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American Journal of   
Environment and Climate (AJEC)

Understanding the Nexus Between Climate Change, Dwindling Agro-Pastoral 
Resources, and Conflicts in Kouoptamo, Cameroon

Moye Eric Kongnso1*, Tiomo Dongfack Emmanuel1,  Fonyuy Jean Claude Suika1

Volume 3 Issue 3, Year 2024
ISSN: 2832-403X (Online) 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajec.v3i3.3650
https://journals.e-palli.com/home/index.php/ajec

Article Information ABSTRACT

Received: August 25, 2024
Accepted: September 23, 2024

Published: December 03, 2024

Climate variability and change are a major threat to rain-fed agro-pastoral systems in Africa 
and a potential source of  conflict. This work sets out to examine the relationship between 
climate variability, resource degradation, and agro-pastoral conflicts. Using mixed research 
methods, secondary data was collected from archives and reports in institutions while primary 
data was collected through the administration of  120 questionnaires to purposively selected 
farmers and grazers while 09 in-depth interviews were conducted with key stakeholders. 
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of  data revealed that climatic elements of  rainfall and 
temperature have been varying in space and time with negative impacts on water and pasture. 
The regression model considered climate variability as a predictor of  resource degradation 
and the independent variable explained the outcome variable at R=0.711; R2=0. 633; 
ΔR2=0.622;p<0.01. Also, climate variability was able to predict agro-pastoral conflicts at, 
R=0.736; R2=0.542; ΔR2=0.540;p<0.01. Climate-exacerbated conflicts have been recorded 
in Mbankouop (40.9%), Njogoumbe (31.8%) and Njitapon (27.25). Conflicts occur between 
crop farmers and pastoralists and between pastoralists themselves as they compete over 
diminishing resources. Hence, understanding the nexus between climate change, resource 
scarcity and conflicts paves the way for proper adaptation and limits conflicts. 

Keywords
Agro-Pastoral Resources, 
Cameroon, Climate Change,  
Conflicts, West Region

1 Department of  Geography, Environement and Planning, University of  Dschang, Cameroon
* Corresponding author’s e-mail: moyeeric@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
Climate variability and change are some of  the greatest 
challenges affecting the human and natural systems 
in Sub-Saharan Africa. Among the sectors severely 
impacted, agriculture tops the list as it solely depends 
on the natural factors of  rainfall and temperatures. The 
cultivation of  crops and the rearing of  animals take a 
seasonal pattern marked by the onset and termination of  
rains. This subsistence type of  agriculture occupies more 
than 70% of  the population and forms the backbone of  
most economies. In Cameroon, about 35% of  the Gross 
Domestic Product comes from agriculture and related 
sectors (Molua, 2010). However, climate variability and 
change are characterized by increasing frequency and 
intensity of  prolonged dryness, a reduction in rainfall 
amounts, a decline in the length of  the rainy season and 
rising temperatures (Amani et al., 2010; Nicholson, 2017). 
The climatic parameters of  rainfall and temperature are 
the main drivers of  crop growth and given that agriculture 
in Sub-Saharan Africa is predominantly rainfed, small 
changes in climatic conditions lead to falls in productivity 
(Malua, 2010). 
Cameroon has a diverse and rich ecological setting that 
permits the cultivation of  a wide range of  crops and the 
rearing of  animals. Each ecological zone has specific 
agricultural activities but in most cases, crop cultivation 
and animal rearing are carried together in what is called 
the mixed-agricultural zones. The Western Highlands of  
Cameroon is one of  the agro-ecological zones where crop 
farmers and animal herders cohabitate. Crop farming is 
mostly done by the native population while a cattle rearing 
is predominantly done by Mbororo Fulanis who migrated 
into the region from neighbouring Nigeria (Jabiru, 2010). 

