic matter was removed from the surface before 
sampling. The cation exchange capacity of  the loam soil 
was 24.8±2.67 while carbon levels were 2.70±0.32 %. The 
microbes use carbon as source of  nutrient and energy and 
therefore soil carbon is a very important parameter in soil 
analysis. Soil quality does not depend just on the physical, 
physico-chemical and chemical properties of  soil but 
closely linked to the soil microbiological properties (Elliot 
et al., 1996). Microorganisms are vital for soil fertility and 
for the degradation of  organic matter and pollutants in 
soils. Some of  the important biosurfactant-synthesizing 
bacterial species include Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus 

sp., Acinetobacter sp., Stenotrophomonas sp., and 
Burkholderia sp. The bacterial biosurfactants increase the 
rate of  biodegradation of  hydrophobic (insoluble) organic 
pollutants such as pesticides and petroleum in the soil or 
enhance the removal of  heavy metals through a series of  
modes of  action such as increasing their mobility, micelle 
formation, and increasing bioavailability to bacteria-
degrading microorganisms (Fatima et al., 2022) Microbial 
biomass in soil is considered as an important attribute 
of  soil quality (Doran and Parkin, 1994). It serves as a 
measure of  potential biological activity and its dynamic 
changes help in understanding the processes involved 
in nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning (Rath et 

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al., 1998). Pal et al., (2006) reviewed of  the information 
available in the literature highlighting the various soil 
properties, which influence the degradation of  pesticides. 
The extent of  biodegradability depends upon the 
chemical structure of  the pesticides and the soil physico-
chemical properties. They also noted that soil microbial 
components largely govern pesticide degradation in soil. 
The graph obtained from plots of  current and voltage of  
the control (loam soil) data is shown in figure 2. The daily 
voltage showed a slow upward trend for the first twenty 
days with steep increase of  voltage for eight days before it 
started to drop. Similar results were obtained for current 
since both current and voltage are relates proportionally 
according to Ohms law.

Figure 2: Plots of  voltage and current generated from 
the loam soil
Current generation means that the soil micro-organisms 
are breaking down the carbon in the soil thereby 
generation an electron (current). The slow increase 
in current and voltage is explained by the fact that the 
microbes were in aerobic conditions before sampling and 
therefore takes time to adapt to the anaerobic setup in the 
anodic chamber (Mbugua et al., 2022). On full adaptation 
(day 20), the rate of  electron increases subsequently 
increasing the voltage and current generation. On 
depletion of  the available carbon in the soil, the microbes 
start dying and therefore a voltage and current drop is 
observed. Similar results had been obtained using market 
wastes like avocado and tomato by Kamau et al., 2018. In 
other studies, by Kinyua et al., 2022b and  and Imwene 
et al., 2021 using tomato and cabbages as substrates, the 
voltage and current increased as observed in this study. 
The voltage and current means were used calculations of  
power, current and power density using equations 1 to 3, 
respectively The plots of  power and current density are 

shown in figure 3. Similar to plots of  current and voltage, 
the power density increased with retention time. The 
current and power density shows the current and power 
per electrode surface area and mostly used to show the 
efficiency of  microbial fuel cell in electricity generation. 

Figure 3: Plots of  power and current density with 
retention time 
The bio-remediation levels for chlorpyrifos and 
malathion were 65.80 % and 71.32 %, respectively while 
no detectable, lambda cyhalothrin was observed after day 
60 of  the study (figure 4). The voltage generated from the 
pesticide doped loam soil showed an upward trend from 
day 0 to day 15 in lambda cyhalothrin and malathion and 
from day 0 to day 20 in chlorpyrifos and MCL mixture 
after which constant readings were observed for three 
days with downward trends thereafter. The maximum 
generated voltage was 0.537 V, 0.571 V, 0.572 V and 0.509 
V in chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and 
MCL respectively.  A clearer illustration is shown using 
3D plots of  voltage generated against degradation levels 
with retention time for the three pesticides. The 3D plot 
of  pesticides Concentration, Voltage and Retention Time 
in loam soil is shown by figures 5, 6 and 7. The observed 

Figure 4: Daily voltage generated cabbage doped with 
Chlorpyrifos, Lambda Cyhalothrin, Malathion and 
pesticide mix

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Figure 5: A 3D plot of  chlorpyrifos Concentration, 
Voltage and Retention Time in loam soil

Figure 6: A 3D plot of  lambda cyhalothrin 
Concentration, Voltage and Retention Time in loam soil

Figure 7: A 3D plot of  malathion Concentration, 
Voltage and Retention Time in loam soil
degradation levels were 79.32 %, 99.90 % and 78.20 % in 
chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhaolthrin, malathion, respectively 
as shown in figure 5-7, respectively.