Studies by Nyuymenka (2016), revealed that more than 
95% of  the Mbororos of  Cameroon practice extensive 
grazing with little inputs. Two prominent methods of  
rearing used are pastoral nomadism and transhumance 
though recent mobility has been considered a traditional 
strategy to cope with the dwindling pastoral resources 
caused by climate variability in traditional grazing zones 
(Manu et al., 2014; Moye et al., 2021). According to Pelican 
(2012), the Mbororos in the grass fields of  Cameroon are 
agro-pastoralists but most Mbororo families complement 
cattle husbandry with subsistence agriculture. This 
diversification to non-pastoral activities permits them 
to reduce shocks from climate anomalies. The use of  
indigenous knowledge systems in enhances adaptation is 
taking the central stage (Kinyili, 2023). Pastoralists due 
to their inextricable link with nature have permitted to 
accumulate a huge knowledge base that needs to be mains 
tream to adaptation policies.
Climate change has negatively affected the natural 
resource base and livelihoods of  the population. The 
shrinking of  water sources and degradation of  pasture has 
resulted in conflicts in pastoralist communities.  Conflicts 
result from competition over resources that have been 
made increasingly scarce due to an increase in human 
population and the increasing number of  animals in 
grazing zones. Animals in search of  diminishing resources 
tend to encroach into farmlands and destroy crops leading 
to conflicts (Quentin et al., 2005; Moritz, 2008; Higazi, 
2022). The impacts of  these conflicts have had negative 
consequences on the livelihoods of  pastoralists and as 
such addressing the root causes has been a concern both 
on the part of  pastoralists themselves, crop farmers and 
the government. Though these conflicts have existed over 



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the past decades, this work shows that they have been 
exacerbated by the vagaries of  weather. It equally seeks 
to establish the link existing between climate change, 
resource degradation and conflicts, an approach that has 
not been sufficiently explored in the Western highlands 
of  Cameroon. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 
The study area
Kouoptamo in the Noun division was use as case 
study. It is located between longitudes 100291011 and 
1004513011E of  the Greenwich Meridian and latitudes 
50311011 and 504713011N of  the equator (Bidias et al., 
(2023) (Figure 1). It falls within the Western Highlands 
agro-ecological zone, covering a surface area of  312 
km2 with a population of  48772 inhabitants. This gives 
an average population density of  156 persons/km2 
(BUCREP 2005). It has a tropical climate of  the savanna 
type, characterized by two seasons: a longer rainy season 
that lasts for about 8 months and a shorter dry season. 
The average annual rainfall is 1760.88mm and the average 
annual temperature of  25.31°C. (Bidias et al., 2023). This 
seasonal pattern has permitted the cultivation of  food 
crops and the growth of  pasture for animals.

The systems of  crop cultivation are intensive and extensive. 
Intensive farming involves the cultivation of  vegetables 
on well-drained slopes during the rainy season and along 
valleys, swamps and lowlands during the dry season. The 
Noun Valley and banks of  the Bamendjim reservoir are 
suitable areas for dry season farming. Extensive farming 
involves the cultivation of  cereals such as maize and beans 
with farm sizes ranging between 1 to 4 hectares. These 
crops are mainly cultivated in the dry season but farms 
also contain perennial crops such as plantains, cassava, 
cocoyam and banana. Due to an increase in population, 
pastoralists have adopted a sedentary pastoral nomadism 
system of  rearing whereby herdsmen have permanent 
residences but lead their animals to fresh pasture and 
water points daily, covering several kilometres. They 
allow their animals to graze continuously with little or 
no restriction once they are within their prescribed area. 
These animals consist of  mainly cattle, but in some cases 
accompanied by sheep. Cattle herding is practised mainly 
by Mbororo pastoralists who migrated into the area 
from the Adamawa plateau while crop farmers are in the 
majority, the Bamoun people. The use of  the same space 
by pastoralists and crop farmers increases the possibility 
of  farmer-herder conflicts. 

Figure 1: Kouoptamo in the West Region of  Cameroon.

Data collection and Treatment 
This study adopted a mixed methods approach to collect 
data from both primary and secondary sources. Secondary 
data was collected from archives at the Divisional Delegation 
of  Livestock and Animal Husbandry, Agricultural and 
Rural Development and from the Mbororo Development 
and Cultural Association, MBOSCUDA.  Primary data 
on the other hand was collected from the administration 
of  120 household questionnaires to purposively selected 
cattle herders and crop farmers and from 9 in-depth 
interviews with key stakeholders. Households involved 

are those that are either involved in cattle rearing, crop 
farming or both. In-depth interviews were conducted 
with the MBOSCUDA representative, the Mbororo 
traditional ruler called Ardos, native traditional rulers 
of  the three main grazing areas (Mbamkouop, Njitapon 
and Njigoumbe), Divisional delegations of  livestock 
and animal husbandry and that of  Agriculture and Rural 
Development and with the Divisional Delegate of  the  
Kouoptamo Sub Division. To ascertain the level of  climate 
variability, temperature and rainfall data were collected for 
the period from 1981 to 2021. Given the scarcity of  in-situ 



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data, data was downloaded from www.nasa.power.org and 
used in the analysis.
Data collected was treated using quantitative and 
qualitative methods. Questionnaires were coded and 
treated in SPSS version 20 while voice notes recorded 
during interviews were treated using content and 
thematic analysis. To test the validity and reliability of  
the instrument, the cronbach’s alphas (α) coefficient for 
all the sub variables were calculated. The hypotheses 
were tested at 0.05 levels of  significant correlation, 
including hierarchical regression and T-test. H1 looks 
at the relationship between climate variability and 
resource degradation while H2 studies the link between 
climate variability and conflicts. At 5% level of  sig, we 
reject the null hypothesis for the test with a probability 
estimate lower than 5 % (.05) and conclude that there are 
statistically significant. Otherwise, we accept 0.05 when 
probability estimates are above and conclude that there is 
no statistically significant. Excerpts captured from some 
key informants have been used to express perceptions of  
the population on the link between climate change and 
conflicts. Rainfall and temperature data were smoothened 
using 5-year running means and coefficients of  variations 
were computed to establish the rate of  climate variability. 
To establish anomalies, deviations from the normal were 
computed for the main climatic parameters and the 
growing period

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 
Indicators and manifestations of  Rainfall and 
temperature Variability in Kouoptamo
Rainfall and temperature are the main drivers of  crop 
and pasture growth in the area and slight changes in 
its spatial and temporal dimensions are likely to affect 
livelihoods negatively. Computing the rainfall data set 
from 1981-2021, it was revealed that the annual average 
rainfall amount is 1957.213mm, standard Deviation of  
479.546mm, with a coefficient of  Variation of  24.5%. 
This is above the reliability threshold of  10% and 
therefore indicates high fluctuations in the inter-annual 
amounts of  rainfall. This high inter-annual rainfall 
variability demonstrates the unreliable nature of  rainfall 
in Kouoptamo. This unreliability in rainfall is higher in 
the rainy season with a CV of  about 60%. Temperatures 
on the other hand have been rising steadily over the past 
decades despite the observed fluctuations. With a mean 
of  20.69°C for the study period and a standard deviation 
of  0.3879°C, temperature variability is shown by a CV of  
1.87%. These slight temperature changes have negative 
outcomes for agricultural activities.
Climate variability and change manifest in the frequency 
and intensity of  anomalous scenarios. Climatic anomalies 
are deviations from the climatic normal, which are either 
positive or negative (Figures 2 and 3). 
Using the growing period data, the data set has shown 
fluctuations between positive and negative anomalies. 
Positive anomalies are period of  excess rainfall and the 
probability of  flood occurrence is a higher while negative 

Figure 2: Growing period rainfall anomalies

Figure 3: Temperature anomalies in Kouptamo

Figure 4: Perceptions of  agro-pastoralists on the 
indicators of  climate change

anomaly are associated with rainfall shortages and dry 
spells. The data set shows that more than 50% of  the 
growing periods registered water shortages with an overall 
falling rainfall trend. In the main time, temperatures are 
equally fluctuation (Figure 3).

Figure 3 shows fluctuations between periods of  positive 
and negative anomalies. However, the trend shows an 
increase in temperatures which is associated with dry 
spells and water scarcity. The questionnaire survey 
equally revealed that agro-pastoralists in Kouptamo have 
witnessed changes in the weather patterns, notably in 
rainfall and temperatures (Figure 4).

Figure 4 shows that agro-pastoralist have witnessed 
changes in the main climatic parameters of  rainfall and 
temperature. Climate variability manifest through a fall 
in rainfall amounts (18%), rising temperatures and heat 
waves (17%), frequent dry spells(11%), fluctuations 
in the dates of  onset and cessation of  rains (19%) and 
the reducing length of  the growing period(10%). These 
perceptions act as a pre-requisite for adaptation. 