DISCUSSIONS 
Current and voltage generation is an indication of  

substrate breakdown by microbes in anaerobic anodic 
chamber of  microbial fuel cells. The rate of  current 
generation shows the rate at which microbes are degrading 
the substrate/carbon releasing electrons. (Kamau et al., 
2018).   The current generated in this study as per figure 
showed a slow increase from day 1 to day 27 as microbes 
are adapting to the experimental environment. As carbon 
matter in pesticide and soil depletes, the current and 
voltage generation start to decrease as microbes reaches 
the death phase. This trend is similar to what had been 
observed by Kinyua et al., 2022b and Imwene et al., 2021 
in vegetable and fruit substrates. 
In bio-remediation of  pollutants, the pesticide molecule 
serves as a carbon sources and therefore it’s broken 
down by micro-organisms in soil (Cycoń et al., 2009). 
The microbial activity is highly influenced by pesticide 
properties and environmental factors (Chowdhury et 
al., 2008). From the initial pesticide concentrations 
of  10 ppm, the observed degradation levels were 
79.32 %, 99.90 % and 78.20 % in chlorpyrifos, lambda 
cyhalothrin, malathion, respectively as shown in figure 
5-7, respectively. This means that the microbes feeds on 
the pesticide molecule and soil organic carbon for their 
growth and energy. These result are similar to what was 
previous observed by Kinyua et al., 2022a and Mbugua 
et al., 2022 on bio-remediation of   chlorpyrifos, lambda 
cyhaolthrin, malathion on on loam soil, cabbage and 
tomato inoculated with microbe rich rumen waste and 
by anaerobic digestion bio-slurry, respectively. Similarly, 
on bio-remediation of  chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhaolthrin 
and malathion inoculated with rumen fluid, 0.312V, 
0.572V, 0.364V were recorded in tomato, loam soil and 
cabbage, respectively (Kinyua et al., 2022a). The bio-
remediation levels were 79.32 %, 99.90 % and 78.20 % in 
chlorpyrifos, lambda cyhalothrin, malathion, respectively 
in loam soil, 65.80 % and 71.32 % for chlorpyrifos and 
malathion respectively in cabbage. In tomato setup, 
75.60% and 80.10 % chlorpyrifos and malathion levels 
were observed, respectively with undetectable levels of  
lambda cyhalothrin (Kinyua et al., 2022b). In the study by 
Mbugua et al., 2022, the observed maximum voltage on 
doping the biogas bio-slurry with the chlorpyrifos, lambda 
cyhalothrin, malathion and the pesticides mix (CLM) 
were 0.551, 0.565, 0.538 and 0.533V respectively with 
bio-degradation levels achieved were 73.40% malathion, 
87.70% chlorpyrifos while no lambda cyhalothrin was 
detected on the 90th  day of  incubation.
Malathion is degraded by carboxyesterase enzyme and it 
is detected in several fungi like Aspergillus sp., Penicillum 
sp. and Rhizoctonia sp. (Mostafa et al., 1972). Omar 
(1998) and Hasan (1999) also demonstrated the same 
type of  fungal utilization and degradation of  Malathion. 
Adhikari, 2010 suggested bio-remediation of  malathion 
from the environment as a pollution control measure. 
Similarly, to the current study, the bio-remediation of  
malathion on contaminated sterile and non-sterile soil 
showed a degradation levels of  84.81% and 74.11% of  
malathion, respectively, from malathion concentration of  