Impacts of  Climate variability on agro-pastoral resources  
The questionnaire survey has revealed that climate 
variability has negative impacts on crop farmers and cattle 



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herders in Kouptamo (Table 1).

Table 1: Effects of  climate variability on agro-pastoral 
activities
Perceived Impacts of
climate change

Frequency % Frequency

Shrinking water courses 16 13.33
Pasture Degradation 18 15.00
Crop submergence during 
floods

11 9.17

Wilting of  crops during
dry spells

16 13.33

Cattle losing weight 15 12.50
Competition over
resources

9 7.50

Emerging pests and
diseases

11 9.17

Fall in output 13 10.83
Cattle encroaching into
farm lands

11 9.17

Total 120 100.00

spells and water shortages (13.3%), cattle losing weight 
(12.5%), emergence of  pest and diseases (9.17%), fall in 
agricultural output (10.17%), crop damages during floods 
(9.175), cattle encroachment into grazing land (9.17%) 
and competition over the diminishing resources(7.50%). 
These impacts were further explained with excerpts 
captured during an interview with a cattle herder;  
“…High altitude areas and slopes such as Kounden are exposed 
to stronger winds, dry spells and scorching rays of  the sun. This 
accelerates evapotranspiration which causes pasture and water to dry 
off  faster and become deficient. This is common during seasonal 
transitions when the effects of  the harmattan wind are felt in this 
area….” (Interview, 2023).
These periods of  pasture and water shortage usually 
coincide with periods of  seasonal fluctuations. A 
prolonged dry season causes pasture shortages with 
impacts on the cattle. 

HR1: Climate variability has significantly influenced 
the reduction of  agro-pastoral resources
The first hypothesis was designed to find out if  changes 
in climatic factors can significantly determine the 
reduction in agro-pastoral resources (water and pasture). 
This bivariate correlation was computed in SPSS and the 
model summary has been presented on Table 2.
The variability of  climatic elements of  temperature 

Table 2 : Predicting the influence of  climate variability on pasture degradation
Model R R 

Square
Adjusted
R Square

Std. Error of  the
Estimate

Change Statistics Durbin-
WatsonRSquare

Change
F 
Change

df1 df2 Sig.F
Change

1 .711a .633 .622 5.41092 .633 359.05 1 217 .000 1.720
a. Predictors: (Constant), Climatic factors
b. Dependent Variable: Resource degradation

and rainfall were considered as a predictor of  resource 
degradation and the independent variable explained the 
outcome variable at R=0.711; R2=0. 633; ΔR2=0.622; 
p<0.01. From the analysis, it is evident that fluctuations 
in climatic parameters of  rainfall and temperature were 
able to predict 63.3% of  the variation in the independent 
variable and consequently, the hypothesis was accepted. 
This implies that the changing climatic conditions 
characterized by frequent dry spells, fluctuations in date 
of  onset and cessation of  rains, reduction in rainfall 
amounts and rising temperatures have led to the pasture 
degradation and shrinking of  water sources. To test 
whether the overall regression model is a good fit for the 
data set, the f-ratio in the ANOVA statistics was used. 
Table 3 shows that climate variability statistically predict 
the degradation of  pastoral resources f  (1.52) =77.764, 
p<0.0005.That is the regression model is a good fit of  the 
data. The general form of  the equation to predict resource 
degradation due to climate variability is gotten from 
the equation climate variability=31.302-(.504*resource 
degradation). The unstandardized coefficients indicate 
how much the degradation of  agro-pastoral resources vary 
with climatic anomalies when all other variable are held 

Table 3:  ANOVA Statistical significance
ANOVAa

Model Sum of
Squares

df Mean
Square

F Sig

1 Regression 2635.987 1 2635.987 77.7
64

.00
0b

Residual 17931.768 529 33.897
Total 20567.755 530

a. Dependent Variable: Resource degradation
b. Predictors: (Constant): Climate variability

constant (Table 4) Table 3 shows that climate variability 
statistically predict the degradation of  pastoral resources 
f  (1.52) =77.764, p<0.0005.That is the regression model 
is a good fit of  the data. The general form of  the equation 
to predict resource degradation due to climate variability 
is gotten from the equation climate variability=31.302-
(.504*resource degradation). The unstandardized 
coefficients indicate how much the degradation of  agro-
pastoral resources vary with climatic anomalies when all 
other variable are held constant (Table 4).
As shown in table 4 above, the unstandardized coefficient, 

The impacts of  climate variability and change include 
pasture degradation (15.0%), wilting of  crops during dry 



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Table 4:  Estimated model coefficients
Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardized
Coefficients

Standardized
Coefficients

t Sig. 95.0% Confidence Interval for 
B

B Std. Error Beta Lower Bound Upper Bound

1 (Constant) 31.302 1.306 23.976 .000 28.737 33.866
Resource
degradation

.504 .057 .358 8.818 .000 .392 .616

a. Dependent Variable: Climate variability

B, for resource degradation is equal to 0.504. This means 
that for each given change in climatic conditions above 
or below the normal, there is an increase in the rate of  
agro-pastoral degradation of  0.504. This shows climate 
variability is an important factor that plays a central role 
in resource degradation. Given this situation, attempts by 
cattle herders to feed their animals on farmlands and get 
other sources of  water have led to competition between 
crop farmers and cattle herders leading to conflicts.

Climate driven resource based conflicts and 
manifestations
Findings revealed that conflicts have become frequent, 
occurring between crop farmers and pastoralists and 

between pastoralists themselves. Severe conflicts have 
been frequent in the pastoral zones where animals 
are permanently present as is the case in the localities 
of  Mbankouop Kounden, Njigoumbe and Njitapon. 
However, the cause may vary but climate remains the 
indirect cause of  conflicts. 

HR 2: Climate variability has a significant influence 
on agro-pastoral conflicts
The second hypothesis was designed to examine if  
climate variability can determine the occurrence of  agro-
pastoral or resource-based conflicts and a summary of  
results has been presented on Table 5. 
In SPSS, climate variability was entered to determine 

Table 5: Predicting conflict outbreak
Model R R 

Square
Adjusted
R Square

Std. Error of  the
Estimate

Change Statistics Durbin-
WatsonR Square

Change
F 
Change

df1 df2 Sig. F
Change

1 .736a .542 .540 8.30461 .542 257.66 1 218 .000 2.001
a. Predictors: (Constant), climate variability
b. Dependent Variable: conflict outbreak

agro-pastoral conflicts and the independent variable 
was able to predict the dependent variable at,R=0.736; 
R2=0.542; ΔR2=0.540;p<0.01. It was observed that 
climatic aberrations are capable of  predicting conflicts 
up to 54.2%. It is evident that the fluctuation in climatic 
parameters leads to resource degradation and therefore 
has a significant influence on the outbreak of  conflicts. 
Hence, the alternative hypothesis accepted. This further 
confirms the high relation, r=0.73 and confirming that 
the model is good fit in predicting conflict outbreak. 
These conflicts occur at different levels and have different 
manifestations.

Conflicts that result from the destruction of  crops 
by animals
This is the principal cause of  climate-driven conflicts 
that occur between crop farmers and pastoralists. Crop 
farmers argue that a plant has never travelled to meet the 
animals but rather, the animals are mobile and stray to 
crop farms where they cause enormous damage. This 
is the most frequent type of  conflict and presents the 
highest magnitude in the pastoral zones of  Mbankouop, 
Njigoumbe and Njitapon. As revealed during interviews, 
22 conflicts were recorded in 2023. Out of  this 

number, 40.9% were recorded in Mbankouop, 31.8% in 
Njogoumbe and 27.25 in Njitapon.  The principal cause 
is the shortage of  pastoral resources generated by climate 
variability. This explains why they occur mainly during 
periods of  acute pasture shortage. Temporally, although 
they occur throughout the year, the peak periods are the 
later part of  the dry season from late December to early 
March and the early part of  the rainy season from late 
March to the end of  April when pasture is insufficient 
for the animals. For instance, on the 20th of  March 2022, 
the destruction of  crops by cattle led to the burning of  
residences of  the Mbororo Pastoralists in Kounden. 
According to some interviewees, crop farmers usually 
have the impression that the Mbororos are the ones who 
direct the animals to their farms and that is why their 
response is often violent. This has led to several court 
cases in the area despite measures to ensure a peaceful 
resolution of  conflicts. 