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1.5% kg−1 soil degraded by strain PU after 7 days (Singh 
et al., 2013).
In bioremediation study of  chlorpyrifos by Jaiswal et 
al., 2017, the potential degradative microorganisms 
possess opd (organophosphate degrading) gene which 
hydrolyses the chlorpyrifos and utilizes it as a sole carbon 
source. A fungal strain Verticillium capable of  utilizing 
chlorpyrifos as sole carbon and energy sources from soil 
and degradation of  chlorpyrifos in pure cultures and 
on vegetables has been reported. The 3,5,6-trichloro-2-
pyridinol (TCP) and diethylthiophosphate (DETP) as 
primary products are made when chlorpyrifos is degraded 
by soil microorganisms which further break into nontoxic 
metabolites as CO2, H2O, and NH3 (Gilani et al., 2016). 
Pseudomonas is a diversified genus possessing a series 
of  catabolic pathways and enzymes involved in pesticide 
degradation. Pseudomonas putida MAS-1 is reported to 
be more efficient in chlorpyrifos degradation by a rate 
of  90% in 24 h among Pseudomonas genus (Gilani et 
al., 2016). A bacterial strain C2A1 isolated from soil was 
found highly effective in degrading chlorpyrifos and its 
first hydrolysis metabolite 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol 
(TCP) (Anwar et al., 2009). 
Bacillus thuringiensis ZS-19 has been reported to 
completely degraded cyhalothrin in minimal medium 
within 72 h. The bacterium transformed cyhalothrin 
by cleavage of  both the ester linkage and diaryl bond 
to yield six intermediate products (Chen et al., 2015). 
Furthermore, strain ZS-19 participated in efficient 
degradation of  a wide range of  pyrethroids including 
cyhalothrin, fenpropathrinn, deltamethrin, beta-
cypermethrin, cyfluthrin and bifenthrin. In a study by 
Kumar and Jahangir, 2018, the strain Rhodococcus 
erythropolis was proven suitable for the efficient and 
rapid bioremediation of  Lambda cyhalothrin pesticide 
contaminated environment.
In other pesticides bio-remediation, it has been found 
that after 21 days 85% carbaryl has been degraded from 
soil treated with nitrogen source (Naqvi et al., 2011). 
Pal et al., 2006 investigated the factors influencing the 
degradation of  pesticides in soil, impacts of  pesticides 
on soil microbial biomass, soil ergosterol content, soil 
respiration, fluorescein diacetate hydrolyzing activity, 
ecophysiological parameters and the correlation 
between pesticide transformation and above microbial 
parameters. Pesticides, which enter the soil environment, 
are subject to a variety of  degradative processes. The 
overall degradation of  a pesticide from soil results 
from a combination of  mechanisms such as microbial 
degradation, chemical hydrolysis, photolysis, volatility, 
leaching and surface runoff. The degree to which each 
mechanism will contribute to the overall degradation of  
the pesticide is in turn dependent on the physicochemical 
properties of  the pesticide (e.g., water solubility, sorptive 
affinity), characteristics of  the soil (e.g., pH, organic matter 
content, microbial biomass, redox status), environmental 
conditions (e.g., temperature, moisture) and management 
practices (e.g., application rate, formulation type). (Pal 

et al., 2006). The kinetics and pathways of  degradation 
depend on abiotic and biotic factors (Beigel et al., 1999), 
which are specific to a particular pesticide and therefore 
find preference. Adverse effect of  pesticidal chemicals on 
soil microorganisms (Araujo et al., 2003), may affect soil 
fertility (Schuster and Schroder, 1990) becomes a foreign 
chemicals major issue. Soil microorganisms show an early 
warning about soil disturbances by foreign chemicals 
than any other parameters.
The fate and behavior of  these chemicals in soil ecosystem 
is very important since they are degraded by various factors 
and have the potential to be in the soil, water etc. So it is 
indispensable to monitor the persistence, degradation of  
pesticides in soil and is also necessary to study the effect 
of  pesticide on the soil quality or soil health by in depth 
studies on soil microbial activity (Chowdhury et al., 2008). 
Previous studies have on fipronil bio-remediation in the 
non-sterile clay loam soil, which resulted in the formation 
of  metabolite, MB45950. The degradation of  fipronil in 
non-sterile clay loam soil was mainly influenced by the 
soil microbes (Zhu et al., 2004). The half-lives in non-
sterile clay loam soil were 9.72 and 8.78 d at 25 and 35 °C, 
respectively compared to 33.51 and 32.07 d at 25 and 35 
°C, respectively in the sterile soil. The microbial viability 
test showed that non-sterile clay loam soil had viable 
microorganisms throughout the experiment. Fipronil 
did not adversely affect the microbes once soil microbes 
adapted to the presence of  fipronil in the clay loam soil 
(Zhu et al., 2004).

CONCLUSIONS
The voltage generated from the pesticide doped loam soil 
showed an upward trend from day 0 to day 15 in lambda 
cyhalothrin and malathion and from day 0 to day 20 in 
chlorpyrifos and pesticide mixture after which constant 
readings were observed for three days with downward 
trends thereafter. The maximum generated voltage was 
0.537 V, 0.571 V, 0.572 V and 0.509 V in chlorpyrifos, 
lambda cyhalothrin, malathion and pesticide mix (MCL) 
respectively.   The bioremediation levels for chlorpyrifos 
and malathion were 65.80 % and 71.32 %, respectively 
while no detectable, lambda cyhalothrin was observed 
after day 60 of  the study. Therefore this study concludes 
that microbial fuel cells technology is an Eco-friendly 
technique which should be applied in bio-remediation 
of  different classes of  pesticides in loam soils. Further 
studies are suggested to investigate lambda cyhalothrin, 
chlorpyrifos and malathion bio-remediation mechanisms 
and degradation derivatives. 

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