Conflicts over water points
Water is an important agro-pastoral resource as it is used 
to irrigate crops and for drinking by cattle. Conflicts 
over water points occur between grazers and herders 
and between pastoralists themselves. It was revealed 



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that when the dry season becomes prolonged, the 
volume of  water becomes reduced and some rivers dry 
up completely. During such periods, crop farmers need 
water to irrigate their vegetable farms while pastoralists 
need to secure the water for their animals. Some crop 
farmers dredge portions of  streams and canalize them 
to their farms. Each time animals pass around these 
facilities, they destroy them and conflicts arise. On the 
other side, pastoralists also dredge some spots of  streams 
for their animals. When the crop farmers use water from 
these points to water their crop farms, conflict arises. 
Such conflicts equally occur between pastoralists who 
compete over a water point. 

Conflicts during Transhumance
Transhumance is an adaptation strategy adopted by 
pastoralists to cope with pasture and water shortages in 
the highlands. This strategy consists of  the movement of  
herdsmen with their animals from the uplands around 
Kounden and the slopes of  hills such as Nkeugham 
to lowland pastoral zones of  Njingoumbe, Njitapon, 
Machoutnoun and into river Noun valley. According 
to the agro-pastoral calendar, herdsmen leave from the 
Kounden area on the 23rd of  December when the harsh 
conditions of  the dry season cause the pasture to dry off  
and they move to the lowlands and valleys where pasture 
is still available. The transhumance zones of  Njitapon and 
Njigoumbe are found along the Bamenjim reservoir. The 
waters of  this reservoir moderate the effect of  the dry 
season such that these areas can maintain much pasture 
throughout the year. Upon arrival, Herdsmen guide their 
animals to farms where maize has just been harvested 
so that they can eat the corn stalks. They equally deposit 
their droppings in the farm which adds to the fertility of  
the soil. The herdsmen construct temporal huts while 
some have permanent huts where they stay till the 15th 
of  March which marks the end of  their transhumance 
period. 
In February, the pasture lands are burnt in the area of  
origin so that with the coming of  rains in March, the 
pasture regenerates. This strategy is repeated every 
year and remains one of  the oldest strategies which 
have become the tradition of  the Mbororo pastoralists. 
However, conflicts occur along transhumance corridors 
and at destinations.  

Conflicts along transhumance corridors
The journey from uplands and mountain slopes to 
lowlands and river valleys in the middle of  December and 
back to the hills in the middle of  March has also been 
marked by conflicts. This movement called transhumance 
is a response to pasture scarcity up the slopes. The paths 
taken during this movement are called transhumance 
corridor. Interviews revealed that as animals move along 
transhumance corridors, they trample on farms and 
destroy perennial crops such as cassava, bitter leaves 
and plantain. In some cases, they push down fences and 
give the impression that animals are left uncared for. 

This generates conflicts with the crop farmers. Their 
main transhumance corridors include; Mbankouop to 
Njigoumbe, Mbankouop to Njitapon. Mbankouop to 
Machoutnoun and from Mbankouop to the Noun valley. 
These transhumance corridors lack basic facilities such 
as campsites, veterinary posts and water points. In some 
cases, pastoralists compensate for damages on the way 
before they finally get to their destination. 

Conflicts in transhumance destinations
The transhumance destinations are in the pastoral zones 
of  Njigoumbe, Njitapon, Machoutnoun and parts of  
Kouoptamo, especially along the Noun Valley and the 
Galim along the slope of  Mount Bamboutos. Climate 
variability is responsible for some of  these conflicts 
because it disrupts the agro-pastoral calendar. The agro-
pastoral code fixes the periods for transhumance, a period 
during which crops must have been harvested. However, 
it has been revealed that crops tend to mature late due to 
delays in rainfall as indicated in the following excerpt
“…..In some years, yields of  corn were not very good due to rainfall 
variability. Rains started late and corn took a longer time to 
mature. Consequences were enormous; pests and diseases attacked 
corn and animals arrived at transhumance destinations when parts 
of  the corn were not yet ready for harvest. This led to conflicts as 
crop farmers resisted the arrival of  pastoralists and their herds…” 
(Interview, 2023)
Apart from seasonal crops, perennial crops remain at 
risk due to their permanent presence in the farms. These 
include; cassava, bitter leaf, plantains and sugarcane. 
Sugarcane is mostly dotted in most farms of  all the 
transhumance pastoral zones. In the dry season, sugarcane 
is the principal source of  income for many crop farmers. 
Dry-season vegetables such as huckleberry, garden eggs, 
tomatoes and other green spices are cultivated during the 
dry season in irrigated portions along the Noun Valley 
and adjacent to the Bamenjim reservoir in the Njigoumbe 
and the Njitapon area. Given that dry season farming is 
an important source of  income for the population, they 
generally resist the herding of  cattle in such areas. 
Generally, these conflicts are not evenly distributed both 
spatially and temporally. They are concentrated in mixed 
farming zones, transhumance corridors and transhumance 
destinations. Findings show that Kounden, Njigoumbe 
and Njitapon where animals are present throughout the 
year are the high conflict zones. These conflicts have 
different intensities, depending on the extent of  the 
damage and the actors involved. Some conflicts pass 
unnoticed while some are very violent and even lead to 
damages which attract the attention of  the entire sub-
division and the administration. Most conflicts within 
the Mbororo pastoralists are mild and in most cases do 
not go beyond the Mbororo community since they are 
settled by the Ardos and the Djoros. Conflicts between 
the Mbororo pastoralists and crop farmers are generally 
violent. These conflicts have had some consequences, 
especially on the Mbororo pastoralists. 
The survey revealed that crop farmers tend to poison 



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animals (12%), attack cattle (32%), attack herdsmen 
(10%), destruction of  Mbororo huts (17%) and court 
cases (29%). Interviews revealed that these violent 
reactions towards Mbororo pastoralists lie in their 
inability to cooperate with crop farmers when damages 
occur. Most crop farmers are not able to face the 
Mbororo pastoralists in court cases due to corrupt 
officials who collect bribes from pastoralists. They also 
believe that serving a summons letter to the Mbororo 
pastoralists will entail time and cost and might not yield 
any positive feedback due to administrative bottlenecks. 
These consequences prompted the Ministry of  Livestock 
and Animal Husbandry to put in place an Agro-
pastoral Commission in charge of  settling conflicts. 
It is headed by the Divisional officer, with members 
being the representative(s) from The Ministry of  Land 
Tenure, Agriculture, Livestock, the traditional chiefs and 
two notables, and the Ardo to represent the Mbororo 
pastoralists. 
Despite the creation of  this commission, Mbororo 
pastoralists still suffer most from the effects of  these 
conflicts. Findings revealed that due to conflicts, they 
lose animals; pay heavy fines, and lose property and 
life at times. As such, MBOSCUDA (Mbororo Social 
and Cultural Development Association) came up with 
a peaceful conflict resolution platform. This platform 
plays a mediation role during conflicts within the 
Mbororo themselves and between the pastoralists and 
crop farmers. Many climate-driven conflicts have been 
settled peacefully through this platform as MBOSCUDA 
has equally tackled the root cause of  these conflicts. In 
response to climate change, they have put in place an 
alliance system of  farming that permits crop farmers and 
pastoralists to use the same resources and gain mutual 
benefits. Pastoralists and crop farmers have equally been 
sensitized and trained on smart agricultural practices such 
as planting of  artificial pasture, water supply schemes in 
grazing land and the diversification of  livelihoods. These 
options have significantly reduced vulnerabilities to 
climate change and conflicts.

Discussions: Understanding the Nexus 
This work has revealed that the link between climate 
variability, resource degradation and farmer-herder 
conflicts is are inextricable one. Firstly climate variability 
has been ascertained to be one of  the greatest challenges 
affecting the livelihoods of  the population in Sub-Saharan 
Africa but its manifestations may vary from one agro-
ecological zone to the other. The Western Highlands of  
Cameroon in general and Noun division in particular 
have witnessed climatic variations for the last 4 decades 
indicated by coefficients of  variations above 10%, which 
is the threshold of  variability. Climate variability and 
change are characterized by increasing temperatures, 
falling rainfall trends, fluctuations in the dates of  onset 
and cessation of  rains and a rise in the frequency of  
extreme weather events such as dry spells and floods. 
These findings corroborate the works of  Amani et al. 

(2010) indicating that since 1970, the length of  the rainy 
season in the tropics has been experiencing a decline, with 
the number of  rainy days of  more than 10mm reducing 
and by frequent high temperatures. According to Molua 
(2010), seasonal fluctuations have been acute because the 
meeting of  southwest monsoon Winds and the northeast 
trade winds creates a zone of  instability called the Inter-
tropical Convergence Zone. It shifts northwards in the 
rainy season and southwards in the dry season depending 
on the intensity of  the respective air masses and this has 
led to fluctuations in dates of  onset and termination of  
rains.
These climatic aberrations have affected the livelihoods 
of  pastoralists and crop farmers negatively. The rate 
of  pasture degradation along slopes and highlands has 
increased while water scarcity is registered.  In relation to 
this, Tikhatri and Bhattarai (2023) examined the impacts 
of  climate change on water scarcity and its consequences 
on the livelihoods of  peasants. Water is a very important 
resource for agro-pastoral activities but our findings have 
revealed that during the seasonal transitional periods, 
some water sources dry up completely while some shrink 
drastically. During this same period, food crops are wilting 
due to water shortages and irrigation becomes practically 
impossible. Inter-seasonal variations and fluctuations in 
the date of  onset and cessation of  rains have disrupted 
the agro-pastoral calendar and the planning of  agro-
pastoral activities. On the other hand, lowlands and 
valleys become zones of  attraction as they still contain 
water and fresh pasture. Herders tend to embark on 
transhumance while crop farmers concentrate on the 
cultivation of  vegetables and other market gardening 
crops. This is so because climate is the principal regulator 
of  plant productivity and therefore leads to livestock and 
crop production dynamics within the tropics (Ogutu et al., 
2007). The influence of  climate variability and change on 
agro-pastoral resources in Sub-Saharan Africa has been 
examined and critiqued by many authors (Mwakaje, 2013; 
Koske, 2014; Abugu & Anoba, 2015; Ntangti et al., 2019; 
Moye et al., 2022) but establishing the nexus between 
these and agro-pastoral conflicts has been the pivot of  
this work.
Conflicts resulting from encroachments of  cattle into 
crop farms and destruction of  crops by cattle, competition 
over water sources, narrowing of  transhumance corridors 
by crop farmers and challenges resulting from the sharing 
of  a common space have led to conflicts. The effects of  
such conflicts in Kouoptamo have gone by court cases, 
physical attacks to loss of  property and life. Although 
these conflicts have been occurring over the past years, 
their intensity and frequency have increased in recent 
times (Ntangti et al., 2019; Mbih, 2020; Ehiane & Moyo, 
2021; Moye et al., 2021). Most works tackle the immediate 
conflicts but climate variability and change are the main 
cause of  resource-based agro-pastoral conflicts in the 
Western Highlands of  Cameroon and conflict resolution 
strategies should integrate climate change adaptation and 
range governance.



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CONCLUSION 
The objective of  this work was to establish the nexus 
between climate change, resource degradation and 
conflicts. Using rainfall and temperature data from 1981-
2021, variability was computed and analyzed using the 
coefficient of  variations and the anomaly index. The 
indicators of  climate change include rising temperatures, 
frequent dry spells, fluctuations in dates of  onset and 
cessation of  rains and falling rainfall amounts. Their 
impacts on agro-pastoral resources in Kouoptamo 
include but are not limited to;  pasture degradation 
(15.0%), wilting of  crops, water shortages (13.3%), cattle 
losing weight (12.5%), emergence of  pests and diseases 
(9.17%), cattle encroachment into grazing land (9.17%) 
and competition over the diminishing resources(7.50%). 
These have negative consequences on the livelihoods 
of  the population. Their coping strategies are not 
appropriate and have led to the outbreak of  conflicts. 
Recent conflicts between crop farmers and pastoralists 
are said to be climate-driven conflict resolution strategies 
should be area-specific and climate-responsive.

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